Climate Change Special Edition 2008

THE EARTH OBSERVATION HANDBOOK

SP-1315
June 2008

Climate Change Special Edition 2008

THE EARTH OBSERVATION HANDBOOKCEOS Secretariat
CEOS Executive Officer
Mr. Ivan Petiteville, ESA ESRIN
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Tel: +39 06 94180567
Ivan.Petiteville@esa.int
CEOS Secretariat (Europe, Africa)
ESA – European Space Agency
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eoriol@esa.int
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for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites
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Germany
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Fax: +49 151 807 866
paul.counet@eumetsat.int

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The Earth Observation Handbook – Climate Change Special Edition 2008
(ESA SP-1315)
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Contents
Foreword
Prefacevii
ix

Part I: Our Changing Climate
1 Our Changing Climate
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Signs of Climate Change
1.3 Causes of Climate Change
1.4 Future Climate Trends and Impacts
1.5 The Economics of Climate Change
1.6 Global Environmental Decision-making
1.7 Observations and Science Informing Policy

1
2
2
3
4
5
8
10
11

2 The Important Role of Earth Observations
2.1 Why Observe the Earth?
2.2 Earth Observing Systems
2.3 The Global Climate Observing System (GCOS)
2.4 The Essential Climate Variables
2.5 Observations of Climate by Earth Orbiting Satellites
2.6 Framework for Provision of Satellite Observations

12
12
13
16
17
17
19

3 CEOS

21

4 Future challenges

26

Part II: Case Studies
5 Case Studies – Satellite Observations in Support of Climate Challenges
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Contents
5.3 Counting Carbon
5.4 The Big Thaw
5.5 Sea Level Rise
5.6 Water Security
5.7 Land Surface Change
5.8 Energy Resource Management

29
30
30
30
30
37
43
48
54
59

Part III: Earth Observation Satellite Capabilities and Plans
6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites
6.1 Atmospheric Chemistry Instruments
6.2 Atmospheric Temperature and Humidity Sounders
6.3 Cloud Profile and Rain Radars
6.4 Earth Radiation Budget Radiometers
6.5 High Resolution Optical Imagers
6.6 Imaging Multi-Spectral Radiometers (vis/IR)
6.7 Imaging Multi-Spectral Radiometers (Passive Microwave)
6.8 Imaging Microwave Radars
6.9 Lidars
6.10 Multiple Direction/Polarisation Instruments
6.11 Ocean Colour Instruments
6.12 Radar Altimeters6.13 Scatterometers6.14 Gravity, Magnetic Field and Geodynamic Instruments

65
66
67
69
71
73
75
77
79
81
83
85
87
88
90
92

iii

7 Earth Observation Plans by Measurement
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Overview
7.3 Measurement Timelines
Atmosphere
Land
Ocean
Snow and Ice
Gravity and Magnetic Fields

iv

94
94
94
95
96
116
134
148
156

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Recent Events
8.3 Current Missions
8.4 Future Missions
8.5 CEOS/WMO Database
List of Satellite Missions (by year and sponsoring agency)
List of Satellite Missions (alphabetical)

158
158
159
160
162
163
164
166

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

206

AnnexesA Further Information on CEOSB GCOS Climate Monitoring Principles
C Abbreviations

259
262
263

Foreword

It gives me great pleasure, on behalf of the Committee on Earth
Observation Satellites (CEOS), to present the 2008 editionof the CEOS Earth Observation Handbook, prepared under
the auspices of the European Space Agency (ESA).
The report presents the main capabilities of satellite Earthobservations, their applications, and a systematic overview
of present and planned CEOS agency Earth observation satellite
missions and their instruments. It also explores society’s increasingneed for information on our planet.
This edition has a particular focus on climate change, on the information we need to detect, monitor and adapt
to it, and on the role for satellite Earth observations – which are emerging as the single most important
contribution to global climate observations, potentially contributing to 25 of the 45 Essential Climate Variables
recognised by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
The nature of climate change issues presents special challenges in terms of the need for global informationand data on key planetary indicators which can provide the information required for governments and policy
makers to make well-informed decisions. Recognising that no single country can satisfy all of the observational
requirements which are necessary for monitoring of the Earth System, governments are taking steps
to harmonise and integrate their observing networks and satellite observing systems to be able
to address common problems of global concern.
The major aims of CEOS are to achieve international coordination in the planning of these Earth observing
satellite programmes and to maximise utilisation of their data, in order to effectively address the most criticalrequirements.
I hope that the CEOS Earth Observation Handbook will continue to serve as a valuable reference source
for a variety of readers, including those with needs in climate studies, and decision-makers in politicaland socio-economic sectors. I further hope that it can help improve optimisation of the overall Earthobservation strategy, which is central to our future success.

Volker Liebig
Director of Earth Observation Programmes
European Space Agencyvii

Preface
The 2008 CEOS Handbook explores society’s
increasing need for information on our planet, theessential foundation for sustainable development
policies that are aimed at ensuring our continued
health and prosperity in the face of human-madeclimate change, population growth, anddegradation of our natural environment.
It explains the important role of Earth observation
satellite programmes in fulfilling these informationneeds. It presents the current status and plans for
future Earth observation satellite programmes ofgovernments worldwide, through their nationaland regional space agencies, and describes how thedata and information which they supply relate tosome of society’s most pressing needs for
information on Earth System processes and ourinteraction with them.
The role of the Committee on Earth Observation
Satellites (CEOS), the body with responsibility for
coordination of government-funded satellite
programmes worldwide, is explained, including its
relation to the various global observing systems, inparticular the Global Earth Observation System of
Systems (GEOSS).
It is hoped that this report will prove to be avaluable source of information concerning thepossible application and value of the data andinformation from Earth observation satellites. It
should be of interest to a wide range of groups:
those with responsibility for national/international
development policy; those responsible forprogrammes with requirements for observations toenable understanding of our environment and its
processes; and those needing information for
decision-making in many socio-economic sectors.
The information required to detect, predict, adapt
to and mitigate climate change is a particular focus
in this edition.

Part I of the Handbook discusses Earth’s changing
climate, its causes, trends, impacts and economics(section 1). It explains the important role of satellite
Earth observations (section 2) and CEOS (section 3).
Future challenges are discussed in section 4.
Part II presents a number of case studies (section 5)
to illustrate the use of Earth observation satellites
supporting the provision of information for our
understanding of climate change in key areas.
Part III of the handbook summarises Earthobservation satellite capabilities and plans,
including a description of the various types ofsatellite missions and instruments and theirapplications (section 6). For those interested inparticular measurements (e.g. of ‘ozone’ or ‘ocean
temperature’), section 7 provides details of 27
different parameters and the plans for theirobservation during the coming decades. Sections 8
and 9 contain catalogues of satellite missions andinstruments respectively.
The annexes include:
A. Further information on CEOS
B. The GCOS Climate Monitoring Principles
C. Abbreviations

It is further hoped that this report will be ofeducational value, helping to explain some of thetechniques and technologies underlying satellite
Earth observation and making the subject asaccessible as possible to the lay person who would
like to investigate further.
As an up-to-date and comprehensive compilationof CEOS Agency plans, the report provides a handy
reference source on current and future civil Earthobservation programmes. It also provides details of
points of contact within CEOS and lists relevantinternet sources for those requiring more
information.

ix

PART I→ Our Changing Climate

Larsen B ice shelf, Antarctic, ASAR.

1 Our Changing Climate
1.1 Introduction
Until very recently, humans and their activities
have been an insignificant force in the dynamics
of the Earth System. However, since the start of
the Industrial Revolution, more than 200 years
ago, developed nations have achieved evergreater prosperity and higher living standards.
Combined with a six-fold increase in the global
human population during that period, thesefactors have resulted in significantly increased
consumption of resources – evident in agriculture
and food production, industrial development,
energy use and urbanisation.
The Earth's climate does vary naturally, mainly asa result of interactions between the ocean andthe atmosphere, changes in the Earth’s orbit,
fluctuations in energy received from the Sun andvolcanic eruptions. However, the best scientificevidence available suggests that the Earth System
has recently moved well outside the range ofnatural variability exhibited in available
paleoclimate records covering at least the last
half million years. The nature of changes now
occurring simultaneously in the global
environment, their magnitudes and rates, areunprecedented in human history, and probably inthe planet’s history:— in a few generations humankind is likely to
exhaust fossil fuel reserves that were formed
over several hundred million years;— as a consequence, humankind has caused theatmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations
on Earth to rise far beyond the maxima
reached during at least the last 1 million years;— human action has transformed almost half ofthe Earth’s land surface, with significant
consequences for biodiversity and climate;— tropical forest areas have been reduced by 50%;— more than half of all accessible freshwater isused directly or indirectly by humankind;— coastal and marine habitats are being
dramatically altered; 50% of mangroves havebeen removed and wetlands have shrunk by
one half;— extinction rates are increasing sharply in marine
and terrestrial ecosystems around the world;— humankind is responsible for 70% of the nitrogen
cycle and 95% of the phosphorus cycle on Earth.

2

Some facts are slow to be absorbed and accepted bya generation unaccustomed to associating
environmental factors with lifestyle and consumer
choices. But today it is a reality that humankind has
begun to match and even exceed Nature in terms ofchanges to the atmosphere and biosphere andimpacts on other facets of Earth System functioning.
In spite of the many severe environmental impacts
that occurred during recent centuries ofindustrialisation and accelerating urbanisation,these impacts, often severe, were usually seen as
being of only local importance. Widespread publicawareness of the ‘environment’ dates back to the
1960s and 1970s, born from concerns such as air
and water pollution; pesticide use; nuclear testing;and disasters such as the first catastrophic
supertanker oil spill. Many governments
established environment ministries andenvironmental protection agencies in the 1970s,
leading to new consideration of environmental
issues and growing demands for environmental
information. Industry, too, became moreenvironmentally aware, with the realisation of new
trends in consumer behaviour, and the introductionof new legislation and environmental regulations.
After the first World Climate Conference in 1979
expressed its concern about the possibility ofhuman-induced climate change, there was almosta decade of accumulating evidence until theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
was established in 1988. Its tasks were to assess
the available scientific information about climatechange and formulate realistic response strategies
for national and global action. The first IPCC
Assessment Report in 1990 was instrumental inpaving the way for the adoption of the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) in 1994. The second IPCC Assessment
Report in 1995 provided key inputs to the processthat led to the adoption of the Kyoto protocol in1997 – with the aim of reducing greenhouse gasesthat contribute to climate change. The Third IPCC
Assessment Report in 2001 concluded, “There is
new and stronger evidence that most of theobserved warming observed over the last 50 years
is attributable to human activities.”
The main message of the IPCC’s Fourth
Assessment Report in 2007 was that climatechange is no longer a matter for debate. It is‘unequivocal’, and ‘very likely’ that humanactivities are responsible. In the IPCC context ‘very
likely’ means an assessed likelihood of at least
90%, while ‘likely’ (as stated in 2001) means atleast 66%. Throughout its reports the IPCC hasstressed the importance of systematic
observations and emphasised many variables thatare observed by satellite.

1 Our Changing Climate

1.2 Signs of Climate Change
The IPCC was established by the United Nations tobring together the world’s leading scientists to
conduct rigorous surveys of the latest technical andscientific literature on climate change.
The main activity of the IPCC is to provide regular
Assessment Reports of the state of knowledge on
climate change. The latest of these is “Climate
Change 2007”, the Fourth IPCC Assessment Report,
whose key conclusions are summarised below. This
report has been described as a historical landmark in
the debate about whether humans are affecting thestate of the atmosphere.

1. Warming of the climate system is unequivocal,
as is now evident from observations of increases
in global average air and ocean temperatures,widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising
global average sea level.

-1.5

AlbedoLinear contrails
Solar irradiance

Ozone

Direct effectBlack carbon
on snow

Tropospheric-0.5 Greenhouse
Gases
-1

Aerosols

Cloud albedo
effect0

N2O

Land use

0.5

Stratospheric1

Stratosphericwater vapour

Halocarbons

1.5

Net Anthropogenic
Component

Source: Fourth IPCC Assessment Report, “Climate Change 2007”

2

CH4

5. There is observational evidence of an increase inintense tropical cyclone activity in the North
Atlantic since about 1970, with limited evidence
of increases elsewhere.

2.5{

4. Observed decreases in snow and ice extent arealso consistent with warming. Satellite data
since 1978 show that annual average Arctic sea
ice extent has shrunk by 2.7% per decade, withlarger decreases in summer of 7.4% per decade.
Mountain glaciers and snow cover on average
have declined in both hemispheres.

CO2

3. Rising sea level is consistent with warming.
Global average sea level has risen since 1961 at
an average rate of 1.8 mm/yr and since 1993 at
3.1 mm/yr, with contributions from thermal
expansion, melting glaciers and ice caps, and thepolar ice sheets. Whether the faster rate for 1993
to 2003 reflects decadal variation or an increasein the longer-term trend is unclear.

The IPCC describes warming and cooling effects
on the planet in terms of radiative forcing — therate of change of energy in the system, measured
as power per unit area (in SI units, W/m²). Its AR4report shows in detail the individual warming
contributions (positive forcing) of carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, halocarbons, otherhuman warming factors, and the warming effects
of changes in solar activity.

{

2. Most of the observed increase in globally
averaged temperatures since the mid-20th
century is very likely (over 90% probability) due
to the observed increase in anthropogenic(man-made) greenhouse gas concentrations.

Observed changes in (a) global average surface temperature, (b)global average sea level from tide gauge (blue) and satellite (red)data, and (c) Northern Hemisphere snow cover for March–April.
All changes are relative to corresponding averages for the period
1961–1990. Smoothed curves represent decadal average values
while circles show yearly values. The shaded areas are theuncertainty intervals estimated from a comprehensive analysis
of known uncertainties (a and b) and from the time series (c).

Radiative forcing (W/m2)

Eleven of the last twelve years (1995–2006) rank
among the twelve warmest years in the instrumental
record of global surface temperature (since 1850).
The 100-year linear trend (1906–2005) is 0.74°C;
temperature increase is widespread over the globe, andis greater at higher northern latitudes. Land regions
have warmed faster than the oceans.

Radiative Forcing Components.

3

Also shown are the cooling effects (negative
forcing) of aerosols, land-use changes, and otherhuman activities. All values are shown as achange from pre-industrial conditions.
— Total radiative forcing from the sum of all
human activities is a warming force of about+1.6 watts/m 2.
— Radiative forcing from an increase of solar
intensity since 1750 is about +0.12 watts/m 2.
— Radiative forcing from carbon dioxide,
methane, and nitrous oxide combined is very
likely (>90%) increasing more quickly during
the current era (1750–present) than at anyother time in the last 10,000 years.

1.3 Causes of Climate Change
The IPCC noted in 2007 that:— changes in atmospheric concentrations ofgreenhouse gases and aerosols, land cover andsolar radiation alter the energy balance of theclimate system;— global greenhouse gas emissions due to humanactivities have grown since pre-industrial times,
with an increase of 70% between 1970 and 2004;— carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most important
anthropogenic greenhouse gas. Its annual
emissions grew by about 80% between 1970
and 2004.
The IPCC concluded that “most of the observed
increase in globally averaged temperatures since
the mid-20th century is very likely (over 90%
probability) due to the observed increase inanthropogenic (human-made) greenhouse gas
concentrations”.
The IPCC noted that global atmosphericconcentrations of CO2, methane (CH4) and nitrous
oxide (N2O) have increased markedly as a result of
human activities since 1750 and now far exceed
pre-industrial values determined from ice cores
spanning many thousands of years. Global
increases in CO2 concentrations are due primarily
to fossil fuel use, with land use change providing
another significant, but smaller, contribution. It isvery likely that the observed increase in CH4
concentration is due predominantly to agriculture
and fossil fuel use. Methane growth rates havedeclined since the early 1990s, consistent with thetotal emission (the sum of anthropogenic andnatural sources) being nearly constant during thisperiod. The increase in N2O concentration is
primarily due to agriculture.

Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane andnitrous oxide over the last 10,000 years (large panels) and since1750 (inset panels). Measurements are shown from ice cores(symbols with different colours for different studies) andatmospheric samples (red lines).
The corresponding radiative forcings are shown on the right handaxes of the large panels.

4

The natural greenhouse effect which has
maintained global temperatures within the
paleo-climatologically observed range is mainly
due to water vapour, with other influences comingfrom a wide range of variables, such as surface
albedo and clouds, that can change according tocircumstances. The natural greenhouse effect ismuch larger than that due to CO2 and the othergreenhouse gases whose concentration has adirect anthropogenic influence. Much of theuncertainty in global climate change is due to how
these two components of the potential
greenhouse effect interact. Climate models allshow positive feedback from the water vapour,which is mainly due to a warmer climate increasingwater vapour content in the atmosphere.
Assessments by the IPCC indicate that human
influences extend beyond increases in global
average temperature to other aspects of climate.

1 Our Changing Climate

They have:— very probably contributed to sea level riseduring the latter half of the 20th century;— probably contributed to changes in wind
patterns, affecting extra-tropical storm tracks
and temperature patterns;— probably increased temperatures of extreme
hot nights, cold nights and cold days;— more likely than not increased risk of heatwaves, areas affected by drought since the 1970s
and frequency of heavy precipitation events.

Future Climate Trends andImpacts
1.4

The IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report notes thatthe scientific evidence on the causes and future
trends of climate change is strengthening all thetime and that scientists are able to attachprobabilities to the temperature outcomes andimpacts on the natural environment associatedwith different levels of stabilisation of greenhousegases in the atmosphere.
The current stock of greenhouse gases in theatmosphere is equivalent to around 430 parts per
million (ppm) CO2, compared with only 280 ppm

before the Industrial Revolution. These
concentrations have already caused the world towarm by more than half a degree Celsius and willlead to at least a further half degree warming
over the next few decades, because of the inertia
in the climate system.
Even if the annual flow of emissions did notincrease beyond today’s rate, the stock ofgreenhouse gases in the atmosphere would reachdouble pre-industrial levels by 2050 – that is
550 ppm CO2e (CO2 equivalent) – and would
continue growing thereafter. But the annual flowof emissions is accelerating, as fast-growing
economies invest in high carbon infrastructure
and as demand for energy and transport increases
around the world. The level of 550 ppm CO2e
could be reached as early as 2035. At this level
there is at least a 77% chance – and perhaps up to
a 99% chance, depending on the climate model
used – of a global average temperature rise
exceeding 2°C.
Under a ‘business as usual’ scenario, the stock ofgreenhouse gases could more than treble by theend of the century, giving at least a 50% risk of
exceeding 5°C global average temperature change
during the following decades. This would takehumans into unknown territory. An illustration of5Warming will have many severe impacts, often
mediated through water:

the scale of such an increase is that the global
average temperature is now only around 5°C
warmer than in the last ice age.

— melting glaciers will initially increase flood risk
and then strongly reduce water supplies,
eventually threatening one-sixth of the world’s
population, predominantly in the Indian
sub-continent, parts of China, and the Andes inSouth America;

Equilibrium global mean temperature increase
above preindustrial (OC)1086

— declining crop yields, especially in Africa, could
leave hundreds of millions without the ability
to produce or purchase sufficient food. At mid
to high latitudes, crop yields may increase formoderate temperature rises (2 – 3°C), but thendecline with greater warming. At 4°C andabove, global food production is likely to beseriously affected;

4
2
0
300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

GHG concentration stabilization level (pppm CO2 eq)

Predicted global temperature increase under different scenariosof CO2 equivalent stabilisation levels.
(From IPCC 2007 WG III report)— in higher latitudes, cold-related deaths will
decrease. But climate change will increase
worldwide deaths from malnutrition and heatstress. Vector-borne diseases such as malaria
and dengue fever could become morewidespread if effective control measures are
not in place;

Such changes would transform the Earth’s
physical geography, with dramatic implications
for the human geography – where people live,
and how they live their lives. The figure above(based on IPCC data) summarises the scientificevidence of the links between concentrations ofgreenhouse gases in the atmosphere, theprobability of different levels of global averagetemperature change, and the physical impacts
expected for each level. The risks of serious,
irreversible impacts of climate change increasestrongly as concentrations of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere rise.

Greenland
ice sheetmelts
300 years
to complete

Borealforest dies

Least uncertainty.
These are the mostsensitive to climatechangeOzone
hole causes
climatechangeBorealforest diesapprox 50 years
to complete

Greeningof the Sahara

Siberianpermafrost
melts

Unstable
Indian summer
monsoonapprox 10 years
to complete

Medium risk
Medium sensitive
events, large
uncertainty

Low risk

El Niño
strengthens
approx 100 years
to complete

Amazonrainforest
dies

West
Africanmonsooncollapses

approx one year
to complete

approx 10 years
to complete

approx 50 years
to complete

West
Antarctic
ice sheetcollapses
SOURCE: PNAS.ORG

approx 10 years
to complete

approx 100 years
to complete

High risk

Least sensitive toclimate change,
mediumuncertainty

Arcticsea ice melts

Atlantic
currents
collapses

50 years
to complete— with warming of 3 or 4°C, rising sea levels will
result in tens to hundreds of millions more
people being flooded each year. There will be
serious risks and increasing pressures forcoastal protection in South East Asia
(Bangladesh and Vietnam), small islands in the

DeeperSouthernOceanchanges

300 years
to complete

Global meltdown. A tipping point is the place of no return. This map shows the risk of different tipping points being passed this century if
global warming continues at 3-5°C.

61 Our Changing Climate— ecosystems will be particularly vulnerable toclimate change, with around 15 – 40% of
species potentially facing extinction after only
2°C of warming. Ocean acidification, a direct
result of rising carbon dioxide levels, will have
major effects on marine ecosystems, withpossible adverse consequences on fish stocks.
In other words, climate change threatens thebasic elements of life for people around the world– access to water, food production, health, anduse of land and the environment. Significantly, thedamage from climate change will accelerate as
the world gets warmer, with higher temperatures
increasing the chance of triggering abrupt andlarge-scale changes.
Climate scientists1 have identified areas that they
consider to be in gravest danger of passing criticalthresholds or ‘tipping points’, beyond which they
will not recover. Their assessment concluded:— Arctic sea ice will go into irreversible decline
once temperatures rise between 0.5°C and 2°C
above those at the beginning of the century, athreshold that may already have been crossed;— there is already a 50% chance that theGreenland ice sheet will soon begin melting
unstoppably, although it could take hundredsof years to melt completely. The meltwater
would raise global sea levels by seven metres;— a temperature rise of 3°C could see more
intense El Niños, with possible profound effects
on the weather from Africa to North America;— warming of 3°C to 5°C could reduce rainfall in
the Amazon by 30%, lengthening the dry
season and threatening to kill large areas oftrees that will not re-establish themselves;— the Boreal forests could also pass their tipping
point, with large swaths dying off over the
next 50 years;— in Africa, more rainfall may re-green the Sahelregion, but the west African monsoon could
collapse, leading to twice as many unusually
dry years by the end of the century;— the Indian summer monsoon is predicted to
become erratic and, in the worst case scenario,
1 Lenton et al., Feb 2008.

begin to flip chaotically, unleashing flash
floods one year and droughts the next;— measurements of the western Antarctic ice
sheet show the balance of snowfall andmelting has shifted and it is now shrinking.
Local warming of more than 5°C could trigger
uncontrollable melting, adding 5 metres to sea
levels within 300 years;— under the same warming, Atlantic currents thatpower the Gulf Stream could be severely disrupted.
While there is much to learn about these risks, thetemperatures that may result from unabatedclimate change could take the world outside therange of human experience.
Uncertainty in climate predictions is the criticalelement in IPCC considerations of mitigation andadaptation strategies to cope with changing
climate. This problem is easily seen in the first
diagram below, taken from the IPCC 2007 report,
where the predicted increase in global
temperatures is shown for a range of greenhousegas concentration stabilisation levels (I–VI). Withineach of the scenarios it is clear that there isconsiderable uncertainty, of the same order as thepredicted change in mean temperature. Reducing
this uncertainty is the key challenge in climate
modelling today, and the aspect of prediction
which will have the greatest impact on policy.
It has been shown (Cox and Stephenson, Science,
July 2007 – summarised in the figure below) thatthe major element of uncertainty in climate
predictions up to 30 years into the future is thelack of adequate information on initial conditions– i.e. lack of quality observations. If, therefore, wewish to reduce the uncertainty in climate
predictions over this period, the primary need isfor more and better observations, of which many
are derived from satellites.

Relative Uncertainty in Prediction

Caribbean and the Pacific, and large coastal
cities, such as Tokyo, New York, Cairo andLondon. According to one estimate, by the
middle of the century, 200 million people may
become permanently displaced due to rising
sea levels, greater floods, and more intense
droughts;

1.0
0.8
Total
Uncertainty

0.6
InitialCondition
Uncertainty

0.4
0.2

Emissions
Scenario Uncertainty

Process/Parameter
Uncertainty

0.0
0

20
40
60
80
Prediction Lead-time (years)1007

1.5 The Economics of Climate

everyone would be 1% poorer than they are today,
but that global growth will be slower.

In 2006, the British Government commissioned areport by the economist Sir Nicholas Stern on theeffects of climate change and global warming on
the world economy. Known as the ‘Stern Review
on the Economics of Climate Change’, this is not
the first economic report on global warming, but
it is significant as the largest, most widely known
and most discussed report of its kind.

Using economic modelling to consider reductionsin global output resulting from climate change,financial costs of the direct impact on humanhealth and the environment, as well as the
feedback mechanisms (which may mean that as
the stock of greenhouse gases increases there is adisproportionate rise in warming with each newincrement in emissions), the Stern Review
reaches the stark conclusion that if we donothing to stem climate change, there could be apermanent reduction in consumption per head ofas much as 20% by 2050. These costs will not beshared evenly – there will be a disproportionate
burden placed on the world’s poorest countries.

ChangeThe Stern Review states, “Our actions over the
coming few decades could create risks of major
disruption to economic and social activity, later inthis century and in the next, on a scale similar to
those associated with the great wars and theeconomic depression of the first half of the
20 th Century”.
The report gives prescriptions for how tominimise this economic and social disruption. Its
main conclusions are that 1% of global grossdomestic product (GDP) per annum is required to
be invested in order to avoid the worst effects ofclimate change, and that failure to do so could
risk global GDP being up to 20% lower than itotherwise might be – with the prospects being
worst for Africa and developing countries.
The Stern Review proposes that it is practical toaim for a stabilisation of greenhouse gas levels in
the atmosphere of 500–550 ppm of ‘carbon
dioxide equivalent’ by 2050 – which is double
pre-industrial levels and compares with 430 ppm
today. Even stabilising at that level will probably
mean significant climate change. But to stabilise
at that level, emissions per unit of GDP would
need to be cut by an average of three-quarters
by 2050 – a very significant challenge to most of
humankind’s lifestyles and consumption patterns.
To meet the Stern Review’s proposed targets, thepower sector would need to be decarbonised by
60%–70%, deforestation will also need to be
stopped, since emissions from deforestation are
estimated at more than 18% of global emissions –more than transport. Deep cuts in greenhousegas emissions from transport are also needed.
The costs of all these changes are estimated by
Stern to be around 1% of global GDP by 2050 –so the world would be 1% poorer than it would
otherwise have been, which would be significant
but far from prohibitive. This does not mean

8

Investing 1% of world GDP to be 20% richer thanwe will otherwise be sounds like a very attractive
proposition. But there are significant hurdles,
perhaps the largest of which is that it requires
collective, coordinated action by most of theworld’s governments, and securing the requisite
consensus on the way forward will not be simple.
(In the interests of fairness, Stern argues that thericher countries should take responsibility for
between 60% and 80% of reductions in emissions
from 1990 levels by 2050.)
Assuming that an international consensus can bereached, what is the best way to correct themarket failure that is currently threatening totake us on a path to poverty? How do we start topay a price for carbon that reflects its true
economic and social costs, or a price that includes
the present value of future climate change? The
Stern Review proposes a number of measures:— establish a carbon price, through tax, tradingor regulation, as an essential foundation forclimate-change policy;— urgently implement policies to support thedevelopment of a range of low-carbon,
high-efficiency technologies;— remove barriers to behavioural change, andencourage the take-up of opportunities forenergy efficiency, such as imposing tighter
standards on the energy efficiency ofbuildings, as well as educating the public
about the true costs of wasting energy.

1 Our Changing Climate

STERN REVIEW: The Economics of Climate Change
400 ppm CO2e

5%

95%

450 ppm CO2e
550 ppm CO2e
650ppm CO2e
750ppm CO2e

Eventual temperature change (relative to pre-industrial)

1°C

0°C
Food

2°C

3°C

4°C

5°C

Falling crop yields in many developing regions
Severe impacts
in marginal
Sahel region

Rising number of people at risk from hunger(25 – 60% increase in the 2080s in one study
with weak carbon fertilisation), with halfof the increase in Africa and West Asia

Yields in many developed regions
decline even if strong carbon fertilisation

Rising crop yields in high-latitude developed
countries if strong carbon fertilisation

Water

Small mountain glaciers
disappear worldwide –potential threat to watersupplies in several areas

Coral reef ecosystems
extensively andeventually irreversibly
damagedEcosystems

Extreme
Weather
EventsRisk of rapid
climatechange andmajor
irreversible
impacts

Entire regions experience
major declines in crop yields(e.g. up to one third in Africa)

Significant changes in water availability (onestudy projects more than a billion people suﬀer
water shortages in the 2080s, many in Africa,
while a similar number gain water
Greater than 30% decreasein runoﬀ in Mediterraneanand Southern Africa

Sea level rise threatens
major world cities, including
London, Shanghai, New
York, Tokyo and Hong Kong

Possible onset of collapseof part or all of Amazonian
rainforest

Large fraction of ecosystems unable to maintain current form
Many species face extinction(20 – 50% in one study)

Rising intensity of storms, forest fires, droughts, flooding and heat waves
Small increases in hurricane
intensity lead to a doubling of
damage costs in the US
Risk of weakening of natural carbon absorption and possible increasing
natural methane releases and weakening of the Atlantic THC
Onset of irreversible meltingof the Greenland ice sheet

Increasing risk of abrupt, large-scale shifts in the
climate system (e.g. collapse of the Atlantic THC
and the West Antarctic Ice Sheet)

Stabilisation levels and probability ranges for temperature increases. The figure illustrates the types of impacts that
could be experienced as the world comes into equilibrium with more greenhouse gases. The top panel shows therange of temperatures projected at stabilisation levels between 400 ppm and 750 ppm CO2e at equilibrium.
The solid horizontal lines indicate the 5 – 95% range based on climate sensitivity estimates from the IPCC 2001 2 anda recent Hadley Centre ensemble study 3.
The vertical line indicates the mean of the 50th percentile point. The dashed lines show the 5 – 95% range based oneleven recent studies 4. The bottom panel illustrates the range of impacts expected at different levels of warming.
The relationship between global average temperature changes and regional climate changes is very uncertain,
especially with regard to changes in precipitation.
This figure shows potential changes based on current scientific literature.
2 Wigley, T.M.L. and Raper, S.C.B. (2001): 'Interpretation of high projections for global-mean warming', Science 293: 451–454 based on
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2001): 'Climate change 2001: the scientific basis. Contribution of Working Group I to theThird Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change' [Houghton, J.T., Ding, Y., Griggs, D.J., et al. (eds.)], Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
3 Murphy, J.M., Sexton, D.M.H., Barnett, D.N., et al. (2004): 'Quantification of modelling uncertainties in a large ensemble of climate change
simulations', Nature 430: 768–772
4 Meinshausen, M. (2006): 'What does a 2°C target mean for greenhouse gas concentrations? A brief analysis based on multi-gas emission
pathways and several climate sensitivity uncertainty estimates', Avoiding dangerous climate change, in Schellnhuber, H.J., et al. (eds.),
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.265–280.

91.6 Global Environmental

Decision-making

There are several examples of far-sightedness bygovernments as nations have struggled toassemble a coherent system of global
environmental decision-making in response toincreasing environmental awareness: e.g. theMontreal Protocol (on protection of the ozone
layer) and the Convention on International Tradein Endangered Species (CITES). There are, in fact,
500 or so international environmental agreements
now in effect, of which about 150 are global
treaties. But environmental trend indicators
suggest that our prodigious efforts at
environmental diplomacy have so far largely failed
to make serious headway against the world’s mostpressing environmental challenges.
Basic principles of good global environmental
decision-making were pioneered at the Rio Earth
Summit in 1992. 172 nations endorsed
environmental governance principles when they
signed the ‘Rio Declaration on Environment andDevelopment’, a charter of 27 principles meant toguide the world community toward sustainable
development. The problem in applying these good
governance practices is not their novelty, but thefact that they profoundly challenge traditional
government institutions and economic practices.

The challenge is further complicated politically by
the mismatch in timing between theenvironmental and political/electoral impact, andby the fact that only through international action– commonly agreed and commonly implemented –can the problem of climate change be addressed,
since profound structural and economic
re-engineering will be involved for participating
nations. Disparities between developed anddeveloping countries will emerge and nations may
seek competitive advantage in the process. Such
teething problems have all been apparent in thedefinition and implementation of treaties such as
the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC, which imposesbinding limits on greenhouse gas emissions by
developed countries relative to their 1990 levels.
At the international level, there is rhetoricalcommitment to the goals of sustainable
development and participatory decision-making.
However, there is far less commitment tolocalising these goals in national policies anddecision-making practices. There is a fundamental
reluctance in our societies to shoulder thedomestic political and financial costs to makeglobal environmental treaties enforceable.

Geographical Pattern of Surface Warming. Projected surface temperature changes for the late 21st century (2090–2099). The map shows theaverage projection for one of the IPCC emissions scenarios. All temperatures are relative to the period 1980–1999.

10

1 Our Changing Climate

1.7 Observations and Scienceharmonise and integrate their observing networks
and satellite observing systems to be able toaddress common problems of global concern.

Informing Policy

Just as science and technology have given us theevidence to measure the danger of climatechange, so they can help us find safety from it.
Earth System science is the key to implementing
any approach towards good planetary
management – providing us with the necessary
insights into the feasibility, risks, trade-offs andtimeliness of any strategy considered.
The nature of climate change issues presents
special challenges in terms of the need for global
information and data on key planetary indicators
which can provide the information required forgovernments and policy makers to makewell-informed decisions. Recognising that no
single country can satisfy all of the observational
requirements that are necessary for monitoring
the Earth System, governments are taking steps toThis document discusses the need forobservations of planet Earth and its climate, andhighlights the opportunities presented by Earthobservation satellite systems to produce
information for decision-making. If the best
current scientific expertise is correct in predicting
the future impacts of human-induced climatechange – with the apparent certainty that suchchanges will accelerate with an expanding humanpopulation and economic activity in the coming
decades – then such information will become
increasingly vital. This will provide an essential
foundation for the development of the ethics ofglobal decision-making and strategies forsustainable Earth System management which willdefine how mankind adapts to the expected
global change.

49.0
44.7

GtCO2-eq / yr

39.4
35.6
28.7

CO2 from fossil fuel use and other sources

CO2 from deforestation, decay and peat

CH4 from agriculture, waste and energy

N2O from agriculture and others

F-gases(a) Global annual emissions of anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHGs) from 1970 to 2004.
(b) Share of different anthropogenic GHGs in total emissions in 2004 in terms of CO2-equivalent.
(c) Share of different sectors in total anthropogenic GHG emissions in 2004 in terms of CO2-equivalent. (Forestry includes deforestation).
(Credit: IPCC AR4)

Further Information
IPCC: www.ipcc.ch
Stern Review: www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/
independent_reviews/stern_review_economics_climate_change/sternreview_index.cfm
UNFCCC: unfccc.int/2860.php
World Resources Institute: www.wri.org
UNEP: www.unep.org

11

2 The Important Role of Earth Observations
2.1 Why Observe the Earth?
An improved understanding of the Earth System– its weather, climate, oceans, land, geology,
natural resources, ecosystems, and natural andhuman-induced hazards – is essential if we are
to better predict, adapt and mitigate theexpected global changes and their impacts onhuman civilisation.
Earth observation data and derived information
are essential inputs in the development of thisunderstanding. Earth observations provide theevidence necessary for informed decision-making– supporting the science which underpins
strategies for global environmental
decision-making – and for monitoring ourprogress on all geographical scales as we explore
new development paths aimed at sustainable
management of the planet.
The significance of Earth observations in our
future decision-making processes is apparent inboth the short term and long term.
— The l on g term: information extracted fromlong time series (several decades) of highquality observations is used in support of vitalclimate studies to observe and characterise thecurrent climate, to detect climate change andto determine the rate of change. Furthermore,this information is analysed to assist in
attributing the causes of change; identify any
anthropogenic contribution to climate change;
validate and calibrate climate models andassist in prediction of the future climate.
— Th e s h ort t erm: information extracted fromshort time series (days or hours) of highquality observations is typically used to
improve weather prediction by numerical
forecast models, or to support operational
applications (e.g. air quality, oceanography,
land management, meteorology, disastermanagement). They also support land use andfresh water management and provide
information for process studies to better
understand physical processes in the
Earth/atmosphere system.

Better information on everyday activities that
support human existence will be a vital
component of the global strategy for day-to-day
adaptation to a world with a rapidly growing
population, depleting natural resources, andshort-term consequences of human-induced
climate change. Regions, countries and industries
can all be expected to strive for improved
efficiency and international competitiveness inagricultural production, freshwater management,
land use management, atmospheric emissions
control, natural resources exploration andmanagement – including forests and fossil fuels.
They will also need to improve the prediction andmitigation of frequent extreme weather eventsand natural disasters.
Earth observation information will be required on
all scales – from local to global. We can anticipate
that it might be used by national andinternational authorities for decision-making toensure sustainability, and also more locally as
regions and industries compete for larger sharesof smaller reserves of natural resources in order tosupport their growing populations and economic
ambitions. Such information takes many forms,
spanning data on population, demographics,
economics and environmental indicators.
Observations of planet Earth itself, and of humansocieties’ impact upon it, might be regarded as
the most important context for societal
decision-making.
Earth observing systems help to provide data insupport of a wide range of information needs,
including parameters which are central to:— imp roved un de rs ta nd in g: a multitude ofglobal-scale observations contributing toresearch into Earth System processes;— i m p r o v e d p r e di c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y o n a r e g i o n a l
sc al e: global and regional observations overrecent decades are essential to identify climatechanges and to test and validate climate
predictions in order to increase confidence infuture climate projections that are fundamental
to supporting adaptation planning;— evid enc e: Earth observations support theformulation of authoritative scientific advice.
This is vital for governments when deciding
whether to fund mitigation measures in
response to climate change, how to react toimpending crises in resource shortages, orwhether to participate in agreements orConventions which require costly changes innational consumption patterns;— mo ni tori ng a nd c omp li a nc e: we might expect
to see increasing emphasis on international

12

2 The Important Role of Earth Observations

policy measures and treaties such as the Kyoto
Protocol emerge in future. Earth observations
will form an essential role in supporting suchagreements, by verifying countries’ fulfilmentof their treaty obligations vis-à-vis fossil fuelemissions or pollution dumping. The economic
implications of such agreements can beenormous for countries, so highly visible andpublic measures to deter ‘cheating’ will be an
important part of their success;— ma na gement an d mi ti ga ti on: to support
increased efficiency in basic resource provision
for future generations while predicting andcountering the worst effects of severe weather
and natural disasters.
The beneficiaries of Earth observations are a broad
range of users including: national, regional andlocal decision-makers; organisations responsible
for the implementation of international
Conventions and treaties; business, industry andservice sectors; scientists and educators; and,ultimately, every inhabitant of planet Earth.

2.2 Earth Observing Systems
Current Earth observing systems include networksof satellite-borne and ground-based sensors –including ocean buoys, weather stations andatmospheric radiosondes – that provide importantparameters relating to land, ocean, andatmospheric processes. It has long beenrecognised that a single programme, agency, or
country cannot satisfy the range of observations(many of which are global), needed to understandand monitor climate and other Earth Systemprocesses , and to assess the impact of humanactivities. The main Earth observing networks are,therefore, typically international collaborative
programmes. They include:
Wo rl d Wea ther Wa tc h (WWW) of the World
Meteorological Organisation (WMO) a uniqueachievement in international cooperation,
providing a truly worldwide operational system towhich virtually every country in the worldcontributes, every day of every year, for thecommon benefit of humankind.

are the safeguarding of life and property throughthe forecasting, detection and warning of severe
weather phenomena such as local storms,
tornadoes and tropical cyclones. GOS provides
observational data for agricultural management,
aviation safety, meteorology and climatology,
including basic information on the key
atmospheric surface variables – temperature andprecipitation – that are central to global change.
The GOS also provides an international database of
upper air observations which provide a record ofvertical climate variations and are often combinedwith satellite data in analyses or ‘re-analysis’ to forma more comprehensive view of the atmosphere.
Gl ob al A tmos ph ere Wat c h (GAW) stations aroundthe world supplement these observations withinformation on ozone, other greenhouse gases,
solar radiation, ultraviolet radiation and otheratmospheric/meteorological parameters.

The Global Observing Systems
Within the last decade, the Global Observing
System of the World Weather Watch has been
complemented by the Global Ocean Observing
System (GOOS) and the Global Terrestrial
Observing System (GTOS). These produce a set of
Global Observing Systems integrating in situ andremotely sensed data from a range ofinternational, regional and national observing
systems and networks, with each focusing on amajor component of the Earth System. The Global
Climate Observing System (GCOS) has also been
initiated to integrate the observing needs forclimate purposes.
GO O S: a permanent global system forobservations, modelling and analysis of marineand ocean variables to support operational ocean
services worldwide. GOOS provides accurate
descriptions of the present state of the oceans,including living resources; continuous forecasts ofthe future conditions of the sea; and the basis forforecasts of climate change.

The Gl ob al O bs ervin g Syst em (GOS) of the WWW
ensures that every country has all the information
available to generate weather analyses, forecasts
and warnings on a day-to-day basis. It includes
around 10,000 stations on land, providing
observations at least every three hours near the
Earth’s surface. These include meteorologicalparameters such as atmospheric pressure, windspeed and direction, air temperature and relative
humidity. The most obvious benefits of the GOS

13

GOOS is capitalising on existing ocean observing
systems, such as:— The TAO/TRITON array: comprises 70 mooredbuoys in the tropical Pacific Ocean. Since its
completion in 1994, it has enabled real-timecollection of high quality oceanographic andsurface meteorological data for monitoring,
forecasting, and understanding of climate
swings associated with El Niño and La Niña.
Data and graphic displays from the
TAO/TRITON array are updated every day, andthe data are freely available to the researchcommunity, the operational forecasting
community and the general public.
— The Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS):an international programme coordinated by theIntergovernmental Oceanographic Commission(IOC) for the establishment of high quality
global and regional sea level networks forapplication to climate, oceanographic andcoastal sea level research. The main componentof GLOSS is the ‘Global Core Network’ (GCN) of
290 sea level stations located around the world
for monitoring long-term trends andaccelerations in global sea level.
There are numerous other contributors to GOOS,
including voluntary observing ships that provide
measurements of upper ocean and meteorologicalparameters, the Global Temperature and Salinity
Profile Programme and the Global Coral Reef
Monitoring Network.
The Joint WMO/IOC Technical Commission on
Oceanography and Marine Meteorology (JCOMM)

14

was established by these two UN bodies in 1999
in order to ensure that all the elements necessary
for GOOS are put in place and adequately funded.
The system will be end-to-end, from maintaining
observing systems of in situ, air- and space-based
instrumentation to data collection and archiving,standards and quality control, and the real-time
delivery of data and services to all users. The goalsof JCOMM are to identify and coordinate all of thenecessary subsystems as a coherent whole and toensure that nations are aware of, and commit to,
the necessary funding for the full system.
GT O S: a programme for observations, modelling,
and analysis of terrestrial ecosystems to support
sustainable development. The Global Terrestrial
Observing System (GTOS) facilitates access to
information on terrestrial ecosystems so that
researchers and policy makers can detect andmanage global and regional environmental change.

2 The Important Role of Earth Observations

To achieve this GTOS is working towards theestablishment of a ‘system of networks’ formedby linking existing terrestrial monitoring sites andnetworks, as well as planned satellite remotesensing systems. Thematic networks have been
established for ecology, glaciers and permafrost.
A hydrology network is in progress.
Since the sustainable development of forest
resources is regarded as one of the most pressing
environmental issues of our time, GTOS has
established a panel on Global Observations ofForest Cover and Land Cover Dynamics(GOFC-GOLD). This panel aims to improve thequality and availability of observations of forests
at regional and global scales and to produce
useful, timely and validated information products
from these data for a wide variety of users.
The Global Terrestrial Network (GT-Net) links theworld’s terrestrial research networks together. It
serves as a framework for network managers to
explore areas of common interest, harmonise
research efforts and share data, information andexperience.
GCO S: The Global Climate Observing System(GCOS) Steering Committee was established in
1992 to ensure that the observations andinformation needed to address climate-related
issues are obtained and made available to all
potential users. It is co-sponsored by WMO, theIntergovernmental Oceanographic Commission(IOC), the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) and the International Council
for Science (ICSU). The GCOS Secretariat and theSteering Committee play an advisory role andwork in partnership with the domain-based
observing systems to advise on the climate
components of those observing systems.
These climate components form a Global Climate
Observing System that is intended to be along-term, user-driven operational system thatwill be capable of providing the comprehensive
observations required for monitoring the climate

system, for detecting and attributing climatechange, and for assessing the impacts of climate
variability and climatology, including the study of
global change. More details on this important rolefor GCOS may be found below.
GEO SS: The intergovernmental Group on Earth
Observations (GEO) is coordinating efforts todevelop a Global Earth Observation System of
Systems (GEOSS). GEO was launched in response
to calls for action by the 2002 World Summit on
Sustainable Development and by the G8 (Group of
Eight) leading industrialised countries. These
high-level meetings recognised that international
collaboration is essential for exploiting thegrowing potential of Earth observations to
support decision-making in an increasingly
complex and environmentally stressed world.
GEO is an intergovernmental body of member
governments and participating organisations. It
provides a framework within which these partners
can develop new projects and coordinate theirstrategies and investments. As of February 2008,
GEO’s members included 72 governments and theEuropean Commission. In addition, 52
intergovernmental, international, and regionalorganisations with a mandate in Earthobservation or related issues have beenrecognised as Participating Organisations.
GEO is coordinating GEOSS on the basis of a
10-year Implementation Plan for the period 2005
to 2015. The Plan defines a vision statement for
GEOSS, its purpose and scope, expected benefits,
and nine ‘Societal Benefit Areas’: disasters, health,energy, climate, water, weather, ecosystems,
agriculture and biodiversity.
Its 2005–2009 programme addresses more than
70 tasks to advance work under way in thesesocietal benefit areas and to implement aninteroperable architecture that links existing andplanned systems around the world, as well as
improving and standardising access to Earthobservations.

15

CEOS has begun to receive and coordinate
commitments from its members to address thehigh priority space-related actions in these tasks.
Ministers and officials from over 100 governments
and international organisations assembled at the
4th Earth Observation Summit, 28–30 November
2007, and noted with satisfaction the numerous
contributions and early achievements madetoward the development of GEOSS as described inthe ‘GEO Report on Progress 2007’.

2.3 The Global Climate Observing

System (GCOS)

The Global Climate Observing System (GCOS)
provides vital and continuous support to theUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) in the definition andspecification of requirements for observations
relevant to climate change.
In 1998, and again in 2001, GCOS prepared reportson the adequacy of global observing systems forclimate in providing the systematic climate
observations required by the UNFCCC. The goals of
the Second Adequacy Report were: to determine
what progress has been made in implementing
climate observing networks and systems since thefirst report; to determine the degree to which these
networks meet with scientific requirements andconform with associated observing principles; andto assess how well these current systems, together

16with new and emerging methods of observation,
will meet the needs of the UNFCCC (and IPCC).
These GCOS reports made considerable progressin defining what information was required insupport of climate studies, how well current andplanned systems met these needs, and whatfurther actions were required by countries tobetter meet some of those needs.
In 2004, in response to the request from UNFCCC,
GCOS prepared an Implementation Plan for the
global observing system for climate. From theoutset, the UNFCCC requested GCOS and GEO tocoordinate their respective implementation plans.
The GCOS Implementation Plan represents acommonly-agreed basis for GEO actions in the
Climate area. The GCOS Plan, if fully implemented
by the Parties to the UNFCCC, both individuallyand collectively, will provide those global
observations of the Essential Climate Variables
and their associated products, to assist the Parties
in meeting their responsibilities under the
UNFCCC. In addition, it will provide many of theessential observations required by the World
Climate Research Programme (WCRP) and IPCC.
The proposed system would provide information to:— characterise the state of the global climate
system and its variability;— monitor the forcing of the climate system, including
both natural and anthropogenic contributions;2 The Important Role of Earth Observations— support the attribution of the causes ofclimate change;— support the prediction of global climate change;— enable projection of global climate change
information down to regional and local scales;— enable characterisation of extreme events
important in impact assessment and adaptation,
as well as the assessment of risk and vulnerability.
The GCOS Implementation Plan (GCOS IP) remains
the consensus document of the international
community regarding the global observing systemfor climate.

2.4 The Essential Climate Variables
GCOS has defined a list of the Essential Climate
Variables (ECVs) that are both currently feasible for
global implementation and have a high impact on
the requirements of the UNFCCC and IPCC. There
are additional climate variables that are important
to a full understanding of the climate system andmany of these are the subjects of current on-going
research, although they are not currently ready for
global implementation on a systematic basis.
As our knowledge and capabilities develop, it isexpected that some of these variables will be
added to the list of ECVs.
The Global Climate Observing System requires
observations from land-based and airborne in situ
and remote sensing platforms, in addition tosatellites. Since no single technology or source
can provide all the necessary data, there will be

instruments at ground stations, as well as on
ships, buoys, floats, ocean profilers, balloons,
samplers, aircraft and satellites. This informationis then transformed into products throughanalysis and integration in both time and space.
Information on where and how the observations
are taken (meta-data) is absolutely essential, as
are historical and palaeoclimatic records that set
the context for the interpretation of trends andvariability. GCOS stresses that its Plan is bothtechnically feasible and cost-effective. While its
implementation is fully dependent on national
efforts, success will be achieved only throughinternationally-coordinated action.

2.5 Observations of Climate by

Earth Orbiting Satellites

Space-based remote sensing observations of theatmosphere-ocean-land system have evolved
substantially since the first weather satellite
systems were launched almost 50 years ago.
Earth observation satellites have proved theircapabilities to accurately monitor multiple
aspects of the total Earth System on a global
basis, unlike ground-based systems that arelimited to land areas and cover only about 30% of
the planet’s surface.
Currently, satellite systems monitor the evolution
and impact of the El Niño, weather phenomena,
natural droughts, vegetation cycles, the ozone
hole, solar fluctuations, changes in snow cover,sea ice and ice sheets, ocean surface
temperatures and biological activity, coastal

The Essential Climate Variables
DomainAtmospheric(over land, sea and ice)

Essential Climate Variables
Surface:

Air temperature, precipitation, air pressure, surface radiationbudget, wind speed and direction, water vapour.

Upper air:Earth radiation budget (including solar irradiance), upper air
temperature (including MSU radiances), wind speed and direction,water vapour, cloud properties.

Composition:

Carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, other long-lived greenhousegases, aerosol properties.

Surface:

Sea surface temperature, sea surface salinity, sea level, sea state,sea ice, currents, ocean colour (for biological activity), carbon
dioxide partial pressure.

Sub-surface:Temperature, salinity, currents, nutrients, carbon, ocean tracers,
phytoplankton.

Oceanic

Terrestrial

River discharge, water use, ground water, lake levels, snow cover, glaciers and ice
caps, permafrost and seasonally-frozen ground, albedo, land cover (including
vegetation type), fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (fAPAR),leaf area index (LAI), biomass, fire disturbance, soil moisture.

Measurements of variables in bold type are largely dependent on satellite observations.

17

zones and algal blooms, deforestation, forest
fires, urban development, volcanic activity,
tectonic plate motions, and more.
These various observations are used extensively inreal-time decision making and in the strategicplanning and management of industrial, economic,
and natural resources. The proliferation of Earthobservation satellites reflects their unique abilities
and benefits, such as:— wide area observation capability;— non-intrusive observations allowing collectionof data to take place without compromisingnational sovereignty;— uniformity that enables the same sensor to be
used at many different places in the world;— rapid measurement capability, allowing
sensors to be targeted at any point on Earth,including remote and inhospitable areas;— continuity, with single sensors or series of
sensors providing long time series of data
suitable for climate studies.
Just one significant example – highlighted by the
IPCC 4AR – is the global coverage of satellite
ocean altimetry, provided over the last 15 years by
the Topex/Poseidon and Jason satellites. These
data have provided unambiguous evidence of
non-uniform sea level rise in open oceans andhave proven to be the most accurate andobjective way to detect this rise in sea level.
The GCOS Implementation Plan notes thatsatellites provide a vital means of obtaining
observations of the climate system from a global

perspective, and that “a detailed global climate
record for the future will not be possible withouta major, sustained, satellite component”.
Although almost all Earth observing satellite
systems were not specifically designed forclimate monitoring, space agency efforts haveinitiated a remarkably comprehensive climate
data record that is forming the basis for a better
understanding of the Earth’s climate system.
Much has been accomplished, but more remains
to be done. Significant gaps remain inmeasurement capabilities and their continuity.
Noting GCOS advice on the significance of thesatellite contribution to climate data records, the
UNFCCC invited countries that support space
agencies which operate Earth observing satellite
programmes to provide a response to the needs
expressed in the GCOS Implementation Plan.
These countries agreed that the Committee on
Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS), as theprimary international forum for coordination of
space-based Earth observations, was theappropriate international body to respond. CEOS
prepared and delivered to the UNFCCC an
assessment of the adequacy of past, present, andfuture satellite measurements in support of
GCOS. CEOS noted that responding to theseneeds represents a unique opportunity for space
agencies to review the way in which multi-agency
cooperation on climate-related observations isprioritised, agreed, funded, implemented, andmonitored. The UNFCCC has welcomed the CEOS
initial report, commended space agencies foractions taken thus far, and requested CEOS toreport on progress at future meetings.
Space agencies provide thebasic satellite observations– Fundamental Climate
Data Records (FCDRs) –needed to monitor global
climate change. In turn,the end-user products for
the Essential Climate
Variables (ECVs) are
generated by a range ofinterested communities
through a variety of
approaches that linksatellite observation datawith in situ data and otherinformation throughassimilation into models
and other products.

Operational weather satellites.

18

The various ECVs and thestatus of satellite data
provision in support of2 The Important Role of Earth Observations

them are identified at the Satellite Data
Stewardship website of the U.S. National Climatic
Data Center (NCDC) (www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sds).
The site also identifies the linkage between
individual ECVs and key IPCC questions andsocietal benefits.

2.6 Framework for Provision ofSatellite Observations

The development and operation of space vehicles,
launchers and instruments are highly technicalendeavours that are generally delegated bynational governments to specialised space
agencies. A typical space agency has responsibility
for overseeing all aspects of the space activities of
its host national or regional government.
Applications of Earth observation satellite
programmes are typically numerous and diverse,
including, but not limited to, studies of climate,environmental issues, agriculture, meteorology,
and natural disasters.
More information on the important role of CEOS
in this framework is provided in section 3. In broad
terms, CEOS membership comprises two kinds ofspace agencies:— research agencies, which typically undertake
cutting edge R&D activities, often involving‘one-off’ Earth observation missions that are
intended to demonstrate a technical concept ofmeasurement capability in support ofwell-identified science objectives; and— operational agencies, which are funded bygovernments to make continuous andtime-critical observations, ensuring that there
are no temporal or spatial gaps in coverage. A
limited number of space agencies fall into thisoperational category.
Clearly a climate data record requires acommitment to stable and continuous
measurements over long time periods, but, todate, issues such as data and mission continuity,
overlap, and cross-calibration have been

undertaken by research agencies on a ‘best
efforts’ basis. While a typical mission involves
considerable effort dedicated to these activities,
there remains a need to ensure that this happens
systematically. In recent years, agencies haveendeavoured to ensure continuity of some key
measurements (e.g. ocean surface altimetry) thathave become established as near-operational
within some user communities. This remains,
however, the exception rather than the rule forresearch-oriented space agencies, which areneither mandated nor funded to provide
operational services.
In contrast to research-focused satellite
programmes, the satellite programmes ofoperational agencies have many of thecharacteristics required by GCOS for climate
applications, such as constant interaction with
operational user communities and adaptation totheir needs, as well as sustained, overlapping andcoordinated coverage. Although recognition is
growing of the need to transition researchsatellites that provide observations required by the
GCOS IP into operational systems, constructing
such a migration path in the planning for current
and future systems remains difficult. To support
this aim, and with the objective of creating an
operational system that monitors and evaluates
the calibration of the global meteorologicalsatellite observing system in a coherent andsystematic manner, the Coordination Group for
Meteorological Satellites (CGMS) has recently
started the Global Space-based Intercalibration
System (GSICS) initiative.
Despite the utility of satellite Earth observations
for climate, it also should be understood that there
is presently no overall strategy across nations for acomprehensive design of these systems.

19

Most contributing missions were neither intended
nor optimised for climate purposes. Therefore, gaps
and needed improvements have been identified torealise the ambitions expressed in the GCOS IP.

Some examples of the vital contribution of Earthobservation satellites to the development of ourclimate data records are explored in the Case
Studies in Part II of this document.

The role of CEOS in helping to provide thecoordination necessary to address such issues is
explained in section 3. Section 4 highlights thechallenges which lie ahead if we are to successfully
implement the system specified by GCOS.

Part III explores in considerably more detail theadequacy of planned and existing satellite
systems to meet the needs for a particularmeasurement or Essential Climate Variable.

Further Information
World Weather Watch: www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/index_en.html
The Global Observing Systems: www.gosic.org
GCOS: www.wmo.int/pages/prog/gcos/index.php
GOOS: www.ioc-goos.org
GTOS: www.fao.org/gtos
GEO & GEOSS: earthobservations.org
The IGOS Partnership: www.igospartners.org
Earth observation: www.esa.int/export/esaEO & earthobservatory.nasa.gov
The science of remote sensing: rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/start.html

20

3 CEOS
What is CEOS?
CEOS is the Committee on Earth Observation
Satellites, created in 1984 in response to a
recommendation from a Panel of Experts on
Remote Sensing from Space, under the aegis of
the G-7 Economic Summit of Industrialised
Nations Working Group on Growth, Technology
and Employment.

CEOS was established to provide coordination of
the Earth observations being provided by satellite
missions, recognising that no single programme,
agency, or nation can hope to satisfy all of theobservational requirements which are necessary
for improved understanding of the Earth System.
Since its establishment, CEOS has provided abroad framework for international coordination
on spaceborne Earth observation missions.

different application areas, such as global climatechange and environmental monitoring.

What Does CEOS Contribute?

Who Participates in CEOS?

CEOS strives to facilitate the necessary harmonisation
and achieve maximum cost-effectiveness for theoverall set of space-based observation programmes ofmember countries and agencies.

CEOS membership comprises most of the world’s
civil agencies responsible for Earth observation
satellite programmes – 29 Members in 2008.
CEOS also has 20 Associates, comprising:

CEOS has established three primary objectives inpursuing this goal:— international or national governmentalorganisations that are developing Earthobserving satellite programmes or significant
supporting ground facility programmes;— to optimise benefits of spaceborne Earthobservations through cooperation of its
members in mission planning and indevelopment of compatible data products,
formats, services, applications and policies;— to serve as a focal point for international
coordination of space-related Earthobservation activities;— to exchange policy and technical information
to encourage complementarity andcompatibility of observation and dataexchange systems.
The work of CEOS spans the full range ofactivities required for proper international
coordination of Earth observation programmes
and maximum utilisation of their data. It ranges
from the development of detailed technicalstandards for data product exchange, through tothe establishment of high level inter-agency
agreements on common data principles for

CEOS web site.

— other satellite coordination groups andscientific or governmental bodies that areinternational in nature and currently have asignificant programmatic activity that
supports CEOS objectives.
— The full list of Members and Associates isshown in the tables below.

How Does CEOS Operate?
CEOS Principals meet annually in a Plenary session
to determine policy, review progress on the
projects and activities being undertaken, and set
the agenda of activities for the upcoming year.
The Chair of CEOS rotates at the annual Plenary.
The work of CEOS is conducted within its various
working groups and the Strategic Implementation
Team (SIT).

21

CEOS Membership
Organisation

22

Country/Countries

ASI

Agenzia Spaziale Italiana

Italy

BNSC

British National Space Centre

United Kingdom

CAST

Chinese Academy of Space Technology

China

CDTI

Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology

Spain

CNES

Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales

FranceCONAE

Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales

Argentina

CRESDA

China Centre for Resources Satellite Data andApplication

China

CSA

Canadian Space Agency

CanadaCSIRO

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation

Australia

DLR

Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt

GermanyEC

European Commission

Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech
Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, The Netherlands,
Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom

ESA

European Space Agency

Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,
the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom(Czech Republic is likely to be a member by theend of 2008; Canada, Hungary, Poland &Romania are Cooperating States)

EUMETSAT

European Organisation for the Exploitation of
Meteorological Satellites

Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway,
Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom (plus 9
Cooperating States: Czech Republic, Iceland,
Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Bulgaria,
Romania, Estonia)

GISTDA

Geo-Informatics and Space Technology
Development Agency

Thailand

INPE

Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais

BrazilISRO

Indian Space Research Organsation

India

KARI

Korea Aerospace Research Institute

Korea

MEXT/JAXA

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology / Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

Japan

NASA

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

United States of America

NASRDA

National Space Research and Development Agency

Nigeria

NOAA

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

United States of America

NRSCC

National Remote Sensing Center of China

China

NSAU

National Space Agency of Ukraine

UkraineROSHYDROMET Russian Federal Service for Hydro-meteorology andEnvironment Monitoring

RussiaROSKOSMOS

Russian Federal Space Agency

RussiaSNSB

Swedish National Space Board

SwedenTubitak-Uzay

Space Technology Research Institute of Turkey

TurkeyUSGS

United States Geological Survey

United States of America

3 CEOSCEOS Associates
Organisation

Country/Countries

CCRS

Canada Centre For Remote Sensing

CanadaCRI

Crown Research Institute

New Zealand

ESCAP

Economic and Social Commission of Asia and the Pacific

UN

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

UN

GCOS

Global Climate Observing System

International Programme

GOOS

Global Ocean Observing System

International Programme

GTOS

Global Terrestrial Observing System

International Programme

ICSU

International Council for Science

International Programme

IGBP

International Geosphere-Biosphere ProgrammeInternational Programme

IOCInter-governmental Oceanographic Commission

UNESCO

IOCCG

International Ocean Colour Coordinating GroupInternational Programme

ISPRSInternational Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

International Programme

NSC

Norwegian Space Centre

NorwayOSTCFederal Oﬃce for Scientific, Technical and Cultural Aﬀairs

Belgium

SAC/CSIR

Satellite Applications Centre/Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

South Africa

UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme

UN

UNESCO

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UN

UNOOSA

United Nations Oﬃce of Outer Space Aﬀairs

UN

WCRP

World Climate Research Programme

UN

WMO

World Meteorological OrganizationUN

Coordination throughout the year is maintained
through a permanent Secretariat maintained by
the European Space Agency (ESA) jointly with theEuropean Organisation for the Exploitation of
Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) jointly with the National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the USA,and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology (MEXT) jointly with theJapan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA).

CEOS Activities and Achievements
The establishment of the Group on Earth
Observations (GEO) via a series of three
ministerial-level summits from 2003 to 2005
provided a new focus and impetus for CEOS
efforts. GEO includes 73 member countries, theEuropean Commission, and 51 participatingorganisations – including CEOS – working
together to establish a Global Earth Observation
System of Systems over the next 10 years. The

Earth observation heads of 29 space agencies from around the globe meet annually at the CEOS Plenary.

23

GCOS plans are recognised as the climate
component of GEOSS and they are addressed inthis document in both contexts.
The GEO vision for GEOSS is to realise a future inwhich decisions and actions for the benefit ofhumankind are informed via coordinated,comprehensive and sustained Earth observations
and information. The 20+ years invested by CEOS
agencies towards these objectives has resulted inrecognition of CEOS as the primary worldwide
forum for coordination of space-based Earthobservations. As such, CEOS is tasked to leadcoordination of the space observations requiredby the GEOSS.
The main mechanisms which CEOS employs toimplement this role are:— the CEOS Virtual Constellations for GEOSS;— the CEOS Working Groups;— the CEOS Implementation Plan and teams toaddress the various tasks therein.
Each of these is discussed in turn below.

CEOS Virtual Constellations for GEOSSThe CEOS Virtual Constellations for GEOSS
provide a new mechanism for better coordinationof Earth observing satellite programmes acrossborders, allowing valuable contributions from awide range of parties to build and sustain truly
global observing systems in support of one ormore key information needs of society. The
Virtual Constellations concept involves multiple
satellites working in harmony as part of the
GEOSS to augment coverage, enhance systemcompatibility and increase data availability. Suchan arrangement encourages international
cooperation among space agencies while
stimulating them to develop a coordinatedresponse to space-based observation needs. It
also fosters improved data management anddistribution worldwide.

— The Atmospheric Composition Constellation,
which will address many of the climate
community’s needs for atmosphericobservations;— The Ocean Surface Topography Constellation,
designed to ensure continuity of sea levelmeasurement in accordance with GCOS
requirements.
Each of these is designed to make key observations
for the GEOSS and maintain continuity ofobservations, identifying and addressing potential
gaps and overlaps. Part of the process is to clearly
identify organisational responsibilities for ensuring
the necessary continuity. Further details of the
CEOS Constellations are provided in the Case
Studies in Part II of this document.

CEOS SIT
The Strategic Implementation Team (SIT) of CEOS
is where heads of space agencies or Earthobservation programmes meet to make thedecisions required to harmonise their observing
programme plans. SIT plays a central role incoordination of existing and future missions of
CEOS agencies to support GEO in its realisation of
the GEOSS space segment.
The Chair of SIT has a two year term, with analready-nominated deputy ready to take over.
This provides a level of continuity which has

Four prototype virtual constellations are currently
in progress by CEOS space agencies, inconsultation with their respective user
communities – each with a major outcome insupport of climate and other applications:— The Precipitation Constellation, which aims tostrengthen international cooperation of
space-based observations of precipitation,
including realisation of the Global Precipitation
Measurement (GPM) mission;— The Land Surface Imaging Constellation,
designed to ensure continuity and compatibilityof planned land remote sensing systems;

24

CEOS newsletter.

3 CEOSresulted in the Chair of SIT being appointed as
the primary interface between CEOS and GEO.
SIT has never had a formal membership.
Meetings are open to any CEOS agency which iswilling and ready to contribute to one or more of
the activities being discussed by SIT, such as the
Virtual Constellations projects or particular
GEOSS space segment implementation tasks.

CEOS Working Groups
CEOS also uses three Working Groups to
implement its activities:— Working Group on Calibration and Validation(WGCV): with activities on calibration andvalidation of Earth observations for the benefitof CEOS members and the international user
community;— Working Group on Information Systems andServices (WGISS): focused on interoperability
and interconnectivity of information systems
and services related to the capture, archiving
and exploitation of EO data;— Working Group on Education, Training andCapacity Building (WGEDU): facilitating
activities that substantially enhanceinternational education and training in Earth
System Science as well as the observation
techniques, data analysis and interpretation
required for its use and application tosocietal needs.
More information is provided in Annex A.

The CEOS Implementation Plan
The first version of the CEOS Implementation
Plan, prepared by the Strategic Implementation
Team, was published and endorsed in 2007. It is
the mechanism by which CEOS now prioritises,manages and monitors its various tasks insupport of the development of the space-based
observations for the GEOSS, of which the Global
Climate Observing System is a significant part.
The CEOS Implementation Plan represents a moveto a business-like and target-oriented agenda for
CEOS as it responds to its responsibilities insupport of the GEOSS.
As part of the adoption of the Implementation
Plan in 2007, the 29 member space agencies of
CEOS agreed to establish expert teams for eachof the 9 ‘Societal Benefit Areas’ of the GEOSS,
each with the responsibility of progressing andreporting on activities in support of the various
GEOSS targets. Oversight of the entire activity isundertaken by the Chair of the CEOS Strategic
Implementation Team (SIT), with support fromthe CEOS Executive Officer (CEO). In 2008, theCEO and SIT Chair have been working closely with
the GEO Secretariat in order to prioritise themany actions required for CEOS in support of the
GEOSS space segment.
The CEOS IP will be updated annually todemonstrate how well the coordination processes
are working to achieve the required outcomes.

More Information
Further information on the structure, activities,
and achievements of CEOS is provided in Annex Aof this document.

Further Information
CEOS: www.ceos.org
Earth Observation Handbook: www.eohandbook.com
CEOS Newsletter: www.ceos.org/pages/newsletter.html
CEOS Response to GCOS IP: www.ceos.org/pages/CEOSResponse_1010A.pdf

25

4 Future Challenges
Without the capabilities offered by satellite Earthobservations, there would be insufficient
information for future climate change studies
and insufficient evidence with which to informour decision-making on policies aimed at
mitigation and adaptation to climate change. We
would also have no way of checking theeffectiveness of our mitigation strategies interms of the trends of key Essential Climate
Variables. Earth-based measurement systems
alone cannot provide the synoptic global picture
which is required.
Thanks to the work of GCOS, with its sponsors
and partners in support of the UNFCCC, we haveestablished a clear community consensus on theobservations that are required to deliver 45
Essential Climate Variables needed to detect,monitor, predict, adapt to and mitigate climatechange in the Earth System. CEOS and GCOS
together have identified 25 of the Essential
Climate Variables which are largely dependent onsatellite observations and have specified anumber of actions required to ensure thenecessary continuity or technical characteristics
required for climate studies.
The vision of a global observing system forclimate will only be realised through a wellplanned and sustained international coordination
effort, involving a number of challenges:
Ensuring satellite Earth observing systems aredesigned, constructed and operated in a way thatenables more effective climate observations.
For the most part, satellite observations ofclimate are not sufficiently accurate at present to

Risk of human-induced desertification.

26

establish a climate record that is indisputable,
and hence capable of determining whether, andat what rate, the climate is changing, or of
testing the long term trend predictions of climate
models. Space-based observations do provide aclear picture of the relatively large signals
associated with inter-annual climate variations
such as El Niño, and they have also been used todiagnose gross inadequacies of climate models,such as their cloud generation scenarios.
However, satellite contributions to measuring
long term change have been limited, and, attimes, controversial, as in the case of differing
atmospheric temperature trends derived frommicrowave radiometers.
Measuring long-term global climate change fromspace is a daunting task. The climate signals weare trying to detect are extremely small:e.g. temperature trends of only a few tenths of adegree C per decade, ozone changes as little as 1%
per decade and variations in the Sun’s output astiny as 0.1% per decade or less. Current satellite
systems are not up to the task. Sensors andonboard calibration sources degrade in orbit,
measurements are not made to international
standards, long term data sets must be stitched
together from a series of overlapping satellite
observations, orbital drift introduces artefacts
into long-term time series, and insufficientattention is paid to meeting the high accuracy,high stability instrument requirements formonitoring global climate change.
To assist space agencies in this challenge, GCOS
has defined a series of GCOS Climate Monitoring4 Future Challenges

Principles (GCMPs – see Annex B). GCOS notesthat for satellite data to contribute fully andeffectively to the determination of long-term
records, they must be implemented and operated
in an appropriate manner to ensure adequate
stability and accuracy, and with steps to ensure
homogeneous products. The GCMPs require:— continuity and overlap of satellite
observations;— enhanced orbit control;— calibration and instrument characterisation;— sampling strategy;— sustained generation of products, data
analysis, and archiving.
Since most existing Earth-observing satellite
systems were not specifically designed forclimate monitoring, there is, as yet, no systematic
process for the application of the GCMPs. As partof the response to the GCOS IP, CEOS space
agencies have undertaken to address thischallenge and to assemble the resources andpolitical will required to better coordinate,
design, operate, process, store and distributesatellite measurements that satisfy the GCMPs.
Achieving satellite instrument calibration formeasuring global climate change.
A powerful new paradigm for achieving satellite
instrument calibration suitable for measuring
long term global climate change has recently
emerged. The basic concept is to place in space aseries of highly accurate benchmark instruments
in order to measure with high spectral resolution
the energy reflected and emitted by the Earth.
These instruments would provide reliable longterm records of climate forcings, response andfeedbacks to monitor climate change. Their
records would also serve as the validation dataneeded to test and evaluate climate model
predictions. The benchmark instruments would
also constitute a reference standard, orcalibration observatory, in space that can beapplied to other environmental satellite sensors
that are not as well calibrated, e.g. the sensors on
operational weather satellites. Such calibrations
can be performed by comparing coincident
observations of the benchmark instruments withthe other sensors. These spectral instruments
would be joined in space by several other criticalbenchmark measurements.

of different satellite operators. Sponsored by theWorld Meteorological Organisation and the
Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites,
GSICS will inter-calibrate the instruments of theinternational constellation of operational low
Earth orbiting (LEO) and geostationary (GEO)
environmental satellites and tie these to common
reference standards. The inter-comparability ofthe observations will result in more accurate
measurements for assimilation into numerical
weather prediction models, construction of morereliable climate data records and achieving thesocietal goals of the Global Earth Observation
System of Systems (GEOSS). GSICS includes
globally coordinated activities for pre-launch
instrument characterisation, on-board routine
calibration, sensor inter-comparison bycollocation of individual scenes or overlap
between time series, and use of Earth-based orcelestial references, as well as field campaigns.
An initial strategy uses highly accurate researchsatellite instruments as space-based reference
standards for inter-calibrating the operational
satellite sensors.
Transitioning from science-focused missions tooperational services.
If space agencies are to supply the sustained andcoordinated observations of the 25 Essential
Climate Variables required by the UNFCCC and
IPCC, challenges related to the way in which the
Earth observation sector is structured must firstbe addressed. Research space agencies tend to do
new things once; operational agencies, whilst
adopting new technologies and useful advances
as they become available, do more or less thesame things over and over. If continuity is to beensured, more climate variables must beclassified and recognised as operational, andmade the responsibility of an operational agency
or supported as operational in other ways.
Wherever possible, operational measurements
should be specified so that they satisfy the statedneeds of the climate community.

The Global Space-based Inter-Calibration System(GSICS) is a new international programme toassure the comparability of satellite
measurements provided at different times bydifferent instruments that are the responsibility27

In recent years, CEOS agencies have endeavoured
to ensure continuity of some key measurements.
For example, in ocean surface altimetry, the key
agencies (CNES, EUMETSAT, NASA and NOAA) havecooperated to attempt to ensure continuity ofmeasurements so that they may become
established as near-operational within some user
communities. This remains, however, the exception
rather than the rule for research-oriented space
agencies, which are neither mandated nor funded
to provide operational services. Europe’s Global
Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES)
programme is a promising example of how thistransition might occur, with the emergence of
operational services in support of European
environmental policy that are being provided
through a partnership of the European
Commission (EC) and the European Space Agency(ESA). Without such initiatives, the resources andmandates of space agencies as they currently
stand will be insufficient to meet UNFCCC needs.
Improving access to existing climate data records
generated by satellites.
All countries must be able to benefit from the useof climate data records. This is an important issue
in relation to products that depend primarily uponsatellite observations. While Earth observationfrom satellites is a costly activity to which only asmall number of countries are currently able tocontribute, the derived information is generally of
global utility. To meet the needs of the UNFCCC,
action needs to be taken to allow global access tothese products and to ensure their global utility.

Strengthened and rationalised coordination
mechanisms.
CEOS is recognised as the primary international
forum for coordination of the Earth observation
programmes of space agencies worldwide. If space
agencies are to mobilise the substantial responsedemanded by the challenge of both the GCOS
Implementation Plan and the GEOSS
Implementation Plan, then such a coordinationrole will be increasingly important. CEOS
recognises the need to improve its coordinationrole and activities above the current ‘best efforts’arrangements.
As climate change gains political importance andgovernments support the GCOS and UNFCCC
assessment of the importance of Earthobservations in its study and adaptation, we might
expect changes in space agency policy, so that
their terms of reference recognise improved
coordination and climate needs and, not quite sostrictly, the current emphasis on defined
operational roles or advances in industrial
technology. We also might expect a significantly
higher priority and resources assigned to the kindof role which CEOS is providing, or has thepotential to provide. Further, we should expect
political direction for a clear assignment of theroles and responsibilities of the various
coordination groups which exist – including CEOS,CGMS (Coordination Group on Meteorological
Satellites) and others – to find new levels of
efficiency through improved focus and larger
critical mass. This is essential if we are to see theimproved optimisation of the overall observation
strategy required to meet the needs determined by
GCOS and GEO.

Surface incoming solar radiation / Wm-2

0

28

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

PART II
→ Case Studies

Floods in South Asia, ASAR.

5 Case Studies – Satellite Observations in Supportof Climate Challenges

5.1 Introduction

5.3 Counting Carbon

Part I highlighted the evidence of climate change
facing humankind and explained the ‘associatedrisks of major disruption to economic and social
activity, later in this century and in the next, on ascale similar to those associated with the greatwars and the economic depression of the first halfof the 20th century’ (The Stern Review).
This section explores how Earth observation
satellite programmes provide information in
support of the 45 Essential Climate Variables
needed to detect, monitor, predict, and mitigate
climate change in the Earth system.

5.2 Contents
Six different case studies are presented, eachfocusing on different dimensions of the Earth’s
climate and showcasing the diverse contributions ofsatellite Earth observations. The case studies are:— Counting carbon: monitoring the global carbon
cycle to help predict, mitigate and adapt to therelated climate changes.
— The big thaw: measuring the loss of ourdisappearing glaciers and polar ice caps.
— Sea level rise: as the oceans warm and the ice
melts, the ocean rises. Satellites are already an
indispensable tool in charting the changes.
— Water security: with water becoming an
increasingly valuable resource and with its supply
anticipated to become more erratic, improved
management is becoming an importantcapability. Satellites can help governments in
multiple ways.
— Land surface change: human action has
transformed almost half of the Earth’s land
surface with significant consequences forbiodiversity and climate. Satellites offer uniqueinsights into activities such as deforestation of
remote areas.
— Energy resource management: in future, energy
generation will be more efficient and moresustainable. Satellites can help demand
forecasting and planning of renewable energy
facilities.
In each case, the issues affecting society and theanticipated future consequences are discussed. The
need for information and the role of Earthobservation satellites are explained, including an
indication of future plans and challenges.

30

Earth’s lights by night.

As explained in Part I, the IPCC noted in 2007 thatchanges in atmospheric concentrations ofgreenhouse gases and aerosols, land cover andsolar radiation alter the energy balance of theclimate system. Global greenhouse gas emissions
due to human activities have grown since
pre-industrial times, with an increase of 70%
between 1970 and 2004. The IPCC concluded that“most of the observed increase in globally
averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century
is very likely (over 90% probability) due to theobserved increase in anthropogenic (man-made)greenhouse gas concentrations”.
The most important of the greenhouse gases
associated with global warming is carbon dioxide(CO2). Other important greenhouse gases include
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3),and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Global
atmospheric concentrations of CO2, CH4 and N2O
have increased markedly as a result of humanactivities since 1750 and now far exceed thepre-industrial values determined from ice coresthat span many thousands of years.
Global increases in CO2 concentrations are due
primarily to the burning of fossil fuels such as oil,gasoline, natural gas and coal, with land usechange providing another significant but smaller
contribution. It is very likely that the observed
increase in CH4 concentration is predominantly
due to agriculture and fossil fuel use. Methane
growth rates have declined since the early 1990s,
consistent with total emission (sum ofanthropogenic and natural sources) being nearly
constant during this period. The increase in N2O
concentration is primarily due to agriculture.

5 Case Studies

Future projections regarding the changing
composition of the Earth’s atmosphere and theimpact this will likely have on its climate, havebeen briefly outlined in Part I of this document.

The International Response
The adoption of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992
was a major step forward in tackling the problem
of global warming. Yet, as greenhouse gas
emission levels continued to rise around the world,
it became increasingly evident that a firm andbinding commitment by developed countries toreduce emissions could send a signal strong
enough to convince businesses, communities andindividuals to act on climate change. As a result,
UNFCCC member countries began negotiations on
a Protocol, an international agreement linked tothe existing Treaty, but standing on its own.
After two and a half years of intense negotiations,
the Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third
Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP 3) inKyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997. The Protocol
shares the objectives and institutions of theConvention. The major distinction between thetwo, however, is that while the Convention
encouraged developed countries to stabilise
greenhouse gas emissions, the Protocol commits
them to do so.

Because it will affect virtually all major sectors of
the economy, the Kyoto Protocol is considered tobe the most far-reaching agreement onenvironment and sustainable development everadopted. However, any treaty not only has to beeffective in tackling a complicated worldwide
problem, it must also be politically acceptable.
Most of the world’s countries eventually agreed to
the Protocol, but some nations chose not to ratify
it. The Kyoto Protocol entered into force on
16 February 2005 and by early 2008 it had been
ratified by 174 states.
The Protocol requires developed countries toreduce their greenhouse gas emissions below
levels specified for each of them in the UN Treaty.
These targets must be met within a five-year timeframe between 2008 and 2012, and add up to a cut
in greenhouse gas emissions of at least 5% against
the baseline of 1990. Review and enforcement ofthese commitments are carried out by United
Nations-based bodies. The Protocol places aheavier burden on developed nations under the
principle of “common but differentiatedresponsibilities”. This has two main reasons. Firstly,
those countries can more easily pay the cost of
cutting emissions. Secondly, developed countries
have historically contributed more to the problem
by emitting larger amounts of greenhouse gases
per person than developing countries.
The Kyoto Protocol sets limits on the emission of
six main greenhouse gases:— carbon dioxide (CO2);— methane (CH4);— nitrous oxide (N2O);— hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs);— perfluorocarbons (PFCs);— sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).
Some specified activities that emit or remove
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere are also
covered in the land use change and forestry sector(namely, afforestation, deforestation andreforestation). All changes in emissions and inremovals by so-called ‘sinks’ (absorbers) areconsidered equivalent for accounting purposes.

Fossil fuel emissions and deforestation play major roles in climatechange.

The Protocol also establishes three innovative
mechanisms, known as ‘joint implementation’,‘emissions trading’ and the ‘clean development
mechanism’. These are designed to help Parties
reduce the costs of meeting their emissions
targets by achieving or acquiring emission
reductions more cheaply in other countries than at
home. The clean development mechanism also
aims to assist developing countries to achieve31

climate change and variability insuch a way that causes can be
determined, trends andvariability predicted, andappropriate adaptation andmitigation strategies defined for
implementation.
As noted in Part I, the Global
Climate Observing System (GCOS)
prepared an Implementation Planfor the global observing systemfor climate in 2004, in response
to a request from UNFCCC. This
Plan, if fully implemented by theParties to the UNFCCC, bothindividually and collectively, will
provide the global observationsof the Essential Climate Variables
and their associated productsthat will assist the Parties tomeet their responsibilities under
the UNFCCC. In addition, it will
provide many of the essential
observations required by theWorld Climate Research
Programme (WCRP) and IPCC.
CEOS, as the primaryinternational forum forcoordination of space-based
Earth observations, responded bySatellites already deliver global estimates of greenhouse gas concentrations in our
submitting to the UNFCCC its
atmosphere.
plan (comprising over 50 different
actions) to help satellites deliver
sustainable development by promoting
up to 25 of the 45 Essential Climate Variables
environmentally-friendly investment in theirdefined by GCOS. Of the many and varied global
economies by governments and businesses fromobserving systems contributing to climate dataindustrialised countries.
collection (including instruments at groundstations, on ships, buoys, floats, ocean profilers,

The Role of Satellite Earth Observations

For mitigation and adaptation to be effective,
governments and the private sector need
information about past and current climate
conditions, including their variability andextremes, as well as sound projections of future
conditions – not only on an annual basis but for
many decades into the future. Such climate
projections depend on the same information for
their development and testing. The World Climate
Research Programme (WCRP) was established in1980 to coordinate international research in thisdomain, in order to determine the extent to whichclimate can be predicted and the extent of human
influence on climate.
The climate system responds to both external
forcings and to perturbations of internal processes.
This means that it is important to be able to track

32

Japan’s GOSAT will provide new greenhouse gas monitoring
capabilities. (Credit: JAXA)

5 Case Studies

balloons and aircraft), Earth observation satellites
providing global coverage and well calibrated
measurements will become “the single mostimportant contribution to global observations forclimate”.
Since the dominant influence on future
greenhouse gas trends is widely agreed to be theemission of CO2 from fossil fuel burning, improved
observation and understanding of the global
carbon cycle is one of priorities for theforthcoming decades.

Observing the Carbon Cycle
The global carbon cycle spans the three major
components of the Earth System: the atmosphere,
oceans and land. In each domain, large pools of
readily exchangeable carbon are stored in various
ways (‘pools’) in the ocean and on the land surface.
Large amounts of carbon (in source or sink ‘fluxes’)
are transferred between the pools over various
time periods, from daily to annual and much
longer. Although some of the fluxes are very large,
the net change over a given time period need not
be. For many centuries prior to the Industrial
Revolution, the carbon pools were more or less inequilibrium, and the net transfer was close to zerofor the planet as a whole.

This challenge requires the support of acoordinated set of international activities –scientific research (including modelling),
observation and assessment. Assessment isperhaps the most advanced, with the pioneering
work of the IPCC providing the scientificassessment required for policy action. In terms ofscientific research, the International GeosphereBiosphere Programme (IGBP) has recently joined
forces with the International Human Dimensions
Programme on Global Environmental Change(IHDP) and the World Climate Research Programme(WCRP) to build an international framework for
integrated research on the carbon cycle (called the
Global Carbon Project).
Coordinated observations of the global carbon
cycle, including the land, oceans and atmosphericcompartments of the cycle, are being promoted
within the IGOS Partnership by the Integrated
Global Carbon Observations (IGCO) Theme, now
operating within the GEO framework.
The IGCO Theme builds on a number of carbon
cycle observation initiatives at the Earth’s surface
that are underway or planned, including:— global networks of greenhouse gas
measurement stations (such as GLOBALVIEW
CO2) and the WMO World Data Centre forGreenhouse Gases (Tokyo);

The major changes have occurred following thedevelopment of agriculture and industry, with— global networks of measurement tower sites
accelerated transfer from the geological (fossil
that monitor the exchanges of CO2, water
fuels) and terrestrial pools to the atmosphere.
vapour and energy between terrestrial
Because of the connections between pools, theecosystems and the atmosphere; e.g. theincreased atmospheric carbon concentration
FLUXNET system has over 260 tower sites
affects the oceans and land. The UNFCCC and theoperating on a long-term, continuous basis;
Kyoto Protocol represent the first global— measurement ships and arrays of buoys,
collaborative attempts by humankind to manage,
including the TAO array in the equatorial Pacific;
at least partly, a global element of
the Earth System – the carbon cycle.
The Kyoto Protocol recognises therole of terrestrial systems as carbon
sinks and sources, and it provides abasis for developing future‘emission trading arrangements’that involve forests and, potentially,other ecosystems. Understanding of
the pathways through which theanthropogenic CO2 is absorbed
from the atmosphere andtransferred to ecosystems (thusoffsetting a portion of theanthropogenic emissions) is
fragmentary and incomplete. These
factors and dependencies make thequantification and study of the
carbon cycle very challenging tomodel, observe, and predict.
Greenhouse gas cycle.

33

— the GEOMON project which aims to sustain andanalyse European ground-based observations ofatmospheric composition that complement
satellite measurements, in order to quantify
and understand the ongoing changes. GEOMON
is a first step toward building a future
integrated pan-European Atmospheric
Observing System that will deal with systematic
observations of long-lived greenhouse gases,
reactive gases, aerosols and stratosphericozone.
Data from Earth observation satellites provide theonly global, synoptic view of key measures of the
carbon cycle, forming an essential part of theenvisaged integrated observation strategy planned
within IGCO.
The major satellite applications include:— global mapping of land cover use, land coverchange and vegetation cover characteristics
that are important to full carbon accounting,using sensors such as AATSR, AVHRR, Landsat
TM/ETM/ETM+ and MODIS and carried out
through the Global Observation of Forest Coverand Land Cover (GOFC-GOLD) project initiatedby CEOS;

Absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation(fAPAR) and Leaf Area Index (LAI), are generated
on a global scale (e.g. by AVHRR, MODIS, MERIS,
and SPOT VEGETATION sensors);— fire detection and burn scar mapping. In many
regions of the world, fires are the mostsignificant destroyer of vegetation, driving large
inter-annual variations in carbon emissions
from ecosystems. Large fires in forests andgrasslands are detected and mapped fromspace, using thermal and optical sensors. (Radarsensors also show promise for burned area
mapping);— helping to map ocean primary productivity as amajor sink of carbon dioxide is a key goal. The
global annual cycle of phytoplankton bloom is avital part of the carbon cycle and is measured
by satellites indirectly through measurementsof ocean colour. These measurements arecalibrated using in situ data to give morequantitative assessments, while other colour
and pigment measurements add further
indications of the ocean ecosystem changes;— seasonal growth characteristics, including
important parameters such as fraction of

Number of Fires Detected0

Flux towers monitor exchanges of CO2, water vapour and energy
between land and atmosphere.

34

10

Fire detection and mapping.

20

30

40

5 Case Studies

reports concerning carbon sinks. In addition, they
provide important information in trade-offs andconflicts between mitigation/adaptation carbon
initiatives involving present land use (including
forestry), changes in land use over time, andlong-term sustainable development strategies.

Future Challenges

Satellite ocean colour sensors provide important information on
the ocean’s role in the carbon cycle.

— uncertainty in the land and ocean uptake ofcarbon and its possible change is of great
importance and satellites are set to play amajor part in monitoring these changes via
CO2 fluxes. The air/land and air/ocean CO2 flux
is key but it can only be measured directly at a
few research class, in situ measurement
locations. Satellites contribute in many ways toestimating these fluxes indirectly. First a great
range of satellite data now provide, especiallyover the ocean, a major input to atmospheric
data analysis and reanalysis that gives the best
possible description of the atmosphere. This
analysis process, especially the reanalysis ofdelayed mode data, is now including satellite
measurements of both column CO2 and verticalprofiles of CO2. This work is still in a researchphase at centres like The European Centre for
Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF)
and it is expected that, in the future, theregional sources of CO2 will be able to bemonitored this way over both land and sea.
Another key role for satellites relates tomonitoring of the Kyoto Protocol’s ‘carbon trading’mechanisms, especially the Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM). Existing archives of moderate
resolution satellite land imagery (e.g. fromLandsat and SPOT) provide the capacity for
determining eligibility of CDM reforestation
projects by confirming compliance with the Kyoto
Protocol’s rule that any proposed forestry project
must be able to prove that the site “did notcontain forest on 31st December 1989”. The same
technologies can also provide geographically
explicit land use data for national inventory

Within the next few years, scientists are hopefulof an extraordinary and unique revolution in
global monitoring of atmospheric CO2
concentrations, sources, and sinks, taking
advantage of space-based, high-precision
measurements of column-integrated CO2
molecular density with global, frequent coverage.
The precision requirements for suchmeasurements are extremely taxing, requiring
concentrations as low as 0.3% (1 ppm) to beachieved in order to accurately characterise
carbon sources and sinks. A number of new
missions, specifically dedicated to this challenge,
are being planned to provide the first such data.
NASA will launch the Orbiting Carbon
Observatory (OCO) in 2008. This two-year mission
is seen as a pathfinder for future, long-term CO2
monitoring missions, using measurements ofreflected sunlight in the short-wave infrared toprovide global, high-precision measurements ofthe column-integrated CO2 mixing ratio. A second
satellite, provided by JAXA, also aims to provide
information on CO2. GOSAT (Greenhouse gas
Observing Satellite) will also be launched in 2009.
In the interim, scientists continue to makeadvances in the retrieval of CO2 information fromatmospheric sounding instruments. Examples are
the interpretation of hyperspectral observations
by AIRS on NOAA polar orbiting satellites, IASI on
EUMETSAT’s MetOp satellite, and data fromatmospheric chemistry instruments such as
SCIAMACHY on Envisat.
Part of the future challenge will be to support a
monitoring system that is suitably accurate,robust and sustained. This would effectively
support the implementation process by assisting
the national reporting of agreed information
related to protocols and of independent, policy
neutral, information that ensures that theeffectiveness of the measures can be established.
It will also support the monitoring of treaties
such as the Kyoto Protocol. For Earth observation
satellites this will require a move from research to35

operational status to support international policy
frameworks.
The necessary coordination of the satellite
missions will be undertaken by CEOS. Recognising
the importance of continuity of observations of
the atmosphere and its composition, CEOS has
established an Atmospheric Chemistry
Constellation team. Its objective is to collect anddeliver data to improve predictive capabilities forcoupled changes in the ozone layer, air quality
and climate forcing associated with changes inthe environment.
Part III of this document summarises the plans of
the world’s space agencies for the necessary
observations.

Using data from the SCIAMACHY instrument on Envisat, scientists have for the first time detected
regionally elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Further Information
Global Carbon Cycle (Woods Hole Research Center): www.whrc.org/carbon/index.htm
UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol: www.unfccc.int
Global Carbon Project: www.globalcarbonproject.org
IGCO Theme: www.igospartners.org/Carbon.htm
OCO: oco.jpl.nasa.gov
GOSAT: www.jaxa.jp/projects/sat/gosat/index_e.html
UNFCCC REDD: unfccc.int/methods_and_science/lulucf/items/3896.php

36

5 Case Studies

5.4 The Big Thaw

Greenland.

Ice plays an important role in the regulation of the
Earth's climate in a number of ways:— a certain percentage of the solar radiation
reaching the Earth’s atmosphere and surface isreflected back out to space. The percentage ofsunlight that is reflected depends on the albedo(reflectivity) of the surface. Ice and snow have ahigh albedo and hence reflect about 80% ofincident sunlight. Once formed, ice tends to be
maintained. However, if ice cover decreases, lesssolar radiation is reflected from the surface of
the Earth and, as a result, the atmosphereabsorbs more heat;— each year, the Arctic and the Antarctic Oceans
experience the formation and then melting ofvast amounts of floating sea ice. At the North
Pole, an area of ice the size of Europe melts
away every summer and then freezes again thefollowing winter. The thickness of this sea ice
plays a central role in polar climate as it

moderates ocean-atmosphere heat exchange byinsulating the ocean from the cold polar
atmosphere;— the distribution and duration of seasonal
growth and melt of polar sea ice have asignificant effect on the global ocean circulation
pattern – known as thermohaline circulation. As
the ice melts, causing an influx of fresh water
into the surrounding ocean, the salinity anddensity of the water decrease. Conversely, as ice
is formed, the salinity and density of thesurface water increase. This causes the surface
waters to sink, effectively driving deep ocean
currents from the polar regions towards theequator. This outflow is balanced by a surface
inflow of warmer, less dense water masses from
low to high latitudes. The Gulf Stream, which
carries warm surface water northwards fromthe Gulf of Mexico to the sub-polar latitudes
east of Greenland, is extremely important inmoderating the climate in Europe; the coastal
waters of Europe are 4°C warmer than waters at
the equivalent latitude in the North Pacific.
However, the warm waters of the Gulf Stream
cool and sink as they reach the Arctic. If thiscirculation pattern is disturbed in future by adramatically reduced cover of seasonal Arctic
sea ice, this may have a profound effect on thestrength or direction of the Gulf Stream. It is,therefore, apparent that an improved
knowledge of the fluxes of sea ice in the Arctic
and their consequences for the thermohaline
circulation is important for the prediction ofEurope’s climate, and would have global
implications.
— continental ice has an impact on sea level. The
ice sheets covering Antarctica and Greenlandamount to about 28 million km3, which meansthat the sea level is about 65 m lower than it
would be if all this ice melted. There areindications that changes are occurring at themargins of the ice sheets and it is theseapparent changes that need to be quantified.

37

On a smaller but no less important scale, glaciers
play a significant role in regional hydrology andclimate, since evidence suggests the majority of
the world’s glaciers are currently undergoingmelting. Almost 80% of the Earth’s fresh water islocked up in the cryosphere (snow, ice andpermafrost). The IPCC’s recent 4th assessment(discussed in Part I of this document) indicatesthat melting glaciers will initially increase floodrisk and then strongly reduce water supplies,
eventually affecting one-sixth of the world’s
population – predominantly in the Indian
sub-continent, parts of China, and the Andes ofSouth America.

Since the 1970s, routine, all-weather,
day-and-night, (passive microwave) observations,
supported by available visible imagery andestimates of air temperature from weather
forecasting models, have contributed to climate
data records. They have revealed a dramatic decline
of about 3% per decade in Northern Hemispheresea ice cover. More recently, scatterometer
instruments on European, American and Japanesesatellites have augmented the passive microwave
records. Together with buoy data, they have beenused to monitor ice drift, and to understandseasonal to interannual variations in sea ice
growth and melt processes.

Given the important influence of the cryosphereon the climate system, and its predicted impacts
on sea level, global warming, ocean circulation andfreshwater availability, a thorough understandingof the state of the cryosphere is central to ourability to predict and adapt to climate change.

For the ice sheets and glaciers, key sensors havebeen synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and satellite
altimeters, with major contributions from the
14-year record provided by the ERS-1, ERS-2 andEnvisat satellites. SAR has been used to map theice sheets with unprecedented detail and has
demonstrated the impact of streaming ice flow for
the regional ice sheet mass balance, as well as thecritical importance of the rate of ice stream flow
and ice shelf decay to the overall stability of thelarge ice sheets.

The Role of Satellites
The long-term, wide-area observations carried out
by Earth observation satellites provide
authoritative evidence of trends in the cryosphere– including glaciers and the polar ice caps – andenable estimation of the consequences should
melting continue into the future. The poles areamongst the Earth’s most inaccessible areas, so
obtaining measurements of sea ice was difficult
before the advent of satellites.

In conjunction with SAR observations, altimetertime series have characterised seasonal tointer-annual changes in ice sheet elevation andtopography over moderately sloping regions frombasin to continental scale. These data indicate
that, although the central parts of the large ice
sheets appear stable and in balance, dramatic

CryoSat is able to measure the freeboard (height by which the ice rises above thewater surface) of floating sea ice with its sensitive altimeter. From the freeboard,the ice thickness can be estimated if the density of the sea ice is known.

38

Over topographic surfaces, the first radar echo comesfrom the nearest point to the satellite. CryoSat canmeasure the angle from which this echo originates, sothat the source point can be located on the ground. This,in turn, allows the height of that point to be determined.

5 Case Studies

changes are taking place around their more
dynamic margins, in particular around the West
Antarctic ice sheet and Greenland. The dramatic
disintegration of ice shelves, such as the Larsen
shelf in Antarctica, indicate that the ice sheet andice shelf dynamics may be considerably moresensitive to short-term climate fluctuations thanformerly believed.
The combination of SAR and satellite altimetry is
helping to determine the mass balance of ice
sheets, although not yet to the level required to be
confident about their overall stability. New insights
are also being provided by the satellite gravity
surveys of the Gravity Recovery and Climate
Experiment (GRACE) mission, which provides
separate estimates of ice mass. Additional
information, such as ice thickness, is needed toadvance the knowledge of ice flow dynamics.
Satellites observe the rapid decrease in glacier area
worldwide, but better data on mass balance andvolume changes are needed to fully understandthe climate response and their impact onhydrology and water resources.
The long-term passive microwave records, and themore recent scatterometer and SAR data, indicatethat snow seasonally covers up to 30% of the land
surface. Snow cover changes therefore exert alarge influence on both the radiation andfreshwater balances. As global warming proceeds,
it is predicted that regions currently experiencing
snowfall will increasingly receive precipitation in
the form of rain, and for every 1oC increase intemperature the snowline will rise by about
150 metres. Perennially frozen ground (i.e.
permafrost) is estimated to underlie 24% of the
exposed Northern Hemisphere land area.
Permafrost has an important regulative function
on the exchange of carbon and other gases

between the land and the atmosphere. Fluxes ofgases from northern ecosystems represent ahighly uncertain contributor to future globalchange, and in situ observations suggest that
global warming will strongly modify these fluxes.
The wet lowlands of the Arctic permafrost
landscapes, for example, are important natural
sources of the greenhouse gas methane. Recent
satellite observations have detected accelerated
melting of Siberian bogs, which may unleash
significant amounts of methane, thereby
amplifying global warming. Continuous
observations of permafrost extent andcharacteristics are needed to assess the role of thepermafrost regions in climate change.
Scatterometers and SAR have been used toobserve the characteristics of permafrost areas,
but more systematic observations at high spatial
resolution are needed.
Given the significance of the cryosphere in ourstudy of the Earth’s climate, both ESA and NASA
have sought to provide specialised cryospheresatellite missions in recent years. The ICESat (Ice,Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite) mission, partof NASA’s Earth Observing System, measures ice
sheet mass balance, cloud and aerosol heights, aswell as land topography and vegetation
characteristics. ICESat was launched in January
2003 and designed to operate for three to five
years. Problems with the laser sensor mean thatthe satellite now provides observations for one
month out of every 3–6 months in order to extend
the time series of measurements, particularly forthe ice sheets. The European CryoSat mission was
lost as a result of a launch failure in October 2005.
Due to the importance of the scientific goals of
this satellite, there was enormous support for
re-flying the mission and CryoSat-2 was approvedby ESA in 2006.

Annual variability in km3/year
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500

Source: adapted from Dyurgerov
and Meier 2005

Global glacier mass: annual variability and cumulative values.

39

Future Challenges

Particular observational challenges include:

The overriding objectives are to quantify the
impacts of climatic variability and change on thecryosphere, and to assess the consequences ofthese changes for the climate system and theenvironment as a whole. Although satellite
observations have revealed significant changes
taking place to the cryosphere, the attribution ofthese changes to either anthropogenic or naturalcauses remains unclear. Key measurements are
not yet available, which limits our ability tocharacterise the overall behaviour of major
elements of the cryosphere and to assess thenature of its interaction with the oceans,
atmosphere and terrestrial systems.

— the mass, freshwater balance and distributionof sea ice, as well as current and possible future
feedbacks to the ocean and atmosphere;— the mass balance of ice sheets, ice caps andglaciers, to assess their contribution to sea
level, and to evaluate their sensitivity to forcing;— changes in snow water equivalent and solid
precipitation, and their impacts on the globalhydrological cycle and regional water resources.
Continuous, uniform, long-term monitoring
observations are the key to assessing the response of
the global cryosphere to climatic variations. Due tolarge year-to-year variations in seasonal signals, theMaps based on satellite imagery showing the number of days in 2006 when melting occurred.
The dark blue areas had the most days of melting.
The number of days when melting took place in 2006 was more than the average between 1988 and 2005.
The dark red areas indicate the number of days above the average.
(Credit: NASA/Robert Simmon and Marit Jentoft-Nilsen)

405 Case Studies

duration of monitoring records has a critical impact on
the certainty with which trends can be assessed.
Meanwhile, high resolution temporal and spatial
observations are needed to characterise rapid
variations in snow and ice in response to surface
processes.
To address these observational requirements
effectively, a combination of routine, broad swath, low
resolution, global monitoring instruments (microwave
and optical) and specialised, high resolution, narrowswath data are required. New findings from current
and forthcoming satellite observations, combinedwith more routine observations from present andfuture SAR, scatterometer and passive microwave
missions, will advance our ability to sustain the
optimum satellite observing system for thecryosphere.
The IGOS Cryosphere Theme is a combined initiative of
the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP)
Climate and Cryosphere (CliC) Project and theScientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR).
The Theme creates a framework for improved
international coordination of cryospheric observations
that will result in a more comprehensive, coordinated,
and integrated cryosphere observing system. It will
facilitate the flow of data and information in

Comparison of sea ice from 1979 and 2003.

41

cryospheric research, long-term scientific monitoring,and operational applications. Many recommendationsof the Cryosphere Theme will be implemented as partof the Group on Earth Observations (GEO) work plan.
The 15th WMO Congress in May 2007 approved the
proposal to initiate the establishment of a Global
Cryosphere Watch, based on IGOS Cryosphere
recommendations.
The International Polar Year is a large scientificprogramme focused on the Arctic and Antarctic fromMarch 2007 to March 2009. IPY, organised through theInternational Council for Science (ICSU) and the World
Meteorological Organisation (WMO), is actually the
fourth Polar Year, following those in 1882–3, 1932–3,
and 1957–8. In order to have full and equal coverage ofboth the Arctic and the Antarctic, IPY 2007–8 actually
covers two full annual cycles from March 2007 to
March 2009 and involves over 200 projects, withthousands of scientists from over 60 nations
examining a wide range of physical, biological andsocial research topics.

CryoSat-2
CryoSat-2’s planned three-year mission is to survey natural and human-driven changes in Earth’s
cryosphere. It is designed to provide much more accurate data on the rate of change of the surface
elevation of the polar ice sheets and sea ice thickness. From a near-polar orbit of just over 700 km
altitude that reaches latitudes of 88°, CryoSat-2 will monitor precise changes in the thickness of thepolar ice sheets and floating sea ice, hopefully providing conclusive evidence of the rates at which ice
cover is diminishing.
Fundamentally, there are two types of polar ice – marine ice that grows and floats in the oceans and theice that lies on land. Not only does the melting of these forms of ice have different consequences for ourplanet and its climate, they also pose different challenges when trying to measure them from space.
Floating sea ice is relatively thin – up to a few metres thick – but it influences regional temperature andthe circulation of ocean currents, and consequently the Earth’s climate. CryoSat-2 will acquire precise
measurements of the thickness of floating sea ice so that annual variations can be detected.
In contrast, the ice sheets that blanket Antarctica and Greenland are several kilometres thick. It is thegrowth and shrinkage of these ice masses that have a direct influence on sea level. The chosen approach
to measuring these vast thicknesses is to determine the height of the surface accurately enough todetect small changes. The current constraints will be overcome with the altimeter designed for
CryoSat-2, which exploits sophisticated radar techniques to improve resolution and observing
capabilities.
The primary instrument is the SIRAL (SAR / Interferometric Radar Altimeter). SIRAL operates in one ofthree modes, depending on the type of surface over which the satellite is flying. Over the oceans and ice
sheet interiors, CryoSat operates like a traditional radar altimeter. Over sea ice, transmitted echoes are
combined (using synthetic aperture processing) to reduce the surface footprint so that smaller ice floes
can be mapped. The most advanced mode is for the ice sheet margins and mountain glaciers, when thealtimeter performs synthetic aperture processing and uses a second antenna to determine theacross-track angle to the earliest radar return. This provides the precise location of the area being
measured when the surface is sloping.
The current target launch date for CryoSat-2 is late 2009.

Further Information
CryoSat & CryoSat-2: www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Cryosat/
IGOS Cryosphere Theme: cryos.ssec.wisc.edu
International Polar Year: www.ipy.org
NASA ice studies: www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2003/1023esuice.html

42

5 Case Studies

5.5 Sea Level Rise

Since the beginning of high-accuracy satellite
altimetry in the early 1990s, global mean sea
level has been shown by both tide gauges andaltimeters to be rising at a rate of just above
3 mm/year, compared to a rate of less than
2 mm/year from tide gauges over the previous
century. The exact source of the accelerated riseis uncertain, but, with regard to future
uncertainty, attention is being given tounderstanding the rate of loss of ice caps inGreenland and Antarctica. About half of the sea

level rise during the first decade of the altimeterrecord can be attributed to thermal expansion
due to a warming of the oceans; the other major
contributions include the combined effects ofmelting glaciers and ice sheets. Changes in thestorage of water on land (such as the depletion of
aquifers and increases in dams and reservoirs)
remain very uncertain.
The coastal zone changed profoundly during the
20 th century, primarily due to growing
populations and increasing urbanisation. In 1990,
23% of the world’s population (or 1.2 billion
people) lived within 100 km of the coast and no
more than 100 m above sea level,with population
densities about three times higher than the
global average. By 2010, 20 out of 30 mega-cities
will be on the coast, with many low-lying
locations threatened by sea level rise. With
coastal development continuing at a rapid pace,society is becoming increasingly vulnerable to sea
level rise and variability – as Hurricane Katrina
recently demonstrated in New Orleans. (Thestorm surge and high precipitation associatedwith hurricanes mean that they are likely to beearly indicators of the effects of future sea levelrise). Rising sea levels will contribute to increased
storm surges and flooding, even if hurricane
intensities do not increase in response to thewarming of the oceans. Rising sea levels will also
contribute to the erosion of the world’s sandy
beaches, 70% of which have been retreating overthe past century. Low-lying islands, such as coral
atolls, are also vulnerable to sea level rise.

Sea level change 1993–2006 from satellite altimeters. (Credit: Edmisten, Univ. S. Florida)43

An improved understanding of sea level rise andvariability will help reduce the uncertainties
associated with future sea level projections, thus
contributing to more effective coastal planningand management. Adaptation measures,
including enhanced building codes, restrictions
on where to build, and developing infrastructures
better able to cope with flooding, should help tominimise the potential losses.

The Third and Fourth IPCC Assessments
The Third Assessment Report (TAR) of theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
published in 2001, estimated that sea level would
rise between 9 and 88 cm by the end of the 21st
century. The Fourth Assessment
Report (AR4) released in 2007
refined this projection, withprojected values between 18
and 59 cm. But this latest
projection is thought to be very
conservative, as it assumes aconstant rate of ice flow into
the oceans from Greenland andAntarctica, while there is now
evidence that this rate may
well be increasing.

Solving this question requires extending theJason series of satellite altimeters for a second
decade in order to resolve the spatial andtemporal variability, as well as acceleration, in therate of global sea level rise. These data will need
to be completed by a corresponding
enhancement of the Global Sea Level Observing
System (GLOSS) network of approximately 300
gauges, each with high frequency sampling andreal-time data availability. Gauges should belinked to absolute positioning wherever possible
to enable an assessment of the coastal signaturesof the open ocean patterns of sea level variability
and the incidence of extreme events, as well as
the calibration of satellite altimeters.

Participants in a dedicatedWorkshop, held at IOC/UNESCO
in Paris 6–9 June 2006,
reached a consensus that theincrease in the rate of global
mean sea level rise towards theend of the 20th century, fromless than 2 mm per year to justabove 3 mm per year over theprevious century, is a robust
finding. However, a thoroughreview of current knowledge
Monthly averages of global mean sea level reconstructed from tide gauges (black, 1870–2001)
concerning all aspects of sea
and altimeters (red, 1993–2004) show an increase in the rate of sea level rise; the seasonallevel rise still showscycle has been removed.
deficiencies. Sustained series ofspace-based and in situ
Thermal Expansion
observations and associated research are needed todetermine uncertainties in knowledge of theCurrent estimates of thermal expansion accountcontributing factors and subsequently reduce those
for approximately half of the change observed in
uncertainties.
global mean sea level rise over the first decade of
the satellite altimeter record, but only about aHistorical and Present Sea Level Change
quarter of the change during the previous half
century. However, it is still necessary to ascertain
Beginning in 1992, global mean sea level has been
the extent to which this reflects under-sampling
observed by both tide gauges and satelliteof ocean temperature data versus aaltimeters to be rising at a rate of 3.2 ± 0.4 mm/year,
manifestation of enhanced climate change in thecompared to a rate of 1.7 ± 0.3 mm/year from tide
last decade.
gauges over the previous century. The question is
now raised as to what extent this increase in the
global mean represents an actual acceleration.

44

The recent completion of the Argo array of 3,000
profiling floats will help obtain broad-scale,5 Case Studies

upper ocean (from surface to 2000 m depth)
observations of the temperature and salinity fields.
The Argo system is still in need of being sustainedin the long term, and of having its capability
extended in order to enable the collection ofsimilar observations under the sea ice.

CryosphereAs noted in the previous case study, terrestrial
glaciers and the Greenland and Antarctic ice
sheets have the potential to raise global sea level
many metres. Most of the world’s terrestrial
glaciers are shrinking. During the last decade,they have been melting at about twice the rate of
the past several decades. On the polar ice sheets,
there is observational evidence of accelerating
flow from outlet glaciers, both in southern
Greenland and in critical locations in Antarctica.
Once launched, the CryoSat-2 radar altimeter
satellite – complemented by aircraft altimetry –and appropriate follow-on missions will be very
useful to survey changes in the surface
topography of the ice sheets. The Gravity
Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE)
satellites and appropriate follow-on missions will
also help infer changes in the mass of theglaciers and ice sheets. Continued access tosatellite Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar(InSAR) data will assist in the measurement offlow rates in glaciers and ice sheets, particularly
over near-coastal regions of Greenland andAntarctica.

requires a combination of satellite observations,which provide finer resolution, broader coverageand longer duration, and appropriate in situ data.
GRACE data can be utilised to observe changes inland water storage. After its launch in 2009, ESA’s
Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS)
spacecraft will help observe changes in soil
moisture. Current (Jason and Jason-2, Envisat,
and GFO) and future (SARAL/Altika, HY-2, Jason-3,
Sentinel-3) satellite altimeters will help observe
river, lake and reservoir levels along the satellite
ground tracks. An advanced wide-swath altimeteris needed to observe the two-dimensional surface
water levels on land and their changes in space
and time.

Geodetic Observing Systems
The development and implementation ofgeodetic techniques has enabled a revolution in
the Earth sciences, providing the fundamental
reference frame critical for the collection of all
satellite observations and many others made insitu that address sea level rise and variability.
However, to take advantage of those capabilities,
they must be reliable and consistent over thelong term (i.e. decades). While these techniques
collectively define the International Terrestrial
Reference Frame (ITRF) being brought together
through the efforts of the Global Geodetic

Terrestrial Water Storage
The IPCC Assessment Reports noted that thelargest uncertainties in contributions to sea level
rise are associated with terrestrial water storage.
To significantly reduce these uncertainties

Increases in dam and reservoir storage can reduce the rate of sea
level rise.

Integrating existing geodetic capabilities can provide an
improved reference frame.

45

Observing System (GGOS), they are at the sametime losing support and degrading in capability.
Updating and integrating complementary
geodetic capabilities (SLR, VLBI, DORIS and GPS)
into a reliable and consistent global geodetic
ground and space network (co-locating themwhere possible) is now needed. This has to becomplemented by installing GPS positioning at all
appropriate GLOSS tide gauge stations todetermine changes in global and regional sea
level, as well as developing an integrated
geodetic modelling capability that can be
combined with Earth science models.
Once launched, the observations of Earth’stime-invariant gravity field from ESA’s Gravity
field and steady-state Ocean Circulation Explorer(GOCE) will be utilised to determine the precise
geoid, thereby enabling an estimation of theabsolute ocean circulation for constraining
climate models, as well as an improvement inunderstanding geophysical processes related tosea level.

Surface Mass Loading
The main mass loads considered here are thegreat ice sheets, which covered large areas during
the last glacial maximum. The Earth is still
responding to the removal of those loads throughsubsequent melting. In addition, changes in thepresent ice sheets, glaciers, ice caps andterrestrial storage result in ongoing changes insurface loading. Uncertainties in models of
Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA) caused byuncertainties in modelled vertical land
movements affect sea level measurements bytide gauges. These uncertainties also impact
satellite altimeter measurements of sea level andmeasurements of changes in surface loads

A warmer ocean may contribute to more intense hurricanes.

46(including sea level and ice sheet mass balance)
made by temporal gravity missions such as
GRACE. Other changes in mass loads include
those associated with tectonic activity, such as
earthquakes, as well as local extraction of waterand hydrocarbons.
Measurements from tide gauges equipped with acapability for absolute positioning, together withobservations from satellite altimetry, gravity, GPS,and other datasets, can improve models of past
ice sheet loading and glacial isostatic adjustmentthat are used to estimate sea level change.

Extreme Events and Impacts on Society
Global sea level rise will have a pervasive impact
by raising the mean water level, on top of whichmust be added the combined effect of high tides,
surface waves, storm surge, and flooding rivers.
This will make the incidence of flooding to agiven level more frequent, i.e. a 100-year coastal
flooding event may become a 10-year event atsome locations. Unless such change is taken into
account, design criteria for existing coastal
structures can become out of date and lead tocatastrophic flooding such as that experienced in
New Orleans with Hurricane Katrina. Moreover,the possibility that severe weather events may
become more frequent and/or intense with ourchanging climate will only make matters worse.
There is a need to convert current knowledge ofsea level rise into easily understood informationthat can be used by coastal planners andengineers, emergency managers, insurers and the
public at large.

Requirements for a Space-based
Observing System for Sea Level Rise
Improving our understanding of sea level rise andvariability, as well as reducing the associateduncertainties, depends critically on the availabilityof adequate observations. The WCRP workshop(http://wcrp.ipsl.jussieu.fr/Workshops/SeaLevel/)helped develop international scientific consensus
for those observational requirements needed toaddress rising sea level and its variability. These
requirements include sustaining existing
systematic observations, as well as thedevelopment of new and improved observing systems.
An overarching observational requirement is theneed for an open data policy, together withtimely, unrestricted access for all. This accesswould include real-time, high-frequency sea level
data from the GLOSS tide gauges and co-locatedGPS stations, as well as data from satellite
missions and in situ observing systems. Further

5 Case Studies

requirements include the need for access to dataarchives — retrieving and making accessible
historical, paper-based sea level records,
especially those extending over long periods andin the Southern Hemisphere. Moreover,comparable satellite observations need to be ascontinuous as possible, with overlap between
successive missions. There also needs to be acorresponding collection of appropriate in situ
observations for calibration and validation.
The existing systems that should be sustained
include those observing sea level. This includes
the Jason series of satellite altimeters, as well ascompletion of the GLOSS network ofapproximately 300 gauges (each withhigh-frequency sampling, real-time reporting,and geodetic positioning). In order to estimate
the change in sea level due to steric effects(thermal expansion and salinity-density
compensation of sea water), the Argo array –which achieved global coverage of the ice-freeoceans with 3,000 profiling floats in November
2007 – needs to be sustained. In order toestimate the change in sea level due to changes
in ocean mass due to melting ice caps andglaciers and changes in terrestrial water storage,
observations of the time-varying gravity fieldfrom GRACE need to be sustained.
Other existing and future systems to besustained are those required to observe changes
in ice sheet and glacier topography and thickness– satellites utilising radar (e.g. Envisat, GFO
CryoSat-2 and Sentinel-3) and laser (ICESat)
altimeters, complemented by aircraft and in situ
observations. All of these measurements requirethat the International Terrestrial Reference Frame(ITRF), which integrates the geodetic components– SLR, VLBI, DORIS – and GNSS (GPS, together
with GLONASS and Galileo), must be made morerobust and stable than is currently the case.
Finally, observations of the time-invariant gravity
field from GOCE and other stand-alone missions
are needed to determine the precise geoid.

The Jason-2 satellite, a critical element of the CEOS Ocean
Surface Topography Constellation, was launched in June 2008.

New and improved observing systems which need
to be developed include those directed atchanges in the ocean volume. Based on
experience gained with radar and laser satellite
altimeters, the development of a suitablefollow-on capability is needed to improveobservations of ice sheet and glacier topography.
Access to InSAR data and ongoing InSAR missions
is needed to observe flow rates in glaciers and ice
sheets. Finally, the development of an advanced
wide-swath altimeter is needed to observe sea
level changes associated with the oceanic
mesoscale field, coastal variability, and marine
geoid/bathymetry; surface water levels on land
and their changes in space and time; and surface
topography of glaciers and ice sheets.
In order to provide the necessary resources andcoordination and ensure that the required
continuity of observations will be available, CEOS
has established an Ocean Surface Topography
Virtual Constellation team, comprising thosecountries and agencies engaged in the provisionand planning of the necessary instruments andspacecraft.

Further Information
Sea Level Rise: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise
Jason-2: www.aviso.oceanobs.com/en/missions/future-missions/jason-2/index.html
GLOSS: www.gloss-sealevel.org

47

5.6 Water Security

Water is essential for of all life on Earth. It is the
only known substance that can exist naturally as agas, liquid and solid within the relatively small
range of air temperatures and pressures found on
the Earth’s surface. Furthermore, the chemical
properties of water make it the best naturalsolvent and a widely used medium for waste
disposal and waste dilution.
In all, the Earth’s water content is about
1.39 billion cubic kilometres and the vast bulk of it,
about 96.5%, is in the global oceans.

Global precipitation 1979–2006. (Credit: GPCP)

48

Approximately 1.7% is stored in the polar ice caps,
glaciers, and permanent snow, and another 1.7% isstored in groundwater, lakes, rivers, streams, andsoil. Finally, a thousandth of 1% exists as water
vapour in the Earth’s atmosphere. Of all this water
present on our planet, only 2.5% is fresh, and only
0.007% is readily available to people via rivers,
lakes, and reservoirs. Fresh water is a finite andvulnerable resource, essential to sustain life,
economic development and the environment, andmanagement of this resource is expected toemerge as one of the greatest challenges facing
mankind during the 21st century.
Fresh water availability and use, as well as theconservation of aquatic resources, are key tohuman well-being. The quantity and quality ofsurface and groundwater resources, andlife-supporting ecosystem services are being
jeopardised by the impacts of population growth,rural to urban migration, increasing wealth andresource consumption, and climate change. If
present trends continue, 1.8 billion people will beliving in countries or regions with absolute water
scarcity by 2025, and two thirds of the world
population could be subject to water stress.
Humans currently appropriate more than half ofaccessible freshwater run-off, and this amount is
expected to increase significantly in the coming
decades. 70% of the water currently withdrawn
from all freshwater resources is used for
agriculture. With the world’s population set toincrease significantly by 2050, the additional food

5 Case Studies— rising sea levels will result in tens to hundredsof millions more people flooded each year withwarming of 3 or 4°C. By the middle of the
century, 200 million people may become
permanently displaced due to rising sea levels,
increased flooding, and more intense droughts.

Total water
Oceans 97.5%

Freshwater 2.5%

The Water Cycle

Freshwater

The combination of increased scarcity of global
water resources and increased uncertainties in the
Earth’s water cycle has added urgency to the needto improve predictions of rainfall and water
resources. This requires development of an
integrated water cycle observing system andextension of our understanding of the physicalbasis of the climate system driven by the water
cycle.

Glaciers 68.7%

Groundwater 30.1%

Permafrost 0.8%
Surface andatmospheric water 0.4%

Surface andatmospheric water
Freshwater lakes 67.4%
Soil moisture 12.2%
Atmosphere 9.5%
Source: WWAP 2006, basedon data from Shiklomanov andRoddo 2003

Other wetlands 8.5%
Rivers 1.6%
Plants and animals 0.8%

Global distribution of the world’s water.

required to feed future generations will put
further pressure on fresh water resources. Future
management of freshwater resources will becomplicated by the uncertainties in rainfall
patterns introduced by climate change,
with observations and models
suggesting increased frequency andintensity of both extreme precipitationand drought events – depending on theregion.

Because water continually evaporates, condenses,
and precipitates, with average global evaporation
essentially equalling global precipitation, the total
amount of water vapour in the atmosphereremains approximately the same over time. This
movement of water, in a continuous circulationfrom the ocean to the atmosphere to the land andback again to the ocean is termed the global
water cycle. It is at the heart of the Earth’s climate
system, affecting every physical, chemical, andecological component. Amongst the highest
priorities in Earth science and environmental
policy issues confronting society are the potentialchanges in global water cycle due to climatechange. Climate changes may profoundly affectatmospheric water vapour concentrations, clouds
and precipitation patterns, as well as theatmosphere’s energy budget which drives thewinds and the storm patterns. Many uncertainties

The Stern Review on the Economics of
Climate Change warned that global
warming will have severe impacts often
mediated through water:— melting glaciers will initially increase
flood risk and then significantly
reduce water supplies in some areas;— declining crop yields due to a lack ofwater, especially in Africa, could leave
hundreds of millions without theability to produce or purchasesufficient food;

The Water Cycle.

49remain, however, as illustrated by the inconsistent
results given by current climate models regarding
the future distribution of precipitation.
Better predictions of water cycle behaviour are
needed for:— monitoring climate variability and change;— effective water management;— sustainable development of the world’s water
resources, requiring knowledge of trends andlong-term projections of the intensity of the
global water cycle;— improved weather forecasts and monthly toseasonal climate predictions, including
mitigation against drought and flood.
As the global water cycle is relatively complex,
long-term observational datasets are needed tocharacterise its behaviour as a function of several
key parameters. These parameters include:— global precipitation;— surface temperature and salinity of continental
water resources;— atmospheric water vapour and temperature;— sea surface temperature (as a significant factor
that often markedly influences rainfall
patterns, as in the El Niño). Coupled with wind
and air temperatures it also provides ameasure of air-sea fluxes;— ocean salinity. If measured with sufficientspatial and temporal resolution, this would aid
estimate of precipitation over the ocean and be
important in helping to support climate model
development;— soil moisture;— the amount of water stored in snow, glaciersand ice sheets.

50

In large parts of the world, the collection anddissemination of water-related information has
been in decline in recent years. In order tostrengthen cooperation amongst countries ingathering the necessary information, the WMO, in
association with the World Bank, established theWorld Hydrological Cycle Observing System(WHYCOS) in 1993. WHYCOS is based on a global
network of reference stations which transmit
hydrological and meteorological data in nearreal-time, via satellites, to national and regional
centres. A number of international scientificresearch programmes have been developed toaddress the key challenges relating to the global
water cycle – most notably under the auspices ofthe World Climate Research Programme and its
Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment(GEWEX).
The main forum for coordination of the
supporting observation programmes, including
those of the satellite and in situ measurement
communities, is the Integrated Global Water Cycle
Observations Theme (IGWCO) – formerly of theIGOS Partnership and now within the GEO
framework. IGWCO provides a framework for
guiding international decisions regarding
priorities and strategies for the maintenance andenhancement of water cycle observations so thatthey will support the most important applications
and science goals, including the provision ofsystematic observations of trends in keyhydrologic variables.

The Role of Earth Observation Satellites
Earth observation satellites play a major role in
the provision of information for the study andmonitoring of the water cycle and represent an
important element of the observation strategy
defined within IGWCO. The first element of this is
the CEOP project (now known as the CoordinatedEnergy and water cycle Observation Project),5 Case Studies

SMOS will provide new capabilities to measure soil moisture andocean salinity.

which is taking advantage of the simultaneous,long-term operation of European, Japanese andU.S. satellites to generate new integrated data
sets of the water cycle.
Atmospheric temperature and water vapour data
have been provided by polar orbiting
meteorological satellites for decades – provided
by USA (NOAA series) and more recently Europe(EUMETSAT’s MetOp series), as well as China andRussia. Recent advances using high resolution
infrared soundings (IASI) or radio occultation
techniques (which look at the interaction of radio
signals with the atmosphere to derivecharacteristics of the atmosphere) and the Global
Positioning Satellite signal (e.g. by the COSMIC
satellite constellations and GRAS on MetOp) havefurther augmented the contribution from space.

as GOES, GMS and Meteosat, provided the bestsource of information from spacecraft, withindirect, but frequent, estimates of rainfall
derived from measurements of cloud top
temperature. These data are used in the WCRP’s
GEWEX Global Precipitation Climatology Project(GPCP), which has provided monthly mean
precipitation data from 1979 up to the present.
Precipitation systems tend to be somewhat
random in character and also evolve very rapidly,
especially during the summer in convection
regimes. Within a single storm, it is notuncommon for precipitation amounts to vary
widely over a very small area. Also, in any given
area, the amount of precipitation can varysignificantly over a short time span. All of thesefactors make precipitation difficult to quantify.
Reliable ground-based precipitation
measurements are difficult to obtain over regionaland global scales because more than 70% of the
Earth’s surface is covered by water; and many
countries are not equipped with precisionrain-measuring sensors (i.e. rain gauges and/or
radars). The only practical way to obtain useful
regional and global precipitation measurements isfrom the vantage point of a space-based remotesensing instrument.
The advent of the Tropical Rainfall Mapping
Mission (TRMM of NASA/JAXA) in 1997 provided a
breakthrough in the provision of 3D information
on rainfall structure and characteristics. TRMM
was the first satellite dedicated to rainfall
measurement, and carries a weather radar. Now in
its 11th year, the TRMM mission has provided a
wealth of knowledge on severe tropical storms
such as hurricanes and short-duration climate

Sea surface temperature measurements are also
provided by the operational meteorologicalsatellites, by ERS and Envisat (ATSR and AATSR),
and by the Terra and Aqua missions (MODIS).
Ocean wind measurements are also provided bythese missions, as well as by NASA’s QuikSCAT and
EUMETSAT’s ASCAT (on MetOp) which acquires
all-weather, high resolution measurements ofnear-surface winds over most of the global oceanson a daily basis.
Precipitation is clearly a key parameter in thewater cycle. Traditionally visible/infrared images
from geostationary meteorological satellites, such

TRMM Image of Hurricane Katrina before it hit New Orleans. The
satellite’s 3D look inside the storm provided unique informationon the rainfall structure as it approached land.

51

are providing information that is being used toquantify groundwater; the use of optical
wavelengths to assess plankton and otherwater-borne materials; and the exploration ofradar altimetry to measure water levels in lakes
and rivers.

Water vapour observations from a geostationary satellite.

shifts such as El Niño. Such active sensors have
proved themselves to be an essential tool for themeasurement of precipitation.
Microwave-based techniques (utilising either
passive remote sensors or weather radars) provide
the most accurate measurement of rainfall,especially when integrated with surface
observations. An all-microwave constellation of
sensors, anchored by a ‘mother ship’ with aweather radar to provide accurate calibration, isnecessary for reliable, global coverage ofprecipitation in all of its liquid and solid forms.
This is the measurement philosophy embodied by
the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) suiteof sensors.
GPM aims to provide precipitation measurements
on a global basis with sufficient quality, Earthcoverage and sampling to improve prediction of
the weather, climate and specific components ofthe global water cycle. GPM aims to ensure a
repeat observation cycle of approximately 3 hours.
Recognising the central role of the water cycle toour understanding of the Earth System andclimate change, selected space agencies areoperating or developing a number of new
missions aimed at addressing key water cycle
issues. These include Aqua (NASA), CloudSat(NASA), EarthCARE (ESA/JAXA), CryoSat-2 (ESA)and Megha-Tropiques (CNES/ISRO), which will
study water cycle and energy exchanges in thetropical belt.
Revolutionary new measurement capabilities –such as the provision of information on soil
moisture and ocean salinity – will be provided infuture by missions such as SMOS (ESA, from 2009)
and Aquarius (CONAE/NASA, from 2010). Both soil
moisture and ocean salinity are key variables thatlink the water cycle and climate.
Other areas where satellite data are being used to
explore the water cycle include: the GRACE
mission and its gravimetric measurements, which

52

In the context of the CEOS follow-up to the 2002
Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable
Development, the European Space Agency
launched the TIGER initiative – focusing on theuse of space technology for water resource
management in Africa and providing concrete
actions to match the Summit Resolutions.

Future Challenges
New technologies for measuring, modelling andorganising data on the Earth’s water cycle offer
the promise of deeper understanding of water
cycle processes and of how management
decisions may affect them. Earth observation
satellites will provide synoptic, high resolution
coverage that is unprecedented in the geophysicalsciences. The challenges to be faced in utilisationof these new capabilities include:— development of new methodologies to exploit
existing, long time series of satellite
measurements;— investigating novel approaches to convert satellite
measurements into useful parameters that can beapplied in scientific models, and that can beinter-compared and inter-calibrated among thedifferent satellite missions;— development of assimilation methodologies tointegrate satellite and in situ observations;— capacity building, particularly in developing
countries, so that those countries in most direct
need of water information have the means ofaccess, analysis, and understanding required toderive maximum benefit from the data;

5 Case Studies— continuing to collect consistent and accurate
data over many years in order to detect thetrends necessary for climate change studies;— succeeding in the technology developments
aimed at accurately measuring key parametersfrom space – including precipitation, soil
moisture and ocean salinity.
Thanks to the efforts of the IGOS Global Water
Cycle Theme and of GCOS in defining which
Essential Climate Variables are required, theobservations required to characterise and predict
the water cycle are well defined, but remainchallenging in some cases. To complement thesatellite data, existing ground-based
measurement networks and systems must
continue operating to obtain current data that canbe compared meaningfully with past records.

CEOS Virtual Constellation for Precipitation
CEOS recognises the vital importance of timely and accurate precipitation measurements in support
of a broad range of societal needs, including climate studies, weather forecasting (including flood
predictions for extreme events), water resource management and agriculture. As a result, CEOS
selected a Virtual Constellation for Precipitation as one of four pioneering projects intended to
improve international coordination of Earth observation satellite planning in support of common
needs. The goals of this Precipitation Constellation are to:— provide a framework to advocate and facilitate the timely implementation of the Global
Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission and encourage more nations to contribute to the GPM
constellation. Although GPM offers impressive new measurement capabilities, the mission period
is only 3 years;— sustain and enhance an accurate global precipitation data record, including a Fundamental
Climate Data Record essential for understanding the integrated weather/climate/ecologicalsystem, managing freshwater resources, and monitoring and predicting high-impact natural
hazard events. This data record should be fit for the purpose specified by GCOS for the monitoringof precipitation as an essential climate variable.
NASA and JAXA are co-leading the development of the GPM mission which is the cornerstone of theConstellation. The Constellation team is in discussion to add further satellite missions developed by
France (CNES) and India (ISRO).

Further Information
Water cycle: ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html
IGWCO: www.igospartners.org/Water.htm
CEOP: www.ceop.net
Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission: gpm.gsfc.nasa.gov
TRMM: www.eorc.jaxa.jp/TRMM/index_e.htm
World Water Forum: www.worldwaterforum5.org

53

5.7 Land Surface Change
The extent and rate of land use change are
directly related to human population growth.
The impact of such change on the landscape has
far reaching effects on our environment,
including climate. The conversion of forest to
agriculture, for example, contributes significantly
to changes in atmospheric CO 2 concentrations
and in other greenhouse gases. It can also modify
land surface/atmosphere interactions (e.g.
surface roughness, albedo and humidity) that
affect other important environmental processes,
including temperature and precipitation patterns.
A large number of regional, national and global
research efforts are dependent on improved
understanding of the land surface which, in turn,

Furthermore, land use intensity has steadily
increased with the Earth’s population growthsince the Industrial Revolution. Advances intechnology, especially in the agriculture andforestry sectors, have accelerated the changing
face of the land surface. Human action has
transformed almost half of the Earth’s land
surface, with a 50% reduction in the area of
tropical forests that will have significant
consequences for global biodiversity and climate.
The degradation of environmental quality has
far-reaching effects, including a reduction in

1975

1992

2000

2002

Landsat time series of large scale deforestation in the Amazon.

54

supports decision makers who are concernedwith societal vulnerability and the environment.
This information often stands alone as evidence
of environmental change or is used to help
parameterise ecological and climate models.

5 Case Studies

coastal fisheries production, poorer water quality,
and reduced biodiversity. Regular updates ofglobal land cover and land cover condition are
required to improve our understanding of nearly
every aspect of the changing environment,
including fluxes of water, carbon dioxide andother trace gases; changing coastlines and theirinfluence on marine resources; biodiversity; andbiosphere/atmosphere interactions.

Sustainable Forestry
Sustainable forestry is one of the mostchallenging land use practices that humans arefacing. The changing shape and condition of the
Earth’s forests affect biodiversity, atmosphericcomposition and climate. Satellite observations
provide a consistent set of information about
forests over large areas that are otherwise
difficult to inventory and monitor. Suchobservations provide forest managers with theinformation needed to evaluate the potential
impact of different uses and manage forests withsustainable practices. Global Observation ofForest and Land Cover Dynamics (GOFC-GOLD) isa coordinated international effort that is working
to provide ongoing space-based and in situ
observations of forests and other vegetation
cover. It is intended to support the sustainable
management of terrestrial resources and toobtain an accurate, reliable, quantitative
understanding of the terrestrial carbon budget.
Originally developed as a pilot project by CEOS, aspart of its Integrated Global Observing Strategy,
GOFC-GOLD is now a panel of the Global
Terrestrial Observing System (GTOS).

Other major forest-related efforts that rely on
Earth observation data are under way around theglobe. The UN Food and Agriculture
Organisation’s Forest Resource Assessment 2010is a decadal update of the world’s forest
resources that is dependent upon satellite-based
data. The Brazilian Instituto Nacional dePesquisas Espaciais (INPE) is utilising Landsat
data for annual monitoring of forest resources inAmazonia under their Programme forDeforestation Assessment (PRODES) project in
the Brazilian Legal Amazonia. The United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) identified Reduction in Emissions from
Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD) as a
key element of the UN Bali Action Plan and it may
well lead to increased emphasis on utilisingsatellite resources for sustainable forestry
practices.

Agricultural Monitoring
Assessing the need for enhanced agriculturalobservations (satellite and in situ) is a
responsibility of the Integrated Global
Observations of Land (IGOL) programme. IGOL
advises the Group on Earth Observations (GEO)
on the requirements for improved observation of
the land surface. GEO recognises sustainableagriculture as one of the critical Societal Benefit
Areas (SBAs) for international cooperation andcollaboration. The agricultural SBA calls for an
operational system for monitoring global
agriculture that includes the following threemain functional components:

ESA’s GLOBCOVER project created the most detailed land cover map ever.
For this mosaic a total of 1561 orbits taking place over the period May, July, October and November 2004 were used to filter out the clouds.

55

— global mapping and monitoring of changes in
distribution of cropland area and associatedcropping systems;— global monitoring of agricultural production
leading to accurate and timely reporting of
national agricultural statistics, and accurate
forecasting of shortfalls in crop production
and food supply that facilitate reduction ofrisk and increased productivity at a range ofscales;— effective early warning of famine, enabling thetimely mobilisation of an international
response in food aid.
Examples of current global crop estimation
systems include those of the United States
Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural
Service (FAS-USDA) and European Commission –Monitoring Agriculture with Remote Sensing(EC-MARS), which combine weather data, in situ
information and satellite data to estimate
production and yield. Food supply assessments
inform risk and damage assessments, as well as
farming practice monitoring and drought
assessment.

Land Cover
A number of global and regional land cover
mapping efforts using Earth observation datafrom satellites have been undertaken over the
past decade by utilizing sensors such as AVHRR,
MODIS and SPOT Vegetation. A new, 300 m
resolution global land cover map has beenreleased by the POSTEL Service Center that uses
the MERIS sensor aboard the Envisat satellite.

Global web fire mapping service using MODIS.

56

A number of national and regional land cover
data sets, including the National Land Cover
Database (NLCD) for the USA, CORINE for Europe,and Africover for eastern Africa, have beendeveloped at 30 m resolution. This level of detailis necessary for detecting and characterising land
cover change. For instance, the NLCD products
support other land cover research projects aroundthe United States, such as the Fire Danger
Monitoring and Forecasting Project.

The Role of Satellite Earth Observations
for GCOS Terrestrial Requirements
A number of CEOS agencies’ assets are currently
being used to meet the terrestrial requirementsthat are outlined in the Global Climate Observing
System’s Implementation Plan. These include
altimetry missions to help estimate lake area,
characterisation of snow and ice sheets fromoptical and microwave sensors, global land covercharacterisation and albedo estimates. Other
Essential Climate Variables required by GCOS,
such a fAPAR, biomass and soil moisture, arecurrent areas of research and development when
considered at the threshold levels required by
GCOS.

CEOS Virtual Constellation for Land
Surface Imaging
Data acquired by land remote sensing satellite
systems are fundamental tools for studying the
Earth System, including the land surface and theprocesses that operate on or near it. These data
are sources of information from whichmeaningful interpretations can be made about

5 Case Studies

the Earth’s biological conditions and resources,
geologic and hydrologic processes and resources,and human dynamics.
Since the launch of Landsat-1 in 1972, there has
emerged a large and diverse international
community of users who apply remotely sensed
data collected by the same land surface imaging
satellites, now operated by many nations, to awide range of different scientific and practicalendeavours. These include environmental
monitoring, natural hazard assessment,
vegetation analysis, geologic investigations,
infectious disease control, natural disastermitigation, wetlands assessment, cartography,
land use and land cover classifications, glaciology,
coastal and sea floor mapping, global change
studies, forestry, wildlife studies, hydrology,
agriculture, and many more. These endeavours
have had positive effects on Earth’s natural
habitats and environments, the economic state ofsociety and the well-being of mankind. Yet, many
more benefits to society remain to be realised
from the application of such data.
The design, construction, launch, and operationof satellite systems are complex and very
expensive endeavours. Ideally, nations would not
develop duplicative satellite systems, but rather
would collaborate fully in the development,
launch, operation and sharing of data from a
constellation of satellite systems that optimallymeets their full range of land surface
observational requirements. That day likely willcome, but it is not here yet.
Until then, CEOS has initiated the Virtual
Constellations Concept by establishing four
original prototype virtual constellations,
including the Land Surface Imaging (LSI)
Constellation. A primary objective of the LSI

1992 Reflectance2001 ReflectanceConstellation is to define a broad range of rather
detailed characteristics (or standards) that
describe the optimal, end-to-end capabilities (andpolicies) needed to acquire, receive, process,archive and distribute space-acquired land
surface image data to the global user community.
Ideally, users will find such data optimallyapplicable to the broadest possible range ofscientific and practical endeavours important inmeeting the needs of society. The beneficial
outcomes from defining such standards will be
the guidance they provide for the internationally
coordinated development of future systems, aswell as the foundation they provide forestablishing criteria against which future
proposed Earth observing systems can beassessed.
Another important objective of LSI Constellation
studies and activities is to address current andshorter-term problems and issues facing the land
remote sensing community today. One way the
LSI Constellation is addressing these problems
and issues is by promoting greater cooperation
among CEOS space agencies that currently
operate land surface imaging satellite systems.
The important outcomes from accomplishing thisobjective lie in the early benefits that will bederived by many segments of the land remotesensing user community, and by society ingeneral, as well as the opportunity todemonstrate the value that CEOS Constellations
can contribute to the Group on Earth
Observations (GEO) and its member
organisations.
Currently, the LSI Constellation is working withCEOS agencies that operate mid-resolution
optical LSI satellite systems, contributing data to
the Forest Resource Assessment 2010 Project to1992/2001 Change Map

Erosion and accretion along barrier islands near Beach Heaven, New Jersey, USA.
This area on the New Jersey shoreline contains small but notable changes in the barrier island complex due to wave action.
Although only 1.67% of all pixels in this area were identified as changed, there are economic consequences when high value urban real estatefrom Beach Haven, NJ, is transported down the coast.

57

fill gaps in its base data set. It is also responding
to a GOFC-GOLD proposal to compile a global,
mid-resolution optical data set centred on 2010
by initially creating regional data sets contributedby CEOS agencies. Other cooperative activities
among CEOS agencies that are being initiated by

the LSI Constellation Study Team include those
designed to improve user access to existing LSI
data sets, to coordinate acquisition of data, andto increase compatibility in ongoing groundsegment operations.

Tropical Forest
Temperate Forest
Boreal Forest
Savanna
Grassland/Steppe/Shrubland
TundraDesertPolar Desert/Rock/Ice

Map of natural vegetation types that likely would exist if there were no human agricultural utilisation.
The expansion of croplands and pastures came at the expense of natural ecosystems, including forests, grasslands and savannas.

Changes in land cover during the last 300 years due to agricultural expansion.
During the last 300 years there has been a large increase in the amount of land devoted to agriculture (croplands and pastures) coming at
the expense of natural ecosystems. As human population and material consumption continue to increase, the pressure on our finite landbase will also continue to increase.
(Data from the Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment, University of Wisconsin)

Further Information
GOFC-GOLD: www.fao.org/gtos/gofc-gold/
CORINE: reports.eea.europa.eu/CORØ-landcover/en
FRA 2010: www.fao.org/forestry/1191/en/

585 Case Studies

5.8 Energy Resource Management

efficiency, reliability, security, safety and costeffectiveness. Nations need reliable and timely
information in order to manage the risks
associated with uncertainty in supply, demand,and market dynamics. This requires soundmanagement practices and strategies by industry
and government.

The Role of Earth Observation Satellites
The energy industry is already an important userof information from Earth observation satellites:— weather data are useful in estimations of boththe supply and demand for electricity;— satellites play an important role in support of
exploration, extraction and safe transportationof the world’s oil and gas reserves, particularly
since they are now being sought inincreasingly remote and hostile areas of theplanet;Energy underpins all aspects of countries’
economic and social development policy. It is an
input required by every segment of economy andsociety, whether in developed or developing
countries.
The energy sector covers a wide range ofactivities, such as oil and gas exploration,
extraction and production, transportation,
electricity generation, transport and distribution.
The optimal management of this diverse, global,
trillion dollar industry – which includes the
non-renewable resources of oil and gas as well as
renewable resources such as solar, wind, biomass
and hydropower generation – is a critical concern
to all nations.

— satellites are playing an increasing role inproviding global resource maps for renewableenergy project planning and sustainablebuilding design;— potential disruption of the power grid by solar
storms can be predicted using satellites thatmonitor the near-Earth environment inconjunction with atmospheric models.
Some examples of the roles for satellite Earthobservations in the global energy sector are
outlined below.

Forecasting the Demand for Electricity
The electrical grid ‘blackouts’ in the northern USA
and Canada in August 2003 were an extreme
example of the effects of miscalculating thedemand for electricity. The outage affected some
50 million people and losses were estimated at
between $5.8bn and $11.8bn. It occurred during
summer peak energy use periods when air
conditioning demand was in full force,
demonstrating the important influence ofenvironmental conditions on society’s daily
demand for electricity.

Energy resource management decisions are thebasis for economic growth, ecologically
responsible use of resources and human healthand security. According to the International
Energy Agency, worldwide energy demand overthe next thirty years is expected to double, withthe bulk of this increase occurring in large,
rapidly developing countries, such as India andChina. By 2030, global energy demand is
expected to exceed supply by 20%. At the sametime, existing reserves of traditional fuels fromfossil sources will diminish and new reserves will
be more difficult to find and exploit
commercially. Alongside increased environmental
awareness of the global warming effects of use
of fossil fuels, renewable energy sources – which
are themselves sensitive to weather and climate
phenomena – are increasingly being deployed.

The power industry relies heavily on projecteddemand requirements for the buying, selling andtrading of electricity. Weather information is anecessary component of the industry’s supply
forecasting process. Companies make or purchase
forecasts of electricity demand, ranging from a
few hours ahead to many days ahead. Energy
managers base operational decisions upon them.

Major issues for the energy industry include fuelsupply, type, and sustainability, as well as power

Operational meteorological satellites play animportant role in the generation of the59Wednesday 12 March 2008 12UTC ©ECMWF Forecast t+072 VT: Saturday 15 March 2008 12UTC
Surface: Mean sea level pressure / 850-hPa wind speed

Weather forecasts are vital for forecasting electricity demand.

short-term and seasonal weather forecast
products that are employed in the powerindustry. Everyday forecasts of temperature,humidity, precipitation and wind speed, andwarnings of severe weather events such as
hurricanes, droughts and heat waves, all havevalue in the prediction of how many electricalappliances each of us will use in the course of atypical day. Getting the forecast wrong means
generating either too much or too little energy,
and profits are lost in either case. Energy sector
meteorologists have suggested that, in the USA,imperfect forecasts can have an impact on theelectricity generation industry by as much as
US$1 million per degree fahrenheit per day.
Weather forecasting improvements resulting
from the introduction of new, advanced satellites
are, therefore, of significant value to thatindustry. It has been estimated that the economic
benefit to the U.S. supply industry resulting from
improvements included in the GOES-R mission

alone would amount to US$451
million in 2015. This benefit
would be realised in the formof savings, primarily from
improved load forecasts andbetter real-time weather
information.

Direct observation ofenvironmental conditions canalso play an important role inensuring electricity supply.
Utilities and energy trading
companies often use satellite
imagery data on snow
accumulation to predict snow
melt and the resultant energy
potential of hydroelectric
dams. Longer term supply and infrastructure
planning also depend on predictions of urban
growth. Wide field-of-view sensors such as thoseon Landsat, MODIS and SPOT, have been used
specifically for this purpose. Potential regional
impacts of climate change are an increasing
concern to the industry and ‘extreme’ weather
forecasts are being used as a guide for planningpurposes.

Alternative Energy Sources
In recent years, Earth observations havecontributed to the optimisation of renewableenergy systems for power production, and to theprovision of information for optimal integrationof traditional and renewable energy supply
systems into electric power grids.
Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind
and wave power, offer environmentally-friendly
alternatives to fossil fuels, but are particularly
sensitive to environmental
conditions. Since these energy
sources are intermittent, theiravailability depends largely on
local climate and weather.
Local climate data on cloud
cover, solar irradiance, andwind/wave speed anddirection – combined withother environmental
parameters such as land
elevation and land covermodels – are vital elements indeveloping a strategy for thelocation and operation ofrenewable energy facilities.

Surface solar energy map.

60

The NASA-funded Surface
meteorology and Solar Energy5 Case Studies(SSE) dataset, a 23-year dataset of temperatures,wind, and solar radiation derived from satellite
observations and model analyses, supports thepreliminary design of buildings, renewableenergy technologies, and agrotechnology. These
historical data sets provide estimates ofvariability on seasonal and inter-annual
timescales, as well as long-term (decadal) trends.

Coastal wind mapping using radar satellites.

Geostationary satellites have been used
experimentally as a tool in resource assessment
for solar energy for a number of years. The
Envisolar project, financed by the European Space
Agency, aims to exploit Meteosat data to support
the solar energy community in its efforts toincrease the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of
its systems and thereby improve their viability.
The project aims to provide high spatial andtemporal solar irradiance data as well as
information on the distributions of sunlight byangle of incidence and spectral band.
EUMETSAT’s Satellite Application Facility on
Climate Monitoring (CM-SAF) is serving the solar
energy community in providing the monthly
mean solar radiation conditions at the surface onan operational basis.
A joint NASA-Ecole des Mines de Paris project toprovide a compound, web-based solar energy
data service suitable for use in developing

countries was made available in 2007 as a GEO
early demonstration project. The ‘SoDA’ project
integrates the European Helioclim database andthe NASA Surface meteorology and Solar Energy(SSE) dataset, based on location of interest.
SAR, scatterometer, and altimeter data fromsatellites are also used to support the mapping ofwind energy in offshore and near-coastal regions
to identify potential wind turbine sites. An 8-year
climatology of ocean winds derived frommeasurements made by the NASA QuikSCAT
scatterometer has recently been made available.
This climatology is currently being expanded
using observations by EUMETSAT’s ASCAT. ESA’s
ERS- 2 SAR high resolution ocean surface wave
observations have been used by researchers inDenmark to provide offshore wind resource
assessments. EUMETSAT’s Ocean and Sea Ice
Satellite Application Facility (OSI-SAF) generates
surface wind products in near real-time, using
measurements from the scatterometers QuikSCATand ASCAT.

Renewable Energy Resource Management
Effective uptake of satellite measurements ofquantities relevant to the energy sector requires
understanding the needs of end-user policy
makers and management decision makers. This
includes supplying the data in readily usableformats and units. In the case of NASA’s SSE
dataset, partnerships with Natural Resources
Canada’s RETScreen clean energy project analysis
tool and the US National Renewable Energy

61

Laboratory’s (NREL) HOMER micropower
optimisation tool have led to their enhanced
ability to inform decision making. RETScreen,used for renewable energy and energy efficiency
project feasibility studies by over 140,000 users
worldwide, has been translated into 26
languages. It gives users the choice of using
surface measurements or, where unavailable, theNASA satellite-derived climatological data inputs.
HOMER, a tool used for both stand-alone anddistributed generation applications, makes
similar use of NASA spaceborne-derived datasets.
HOMER is used extensively worldwide fordetermining the optimal mix of power
technologies for meeting specified loadconditions at specified locations. In bothinstances, SSE data have been tailored to theneeds of the decision support system, enabling
the data to be ingested by the tool and madeavailable in a transparent manner to the end user.
An International Energy Agency (IEA) Solar
Heating and Cooling Programme task, entitled‘Solar Resource Knowledge Management’, will
provide the solar energy industry, the electricutility sector, governments, and renewable energyorganisations with the most suitable andaccurate information of the solar radiation field

RETScreen.

62

at the Earth’s surface. This ranges from historic
data sets to precise current products, andtowards forecasts and scenarios as well as futureavailability of solar resources in a changing
climate. Led by the NREL, with participation from
ESA, DLR, NASA and other entities, this 5-year task
contributes to current GEO energy work plan goals.
Industry and professional societies define
standards for energy efficient building design.
NASA SSE products are currently being evaluatedby the American Institute of Architects and theAmerican Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). Thesesample datasets address unmet needs forclear-sky solar flux information for the building
design community. In the case of ASHRAE, thesedata are provided in a specialised format
employing US Department of Energy climate
zones, which are in general use by these
professionals for defining building energy codes.

Oil and Gas
Earth observation imagery is used extensively by
exploration companies in support of their search
for new oil and gas reserves – both on land andat sea. Instruments such as ASTER on NASA’s Terra

5 Case Studies

costly, they may require access rights, and alert
competitors to potential resources.
Synthetic Aperture Radar satellites offer the oil
industry an effective, low-cost technique for
reducing source risk in high-cost exploration
environments such as the new deep frontierbasins. This is due to their ability to image
surface oil seeps remotely with wide swath
coverage (typically 100–200 km wide scenes) andat low cost. Moreover, satellite data do notcompromise national sovereignty and can provide
multi-temporal coverage data over any area of
the globe. Time-series data can provide thelocation for follow-up surface sampling fromwhich key geochemical information on the oil
reservoirs can be obtained ahead of drilling.

Satellite imagery is routinely used in exploration of offshore oil basins– including through oil ‘seep’ detection.

satellite are specifically designed to support
geologists gathering information on remote andpoorly mapped regions of the world and to supply
information on the geological and tectonic
features – which the trained interpreter can
exploit, in association with seismic data, tooptimise exploration efforts.

Energy Resource Management
Satellite data are used for prospecting forundersea hydrocarbon deposits. Research by oil
companies in the 1990s demonstrated that over
75% of the world’s oil-bearing basins containsurface seeps – which form a thin slick on the sea
surface above, visibly changing the water’sreflective qualities. Searches for these naturally
occurring oil slicks can be undertaken using boats
and aircraft, but these are time-consuming andOil and gas drilling increasingly takes place on
the open seas – operations which are particularly
vulnerable to severe storms. This vulnerability
was apparent in the 2004 hurricane season when
oil output from platforms in the Gulf of Mexico,
the largest domestic source of oil for the USA,was reduced by about 25–30% of its usual dailyrate. Oil prices increased sharply as a result offears of supply security. Marine forecasts are
essential in the offshore drilling business and foroil pipeline management, providing information
on sea-state conditions, winds, waves, surface
temperature and extreme events, such as severe
storms and hurricanes. Satellite observations areoften the only source of such information out atsea, so they are invaluable in managing offshore
operations and, therefore, in ensuring security ofoil supply.
The same benefits are enjoyed by ocean-goingsupertankers that transport much of the world’s
oil and gas supplies. Active microwave sensors on
satellites such as MetOp and QuikSCAT provide
homogeneous, global measurements of sea
surface winds and wave height which are used bySatellite observations of weather formations, sea surface winds and wave heights are essential for safe offshore operations.

63meteorologists in their marine forecast models.
These models are used in support of offshore
operations and for ship route optimisation. The
same instruments have helped improve forecastsof the landfall time and location of hurricanes.
These can now typically be predicted to within
400 km, and up to 2–3 days in advance. The goalsof NASA’s Earth Science Enterprise call for
improving this capability to within 100 km by 2010.
Environmental and climate impacts of global
fossil fuel use can be expected to come underincreasing scrutiny in the 21 st century, as nations
explore more sustainable energy policies and try
to limit greenhouse gas emissions. The role ofEarth observation satellites in this domain is the
subject of other case studies in this document.

The new generation of satellites is extending therange of deterministic forecasts to 15 days.
Predictions of high-impact weather will also see
improvement – up to 5 days ahead for flash floods,
storms and blizzards, 10 days for ‘plain’ floods, and 15
days or beyond for droughts, heat waves and severe
cold spells. The forthcoming GOSAT (JAXA) and
Orbiting Carbon Observatory (NASA) missions willcontribute to scientific studies related to the global
carbon cycle. Future operational weather satellite
systems will be extended to provide daily global
analyses of greenhouse gases, and monthly estimatesof the sources and sinks of CO2.

Future Advances
Increasing fuel prices and sensitivity to national
fossil fuel emissions will ensure ever-increasing
importance of the efficiency of our power generationindustries. In the medium term, progress andimprovement of energy resource management
activities using satellite Earth observations will belargely related to the improvement of short- to
medium-term (up to 8–10 days) weather predictions,as well as progress in seasonal to inter-annual
climate forecasts. Application of current Earthobservations to alternative energy resource
assessment will continue to be exploited as
deployment of these technologies increases.
Further Information
International Energy Agency: www.iea.org
The Kyoto Protocol: unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php
European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts: www.ecmwf.int
ARGOSS: www.argoss.nl
Wind and wave forecasts for offshore operations and ship routing:earth.esa.int/applications/data_util/hrisk/ssf/ssf.htm
Satellites for oil and mineral exploration: www.npagroup.co.uk/oilandmineral/index.htm
ESA Envisolar project: www.envisolar.com
EUMETSAT Satellite Application Facility on Climate Monitoring: www.cmsaf.eu
EUMETSAT Satellite Application Facility on Ocean and Sea Ice: www.osi-saf.org
NASA Surface Meteorology & Solar Energy (SSE) dataset: eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse
Solar Data (SoDa) web service: www.soda-is.com
Group on Earth Observations (GEO) Energy Community of Practice: www.geoss-ecp.org
Scatterometer Climatology of Ocean Winds: numbat.coas.oregonstate.edu/scow
Renewable Energy project analysis tools: www.retscreen.net
HOMER: www.nrel.gov/homer64PART III→ Earth Observation Satellite Capabilities and Plans

Blowing in the wind, Senegal, MERIS.

6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites
Many different types of instruments are flown on
space missions, employing various measurement
technologies and techniques – both active andpassive – that utilise a wide range of theelectromagnetic spectrum.
CEOS agencies are operating or planning around240 satellites with an Earth observation mission
over the next 15 years. These satellites will carryover 385 different instruments.
This sustained investment by the space agencies
will ensure the provision of information of uniquevalue in both public and commercial spheres,derived from the measurements of a diverse range
of geophysical parameters and phenomena.
Public awareness of the applications of Earthobservation satellites tends to focus on imagery(through internet applications such as Google Earthand Microsoft Live Local) and on meteorology,
combined with the knowledge that data frommeteorological satellites are used on a daily basis
for the Numerical Weather Prediction models which
drive our weather forecasting capabilities.
Meteorology is certainly one of the mostestablished disciplines for application of Earthobservation satellite data, with satellite-derived
information being used operationally by weather
services worldwide. Dedicated meteorologicalsatellites have been in operation for several
decades, providing continuous coverage of much of
the globe.
In practice, only 80 missions, or around a third of
those planned for the next 15 years, could be
described as having meteorology as a primaryobjective. The other 160 missions will be applied toa diverse range of research, operational andcommercial activities.
Given the significance of the issues, and the uniquerole of satellite Earth observations, many will be
dedicated to different aspects of climate orenvironmental studies. Others will be employed toassist decision-making in strategic planning andmanagement of industrial, economic and natural
resources, including the provision of information
required for sustainable development strategies.
New missions serving operational needs related toland, ocean and atmospheric composition haverecently been launched or will be in the near future.
Increased frequency of satellite measurements,
improved satellite and sensor technology, andeasier access and interpretation of Earthobservation data have all contributed to increased
demand for satellite data, and to the reality of new
operational services being established in the near
future for several domains, including monitoring of
key oceanic and atmospheric parameters.
Information on the various missions andinstruments, their capabilities and their66

applications is given in sections 8 (missions) and 9(instruments).
For ease of discussion, the different instruments
listed in section 9 may be considered under thefollowing categories:

Instrument categories
Atmospheric chemistry instruments
Atmospheric temperature and humidity sounders
Cloud profile and rain radars
Earth radiation budget radiometers
High resolution optical imagers
Imaging multi-spectral radiometers (vis/IR)
Imaging multi-spectral radiometers (passive
microwave)
Imaging microwave radars
LidarsMultiple direction/polarisation instruments
Ocean colour instruments
Radar altimeters
Scatterometers
Gravity, magnetic field and geodynamic instruments

Plans for future missions and instruments include
entirely new types of measurement technology,
such as hyper-spectral sensors, cloud radars, lidars
and polarimetric sensors that will provide new
insights into key parameters of atmospherictemperature and moisture, soil moisture andocean salinity. Several new gravity field missions
aimed at more precise determination of themarine geoid are also planned. Importantly, every
effort is being made to assure continuity ofexisting key measurements for the generation of
long-term datasets. Agency plans also reveal that
future priorities will include disaster management
and studies of key Earth System processes – thewater cycle, carbon cycle, cryosphere, the role ofclouds and aerosols in global climate change, andsea level rise.
The following section gives a brief discussion of thedifferent types of instruments flown on Earthobservation satellite missions, including a list of
the relevant instruments for each type from the full
catalogue in section 9, a description of theoperational characteristics, and pointers to the key
applications. Information on specific measurement
parameters is given in section 7.

6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites

6.1 Atmospheric Chemistry

the atmosphere at a range of altitudes –providing high vertical resolution (a few km)
but limited horizontal resolution (tens of km atbest) and particularly useful for studying the
middle atmosphere.

Instruments

Description

Emission or absorption spectra can be studied inlimb-viewing mode. One approach – known as
occultation – uses known astronomical bodies(such as the Sun and stars) as well characterised
target sources, and measures the effect of the
Earth’s atmosphere on the radiation reaching thesatellite to determine atmospheric composition.

‘Atmospheric chemistry instruments’ is used here
to describe a range of different types of
instruments that use various techniques anddifferent parts of the electromagnetic spectrum
to undertake measurements of the atmosphere’s
composition. Each atmospheric gas ischaracterised by its ‘absorption’ and ‘emission’
spectra, which describe how the molecules
respond to different frequencies of radiation.
Remote sensing instruments exploit these‘signatures’ to provide information on
atmospheric composition, using measurements
over a range of wavelengths, between UV andmicrowave.

Applications
The earliest atmospheric chemistry instruments
were deployed to help understanding ofstratospheric ozone depletion. They succeeded in
producing startling and convincing evidence ofthe growth of the Antarctic ozone hole. Many of
the current and planned instruments continue toprovide more sophisticated and accurate
information on ozone chemistry in theatmosphere, including data related to gases andradicals which impact on the ozone cycle.

Atmospheric absorption tends to be dominated bywater vapour, carbon dioxide, and ozone, withsmaller contributions from methane and othertrace gases. Relatively broadband instruments canbe used for measurements of the dominant gases,
but high spectral resolution sensors are needed tomake measurements of other species, since they
produce weaker signals, and these must be
discriminated from the signals from moreabundant gases.

Agencies are addressing the need for sustained
measurements of other key atmosphericconstituents including CO 2, CO and CH 4. Research
missions are also planned periodically to allow
detailed examination of the complex details of
atmospheric chemistry and the possibility thatsuch details might be changing. The capability toprovide a global picture of the atmosphere, andhow it is changing on a daily, seasonal andgeographical basis, is ensuring demand for these
instruments in a wide range of applications. These
include: pollution monitoring; climatology,
including studies of the carbon cycle and support
to policy-making processes such as the Kyoto
Protocol; volcanic eruption monitoring; andoperational meteorology.

The instruments are typically operated in either:— nadir-viewing mode: looking directly down tomeasure the radiation emitted or scattered in asmall solid angle centred around ameasurement point on the Earth, withresulting high spatial resolution in thehorizontal direction, but limited verticalresolution; or— limb-viewing mode: scanning of positions
beyond the horizon to observe paths throughWavelength

100cm

10cm

1cm

0.1cm

100µm

10µm

1µm

Current &plannedinstruments
ACE-FTSGOME
GOME-2GOMOS
HiRDLSIASI
MAESTROMAGISMAVELIMIPAS
MOPITTOMIOMPSOSIRISSABER
SBUV/2SCIAMACHY
SMR
Spectrometer(OCO)
TANSO-FTSTESUVN (Sentinel-4)
UVNS (post-EPS)UVNS (Sentinel-5
precursor)

0.1µm

1000

H20

100

H20

O2

10

O2

CO2

1
0.1

O3

CO2
H20

CO2
H20

H20

Ionospere

O3

0.01

100

Frequency (Hz)

Band

L

1010
S

C

1011
X ku k ka

1012
microwaves

1013

1014
infrared

1015
ultra-violet

Atmospheric transmittance and radiance for UV to IR regions.

67

A global air pollution (nitrogen dioxide) map produced by SCIAMACHY on Envisat.

The trend towards improved measurement
resolutions and accuracies, profilingmeasurements (rather than total column
measurements), and extended capability in theUpper Troposphere/Lower Stratosphere (UTLS)
will further extend the value of these
instruments in the coming years for monitoring
air quality and modelling atmospheric processes.

Further Information
ACE-FTS: www.ace.uwaterloo.ca
GOMOS/MIPAS/SCIAMACHY: envisat.esa.int/instruments/index.html
IASI: smsc.cnes.fr/IASI/HIRDLS/MLS/OMI/TES: eos-aura.gsfc.nasa.gov/instruments/

68

6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites

6.2 Atmospheric Temperature and

Humidity Sounders

Description
Atmospheric sounders generally make passive
measurements of the distribution of IR or
microwave radiation emitted by the atmosphere,
from which vertical profiles of temperature andhumidity through the atmosphere may beobtained. Oxygen or carbon dioxide is usuallyused as a ‘tracer’ for the estimation oftemperature profiles, since they are relatively
uniformly distributed throughout the atmosphere,
so atmospheric temperature sounders often
measure radiation at wavelengths emitted bythese gases. For humidity profiling, either IR or
microwave wavelengths specific to water vapour
are used. Most measurements are conducted innadir-viewing mode.

Atmospheric sounders provide crucial inputs to weather
forecasting systems.

Sounders are able to estimate profiles oftemperature and humidity by identifying
radiation coming from different levels in theatmosphere. This is achieved by observations of
the spectral broadening of an emission line, aphenomenon which is primarily caused byintermolecular collisions with other species, andwhich decreases with atmospheric pressure ( afunction of altitude).
Microwave sounders have the ability to soundthrough cloud and hence offer nearly all-weather
capability. However, their spatial resolution (bothvertical and horizontal) is generally lower thanthat of the IR instruments. IR sounders areroutinely used to provide temperature profiles
from a few km altitude to the top of theatmosphere with a temperature accuracy of 2–3K,
a vertical resolution of around 10 km, and ahorizontal resolution of between 10 and 100 km.

The latest generation of sounders, combining IR(AIRS, IASI, CrIS) and microwave (MHS, MIS, ATMS)
capabilities feature improved accuracy ofhumidity and temperature measurements (oforder 10% accuracy for humidity and below 1K for
temperature); better spatial resolution (to 1 km);and improved capabilities in the upper
atmosphere.
Observations of how the signals from Global
Positioning Satellites (GPS) are affected as they
travel through the atmosphere will be
increasingly exploited, using a technique known
as GPS occultation. This technique is used todetermine profiles of the pressure, temperatureand humidity, and will provide complementary
information.

Applications
Since the launches of the first weather satellites
in the 1960s, atmospheric sounders have provided
valuable global observations of the atmosphere,
even in the remotest areas. In 1969, the first
temperature profile information estimated fromsatellite measurements was introduced into the
Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) models
which are at the heart of daily weather forecasts.
Even in those early days the new satellite
measurements improved forecasts significantly
for many areas once the challenges of data
assimilation were addressed – initially in theSouthern Hemisphere and later in the Northern
Hemisphere.
Today, atmospheric sounders are used to infer awide range of key atmospheric parameters on an
operational basis (mostly on polar orbiting
satellites), and their data are used by NWP models
to such an extent that the satellite measurements
are a vital and integral part of the global
observing systems for operational meteorology.
They also provide measurements of sea surface
temperature, albedo, aerosols, trace gases,

Current &plannedinstruments
AIRS
AMSU-A
AMSU-BATMSATOVS (HIRS/3 +AMSU +AVHRR/3)
CHAMP GPSSounder
CMIS
CrIS
GOLPE
GOX
GRAS
HIRS/3
HIRS/4HSB
IASI
IKFS-2
IMWAS
IRAS
IRS
Lagrange
MHS
MIPAS
MIS
MLS (EOS-Aura)
MTVZA-OK
MWAS
MWHS
MWR
MWTS
Radiomet
ROSA
ROSA
SABER
SAPHIR
SMR
SounderSounder (INSAT)
SSM/IS
SSM/T-1
SSM/T-2
TANSO-FTS
TOU/SBUS
TRSR

69

precipitation, snow, ice, major fires and more,with frequent global coverage. Whilst thesemeasurements do not usually have the highest
spatial resolution or accuracy, they are importantsources of information and can be combined withthe accurate, but more limited coverage, provided
by specialist instruments. These measurementsof other variables are also important in allowing
the generation of records of some variables
extending back some 30 years. The same data areused for studies of extended weather and climate
forecasting, and detection of climate change,
including man-made change.

Further Information
AMSU-A: www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/What_We_Do/Satellites/EUMETSAT_Polar_System
HIRS: www2.ncdc.noaa.gov/docs/klm/html/c3/sec3-2.htm
Numerical Weather Prediction: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_weather_prediction
Weather forecasting: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_forecasting
GPS radio occultation: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS_meteorology

70

6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites

6.3 Cloud Profile and Rain Radars
Description
Cloud profile radars use very short wavelength (mm)radar (typically 94 GHz) to detect scattering from
non-precipitating cloud droplets or ice particles,
thereby yielding information on cloud characteristics
such as moisture content and base height.
A 94 GHz cloud profiling radar has the uniqueproperty of being able to penetrate ice clouds
with negligible attenuation and providing a
range-gated profile of cloud characteristics.
Rain radars use microwave radiation (centimetre
wavelengths) to detect backscatter from water
drops and ice particles in precipitating clouds, andto measure the vertical profile of such particles.
One of the key challenges with such radars is
suppressing the return from the Earth’s surface(ground clutter), which is inevitably muchstronger than the rain echo. Recent instruments
however, can map the 3D distribution of
precipitating water and ice in a relatively narrowswath (around 200 km) along the track of a low
altitude satellite, making it possible to infer more
precise estimates of instantaneous rainfall.
The Precipitation Radar (PR) on the TropicalRainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), launched in
1997, was the first radar in space with thecapability to measure rainfall. PR provided
three-dimensional maps of storm structure andinvaluable information on the intensity anddistribution of rain, rain type and storm depth.

NASA’s CloudSat uses an advanced 94 GHz radarto ‘slice’ through clouds to see their verticalstructure, providing a completely new
observational capability from space. These
instruments are the first to study cloud profiles
on a global basis, and to look at their structure,composition and effects. From 2013, the Global
Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission – aninternational cooperative programme – will provide
more frequent and complete sampling of the Earth’s
precipitation using a constellation of satellites. As of2013, the Japanese instrument onboard the
ESA-JAXA EarthCARE mission, the 94 GHz CPR, willcontinue providing cloud profile observations, withincreased sensitivity and additional Doppler
capability to observe vertical motion.

Current &plannedinstruments
CPR (Cloudsat)
CPR (EarthCARE)
DPR
PR

Applications
Measurements from cloud radar give information
on cloud type and amount, and, more importantly,
on cloud profile (currently not measured). This
information is required both for improving
numerical weather prediction and for climate
studies. Scientists believe that some of the main
uncertainties in climate model simulations are dueto the difficulties in adequately representing clouds
and their radiative properties. Satellite observations
have now started to address this issue.
TRMM has demonstrated that spaceborne rainradars can provide a unique source of information
on liquid water and precipitation rate, since theground-based rain radars used at present have
limited coverage over the oceans. The global
precipitation datasets derived from TRMM have

CloudSat will fly in orbital formation as part of a constellation of satellites including Aqua, Aura (multi-sensor platforms that are a part ofNASA's Earth Observing System), CALIPSO (a NASA-CNES lidar satellite), PARASOL (a CNES satellite carrying a polarimeter), and OCO (NASA’s
CO2 measurement mission).

71

proved to be valuable tools for climatologists.
Information on tropical rainfall and extreme
events such as hurricanes is of particularimportance, since more than two thirds of global
rainfall is in the Tropics, acting as a primary driverof global atmospheric circulation.
The gap between termination of the TRMM
mission (2009) and availability of the new
information anticipated from GPM (no earlier
than 2013) is of concern to scientists studying the
Earth’s global water cycle. CEOS has initiated avirtual precipitation constellation study team toaddress this and related coordination issues.

CloudSat profiles a tornado outbreak in
February 2008.
Upper image is a night-time colour infraredview from GOES with overlay of the
CloudSat track.
Lower image shows cloud profile data fromCloudSat.

Further Information
CPR (Cloudsat): cloudsat.atmos.colostate.edu/instrument
Precipitation radar: trmm.gsfc.nasa.gov/overview_dir/pr.html
Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission: gpm.gsfc.nasa.gov/index.html

72

6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites

6.4 Earth Radiation Budget

Radiometers

Description
The Earth’s radiation budget is the balance
between the incoming radiation from the Sun andthe outgoing reflected and scattered solar
radiation plus the thermal infrared emission to
space. A number of instruments contribute tomeasurements of these parameters. The
discussion here focuses on those instruments
specifically designed to study radiation budget as
their sole or primary mission.
In general, different instruments are used tomeasure the different components of theradiation budget:— to cover the full range of incoming solar
radiation (0.2 – 4.0 µm);
— to monitor the long-wave emitted Earthradiation (3 – 100 µm);
— to measure the reflected short-wave radiationfrom the Earth.
The instruments offer high radiometric accuracy
to provide accurate absolute measurements(~ 1 W/m 2 is needed). Most radiometers have anarrow field of view and are used to measure theradiance in a particular direction. Using this,
together with information on the angularproperties of the radiation, the flux may beobtained. Advanced instruments have a
directional capability and channels which allow

study of the anisotropy and polarisation
characteristics of the radiation fluxes.
To provide the much needed improvement of
temporal sampling of the Earth radiation budget(ERB), observations by the Geostationary Earth
Radiation Budget (GERB) instrument on
EUMETSAT’s Meteosat 8 and 9 are being used. This
instrument provides measurements of the ERB
every 15 minutes, providing a unique view of thediurnal cycle.

Applications
Solar radiant energy is a major driver of the
Earth’s climate. The reflection, absorption andre-emission of that energy occurs through acomplex system of clouds, aerosols, atmosphericconstituents, oceans, ice and land surfaces.
Variations in this complex system are the sourceof changes in the Earth’s radiation balance. The
input of energy from the Sun is not constant andits small variations with sunspots and otherfactors cause some small, but significant,modification of the Earth’s climate. Seemingly
small (0.5%) changes in the total solar irradiance(TSI) over a century or more may cause significant
climatological changes, and models suggest thatas much as 25% of the recent global warming of
the Earth may be solar in origin. Measurements ofradiation leaving the Earth suggest some changes
in the components of this radiation in recent
decades, so sustained measurements are criticalto allowing future improved knowledge andunderstanding.

Current &plannedinstruments
ACRIM IIIBBR (EarthCARE)
CERES
ERM
GERB
PREMOS
ScaRaBSIMSIMSODISM
SOLSTICE
SOVAP
SXI
TIM
TSIS

The Earth’s energy budget. The numbers indicate the average energy fluxes over one year, at a global scale.

73Especially when coupled with other information
on clouds, aerosol and land cover, radiometersoffer a unique contribution to understanding of
the Earth’s radiation budget, together with its
relationship to global warming – such as that
resulting from the greenhouse effect. Cloud andaerosol feedbacks related to global warming
caused by greenhouse gases have long remained
the most uncertain aspect of understanding andpredicting future climate change, and improved
climate projections depend on gaining theinformation to detail these feedbacks. Planned
measurements will have unprecedented accuracy(0.1%) and precision (relative changes of 0.03%).
This is necessary for detecting the small changes
in Earth’s radiances that correspond to theincremental changes in our climate system andwhich could be of major importance forhumankind far into the future.

Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR) as measured by GERB.

Further Information
Earth radiation budget: www.atmosphere.mpg.de/enid/252.html
PICARD: smsc.cnes.fr/PICARD
TIM/SIM/SOLTICE: lasp.colorado.edu/sorce/index.htm
GERB: www.sstd.rl.ac.uk/gerb
ACRIMSAT: acrim.jpl.nasa.gov

74

6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites

6.5 High Resolution Optical Imagers
Description
High resolution optical imagers provide detailed
images of the Earth’s surface. In general, these arenadir-viewing instruments with a horizontal
spatial resolution in the range 10 to 100 m andswath widths of order 100 km. In the past few
years, high resolution sensors have emerged withspatial resolution in the range 1 to 5 m. An
increasing number of government-funded andprivate sector-funded sensors with sub 5 m
resolution are planned for the coming years.
High resolution imagers are, in general,panchromatic (a single waveband) andmulti-spectral (multiple waveband) sensors, with
spectral bands in the visible and IR range which
are simultaneously recorded. This increases theinformation content that may be derived from theimagery (including the ability for land coverclassification) and allows corrections to be made,for example, for the effects of atmospheric water
vapour on the measured surface parameters. In
order to reduce atmospheric absorption and toincrease image quality, the operating wavelengthsof these instruments are selected to coincide withatmospheric windows.
Use of these sensors can be limited by weather
conditions, since they are unable to penetrate
thick cloud, rain or fog and are typically restricted
to fair weather, daytime-only operation. Somehave pointing capability which enables imagery of
specified areas to be acquired more frequently.

Many countries, including developing countries,
have and/or are planning high resolution opticalimaging missions. Future trends will include agreater number of sampling channels, as well as
improved spectral and spatial resolution. Moreinstruments will also become available that arecapable of producing stereo images from datacollected on a single orbit, i.e. along track, as
opposed to across track, so that stereo images canbe acquired from different passes.

Applications
High resolution optical imagers are amongst themost common Earth observation satellite
instruments, finding application in, for example:— agriculture, including definition of crop typeand area, crop inventory, yield prediction andcrop stress identification;— damage assessment associated with natural
hazards;— geological mapping;— urban planning, including land cover mapping,
topographic mapping and urban development
monitoring;— cartography, including map generation andupdating, generation of digital elevation
models;— environmental planning and monitoring.

Current &plannedinstruments

CNES / DISTRIBUTION SPOT IMAGE

ALI
ASTER
AVNIR-2AWiFS
CCD
CCD (HJ, HY)
DMC Imager
DMC-2 Imager
Geoton-L1
High Resolution
Panchromatic
Camera
HiRI
HRG
HRMS
HRS
HRTC
HRV
HRVIR
IR-MSSIRSKMSS
LISS-III (IRS)
LISS-III(RESOURCESAT)LISS-IV
MBEI
MIREI
MSC
MSI
MSS
(Roscosmos)
MSU-200
NigeriaSat
Medium and High
Resolution
PAN
PAN (BJ-1)
PAN (Cartosat-1)
PAN (Cartosat-2)
PAN (Cartosat-3)
PAN (GISTDA)
PAN (IRS-1C/1D)PAN CAMERA
PAN+MS(RGB+NIR)PRISM
TES PANTOPSAT telescope
WFI
WiFS

SPOT 5, launched in May 2002, features imaging sensors with 2.5 m resolution.
This image is of Rome.

75

A town in Thailand imaged by the LISS-IV sensor on ISRO’s Resourcesat-1.

Further Information
ALOS (AVNIR-2 & PRISM): www.jaxa.jp/missions/projects/sat/eos/alos/index_e.html
SPOT: www.spotimage.fr
Landsat: landsat.usgs.gov
CBERS: www.cbers.inpe.br/en/index_en.htm
TOPSAT: www.qinetiq.com/home/defence/defence_solutions/space/topsat.html

76

6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites

6.6 Imaging Multi-spectral

Radiometers (vis/IR)

Description
Visible/IR imaging multi-spectral radiometers are used
to image the Earth’s atmosphere and surface, providing
accurate spectral information at spatial resolutions oforder 100 m up to several km, with a swath width
generally in the range several hundred to a few
thousand km.
In addition, these observations can be used to study
critical components of the water cycle, such as cloud
macro- and micro-physical properties, from which
information on atmospheric dynamics and pollutants
can be determined.
The information obtained from these instruments isoften complemented by that from atmosphericsounders, since atmospheric effects such as absorption
must be taken into account in deriving parameters suchas surface temperatures.
Recent developments include improvements in spatial
resolution (which, in some cases, is equivalent to thoseof high resolution imagers), spectral resolution,
radiometric accuracy and multi-angle capability.
Planned hyperspectral instruments that will be able tosimultaneously acquire imagery in many tens ofwavebands should significantly improve the quality ofland cover and land use information derived fromsatellite imagery.

Applications
Measurements from these multi-spectral radiometers
operating in IR and visible bands may be used to infer awide range of parameters, including sea and land
surface temperatures, snow and sea ice cover, andEarth’s surface albedo. These instruments may also
make measurements of cloud cover and cloud top
temperatures. Measurements of the motion vectors ofclouds made by radiometers on geostationary satellites
may be used in order to derive tropospheric windestimates. Accurate information on atmospheric
dynamics, derived from the instruments mounted ongeostationary meteorological satellites like GMS, GOES
or Meteosat, is essential for precise short- andmedium-term weather forecasts provided by NWP
centres in Japan, the U.S. and Europe.
Visible/IR radiometers are an important source of dataon processes in the biosphere, providing information on
global vegetation and its variations on subseasonalscales. This allows monitoring of natural,
anthropogenic, and climate-induced effects on land
ecosystems. Observations by AVHRR on NOAA and
MetOp are traditionally used to provide classificationand seasonal monitoring of global vegetation types,
allowing estimation of primary production (the growthof vegetation that is the base of the food chain) andterrestrial carbon balances. Such information is of greatvalue in supporting the identification of drought areasand provides early warning of food shortages.

Current &plannedinstruments
AATSR
ABI
ATSR-2
AVHRR/3
CCD camera
CHRIS
CZI
ETM+
FCI
HRMX-TIR
HRMX-VNIRHSIHSI (HJ-1A)
HSMS
HSS
HYC
Hyperion
HySI (IMS-1)
HySI (TES-HYS)
HyS-SWIRHyS-VNIR
IIR
ImagerImager (INSAT)
IMAGER/MTSAT-2
IR (HJ-1B)
IVISSR (FY-2)
JAMI/MTSAT-1R
LEISA AC
MCSI
MERIS
MMRS
MOC
MODIS
MS (GISTDA)
MSI (BJ-1)
MSI (EarthCARE)
MSS
MSU-GS
MSU-MR
MUX
MVIRI
MVIRS
MVISR
(10 channels)
MxT
NigeriaSat
MediumResolution
OBA
OLI
OLS
PanchromaticHigh Sensitivity
CameraPSAPSSRASAT VIS
Multi-spectral
List continues
on the next page

A geostationary satellite composite cloud map. Data from these satellites are an essential input to today’s weather forecasting systems.

77

RASAT VISPanchromatic
RDSA
SEVIRI
SGLI
SumbandilaSat
ImagerTANSO-CAI
TIR (OCEANSAT-3)
TM
VEGETATION
VHRR
VIIRS
VIRR
VIRS
VSC
WFC
WFI-2
WS LISS-III

This spectacular ‘blue marble’ image, produced in early 2002 using data from MODIS, is the most detailed true-colour image of the entire
Earth to date.

Further Information
AVHRR: eros.usgs.gov/products/satellite/avhrr.html
SEVIRI (Meteosat):www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/What_We_Do/Satellites/Meteosat_Second_Generation/index.htm?l=en
IMAGER (GOES): noaasis.noaa.gov/NOAASIS/ml/imager.html
MODIS: modis.gsfc.nasa.gov
VEGETATION: vegetation.cnes.fr

78

6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites

6.7 Imaging Multi-spectral

Radiometers (Passive Microwave)

Description
Operating at microwave wavelengths, these
instruments have the advantage of cloud
penetration and all-weather capability. Channels
within 1 to 40 GHz and 80 to 100 GHz are used toget day/night information on the Earth’s surface.
They have the advantage over visible/IR
radiometers of being able to probe the dielectric
properties of a surface or penetrate certain
surfaces, a capability that is especially useful withvegetation, soil, sea ice and snow. Observations by
instruments like AMSU-A, with channels between
50 and 60 GHz, are used for deriving atmosphericparameters, especially atmospheric temperature.
Like other microwave instruments, these passive
instruments offer accurate spectral information
but their spatial resolution is poor. At 90 GHz,
their spatial resolution is typically 5 km, and forthe lower frequencies it is of order tens ofkilometres – poorer than that of their visible orinfrared counterparts. As a consequence, they are
most used for global analysis rather than regional

Mar 10 2008
ASI ver. 5.2, AMSR-E, Grid: 6.25 km

or local, although some instruments are used tocorrect measurements from other sensors, rather
than for imaging applications. These include themicrowave radiometers on the ERS/Envisat andTopex/Poseidon/Jason series satellites, which areused to estimate and correct for atmosphericwater vapour content in the column throughwhich altimetric readings are being taken.

Applications
Measurements from these instruments may be
used to infer a range of atmospheric and Earthsurface parameters. One of their primary uses
(often in conjunction with other instruments) is
snow and ice mapping, due in part to theircapability for cloud penetration. Current
applications of passive microwave radiometerdata include operational forecasting and climate
analysis, and the prediction of sea ice
concentration, extent and ice type. Passive
microwave radiometers are also used to provide
information on the liquid water content of clouds(e.g. the GPM mission).
These instruments can also supply some
information on soil moisture content, which is a
key surface parameter in agriculture, hydrology
and climatology, and provides a measure ofvegetation health. Furthermore, they are capableof contributing some information on ocean
salinity, which is important to our understandingof ocean circulation. Developing these capabilities
is a current research task.

Current &plannedinstruments
AMR
AMSR-2AMSR-E
ATSR/M
CMIS
GMI
GMI
JMR
L-bandRadiometer
MADRAS
MERSI
MI
MIRAS
MIRAS (SMOS)MISMSI (Sentinel-2)
MSMR
MTVZA
MWR
MWRI
OLCI
PMR
RAD
SAR L
SLSTR
SSM/I
TMI
Water Vapour
RadiometerMar 10 2008
ASI ver. 5.2, AMSR-E, Grid: 6.25 km

JAXA’s AMSR-E instrument is used to produce daily maps of sea ice and to monitor changes in polar sea ice extent.
(Credit: Univ Bremen/JAXA)79

NOAA AVHRRTERRA MODISMETEOR 3M
Sea ice chart of the Azov Sea for 02 March 2005
PACK ICE DEVELOPMENT (cm):FAST ICE DEVELOPMENT (cm):

FORMS OF FLOATING ICE (m):- ice – free

- young ice (10-30)- new ice

- nilas (10)- thin first-year ice/white ice (30-70)- pancake ice (0.3-3.0)- grey ice (10-15)- medium first-year ice (70-120)- ice cake (2-20)- grey-white ice (15-30)- thick first-year ice (>120)- small floes (20-100)- thin first-year ice/white ice (30-70)- medium first-year ice (70-120)

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS:- total ice concentration in tenths- medium floes (100-500)- 10 - total ice concentration in tenths
6 - partial concentration of the
thickest ice
4 - partial concentration of theless thickest icesnow-covered ice- medium floes (100-500)- snow-covered ice- thick first-year ice (>120)

Sea ice condition chart of the Azov Sea derived from NOAA/AVHRR, TERRA/MODIS, METEOR-3M/MSU-E
Sea ice condition chart of the Azov Sea derived from NOAA/AVHRR, TERRA/MODIS, METEOR-3M/MSU-E.
Various satellites are used operationally to generate vital sea ice map products by Russian authorities.

Further Information
AMSR-E: sharaku.eorc.nasda.go.jp/AMSR/index_e.htm
CMIS: www.ipo.noaa.gov/Technology/cmis_summary.html
MWR: envisat.esa.int/instruments/mwr/
SSM/I: nsidc.org/data/docs/daac/ssmi_instrument.gd.html
EUMETSAT ocean and sea ice: www.osi-saf.org

80

6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites

6.8 Imaging Microwave Radars
Description
These instruments transmit at frequencies ofaround 1 to 10 GHz and measure the backscatteredsignals to generate microwave images of the
Earth’s surface at high spatial resolutions (between
10 m and 100 m),with a swath width of
100–500 km. Both synthetic aperture radars (SARs)
and real aperture side-looking imaging radarsystems fall into this category. The images
produced have a similar resolution to those fromhigh resolution optical imagers, but radars have thecapability to ‘see’ through clouds, providing data on
an all-weather, day/night basis.
SARs also have the ability to penetrate vegetationand to sample surface roughness and surface
dielectric properties. They may also be used toobtain polarisation information. Although theoperating wavelength is generally fixed for agiven radar, radars operating at a variety ofwavelengths (typically L-, C- and X-band) will be
increasingly available during the next decade.
The beam shape and direction of new generation
SARs enable imagery to be acquired more
frequently from many points on the Earth.
Multipolarised SARs (such as ASAR on Envisat and
PALSAR on ALOS) enable land cover to be classified
more accurately and will soon provide improved
data on biophysical parameters such as soil
moisture and biomass.

Since land images may be used to infer
information on vegetation type and cover, they
are of use in forestry and agriculture. The abilityof SARs to penetrate cloud cover makes them
particularly valuable in rainforest studies andresource monitoring applications. The information
obtained from such images depends upon thecharacteristics (e.g. wavelength) of the probingradiation. Under certain conditions, for example,
some penetration of vegetation may be feasible.
Such imagery is often used in order tocomplement visible/IR multi-spectral imagery by,in effect, providing an additional microwave
channel. One of the most important current
applications of imaging radars, however, is in
all-weather measurements of snow and ice
sheets, from which information on topography
and texture may be inferred. Flood detection isanother proven capability of SAR.
A technique known as interferometry is used torecord the phase shift between two SAR images
recorded at slightly different times and viewing
angles. This provides accurate information on the
motion of surfaces and targets such as sea ice andice sheets, and allows large scale 3D topographicalimages to be produced. Similar stereo images may
be produced using conventional SAR images taken
on adjacent orbits. Since differential SAR
interferometry can detect ground movements at
millimetre/sub-millimetre level, it is of interest in
the context of tectonic and volcanic hazard studies,and in studies of subsidence in urban areas.

Current &plannedinstruments
AMI/SAR/ImageAMI/SAR/Wave
ASAR
ASAR (image mode)
ASAR (wave mode)
BRLK
C/X SARC-band SAR
PALSARSAR (MAPSAR)SAR (RADARSAT)SAR (RADARSAT-2)
SAR (RCM)
SAR (RISAT)
SAR(Roshydromet)
SAR (SABRINA)SAR 2000
SAR-L (SAOCOM)
S-band SAR
WSAR
X-band SAR

A number of bistatic radar system concepts (suchas BISSAT) are under study. A bistatic radar is asystem that operates with separated transmitting
and receiving antennae. A number of large active
radar missions are foreseen for the coming
decade, providing an opportunity to fly relatively
small satellite missions with passive payloads information with one of these missions in order togather the backscatter information.

Applications
Although a variety of backscatter measurements may
be taken by imaging radars, interpretation of thesemeasurements is a complex science that, in somerespects, is still developing. However, significant
advances have been made in a number of areas andsome SAR applications are now fully operational.
Backscatter from the ocean can be used to deducesurface waves, to detect and analyse surface
features such as ocean fronts, eddies and oil slicks,
and to detect and track ships from their wakes.
Operational wave and sea ice forecasting is also an
important near real-time application of SAR data.

ERS-2/Envisat interferogram of a fast-moving (>1 m/h) glacier inGreenland.

81

PALSAR interferogram of deformation causedby an April 2008 earthquake in the Solomon
Islands.

Further Information
ASAR: envisat.esa.int/instruments/asar/index.html
PALSAR: www.palsar.ersdac.or.jp/e/index.shtml
RADARSAT:gs.mdacorporation.com/products/sensor/radarsat/radarsat1.asp
Terrasarr-X: www.dlr.de/tsx/start_en.htm

82

6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites

6.9 Lidars
Description
Lidars (LIght Detection And Ranging instruments)
measure the radiation that is returned either frommolecules and particles in the atmosphere orfrom the Earth’s surface when illuminated by alaser source. Compared with radar, the shorter
wavelengths used in a lidar allow greater detail tobe observed. On the other hand, the light cannot
penetrate optically thick layers such as clouds.
There are different types of lidar instrument:— the backscatter lidar, in which the laser beam
is backscattered, reflected or re-radiated by thetarget, gives information on the scattering andextinction coefficients of the various
atmospheric layers being probed;— the differential absorption lidar analyses thereturns from a tuneable laser at different
wavelengths to determine densities of specificatmospheric constituents, as well as water
vapour and temperature profiles;— Doppler lidar measures the Doppler shift of thelight backscattered from particles or moleculesmoving with the wind, thereby allowing thedetermination of wind velocity;— the ranging and altimeter lidar provides
accurate measurements of the distance from areference height to precise locations on the
Earth’s surface.
The first satellite-borne ranging and altimeter
lidar, GLAS, is flying on the NASA ICESat mission
which was launched in January 2003 to study thevariations of ice topography, as well as cloud andatmospheric properties. In April 2006, the CALIOP
backscatter lidar, flying on the NASA CALIPSO
platform, was launched to measure cloud andaerosol properties. ESA is currently implementing
two laser missions, ADM-Aeolus and EarthCARE.
The ALADIN high spectral resolution Doppler windlidar on board ADM-Aeolus will measure profilesof line-of-sight winds globally. The ATLID highspectral resolution lidar on board EarthCARE willmeasure cloud and aerosol optical properties.

Current &plannedinstruments
ALADINATLIDCALIOPGLAS
GLAS Follow-on

Applications
The different types of lidars may be used tomeasure a diverse range of parameters. Ranging
and altimeter lidars may be used to provide
surface topography information, for example on
ice sheet height and land altitude. Missions
planned within the next few years will undertaketo determine the mass balance of the polar ice
sheets and their contributions to global sea levelchange; others will focus on study of thevegetation canopy structure and provide uniquedata sets, including estimations of global biomass
and carbon stocks, and fractional forest cover.
Multifrequency and high spectral resolution
ranging lidars with probe wavelengths in the UV,
visible and near IR will be used to measureaerosol height distributions, heights of clouds andtheir vertical profiles. Differential absorption andbackscatter lidar may be used to measure aerosoland cloud properties as well as atmosphericcomposition. Doppler lidars may be used tomeasure wind profiles in clear air (i.e. in theabsence of clouds or winds above clouds) andwithin optically thin layers. The capability of

ICESat swath over Antarctica.

83

measuring clear air winds is ofparticular importance since itwill correct a major deficiency inwind-profiling of the current
global meteorological observing
systems. Instruments such as
ESA’s ALADIN on ADM-Aeolus
will provide wind profile
measurements to establish
significant advances inatmospheric prediction andanalysis.

ICESat’s measurements of Antarctica’s topography, using data collected from 3 October to 8
November 2004.

Further Information
ALADIN: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPadmaeolus.html
ATLID: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPearthcare.html
GLAS: icesat.gsfc.nasa.gov
CALIOP: www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/calipso/main/84

6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites

6.10 Multiple Direction/Polarisation

Instruments
Description

Advances in satellite instrumentation haveresulted in a general trend towards multifunctional capabilities in many types of sensors,
resulting in instruments with the capability tooperate using different viewing modes and angles,
as well as multiple polarisations. The latest SAR
instruments demonstrate this trend. The categoryof ‘multiple direction/polarisation instruments’ isused here, however, to describe instruments which
are custom built for observing the directional orpolarisational characteristics of the target’s
signature (either visible/IR or microwave), as ameans of deriving geophysical information.
Multi-directional radiometers can makeobservations from more than one incidence angleof the diffused or emitted radiation emitted by aparticular element of the Earth’s surface or
clouds. In this way, information on anisotropies in
the radiation may be identified. The emphasis inthese instruments is on spectral (rather thanspatial) information, with the result that thedetection channels, which typically span thevisible to the IR, are precisely calibrated and thespatial resolution is usually about 1 km.
Polarimetric radiometers are used for applications
in which radiative information is embedded in thepolarisation state of the transmitted, reflected or
scattered wave. Some polarimetric radiometers
also have a multi-directional capability, so that
directional information can be determined orused during retrievals of geophysical parameters.

Applications
Using IR channels, multiple-angle viewing
capabilities are used to achieve accurate
corrections for the effects of (variable) atmosphericabsorption, making it possible to infer precise
temperature values, for example, of sea and land
surfaces. Multi-directional radiometers are also
capable of measuring cloud cover and cloud top
temperatures, together with atmospheric water
vapour and liquid water content.
In the visible and near IR spectrum, these
instruments allow for improved measurements ofthe scattering properties of particles such as
aerosols, as well as measurement of the angularcharacteristics of the various contributions to the
Earth’s radiation budget, including surface albedo.
They also enable accurate measurement ofparameters such as Normalised Difference
Vegetation Indices (NDVI), which are used toassess vegetation state and crop yield at regionaland global scales. MISR, currently flying on NASA’s
Terra mission, is providing new types of
information for scientists studying Earth’s climate,such as the partitioning of energy and carbon
between the land surface and the atmosphere,
and the regional and global impacts of different
types of atmospheric particles and clouds.

Current &plannedinstruments
AATSR
APS
ATSR-2MAPI
Microwave
Radiometer(CONAE)MIRAS (SMOS)MISRPOLDER-P
WindSatPolarisation information is used to infer a varietyof parameters, including the size and scattering
properties of liquid water, cloud particles andaerosols, while providing additional informationon the optical thickness and phase of clouds.
Polarimetric radiometers also provide informationon the polarisation state of the radiation
backscattered from the Earth’s surface,supplementing measurements obtained fromother land and sea imaging instruments. Suchmeasurements are of interest in a range ofapplications from investigations of albedo andreflectance to agriculture and the classification ofvegetation. ESA’s SMOS mission, planned forlaunch in 2009, will use an L-band (1.4 GHz)
microwave interferometer to measure estimatesof soil moisture (a key variable for numerical
weather and climate models) and ocean surface
salinity (important for ocean circulation models).

AATSR and its predecessors ATSR-1 and ATSR-2 have obtained over 13 years of sea surface
temperature measurements with the accuracy required for climate research.

85

2003

2004

Mar-May

Seasonal changes in Earth’s surface albedo as measured by the MISR
instrument on the Terra mission.

Further Information
MISR: www-misr.jpl.nasa.gov
AATSR: envisat.esa.int/instruments/aatsr
SMOS: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPsmos.html
POLDER-P: directory.eoportal.org/presentations/501/9317.html

86

6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites

6.11 Ocean Colour Instruments
Description
Ocean colour radiometers and imaging
spectrometers measure the radiance leaving
marine waters in the visible and near IR spectrum
in the range 400–800 nm, where the colour ischaracterised by the constituents of the water –typically phytoplankton, suspended particulatematerial and dissolved compounds. Differences in
the intensity of light received in the different
bands give information on the concentration of avariety of substances present in the ocean.

Ocean colour imagery can also be used in support
of fisheries management or protection, forexample through identification of biologically-richareas. Other data that may be inferred from ocean
colour measurements include information aboutsuspended matter (useful in coastal studies),
biological productivity, marine pollution and water
dynamics (eddies, currents, etc.) in coastal zones.

Current &plannedinstruments
COCTS
GOCI
MERIS
MODIS
MSS-BIOOCMOCM(OCEANSAT-3)
SGLI
VIIRS

These instruments have very narrow detection
channels, around 10 nm wide, to measure fine
spectral details. The spatial resolution of these
instruments is typically 0.3 to 1 km. The more
recent ocean colour instruments have improved
spatial, spectral and radiometric resolution. The
trend towards multi-channel, multi-purpose
sensors, such as MODIS and MERIS, is resulting in
more instruments with an ‘ocean colour’ capability.
Significant calibration and validation activities,
together with algorithm development for ocean
colour instruments, continues – particularly withrespect to measuring ocean productivity.
MODIS view of Mississippi river delta in February 2008 showing
flows of sediments and nutrients.

Applications
The colour of the oceans as
seen from space reveals
phytoplankton pigment
concentration (chlorophyll),
which is used as an indirect
measurement of ocean
biomass and its associatedproductivity.
These parameters are of
considerable oceanographic
and climatologicalsignificance, since oceanic
productivity ‘drives’ theair-to-sea exchange ofbiogenic greenhouse gases(e.g. CO 2).

Global ocean chlorophyll measurements derived from MERIS.

Further Information
MERIS: envisat.esa.int/instruments/meris
MODIS: modis.gsfc.nasa.gov
Ocean colour sensors: www.ioccg.org/sensors_ioccg.html
VIIRS:www.ipo.noaa.gov/Technology/viirs_summary.html

87Current &plannedinstruments
ALT
AltiKaAltimeter(OCEANSAT-3)
FJP
POSEIDON-2(SSALT-2)
POSEIDON-3
RA
RA-2
Radar Altimeter
SIRAL
SRAL

6.12 Radar Altimeters
Description
Radar altimeters are active sensors which use theranging capability of radar to measure the surface
topography profile along the satellite track. They
provide precise measurements of a satellite’sheight above the ocean and, if appropriately
designed, over land/ice surfaces by measuring thetime interval between the transmission andreception of very short electromagnetic pulses.
To date, most spaceborne radar altimeters havebeen non-imaging, wide-beam (pulse-limited)systems operating from low Earth orbits. Suchaltimeters are useful for relatively smoothsurfaces such as oceans and low relief land
surfaces, but are less effective over high relief
continental terrain as a result of their large radar
footprint (of the order of 25 km).
The Ocean Surface Topography Mission (OSTM) isbuilt around the series of Jason satellites that willcollect global ocean surface data on a continuous
basis for several decades. Its aims are to measure
the global sea surface height to an accuracy of afew centimetres every 10 days, and to determine
ocean circulation and the mean sea level trend insupport of weather forecasting, climate
monitoring and operational oceanography.
Launched in June 2008, Jason-2 is intended tooverlap with the Jason-1 mission in order tosecure the continuity of high accuracy satellite
altimetry observations.
Successful exploitation of the height data isdependent upon precise determination of thesatellite’s orbit. A number of precision radar
altimetry ‘packages’ are available which contain:— a high precision radar altimeter (with basic
measurement accuracy in the range 2 cm to 4 cm);
— a means of correcting errors induced in theheight measurements by variations in theamount of water vapour along the path (forexample, by means of a microwave
atmospheric sounder or radiometer);— a high precision orbit determination system(typically based on the GPS, the DORIS
beacon/satellite receiver system and/or a lidar
tracking system).

Radar altimeters measure the distance between the satellite and the sea surface.
The distance between the satellite and the reference ellipsoid is derived by using the
Doppler effect associated with signals emitted from marker points on the Earth’s
surface as the satellite orbits overhead. Variations in sea surface height are caused by
the combined effect of the geoid and ocean circulation (dynamic topography).

88

Radar altimeters have been flown on
a number of satellites. Seasat was
the first ocean-oriented mission
carrying an altimeter package(including a precise orbit
determination system) for themeasurement of ocean circulation. A
satellite altimetry revolution
happened with the launch in 1992 of
the US-French Topex/Poseidon
mission. Carrying two high-precision
altimeters, a multichannel microwave
radiometer, and several precise orbit
determination devices on a
dedicated, high-altitude (1,336 km),low inclination (66°),
non-Sun-synchronous orbit, it
enabled the large-scale ocean
circulation to be accurately
measured. The European ERS-1 (from1991) and ERS-2 (from 1995) also
provided long time-series ofcomplementary altimetricobservations from a Sun-synchronouspolar orbit. These observations were
continued with Jason-1 (launched in2001), Envisat (launched in 2002),
and Jason-2 (launched June 2008).

6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites

Applications
A variety of parameters may be inferred using theinformation from radar altimeter measurements.
These include: time-varying sea surface height(ocean topography), the lateral extent of sea ice andthe altitude of large icebergs above sea level, as wellas the topography of land and ice sheets, and eventhat of the sea floor. Topographical maps of thestructure of the Arctic sea floor have not only
revealed new mineral deposits, but they also
provide new insights into how a large part of theocean basin was formed about 100 million years ago.
Observations by current and future radar altimetersof trends in the ice masses of the Earth are ofprincipal importance in testing the predicted
thinning of Arctic sea ice due to global warming.
They also help to quantify the extent to which the
Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets have contributed
to the global rise in sea level. New generation radar
altimeters, such as RA-2 on Envisat, are also
providing useful information for the monitoring of
inland waters (river and lake levels).
Satellite altimetry also provides information
which is used in mapping sea surface wind speeds
and significant wave heights. Precision ocean
altimetry applications for sea level monitoringand ocean circulation studies require moreaccurate, independent measurements of the geoid– derived from the instruments described in the‘gravity field’ category.
ESA’s CryoSat-2 mission will provide an instrument
for studying the topography of areas such as ice
sheet interiors and margins, and sea ice withthree-mode operation:— conventional pulse-limited operation for theice sheet interiors (and oceans if desired);— synthetic aperture operation for sea ice;
— dual-channel interferometric synthetic
aperture operation for ice sheet margins.
The new generation of instruments will provide
more frequent data coverage and faster access toobservations for incorporation into ocean
circulation and wave forecast models that areused to generate marine information products.
New concepts of altimeter packages for flight onsmall satellites are being developed – such as
AltiKA, which uses a compact Ka-band altimeter.
Even more promising are the concepts ofwide-swath altimeters, such as those proposed by
the WATER HM and SWOT projects, which arecapable of providing an imaging capability.

The world as seen by radar altimeters.

Further Information
Jason-1: sealevel.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/jason-1.html
Jason-2/OSTM: www.nasa.gov/ostm
Topex/Poseidon: topex-www.jpl.nasa.gov/
RA-2: envisat.esa.int/instruments/ra2
SIRAL: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPcryosat.html

89Current &plannedinstruments
AMI/scatterometer
Aquarius
ASCAT
L-bandScatterometer(Aquarius)
SCAT
Scatterometer(ISRO)
SeaWinds

6.13 Scatterometers
Description
A scatterometer transmits radar pulses andreceives backscattered energy, the intensity ofwhich depends on the roughness and dielectric
properties of a particular target. Scatterometers
were originally designed to measure oceanic
surface winds, where the amount of backscatter
depends on two factors – the size of the surface
ripples on the ocean, and their orientation withrespect to the propagation direction of the pulseof radiation transmitted by the scatterometer. The
first is dependent on wind stress, and hence windspeed at the surface, while the second is related
to wind direction. As a result, measurements by
scatterometers may be used to derive both windspeed and direction.

The main aim of these instruments is to achieve
high accuracy measurements of wind vectors(speed and direction), so resolution is ofsecondary importance. (They generally produce
wind maps with a resolution of order 25–50 km).
Because scatterometers operate at microwave
wavelengths, the measurements are available
irrespective of weather conditions.
Spaceborne scatterometers have provided
continuous synoptic microwave coverage of the
Earth for nearly two decades, starting with the
ERS series in 1991, NSCAT on ADEOS, SeaWinds on
QuikSCAT, and more recently ASCAT on MetOp.
The ERS and NSCAT instruments employed afan-beam (multi-incidence) wind retrieval
technique, whereas QuikSCAT employs a conicallyscanning (fixed incidence) technique. Increases inswath width capability now mean that a single
instrument can provide around 90% coverage ofglobal oceans on a daily basis.

Tropical storm Katrina observed on 25 August 2005 off the Florida coast before it had reached hurricane status.

90

6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites

Applications
Information from scatterometers provides aunique source of data on sea surface wind speed
and direction. This has important applications inweather and wave forecasting, the investigationof climate models and elaboration of marine
wind climate. The assimilation of scatterometerdata into atmospheric forecasting models greatly
improves the description of cyclonic features
which are so important in predicting future
weather patterns.
A large number of new, unforeseen, terrestrial
and sea ice applications has emerged beyond theoriginal ocean winds mission of scatterometers.
These include: the measurement of sea ice extent
and concentration; soil moisture; snow
accumulation; and regional monitoring of ice
shelves, rainforests and deserts. The daily global
coverage of scatterometers in the polar regions
and their ability to discriminate sea ice, ice
sheets and icebergs, despite poor solar
illumination and frequent cloud cover, makethem excellent instruments for large-scale
systematic observations of polar ice.

ASCAT wind measurements south of Australia on 19 March 2008. Superimposed is an ECMWF
forecast 10 m wind field.
Darker colours correspond to areas of low surface wind speeds. Colour tone changes
correspond to changes in the surface wind direction, as the sensitivity of the measurementfrom the different antenna beams varies with the relative direction of the surface wind vector
with respect to the viewing direction of each beam.

Further Information
ASCAT: www.esa.int/esaLP/SEMBWEG23IE_LPMetop_0.html
Aquarius: aquarius.gsfc.nasa.gov
SeaWinds: winds.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/quikscat/index.cfm

91

6.14 Gravity, Magnetic Field andGeodynamic instruments
Description

This category of instruments is used here todescribe a variety of sensors and supporting
systems used to derive information on the Earth’s
gravity field, magnetic field or geodynamic activity.
Gravity field measurements from space rely on
one of three techniques:— use of single or multiple accelerometers on one
or more satellites to derive gravity or gravity
gradient information;— precise satellite orbit determination (using
satellite to ground navigation systems such as
GPS and satellite laser ranging systems), andseparation of satellite motion, induced by the
Earth’s gravitational force alone, from other forces(such as solar radiation and aerodynamic drag);— satellite to satellite tracking (e.g. by GPS or
microwave link) to measure relative speed
variations of two satellites induced bygravitational forces.

combination of bedrock topography derived
from gravity measurements and ice sheet
surface topography from altimetry;— estimates of the mass/volume redistribution of
fresh water in order to further understand thehydrological cycle;— improved understanding of post-glacial
rebound processes on a global scale.
Magnetic field measurements are also valuable ina range of applications, including navigation
systems, resource exploration drilling, spacecraft
attitude control systems, assessments of the
impact of ‘space weather’ caused by cosmic
particles and earthquake prediction studies(e.g. by the DEMETER mission).
The precision location capabilities of satellite
laser ranging and other systems (such as DORIS
and GPS), sometimes in combination withinterferometric SAR (INSAR), are applied insupport of studies of crustal deformation,
tectonic movements and Earth’s spin rate.

Satellite-borne magnetometers provide
information on the strength and direction of the
Earth’s internal and external magnetic field andits time variations.

Applications
Gravity field measurements from space provide
the most promising advances for improved
measurement of the ‘geoid’ and its time
variations. The geoid (the surface of equal
gravitational potential at mean sea level) reflects
the irregularities in the Earth’s gravity field at thesurface due to the inhomogeneous mass anddensity distribution in the planet’s interior.
More accurate models of the static mean geoid
and its temporal variability are vital for:— a precise marine geoid, needed for thequantitative determination, in combination withsatellite altimetry, of absolute ocean currents,
their transport of heat and other properties;— a unified global height reference system for the
study of topographic processes, including theevolution of ice sheets and land surface
topography;— new understanding of the physics of the
Earth’s interior;— estimates of the thickness of the polar ice
sheets and their variations through a

92

LAGEOS, CHAMP, GRACE and GOCE all provide new insights into
Earth’s gravity field.

Further Information
CHAMP:
www.gfz-potsdam.de/pb1/op/champ/index_CHAMP.html
GRACE: www.csr.utexas.edu/grace
GOCE: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPgoce.html

6 Capabilities of Earth Observation Satellites

Current & planned instruments
Gravity
CHAMP Gravity Package(Accelerometer+GPS)EFI
EGG
HAIRS (aka KBR)
Magnetic field
ASM
CHAMP Magnetometry Package(1 Scalar + 2 Vector Magnetometer)
GGAK-E
GGAK-M
GID-12T
IMSC
Magnetometer (NOAA)
MMP
Overhauser Magnetometer
RBE
SSJ/4
SSJ/5
SSM
VFM
Precision orbit
ACC
BlackJack GPS (TRSR)CHAMP GPS Sounder
DORIS (SPOT)DORIS-NGDORIS-NG (SPOT)
EGG
GOLPE
GPS (ESA)GPS Receiver (Swarm)
GPS ROS
GPSP
GRAS
INES
IST
Laser Reflectors
Laser Reflectors (ESA)
LCCRA
LRA
LRA (LAGEOS)
ROSA
ROSA
RRA
SI
STR
TDP
TRSR

Prior to GRACE, the long-wavelength part of the Earth’s gravity field from space
was determined from various tracking measurements of Earth orbiting satellites.
Only the broad geophysical features of the Earth’s structure could be detected.
The lower image shows the final detail available after just 1 year of GRACE data.

93

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement
7.1 Introduction
In mid-2008, there were approximately 100 satellites
operating and providing important data about the
Earth and its environment, helping us to develop ourunderstanding of the basic Earth System and human
influences on it. These data cover measurements of avery wide range of geophysical parameters, spanning
the whole spectrum of the environment –atmosphere, land, oceans, ice and snow. This section
considers some of the key observations contributed
by EO satellites, as indicated in the table.
This list is not exhaustive, but it does include many
key measurements of interest to the main usergroups of Earth observation satellite data, anddescribes a significant part of the capability ofcurrent and planned instruments – including thoserelated to the Essential Climate Variables which arelargely measured by satellite.
This section identifies the satellite instruments whichprimarily contribute data for any particularmeasurement from the list shown and indicates theplans for future provision of that measurement overthe next 15 years. Measurement continuity is a key
requirement, particularly for climate applications, inorder to detect and quantify long term trends. Thissection identifies the prospects for achieving that
continuity, given the programmes and plans that exist
in 2008 – whether it may be provided by a single seriesof satellites dedicated to a particular measurement, or
whether users of that measurement must look tovarious satellite missions planned by different agencies
worldwide to satisfy their information requirements.
The need for this continuity and the necessity to ensurethat the measurements obtained by different agencies
from different countries can be inter-compared andcalibrated to meet the most demanding requirements(typically for climate applications), requires a significant
degree of coordination in mission planning and data
provision. Harmonisation and maximum
cost-effectiveness for the total set of space-based
observation programmes is the objective of CEOS.

7.2 Overview
Current areas of strength of the Earth observation
satellites providing data today include:— atmospheric chemistry measurements, including
ozone, provided by instruments on NASA’s Aura andTerra missions, ESA’s Envisat, and GOME-2 on MetOp;— aerosol properties, provided by dedicatedinstruments like CALIPSO and MISR, but also by
instruments on ESA’s Envisat and EUMETSAT’s
MetOp, and by traditional imagers like MERIS andAVHRR in LEO and SEVIRI in GEO;
— atmospheric humidity and temperature profiles
routinely provided for operational meteorology by
the NOAA, DMSP and MetOp series polar orbiting
satellites and by a number of meteorologicalgeostationary satellites;

94

Measurement categories
ATMOSPHERE
Aerosol properties
Atmospheric temperature fields
Water vapour
Atmospheric winds
Cloud type, amount and cloud top temperature
Cloud particle properties and profile
Liquid water and precipitation rate
Ozone
Radiation budget
Trace gases (excluding ozone)
LAND
Albedo and reflectanceLand topography
Soil moisture
Vegetation
Surface temperature (land)
Multi-purpose imagery (land)
OCEAN
Ocean colour/biology
Ocean topography/currents
Ocean salinity
Ocean surface winds
Surface temperature (ocean)
Ocean wave height and spectrum
Multi-purpose imagery (ocean)
SNOW AND ICE
Ice sheet topography
Snow cover, edge and depth
Sea ice cover, edge and thickness
GRAVITY AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
Gravity, magnetic and geodynamic measurements— atmospheric winds (through cloud tracking), cloudamount and tropical precipitation estimatesprovided for most of the globe by the traditional
imagers mounted on geostationary
meteorological satellite series like MSG(EUMETSAT), GOES (NOAA), MTSAT (JMA), FY-2
(CMA), and INSAT/Kalpana (IMD);— multi-purpose imagery for both land and sea
collected by high resolution optical and synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) instruments for use inenvironmental, public, and commercial
applications. Optical sensors include AVHRR on
the NOAA and EUMETSAT polar orbiters and thoseon ALOS, Terra, and the SPOT, Landsat and IRS
series. SAR sensors include those on the
ERS/Envisat and RADARSAT series and on ALOS.
Future missions and increasing spatial resolution
will ensure improved data collection andapplication opportunities;

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement— sea surface temperature (SST) information
generated by data from existing operational
meteorological satellites, such as AVHRR on low
Earth orbit platforms, and by sensors ingeostationary orbit, like INSAT and SEVIRI. Besides
operational meteorological instruments, SST is thetarget of dedicated instruments like AATSR and
instruments on the Aqua/Terra and ERS/Envisat
series. Future plans should provide continuity.
Satellites such as QuikSCAT, Jason-1, and Envisat
are now also making consistent and continuous
measurements of other important oceanographic
parameters, such as ocean topography, ocean
currents and sea surface winds;— sea ice and ice sheet extent, currently measured
by a range of missions (including ALOS, DMSP,ICESat, MetOp, TerraSAR-X and RADARSAT), with
future continuity provided by missions such as
CryoSat-2 and RADARSAT-2.
Future missions will feature a new generation oftechnology and techniques to enable Earth observation
satellites to extend their contribution, including:— a significant increase in information about thechemistry and dynamics of the atmosphere. This
includes long term global measurements ofconcentrations of ozone and many other trace andgreenhouse gases; information on the role ofclouds in climate change; the ability to better map
cloud cover and precipitation (including over theoceans); measurements of 3D atmospheric winds
without the need for cloud tracking, either from
active sensors or passive hyperspectral infraredsounders in geostationary orbit; global aerosol
distributions; and extended coverage ofatmospheric measurements into the troposphereto allow improved pollution monitoring. Just as
significantly, existing measurement capabilities formany key parameters, such as atmospherichumidity and temperature, will have greatly
improved accuracy and spatial resolution. For
future missions, several novel, active instruments,
such as cloud and rain radars, and lidar
instruments, have been proposed. In addition tothese developments, progress in developing
passive hyperspectral infrared sounders has beensuch that the urgently needed deployment of these
instruments in geostationary orbit is realistic;— improved repeat coverage, resolution and accuracyof many oceanographic measurements, including
ocean surface winds, ocean colour and biology;— new capabilities for determination of the Essential
Climate Variables soil moisture and ocean salinity,
starting with ESA’s SMOS mission;— new information on global land surface processes,
through use of an increased number of spectral
bands, as well as multi-directional and polarisational
capabilities of future imaging sensors;— estimates from innovative new lidar systems ofglobal biomass and carbon stocks, as well as themass balance of the polar ice sheets and theircontributions to global sea level change;— improved measurements of global ocean currents,
based on data from altimeters and gravity field
instruments, such as GRACE and GOCE.
We can expect the exact plans to change as space
agency programmes evolve to keep pace with acceptedscientific and political priorities regarding information
about the Earth System and its climate – including theinfluence of the processes initiated by the Group on
Earth Observations (GEO), the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

7.3 Measurement Timelines
For each measurement category listed in section 7.1, abrief discussion is given below of the significance ofthat measurement (including its relation to therecognised Essential Climate Variables), together withan indication of the present and future measurement
capabilities of satellite observations. In each case,specific actions identified by CEOS to better meet theneeds of GCOS for the Essential Climate Variables aredescribed. This description is supported by twotimeline diagrams spanning the period 2008–2023,
indicating the instruments contributing to thatmeasurement and the missions on which they are
expected to fly.
The first timeline shows missions that are either:— current, where the prototype has been launchedand financing is approved for the whole series; or— approved, where financing is available for thewhole series, the prototype is fully defined anddevelopment is ongoing.
The second timeline shows missions which are not
yet approved. They are divided into two categories:— planned, where financing of the full series is being
considered or is available up to the end of detailed
definition phase; or— considered, where conceptual studies andfeasibility studies have been completed, anddefinition of financing is in preparation.
Of course, all missions have a degree of uncertainty.
This description of mission status reflects
information available from the relevant agencies at
the time of compilation. If the launch month of aplanned mission has not been specified, the timeline
is shown to commence at the beginning of theplanned year of launch. Note also that missions
currently operating beyond their planned lifetime areshown as operational until the end of 2008 unless analternative date has been proposed.
The timelines in this section represent a qualitative
analysis of the provision of data from Earthobservation satellites in terms of a number of key
geophysical measurements and the requirement for
those measurements in different disciplines.

95

Atmosphere
Aerosol Properties
Essential Climate Variables: Aerosol Properties
Aerosols are tiny particles suspended in the air.
The majority are derived from natural phenomena
such as volcanic eruptions, but it is estimated thatsome 10–20% are generated by human activities
such as burning of fossil fuels. The majority ofaerosols form a thin haze in the lower atmosphereand are regularly washed out by precipitation. The
remainder are found in the stratosphere where they
can remain for many months or years. Scientists
have yet to quantify accurately the relative impacts
on climate of natural aerosols and those of humanorigin, so there is still uncertainty whether aerosols
are warming or cooling the Earth. Predicting therate and nature of future climate change requires
this clarification of the processes involved.
As a consequence, the IPCC identifies further
information on aerosols as a priority, highlighting
a particular need for additional systematic,
integrated and sustained observations which
include the spatial distribution of greenhousegases and aerosols. The Integrated Global
Atmospheric Chemistry Observations (IGACO)
Theme of the IGOS Partnership aims to provide aframework ensuring continuity and spatial
comprehensiveness of the full spectrum of
atmospheric chemistry observations, including
the monitoring of atmospheric composition
parameters related to climate change andenvironmental conditions. The IGACO Theme
Report (available from www.igospartners.org) was
finalised in May 2004 and provides acomprehensive overview of current and futuresatellite measurements for tropospheric andstratospheric aerosols. The report states, inparticular, that “satellite observations of aerosol
optical properties have progressed to a point
where they range from pre-operational tooperational, although there aredemonstration-mode instruments on a number of
research satellites”.
Reliable information on aerosols is also requiredby applications outside the study of the climate
system. For example, accurate and timely
warnings of the presence of airborne dust and ash– such as that arising from desert dust clouds andvolcanic eruptions – are important to the safety ofairline operations. A worldwide volcanic ash
monitoring system, which is dependent onsatellite observations, is in place to provide
real-time advice to pilots.
Measuring the distribution of aerosols throughthe depth of the atmosphere is technicallydifficult, particularly in the troposphere.

96

Previously, techniques using instruments such as
AVHRR and ATSR were limited to producing
estimates of vertically-integrated total amounts,
mainly over oceanic regions.
Measurements over land are difficult (due topersistent cloud cover and the high value, andvariability, of land surface reflectance), but the
new generation of multi-directional orpolarimetric instruments – such as AATSR, MISR
and APS (planned for NPOESS but recently
demanifested) – can provide detailed information.
Today, MODIS, MERIS, MISR, and POLDER-P offer
better optical depth at different frequencies,
enabling aerosol particle sizes, particularly overoceans, to be inferred. The development of active
instruments such as ATLID and ALADIN, and laser
altimeter sensors, including GLAS on ICESat,should yield much improved measurement
capability. Since April 2006, CALIPSO has flown a
3-channel lidar (designed specifically to provide
vertical profiles) and passive instruments, orbiting
in formation with Aqua, Aura, PARASOL and
CloudSat to obtain coincident observations ofradiative fluxes and atmospheric state. This
comprehensive set of measurements is essential
for accurate quantification of global aerosol andcloud radiative effects.
Limb-sounding instruments such as ACE-FTS,SCIAMACHY, GOMOS, and HIRDLS principally
provide data on the upper troposphere andstratosphere with high vertical resolution, buthorizontal resolution is relatively poor (typically ofthe order of a few hundred km).
Current, long-term climatologies are based upon
AVHRR/3 on the NOAA and MetOp series of low
Earth orbit satellites. These observations willcontinue to provide estimates of total column
aerosol amounts over the ocean. AVHRR/3 will be
replaced by a more capable visible and infrared
imager, called VIIRS, on the NPOESS series ofsatellites, starting with the preparatory NPP
mission in 2010. VIIRS will acquire high resolution
atmospheric imagery and generate a variety of
applied products, including some that giveinformation on atmospheric aerosols.
The CEOS response to the GCOS Implementation
Plan recognised that no operational aerosol
instruments measuring particle composition andsize/shape have been yet been flown and efforts
should be made to rectify this. It encouraged
re-planning of the aerosol measurements
envisaged by APS/NPOESS and consideration ofoperational active sensing lidar (such as CALIPSO).
CEOS committed to pursue the following action:“CEOS agencies will participate in re-planning the
APS instrument removed from the planned
payload of NPOESS”.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

POES series (AVHRR/3: 15-N')
OCEANSAT series (OCM: 1, 2)
TERRA (MISR, MODIS)

2025

Aerosols

2008

ERS series (ATSR-2, GOME: 2)

GOES series (ABI: R,S)(Sounder: 11-P)
SAC series (MMRS: C)
Odin (OSIRIS)PROBA (CHRIS)ENVISAT (AATSR, GOMOS, MERIS, MIPAS, SCIAMACHY)

current/approved

Aqua (MODIS)FY-1 series (MVISR (10 channels): 1D)
ICESat (GLAS)SCISAT-1 (ACE-FTS, MAESTRO)
Aura (HiRDLS, OMI)
PARASOL (POLDER-P)
CALIPSO (CALIOP)EPS series (AVHRR/3, GOME-2: 1-3)
Meteor series (MSU-MR: N1, N2)
SumbandilaSat (SumbandilaSat Imager)
Glory (APS)
ADM-Aeolus (ALADIN)
NPP (VIIRS)PRISMA (HYC)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: A)
NPOESS series (APS: 1)(VIIRS: 1-4)
EarthCARE (ATLID, MSI (EarthCARE))
MTG-I (METEOSAT 3G) series (FCI: 1-4)

OCEANSAT series (OCM (OCEANSAT-3): 3)
ISTAG (MAGIS)

planned/considered

EnMAP (HSI)
Sentinel-5 precursor (UVNS (Sentinel-5 precursor))
GCOM series (SGLI: C1-C3)
ICESat-II (GLAS Follow-on)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: B, C)
MTG S/Sentinel-4 series (UVN (Sentinel-4): 4A, 4B)
post-EPS/Sentinel-5 series (UVNS (post-EPS): 1)

97

Atmosphere
Atmospheric Temperature Fields
Essential Climate Variables: Upper Air TemperatureWith humidity, atmospheric temperature profile
data are a core requirement for weather
forecasting and are coordinated within theframework of CGMS (The Coordination Group for
Meteorological Satellites). The data are used fornumerical weather prediction (NWP), formonitoring inter-annual global temperaturechanges, for identifying correlations between
atmospheric parameters and climatic behaviour,and for validating global models of the atmosphere.
Upper air temperatures are a key dataset for
detection and attribution of tropospheric andstratospheric climate change, measured both byradiosondes and satellite instruments.
Temperatures measured by high-quality
radiosondes are an important reference against
which satellite-based measurements can becalibrated. Upper air temperatures are importantfor separating the various possible causes ofglobal change, and are vital for the validation ofclimate models.
Infrared (HIRS) and microwave sounders (MSU andAMSU) have been providing atmospheric profiles
for almost thirty years. The microwave data inparticular have become key elements of thehistorical climate record and equivalentmeasurements need to be continued into the
future to sustain a long-term record. The MSU
radiance record is a primary resource for this,providing essential coverage over the oceans anddata for comparison and combination withradiosonde data over land.
For global NWP, polar satellites provide
information on temperature with global coverage,
good horizontal resolution and acceptableaccuracy, but improvements in vertical resolution
are needed. Performance in cloudy areas has beenpoor, but the microwave measurements such as
AMSU have provided substantial improvements.
As in the case of humidity profiles, the Aqua,
MetOp, NOAA and NPOESS missions offer
comparable improvements in vertical resolution
for measuring atmospheric temperature(using AIRS+, AMSU-A, CrIS, HIRS, IASI, MSU).
For regional NWP, polar orbiting satellites provide
information on temperature with acceptableaccuracy and good horizontal resolution, but with
marginal temporal frequency and verticalresolution for mesoscale prediction. Advanced
radiometers or interferometers planned for futuresatellites should improve on the verticalresolution and accuracy of current radiometers.

98

Geostationary satellites provide frequent radiancedata, but their use over land is hindered because of
the difficulty in estimating surface emissivity. In
nowcasting, the temperature and humidity fields
are particularly useful for determining atmosphericstability for predicting precipitation type, theamount of frozen precipitation, and convective
storms. As with humidity profiles, nowcasting
predictions using atmospheric temperature data
benefit from hourly geostationary infraredsoundings (such as from the GOES and MSG series– with these missions now capable of providing
such data at 15 minute intervals).
The combination of the HIRS/3 and AMSU
instruments on the NOAA and MetOp series allows
improved information, sufficient to infertemperature within several thick layers in thevertical. On the MetOp series, IASI is used withother instruments to deliver very precise sounding
capacity. IASI data assimilation has significantly
improved NWP forecasts. CrIS on the NPOESS
series, which will replace HIRS, is designed toenable retrievals of atmospheric temperature
profiles at 1K accuracy for 1 km layers in the
troposphere. The GRAS instrument on MetOp
provides temperature information of high accuracy
and vertical resolution in the stratosphere andupper troposphere (helping to improve analyses
around the tropopause) using a GPS radio
occultation (RO) technique. Its information willthus be complementary to that provided by thepassive sounding instruments on MetOp. China’s
FY-2 series of satellites (FY-2C, D & E), features
improved measurements from October 2004 withthe addition of new spectral channels to their
IVISSR instrument.
GPS radio occultation (RO) measurements provide
high vertical resolution profiles of atmosphericrefractive index that relate directly to upper air
temperatures. They provide independent
observations that can be utilised to calibrate allother data. Instruments are being flown on
multiple low Earth orbiting satellites (such as
CHAMP and SAC-C and the COSMIC constellation).
Systems need to be developed for real-time dataexchange and use, implemented into operational
meteorological data streams. Plans also need tobe made to ensure future RO instruments andplatforms, including on operational
meteorological satellites.
In response to the GCOS IP, CEOS undertook toensure continuity of GPS RO measurements with,at a minimum, the spatial and temporal coverage
established by COSMIC by 2011. CEOS will also
continue efforts to exploit the complementary
aspects of radiometric and geometric upper air
determinations of temperature and moisture.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

DMSP series (SSM/T: F-14, F-15)(OLS: F-14-20)(SSM/IS: F-16-20)
POES series (AMSU-A: 15-18)(ATOVS (HIRS/3 + AMSU + AVHRR/3): 15, 16)(HIRS/3: 15-17)(HIRS/4: 18, N')
Terra (MODIS)GOES series (Sounder: 11-P)
CHAMP (CHAMP GPS Sounder)
SAC series (GOLPE: C)(Lagrange, ROSA: D/Aquarius)
Odin (OSIRIS, SMR)
PROBA (CHRIS)

current/approved

TIMED (SABER)
Envisat (GOMOS, MIPAS)
Aqua (AIRS, AMSU-A, MODIS)
Meteosat series (SEVIRI: 8-11)
SCISAT-1 (ACE-FTS)
Aura (HiRDLS, MLS (EOS-Aura), TES)
FY-2 series (IVISSR (FY-2): 2C-2F)

2024

2025

Atmospheric Temperature Fields

2008

ERS series (ATSR-2: 2)

CloudSat (CPR (CloudSat))CALIPSO (IIR)
EPS series (AMSU-A, GRAS, HIRS/4, IASI: 1-3)
FY-3 series (IRAS, MWRI, MWTS: 3A-3D)(IMWAS: 3C, 3D)
OCEANSAT series (ROSA: 2)
Meteor series (MTVZA: N1, N2)(IKFS-2, Radiomet: N2)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N1, N2)
SumbandilaSat (SumbandilaSat Imager)
Megha-Tropiques (GPS ROS, ScaRaB)
NPP (ATMS, CrIS, VIIRS)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: A)
NPOESS series (ATMS, CMIS, CrIS: 1, 3, 4)(MIS: 2-3)(VIIRS: 1-4)
EarthCARE (ALTID, CPR (EarthCARE))
MTG-I (METEOSAT 3G) series (FCI: 1-4)

INSAT series (Sounder (INSAT): 3D)
Meteor series (Radiomet: N3)
ISTAG (MAPI, MAVELI)RESOURCESAT series (ATCOR: 3)

planned/considered

FY-3 series (IMWAS, IRA, MWRI, MWTS: 3E-3G)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N3)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: B, C)
MTG S/Sentinel-4 series (IRS: 4 A, 4 B)
post-EPS/Sentinel-5 series (IRS: 1)

99

Atmosphere
Water Vapour
Essential Climate Variables: Water Vapour
The observations for water vapour (atmospherichumidity) are a core requirement for weather
forecasting and are largely dealt with in theframework of the Coordinating Group for
Meteorological Satellites (CGMS).
A wide range of sensors is available to measurecolumn water vapour – microwave imagers like
SSM/I and traditional imagers like AVHRR or MERIS
on LEO platforms, and GOES and SEVIRI on GEO
platforms. Vertical profiles are provided by
microwave sounders like SSM/T2, AMSU-B, HIRS/4
and MHS, by hyperspectral infrared sounders like
IASI and AIRS, or by radio-occultation observations
provided by GPSMET or GRASS on MetOp. These
data are supplemented by instruments on Aqua
(AIRS+, AMSR-E, AMSU-A), Aura (HiRDLS, MLS, TES),
and the FY-3 series (MWHS), amongst others.

Satellite sounding data are difficult to use overland, but progress in data interpretation is
expected in the near future. Recent research has
shown that the GPS-based radio occultation (RO)technique also has the potential to provide, in the
middle to lower troposphere, high resolution
profiles of atmospheric refractivity, combining theeffects of temperature and water vapour in thisregion of the atmosphere.

All of these are being improved as technology
allows. In broad terms the challenges are to
improve vertical resolution of observations andtemporal sampling, to overcome cloud problems
and improve the ability to process sounding dataover land. For instance, NPOESS will feature the
combination of the CrIS interferometer and ATMS
sounder to derive accurate water vapour profiles.

In response to the GCOS IP, CEOS undertook toensure continuity by 2011 of GPS RO
measurements with, at a minimum, the spatial
and temporal coverage established by COSMIC.
CEOS will also continue efforts to exploit thecomplementary aspects of radiometric andgeometric determinations of temperature andmoisture in the upper air.

The 3-dimensional field of humidity is a key
variable for global and regional weather
prediction (NWP) models that are used to produce
short- and medium-range forecasts of the state of
the troposphere and lower stratosphere. Polarsatellites provide information on tropospherichumidity with global coverage, good horizontal
resolution and acceptable accuracy, but with poor
vertical resolution.
In the case of observations for regional NWP
models, polar and (mainly) geostationary
satellites provide estimates of total column water
vapour accurate to within 10–20%. Enoughinformation is collected to infer moistureconcentration within several thick layers
vertically, with good horizontal resolution.
Vertical resolution is marginal for mesoscaleprediction, and the infrared information isavailable only for cloud-free fields of view.
Despite this coarse vertical resolution, the hightemporal resolution of the geostationary satellite
observations allows derivation of products likethe instability index for convective initiation,
which is used for nowcasting applications.

100

Until recently, performance in cloudy areas waspoor, but the new microwave measurements fromAMSU offer substantial improvements.
Geostationary infrared soundings (e.g. by the
GOES sounders and SEVIRI on MSG) are also
helping to expand coverage in some regions bymaking measurements on repeat timescales offifteen minutes to one hour, thus creating more
cloud-free observations. Over oceans, coverage iscurrently supplemented by information on total
column water vapour from microwave imagers.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

ERS series (ATSR/M, ATSR-2, GOME, MWR, RA: 2)
DMSP series (SSM/I, SSM/T-2: F-14, F-15)(SSM/IS: F-16 - F-20)
TRMM (TMI)
GFO (GEOSAT Follow On) (Radar Altimeter, Water Vapor Radiometer)
POES series (ATOVS (HIRS/3 + AMSU + AVHRR/3): 15, 16)(AMSU-B, HIRS/3: 15-17)(AMSU-A: 15-N)(HIRS/4, MHS: 18, N')

2025

Water Vapour

2008

Meteosat series (MVIRI: 6, 7)(SEVIRIR: 8-11)

Terra (MODIS)GOES series (Sounder: 11-P)
CHAMP (CHAMP GPS Sounder)

current/approved

SAC series (GOLPE: C)(Lagrange, Microwave Radiometer (CONAE), ROSA: D/Aquarius)
Odin (SMR)
Jason series (JMR: 1, 2)(AMR: 2)
TIMED (SABER)
Envisat (AATSR, GOMOS, MERIS, MIPAS, MWR, RA-2)
Aqua (AIRS, AMSR-E, AMSU-A, HSB, MODIS)Aura (HiRDLS, MLS (EOS-Aura), TES)
PARASOL (POLDER-P)
CALIPSO (IIR)
EPS series (AMSU-A, GOME-2, GRAS, HIRS/4, IASI, MHS: 1-3)
FY-3 series (IRAS: 3A-3D)(MWRI: 3A-3D)(IMWAS: 3C, 3D)
Meteor series (MTVZA: N1, N2)(IKFS-2, Radiomet: N2)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N1, N2)
COMS series (MI: 1)
Megha-Tropiques (SAPHIR)SARAL (AltiKa)
NPP (ATMS, CrIS)GCOM series (AMSR-2: W1)
Sentinel-3 series (SRAL: A)
NPOESS series (ATMS, CMIS, CrIS: 1, 3, 4) (MIS: 2, 3)
MTG-I (METEOSAT 3G) series (FCI: 1-4)

INSAT series (Sounder (INSAT): 3D)
HY-2 series (RAD: A)
Meteor series (Radiomet: N3)
FY-3 series (IMWAS, IRAS, MWHS, MWRI: 3E-3G)(MVIRS: 3F, 3G)

planned/considered

Sentinel-5 precursor (UVNS (Sentinel-5 precursor))
GCOM series (AMSR-2: W2, W3)(SGLI: C1-C3)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N3)
Sentinel-3 series (SRAL: B, C)
MTG S/Sentinel-4 series (IRS: 4 A, 4 B)
post-EPS/Sentinel-5 series (IRS, UVNS (post-EPS): 1)

101

Atmosphere
Atmospheric Winds
Essential Climate Variables: Upper Air Winds
Measurements of atmospheric winds are ofprimary importance to weather forecasting, andas a variable in the study of global climatechange. Upper air wind speed and direction is abasic element of the climate system that
influences many other variables.
Horizontal wind may be inferred by motion vectors
or by humidity and ozone tracers in geostationary
imagery. Substantial information can be derived bythese methods but quality control is difficult andvertical resolution is poor. Planned instruments forgeostationary satellites promise improved
information, but the limited vertical resolution
and the problems of accurate height assignmentof winds will remain areas to be improved.
For global NWP models, wind profile information– mostly over land – is available mainly fromradiosondes. Satellite Doppler wind lidar
technology is being developed to provide
line-of-sight wind profiles of acceptable coverageand vertical resolution, but thick cloud is alimitation. Geostationary imagers offer windprofile information by cloud tracking, or throughtracking of highly-resolved features in the water
vapour channels in cloud-free areas. Coverage
may be supplemented in future by tracking ozone
features in satellite imagery. Regional NWP
models also rely heavily on radiosondes (overland) and aircraft (over ocean and over the poles)
for atmospheric wind profile measurements, butthey would benefit from improved satellite data.
At present, geostationary multi-channel visible
and infrared imagers, such as INSAT, SEVIRI and
VISSR, are used to measure cloud and water
vapour motion vectors from which troposphericwind estimates may be derived. Atmosphericmotion vectors generated from the global ring ofgeostationary imagers provide improved data interms of coverage, spatial and temporal
resolution, and accuracy of both wind vectors andheight assignment. Though valuable, because
they offer wind information in areas of the world
where otherwise there would be none,
atmospheric wind vectors are single level
observations which are only available where there
are suitable image features to be tracked.
Geostationary satellite measurements have been
recently supplemented by the addition of water
vapour wind motions from polar orbiters (MODIS).
Plans need to be made to continue the polar
orbiting wind measurements.

102

In the longer term, laser instruments such as
Doppler lidars offer the promise of directly
measuring clear air winds and winds within
optically thin aerosol and cloud layers. Althoughsuch active instruments will provide a global
coverage of vertically resolved, highly accurate
measurements, the coverage offered by polar
missions, such as that planned for the
research-oriented ALADIN, is limited tomeasurements twice a day along the satellite
line of sight.
Hyperspectral observations are needed to improvethe vertical resolution of atmospheric motion
vectors derived from geostationary satellite
observations – especially in clear areas. The firstopportunity for these observations may be the IRS
payload on EUMETSAT’s MTG-S-1 mission.
CEOS identified two actions in response to the
GCOS requirements:— to commit to reprocessing the geostationary
satellite data for use in reanalysis projects
before the end of the decade;— to identify options for continuing improvements
to wind determinations demonstrated by MODIS
and to be demonstrated with ALADIN on the
ADM-Aeolus mission.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

POES series (AMSU-B: 15-17)
INSAT series (VHRR: 2E, 3A)
OCEANSAT series (MSMR: 1)
Terra (MISR)
GOES series (ABI: R, S)(Imager: 11-P)

current/approved

Kalpana (VHRR)SCISAT-1 (ACE-FTS)
MTSAT series (JAMI/MTSAT-1R: 1R)(IMAGER/MTSAT-2: 2)

2024

2025

Atmospheric Winds

2008

Meteosat series (MVIRI: 6, 7)(SEVIRI: 8-11)

CALIPSO (CALIOP)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N1, N2)
COMS series (MI: 1)
ADM-Aeolus (ALADIN)
NPP (VIIRS)NPOESS series (VIIRS: 1-4)
MTG-I (METEOSAT 3G) series (FCI: 1-4)

INSAT series (Sounder (INSAT): 3D)
CHINOOK (SWIFT)

planned/considered

FY-4 series (LM, MCSI: O/A-E)
FY-3 series (MVIRS: 3F, 3G)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N3)
MTG S/Sentinel-4 series (IRS: 4 A, 4 B)
post-EPS/Sentinel-5 series (IRS: 1)

103

Atmosphere
Cloud Type, Amount and Cloud Top
Temperature
Essential Climate Variables: Cloud Properties
The study of clouds, their location andcharacteristics, plays a key role in theunderstanding of climate change. Low, thickclouds primarily reflect solar radiation and cool
the surface of the Earth. High, thin clouds
primarily transmit incoming solar radiation, but at
the same time they trap some of the outgoing
infrared radiation emitted by the Earth andradiate it back downward, thereby warming thesurface. The Earth’s climate system constantly
adjusts in a way that tends toward maintaining abalance between the energy that reaches the
Earth from the Sun and the energy that isreradiated from Earth into space. This process isknown as Earth’s ‘radiation budget’. The
components of the Earth System that areimportant to the radiation budget are the planet’s
surface, atmosphere and clouds.
The IPCC points out that even the most advanced
climate models cannot yet simulate all aspects ofclimate, and that there are particular
uncertainties associated with clouds and theirinteraction with radiation and aerosols.
Weather forecasters are able to draw on a rangeof satellite data on clouds in improving models
and in making forecasts. For both global andregional NWP models, satellite instruments offer
detailed information on cloud coverage, type,growth and motion. The coverage is global frompolar orbiting satellites and (with the exception ofhigh latitudes) geostationary satellites. Infrared
imagers and sounders can provide information on
cloud cover and cloud top height with good
horizontal and temporal resolution. Hyperspectral
observations in the 14 mm band are ideal to derive
accurate cloud top height information. For
example, observations in the oxygen A band by
SCIAMACHY, MERIS (Envisat) and GOME-2 (MetOp)
are used to derive cloud top pressure in an
independent way. By using observations in the
NIR part of the spectrum, for example from
AVHRR observations, bulk cloud properties such as
liquid water content can be derived.
Passive microwave imagers and sounders (SSM/I,
AMSU/B, MHS) give information on cloud liquidwater, cloud ice and precipitation. Microwave
information is valuable for regional mesoscalemodels which have sophisticated parameterisationof cloud physics. In the context of nowcasting andvery short range forecasting, meteorologicalsatellite data are well suited to monitoring the
rapid development of precipitation-generating
systems in space and time.

104

In the field of climate research, the MODIS andMISR spectroradiometers on the Terra mission areenabling viewing of cloud features at higher
resolutions than were previously available. MODIS
measurements allow more precise determinationof the contribution which clouds make to thegreenhouse warming of the Earth. MISR isobserving angles at which sunlight is reflectedfrom clouds. These observations are critical in
support of new research on the radiative
properties of clouds. Also on the Terra mission,
the ASTER radiometer, which measures visible andinfrared wavelengths, complements the other
instruments by providing high resolution views ofspecific targets of interest.
For weather forecasting, satellite instruments willcontinue to offer a wealth of useful information
on clouds. On polar orbiting missions, HIRS,AMSU-A, MHS and IASI offer improved
information on clouds. Geostationary imagers andsounders (on MSG, GOES, Elektro-L, INSAT, MTSAT
and FY-3 series) will contribute to retrieval of
information about cloud cover, cloud top
temperature, cloud top pressure and cloud type,
and will be close to meeting regional NWP
modelling needs for these variables. Retrievals will
not only comprise the temperature and moistureprofiles, but also fractional cloud cover, cloud top
height, cloud top pressure, surface temperatureand surface emissivity from both infrared andmicrowave soundings.
The increased use of imagery data to determine
cloud amount will improve the performance andthe number of retrieved profiles. In general, IASI
will increase sounding performance to a level verysignificant for global and regional NWP. On the
NPOESS series of satellites, parameters that may
be derived from VIIRS will include cloud cover.
The WCRP International Satellite Cloud
Climatology Project (ISCCP) has developed acontinuous data record of infrared and visible
radiances since 1983, utilising both geostationary
and low Earth orbiting meteorological satellite
data. A range of products have been derived, but
unfortunately the record suffers frominhomogeneities. Reprocessing the data to
account for orbital drift and other issues hashelped reduce uncertainties in the observations.
The active satellite instruments on board
CloudSat, CALIPSO and EarthCARE will be crucial
for the validation of cloud parameters observed bypassive instruments, in particular cloud top
height and type. EarthCARE will provide new
insights by observing with lidar, radar,
multi-spectral imager and a broad-band
radiometer in synergy.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

Meteosat series (MVIRI: 6, 7)(SEVIRI: 8-11)
ERS series (ATSR-2, GOME: 2)
DMSP series (OLS: F-14 - 20)
TRMM (VIRS)POES series (ATOVS (HIRS/3 + AMSU + AVHRR/3): 15, 16)(AMSU-B, HIRS/3: 15-17)(AMSU-A: 15-N)(AVHRR/3: 15-N')(HIRS/4, MHS: 18, N')
INSAT series (CCD camera, VHRR: 2E, 3A)
Terra (ASTER, MISR, MODIS)GOES series (Imager, Sounder: 11-P)(ABI: R, S)
Envisat (AATSR, MERIS, SCIAMACHY)
Aqua (AIRS, AMSU-A, MODIS)FY-1 series (MVISR (10 channels): 1D)
Kalpana (VHRR)
ICESat (GLAS)
Aura (HiRDLS, OMI)

current/approved

FY-2 series (IVISSR (FY-2): 2C-2F)
MTSAT series (JAMI/MTSAT-1R: 1R)(IMAGER/MTSAT-2: 2)
CloudSat (CPR (CloudSat))CALIPSO (CALIOP, IIR, WFC)EPS series (AMSU-A, AVHRR/3, GOME-2, HIRS/4, IASI, MHS: 1-3)
FY-3 series (IRAS, MWRI, VIRR: 3A-3D)
RapidEye (MSI)
HJ series (HSI (HJ-1A): 1A)

2025

Cloud Type, Amount and Cloud Top Temperature

2008

Landsat series (TM: 5)(ETM+: 7)(OLI: 8)

Meteor series (KMSS, MSU-MR, MTVZA: N1, N2)(IKFS-2: N2)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N1, N2)
GOSAT (TANSO-CAI)COMS series (MI: 1)
Megha-Tropiques (MADRAS, SAPHIR, ScaRaB)
NPP (VIIRS)CBERS series (PAN: 3, 4)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: A)
NPOESS series (VIIRS: 1-4)
EarthCARE (ATLID, CPR (EarthCARE), MSI (EarthCARE))
MTG-I (METEOSAT 3G) series (FCI: 1-4)

FY-3 series (MVIRS: 3F, 3G)(IRAS, MWRI, VIRR: 3E-G)
FY-4 series (MCSI: O/A-E)
Sentinel-5 precursor (UVNS (Sentinel-5 precursor))planned/considered

GCOM series (SGLI: C1-3)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N3)
ICESat-II (GLAS Follow-on)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: B, C)
MTG S/Sentinel-4 series (UVN (Sentinel-4): 4A, 4B)
post-EPS/Sentinel-5 series (UVNS (post-EPS): 1)

105

Atmosphere
Cloud Particle Properties and Profile
Essential Climate Variables: Cloud Properties
A key to predicting climate change is to observeand understand the global distribution of clouds,
their physical properties – such as thickness anddroplet size – and their relationship to regionaland global climate. Whether a particular cloud will
heat or cool the Earth’s surface depends on thecloud’s radiating temperature – and thus its height– and on its albedo for both visible and infrared
radiation, which depends on the number anddetails of the cloud properties. As clouds interact
with radiation at all wavelengths, a multitude ofobservations can be used to infer cloud properties.
Because clouds change rapidly over short time andspace intervals, they are difficult to quantify fromlow Earth orbits. High temporal sampling provided
by geostationary satellites is better suited tomonitor rapidly changing conditions, albeit on aregional scale. Full 3D observations of cloud
structure is a new capability that has been
provided by CloudSat and CALIPSO since 2006 andwill eventually be offered by ESA’s planned
EarthCARE mission. Together, these missions arecapable of measuring the vertical structure of alarge fraction of clouds and precipitation, fromvery thin cirrus clouds to thunderstorms producing
heavy precipitation. However, the CALIPSO lidar isunable to penetrate thick clouds and the radar on
CloudSat cannot penetrate heavier rain.
Traditionally basic macro- and micro-physicalinformation on the structure of clouds (i.e.
determination of whether water or ice particles
are present) is being obtained from VIS and IR
multi-spectral imagery, such as that provided by
MODIS and MISR on Terra in LEO, and GOES and
SEVIRI in GEO. These measurements are importantfor climate purposes as the structure of clouds(particle size and phase) greatly affects their
optical properties, and hence their albedo. Thishas been demonstrated by the WCRPInternational Satellite Cloud Climatology Project
which, since 1983, has provided a record of cloudproperties derived from multi-spectral VIS/IR
imagery observations that were initially collected
for operational meteorological applications.
Together with cloud top temperatures,information on the 3D structure of clouds can beused as a basic tool for the real time surveillanceof features such as thunderstorms. Microwave
observations provided by instruments such as
AMSR-E on Aqua, SSM/I on DMSP and AMSU-A,
and MHS on NOAA and EUMETSAT polar

106

platforms, have enhanced capabilities over the VIS
and IR multi-spectral observations through theirability to probe the entire cloud and not only thecloud top. However, one limitation of thesesensors is their coarse spatial resolution.
Additional phase and cloud particle information isavailable from polarimetric radiometers such as
POLDER and from the polarisation measurement
devices of SCIAMACHY on Envisat and GOME-2 on
MetOp. As these instruments observe the
UV-VIS-NIR part of the spectrum at moderate
spectral resolution, very accurate information on
macro-physical cloud properties can be obtained.
However, for detailed process studies, the users’
requirements for cloud data are unlikely to be met
until data from instruments such as ATLID or the
cloud profiling radar on EarthCARE become
available.
A good example of international cooperation is
the multiple satellite constellation comprising
CloudSat, Aqua, Aura, CALIPSO and PARASOL,
which has flown in orbital formation since April
2006. Its objectives are to gather data needed toevaluate and improve the way clouds are
represented in global models, and to develop a
more complete knowledge of their poorly
understood role in climate change and thecloud-climate feedback. CloudSat maintains atight formation with CALIPSO, with a goal ofoverlapping measurement footprints at least 50%of the time. CALIPSO carries a dual-wavelength,polarisation-sensitive lidar that provides highresolution vertical profiles of aerosols and clouds.
CloudSat and CALIPSO maintain a somewhatlooser formation behind Aqua, which carries avariety of passive microwave, infrared, and optical
instruments.
EarthCARE (launch 2013) will fly a cloud/aerosol
lidar, cloud radar, multi-channel imager andbroad-band radiometer for measuring clouds andaerosols simultaneously with TOA radiances.
In responding to the GCOS IP, CEOS recognisedthat accurate measurement of cloud properties
has proved to be exceedingly difficult. CEOS
agreed to support investigations of cloudproperties and cloud trends from combined
satellite imager and sounder measurements (withhorizontal as well as vertical information) using
Cloudsat/CALIPSO for validation.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

TRMM (TMI)
POES series (AMSU-B, HIRS/3: 15-17)(AMSU-A: 15-N)(MHS: 18, N')
Terra (MODIS)
Envisat (MERIS, SCIAMACHY)
Aqua (AMSR-E, AMSU-A, HSB, MODIS)ICESat (GLAS)SCISAT-1 (ACE-FTS, MAESTRO)
FY-2 series (IVISSR (FY-2): 2C-2F)
CloudSat (CPR (CloudSat))current/approved

CALIPSO (IIR)
EPS series (AMSU-A, MHS: 1-3)
FY-3 series (MWIR: 3A-3D)
Meteor series (IKFS-2: N2)(MTVZA: N1, N2)
Megha-Tropiques (MADRAS, SAPHIR)
Glory (APS)
NPP (ATMS, VIIRS)

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Cloud Particle Properties and Profile

2008

DMSP series (SMM/I, SMM/T-1, SMM/T-2: F-14, 15)

GCOM series (AMSR-2: W1)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: A)
NPOESS series (APS: 1)(ATMS, CMIS: 1, 3, 4)(MIS: 2, 3)(VIIRS: 1-4)
EarthCARE (ATLID, CPR (EarthCARE), MSI (EarthCARE))
GOES series (ABI: R, S)
MTG-I (METEOSAT 3G) series (FCI: 1-4)

FY-3 series (MWRI: 3E-3G)

planned/considered

ICESat-II (GLAS Follow-on)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: B, C)
GCOM series (AMSR-2: W2, W3)107

Atmosphere
Liquid Water and Precipitation Rate
Essential Climate Variables: Precipitation and
Cloud Properties
Water forms one of the most important
constituents of the Earth’s atmosphere and isessential for human existence. The global water
cycle is at the heart of the Earth’s climate system,
and better predictions of its behaviour are needed
for monitoring climate variability and change,
weather forecasting and sustainable developmentof the world’s water resources. A better
understanding of the current distribution of
precipitation, and of how it might be affected byclimate change, is vital in support of accurate
predictions of regional drought or flooding.
Information on liquid water and precipitation rateis used for initialising NWP models. A variety ofsatellites provide complete global NWP coverage,
but they present two major challenges. Firstly, thesatellite sensors (such as visible/IR imagers on
geostationary weather satellites) typically observe
quantities (such as cloud height and cloud top
temperature) related to precipitation, so
algorithms must be developed to get the best
estimates from each particular sensor. Secondly,
the mix of available data is constantly changing inspace and time.
The new generation of geostationary imagers,
available since the start of EUMETSAT’s Meteosat
Second Generation, also allows for theobservation of cloud liquid water path andparticle size at high temporal resolution (15 min).
Microwave imagers and sounders (e.g. AMSR-E)
offer information on precipitation of marginal
horizontal and temporal resolution, acceptable tomarginal accuracy (though validation is difficult).
Satellite-borne rain radars (e.g. on TRMM andCloudSat), together with plans for constellationsof microwave imagers, offer most potential for
improved observations. For regional NWP, nosatisfactory precipitation estimates are available
from satellites at present, although they are theonly potential source of information over theoceans. Geostationary satellites do provide vital
information on the location of tropical cyclones.
Increasing amounts of useful microwave data –such as those from the TRMM mission – arebecoming available. TRMM was dedicated to
studying tropical and sub-tropical rainfall andcarried the first spaceborne precipitation radar,
JAXA’s PR instrument, and NASA’s TMI microwave
imager. Data from PR and TMI have provided new
insights into the internal composition of tropicalthunderstorms associated with hurricanes. NASA,
JAXA and partner agencies plan to continue this108

collaboration in future to develop the Global
Precipitation Measurement (GPM) constellation ofsatellites that will launch from 2013 onwards. The
GPM series will provide global observations ofprecipitation every three hours to help develop
the understanding of the global structure of
rainfall and its impact on climate. The CNES-ISRO
Megha-Tropiques mission will provide further
measurements of tropical rainfall; MADRAS, apassive multi-frequency radiometer, will collectdata on rain over the oceans.
The 94 GHz cloud radars on CloudSat and(from 2013) EarthCARE provide complimentary
information on light precipitation. EarthCARE’s
Doppler capability will provide additional detailon sedimentation velocities.
The CMIS microwave imager/sounder on NOAA's
NPOESS missions will be sensitive to various
forms of water and moisture in the atmosphereand clouds, and will provide an all weather
measurement capability.
Future coordination of these satellite
programmes, as well as the efforts of the in situ
measurement community, was addressed by the
Integrated Global Water Cycle Observations
Theme (IGWCO) of the IGOS Partnership. The firstelement of IGWCO is a ‘Coordinated Enhanced
Observing Period (CEOP)’ which is taking theopportunity of the simultaneous operation of key
satellites of Europe, Japan and USA to generate
new data sets of the water cycle.
The IGWCO Theme report is available fromwww.igospartners.org. This document represents
a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art
in water cycle observations and formulates
recommendations for an international work
programme to better understand, monitor andpredict water processes.
To meet GCOS IP needs, CEOS agencies will ensure
continued improvements to precipitation
determinations demonstrated by TRMM andplanned by GPM from 2013. JAXA and NASA are
leading a CEOS study team to establish the basis
for a future Global Precipitation Constellation –building on GPM to incorporate measurementsfrom more countries over an extended period.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

ERS series (ATSR-2: 2)
DMSP series (SSM/I, SSM/T-2: F-14,15)(SSM/IS: F-16 - 20)
TRMM (PR, TMI)
POES series (ATOVS (HIRS/3 + AMSU + AVHRR/3): 15, 16)(AMSU-A: 15-N)(AVHRR/3: 15-N')(MHS: 18, N')
INSAT series (VHRR: 2E, 3A)
OCEANSAT series (MSMR: 1)
GEOS series (Imager, Sounder: 11-P)(ABI: R, S)
Envisat (AATSR)
Aqua (AIRS, AMSR-E, AMSU-A)

current/approved

Kalpana (VHRR)
FY-2 series (IVISSR (FY-2): 2C-2F)
MTSAT series (JAMI/MTSAT-1R: 1R)(IMAGER/MTSAT-2: 2)
CloudSat (CPR (CloudSat))EPS series (MHS: 1, 2)(AMSU-A, AVHRR/3: 1-3)
FY-3 series (MWRI: 3A-3D)
Meteor series (MSU-MR, MTVZA: N1, N2)

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Liquid Water and Precipitation Rate

2008

Meteosat series (MVIRI: 6, 7)(SEVIRI: 8-11)

GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N1, N2)
COMS series (MI: 1)
Megha-Tropiques (MADRAS, SAPHIR)
SAC series (Microwave Radiometer (CONAE): D/Aquarius)
NPP (ATMS)GCOM series (AMSR-2: W1)
NPOESS series (ATMS, CMIS: 1, 3, 4)(MIS: 2, 3)
GPM series (GMI: Br)
MTG-I (METEOSAT 3G) series (FCI: 1-4)

FY-3 series (MVIRS: 3F, 3G)(MWRI: 3E-G)

planned/considered

GPM Core (DPR, GMI)
GPM Constellation (GMI)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N3)
GCOM series (AMSR-2: W2, W3)109

Atmosphere
Ozone
Essential Climate Variables: Ozone
Ozone (O 3) is a relatively unstable molecule, andalthough it represents only a tiny fraction of theatmosphere, it is crucial for life on Earth.
Depending on its location, ozone can protect orharm life on Earth. Most ozone resides in thestratosphere, where it acts as a shield to protect
the surface from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet
radiation. In the troposphere, ozone is a harmful
pollutant which causes damage to lung tissue andplants. Man-made chemicals and weather
conditions over Antarctica combine to deplete
stratospheric ozone concentrations during thesouthern hemisphere’s winter.
The total amount of O 3 in the troposphere isestimated to have increased by 36% since 1750,
due primarily to anthropogenic emissions ofseveral O 3-forming gases.
Satellite instruments have for many years
provided data measuring interactions within theatmosphere that affect ozone, and more advanced
sensors will soon be in orbit to collect moredetailed measurements, increasing knowledge ofhow human activities are affecting the protective
ozone layer.
Total column measurements of ozone have been
provided over long periods by NASA’s TOMS andNOAA’s SBUV instruments. Stratospheric ozone
profiles have also been measured by instruments
such as HALOE and MLS (UARS mission), GOME
(ERS-2), and SAGE III (part of the International
Space Station payload).
Since launch in March 2002, GOMOS, MIPAS andSCIAMACHY on ESA’s Envisat mission have provided
improved observations of the concentration ofozone and trace gases in the stratosphere.
Operation of GOME-2 on EUMETSAT’s MetOp
satellites guarantees the continuity of theseobservations for another decade.

110

A wide range of instruments dedicated to, or
capable of, ozone measurements are planned forthe next decade. On the recently launched Auramission, HIRDLS, OMI and MLS study and monitor
atmospheric processes which govern stratosphericand mesopheric ozone, and continue the TOMS
record of total ozone measurements. TES on Aura isused to create three-dimensional maps of ozone
concentrations in the troposphere. AIRS on Aqua
(and, in future, CrIS on NPP/NPOESS) also supplies
an ozone product that has some application in thelower stratosphere and also can be used to identify
regions of stratospheric/tropospheric mixing.
IASI and GOME-2 on the MetOp series haveprovided information since early 2007 on both
total column ozone and vertical profile. The Ozone
Profiler on China’s FY-3 series will contribute
further data continuously from 2008. Though theinfrared imagers on the GOES and Meteosat
geostationary platforms have limited capabilities
to provide vertical information on ozone, they
provide total stratospheric ozone amount with ahigh temporal resolution. This information can beused to depict stratospheric dynamical processes,
relevant for NWP applications.
The IGOS theme on Atmospheric Chemistry
Observations (IGACO) has developed a strategy forthe integrated provision of chemistry observations(and associated meteorological parameters)
required to realise the theme’s objectives, including
the monitoring of atmospheric composition
parameters related to climate change.
The CEOS response to the GCOS IP acknowledgedthat profiles of ozone were to be addressed by the
NPOESS OMPS, but that instrument has been
removed from the payload manifest. Furthermore,
the discontinuation of solar occultation
measurements will profoundly impact one of theclimate data record pillars of ozone assessments.
CEOS agencies will participate in re-planning the
OMPS limb instrument removed from the planned
payload of NPOESS.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

POES series (ATOVS (HIRS/3 + AMSU + AVHRR/3): 15, 16)(HIRS/3: 15-17)(HIRS/4: 18, N')(SBUV/2: 16-N')
Terra (MODIS)

2025

Ozone

2008

ERS series (ATSR-2, GOME: 2)

GOES series (Sounder: 11-P)
Odin (OSIRIS, SMR)
TIMED (SABER)

current/approved

Envisat (GOMOS, MIPAS, SCIAMACHY)
Aqua (AIRS, MODIS)
Meteosat series (SEVIRI: 8 -11)
SCISAT-1 (ACE-FTS, MAESTRO)
Aura (HiRDLS, MLS (EOS-Aura), OMI, TES)CALIPSO (IIR)
EPS series (GOME-2, HIRS/4, IASI: 1-3)
FY-3 series (IRAS, TOU/SBUS: 3A-3D)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N1, N2)
Meteor series (IKFS-2: N2)
NPP (OMPS)MTG-I (METEOSAT 3G) series (FCI: 1-4)
NPOESS series (OMPS: 3, 4)

CHINOOK (SWIFT)
FY-3 series (IRAS, TOU/SBUS: 3E-G)

planned/considered

Sentinel-5 precursor (UVNS (Sentinel-5 precursor))
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N3)
MTG S/Sentinel-4 series (UVN (Sentinel-4): 4A, 4B)
post-EPS/Sentinel-5 series (UVNS (post-EPS): 1)

111

Atmosphere
Radiation Budget
Essential Climate Variables: Earth Radiation Budget(Including Solar Irradiance)
The Earth’s radiation budget is the balance within
the climate system between the energy thatreaches the Earth from the Sun and the energythat returns from Earth to space. Satellite
measurements offer a unique means of assessing
the Earth’s radiation budget. The goal of suchmeasurements is to determine the amount ofenergy emitted and reflected by the Earth. This isnecessary to understand the processes by which
the atmosphere, land and oceans transfer energy
to achieve global radiative equilibrium, which inturn is necessary to simulate and predict climate.
Systematic observations of the Earth Systemenergy balance components are noted by the IPCC
as being of key importance in narrowing theuncertainties associated with the climate system.
In addition to these continuous global
measurements of the radiation budget, which arenecessary both to estimate any long term climatic
trends and shorter term variations overlying thesetrends, measurements on a regional scale areuseful to understand better the dynamics of
certain events or phenomena and to assess theeffect of climate change, for example on
agriculture and urban areas.
In general, three types of measurements are
currently possible:— the shortwave and longwave radiation budget
at the top of the atmosphere;— the shortwave radiation budget at the Earth’s
surface;— the total incoming broadband radiation flux.
Since the mid-1960s, NASA has been measuring
the net radiation with the ERBE, ACRIM, and
CERES sensors. The MISR spectroradiometer (alsoon Terra with CERES) provides data on the top of
the atmosphere, cloud and surface hemispheric
albedos, and aerosol opacity. Continuity of Total
Solar Irradiance (TSI) measurements was assured
by the launch of the SORCE mission at the
beginning of 2003, carrying 4 instruments (TIM,
SOLSTICE, SIM, XPS) that operate over the
1 nm–2000 nm waveband and measure over 95%
of the spectral contribution to TSI. ESA’s
EarthCARE will embark a broadband radiometer(BBR) together with instruments providing profile
information (ATLID, CPR).

112

The French-Indian mission Megha-Tropiques(2009) will carry the broadband ScaRaB
radiometer, similar to the instrument flown in the
mid-1990s on the Russian Meteor satellites, for
ERB measurements over the tropical andequatorial regions.
An increasing number of radiation budget
measurements are featuring on operational
meteorology missions. These include: GERB
(operating since September 2002 on Meteosat
and measuring shortwave and longwave radiation
every 15 minutes from a geostationary orbit); TSIS
on NPOESS; and continued narrowband
information from the HIRS, AVHRR, SEVIRI (top of
atmosphere and surface radiative fluxes) and
VIIRS instruments.
An important component of the Earth Radiation
Budget is the Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR).
This is calculated from multi-spectral infrared
imager observations, such as those from AVHRR orimagers on geostationary platforms.
The past multi-satellite record of measurements
suffers from an absence of absolute calibration. It
is recognised that development of absolute,
spectrally resolved measurements is needed toprovide information on variations in climate
forcings and responses, and to calibrate theoperational meteorological satellite sensors. In
addition, there is the likelihood of a measurements
gap after 2020; the recent change in NPOESS plansfor climate-relevant measurements calls for
coordinated re-planning efforts.
In support of the GCOS IP, CEOS aims by 2011 to
make absolute, spectrally resolved measurementsof radiance emitted and reflected to space by the
Earth for information on variations in bothclimate forcings and responses. CEOS agencies
will also participate in re-planning ERBS removed
from the planned payload of NPOESS.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

TRMM (CERES, VIRS)
SPOT series (HRVIR: 4)(HRG, HRS: 5)(VEGITATION: 4, 5)
POES series (AMSU-A, HIRS/3: 15-17)(AVHRR/3: 15-N')(SBUV/2: 16-N')(HIRS/4: 18, N')
INSAT series (VHRR: 2E, 3A)
Landsat series (ETM+: 7) (OLI: 8)
Terra (ASTER, CERES, MISR)
ACRIMSAT (ACRIM III)

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Radiation Budget

2008

ERS series (ATSR-2, GOME: 2)

GOES series (ABI: R, S)(Imager: 11-P)
NMP series (ALI, Hyperion: 1)
PROBA (CHRIS)
Envisat (AATSR, MERIS, SCIAMACHY)
Aqua (AIRS, AMSR-E, AMSU-A, CERES)
FY-1 series (MVISR (10 channels): 1D)
Meteosat series (GERB, SEVIRI: 8-11)
Kalpana (VHRR)
SORCE (SIM, SOLSTICE, TIM)
UK-DMC (DMC Imager)current/approved

FY-2 series (IVISSR (FY-2): 2C-F)
MTSAT series (JAMI/MTSAT-1R: 1R)(IMAGER/MTSAT-2: 2)
TopSat (TOPSAT Telescope)
CloudSat (CPR (CloudSat))CALIPSO (IIR)
EPS series (AMSU-A, AVHRR/3, GOME-2, HIRS/4, IASI: 1-3)
FY-3 series (ERM: 3A, 3B)(IRAS: 3A-D)
HJ series (HSI (HJ-1A): 1A)
UK-DMC2 (DMC-2 Imager)
Meteor series (MSU-MR: N1, N2)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N1, N2)
PICARD (PREMOS, SODISM, SOVAP)
Megha-Tropiques (ScaRaB)
Glory (TIM)
NPP (CERES, VIIRS)
Sentinel-2 series (MSI (Sentinel-2): A)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: A)
NPOESS series (RSIS: 1, 3, 4)(VIIRS: 1-4)
EarthCARE (BBR (EarthCARE))
MTG-I (METEOSAT 3G) series (FCI: 1-4)

planned/considered

FY-3 series (IRAS: 3E-G)
Sentinel-2 series (MSI (Sentinel-2): B, C)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N3)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: B, C)

113

Atmosphere
Trace Gases (Excluding Ozone)
Essential Climate Variables: Carbon Dioxide, Methane
and Other Greenhouse Gases
Trace gases other than ozone may be divided into
three categories:— greenhouse gases affecting climate change;— chemically aggressive gases affecting theenvironment (including the biosphere);— gases and radicals impacting on the ozone cycle,
thereby affecting both climate and environment.
The presence of trace gases in the atmosphere canhave a significant effect on global change as well as
potentially harmful local effects through increased
levels of pollution. The chemical composition of thetroposphere, in particular, is changing at an
unprecedented rate. Meanwhile, the rate at which
pollutants from human activities are being emitted
into the troposphere is now thought to exceed thatfrom natural sources (such as volcanic eruptions).
As explained in Part I of this document, the IPCC
noted in 2007 that:— changes in atmospheric concentrations ofgreenhouse gases and aerosols, land cover andsolar radiation alter the energy balance of theclimate system;— global greenhouse gas emissions due to humanactivities have grown since pre-industrial times,
with an increase of 70% between 1970 and 2004;— carbon dioxide (CO 2) is the most important
anthropogenic greenhouse gas. Its annual
emissions grew by about 80% between 1970
and 2004.
The IPCC concluded that “most of the observed
increase in globally averaged temperatures since
the mid-20 th century is very likely (over 90%
probability) due to the observed increase inanthropogenic (man-made) greenhouse gas
concentrations”. They consider that reductions ingreenhouse gas emissions and the gases that
control their concentration would be necessary tostabilise radiative forcing.
Measurements from satellite sensors have alreadymade an important contribution to the recognition
that human activities are modifying the chemicalcomposition of both the stratosphere and thetroposphere, even in remote regions.
A variety of instruments provide measurements on
the concentration of trace gases. In general, highspectral resolution is required to detect absorption,
emission and scattering from individual species.
Some instruments offer measurements of column

114

totals, i.e. integrated column measurements, whilst
others provide profiles of gas concentration
through the atmosphere (usually limited to theupper troposphere and stratosphere, using limb
measurements).
To date, the instruments on UARS (operated
1991–2005) have provided the most significant
source of data on trace gases and have been vitalfor studies of stratospheric chlorine chemistry,
stratospheric tracer-tracer correlation,
tropospheric water vapour, the chemistry of the
Arctic lower stratosphere in winter, andtropospheric aircraft exhaust studies.
The last few years have seen the arrival of new
and significant capabilities, with advanced
instruments on Terra (MOPITT, providing global
measurements of carbon monoxide and methane
in the troposphere), and Envisat (GOMOS, MIPAS
and SCIAMACHY, providing profiles of trace gases
through the stratosphere and troposphere). AIRS
(on Aqua) and IASI (on MetOp) also contribute tosuch information and their sounder products canhelp quantify atmospheric mixing and help
determine sources and sinks.
On NASA’s Aura mission, HiRDLS, an infraredlimb-scanning radiometer, carries out soundings of
the upper troposphere, stratosphere andmesosphere to determine concentrations of tracegases, with horizontal and vertical resolutions
superior to those previously obtained. On the same
mission, MLS measures concentrations of tracegases for their effects on ozone depletion, TES
provides a primary input to a database of 3D
distribution on global, regional and local scales ofgases important to tropospheric chemistry, andOMI continues the TOMS record for atmosphericparameters related to ozone chemistry and climate.
JAXA’s GOSAT mission (from 2008) and NASA’s OCO
mission (also from 2008) are expected to makesignificant contributions to observations of tracegases, particularly carbon dioxide and methane.
The IGOS IGACO Theme for observations ofatmospheric chemistry has considered all relevant
chemical species to interpret properly theobservations and intends to monitor the researchrequired to improve understanding of Earthprocesses so that air quality evolution can bepredicted. ESA is considering atmosphericcomposition missions (such as TRAQ, PREMIER and
A-SCOPE) to meet these needs.
The CEOS Response to the GCOS IP cautions that
demonstrations of potential future operational
measurements are neither complemented byplans for operational implementation nor any
R&D follow-on. CEOS agencies will participate inplanning, by 2011, the current chemistry missions
and those planned for the next 5 to 7 years.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

Terra (MOPITT)
Odin (OSIRIS, SMR)
TIMED (SABER)

current/approved

Envisat (GOMOS, MIPAS, SCIAMACHY)
Aqua (AIRS)SCISAT-1 (ACE-FTS, MAESTRO)
Aura (HiRDLS, MLS (EOS-Aura), OMI, TES)CALIPSO (IIR)
EPS series (GOME-2, IASI: 1-3)
OCO (Spectrometer (OCO))GOSAT (TANSO-FTS)
Meteor series (IKFS-2: N2)

2025

Trace Gases (Excluding Ozone)

2008

ERS series (GOME: 2)

planned/considered

FY-4 series (LM: O/A-E)
Sentinel-5 precursor (UVNS (Sentinel-5 precursor))
MTG S/Sentinel-4 series (UVN (Sentinel-4): 4A, 4B)
post-EPS/Sentinel-5 series (UVNS (post-EPS): 1)

115

Land
Albedo and Reflectance
Essential Climate Variables: Albedo
Albedo is the fraction of solar energy that isdiffusely reflected back from Earth to space.
Measurements of albedo are essential for climate
research studies and investigations of the Earth’s
energy budget.
Different parts of the Earth have different albedos.
For example, ocean surfaces and rain forests have
low albedos, which means that they reflect only asmall portion of the Sun’s energy. Deserts, ice andclouds, however, have high albedos; they reflect alarge portion of the incoming solar energy. The
high albedo of ice helps to insulate the polar
oceans from solar radiation. Over the wholesurface of the Earth, about 30% of incoming solar
energy is reflected back to space. Because a cloudusually has a higher albedo than the surface
beneath it, clouds reflect more shortwave
radiation back to space than the surface would in
the absence of the cloud, thus leaving less solar
energy available to heat the surface andatmosphere. Hence, this ‘cloud albedo forcing’,
taken by itself, tends to cause a cooling or‘negative forcing’ of the Earth’s climate.
Surface albedo can be estimated from shortwave,
broadband or multi-spectral radiometermeasurements with good horizontal resolution.
Current measurements of albedo and reflectanceare obtained primarily using multi-spectral
imagers such as AATSR, AVHRR, MODIS, MERIS,
Vegetation and instruments on somegeostationary satellites (such as MSG).
Clouds, aerosols and atmospheric gases affect theachievable accuracy, which is currently marginal
to acceptable, but should improve as progress ismade in interpreting data from high resolution,
multi-spectral instruments. Surface conditions(moisture, surface vegetation, snow cover etc.)
strongly affect albedo and high quality groundtruth data is necessary in support of satellite
measurements. Better understanding of thereflectance properties of different surfaces andmore accurate aerosol data (to correct
atmospheric effects) are needed to improvesurface reflectance measurements.

116

As aerosol concentration increases within a cloud,more cloud droplets form. Since the total amountof condensed water in a cloud does not changemuch, the average droplet becomes smaller. Thishas two consequences: clouds with smaller
droplets reflect more sunlight and such clouds
last longer. Both effects increase the amount ofsunlight that is reflected to space without
reaching the surface.
The Terra spacecraft is yielding greater knowledgeof such cloud/aerosol effects, with MODIS andMISR providing data on cloud features, and ASTER
providing complementary, high spatial resolution
measurements. Terra’s data provide new insights
into how clouds modulate the atmosphere andsurface temperature. Further multi-directional
and polarimetric instruments (e.g. POLDER) also
provide measurements leading to better
estimates of albedo.
New sensors, such as GERB and SEVIRI on board
the MSG missions (starting with Meteosat-8) areproviding improved capabilities for measuring
surface albedo. Improved sounder performance
will yield more information on the infrared surface
emissivity spectrum. Multi-spectral imaging
sensors such as AVHRR/3, IVISSR and AWIFS will
provide global visible, near-infrared and infrared
imagery of clouds, ocean and land surfaces.
CEOS has undertaken to improve the continuity ofterrestrial climate monitoring throughenhancements to the moderate-resolution
historical record. AVHRR data reprocessing will be
undertaken to ensure a consistent data set tocontribute to historical albedo. CEOS will also work
to enhance the quality of the Fundamental Climate
Data Records generated from the AVHRR record.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

SPOT series (HRV: 2)(HRVIR: 4)(VEGETATION: 4, 5)(HRG, HRS: 5)
ERS series (AMI/SAR/Image, ATSR-2: 2)
RADARSAT series (SAR(RADARSAT): 1)(SAR(RADARSAT-2): 2)
IRS series (LISS-III (IRS), PAN (IRS-1C/1D), WiFS): 1D)
POES series (AVHRR/3: 15-18, N')
INSAT series (CCD camera: 2E, 3A)
Terra (ASTER, MISR, MODIS)NMP series (ALI, Hyperion: 1)
SAC series (HRTC, MMRS: C)
PROBA (CHRIS)

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Albedo and Reflectance2008

Landsat series (TM: 5)(ETM+: 7)(OLI: 8)

Envisat (AATSR, ASAR, ASAR (image mode), MERIS)
Aqua (MODIS)FY-1 series (MVISR (10 channels): 1D)
UK-DMC (DMC Imager)
Nigeriasat series (NigeriaSat Medium Resolution: 1)(NigeriaSat Medium and High Resolution: 2)

current/approved

RESOURCESAT series (AWiFS, LISS-III (RESOURCESAT), LISS-IV: 1)
CBERS series (CCD, IR-MSS, WFI: 2, 2B)(IRS, PAN, WFI-2: 3, 4)
FY-2 series (IVISSR (FY-2): 2C-F)
PARASOL (POLDER-P)
CARTOSAT series (PAN (Cartosat-1): 1)(PAN (Cartosat-2): 2)
MONITOR series: (PSA, RDSA: E)
TopSat (TOPSAT telescope)BJ-1 series: (MSI (BJ-1), PAN (BJ-1): 1)
ALOS (AVNIR-2, PALSAR, PRISM)
Resurs series (Geoton-L1: DK)
KOMPSAT series (MSC: 2)
EPS series (AVHRR/3: 1-3)
HY-1 series (CZI: B)
COSMO Skymed series (SAR 2000: 1-4)
TerraSAR-X (X-Band SAR)
IMS-1 (MxT)
FY-3 series (VIRR: 3A-D)
THEOS (MS (GISTDA), PAN (GISTDA))
RapidEye (MSI)
HJ series (CCD (HJ, HY): 1A, 1B)(HSI (HJ-1A): 1A)(IR (HJ-1B): 1B)(S-band SAR: 1C)
UK-DMC2 (DMC-2 Imager)
Meteor series (KMSS, MSR-MR: N1, N2)
SICH series (MBEI, MIREI: 2)
COMS series (MI: 1)
SumbandilaSat (SumbandilaSat Imager)
RISAT series (SAR (RISAT): 1)
RASAT (RASAT VIS Multispectral, RASAT VIS, Panchromatic)
TanDEM-X (X-Band SAR)
KANOPUS-V series (MSS (Roskosmos), MSU-200, PSS: N1)
Pleiades series (HiRI: 1, 2)
NPP (VIIRS)VENUS (VSC)

current/app

SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 1A, 1B)
PRISMA (HYC)117

HJ series (CCD (HJ, HY): 1A, 1B)(HSI (HJ-1A): 1A)(IR (HJ-1B): 1B)(S-band SAR: 1C)
UK-DMC2 (DMC-2 Imager)
Meteor series (KMSS, MSR-MR: N1, N2)
SICH series (MBEI, MIREI: 2)
COMS series (MI: 1)

Land

SumbandilaSat (SumbandilaSat Imager)
RISAT series (SAR (RISAT): 1)
RASAT (RASAT VIS Multispectral, RASAT VIS, Panchromatic)

2009

TanDEM-X (X-Band SAR)

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

KANOPUS-V series (MSS (Roskosmos), MSU-200, PSS: N1)
Pleiades series (HiRI: 1, 2)
NPP (VIIRS)VENUS (VSC)

current/approved

Albedo and Reflectance2008

SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 1A, 1B)
PRISMA (HYC)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: A)
AMAZÔNIA series (OBA: 1)
Ingenio (SEOSAT) (PAN+MS (RGB+NIR))SABRINA (SAR (SABRINA))
Sentinel-2 series (MSI (Sentinel-2): A)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: A)
NPOESS series (VIIRS: 1-4)
MAPSAR series (SAR (MAPSAR): 1)

RESOURCESAT series (AWiFS, LISS-III (RESOURCESAT), LISS-IV: 2)(WS LISS III: 3)
GISAT (HRMX-TIR, HRMX-VNIR, HyS-SWIR, HyS-VNIR)SARE series: (High Resolution Panchromatic Camera, Panchromatic High Sensitivity Camera: 1)
HY-1 series (CZI: C, D)
CARTOSAT series (PAN (Cartosat-3): 3)
DMSAR (C/X SAR)
SAC series (MOC: E/SABIA)(HRMS, HSS: F)
EnMAP (HSI)
HY-3 series (WSAR: 3A-C)

planned/considered

Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: B, C)FY-3 series (MVIRS: 3F, 3G)(VIRR: 3E-G)
FY-4 series (MCSI: O/A-E)
TerraSAR-X2 (X-Band SAR)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RCM): 3-5)
SAOCOM series: (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 2B (1), 2B (2))
GCOM series (SGLI: C1-3)
RISAT series (SAR L: L)
Sentinel-2 series [MSI (Sentinel-2): B, C]
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: B, C)

118

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

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119

Land
Landscape Topography
Essential Climate Variables: Lake Areas and Levels
Many modelling activities in Earth andenvironmental sciences, telecommunications andcivil engineering increasingly require accurate, highresolution and comprehensive topographicaldatabases with, indication of changes over time,
where relevant. The information is also used by,amongst others, land use planners for civil
planning and development, and by hydrologists topredict the drainage of water and likelihood offloods, especially in coastal areas. In its Fourth
Assessment Report in 2007, the IPCC predicts that(by conservative estimation techniques) global
mean sea level may rise as much as 28–43 cm by
the end of the 21st century. Potentially, sea level rise
will cause severe flooding, with disastrous impacts
on large, densely populated, low-lying coastal cities
and deltaic areas, such as Bangladesh.
Satellite techniques offer a unique, cost-effective
and comprehensive source of landscape
topography data. At present, most information is
obtained primarily from multi-band opticalimagers and synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
instruments with stereo image capabilities. The
pointing capability of some optical instrumentsallows the production of stereo images from data
gathered on a single orbit (e.g. by ASTER) or
multiple orbits (e.g. by SPOT series).These are thenused to create digital elevation maps, which give amore accurate depiction of terrain.

120

Since SARs can also be used in interferometricmode to detect very small changes in topography,
they have important applications in monitoring of
volcanoes, landslides, earthquake displacements
and urban subsidence. Current missions include
Envisat, RADARSAT-2, TerraSAR-X and ALOS (which
carries both high precision optical and SAR
topographic mapping instruments). In future,
ESA’s Sentinel-1 mission will also contribute tosuch information.
Radar altimeters can also provide coarse
topographic mapping over land. They have been
supplemented by a new generation of laser
altimeters, such as GLAS (on ICESat) which canprovide landscape topography products with height
accuracies of order 50–100 cm, depending on slope.
The role of these satellites and their importance inmitigating geo-hazards, such as earthquakes,
landslides, and volcanic eruptions, is the focus of theIGOS Geo-hazards Theme. The Geo-hazards Theme
report is available from www.igospartners.org.
GCOS notes that measurements of lake area andlake level give an indication of the volume of thelake, an integrator variable that reflects both
atmospheric (precipitation, evaporation-energy)
and hydrological (surface water recharge,
discharge and ground water tables) conditions.
GCOS threshold requirements for these variables
are currently met by existing missions.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

ERS series (AMI/SAR/Image, RA: 2)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RADARSAT): 1)(SAR (RADARSAT-2): 2)
IRS series (LISS-III, PAN (IRS-1C/1D), WiFS: 1D)
GFO (GEOSAT Follow On) (Radar Altimeter)
Landsat series (ETM+: 7) (OLI: 8)
Terra (ASTER)TES (TES PAN)
Jason series (POSEIDON-2 (SSALT-2): 1)(DORIS-NG: 1, 2)(POSEIDON-3: 2)
Envisat (ASAR, ASAR (image mode), DORIS-NG, RA-2)
ICESat (GLAS)

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Landscape Topography

2008

SPOT series (HRV: 2)(HRVIR: 4)(HRG, HRV: 5)

RESOURCESAT series (AWiFS, LISS-III (RESOURCESAT), LISS-IV: 1)
MONITOR series (PSA, RDSA: E)

current/approved

ALOS (AVNIR-2, PALSAR, PRISM)
Resurs series (Geoton-L1: DK)
KOMPSAT series (MSC: 2)
CARTOSAT series (PAN (Cartosat-2): 2)
COSMO Skymed series (SAR 2000: 1- 4)
TerraSAR-X (X-Band SAR)
THEOS (PAN (GISTDA))
HJ series (S-Band SAR: 1C)
TanDEM-X (X-Band SAR)SARAL (AltiKa)
CryoSat-2 (DORIS-NG, SIRAL)
Pleiades series (HiRI: 1, 2)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 1A, 1B)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: A)
SABRINA (SAR (SABRINA))
Sentinel-3 series (SRAL: A)
MAPSAR series (SAR (MAPSAR): 1)

RESOURCESAT series (AWiFS, LISS-III (RESOURCESAT), LISS-IV: 2)(WS LISS III: 3)
HY-3 series (WSAR: 3A-3C)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: B, C)

planned/considered

TerraSAR-X2 (X-Band SAR)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RCM): 3-5)
Jason series (FJP: 3, CS)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 2B (1), 2B (2))
ICESat-II (GLAS Follow-on)
Sentinel-3 series (SRAL: B, C)

121

Land
Soil Moisture
Essential Climate Variables: Soil Moisture
Soil moisture plays a key role in the hydrologicalcycle. Evaporation rates, surface runoff, infiltrationand percolation are all affected by the level ofmoisture in the soil. Changes in soil moisture havea serious impact on agricultural productivity,
forestry and ecosystem health. Monitoring soil
moisture is critical for managing these resources
and understanding long-term changes, such as
desertification, and should be developed in proper
coordination with other land surface variables.
There is a pressing need for measurements of soil
moisture for applications such as crop yieldpredictions, identification of potential famine
areas, irrigation management, and monitoring ofareas subject to erosion and desertification, as
well as for the initialisation of NWP models.
Direct measurement of soil moisture from space isdifficult. Most of the active and passive
microwave instruments provide some soil
moisture information for regions of limited
vegetation cover. However, under many conditions
remote sensing data are inadequate andinformation regarding moisture depth remains
elusive. While recent studies have successfully
demonstrated the use of infrared, passive
microwave, and non-SAR sensors to obtain soil
moisture information, the potential of active
microwave remote sensing based on SAR
instruments remains largely unrealised. The main
advantage of radar is that it provides observations
at a high spatial resolution of tens of metrescompared to tens of kilometres for passive
satellite instruments, such as radiometers, or
non-SAR active instruments, such as
scatterometers (e.g. QuikSCAT and ERS). The maindifficulty with SAR imagery is that soil moisture,surface roughness and vegetation cover all havean important and nearly equal effect on radarbackscatter. These interactions make retrieval ofsoil moisture possible only under particularconditions, such as bare soil or surfaces with low
vegetation, or through complex modelling to‘subtract’ the contributions/effects of vegetation.

122

An appropriate instrument for measurements ofsoil moisture would appear to be the passive
microwave radiometer, although some successhas been achieved by radar – despite thecomplications of analysing the signals reflectedfrom the ground. Microwave radiation emitted at
the ground can be monitored to infer estimatesof soil moisture. Passive microwave sensors canbe used to do this, based on detection of surface
microwave emissions, although the signal is verysmall. Reliable data (high signal to noise ratio)need to be taken over a large area – which
introduces the problem of understanding how tointerpret the satellite signal, since it consists ofradiation from many different soil types.
SAR data currently provide the main source of
information on near-surface (10–15 cm) soil
moisture, for example, ASAR on Envisat. ASCAT (animprovement of the ERS-1/2 scatterometer) on
EUMETSAT’s MetOp series also provides data fromwhich soil moisture information can be inferred.
AMSR-E on Aqua provides a variety of information
on water content by measuring weak radiationfrom the Earth’s surface. NOAA’s conical microwave
imager/sounder (CMIS) will provide environmental
data including indications of soil moisture.
With launch likely in 2009, the first mission likely
to satisfy requirements for observing soil
moisture from space for the primary applicationsof hydrologic and meteorological modelling will
be ESA’s SMOS (Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity
Mission), carrying the MIRAS (Microwave Imaging
Radiometer using Aperture Synthesis) passive
L-band 2D interferometer. The new capabilities
provided by SMOS will help reduce process
uncertainties and improve climate models.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

RADARSAT series ((SAR (RADARSAT): 1)(SAR (RADARSAT-2): 2)
DMSP series (SSM/I: F-14, F-15)(SSM/IS: F-16 -20)
POES series (AMSU-A: 15-18)
Envisat (ASAR, ASAR (image mode))
Aqua (AMSR-E, AMSU-A)

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Soil Moisture

2008

ERS series (AMI/SAR/Image, AMI/Scatterometer: 2)

ALOS (PALSAR)EPS series (AMSU-A, ASCAT: 1-3)

current/approved

FY-3 series (MWRI: 3A-D)
RISAT series (SAR (RISAT): 1)
MIRAS (SMOS)
NPP (VIIRS)SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 1A, 1B)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: A)
GCOM series (AMSR-2: W1)
NPOESS series (CMIS: 1, 3, 4)(MIS: 2, 3)(VIIRS: 1-4)

Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: B, C)

planned/considered

FY-3 series (MWRI: 3E, 3F, 3G)SMAP (Radar/Radiometer)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 2B (1), 2B (2))
GCOM series (AMSR-2: W2, W3)

123

Land
Vegetation
Essential Climate Variables: Land Cover, Fire Disturbance(Burnt Area), Leaf Area Index (LAI), Fraction of Absorbed
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (fAPAR) and Biomass
Changes in land cover are important aspects ofglobal environmental change, with implications
for ecosystems, biogeochemical fluxes and global
climate. Land cover change affects climate througha range of factors from albedo to emissions ofgreenhouse gases from the burning of biomass.
Deforestation inter alia increases the amount ofcarbon dioxide (CO 2) and other trace gases in theatmosphere. When a forest is cut and burned toestablish cropland and pastures, the stored
carbon joins with oxygen and is released into theatmosphere as CO 2. The IPCC notes that about
three-quarters of the anthropogenic emissions of
CO 2 to the atmosphere during the past 20 years
were due to fossil fuel burning. The rest was
predominantly due to land use change, especiallydeforestation.
In 2005, a number of developing countries proposed
to incorporate deforestation prevention into the
Kyoto Protocol, in part through an emissions trading
system. The initiative, known as REDD, (Reducing
Emissions from Deforestation in Developing
countries) would allow developing countries to sellemissions savings from forest conservation.
Developed countries would buy the savings to credit
against their own emissions targets.
IGOS has set up an Integrated Global Carbon
Observation (IGCO) Theme (report available fromwww.igospartners.org ) to develop a flexible,
robust strategy for international global carbon
observations over the next decade. A key
component of IGCO is terrestrial carbon
observations aimed at the determination ofterrestrial carbon sources and sinks withincreasing accuracy and spatial resolution. The
IPCC has highlighted an improved understandingof carbon dynamics as vital in tackling one of thebiggest environmental problems facing humanity.
The IGCO work will be an essential input to theimplementation of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
particularly on the role of natural sinks in meetingtargets under the UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol.
Satellite observations allow scientists to map land
cover and the dynamics of fire disturbance, andtrack two key elements of Earth’s vegetation – the‘Leaf Area Index’ (LAI) and the ‘Fraction ofabsorbed Photo-synthetically Active Radiation’(fAPAR). LAI is defined as the one-sided green leaf
area per unit ground area in broadleaf canopies,
or as the projected needle leaf area per ground124

unit in needle canopies. fAPAR is the fraction ofphotosynthetically active radiation absorbed byvegetation canopies. Both LAI and fAPAR are datanecessary for understanding how Sunlightinteracts with the Earth’s vegetated surfaces.
Multiple types of satellite observations are usedin agricultural applications. Space imagery
provides information which can be used tomonitor quotas and to examine and assess crop
characteristics and planting practice. Information
on crop condition, for example, may also be used
for irrigation management. In addition, data may
be used to generate yield forecasts, which in turn
may be used to optimise the planning of storage,transport and processing facilities. Classificationand seasonal monitoring of vegetation types on a
global basis allow the modelling of primary
production – the growth of vegetation that is thebase of the food chain – which is of great value inmonitoring global food security.
A number of radiometers provide measurementsof vegetation cover, including the ATSR series,
AVHRR/3, MODIS, MERIS, SEVIRI and Vegetation.
These instruments are helping production of
global maps of surface vegetation for modellingof the exchange of trace gases, water and energy
between vegetation and the atmosphere.
Multi-directional and polarimetric instruments(such as MISR and POLDER) will provide moreinsights into corrections of land surface images
for atmospheric scattering and absorption, as wellas Sun-sensor geometry, allowing better
calculation of vegetation properties.
Synthetic aperture radars (SARs) are used
extensively to monitor deforestation and surfacehydrological states and processes. The ability ofSARs to penetrate cloud cover and dense plant
canopies makes them particularly valuable inrainforest and high-latitude boreal forest studies.
Instruments such as ASAR, SAR (RADARSAT), and
PALSAR provide data for such applications as
agriculture, forestry, land cover classification,hydrology and cartography.
CEOS and GCOS have concluded that many of the
Essential Climate Variables related to vegetationand supported from space will require reprocessingof the moderate resolution historical record (inparticular AVHRR) to be of greater value for climate
purposes, and appropriate actions have been
defined, including the development of enhanced
calibration and validation schemes whichguarantee long-term stability and consistency overdifferent temporal and spatial scales. Research
topics like scaling, and the development of‘community radiative transfer models’ integrated
into sophisticated assimilation schemes, are ofparamount importance for an integrated approach.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

SPOT series (HRV: 2)(HRVIR: 4)(VEGETATION: 4, 5)(HRG, HRS: 5)
ERS series (AMI/SAR/Image, AMI/Scatterometer, ATSR-2: 2)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RADARSAT): 1)(SAR (RADARSAT-2): 2)
IRS series (LISS-III (IRS), WiFS: 1D)

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Vegetation

2008

Landsat series (TM: 5)(ETM+: 7)(OLI: 8)

POES series (AVHRR/3: 15-N')
Terra (ASTER, MISR, MODIS)NMP series (ALI, Hyperion: 1)
SAC series (HRTC, MMRS: C)
PROBA (CHRIS)
Envisat (AATSR, ASAR, ASAR (image mode), MERIS)
Aqua (MODIS)FY-1 series (MVISR (10 channels): 1D)
Meteosat series (SEVIRI: 8-11)

current/approved

UK-DMC (DMC Imager)
RESOURCESAT series (AWiFS, LISS-III (RESOURCESAT), LISS-IV: 1)
CBERS series (CCD, WFI: 2, 2B)(PAN, WFI-2: 3, 4)
FY-2 series (IVISSR (FY-2): 2C-F)
PARASOL (POLDER-P)
TopSat (TOPSAT Telescope)
ALOS (AVNIR-2, PALSAR)
KOMPSAT series (MSC: 2)
EPS series (AVHRR/3: 1-3)
COSMO Skymed series (SAR 2000: 1-4)
TerraSAR-X (X-Band SAR)
IMS-1 (HySI (IMS-1))
FY-3 series (MERSI: 3A-D)
THEOS (MS (GISTDA))
RapidEye (MSI)
HJ series (HSI (HJ-1A): 1A)
UK-DMC2 (DMC-2 Imager)
Meteor series (BRLK, MSU-MR: N1, N2)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N1, N2)
Sich series (MBEI, MIREI: 2)
SumbandilaSat (SumbandilaSat Imager)
RISAT series (SAR (RISAT): 1)
TanDEM-X (X-Band SAR)
KANOPUS-V series (PSS: N1)
Pleiades series (HiRI: 1, 2)
NPP (VIIRS)VENUS (VSC)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 1A, 1B)
PRISMA (HYC, PAN CAMERA)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: A)
AMAZÔNIA series (OBA: 1)
SABRINA (SAR (SABRINA))

current/approved

Sentinel-2 series (MSI (Sentinel-2): A)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: A)
NPOESS series (VIIRS: 1- 4)

125SumbandilaSat (SumbandilaSat Imager)
RISAT series (SAR (RISAT): 1)
TanDEM-X (X-Band SAR)
KANOPUS-V series (PSS: N1)
Pleiades series (HiRI: 1, 2)

Land

NPP (VIIRS)VENUS (VSC)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 1A, 1B)

2009

2010

PRISMA (HYC, PAN CAMERA)

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: A)
AMAZÔNIA series (OBA: 1)
SABRINA (SAR (SABRINA))

current/approved

Vegetation

2008

Sentinel-2 series (MSI (Sentinel-2): A)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: A)
NPOESS series (VIIRS: 1- 4)
MAPSAR series (SAR (MAPSAR): 1)
MTG-I (METEOSAT 3G) series (FCI: 1-4)

RESOURCESAT series (LISS-III (RESOURCESAT), LISS-IV, AWiFS: 2)(WS LISS III: 3)
TES-HYS (HySI (TES-HYS))
Meteor series (SAR (ROSHYDROMET): N3)
SAC series (MOC: E/SABIA)
EnMAP (HSI)

planned/considered

HY-3 series (WSAR: 3A-C)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: B, C)FY-3 series (MERSI: 3E-G)
TerraSAR-X2 (X-Band SAR)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RCM): 3-5)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 2B (1), 2B (2))
GCOM series (SGLI: C1-3)
Sentinel-2 series (MSI (Sentinel-2): B, C)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N3)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: B, C)

126

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

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127

Land
Surface Temperature (Land)
Essential Climate Variables: Fire Disturbance(Active Fires)Land surface temperature varies widely with solar
radiation. It is of help in interpreting vegetationand its water stress when the range oftemperatures between day and night and fromclear sky to cloud cover are compared.
Estimates of greenhouse gas emissions due to fireare essential for realistic modelling of climate andits critical component, the global carbon cycle.
Fires caused deliberately for land clearance(agriculture and ranching) or accidentally(lightning strikes, human error) are a major factor
in land cover changes, affecting fluxes of energy
and water to the atmosphere. On a local scale,surface temperature imagery may be used torefine techniques for predicting ground frost andto determine the warming effect of urban areas(urban heat islands) on night-time temperatures.
In agriculture, temperature information may be
used, together with models, to optimise planting
times and provide timely warnings of frost.
Measurements of surface temperature patterns
may also be used in studies of volcanic andgeothermal areas and resource exploration.
Land surface temperature measurements are
made using the thermal infrared channel of
medium/high resolution multi-spectral imagers in
low Earth orbit. In addition, visible/infrared
imagers on geostationary satellites also provide
useful information, with the advantage of very
high temporal resolution. However, difficulties
remain in converting the apparent temperatures
as measured by these instruments into actual
surface temperatures – variations due toatmospheric effects and vegetation cover, forexample, require compensation using additional
imagery/information.

128

A number of capable sensors designed to provide
land surface temperature data are currently
operating or planned. These include advanced
sounders (IASI, HIRS/4) on operational
meteorological platforms. On the NPOESS
missions, VIIRS will combine the radiometricaccuracy of AVHRR with the high spatial
resolution of the DMSP’s OLS instrument, and the
CMIS imager/sounder will measure thermal
microwave emissions from land surfaces.
The Hot Spot Recognition Sensor (HSRS) on BIRD
(launched 2001) has already demonstrated its
value as a purpose-built fire detection instrument
while MODIS provides regular sampling of active
fires, SEVIRI observes the diurnal cycle of fireoccurrence in Africa and the ATSR series, despite
not being designed for active fire observations,has produced the longest record of hot spot
detection (at night). ESA offers a monthly world
fire atlas product available online at
dup.esrin.esa.it/ionia/wfa.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

SPOT series (HRV: 2)(HRVIR: 4)(HRS: 5)
ERS series (ATSR-2: 2)
POES series (HIRS/3: 15-17)(AMSU-A: 15-N)(AVHRR/3: 15-N')(HIRS/4: 18, N')
INSAT series (VHRR: 2E, 3A)
Terra (ASTER, MODIS)GOES series (Imager, Sounder: 11-P)(ABI: R, S)
NMP series (ALI, Hyperion: 1)
Envisat (AATSR)
Aqua (AIRS, AMSU-A, MODIS)FY-1 series MVISR (MVISR (10 channels): 1D)
Meteosat series (SEVIRI: 8-11)
Kalpana (VHRR)

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Surface Temperature (Land)2008

Landsat series (TM: 5)(ETM+: 7)(OLI: 8)

CBERS series (IR-MSS: 2, 2B)(IRS: 3, 4)
Aura (TES)

current/approved

FY-2 series FY-2 series (IVISSR (FY-2): 2C-F)
EPS series (AMSU-A, AVHRR/3, HIRS/4, IASI: 1-3)
FY-3 series (IRAS, MWRI, MWTS, VIRR: 3A-D)
Meteor series (IKFS-2: N2)(MSU-MR, MTZVA: N1, N2)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N1, N2)
Sich series (MBEI, MIREI: 2)
SAC series (NIRST: D/Aquarius)
NPP (ATMS, VIIRS)
Sentinel-3 series (SLSTR: A)
NPOESS series (VIIRS: 1-4)(ATMS, CMIS: 1, 3, 4)(MIS: 2, 3)
MTG-I (FCI: 1-4)

FY-3 series (IRAS, MWRI, MWTS, VIRR: 3E-G)(MVIRS: 3F, 3G)
FY-4 series (MCSI: O/A-E)

planned/considered

RADARSAT series (SAR (RCM): 3-5)
SAC series (TIS (CONAE): F)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N3)
Sentinel-3 series (SLSTR: B, C)

129

Land
Multi-purpose Imagery (Land)
Essential Climate Variables: Land Cover
The spatial information that can be derived fromsatellite imagery is of value in a wide range ofapplications, particularly when combined with
spectral information from multiple wavebands of asensor. Satellite Earth observation is of particularvalue where conventional data collection
techniques are difficult, such as in areas of
inaccessible terrain, providing cost and time savingsin data acquisition – particularly over large areas.
At regional and global scales, low resolution
instruments with wide coverage capability andimaging sensors on geostationary satellites areroutinely exploited for their ability to provide
global data on land cover and vegetation. Land
cover change detection is important forunderstanding global environmental change andhas profound implications for ecosystems,
biochemical fluxes and climate. Instruments on
satellites with wide and frequent coverage provide
data useful for spin-off applications. AVHRR on
NOAA’s polar orbiting satellite series was originallyintended only as a meteorological satellite system,
but it has subsequently been used in a multitudeof diverse applications, while the Envisat MERIS
instrument is being used to generate global land
cover imagery at 300 m resolution.
On national and local scales, the spatial resolution
requirements for information mean that moderate
resolution imaging sensors, such as those on SPOT,
Landsat and IRS, and imaging radars (such as thoseon ERS, Envisat and RADARSAT) are most useful.
Such sensors are routinely used as practicalsources of information for:— agriculture monitoring, farming andproduction forecasting;— resource exploration and management, e.g.
forestry;— geological surveying for mineral explorationand identification;— hydrological applications such as flood monitoring;— civil mapping and planning, involving cartography,
infrastructure and urban management;— coastal zone monitoring, including oil spilldetection and monitoring;— topographic mapping, generation of DEMs.

130

SAR data are particularly useful in monitoring andmapping floods because they are available even in
the presence of thick cloud cover. Instruments on
RADARSAT, Envisat, ALOS and TerraSAR-X continue
to provide improved capabilities in this field. Suchmulti-incidence, high resolution SAR systems will
also be useful for landslide inventory maps andearthquake prediction. Moreover InSAR
techniques can be used to document deformationand topographic changes preceding, and causedby, volcanic eruptions. Volcanic features also havedistinctive thermal characteristics which can bedetected by thermal imagery, such as thatprovided by the ASTER radiometer flying on Terra.
The IGOS Geo-hazards Theme report provides acomprehensive guide as to the value of satellite
Earth observations for such applications. Future
SAR instruments will continue to be important forland imagery because of their all-weather, day
and night observing capability and high spatial
resolution (1–3 metres), as provided by
RADARSAT-2 and COSMO-SkyMed.
New instruments, such as AVNIR-2 and PRISM on
ALOS, have provided enhanced land observing
technology and improved data products. In general,
future sensors will benefit from a greater numberof sampling channels. NOAA’s VIIRS instrument, forinstance, will have multi-channel imaging
capabilities and will combine the radiometricaccuracy of AVHRR with the high spatial resolutionof the OLS flown on DMSP missions.
CEOS has initiated a virtual constellation study
team for land surface imaging to provide thecoordination framework necessary to securecontinuity of moderate resolution imagery used
for many land surface applications, including theirrelation to climate.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

SPOT series (HRV: 2)(HRVIR: 4)(VEGETATION: 4, 5)(HRG, HRS: 5)
ERS series (AMI/SAR/Image, AMI/Scatterometer, ATSR-2: 2)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RADARSAT): 1)(SAR (RADARSAT-2): 2)
IRS series (LISS-III (IRS), PAN (IRS-1C/1D), WiFS: 1D)
POES series (AVHRR/3: 15-N')
INSAT series (CCD camera: 2E, 3A)
Terra (ASTER, MISR)
GOES series (Imager: 11-P)(ABI: R, S)
NMP series (ALI, Hyperion: 1)
SAC series (HRTC, HSTC, MMRS: C)(HSC, NIRST: D/Aquarius)
PROBA (CHRIS)
Envisat (AATSR, ASAR, ASAR (image mode), MERIS)
Aqua (MODIS)

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Multi-purpose Imagery (Land)2008

Landsat series (TM, MSS: 5)(ETM+: 7)(OLI: 8)

FY-1 series (MVISR (10 channels): 1D)
UK-DMC (DMC Imager)
NigeriaSat series (NigeriaSat Medium Resolution: 1)(NigeriaSat Medium and High Resolution: 2)
RESOURCESAT series (AWiFS, LISS-III (RESOURCESAT), LISS-IV: 1)
CBERS series (CCD, IR-MSS, WFI: 2, 2B)(IRS, WFI-2: 3, 4)
FY-2 series (IVISSR (FY-2): 2C-2F)
PARASOL (POLDER-P)
CARTOSAT series (PAN (Cartosat-1): 1)(PAN (Cartosat-2): 2)
MONITOR series (PSA, RDSA: E)
TopSat (TOPSAT Telescope)BJ-1 series (MSI (BJ-1), PAN (BJ-1): 1)
ALOS (AVNIR-2, PALSAR, PRISM)
Resurs series (Geoton-L1: DK)

current/approved

KOMPSAT series (MSC: 2)
EPS series (AVHRR/3: 1-3)
HY-1 series (CZI: B)
COSMO Skymed series (SAR 2000: 1-4)
TerraSAR-X (X-Band SAR)
IMS-1 (MxT)
FY-3 series (VIRR: 3A-3D)
THEOS (MS (GISTDA), PAN (GISTDA))
RapidEye (MSI)
HY series (CCD (HJ, HY): 1A, 1B)(HSI (HJ-1A): 1A)(IR (HJ-1B): 1B)(S-Band SAR: 1C)
UK-DMC2 (DMC-2 Imager)
Meteor series (KMSS, MSU-MR: N1, N2)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N1, N2)
Sich series (MBEI, MIREI: 2)
COMS series (MI: 1)
SumbandilaSat (SumbandilaSat Imager)
RISAT series (SAR (RISAT): 1)
RASAT (RASAT VIS Multispectral, RASAT VIS, Panchromatic)
TanDEM-X (X-Band SAR)
KANOPUS-V series (MSS (Roskosmos), MSU-200, PSS: N1)
Pleiades series (HiRI: 1, 2)
NPP (VIIRS)VENUS (VSC)131

THEOS (MS (GISTDA), PAN (GISTDA))
RapidEye (MSI)
HY series (CCD (HJ, HY): 1A, 1B)(HSI (HJ-1A): 1A)(IR (HJ-1B): 1B)(S-Band SAR: 1C)
UK-DMC2 (DMC-2 Imager)
Meteor series (KMSS, MSU-MR: N1, N2)

Land

GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N1, N2)
Sich series (MBEI, MIREI: 2)
COMS series (MI: 1)

Multi-purpose Imagery (Land)2008

SumbandilaSat (SumbandilaSat Imager)

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

RISAT series (SAR (RISAT): 1)
RASAT (RASAT VIS Multispectral, RASAT VIS, Panchromatic)
TanDEM-X (X-Band SAR)
KANOPUS-V series (MSS (Roskosmos), MSU-200, PSS: N1)
Pleiades series (HiRI: 1, 2)
NPP (VIIRS)VENUS (VSC)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 1A, 1B)
PRISMA (HYC, PAN CAMERA)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: A)
AMAZÔNIA series (OBA: 1)
Ingenio (SEOSAT) (PAN+MS (RGB+NIR))SABRINA (SAR (SABRINA))
Sentinel-2 series (MSI (Sentinel-2): A)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI, SLSTR: A)
NPOESS series (VIIRS: 1-4)
MAPSAR series (SAR (MAPSAR): 1)
MTG-I (METEOSAT 3G) series (FCI: 1-4)

RESOURCESAT series (LISS-III (RESOURCESAT), LISS-IV, AWiFS: 2)(WS LISS III: 3)
GISAT (HRMX-TIR, HRMX-VNIR, HyS-SWIR, HyS-VNIR)SARE series (High Resolution Panchromatic Camera, Panchromatic High Sensitivity Camera: 1)
HY-1 series (CZI: C, D)
CARTOSAT series (PAN (Cartosat-3): 3)
DMSAR (C/X SAR)
SAC series (MOC: E/SABIA)(HRMS, HSS, TIS (CONAE): F)
EnMAP (HSI)
HY-3 series (WSAR: 3A-C)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: B, C)

planned/considered

FY-3 series (MVIRS: 3F, 3G)(VIRR: 3E-G)
FY-4 series (MCSI: O/A-E)
TerraSAR-X2 (X-Band SAR)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RCM): 3-5)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 2B (1), 2B (2))
GCOM series (SGLI: C1-3)
RISAT series (SAR L: L)
Sentinel-2 series (MSI (Sentinel-2): B, C)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N3)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI, SLSTR: B, C)

132

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

This page intentionally left blank133

OceanOcean Colour/Biology
Essential Climate Variables: Ocean Colour (for
Biological Activity)
Remote sensing measurements of ocean colour (i.e.
the detection of phytoplankton pigments) provide
the only global-scale focus on the biology andproductivity of the ocean’s surface layer.
Phytoplankton are microscopic plants that live inthe ocean, and like terrestrial plants, they containthe pigment chlorophyll, which gives them theirgreenish colour. Different shades of ocean colour
reveal the presence of differing concentrations of
sediments, organic materials and phytoplankton.
The ocean over regions with high concentrations ofphytoplankton is shaded from blue-green to green,
depending on the type and density of thephytoplankton population. From space, satellite
sensors can distinguish even slight variations incolour which cannot be detected by the human eye.
Ocean biology is important not only forunderstanding ocean productivity andbiogeochemical cycling, but also because of its
impact on oceanic CO 2 and the flux of carbon
from the surface to the deep ocean. Over time,organic carbon settles in the deep ocean, aprocess referred to as the ‘biological pump’. CO 2
system measurements, integrated with routine
ocean colour and ecological/biogeochemical
observations, are critical for understanding theinteractions between oceanic physics, biology,
chemistry and climate. CO 2 measurements arealso important for making climate forecasts andfor satisfying the needs of climate conventions.
At a local scale, satellite observations of ocean
colour, usually in conjunction with sea surface
temperature measurements, may be used as anindication of the presence of fish stocks.
Measurements may also be used to monitor water
quality and to give an indication of the presenceof pollution by identifying algal blooms.
Measurements of ocean colour are particularly
important in coastal regions where they can beused to identify features indicative of coastal
erosion and sediment transfer.
An Ocean Theme was set up within the former IGOS
framework in 1999 to develop a strategy for an
observing system serving research and operational
oceanographic communities and other users.

134

Building on the CEOS Ocean Biology and GODAE
Projects, the Ocean Theme Team published its
final report in January 2001. This brought together
information on:— the variety of needs for global ocean observations;— the existing and planned observing systems;— the planning commitments required to ensure
long term continuity of the observations.
Ocean colour measurements from space are thefocus of the International Ocean Colour
Coordinating Group (www.ioccg.org/).
In recent years there has been a steady flow of
ocean colour data at various scales from
instruments such as OCTS (on ADEOS), SeaWiFs,
OCM (on IRS), MODIS (on Terra and Aqua), andMERIS (on Envisat), as well as POLDER and
PARASOL. As the timeline shows, a number ofcurrent missions will end in the near future.
Information available on agency plans indicatesthat future continuity will be provided by OCM-2
on Oceansat-2 (India), the HY-2 series (China),
Sentinel-3 (Europe) and others.
Beyond these research or pre-operational missions,
NOAA is developing VIIRS for its NPOESS missions– with an operational capability for ocean colour.
Four actions were identified in the CEOS response
to GCOS requirements:— ISRO will lead planning of Oceansat-2, ESA andthe EC of Sentinel-3, and JAXA of GCOM-C,
which are all new missions planned to carry an
ocean colour sensor;— relevant CEOS agencies will examine theirrespective plans to maintain continuity of the
25-km-resolution ocean colour global product;— CEOS agencies will cooperate to support the
combination of all existing ocean colour data
sets into a global FCDR;— in consultation with GCOS and the relevantuser communities, CEOS agencies will explore
the means to secure, by 2011, continuity of the
1-km-resolution global ocean colour productneeded to fulfil the target GCOS requirements

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Terra (MISR, MODIS)SAC series (MMRS: C)
PROBA (CHRIS)
Envisat (MERIS)
Aqua (MODIS)

current/approved

HY-1 series (CZI: B)
FY-3 series (MERSI: 3A-D)
HJ series (HSI (HJ-1A): 1A)
COMS series (GOCI: 1)

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Ocean Colour/Biology

2008

OCEANSAT series (OCM: 1, 2)

NPP (VIIRS)
Landsat series (OLI: 8)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: A)
NPOESS series (VIIRS: 1-4)

HY-1 series (CZI: C, D)
Meteor series (MSS-BIO: N3)

planned/considered

OCEANSAT series (OCM (OCEANSAT-3), TIR (OCEANSAT-3): 3)
SAC series (MOC: E/SABIA)
FY-3 series (MERSI: 3E-G)
COMS series (GOCI: 2)
GCOM series (SGLI: C1-3)
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: B, C)

135

OceanOcean Topography/Currents
Essential Climate Variables: Sea Level, Current
Ocean surface topography data contain
information that has significant practicalapplications in such fields as the study ofworldwide weather and climate patterns, themonitoring of shoreline evolution and theprotection of ocean fisheries. Ocean circulation isof critical importance to the Earth’s climate
system. Ocean currents transport a significant
amount of energy from the tropics towards thepoles, leading to a moderation of the climate athigh latitudes. Thus knowledge of ocean
circulation is central to understanding the global
climate. Circulation can be deduced from ocean
surface topography, which may be readilymeasured using satellite altimetry. However,altimeters can only provide this geostrophic partof ocean currents to optimal accuracy when thegeoid is known more accurately.
Using satellite altimetry, large scale changes inocean topography, such as those in the tropical
Pacific, may be observed. During an El Niño event,
the westward trade winds weaken, allowing warm,
nutrient-poor water to occupy the entire tropical
Pacific Ocean. During the following La Niña thetrade winds are stronger, so that cold, nutrient-richwater occupies much of the tropical Pacific Ocean.
On a local scale, topographic information fromsatellites may be used to support off-shore
exploration for resources, detection of oil spills andoptimisation of pipeline routing on the sea floor.
The Topex/Poseidon (1992–2005), ERS-1(1991–2000) and ERS-2 (since 1995) missions havedemonstrated that satellite altimetry may beutilised in a wide range of ocean research, such asplanetary waves, tides, global sea level change,seasonal-to-inter-annual climate prediction,
defence, environmental prediction andcommercial applications. Thanks to its highaltitude and non Sun-synchronous, dedicatedorbit, Topex/Poseidon could measure the height ofthe ocean surface directly under the satellite withan accuracy of 2–3 cm. The follow-on Jason-1
mission, launched in late 2001, aims to:— provide a 5-year view of global ocean topography;— increase understanding of ocean circulation andseasonal changes;— improve forecasting of climate events like El Niño;— measure global sea-level change;— improve open ocean tide models;— provide estimates of significant wave height
and wind speeds over the ocean.

136

Information on ocean circulation may also be
obtained indirectly from features such as current
and frontal boundaries in SAR imagery, and by using
differences in ocean surface temperature or ocean
colour as observed by visible and infrared imagers.
In their Final Report, in early 2001, the IGOS Ocean
Theme Team identified a long-term need forcontinuity of a high-precision mission (e.g. theJason series) and at least one polar-orbiting
altimeter (e.g. the ERS and Envisat series) toenhance temporal/spatial coverage of the global
ocean. The launches of Jason-2, a mission jointly
funded by CNES and EUMETSAT in Europe, NASAand NOAA in the US, and of an altimeter on theforthcoming ESA Sentinel-3 mission, willcontribute to this objective. Additional satellite
missions that are planned will ensure continuityof ocean currents measurements. They include theIndian-French SARAL that will carry an innovative
Ka-band altimeter on a polar orbit, and theChinese HY-2 mission.
Ocean altimetry, which is a unique and powerfultool that can determine ocean currents, accurately
measure sea level and detect sea level rise – acritical indicator of global warming as well as a
crucial parameter for ecosystems, coastal cities
and other human assets – has been recognised asa priority for futuresustained observations. This is
the goal of the Ocean Surface Topography
Constellation established by CEOS for GEO.
Two actions were identified in the CEOS response
to GCOS requirements:— NOAA and EUMETSAT will lead a CEOS study
team to establish the basis for a future Ocean
Surface Topography Constellation that satisfies
the threshold requirements for the sea level
ECV (and those of the sea state ECV). This will
include consideration of a future Jason-3
mission and requirements for new altimeter
technologies to improve spatial resolution andextend observations in coastal regions (andover lakes and rivers for the lakes ECV);— CNES and ISRO will cooperate on a newpolar-orbiting altimeter aimed at filling a
potential data gap beyond 2008. ESA and theEU will lead planning for Sentinel-3 to carry an
altimeter that will complement
spatial/temporal coverage of the sea level (andsea state) ECVs – and possibly sea ice extent
and thickness, river and lake level with thealtimeter operating in synthetic aperture radar(SAR) mode beyond 2012.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

RADARSAT series (SAR (RADARSAT): 1)(SAR (RADARSAT-2): 2)
GFO (GEOSAT Follow On) (Radar Altimeter)
OCEANSAT series (MSMR: 1)
Jason series (POSEIDON-2 (SSALT-2), TRSR: 1)(DORIS-NG, JMR, LRA: 1, 2)(AMR, GPSP, POSEIDON-3: 2)
Envisat (ASAR, ASAR (image mode), ASAR (wave mode), DORIS-NG, RA-2)
GRACE A (BlackJack GPS (TRSR))GRACE B (BlackJack GPS (TRSR))COSMO Skymed series (SAR 2000: 1-4)
TerraSAR-X (X-Band SAR)

current/approved

HJ series (S-Band SAR: 1C)
Megha-Tropiques (MADRAS)RISAT series (SAR (RISAT): 1)
TanDEM-X (X-Band SAR)

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Ocean Topography/Currents

2008

ERS series (AMI/SAR/Image, RA: 2)

SARAL (AltiKa)
CryoSat-2 (DORIS-NG)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 1A, 1B)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: A)
SABRINA (SAR (SABRINA))
Sentinel-3 series (SRAL: A)
MAPSAR series (SAR (MAPSAR): 1)

HY-2 series (ALT: A)
OCEANSAT series (Altimeter (OCEANSAT-3): 3)
HY-3 series (WSAR: 3A-3C)

planned/considered

Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: B, C)
TerraSAR-X2 (X-Band SAR)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RCM): 3-5)
Jason series (FJP: 3, CS)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 2B (1), 2B (2))
Sentinel-3 series (SRAL: B, C)137

OceanOcean Salinity
Essential Climate Variables: Ocean Salinity
Ocean salinity measurements are importantbecause surface salinity and temperature control
the density and stability of the surface water.
Thus, ocean mixing (of heat and gases) andwater-mass formation processes are intimately
related to variations of surface salinity. Ocean
modelling and analysis of water mass mixing
should be enabled by new knowledge of
surface-density fields derived from surface
salinity measurements. The importance of theocean in the global hydrological cycle also cannot
be overstated. Some ocean models show thatsufficient surface freshening results in slowing
down the meridional overturning circulation,
thereby affecting the oceanic transport of heat.
Sea surface salinity is emerging as a new research
product from satellite measurements of ocean
brightness temperature at L-band (microwave)
frequencies. The monitoring of surface salinityfrom space, combined with the provision of regularsurface and sub-surface salinity profiles from insitu observing systems, such as surface ships,
buoys, and the Argo array, will provide a key
constraint on the balance of freshwater input over
the ocean. This will allow for better determinationof the marine aspects of the planetary hydrologicalcycle and the possibility of important ocean
circulation changes. New research missions must
demonstrate capabilities and pave the way tofuture continuous, climate-quality data records.
To date, there has been no contribution fromspace-based observations to this variable. ESA andNASA/CONAE (Comisión Nacional de Actividades
Espaciales of Argentina) plan to fly demonstrator
missions (SMOS and Aquarius/SAC-D) for salinity
measurements.
CEOS identified two actions in response to the
GCOS IP in relation to this measurement:— ESA will fly SMOS in 2009 to demonstratemeasurement of the sea surface salinity (andsoil moisture) ECV; NASA/CONAE will fly
Aquarius/SAC-D in 2010 to demonstratemeasurement of the sea surface salinity ECV.
— CEOS agencies will cooperate in developing
future plans for an Ocean Salinity Constellation.

138

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

current/approved

SMOS (MIRAS (SMOS))
SAC series (Aquarius, L-Band Radiometer, L-Band Scatterometer (Aquarius): D/Aquarius)

planned/considered

OCEANSAT series (PMR: 3)

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Ocean Salinity

2008

139

OceanOcean Surface Winds
Essential Climate Variables: Atmospheric Surface
Wind Speed and Direction
High resolution vector wind measurements at thesea surface are required in models of theatmosphere, ocean surface waves and ocean
circulation. They are proving useful in enhancing
marine weather forecasting through assimilation
into NWP models and in improving understandingof the large-scale air-sea fluxes which are vital forclimate prediction purposes. Accurate wind vector
data affect a broad range of marine operations,
including offshore oil operations, ship movement
and routing. Such data also aid short-term
weather forecasting and the issue of timely
weather warnings.
Polar-orbiting satellites provide information on
surface wind with global coverage, good
horizontal resolution and acceptable accuracy,
though temporal frequency is marginal forregional mesoscale forecasts. They provide useful
information in two ways:— scatterometers provide dense observations ofwind direction and speed along a narrowswath, although the most recent and planned
scatterometers provide better coverage via
broader swaths (90% global coverage daily);scatterometers have made a positive impact inpredicting marine forecasting, operational
global NWP and climate forecasting;— passive microwave imagers and altimetersprovide information on wind speed only.
The single swath scatterometer on ERS-1/2 andthe broad swath scatterometer on QuikSCAT havelong provided adequate coverage. QuikSCAT,
launched in 1999, carries the SeaWinds
scatterometer that measures near-surface windspeed and direction in all weather and cloud
conditions. Global coverage by a broad swath
scatterometer is now provided by ASCAT on theEuropean MetOp-A mission. Developed by ESA asa follow-on from the ‘wind mode’ of the AMI on
the ERS series, ASCAT is used primarily for global
measurement of sea surface wind vectors andprovides quasi-global coverage within 24 hours.
The SSM/I (Special Sensor Microwave/ Imager) on
board the US DMSP satellites is currently
providing operational surface wind data. The
cooperative NASA/JAXA AMSR-E on Aqua
(launched in 2002) also provides data on sea
surface wind speed.

140

Starting with the second satellite, C-2, theoperational NPOESS missions will use the CMIS
instrument, which employs a passive microwave
approach for collecting data on sea surface winds.
In recent years, the ability to detect and track
severe storms has been dramatically enhanced by
the advent of weather satellites. Data from
SeaWinds is augmenting traditional satellite
images of clouds by providing direct
measurements of surface winds enabling better
determination of a storm’s location, direction,
structure and strength.
In its response to the GCOS IP, CEOS agreed toreview the capability of passive microwave
sensors to make scatterometer-quality
measurements and will work to ensure AM andPM satellite coverage of surface wind speed anddirection by 2015.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

RADARSAT series (SAR (RADARSAT): 1)(SAR (RADARSAT-2): 2)
DMSP series (SSM/I: F-14, F-15)
TRMM (TMI)
GFO (GEOSAT Follow On) (Radar Altimeter)
POES series (AMSU-A: 15-18)
OCEANSAT series (MSMR: 1)(Scatterometer (ISRO): 2)
QuikSCAT (SeaWinds)
Jason series (POSEIDON-2 (SSALT-2): 1)(POSEIDON-3: 2)

current/approved

Envisat (ASAR, ASAR (image mode), ASAR (wave mode), RA-2)

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Ocean Surface Winds

2008

ERS series (AMI/SAR/Wave, AMI/Scatterometer, RA: 2)

Aqua (AMSR-E, AMSU-A)
CORIOLIS (WindSat)
ALOS (PALSAR)EPS series (AMSU-A, ASCAT: 1-3)
FY-3 series (MWIR: 3A-D)
Meteor series (MTVZA: N1, N2)
SARAL (AltiKa)
SAC series (Microwave Radiometer (CONAE): D/Aquarius)
NPP (ATMS, VIIRS)SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 1A, 1B)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: A)
GCOM series (AMSR-2: W1)
Sentinel-3 series (SRAL: A)
NPOESS series (VIIRS: 1-4)(ATMS, CMIS: 1, 3, 4)(MIS: 2, 3)

HY-2 series (RAD, SCAT: A)
OCEANSAT series (Altimeter (OCEANSAT-3), Scatterometer (ISRO): 3)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: B, C)FY-3 series (MWRI: 3E-G)

planned/considered

FY-4 series (MCSI: O/A-E)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RCM): 3-5)
Jason series (FJP: 3, CS)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 2B (1), 2B (2))
Sentinel-3 series (SRAL: B, C)
GCOM series (AMSR-2: W2, W3)141

OceanSurface Temperature (Ocean)
Essential Climate Variables: Sea Surface Temperature
Ocean surface temperature (often known as ‘sea
surface temperature’ or SST) is one of the mostimportant boundary conditions for the generalcirculation of the atmosphere. The ocean
exchanges vast amounts of heat and energy withthe atmosphere and these air/sea interactions
have a profound influence on the Earth’s weather
and climate patterns. SST is linked closely withthe ocean circulation, as demonstrated time andagain by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
cycle. A major research goal is to enable seasonal
and longer time scale forecasting by developmentof coupled atmosphere and ocean models that
correctly link the many processes. Progress
towards this goal depends on a more precise andcomprehensive set of SST measurements for use
in initialising and verifying such models.
Satellite remote sensing provides the only
practical means of developing such a dataset. In
situ data, predominantly from ships ofopportunity and from networks of moored anddrifting buoys, are limited in coverage, whereas
satellites offer the potential for surveying thecomplete ocean surface in just a few days. The insitu data have a key role to play in calibrating thesatellite data and in providing information neededfor deriving bulk temperatures.
Instruments on polar satellites provide information
for short to medium-range NWP with global
coverage, good horizontal and temporal resolution
and accuracy, except in areas that are persistently
cloud-covered. Accurate SST determinations,especially in the tropics, are important for seasonal
to inter-annual forecasts. The advent of highspectral resolution infrared sounders will enable
separation of surface emissivity and temperature,and the accuracy of the SST product is expected to
improve to an acceptable level.
Geostationary imagers with split window
measurements are also helping to expand thetemporal coverage by making hourly measurements,
thus creating more opportunities for finding
cloud-free areas and characterising any diurnal
variations (known to be up to 4K in cloud-free
regions with relatively calm seas). For regional NWP,
sea-surface temperature is inferred with acceptablehorizontal resolution from polar satellites, whilegeostationary satellites complement information
with better temporal resolution.

142

A range of instruments with thermal bands arebeing used for SST measurements. Visible/infrared
imagers such as AVHRR, AATSR, and MODIS
currently provide the main source of SST data,with AATSR and MODIS providing better accuracy(0.25–0.3K). AVHRR, however, gives greater
coverage, enabling it to track ocean currents andmonitor ENSO phenomena through its larger
swath width. The Aqua mission, which includes
MODIS along with AIRS+ and AMSR, provides
oceanographers with further precise informationand the ability to remove atmospheric effects.
NOAA’s VIIRS and CMIS instrument on the planned
NPOESS missions will provide capabilities to
produce higher resolution and more accurate
measurements of SST than currently available
from AVHRR. Other sources of SST data include:
AMSR-E on Aqua; the SEVIRI and IASI instrumentson the Meteosat-8/9 (MSG-1/2) and MetOp
missions respectively.
The GHRSST Pilot Project provides a newgeneration of global, high resolution (<10 km) SST
products, combining complementary satellite andin situ data (www.ghrsst-pp.org/).
GCOS is concerned that the continuity of the 4 km
resolution global data be maintained throughadequate instruments onboard operational
weather satellites and its quality must be
enhanced through high-precision sensors on
board other Earth observation missions. CEOS has
defined four actions in support:— an ATSR-like instrument is planned on ESA’s
Sentinel-3, presently scheduled for launch in2012. JAXA will lead planning for the Global
Change Observation Mission to maintaincontinuity of the sea surface temperature ECV;
— CEOS agencies will examine their respectiveplans to maintain provision of microwave
brightness temperatures for the sea surface
temperature ECV;— relevant CEOS agencies will examine theirrespective plans to maintain continuity of a
10 km resolution sea surface temperature data
sets global product;— CEOS agencies will cooperate to support the
combination of all existing sea surface
temperature data sets into a global FCDR.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

ERS series (ATSR-2: 2)
POES series (AVHRR/3: 15-N')(HIRS/3: 15-17)( HIRS/4: 18, N')
INSAT series (VHRR: 2E, 3A)
OCEANSAT series (MSMR: 1)
Terra (MODIS)GOES series (Imager, Sounder: 11-P)(ABI: R, S)
NMP series (ALI, Hyperion: 1)
Envisat (AATSR)
Aqua (AIRS, AMSR-E, MODIS)FY-1 series (MVISR (10 channels): 1D)

current/approved

Kalpana (VHRR)
FY-2 series (IVISSR (FY-2): 2C-F)
MTSAT series (JAMI/MTSAT-1R: 1R)(IMAGER/MTSAT-2: 2)

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Surface Temperature (Ocean)

2008

Meteosat series (MVIRI: 6, 7)(SEVIRI: 8-11)

EPS series (ABHRR/3, HIRS/4, IASI: 1-3)
HY-1 series (COCTS: B)
FY-3 series (IRAS, VIRR: 3A-3D)
Meteor series (IKFS-2: N2)(MSU-MR, MTZVA: N1, N2)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N1, N2)
COMS series (MI: 1)
SAC series (NIRST: D/Aquarius)
NPP (VIIRS)GCOM series (AMSR-2: W1)
Sentinel-3 series (SLSTR: A)
NPOESS series (CMIS: 1, 3, 4)(MIS: 2, 3)(VIIRS: 1-4)
MTG-I (METEOSAT 3G) series (FCI: 1-4)

HY-2 series (RAD: A)
HY-1 series (COCTS: C, D)

planned/considered

FY-3 series (IRAS, VIRR: 3E-G)(MVIRS: 3F, 3G)
FY-4 series (MCSI: O/A-E)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N3)
Sentinel-3 series (SLSTR: B, C)
GCOM series (AMSR-2: W2, W3)

143

OceanWave Height and Spectrum
Essential Climate Variables: Sea StateSea state and wind speed govern air-sea fluxes ofmomentum, heat, water vapour and gas transfer.
The state of the sea and surface pressure are two
features of the weather that are important tocommercial use of the sea (e.g. ship routing,warnings of hazards to shipping, marine
construction, off-shore drilling installations andfisheries). Information on surge height at thecoast is key to the protection of life and property
in coastal habitats.
These data are also important for climate
purposes as they are needed for the correct
representation of turbulent air-sea fluxes.
Wave height is influenced by wind speed anddirection, the wind ‘fetch’ and its rate of change.
In the nowcasting context, ocean wave models are
driven by NWP predictions of surface wind.
However, errors in waves generated at large
distances can accumulate. Improvements inforecasts, especially of long wavelength swell, canbe achieved by assimilating observations fromdifferent sources. These are currently available
from isolated buoys, satellite altimeter andscatterometer data. In the absence of direct
observations, initial wave state is deduced fromthe wind history. This is currently available overthe sea from isolated buoys and from
low-Earth-orbiting satellite scatterometer andmicrowave instruments.
For global NWP, ships and buoys provide
observations of acceptable frequency that are
acceptable to marginal accuracy, but coverage ismarginal or absent over large areas of the ocean.
Altimeters on polar satellites provide information
on significant wave height with global coverage andgood accuracy, but horizontal/temporal coverage ismarginal. Information on the 2D wave spectrum isprovided by SAR instruments with good accuracy,
but marginal horizontal/temporal resolution.

144

SAR instruments can accurately measure changes
in ocean waves and winds, including wavelengthand the direction of wave fronts, regardless ofcloud, fog or darkness. The AMI SAR on ERS-2 hasbeen operating in both wave and image mode,and the ASAR on Envisat continues to provide the
ERS wave mode products, but with improved
quality. PALSAR on JAXA’s ALOS mission provides
data on sea surface wind and wave spectrum
required for oil spill analysis and for studies ofcoastal topography-air-sea interaction. The
ScanSAR wave data supplied by RADARSAT willcontinue to be provided by RADARSAT-2. Europe’s
Sentinel-1 mission will also ensure future
provision of SAR data supply.
Information from radar altimeters, such as thaton the Jason-1 mission, is limited to data on
significant wave height.
The GCOS IP recognises that altimetry and SAR
measurements useful for sea state measures(wave height, direction, wavelength and time
period) have been continuously available since1991 and will be maintained in the future, but noconsolidated data product has ever been
produced. GCOS proposes that new altimeter(wide-swath) and SAR technologies are needed toadvance retrieval of near-shore sea stateparameters. CEOS agencies propose to cooperatewith the user community to support efforts aimed
at building on the decade-long satellite sea state
records and making a comprehensive use of
future altimeter- and SAR-bearing missions.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

RADARSAT series (SAR (RADARSAT): 1)(SAR(RADARSAT-2): 2)

current/approved

GFO (GEOSAT Follow On) (Radar Altimeter)
Jason series (POSEIDON-2 (SSALT-2): 1)(POSEIDON-3: 2)
Envisat (ASAR, ASAR (image mode), ASAR (wave mode), RA-2)
SARAL (AltiKa)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: A)
Sentinel-3 series (SRAL: A)

HY-2 series (ALT: A)

planned/considered

OCEANSAT series (Altimeter (OCEANSAT-3): 3)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: B, C)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RCM): 3-5)
Jason series (FJP: 3, CS)

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Wave Height and Spectrum

2008

ERS series (AMI/SAR/Image, AMI/SAR/Wave, RA: 2)

Sentinel-3 series (SRAL: B, C)

145

OceanMulti-purpose Imagery (Ocean)
In addition to the specific ocean measurement
observations discussed in previous sections, anumber of sensors are capable of providing a rangeof ocean imagery from which useful secondary
applications can be derived.
High resolution radiometers, such as AVHRR,
AATSR, and VIIRS, have multi-channel imaging
capabilities to support the acquisition andgeneration of a variety of applied products,
including visible and infrared imaging of
hurricanes. They provide observations of large-scaleocean features, using variations in water colour andtemperature to derive information aboutcirculation, currents, river outflow and water
quality. Such observations are relevant to activities
such as ship routing, coastal zone monitoring, toxic
algal bloom detection, management of fishingfleets and sea pollution monitoring.
High to medium resolution imaging sensors, suchas MERIS, are better suited to observations ofcoastal zone areas and can provide information on
sedimentation, bathymetry, erosion phenomena
and aquaculture activity.
In addition, SAR instruments, such as RADARSAT,ASAR and PALSAR, provide a valuable all-weather,day and night source of information on
oceanographic features, including fronts, eddies
and internal waves. SAR imagery is also useful for:— pollution monitoring – notably oil spill detection;— ship detection – useful to rescue services, port
authorities, custom and immigration services;— coastal change detection – topography mapping;— bottom topography mapping, valuable forresource exploration and pipeline routing.

146

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

ERS series (AMI/SAR/Image, ATSR: 2)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RADARSAT): 1)(SAR (RADARSAT-2): 2)
TRMM (VIRS)GFO (GEOSAT Follow On) (Radar Altimeter)
SPOT series (HRVIR: 4)(VEGETATION: 4, 5)(HRG, HRS: 5)
POES series (AVHRR/3: 15-N')
OCEANSAT series (MSMR: 1)
Terra (MODIS)GOES series (ABI: R, S)(Imager: 11-P)

current/approved

SAC series (HRTC, MMRS: C)
Envisat (AATSR, ASAR, ASAR (image mode), ASAR (wave mode), MERIS)
Aqua (MODIS)FY-1 series (MVISR (10 channels): 1D)
FY-2 series (IVISSR (FY-2): 2C-F)

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Multi-purpose Imagery (Ocean)

2008

Landsat series (TM: 5)(ETM+: 7)(OLI: 8)

ALOS (PALSAR)EPS series (AVHRR/3: 1-3)
COSMO Skymed series (SAR 2000: 1-4)
TerraSAR-X (X-Band SAR)
HJ series (HSI (HJ-1A): 1A)
Meteor series (MSU-MR: N1, N2)
Sich series (MBEI: 2)
COMS series (MI: 1)
SumbandilaSat (SumbandilaSat Imager)
TanDEM-X (X-Band SAR)SARAL (AltiKa)
NPP (VIIRS)SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 1A, 1B)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: A)
SABRINA (SAR (SABRINA))
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: A)
NPOESS series (VIIRS: 1-4)
MAPSAR series (SAR (MAPSAR): 1)

SAC series (MOC: E/SABIA)
HY-3 series (WSAR: 3A-C)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: B, C)

planned/considered

FY-4 series (MCSI: O/A-E)
TerraSAR-X2 (X-Band SAR)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RCM): 3-5)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 2B (1), 2B (2))
Sentinel-3 series (OLCI: B, C)

147

Snow and Ice
Ice Sheet Topography
Essential Climate Variables: Glaciers and Ice Caps
The state of the polar ice sheets and their volumes
are both indicators and important parts of climatechange processes and feedbacks. Consequently, it
is important to monitor and study them in order
to investigate the impact of global warming and toforecast future trends. The IPCC expects that,
globally, ice sheets will continue to react toclimate warming and contribute to sea level risefor thousands of years after the global climate has
been stabilised. They note that:— contraction of the Greenland ice sheet isprojected to continue to contribute to sea level
rise after 2100. Current models suggest
virtually complete elimination of theGreenland ice sheet and a resulting
contribution to sea level rise of about 7 m if
global average warming in excess of 1.9 to
4.6oC relative to pre-industrial values was
sustained for millennia;— ice dynamic models suggest that melting of
the West Antarctic ice sheet could contributeup to 3 m of sea level rise over the next 1000
years, but such results are strongly dependent
on model assumptions regarding climatechange scenarios, ice dynamics and otherfactors.
Satellite remote sensing allows observations of
the changes in the shape of ice sheets, andidentification of the shape and size of large
icebergs that have detached from the ice sheet.
SAR instruments are one source of data on thepolar ice sheets. RADARSAT provides routine
surveillance of polar regions and has created thefirst high resolution radar images of Antarctica,
enabling detection of changes in the polar ice
sheet and improved understanding of the
behaviour of the Antarctic glaciers. ASAR on theEnvisat mission is continuing the observations ofpolar ice topography started by the ERS-1 and
ERS-2 satellites.

148

Interferometric measurements by PALSAR,
together with observations by the AVNIR-2
instrument on JAXA’s ALOS mission, arecontributing to understanding the ice sheet massbalance and glacier variation near the South Poleand in Greenland.
Altimeters provide useful data on ice sheet
topography. While many have high verticalresolution, their limited horizontal resolutionmeans that their observations over smoother,near-horizontal portions of ice sheets are ofgreatest value. The RA-2 instrument on Envisat isproviding improved mapping of ice caps.
Given the significance of information on changes
in the continental ice sheets, two missions
dedicated to their study have been developed:
NASA’s ICESat (launched Jan 2003 but with
reduced acquisition capabilities due to technicalissues) and ESA’s CryoSat-2 (from 2009, following
the loss on launch of CryoSat in 2005). CryoSat-2
will provide an instrument for the ice sheet
interiors and margins, for sea ice and othertopography, with three-mode operation:— conventional pulse-limited operation for theice sheet interiors (and oceans if desired);— synthetic aperture operation for sea ice;
— dual-channel synthetic aperture/interferometric
operation for ice sheet margins.
ICESat-II is scheduled for launch in 2015.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

RADARSAT series (SAR (RADARSAT): 1)(SAR (RADARSAT-2): 2)
IRS series (PAN (IRS-1C/1D): 1D)
Terra (ASTER)
Envisat (ASAR, RA-2)

current/approved

SPOT series (HRG, HRS: 5)
ICESat (GLAS)
ALOS (PALSAR)RISAT series (SAR (RISAT): 1)
CryoSat-2 (SIRAL)

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Ice Sheet Topography

2008

ERS series (AMI/SAR/Image, RA: 2)

Pleiades series (HiRI: 1, 2)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 1A, 1B)
Landsat series (OLI: 8)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: A)
Sentinel-3 series (SRAL: A)

OCEANSAT series (Altimeter (OCEANSAT-3): 3)
DMSAR (C/X SAR)
HY-3 series (WSAR: 3A-3C)

planned/considered

Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: B, C)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RCM): 3-5)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 2B (1), 2B (2))
RISAT series (SAR L: L)
ICESat-II (GLAS Follow-on)
Sentinel-3 series (SRAL: B, C)

149

Snow and Ice
Snow Cover, Edge and Depth
Essential Climate Variables: Snow CoverRegular measurements of terrestrial snow cover areimportant because snow dramatically influences
surface albedo, thereby making a significant
impact on the global climate, as well as influencing
hydrological properties and the regulation of
ecosystem biological activity. The IPCC has foundthat – on the evidence of satellite data – there is
likely to have been a decrease of about 10% in theextent of snow cover since the late 1960’s.
Snow forms a vital component of the water cycle.
In order to make efficient use of meltwater runoff,
resource agencies must be able to make early
predictions of the amount of water stored in theform of snow. Coverage area, snow waterequivalent and snow pack wetness are the key
parameters to be determined in this process.
Snow cover information has a range of additional
applications such as detecting areas of winterkill
in agriculture that result from lack of snow cover
to insulate plants from freezing temperatures.
Locally, monitoring of snow parameters isimportant for meteorology and for enabling
warnings of when melting is about to occur –which is crucial for hydrological research and forforecasting the risk of flooding.
A range of different instrument types can contributeto measurements of snow. Visible/near-infrared
satellite imagery provides information of good
horizontal and temporal resolution and accuracy onsnow cover in the day-time in cloud-free areas.
AVHRR provides snow cover information and thiswill be continued in the future by VIIRS. MODIS data
are being used to monitor the dynamics of snow
and ice cover over large areas (greater than 10 km2)
and, on a weekly basis, to report the maximum area
covered by both. The resulting snow maps should beavailable within 48 hours of MODIS data collection.
Passive microwave instruments such as SSM/I,AMSR and CMIS have all-weather and day/night
monitoring capability, and are able to estimate thethickness of dry snow up to about 80 cm deep.
Data from RADARSAT and ERS-2 have shown theusefulness of SAR remote sensing techniques todetermine snow area extent and to monitor thephysical conditions of snow. Envisat, ALOS andRADARSAT-2 are providing continuity of such snow
information.

150

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

ERS series (AMI/SAR/Image: 2)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RADARSAT): 1)(SAR (RADARSAT-2): 2)
DMSP series (OLS: F-14 - 20)(SSM/IS: F-16 - 20)
IRS series (LISS-III (IRS), WiFS: 1D)
POES series (AMSU-B: 15-17)(AMSU-A: 15-N)(AVHRR/3: 15-N')
Terra (MODIS)NMP series (ALI, Hyperion: 1)
SAC series (HRTC, HSTC: C)(HSC: D/Aquarius)
Envisat (ASAR, ASAR (image mode), MERIS)
Aqua (AIRS, AMSR-E, AMSU-A, MODIS)FY-1 series (MVISR (10 channels): 1D)
RESOURCESAT series (AWiFS, LISS-III (RESOURCESAT), LISS-IV: 1)
ALOS (AVNIR-2, PALSAR)

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Snow Cover, Edge and Depth

2008

Landsat series (TM: 5)(ETM+: 7)(OLI: 8)

EPS series (AMSU-A, AVHRR/3: 1-3)

current/approved

COSMO Skymed series (SAR 2000: 1-4)
TerraSAR-X (X-Band SAR)
FY-3 series (MWIR: 3A-D)
RapidEye (MSI)
HJ series (HSI (HJ-1A): 1A)
Meteor series (KMSS, MSU-MR: N1, N2)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N1, N2)
Sich series (MBEI: 2)
RISAT series (SAR (RISAT): 1)
TanDEM-X (X-Band SAR)
KANOPUS-V series (MSS (Roskosmos), MSU-200, PSS: N1)
NPP (VIIRS)SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 1A, 1B)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: A)
SABRINA (SAR (SABRINA))
NPOESS series (CMIS: 1, 3, 4)(MIS: 2, 3)(VIIRS: 1-4)
MAPSAR series (SAR (MAPSAR): 1)
MTG-I (METEOSAT 3G) series (FCI: 1-4)

RESOURCESAT series (LISS-III (RESOURCESAT), LISS-IV, AWiFS: 2)(WS LISS III: 3)
HY-3 series (WSAR: 3A-C)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: B, C)

planned/considered

FY-3 series (MWRI: 3E-G)
TerraSAR-X2 (X-Band SAR)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RCM): 3-5)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 2B (1), 2B (2))
GCOM series (SGLI: C1-3)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (MSU-GS: N3)

151

Snow and ice
Sea Ice Cover, Edge and Thickness
Essential Climate Variables: Sea Ice
Sea ice variability is a key indicator of climate
variability and change which is characterised by anumber of parameters. Systematic global
observation of sea ice extent and concentration,
inferred from passive microwave radiometry, hasproduced a 30 year record. The length andconsistency of this record has made it the mostoften cited data source for sea ice climate
research. Sea ice observations from newer
instruments have relatively short records, butoffer complementary characteristics such as
greater accuracy for determining ice
concentration and improved resolution.
In addition to monitoring ice extent (the total area
covered by ice at any concentration) andconcentration (the area covered by ice per unit
area of ocean), it is necessary to know ice
thickness in order to estimate sea ice volume ormass balance. In the past, only scarce in situ datafrom boreholes, or upward-looking sonar frommoored instruments or submarines, were available
for this purpose. Now, satellite borne altimeters
are emerging as an important new data source.
Early work with radar altimeters demonstrated theutility of altimetry for ice thickness. The
Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS) on
board ICESat, launched in 2003, has provided highresolution ice thickness maps. CryoSat-2, due forlaunch in 2009, has a radar altimeter that will
provide precise ice thickness maps.
All-weather, day and night active radar, including
the low resolution QuikSCAT scatterometer andhigh resolution RADARSAT synthetic apertureradar, is sensitive to the unique electromagnetic
signature of multiyear ice. This ice has survived asummer’s melt and is generally thicker than
younger ice. Active radar and other new sensors
played an important part in attributing thesurprisingly low Arctic ice extent of September
2007 to various causes. Summer ice extent has
had a downwards trend since the 1990s, as
determined by the passive microwave record. The
active microwave sensors provided data thatshowed that the Arctic Ocean had lost a
considerable amount of multiyear sea ice over the
past few years as a result of the prevailingcirculation pattern, suggesting that the ice cover
was unusually thin as summer began andpredisposed to melting back further. Wide area
sea ice motion and deformation products fromvisible band sensors, as well as higher resolution
AMSR data, provided corroborating evidence.
Finally, investigators using ICESat confirmed thatthe ice thickness at the beginning of summer waswell below its typical average value.

152

Operational ice services place a higher priority on
timeliness and accuracy than on consistency overa long data record, and accordingly use a wide
variety of near-real-time remote sensing data toconstruct ice charts. These charts are used byshipping to avoid damage and delay, and to
reduce fuel costs; offshore drilling companies;
maritime insurance companies; and government
environmental regulatory bodies.
High resolution synthetic aperture radars, such as
those on Envisat and RADARSAT, offer the bestsource of data for operational services. Data fromthese instruments provide information on thenature, extent and drift of ice cover and are used
not only for status reports, but also for ice
forecasting and as an input for meteorologicaland ice drift models. JAXA’s PALSAR radar provides
polarimetric data, which will improve theaccuracy of sea ice classification. Low resolution
scatterometer observations, such as those fromASCAT on MetOp, can also be used to retrieve
information on sea ice extent and concentrationin all weather conditions, day or night.
Looking to the future, continuation of RADARSAT/
Envisat class radar-equipped missions isimportant in providing complementary highresolution data to further elucidate sea ice
processes. JAXA’s AMSR-E radiometer on Aqua andoperational sensors such as the DMSP SSM/I will
ensure continuity of the passive microwave global
sea ice concentration data source in the nearterm. The MIS sensor, currently planned for thesecond NPOESS flight, will be the follow-on sensor
for SSM/I. It will offer improved capabilities,
including a baseline aperture size of 1.8 m
compared to SSMIS’ 0.6 m. The baseline channel
selection for MIS includes the SSM/I channel set
with minor modifications, with channels at 6 and
10 GHz as well.
In 2006, CEOS defined a series of actions to better
meet the GCOS-defined needs for the sea ice
Essential Climate Variable:— CEOS agencies will examine their respectiveplans to maintain provision of microwave
brightness temperatures and visible/infrared
radiances for the sea ice ECV;
— CEOS space agencies will consult with thescience community on appropriate retrieval
algorithms of passive microwave observation
for reprocessing sea ice products;— New space-based measurements and products,
including ice thickness and ice drift, will beconsidered by CEOS agencies as part of their
future research missions.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

SPOT series (HRV: 2)(HRG, HRV: 5)(HRVIR: 4)
ERS series (AMI/SAR/Image, AMI/Scaterometer, RA: 2)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RADARSAT): 1)(SAR (RADARSAT-2): 2)
POES series (AMSU-B: 15-17)(AMSU-A: 15-N)(AVHRR/3: 15-N')
OCEANSAT series (MSMR: 1)
Terra (ASTER, MODIS)NMP series (ALI, Hyperion: 1)
Envisat (AASTR, ASAR, ASAR (image mode), MERIS, RA-2)
Aqua (AIRS, AMSU-A, MODIS)FY-1 series (MVISR (10 channels): 1D)
ICESat (GLAS)
ALOS (AVNIR-2, PALSAR)EPS series (AMSU-A, AVHRR/3, ASCAT: 1-3)
HY-1 series (CZI: B)

current/approved

COSMO Skymed series (SAR 2000: 1-4)

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Sea Ice Cover, Edge and Thickness

2008

Landsat series (TM, MSS: 5)(ETM+: 7)(OLI: 8)

TerraSAR-X (X-Band SAR)
FY-3 series (MWIR: 3A-D)
RapidEye (MSI)
HJ series (HSI (HJ-1A): 1A)
Meteor series (BRLK, KMSS, MSU-MR, MTVZA: N1, N2)
Sich series (MBEI: 2)
SumbandilaSat (SumbandilaSat Imager)
RISAT series (SAR (RISAT): 1)
TanDEM-X (X-Band SAR)
CryoSat-2 (SIRAL)
KANOPUS-V series (PSS: N1)
Pleiades series (HiRI: 1, 2)
SAC series (Microwave Radiometer (CONAE): D/Aquarius)
NPP (ATMS, VIIRS)SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 1A, 1B)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: A)
SABRINA (SAR (SABRINA))
Sentinel-3 series (SLSTR, SRAL: A)
NPOESS series (VIIRS: 1-4)(ATMS, CMIS: 1, 3, 4)(MIS: 2, 3)
MAPSAR series (SAR (MAPSAR): 1)
MTG-I (METEOSAT 3G) series (FCI: 1-4)

HY-2 series (RAD: A)
HY-1 series (CZI: C, D)
Meteor series (SAR (ROSHYDROMET): N3)
HY-3 series (WSAR: 3A-C)

planned/considered

Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: B, C)FY-3 series (MWRI: 3E-G)
TerraSAR-X2 (X-Band SAR)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RCM): 3-5)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 2B (1), 2B (2))
ICESat-II (GLAS Follow-on)

153

SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 1A, 1B)
Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: A)
SABRINA (SAR (SABRINA))
Sentinel-3 series (SLSTR, SRAL: A)
NPOESS series (VIIRS: 1-4)(ATMS, CMIS: 1, 3, 4)(MIS: 2, 3)

Snow and ice

MAPSAR series (SAR (MAPSAR): 1)
MTG-I (METEOSAT 3G) series (FCI: 1-4)

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

HY-2 series (RAD: A)
HY-1 series (CZI: C, D)
Meteor series (SAR (ROSHYDROMET): N3)
HY-3 series (WSAR: 3A-C)

planned/considered

Sea Ice Cover, Edge and Thickness
154

2008

Sentinel-1 series (C-Band SAR: B, C)FY-3 series (MWRI: 3E-G)
TerraSAR-X2 (X-Band SAR)
RADARSAT series (SAR (RCM): 3-5)
SAOCOM series (SAR-L (SAOCOM): 2B (1), 2B (2))
ICESat-II (GLAS Follow-on)
Sentinel-3 series (SLSTR, SRAL: B, C)

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

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Gravity and Magnetic Fields
Gravity, Magnetic andGeodynamic Measurements
Essential Climate Variables: Groundwater, Sea Level
Not all near-Earth measurements undertaken bysatellite observations are discussed in thisdocument, since the focus here is on land, sea, andair parameters. Many others are observed on aroutine basis, including measurements of thespace environment and solar activity. Of particularnote are measurements of the Earth’s gravity field,
magnetic field and geodynamic activity.
Gravity field measurements from space provide themost promising advances for improved
measurement of the ‘geoid’ and its time variations.
The geoid is the surface of equal gravitational
potential at mean sea level, and reflects theirregularities in the Earth’s gravity field at theplanet’s surface caused by the inhomogeneousmass and density distribution in the interior. Suchmeasurements are vital for quantitative
determination – in combination with satellite
altimetry – of ocean currents, improved global
height references, estimates of the thickness of thepolar ice sheets and its variations, and estimates ofthe mass/volume redistribution of fresh water inorder to better understand the hydrological cycle.
Gravity field measurement packages on satellites
often utilise combinations of different instrument
types in order to derive the necessary
information: single or multiple accelerometers;
precise satellite orbit determination systems; andsatellite to satellite tracking systems.
DLR’s CHAMP gravity package (since 2000) andthe NASA/DLR twin satellite GRACE mission (since2002) have been providing new information thathas resulted in new and unique models of the
Earth’s gravity field and its variability over time,and determination of the geoid to centimetre
accuracy at length scales of several hundred
kilometres. GRACE has demonstrated thatsatellites can detect groundwater variations bymeasuring subtle temporal variations in gravity.
From 2008, this data will be supplemented by
ESA’s GOCE satellite, which is designed to makesignificant advances in our understanding ofocean circulation and the crucial role which it
plays in regulating the climate, as well as sea level
rise and processes occurring in the Earth’s interior.
GOCE data will also find a broad range ofapplications in the field of geodesy and surveying.

156

A number of Earth missions, including Australia’s
Fedsat, launched in 2002, have carried sensors to
study the electromagnetic environment of
spacecraft. Satellite-borne magnetometersprovide information on the strength and directionof the Earth’s internal and external magnetic field
and its time variations. Such instruments are on
board the Ørsted satellite, which is Denmark’s
first satellite dedicated to the magnetic field,
launched in 1999. The CHAMP mission also
provides these measurements, which are of value
in a range of applications, including navigation
systems, resource exploration drilling, spacecraft
attitude control systems and assessments of the
impact of ‘space weather’.
Further missions are under way or planned formore in-depth, dedicated studies of magnetic
field. They include DEMETER (launched June 2004),
which is investigating links between earthquakes
and magnetic field variations, and Swarm (from2010), which aims to provide the best ever surveyof the geomagnetic field and its temporal
evolution, providing new insights by improving ourknowledge of the Earth’s interior and climate.

7 Earth Observation Plans: by Measurement

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

STARLETTE (Laser Reflectors)
LAGEOS series (LRA (LAGEOS): 1, 2)(LCCRA: 3)
STELLA (Laser Reflectors)
ERS series (RA: 2)
DMSP series (SMM: F-14 -20)
GFO (GEOSAT Follow On) (Radar Altimeter)Ørsted (Oersted) (CSC FVM, Overhauser Magnetometer)
CHAMP (CHAMP Gravity Package (Accelerometer+GPS), CHAMP, Magnetometry Package (1 Scalar + 2 Vector, Magnetometer))
SAC series (GOLPE, MMP: C)(Lagrange: D/Aquarius)
Jason series (TRSR, POSEIDON-2 (SSALT-2): 1)(DORIS-NG, GPSP, LRA: 1, 2)(POSEIDON-3: 2)
Envisat (DORIS-NG, RA-2)
GRACE A (BlackJack GPS (TRSR), HAIRS (aka KBR))
GRACE B (BlackJack GPS (TRSR), HAIRS (aka KBR))
DEMETER (IMSC)

current/approved

Resurs series (Arina: DK)
GOCE (EGG, GPS (ESA), Laser Reflectors (ESA))
Meteor series (GGAK-M: N1)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (GGAK-E: N1, N2)
SARAL (AltiKa)
CryoSat-2 (DORIS-NG, Laser Reflectors (ESA))
Swarm (ACC, ASM, EFI, GPS Receiver (Swarm), VFM)
Sentinel-3 series (SRAL: A)
GOES series (SEISS: R, S)

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

Gravity, Magnetic and Geodynamic Measurements

2008

Diademe 1&2 (RRA)

planned/considered

Jason series (FJP: 3, CS)
GOMS/ELECTRO series (GGAK-E: N3)
Sentinel-3 series (SRAL: B, C)

157

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions
8.1 Introduction

MissionThis section gives details of the satellite missionsof CEOS members and of the CEOS/WMO
database from which much of the data in thishandbook is derived.

Mission acronym
Full mission name
Agency acronym

StatusCurrent: at least the prototype has been launched,
and financing is approved for the whole series

Nearly all information contained in this catalogue
has been gathered from and verified by CEOS
agencies, but it should be noted that the launchdate and duration of some planned missions is
uncertain (e.g. due to changes in funding or
policy, changes in requirements, etc.) hence, theaccuracy of timelines relating to these missions
cannot be guaranteed. If the month of the launchof a planned mission has not been specified, thetimeline is shown to commence at the beginningof the planned year of launch. It should also be
noted that missions currently operating beyond
their planned life are shown as operational until
the end of 2008 unless an alternative date has
been proposed.

Approved: financing is available for the whole series,
the prototype is fully defined, the development is inphase C/D
Planned: financing is available up to the end ofphase B, financing of the full series is being
considered
Considered: conceptual studies and phase A havebeen completed, financing of phase B is inpreparation
Key dates

Launch date
Estimated end of life datePrimary
applications

Of those measurements discussed in section 7

Instruments

A list of instruments on board the mission from thecatalogue in section 9

Orbit details

Type of orbit
Altitude
PeriodInclination
Repeat cycle
LST: Local Solar Time – the time of satellite equator
overpass
Longitude (for geostationary orbits)
Ascending/descending: whether the satellite crosses
the equator in a northbound (ascending) or
southbound (descending) direction

URL

For further information via internet

The catalogue of CEOS agency EO satellite
missions is arranged both chronologically bylaunch date and alphabetically by mission name.
For each of the missions, the following
information is supplied:158

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

8.2 Recent Events
Eleven missions were launched by CEOS agencies
from the start of 2007 through to end June 2008:

16 missions are planned for launch between July
2008 and the end of the year:

MissionAgencyLaunch date

MissionAgencyLaunchKanopus-Vulcan

Roscosmos

Gen 2007

ISRO

Gen 2007Meteor-M N1 (Meteor-M N1
Meteorological Satellite)

Roshydromet
Roscosmos

Jul 2008

CARTOSAT-2(Cartography Satellite - 2)

RapidEyeDLR

Aug 2008

HY-1B(Ocean colour satellite B)

NSOAS/CASTTHEOS (Thailand Earth
Observation System)

GISTDAAug 2008

Apr 2007COSMO-SkyMed 1
ASI/MiD (Italy) Jun 2007
(COnstellation of small
Satellites for Mediterraneanbasin Observation 1)
TerraSAR-X

DLR

Jul 2007CBERS-2B(China Brazil Earth
Resources Satellite 2B)

CRESDA/INPE Sep 2007

COSMO-SkyMed 2
ASI/MiD (Italy) Dec 2007
(COnstellation of small
Satellites for Mediterraneanbasin Observation 2)
RADARSAT-2(Radar Satellite-2)

CSA

Dec 2007

MS-1(Indian Mini Satellite-1)

ISRO

Apr 2008

FY-3A(FY-3A Polar-orbiting
Meteorological Satellite)

NRSCC / CMA

May 2008

Jason-2 (aka OSTM)(Ocean Surface
Topography Mission)

NASA / CNES / Jun 2008
EUMETSAT

HJ-1A (Disaster and Environment CAST
Monitoring and Forecast Small
Satellite Constellation A)

Sep 2008

HJ-1B (Disaster and Environment CAST
Monitoring and Forecast Small
Satellite Constellation B)

Sep 2008

COSMO-SkyMed 3
ASI / MiD (Italy)(COnstellation of small Satellites
for Mediterranean basin
Observation 3)

Sep 2008

GOCE(Gravity Field and Steady-State
Ocean Circulation Explorer)

ESA

Sep 2008

OCEANSAT-2 (Ocean satellite-2)

ISRO

Sep 2008

DMSP F-18(Defense Meteorological
Satellite Program F-18)

NOAA

Sep 2008

UK-DMC2 (UK Disaster
Monitoring Constellation 2)

BNSC

Oct 2008

GOES-O(Geostationary Operational
Environmental Satellite - O)

NOAA

Dec 2008

OCO(Orbiting Carbon Observatory)NASA

Dec 2008

Elektro-L N1(Geostationary Operational
Meteorological Satellite - 1)

Roshydromet
Roscosmos

Dec 2008

FY-2E (FY-2E Geostationary
Meteorological Satellite)

NRSCC

Dec 2008

FY-3B (FY-3B Polar-orbiting
Meteorological Satellite)

NRSCC / CMA

Dec 2008

FY-3C (FY-3C Polar-orbiting
Meteorological Satellite)

NRSCC / CMA

Dec 2008

159

8.3 Current Missions
100 different Earth observation satellite missions
are estimated to be currently operating (June2008). Many of these comprise series of missions
planned to provide the continuity which isessential for many observations and applications.
The principal satellite series are highlighted below.

(AMSU and HIRS sensor packages). Since 2006,
these have been supplemented by the first of the
EUMETSAT Polar System satellites, MetOp-A,
offering additional measurements such as highresolution temperature and humidity profiles,
wind speed over the oceans, ozone andmeasurements of trace gases such as carbon
dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane.

Geostationary meteorological satellites:

Topex/Poseidon and Jason series:

There is a worldwide network of operational
geostationary meteorological satellites which
provide visible and infrared images of the Earth's
surface and atmosphere. Countries/regions withcurrent geostationary operational meteorologicalsatellites are the USA (NOAA GOES series), Europe(EUMETSAT Meteosat series), Japan (JMA MTSAT
series), India (IMD INSAT series), China (CMA FY
series), Russia (Roshydromet GOMS/ Elektro-L
series), and (from 2009) Korea (KMA COMS series).

These satellites form a joint NASA/CNES precision
radar altimetry mission to measure ocean
topography and hence, the speed and direction ofocean currents. The follow-on Jason-2, developedby NASA/CNES and operated by NOAA/EUMETSAT,
was launched on 20 June 2008, and will provide acore contribution to GOOS.

Crustal motion and gravitational field series:
A number of small satellite missions designed tomeasure the Earth’s crustal motion and the Earth’s
gravitational field have been launched since 1967.
The space segment typically comprises corner cube
laser retroreflectors and the ground segment is a
global network of transportable laser sites. The
design life of the space segment is many thousandsof years. These missions include the Diademe andStarlette series (CNES) and the LAGEOS series(NASA and ASI). More recently, missions such as
CHAMP (DLR) and GRACE (NASA/DLR) have beenlaunched to provide high precision measurementsof the Earth’s gravitational field.

DMSP series:
The long-term meteorological programme of the US
Department of Defense (DoD) – with the objectiveof collecting and disseminating worldwide
atmospheric, oceanographic, solar-geophysical andcloud cover data on a daily basis.

NOAA and EUMETSAT polar orbiters:
Until 2006, operational polar orbiting
meteorological satellites were provided only by
NOAA – with two satellites maintained in polar
orbit at any one time, one in a ‘morning’ orbit and
one in an ‘afternoon’ orbit. The series provides awide range of data of interest, including sea
surface temperature, cloud cover, data for landstudies (notably the AVHRR sensor), temperatureand humidity profiles, and ozone concentrations

160

ERS and Envisat series:
ERS-1 was launched by ESA in July 1991, ERS-2 inApril 1995, and Envisat in March 2002. This series
concentrates on global and regional environmental
issues, making use of active microwave techniquesthat enable a range of measurements to be madeof land, sea and ice surfaces, independent of cloud
cover and atmospheric conditions. In addition, theATSR/AATSR instruments on these missions provide
images of the surface or cloud top and the GOME
instrument on ERS-2 provides measurements ofozone levels. ERS-1 and ERS-2 operated in tandem
for around 1 year in 1995 and 1996, providing data
for topographic applications such as differential
interferometry. Envisat features a range of new
sensors for land surface and atmospheric studies.

IRS series:
The Indian IRS satellites include three thematicseries addressing the areas of: land and water
resources; cartography; and ocean and atmosphere(which include the RESOURCESAT, CARTOSAT and
OCEANSAT missions). These are coordinatedthrough the unique institutional framework of the
National Natural Resources Management System(NNRMS). Their primary objectives are in supportof agriculture, disaster management, land andwater resource management, cartographic
mapping, and studies of ocean and atmosphere.
The latest in the series are Kalpana launched in
December 2002; RESOURCESAT-1 (IRS-P6) launchedin October 2003; CARTOSAT-1 launched in May
2005, CARTOSAT-2 launched in January 2007. The
Indian EO segment will be augmented with thelaunch of OCEANSAT-2, RISAT-1, and INSAT-3D
during 2008–09.

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

Meteor series:

Cloud properties and climate links:

Roshydromet maintains these missions, mainlyfor operational meteorological purposes. Other
applications include experimental measurementof ozone and Earth’s radiation budget.

Since April 2006, a multiple satellite (NASA andCNES) constellation, dubbed the A-Train, has beenin place (comprising CloudSat, Aqua, Aura,
CALIPSO and PARASOL) flying in orbital formation
to gather data needed to evaluate and improve
the way clouds are represented in global models,
and to develop a more complete knowledge of
their poorly understood role in climate change
and the cloud-climate feedback. The constellation
will be joined by the Orbiting Carbon Observatoryfrom late 2008.

RADARSAT series:
Launched in November of 1995, RADARSAT-1
provides researchers and operational users with arange of SAR data products which are used formarine applications such as ship routing and ice
forecasting, as well as land applications, such as
resource management and geological mapping.
RADARSAT-2 was launched in December 2007 toensure data continuity.

SPOT and Landsat series:
The SPOT satellites (lead agency CNES) and theLandsat series (lead agency USGS) provide highresolution imagery in a range of visible andinfrared bands. They are used extensively formedium resolution land studies. Data from thesesatellites are supplemented by availability of very
high resolution imagery (up to 1 m) from various
commercial satellites.

CBERS series:
A joint mission series of China and Brazil, aimed
at environmental monitoring and Earth resources.
The latest in the series (CBERS-2B) was launchedin September 2007.

Polar ice cap studies:
Given the significance of information on changes
in the continental ice sheets, two missions havebeen dedicated to their study: NASA’s ICESat(launched January 2003) and ESA’s CryoSat (loston launch in October 2005 but rebuilt as
CryoSat-2 for launch in 2009).

Gravity and magnetic field studies:
The GRACE (from 2002) and GOCE (from 2009)
missions are dedicated to providing more precise
measurements of the geoid, while DEMETER(currently in orbit), Kanopus-Vulkan, andVulkan-Kompas-2 will study links between
electromagnetic fields and earthquake
predictability.

KOMPSAT (Arirang) series:
These South Korean missions are aimed at
cartography, land use and planning, and oceanand disaster monitoring. The first satellite waslaunched in December 1999, with a second launch
in July 2006.

NASA’s EOS missions:
Carrying the latest advanced sensors, eachmission is dedicated to investigation of particular
Earth System issues. In addition to the Terra,
Aqua and Aura missions, NASA has also launcheda number of missions aimed at developing
understanding of the Sun’s variability and its
influence on our climate, including ACRIMSAT,SORCE, and TIMED.

161

8.4 Future Missions
Current plans supplied by CEOS agencies
estimate that in the order of 100 new satellite
missions will be launched for operation between
2008 and 2013. The next few years will mark asignificant era for satellite Earth observations,with half of these new missions to be launchedby June 2010. These new programmes will ensure
continuity of key measurements, provide
improved resolutions and accuracies, andintroduce several exciting new capabilities. Someof the highlights are described below:

Operational meteorology:
The current geostationary programmes willcontinue operationally, supplemented by China’s
FY-3 from May 2008 and South Korea’s COMS-1
from 2009. The NOAA series of polar orbiting
satellites will evolve to become NPOESS, featuring
more advanced sensors and new capabilities.
EUMETSAT will launch further MetOp series
satellites and is planning to expand thecapabilities of its geostationary satellite
programme with the proposed launch of anadvanced imager and a lightning imager on the
Meteosat Third Generation – Imager (MTG-I)
platform, as well as a hyperspectral infraredsounder on the MTG-sounder (MTG-S) platform.
The capabilities will grow further through theinclusion of the ESA Sentinel-4 UVN mission on
the MTG-S platform.

Atmospheric studies:
New data on the chemistry and dynamics of the
Earth’s atmosphere will be gathered by missions
from many countries, including future missions
such as GOSAT and GCOM (JAXA), OCO (NASA)and EarthCARE (ESA/JAXA). ADM-Aeolus (ESA) will
provide new information on winds.

Radiation budget:
Continuity and new capabilities are provided by
NASA’s SORCE (launched in 2003), the PICARD
mission (2009) of CNES, and operational
meteorology missions, such as the MSG and
NPOESS series.

Ocean observations:Continuity and improvements in many current
measurements have been assured with thelaunch of missions such as Envisat and Aqua.
SMOS (2009) and SAC-D/Aquarius (2010) are
worthy of special note, since they will provide

162

new capabilities for measurements of ocean
salinity. Ocean surface wind and topographymeasurements – pioneered by theTopex/Poseidon and ERS missions – are to becontinued operationally by sensors on the Jason-2
mission and on the MetOp and NPOESS series.
Europe’s GMES programme will also provide theSentinel-3 mission.

Land surface observations:
Advanced SAR systems on ALOS, TerraSAR-X andRADARSAT-2 are expected to yield new
information on land surface properties. ESA’s
SMOS will measure soil moisture from 2009.
Operational meteorological satellites will supply
continuous observation of land surface radiationand vegetation parameters. GMES will contribute
the Sentinel-1 and 2 missions.

Hyperspectral observations:
A new generation of sensors is emerging,featuring hundreds of different spectral bands,
with the capability – using spectral-libraries – toremotely sense the chemical composition of
surfaces. Such sensors (including those on ASI’s
PRISMA and China’s HJ-1A) are expected toprovide new and exciting capabilities for Earthobservation of land, sea and atmosphere.

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

8.5 CEOS/WMO Database
The information presented in the CEOS Handbook
is a much condensed summary of the information
provided in the CEOS/WMO Database. This
database contains extensive information on thecapabilities of both satellite and in situ observing
system capabilities, and relates them in somedetail to the requirements of key user
programmes. The database is maintained by ESA(core mission and instrument data) and WMO(detailed performance data and requirements
information).
The database was established to support planningof future observing systems, with the primary aimof improving the extent to which space systemcapabilities meet user requirements forobservations. Although many possible uses havebeen identified for the database, its structure andlevel of detail are designed primarily to assist in
the assessment of conformance between users’
requirements for observations and the potential
capability of the space segments of satellite
systems. To this end, the following information is
included in the database:— from the user communities, a summary of
their observational requirements, as available
to CEOS through its partnerships with many
user communities;— from the in situ observing system operatorsand space agencies, a summary of thepotential performances of their instruments,
expressed in the same terms as the user
requirements;— instrument and mission descriptions
sufficiently detailed to support the evaluationof their performances; programmatic
information to permit assessment of service
continuity aspects.
CEOS plans to develop the database capability infuture to allow online access to its searchcapabilities, including the generation of tables
and timelines of interest to various user
communities. As these capabilities develop, they
will be accessible via the online edition of the
CEOS Handbook at:www.eohandbook.com

163

List of Satellite Missions (by year and sponsoring agency)
Launch Year
1967

Diademe 1&2 (CNES)

1975

STARLETTE (CNES)

1976

LAGEOS-1 (NASA)1978

SeaSat (NASA)1984

Landsat-5 (USGS / NASA)

1990

SPOT-2 (CNES)

1992

LAGEOS-2 (NASA / ASI)

1993

SCD-1 (INPE)
STELLA (CNES)
Meteosat-6 (EUMETSAT)1995

ERS-2 (ESA)
RADARSAT-1 (CSA)1997

DMSP F-14 (NOAA)
Meteosat-7 (EUMETSAT)
IRS-1D (ISRO)
TRMM (NASA / JAXA)1998

GFO (GEOSAT Follow-on) (DoD (USA) / US Naval
Research Lab / CNES / NASA)
SPOT-4 (CNES)NOAA-15 (NOAA)
SCD-2 (INPE)

1999

INSAT-2E (ISRO)
Landsat-7 (USGS / NASA)
OCEANSAT-1 (ISRO)QuikSCAT (NASA)Ørsted (Oersted) (DNSC / CNES / NASA)DMSP F-15 (NOAA)
Terra (NASA)
ACRIMSAT (NASA)

2000

164

EO Satellite Mission (and sponsoring agency)

GOES-11 (NOAA)CHAMP (DLR)
NOAA-16 (NOAA)NMP EO-1 (NASA)
SAC-C (CONAE)

2001

Odin (SNSB / TEKES / CNES / CSA)
GOES-12 (NOAA)PROBA (ESA)TES (ISRO)
Jason-1 (NASA / CNES)
TIMED (NASA)

2002

Envisat (ESA)
GRACE A (NASA / DLR)GRACE B (NASA / DLR)
Aqua (NASA)
SPOT-5 (CNES)
FY-1D (NRSCC / CMA)NOAA-17 (NOAA)
Meteosat-8 (EUMETSAT)
Kalpana (ISRO)

Launch Year

EO Satellite Mission (and sponsoring agency)

2003

CORIOLIS (DoD (USA) / NASA)
ICESat (NASA)
SORCE (NASA)
INSAT-3A (ISRO)SCISAT-1 (CSA)
UK-DMC (BNSC)
NigeriaSat-1 (NASRDA)RESOURCESAT-1 (ISRO)DMSP F-16 (NOAA)CBERS-2 (CAST / INPE)

2004

DEMETER (CNES)
Aura (NASA)
FY-2C (NRSCC)
PARASOL (CNES)

2005

MTSAT-1R (JMA / JCAB)
CARTOSAT-1 (ISRO)NOAA-18 (NOAA)
Monitor-E (Roscosmos)
TopSat (BNSC)
BJ-1 (NRSCC)
Meteosat-9 (EUMETSAT)2006

ALOS (JAXA)MTSAT-2 (JMA / JCAB)
COSMIC-1/FORMOSAT-3 FM1 (NSPO / NOAA / UCAR)COSMIC-2/FORMOSAT-3 FM2 (NSPO / NOAA / UCAR)COSMIC-3/FORMOSAT-3 FM3 (NSPO / NOAA / UCAR)COSMIC-4/FORMOSAT-3 FM4 (NSPO / NOAA / UCAR)COSMIC-5/FORMOSAT-3 FM5 (NSPO / NOAA / UCAR)COSMIC-6/FORMOSAT-3 FM6 (NSPO / NOAA / UCAR)
CloudSat (NASA)CALIPSO (NASA / CNES)
GOES-13 (NOAA)
Resurs DK 1 (Roshydromet / Roscosmos)
KOMPSAT-2 (KARI)
MetOp-A (EUMETSAT)DMSP F-17 (NOAA)FY-2D (NRSCC)

2007

CARTOSAT-2 (ISRO)
HY-1B (NSOAS / CAST)COSMO-SkyMed 1 (ASI / MiD (Italy))
TerraSAR-X (DLR)
CBERS-2B (CRESDA / INPE)COSMO-SkyMed 2 (ASI / MiD (Italy))
RADARSAT-2 (CSA)2008

IMS-1 (ISRO)FY-3A (NRSCC / CMA)
Jason-2 (aka OSTM) (NASA / CNES / EUMETSAT)
RapidEye (DLR)
THEOS (GISTDA)
HJ-1A (CAST)
HJ-1B (CAST)COSMO-SkyMed 3 (ASI / MiD (Italy))
GOCE (ESA)OCEANSAT-2 (ISRO)DMSP F-18 (NOAA)
UK-DMC2 (BNSC)
Meteor-M N1 (Roshydromet / Roscosmos)
GOES-O (NOAA)OCO (NASA)
Elektro-L N1 (Roshydromet / Roscosmos)
FY-2E (NRSCC)
FY-3B (NRSCC / CMA)
FY-3C (NRSCC / CMA)

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

Launch Year

EO Satellite Mission (and sponsoring agency)

Launch Year

EO Satellite Mission (and sponsoring agency)

2009

GOSAT (JAXA / MOE (Japan) NIES (Japan))Sich-2 (NSAU)PICARD (CNES)
HJ-1C (CAST)
COMS-1 (KARI / NIES (Japan))
SumbandilaSat (CSIR / Uni of Stellenbosh)
NOAA-N' (NOAA)
Megha-Tropiques (CNES / ISRO)RISAT-1 (ISRO)INSAT-3D (ISRO)LARES (ASI)
SMOS (ESA / CDTI / CNES)DMSP F-19 (NOAA)
Glory (NASA)RESOURCESAT-2 (ISRO)RASAT (Tubitak)NigeriaSat-2 (NASRDA)COSMO-SkyMed 4 (ASI / MiD (Italy))
TanDEM-X (DLR)
SARAL (CNES / ISRO)CryoSat-2 (ESA)
GOES-P (NOAA)
Meteor-M N2 (Roshydromet / Roscosmos)
Kanopus-V N1 (Roshydromet / Roscosmos)

2013

Meteosat-11 (EUMETSAT)
TerraSAR-X2 (DLR)
SMAP (NASA)
NPOESS-1 (NOAA)
EarthCARE (ESA / JAXA)GPM Core (NASA / JAXA)
CBERS-4 (CRESDA / INPE)
MAPSAR (INPE / DLR)
RADARSAT CONSTELLATION-1 (CSA)
Jason-3 (NOAA / CNES / EUMETSAT / NASA)2014

SAC-F (CONAE)
SAOCOM-2A (CONAE)
COMS-2 (KARI / NIES (Japan))
Sentinel-5 precursor (ESA)GCOM-C1 (JAXA)
Sentinel-2 B (ESA / EC)
RISAT-L (ISRO)RADARSAT CONSTELLATION-3 (CSA)
GOES-S (NOAA)GPM Constellation (NASA / JAXA)
GPM-Br (INPE)
FY-3F (NRSCC / CMA)
Elektro-L N3 (Roshydromet / Roscosmos)

2015

SAOCOM-2B (CONAE)
ICESat-II (NASA)
RADARSAT CONSTELLATION-2 (CSA)
GOES-R (NOAA)
Sentinel-3 B (ESA / EC)
MetOp-C (EUMETSAT)
MTG-I1 (EUMETSAT)
FY-4 O/B (NRSCC / CMA)
FY-4 O/C (NRSCC / CMA)
FY-4 M/A (NRSCC / CMA)

2016

NPOESS-2 (NOAA)GCOM-W2 (JAXA)
FY-3G (NRSCC / CMA)
Jason-CS (ESA / EC)

2017

MTG S1/Sentinel-4 A (EUMETSAT / ESA / EC)
HY-3B (NSOAS / CAST)
MTG-I2 (EUMETSAT)

2018

NPOESS-3 (NOAA)GCOM-C2 (JAXA)
Sentinel-1 C (ESA / EC)
FY-4 M/B (NRSCC / CMA)

2019

Sentinel-2 C (ESA / EC)
Sentinel-3 C (ESA / EC)
FY-4 O/D (NRSCC / CMA)
FY-4 O/E (NRSCC / CMA)

2020

post-EPS/Sentinel-5 (EUMETSAT / ESA / EC)
NPOESS-4 (NOAA)GCOM-W3 (JAXA)

2022

HY-3C (NSOAS / CAST)
GCOM-C3 (JAXA)
FY-4 M/C (NRSCC / CMA)

2023

MTG-I3 (EUMETSAT)2024

MTG S2/Sentinel-4 B (EUMETSAT / ESA / EC)

2025

MTG-I4 (EUMETSAT)

2010

2011

2012

Pleiades 1 (CNES)
TES-HYS (ISRO)
HY-2A (NSOAS / CAST)GISAT (ISRO)ADM-Aeolus (ESA)
SARE-1 (CONAE)
SAC-D (CONAE / NASA)
HY-1C (NSOAS / CAST)NPP (NASA / NOAA / DoD (USA))
VENUS (CNES / ISA)
Swarm (ESA / CNES / CSA)CBERS-3 (CRESDA / INPE)CHINOOK (CSA)
HY-1D (NSOAS / CAST)FY-3D (NRSCC / CMA)
Elektro-L N2 (Roshydromet / Roscosmos)
Meteor-M N3 (Roshydromet / Roscosmos)
Meteosat-10 (EUMETSAT)SAOCOM 1A (CONAE / ASI)CARTOSAT-3 (ISRO)ISTAG (ISRO)OCEANSAT-3 (ISRO)MetOp-B (EUMETSAT)
Pleiades 2 (CNES)DMSAR (ISRO)RESOURCESAT-3 (ISRO)PRISMA (ASI)LDCM (USGS / NASA)DMSP F-20 (NOAA)
Sentinel-1 A (ESA / EC)AMAZÔNIA-1 (INPE)
FY-2F (NRSCC)
SAOCOM 1B (CONAE / ASI)
SAC-E/SABIA/mar (CONAE / INPE)
Ingenio (SEOSAT) (CDTI / ESA)EnMAP (DLR)
HY-3A (NSOAS / CAST)
GCOM-W1 (JAXA)SABRINA (ASI)
Sentinel-2 A (ESA / EC)
Sentinel-1 B (ESA / EC)
Sentinel-3 A (ESA / EC)
FY-3E (NRSCC / CMA)
FY-4 O/A (NRSCC / CMA)

165

List of Satellite Missions (alphabetical)

A
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

ACRIMSAT
Active Cavity
Radiometer
Irradiance
MonitorCurrently
being flown

20 Dec 99

01 Oct 09

Will sustain long-term solar ACRIM III
luminosity database byproviding measurements of
total solar irradiance andthe solar constant.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 716 km
Period: 90 mins
Inclination: 98.13º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 10:50
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://acrim.jpl.nasa.gov/

01 May 10

01 Dec 12

Will provide wind profile
ALADINmeasurements for global 3D
wind field products used forstudy of atmospheric
dynamics, including global
transport of energy, water,
aerosols, and chemicals.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 408 km
Period: 92.5 mins
Inclination: 97.01º
Repeat cycle: 7 days
LST: 18:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.esa.int/export/esaLP/aeolus.html

Currently
being flown

24 Jan 06

01 Sep 10

Cartography, digital terrain AVNIR-2, PALSAR,
models, environmental
PRISM
monitoring, disastermonitoring, civil planning,
agriculture and forestry,
Earth resources, land
surface.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 692 km
Period: 98.7 mins
Inclination: 98.16º
Repeat cycle: 46 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL:
www.jaxa.jp/projects/sat/alos/index_e.html

Approved

01 Dec 11

01 Dec 15

Earth resources,
environmental monitoring,land surface.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 905 km
Period: 103.2 mins
Inclination: 0º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.inpe.br/programas/mecb/default.htm

Currently
being flown

04 Jun 02

01 Oct 09

Atmospheric
Type: Sun-synchronous
AMSU-A, AIRS,
dynamics/water and energy MODIS, CERES, HSB, Altitude: 705 km
cycles, cloud formation,
Period: 98.8 mins
AMSR-E
precipitation and radiative
Inclination: 98.2º
properties, air/sea fluxes of
Repeat cycle: 16 days
energy and moisture, sea
LST: 13:30
ice extent and heat
Longitude (if geo):
exchange with the
Asc/desc: Ascending
atmosphere. Option of
URL: www.gsfc.nasa.gov
705 km or 438 km orbit
altitude.

Currently
being flown

15 Jul 04

01 Oct 09

Chemistry and dynamics of MLS (EOS-Aura),
Earth’s atmosphere from
TES, HiRDLS, OMI
the ground through themesosphere.

NASA

ADM-Aeolus
Approved
Atmospheric
Dynamics Mission(Earth Explorer
Core Mission)

ESA

ALOS
Advanced
Land Observing
Satellite

JAXAAMAZÔNIA-1
Remote Sensing
Satellite 1

OBA

INPE

Aqua
Aqua (formerly
EOS PM-1)

NASA

Aura
Aura (formerly
EOS Chemistry)

NASA

166

Orbit details & URL

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 705 km
Period: 98.8 mins
Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle: 16 days
LST: 13:45
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://aura.gsfc.nasa.gov/

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

B|C
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

BJ-1

Currently
being flown

27 Oct 05

27 Oct 10

Earth Observation.

MSI (BJ-1), PAN(BJ-1)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 686 km
Period:Inclination: 98.17º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: www.blmit.com.cn

CALIPSO
Currently
Cloud-Aerosol
being flown
Lidar and Infrared
Pathfinder
Satellite
Observations

28 Apr 06

28 Apr 09

Measurements of aerosol &WFC, IIR, CALIOP
cloud properties for climate
predictions, using a 3 channel
lidar and passive instruments
in formation with Aqua andCloudSat for coincident
observations of radiative
fluxes and atmospheric state.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 705 km
Period: 98.8 mins
Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 13:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www-calipso.larc.nasa.gov/

Currently
being flown

05 May 05

01 Jul 09

High precision large-scale PAN (Cartosat-1)
cartographic mapping of
1:10000 scale and thematic
applications (with merged
XS data) at 1:4000 scales.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 618 km
Period: 97 mins
Inclination: 97.87º
Repeat cycle: 5 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.isro.org/

Currently
being flown

10 Jan 07

01 Jan 11

High precision large-scale PAN (Cartosat-2)
cartographic mapping of
1:10000 scale and thematic
applications (with merged
XS data) at 1:4000 scales.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 635 km
Period: 97.4 mins
Inclination: 97.87º
Repeat cycle: 5 days
LST: 9:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.isro.org/

Planned

01 Jan 11

01 Jan 15

Suitable for cadastral and PAN (Cartosat-3)
infrastructure mapping andanalysis.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.isro.org/

Currently
being flown

21 Oct 03

31 Dec 08

Earth resources,
environmental monitoring,land surface (joint with
INPE).

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 778 km
Period: 100.26 mins
Inclination: 98.5º
Repeat cycle: 26 days
LST: 10:50
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.cast.cn/ &www.cbers.inpe.br/en/programas/cbers1-2.htm

Beijing-1 Small
Satellite

NRSCC

NASA / CNESCARTOSAT-1
Cartography
Satellite - 1(IRS P5)ISROCARTOSAT-2
Cartography
Satellite - 2

ISRO

CARTOSAT-3
Cartography
Satellite - 3

ISRO

CBERS-2
China Brazil
Earth Resources
Satellite - 2

CRESDA / INPE

WFI, CCD,
IR-MSS, DCS(CAST)

167

C
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

CBERS-2B
China Brazil
Earth Resources
Satellite - 2B

Currently
being flown

19 Sep 07

20 Oct 10

Earth resources,
environmental monitoring,land surface (joint with
INPE).

WFI, CCD, IR-MSS,DCS (CAST)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 778 km
Period:Inclination: 98.5º
Repeat cycle: 26 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.cast.cn/ &www.cbers.inpe.br/en/programas/cbers1-2.htm

Approved

20 Oct 10

21 Oct 13

Earth resources,
environmental monitoring,land surface (joint with
INPE).

WFI-2, MUX, DCS(CAST), IRS, PAN

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 778 km
Period: 100.26 mins
Inclination: 98.5º
Repeat cycle: 26 days
LST: 11:50
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.cast.cn/ &www.cbers.inpe.br/en/programas/cbers3-4.htm

Approved

20 Oct 13

20 Oct 16

Earth resources,
environmental monitoring,land surface (joint with
INPE).

WFI-2, MUX, IRS,
PAN

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 778 km
Period: 100.26 mins
Inclination: 98.5º
Repeat cycle: 26 days
LST: 12:50
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.cast.cn/ &www.cbers.inpe.br/en/programas/cbers3-4.htm

Currently
being flown

15 Jul 00

01 Jul 09

Gravity field, precise geoid, CHAMP Gravity
magnetic field, atmospheric Package
physics.
(Accelerometer+GP
S), CHAMP
Magnetometry
Package (1 Scalar +2 Vector
Magnetometer),
CHAMP GPSSounder

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 470 km
Period:Inclination: 87º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:
http://op.gfz-potsdam.de/champ/index_CHAMP.html

Considered

01 Dec 10

01 Dec 15

Stratospheric windmeasurements and ozone
flux.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL:

Currently
being flown

28 Apr 06

31 Dec 12

CloudSat will use advanced CPR (CloudSat)
radar to "slice" throughclouds to see their verticalstructure, providing acompletely new
observational capability
from space. One of firstsatellites to study clouds on
global basis. Will fly information with Aqua and
CALIPSO.

CRESDA / INPE

CBERS-3
China Brazil
Earth Resources
Satellite - 3

CRESDA / INPE

CBERS-4
China Brazil
Earth Resources
Satellite - 4

CRESDA / INPE

CHAMP
Challenging
Mini-Satellite
Payload forGeophysicalResearch andApplication

DLR
CHINOOK

SWIFT

CSA

CloudSat
NASA

168

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 705 km
Period: 98.8 mins
Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 13:35
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://cloudsat.atmos.colostate.edu/

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

C
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

COMS-1

Approved

01 Jan 09

01 Jan 16

Korea's geostationary
meterological satellite
series.

GOCI, MI

Type: Geostationary
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Planned

01 Jan 14

01 Jan 21

Korea's geostationary
meterological satellite
series.

GOCI

Type: Geostationary
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Currently
being flown

06 Jan 03

01 Jan 09

Validating space bourne WindSat
multi-channel
polarametric radiometry
for wind vector
measurements.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 840 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.7º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 18:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.nrl.navy.mil/WindSat/

COSMIC-1/
Currently
FORMOSAT-3 FM1 being flown

14 Apr 06

15 Mar 11

Meteorology, ionosphere GOX
and climate.

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 800 km
Period: 100 mins
Inclination: 72º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.cosmic.ucar.edu/

14 Apr 06

15 Mar 11

Meteorology, ionosphere GOX
and climate.

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 800 km
Period: 100 mins
Inclination: 72º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.cosmic.ucar.edu/

Communication,
Oceanographic,
Meteorological
Satellite

Instruments

KARI / NIES
(Japan)COMS-2
Communication,
Oceanographic,
Meteorological
Satellite

KARI / NIES
(Japan)CORIOLIS

DoD (USA) / NASA

Constellation
Observing System
for Meteorology,
Ionosphere andClimate-1

Orbit details & URL

NSPO / NOAA /UCARCOSMIC-2/
Currently
FORMOSAT-3 FM2 being flown
Constellation
Observing System
for Meteorology,
Ionosphere andClimate-2

NSPO / NOAA /
UCAR

169

C
MissionStatusCOSMIC-3/
Currently
FORMOSAT-3 FM3 being flown

Launch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

14 Apr 06

15 Mar 11

Meteorology, ionosphereand climate.

GOX

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 711 km
Period: 100 mins
Inclination: 72º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.cosmic.ucar.edu/

14 Apr 06

15 Mar 11

Meteorology, ionosphereand climate.

GOX

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 800 km
Period: 100 mins
Inclination: 72º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.cosmic.ucar.edu/

14 Apr 06

15 Mar 11

Meteorology, ionosphereand climate.

GOX

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 800 km
Period: 100 mins
Inclination: 72º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.cosmic.ucar.edu/

14 Apr 06

15 Mar 11

Meteorology, ionosphereand climate.

GOX

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 800 km
Period: 100 mins
Inclination: 72º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.cosmic.ucar.edu/

08 Jun 07

08 Jun14

Environmental monitoring, SAR 2000
surveillance and risk
management applications,environmental resourcesmanagement, maritime
management, earth
topographic mapping, law
enforcement, informative /science applications.

Constellation
Observing System
for Meteorology,
Ionosphere andClimate-3

NSPO / NOAA /UCARCOSMIC-4/
Currently
FORMOSAT-3 FM4 being flown
Constellation
Observing System
for Meteorology,
Ionosphere andClimate-4

NSPO / NOAA /UCARCOSMIC-5/
Currently
FORMOSAT-3 FM5 being flown
Constellation
Observing System
for Meteorology,
Ionosphere andClimate-5

NSPO / NOAA /UCARCOSMIC-6/
Currently
FORMOSAT-3 FM6 being flown
Constellation
Observing System
for Meteorology,
Ionosphere andClimate-6

NSPO / NOAA /UCARCOSMO-SkyMed 1 Currently
being flown
COnstellation ofsmall Satellites for
Mediterraneanbasin Observation 1

ASI / MiD (Italy)

170

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 622 km
Period: 97.15 mins
Inclination: 97.8º
Repeat cycle: 16 days
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL:
www.asi.it/SiteEN/ContentSite.aspx?Area=Osservare+la+Terra

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

C|D
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

09 Dec 07

09 Dec 14

Environmental
SAR 2000monitoring, surveillance
and risk management
applications,environmental resourcesmanagement, maritime
management, earth
topographic mapping,law enforcement,
informative / science
applications.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 622 km
Period: 97.15 mins
Inclination: 97.8º
Repeat cycle: 16 days
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL:
www.asi.it/SiteEN/ContentSite.aspx?Area=Osservare+la+Terra

08 Sep 08

08 Sep 15

Environmental
SAR 2000monitoring, surveillance
and risk management
applications,environmental resourcesmanagement, maritime
management, earth
topographic mapping,law enforcement,
informative / science
applications.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 622 km
Period: 97.15 mins
Inclination: 97.8º
Repeat cycle: 16 days
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL:
www.asi.it/SiteEN/ContentSite.aspx?Area=Osservare+la+Terra

08 Sep 08

08 Sep 16

Environmental
SAR 2000monitoring, surveillance
and risk management
applications,environmental resourcesmanagement, maritime
management, earth
topographic mapping,law enforcement,
informative / science
applications.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 622 km
Period: 97.15 mins
Inclination: 97.8º
Repeat cycle: 16 days
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL:
www.asi.it/SiteEN/ContentSite.aspx?Area=Osservare+la+Terra

Approved

01 Nov 09

01 Nov 12

To determine
DORIS-NG, SIRAL,
fluctuations in the mass Laser Reflectorsof the Earth’s major(ESA)
land and marine ice
fields.

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 717 km
Period: 100 mins
Inclination: 92º
Repeat cycle: 369 days
LST: 0.25º nodal regression per day
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.esa.int/export/esaLP/cryosat.html

Currently
being flown

29 Jun 04

31 Dec 08

Micro-satellite to study; ICE, IMSC, IAP, ISL,
ionospheric disturbances IDP
related to seismic
activity, ionosphericdisturbances related tohuman activity, pre andpost-seismic effects in
the ionosphere, global
information on the
Earth's electromagnetic
environment.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 800 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: http://smsc.cnes.fr/DEMETER/index.htm

COSMO-SkyMed 2 Currently
being flown
COnstellation ofsmall Satellites for
Mediterraneanbasin Observation 2

ASI / MiD (Italy)

COSMO-SkyMed 3 Approved
COnstellation ofsmall Satellites for
Mediterraneanbasin Observation 3

ASI / MiD (Italy)

COSMO-SkyMed 4 Approved
COnstellation ofsmall Satellites for
Mediterraneanbasin Observation 4

ASI / MiD (Italy)

CryoSat-2
CryoSat-2 (Earth
Explorer
Opportunity
Mission)Instruments

ESA

DEMETER
Detection ofElectro-Magnetic
Emissions
Transmitted from
Earthquake
Regions

CNES

Orbit details & URL

171

D
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

Diademe 1&2

Currently
being flown

15 Dec 67

31 Dec 50

Geodetic measurements
using satellite laser
ranging.

RRA

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 1200 km
Period: 108 mins
Inclination: 40º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: http://galileo.crl.go.jp/ilrs/diademe.html

Considered

01 Jul 11

01 Jul 16

For disaster management
purpose, mainly to
overcome the problems ofcloud during observation,
most useful for flood andcyclone.

C/X SARType: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Currently
being flown

04 Apr 97

01 May 10

The long-term
OLS, SSM/I,
meteorological programme SSM/T-1, SSM/T-2,of the US Department of
SSB/X-2, SSI/ES-2,
Defense (DoD) – with the
SSJ/4, SSM
objective to collect anddisseminate worldwide
atmospheric,oceanographic,
solar-geophyscial and cloud
cover data on a daily basis.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 833 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.7º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 20:29
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://dmsp.ngdc.noaa.gov/dmsp.html

Currently
being flown

12 Dec 99

01 May 13

The long-term
meteorological programmeof the US Department of
Defense (DoD) – with theobjective to collect anddisseminate worldwide
cloud cover data on a daily
basis (Primary operational
satellite).

OLS, SSM/I,
SSM/T-1, SSM/T-2,
SSI/ES-2, SSJ/4,
SSM

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 833 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.9º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 20:29
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://dmsp.ngdc.noaa.gov/dmsp.html

DMSP F-16
Currently
Defensebeing flown
Meteorological
Satellite Program
F-16

18 Oct 03

01 Jan 10

The long-term
OLS, SSM/IS, SSM,
meteorological programme SSI/ES-3, SSJ/5,of the US Department of
SSULI, SSUSIDefense (DoD) – with theobjective to collect anddisseminate worldwide
cloud cover data on a daily
basis.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 833 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.9º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 21:32
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://dmsp.ngdc.noaa.gov/dmsp.html

04 Nov 06

01 Jan 18

The long-term
OLS, SSM/IS, SSM,
meteorological programme SSI/ES-3, SSULI,of the US Department of
SSUSI
Defense (DoD) – with theobjective to collect anddisseminate worldwide
cloud cover data on a daily
basis.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 850 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.7º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://dmsp.ngdc.noaa.gov/dmsp.html

CNES

DMSAR
DisasterManagement SARISRODMSP F-14
DefenseMeteorological
Satellite Program
F-14

NOAA

DMSP F-15
DefenseMeteorological
Satellite Program
F-15

NOAA

NOAA

DMSP F-17
DefenseMeteorological
Satellite Program
F-17

NOAA

172

Currently
being flown8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

D|E
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

DMSP F-18

Approved

16 Sep 08

16 Sep 11

The long-term
OLS, SSM/IS, SSM,
meteorological programme SSI/ES-3, SSULI,of the US Department of
SSUSI
Defense (DoD) – with theobjective to collect anddisseminate worldwide
cloud cover data on a daily
basis.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 850 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.7º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://dmsp.ngdc.noaa.gov/dmsp.html

Approved

15 Apr 09

15 Apr 12

The long-term
OLS, SSM/IS, SSM,
meteorological programme SSI/ES-3, SSULI,of the US Department of
SSUSI
Defense (DoD) – with theobjective to collect anddisseminate worldwide
cloud cover data on a daily
basis.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 833 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.7º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://dmsp.ngdc.noaa.gov/dmsp.html

Approved

15 Oct 11

15 Oct 14

The long-term
OLS, SSM/IS, SSM,
meteorological programme SSI/ES-3, SSULI,of the US Department of
SSUSI
Defense (DoD) – with theobjective to collect anddisseminate worldwide
cloud cover data on a daily
basis.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 850 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.7º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://dmsp.ngdc.noaa.gov/dmsp.html

Approved

01 Jun 13

01 Jun 16

Clouds-aerosol-radiationinteractions.

CPR (EarthCARE),
ATLID,BBR (EarthCARE),
MSI (EarthCARE)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 450 km
Period:Inclination: 97º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.esa.int/export/esaLP/earthcare.html

Approved

31 Dec 08

31 Dec 15

Hydrometeorology,
climatology, DCS.

MSU-GS, DCS(Roshydromet),
GGAK-E, S&R(Roshydromet)

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –76
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: http://planet.iitp.ru

Approved

31 Dec 08

31 Dec 17

Hydrometeorology,
climatology, DCS.

MSU-GS, DCS(Roshydromet),
GGAK-E, S&R(Roshydromet)

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –76
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: http://planet.iitp.ru

DefenseMeteorological
Satellite Program
F-18

NOAA

DMSP F-19
DefenseMeteorological
Satellite Program
F-19

NOAA

DMSP F-20
DefenseMeteorological
Satellite Program
F-20

NOAA

EarthCARE

ESA / JAXA

Elektro-L N1
Geostationary
Operational
Meteorological
Satellite - 1

Instruments

Roshydromet /Roscosmos

Elektro-L N2
Geostationary
Operational
Meteorological
Satellite - 2

Roshydromet /Roscosmos

Orbit details & URL

173

E|F
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

Elektro-L N3

Planned31 Dec 14

31 Dec 21

Hydrometeorology,
climatology, DCS.

MSU-GS, DCS(Roshydromet),
GGAK-E, S&R(Roshydromet)

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –14
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: http://planet.iitp.ru

Planned

01 Jan 12

01 Jan 17

Hyperspectral imaging,land surface, geologicaland environmental
investigation.

HSI

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 650 km
Period: 97.5 mins
Inclination:
Repeat cycle: 21 days
LST: 11:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.enmap.org/

Currently
being flown

01 Mar 02

31 Dec 13

Physical oceanography,
Type: Sun-synchronous
DORIS-NG, MWR,
land surface, ice and snow, ASAR (image mode), Altitude: 782 km
atmospheric chemistry,
ASAR (wave mode), Period: 100.5 mins
atmospheric
Envisat Comms,
Inclination: 98.52º
dynamics/water and energy MERIS, MIPAS,
Repeat cycle: 35 days
cycles.
ASAR, GOMOS,LST: 10:30
SCIAMACHY, RA-2, Longitude (if geo):
AATSR
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: http://envisat.esa.int/

Currently
being flown

21 Apr 95

31 Dec 01

Earth resources plus
physical oceanography, ice
and snow, land surface,meteorology,
geodesy/gravity,
environmental monitoring,atmospheric chemistry.

Currently
being flown

15 May 02

31 Dec 08

Meteorology, environmental MVISR
monitoring.
(10 channels)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 863 km
Period: 102.3 mins
Inclination: 98.8º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 9:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL:

Currently
being flown

19 Oct 04

19 Oct 08

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –105
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Geostationary
Operational
Meteorological
Satellite - 3

Roshydromet /Roscosmos

EnMAP
Environmental
Mapping &Analysis Program

DLR

EnvisatEnvironmental
Satellite

ESA

ERS-2
European Remote
Sensingsatellite - 2

ESA

FY-1D
FY-1D
Polar-orbiting
Meteorological
Satellite

MWR, ERS Comms,
GOME, RA, ATSR/M,
ATSR-2,
AMI/SAR/Image,
AMI/SAR/Wave,
AMI/Scatterometer

NRSCC / CMA

FY-2C
FY-2C
Geostationary
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC

174

IVISSR (FY-2)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 782 km
Period: 100.5 mins
Inclination: 98.52º
Repeat cycle: 35 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.esa.int/ers

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

F
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

FY-2D

Currently
being flown

08 Dec 06

08 Dec 09

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

IVISSR (FY-2)

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –105
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Approved

31 Dec 08

31 Dec 11

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

IVISSR (FY-2)

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –105
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Approved

31 Dec 11

31 Dec 16

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

IVISSR (FY-2)

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –105
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Currently
being flown

27 May 08

31 May 11

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

IRAS, MWAS, MWRI, Type: Sun-synchronous
VIRR, ERM, MERSI, Altitude:
MWTS, TOU/SBUS, Period:
Inclination:
SEM, SIM
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Approved

31 Dec 08

31 Dec 10

Meteorology and
IRAS, MWAS,
environmental monitoring. MWRI, VIRR, ERM,
Data collection and
MERSI, MWTS,
redistribution (Experimental TOU/SBUS, SEM,
pre-cursor to FY-3C).
SIM

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Approved

31 Dec 08

31 Dec 10

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution (Operational
follow-on to FY-3B).

IRAS, IMWAS,
MWHS, MIRAS,
MWRI, VIRR,MERSI, MWTS,
TOU/SBUS

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Approved

31 Dec 10

31 Dec 12

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

IRAS, IMWAS,
MWHS, MIRAS,
MWRI, VIRR,MERSI, MWTS,
TOU/SBUS

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

FY-2D
Geostationary
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC
FY-2E
FY-2E
Geostationary
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC
FY-2F
FY-2F
Geostationary
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC
FY-3A
FY-3A
Polar-orbiting
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC / CMA
FY-3B
FY-3B
Polar-orbiting
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC / CMA
FY-3C
FY-3C
Polar-orbiting
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC / CMA
FY-3D
FY-3D
Polar-orbiting
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC / CMA

175

F
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

FY-3E

Planned31 Dec 12

31 Dec 14

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

IRAS, IMWAS,
MWHS, MIRAS,
MWRI, VIRR,MERSI, MWTS,
TOU/SBUS

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Planned31 Dec 14

31 Dec 16

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

IRAS, IMWAS,
MWHS, MIRAS,MVIRS, MWRI,
VIRR, MERSI,
MWTS, TOU/SBUS

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Planned31 Dec 16

31 Dec 18

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

IRAS, IMWAS,
MWHS, MIRAS,MVIRS, MWRI,
VIRR, MERSI,
MWTS, TOU/SBUS

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Planned31 Dec 15

31 Dec 20

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

TBD

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –105
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Planned31 Dec 18

31 Dec 23

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

TBD

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –105
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Planned31 Dec 22

31 Dec 27

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

TBD

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –105
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

FY-3E
Polar-orbiting
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC / CMA

FY-3F
FY-3F
Polar-orbiting
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC / CMA

FY-3G
FY-3G
Polar-orbiting
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC / CMA

FY-4 M/A
FY-4A Microwave
Geostationary
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC / CMA

FY-4 M/B
FY-4B Microwave
Geostationary
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC / CMA

FY-4 M/C
FY-4C Microwave
Geostationary
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC / CMA

176

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

F|G
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

FY-4 O/A

Planned31 Dec 12

31 Dec 17

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

LM, MCSI

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –105
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Planned31 Dec 15

31 Dec 20

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

LM, MCSI

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –105
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Planned31 Dec 15

31 Dec 20

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

LM, MCSI

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –105
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Planned31 Dec 19

31 Dec 24

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

LM, MCSI

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –105
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Planned31 Dec 19

31 Dec 24

Meteorology andenvironmental monitoring.
Data collection andredistribution.

LM, MCSI

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –105
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Planned

01 Feb 14

01 Feb 19

Understanding of climatechange mechanism.

SGLI

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 800 km
Period: 98 mins
Inclination: 98.6º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.jaxa.jp/projects/sat/gcom/index_e.html

FY-4A Optical
Geostationary
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC / CMA

FY-4 O/B
FY-4B Optical
Geostationary
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC / CMA

FY-4 O/C
FY-4C Optical
Geostationary
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC / CMA

FY-4 O/D
FY-4D Optical
Geostationary
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC / CMA

FY-4 O/E
FY-4E Optical
Geostationary
Meteorological
Satellite

NRSCC / CMA

GCOM-C1
Global Change
Observation
Mission-C1

JAXA

177

G
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

GCOM-C2

Planned

01 Feb 18

01 Feb 23

Understanding of climatechange mechanism.

SGLI

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 800 km
Period: 98 mins
Inclination: 98.6º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.jaxa.jp/projects/sat/gcom/index_e.html

Planned

01 Feb 22

01 Feb 27

Understanding of climatechange mechanism.

SGLI

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 800 km
Period: 98 mins
Inclination: 98.6º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.jaxa.jp/projects/sat/gcom/index_e.html

Approved

01 Feb 12

01 Feb 17

Understanding of climatechange mechanism.

AMSR-2

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 700 km
Period: 98 mins
Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 13:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.jaxa.jp/projects/sat/gcom/index_e.html

Planned

01 Feb 16

01 Feb 21

Understanding of climatechange mechanism.

AMSR-2

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 700 km
Period: 98 mins
Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 13:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.jaxa.jp/projects/sat/gcom/index_e.html

Planned

01 Feb 20

01 Feb 25

Understanding of water
circulation mechanism.

AMSR-2

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 700 km
Period: 98 mins
Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 13:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.jaxa.jp/projects/sat/gcom/index_e.html

Currently
being flown

10 Feb 98

01 Jan 09

Physical oceanography,
geodesy/gravity, climate
monitoring, marine
meteorology.

Radar Altimeter,
Water Vapour
Radiometer

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 1336 km
Period: 122.4 mins
Inclination: 66º
Repeat cycle: 10 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: http://gfo.wff.nasa.gov/

Global Change
Observation
Mission-C2

JAXA

GCOM-C3
Global Change
Observation
Mission-C3

JAXA

GCOM-W1
Global Change
Observation
Mission-W1

JAXA

GCOM-W2
Global Climate
Observation
Mission-W2

JAXA

GCOM-W3
Global Change
Observation
Mission-W3

JAXA

GFO (GEOSATFollow-on)

DoD (USA) / US
Naval Research
Lab / CNES / NASA178

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

G
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

GISATConsidered

01 Apr 10

01 Jan 15

High repetivity sensor on
geo-stationary platform.

HRMX-TIR,HyS-SWIR,
HRMX-VNIR,HyS-VNIR

Type: Geostationary
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Approved

15 Jun 09

15 Jun 12

Concentration and nature APS, TIM
of both natural andanthropogenic aerosols (BC,sulfates, etc.) with accuracy
and coverage sufficient forquantification of theaerosol effect on climate,
the anthropogenic
component of this effect,
and the long-term changeof this effect caused bynatural and anthropogenic
factors.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 824 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: http://glory.gsfc.nasa.gov/

Approved

10 Sep 08

31 Oct 09

Research in steady-state
EGG, Laser
ocean circulation, physics of Reflectors (ESA),
Earth's interior and levelling GPS (ESA)systems (based on GPS).
Will also provide uniquedata set required toformulate global andregional models of the
Earth's gravity field andgeoid.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 270 km
Period: 90 mins
Inclination: 96.7º
Repeat cycle: 60 days
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: www.esa.int/export/esaLP/goce.html

Currently
being flown

03 May 00

15 Jul 11

Meteorology (primary
mission), search andrescue, space environment
monitoring, data collection
platform, data gathering,WEFAX.

DCS (NOAA),
Type: Geostationary
S&R (GOES), WEFAX, Altitude: 36000 km
Sounder, Imager,
Period:GOES Comms,
Inclination:
SEM (GOES), LRIT Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 103
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.oso.noaa.gov/goes/

Currently
being flown

23 Jul 01

15 Jan 11

Meteorology (primary
mission), search andrescue, space environment
monitoring, data collection
platform, data gathering,WEFAX.

Type: Geostationary
DCS (NOAA),
S&R (GOES), WEFAX, Altitude: 36000 km
Period:SXI, Sounder,
Inclination:
Imager,Repeat cycle:
GOES Comms,
SEM (GOES), LRIT LST:
Longitude (if geo): 75
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.oso.noaa.gov/goes/

Currently
being flown

24 May 06

24 May 11

Meteorology (primary
mission), search andrescue, space environment
monitoring, data collection
platform, data gathering,WEFAX. On-orbit spare.

S&R (GOES), SXI,Sounder, Imager,
GOES Comms,
SEM (GOES),DCS (GOES-R), LRIT

Geo Imaging
Satellite

ISRO

Glory

NASA

GOCE
Gravity Field andSteady-State
Ocean Circulation
Explorer

ESA

GOES-11
Geostationary
Operational
Environmental
Satellite - 11

NOAA

GOES-12
Geostationary
Operational
Environmental
Satellite - 12

NOAA

GOES-13
Geostationary
Operational
Environmental
Satellite - 13

NOAA

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: www.oso.noaa.gov/goes/

179

G
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

GOES-O

Approved

12 Dec 08

12 Dec 13

Meteorology (primary
mission), search andrescue, space environment
monitoring, data collection
platform, data gathering,WEFAX.

S&R (GOES),Sounder, Imager,
GOES Comms,
SEM (GOES),DCS (GOES-R), LRIT

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 75
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.oso.noaa.gov/goes/

Approved

09 Dec 09

09 Dec 14

Meteorology (primary
mission), search andrescue, space environment
monitoring, data collection
platform, data gathering,WEFAX.

S&R (GOES), SXI,Sounder, Imager,
GOES Comms,
SEM (GOES),DCS (GOES-R), LRIT

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 135
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.oso.noaa.gov/goes/

Approved

15 Apr 15

31 Oct 20

Meteorology (primary
mission), search andrescue, space environment
monitoring, data collection
platform, data gathering,WEFAX.

Type: Geostationary
ABI, GLM,
Magnetometer (NOAA), Altitude: 36000 km
EXIS, SEISS, SUVI, Period:
DCS (GOES-R
Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 135
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.osd.noaa.gov/goes_R/index.htm

Approved

01 Sep 14

31 Oct 21

Meteorology (primary
mission), search andrescue, space environment
monitoring, data collection
platform, data gathering,WEFAX.

ABI, GLM,
Type: Geostationary
Magnetometer (NOAA), Altitude: 36000 km
EXIS, SEISS, SUVI, Period:
DCS (GOES-R)
Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 135
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.osd.noaa.gov/goes_R/index.htm

Approved

01 Jan 09

01-Jan-14

Observation of Greenhouse TANSO-CAI,
gases.
TANSO-FTS

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 666 km
Period: 98 mins
Inclination: 98.05º
Repeat cycle: 3 days
LST: 13:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.jaxa.jp/projects/sat/gosat/index_e.html

GPM Constellation Planned

01 Nov 14

01 Nov 19

Study of global precipitation, GMI
evaporation, and cycling ofwater are changing.
The mission comprises a
primary spacecraft withactive and passive
microwave instruments, anda number of constellation
spacecraft with passive
microwave instruments.

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 600 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: http://gpm.gsfc.nasa.gov/

Geostationary
Operational
Environmental
Satellite - O

NOAA

GOES-P
Geostationary
Operational
Environmental
Satellite - P

NOAA

GOES-R
Geostationary
Operational
Environmental
Satellite - R

NOAA

GOES-S
Geostationary
Operational
Environmental
Satellite - S

NOAA

GOSAT
Greenhouse gases
Observing Satellite

JAXA / MOE(Japan) /NIES (Japan)

GlobalPrecipitation
Measurement
MissionConstellation
spacecraft

NASA

180

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

G|H
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

GPM Core

Planned

21 Jul 13

21 Jul 18

Study of global precipitation, GMI, DPR
evaporation, and cycling ofwater are changing.
The mission comprises a
primary spacecraft withactive and passive
microwave instruments, anda number of ‘constellation’spacecraft with passive
microwave instruments.

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 400 km
Period: 95 mins
Inclination: 65º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: http://gpm.gsfc.nasa.gov

Approved

01 Dec 14

02 Sep 18

Global precipitation
measurements.

GMI, LIS, DCS

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 600 km
Period:Inclination: 30º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Currently
being flown

17 Mar 02

01 Oct 09

Extremely high precision
gravity measurements foruse in construction ofgravity field models.

HAIRS (aka KBR),
BlackJack GPS(TRSR)

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 400 km
Period: 94 mins
Inclination: 89º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: www.csr.utexas.edu/grace/

Currently
being flown

17 Mar 02

01 Oct 09

Extremely high precision
gravity measurements foruse in construction ofgravity field models.

HAIRS (aka KBR),
BlackJack GPS(TRSR)

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 400 km
Period:Inclination: 89º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: www.csr.utexas.edu/grace/

Approved

01 Sep 08

01 Sep 11

Disaster and environment CCD (HJ, HY),
monitoring and forecasting. HSI (HJ-1A)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 649 km
Period:Inclination: 97.9º
Repeat cycle: 31 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.cast.cn/

Approved

01 Sep 08

01 Sep 11

Disaster and environment CCD (HJ, HY),
monitoring and forecasting. IR (HJ-1B)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 649 km
Period:Inclination: 97.9º
Repeat cycle: 31 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.cast.cn/

GlobalPrecipitation
Measurement
Mission Core
spacecraftNASA / JAXA

GPM-BrGlobalPrecipitation
Measurement
Satellite

Instruments

INPE

GRACE A
Gravity Recovery
and Climate
Experiment A

NASA / DLR

GRACE B
Gravity Recovery
and Climate
Experiment B

NASA / DLR

HJ-1A
Disaster andEnvironment
Monitoring and
Forecast Small
Satellite
Constellation A

Orbit details & URL

CAST
HJ-1B
Disaster andEnvironment
Monitoring and
Forecast Small
Satellite
Constellation B

CAST

181

H
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

HJ-1C

Approved

01 Jan 09

01 Jan 12

Disaster and environment S-band SAR
monitoring and forecasting.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 499 km
Period:Inclination: 97.3º
Repeat cycle: 31 days
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.cast.cn/

Currently
being flown

11 Apr 07

01 May 10

Detecting ocean colour and COCTS, CZI
sea surface temperature.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 798 km
Period:Inclination: 98.6º
Repeat cycle: 7 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.cast.cn/

Planned01 Jun 10

01 Jan 13

Detecting ocean colour and COCTS, CZI
sea surface temperature.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 798 km
Period:Inclination: 98.6º
Repeat cycle: 7 days
LST: 10:31
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.cast.cn/

Planned01 Dec 10

01 Jan 13

Detecting ocean colour and COCTS, CZI
sea surface temperature.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 798 km
Period:Inclination: 98.6º
Repeat cycle: 7 days
LST: 13:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.cast.cn/

Planned

01 Jan 10

01 Jan 11

Detecting ocean surface
temperature, wind field,
wave and topography.

RAD, SCAT, ALT

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 963 km
Period:Inclination: 99.3º
Repeat cycle: 14 days
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.nsoas.gov.cn/

Planned

06 Jan 12

06 Jan 17

Ocean monitoring,
environmental protection,
coastal zone survey, etc.

WSAR

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Disaster andEnvironment
Monitoring and
Forecast Small
Satellite
Constellation C

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

CAST
HY-1B
Ocean colour
satellite B

NSOAS / CAST

HY-1C
Ocean colour andtemperaturesatellite C

NSOAS / CAST

HY-1D
Ocean colour andtemperaturesatellite D

NSOAS / CAST

HY-2A
Ocean dynamics
satellite A

NSOAS / CAST

HY-3A

NSOAS / CAST

182

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

H|I
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

HY-3B

Planned

06 Jan 17

06 Jan 22

Ocean monitoring,
environmental protection,
coastal zone survey, etc.

WSAR

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Planned

06 Jan 22

06 Jan 27

Ocean monitoring,
environmental protection,
coastal zone survey, etc.

WSAR

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Currently
being flown

12 Jan 03

01 Oct 09

Monitors mass balance of GLAS
polar ice sheets and theircontribution to global sea
level change.
Secondary goals: cloudheights and verticalstructure of clouds/aerosols;
roughness, reflectivity,
vegetation heights,
snow-cover.

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 600 km
Period: 97 mins
Inclination: 94º
Repeat cycle: 183 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: http://icesat.gsfc.nasa.gov/

Planned

01 Jan 15

01 Jan 21

Continue the assessment of GLAS Follow-on
polar ice changes andmeasure vegetation canopy
heights, allowing estimatesof biomass and carbon inaboveground vegetation in
conjunction with related
missions, and allow
measurements of solid
earth properties.

Type:
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: http://icesat.gsfc.nasa.gov/index.php

Currently
being flown

28 Apr 08

01 May 12

Micro-satellite for Third
MxT, HySI (IMS-1)
World countries for natural
resources monitoring &management.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 632 km
Period: 97 mins
Inclination: 97.92º
Repeat cycle: 22 days
LST: 9:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL:

01 Jan 12

01 Jan 17

Cartography, land use,
urban management,water management,
environmental monitoring,risk management andsecurity.

NSOAS / CAST

HY-3C

NSOAS / CAST

ICESatIce, Cloud, andLand Elevation
SatelliteNASA

ICESat-II
Ice, Cloud, andLand Elevation
Satellite II

NASA

IMS-1
Indian Mini
Satellite-1

ISRO

Ingenio (SEOSAT) Approved

CDTI / ESA

PAN+MS (RGB+NIR) Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 668 km
Period: 98 mins
Inclination: 98º
Repeat cycle: 38 days
LST: 10:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL:

183

I|J
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

INSAT-2E

Currently
being flown

03 Apr 99

04 Mar 11

Meteorology, data collection VHRR, CCD camera
and communication, searchand rescue.

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –83
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.isro.org/

Currently
being flown

04 Apr 03

10 Apr 13

Meteorology, data collection VHRR, DRT-S&R,
and communication, search CCD camera
and rescue.

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –94
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.isro.org/

Planned01 Mar 09

01 Jul 16

Meteorology, data collection Imager (INSAT),
and communication, search Sounder (INSAT)
and rescue.

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –93.5
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.isro.org/

Currently
being flown

29 Sep 97

31 Dec 09

Land surface, agriculture
LISS-III (IRS),
and forestry regional
PAN (IRS-1C/1D),
geology, land use studies, WiFS
water resources, vegetation
studies, coastal studies andsoils.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 817 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.6º
Repeat cycle: 24 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.isro.org/insat2b.htm

Planned

01 Jan 11

01 Jan 15

Study of changes inatmospheric aerosol andtrace gases.

MAPI, MAVELI,
MAGIS

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Currently
being flown

07 Dec 01

01 Oct 09

Physical oceanography,
geodesy/gravity, climate
monitoring, marine
meteorology.

LRA, JMR,DORIS-NG,POSEIDON-2(SSALT-2), TRSR

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 1336 km
Period: 112.4 mins
Inclination: 66º
Repeat cycle: 10 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: http://sealevel.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/jason-1.html

Indian National
Satellite - 2E

Instruments

ISRO

INSAT-3A
Indian National
Satellite - 3A

ISROINSAT-3D
Indian National
Satellite - 3D

ISRO

IRS-1D
Indian Remote
Sensing
Satellite - 1D

ISRO

ISTAG
Indian Satellite
for Aerosol and
Gases

ISRO

Jason-1
Ocean surface
topography

NASA / CNES

184

Orbit details & URL

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

J|K
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

Jason-2(aka OSTM)

Currently
being flown

20 Jun 08

07 Dec 11

Physical oceanography,
geodesy/gravity, climate
monitoring, marine
meteorology.

LRA, JMR,DORIS-NG,POSEIDON-3, AMR,
GPSP

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 1336 km
Period: 112.4 mins
Inclination: 66º
Repeat cycle: 10 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: http://sealevel.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/ostm.html

Considered

31 Dec 13

31 Dec 18

Meteorology, climatology,
oceanography.

FJP

Type:
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Considered

31 Dec 16

31 Dec 20

Meteorology, climatology,
oceanography.

FJP

Type:
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Currently
being flown

12 Sep 02

09 Dec 12

Meteorological applications. VHRR, DRT-S&R

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –83
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.isro.org/insat2b.htm

Approved

31 Dec 09

31 Dec 14

Land surface, disastermonitoring.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 650 km
Period: 98 mins
Inclination: 98º
Repeat cycle: 35 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://planet.iitp.ru

Planned

01 Jan 07

31 Dec 12

Hydrology,
MTVZA-OK, NVK,hydrometeorology,
RCHA, RBE,
monitoring man-made and GID-12T, ECHO-V
natural accidents, research
into short-term forecastingof earthquakes.

Ocean Surface
Topography
MissionNASA / CNES /EUMETSAT

Jason-3

NOAA / CNES /EUMETSAT / NASA

Jason-CS

ESA / EC

Kalpana
Meteorologicalsatellite

ISRO

Kanopus-V N1
Kanopus-V N1
Environmental
Satellite

PSS, MSS(Roscosmos),MSU-200

Roscosmos /Roshydromet

Kanopus-Vulkan

Roscosmos

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 700 km
Period:Inclination: 97º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

185

K|L
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

KOMPSAT-2

Currently
being flown

27 Jul 06

27 Jun 09

Cartography, land use andplanning, disastermonitoring.

MSC

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 685 km
Period: 98.5 mins
Inclination:
Repeat cycle: 28 days
LST: 10:50
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://kompsat.kari.re.kr/english/index.asp

Currently
being flown

04 May 76

04 May 16

Geodesy, crustal motion and LRA (LAGEOS)
gravity field measurements
by laser ranging.

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 6000 km
Period: 225 mins
Inclination: 110º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:http://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellite_missions/list_of_
satellites/lagoes.html

Currently
being flown

22 Oct 92

22 Oct 32

Geodesy, crustal motion and LRA (LAGEOS)
gravity field measurements
by laser ranging.

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 5900 km
Period: 223 mins
Inclination: 52º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:http://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellite_missions/list_of_
satellites/lagoes.htmlNASA\NASA_Agency_Missions1x2.doc

Currently
being flown

01 Mar 84

31 Dec 10

Earth resources, land
MSS, TM, Landsat
surface, environmentalComms
monitoring, agriculture andforestry, disastermonitoring and assessment,
ice and snow cover.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 705 km
Period: 98.9 mins
Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle: 16 days
LST: 9:45
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: http://landsat7.usgs.gov/

Currently
being flown

15 Apr 99

31 Dec 12

Earth resources, land
ETM+, Landsat
surface, environmentalComms
monitoring, agriculture andforestry, disastermonitoring and assessment,
ice and snow cover.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 705 km
Period: 98.9 mins
Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle: 16 days
LST: 10:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: http://landsat7.usgs.gov/

Approved

30 Mar 09

01 Jan 50

Lense-Thirring measument LCCRA
accuracy improvement,
crustal motion and gravity
field measurements bylaser ranging.

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 1450 km
Period: 115 mins
Inclination: 71º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:http://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellite_missions/list_of_
satellites/lag1_general.html

Korea
Multi-Purpose
Satellite 2

KARI

LAGEOS-1
Laser
Geodynamics
Satellite - 1

NASA

LAGEOS-2
Laser
Geodynamics
Satellite - 2

NASA / ASI

Landsat-5

USGS / NASA

Landsat-7

USGS / NASA

LARES
Laser
Geodynamics
Satellite - 3

ASI

186

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

L|M
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

LDCM

Approved

31 Jul 11

31 Dec 16

Earth resources, land
OLI
surface, environmental
monitoring, agriculture andforestry, disastermonitoring and assessment,
ice and snow cover.

Approved

03 Dec 13

03 Sep 17

Multi-purpose SAR.

Approved

01 Mar 09

01 Jan 14

Study of the inter-tropical ScaRaB, SAPHIR,
zone and its convective
MADRAS, GPS ROS
systems (water and energy
cycles).

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 867 km
Period: 102.16 mins
Inclination: 20º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL:
www.cnes.fr/espace_pro/communiques/cp2001/5_17_va.html

Approved

01 Dec 08

01 Dec 13

Hydrometeorology,
climatology,
heliogeophysics, DCS.

MTVZA, MSU-MR,
DCS (Roshydromet),
KMSS, GGAK-M,
BRLK

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 835 km
Period: 102 mins
Inclination: 98.7º
Repeat cycle: 37 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://planet.iitp.ru

Approved

31 Dec 09

31 Dec 14

Hydrometeorology,
climatology,
heliogeophysics, DCS.

MTVZA, IKFS-2,
MSU-MR,DCS (Roshydromet),
KMSS, Radiomet,
BRLK

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 835 km
Period:Inclination: 98.7º
Repeat cycle: 37 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://planet.iitp.ru

Planned31 Dec 10

31 Dec 15

Oceanography,hydrometeorology,
climatology.

SAR (Roshydromet), Type: Sun-synchronousRadiomet, MSS-BIO Altitude: 835 km
Period: 102 mins
Inclination: 98.7º
Repeat cycle: 37 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://planet.iitp.ru

Landsat Data
Continuity Mission

USGS / NASA

MAPSAR
Multi-purpose
SAR

INPE / DLR

Megha-Tropiques

CNES / ISRO

Meteor-M N1
Meteor-M N1
Meteorological
Satellite

Instruments

Meteor-M N2

Roshydromet /Roscosmos

Meteor-M N3
Meteor-M N3
Meteorological
Satellite

Roshydromet /Roscosmos

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 750 km
Period: 99 mins
Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle: 16 days
LST: 10:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: http://ldcm.nasa.gov

SAR (MAPSAR), DCS Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 620 km
Period:Inclination: 98º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL:

Roshydromet /Roscosmos

Meteor-M N2
Meteorological
Satellite

Orbit details & URL

187

M
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Meteosat-6

Currently
being flown

20 Nov 93

01 Dec 10

Meteorology, climatology, Meteosat Comms,
atmospheric dynamics/water MVIRI
and energy cycles.
Meteosat 1–7 are first
generation.
Meteosat 8–11 are second
generation and known as
MSG in the development
phase.

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 9
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.eumetsat.de/en/dps/news/spacecraft.html

Currently
being flown

03 Sep 97

31 Dec 10

Meteorology, climatology, Meteosat Comms,
atmospheric dynamics/water MVIRI
and energy cycles.
Meteosat 1–7 are first
generation.
Meteosat 8–11 are second
generation and known as
MSG in the development
phase.

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 0
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.eumetsat.de/en/mtp/index.html

Currently
being flown

13 Aug 02

30 Jul 11

Meteorology, climatology, MSG Comms,
atmospheric dynamics/water SEVIRI, GERB
and energy cycles.
Meteosat 1–7 are first
generation.
Meteosat 8–11 are second
generation and known as
MSG in the development
phase.

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 0
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.eumetsat.de/en/area4/topic1.html

Approved

21 Dec 05

30 Jun 14

Meteorology, climatology, MSG Comms,
atmospheric dynamics/water SEVIRI, GERB
and energy cycles.
Meteosat 1–7 are first
generation.
Meteosat 8–11 are second
generation and known as
MSG in the development
phase.

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 0
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.eumetsat.de/en/area4/topic1.html

Approved

01 Jan 11

01 Jan 19

Meteorology, climatology, MSG Comms,
atmospheric dynamics/water SEVIRI, GERB
and energy cycles.
Meteosat 1–7 are first
generation.
Meteosat 8–11 are second
generation and known as
MSG in the development
phase.

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 0
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.eumetsat.de/en/area4/topic1.html

Approved

01 Jan 13

01 Jan 21

Meteorology, climatology, SEVIRI, GERB
atmospheric dynamics/waterand energy cycles.
Meteosat 1–7 are first
generation.
Meteosat 8–11 are second
generation and known as
MSG in the development
phase.

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 0
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.eumetsat.de/en/area4/topic1.html

EUMETSAT

Meteosat-7

EUMETSAT

Meteosat-8
Meteosat Second
Generation-1

EUMETSAT

Meteosat-9
Meteosat Second
Generation-2

EUMETSAT

Meteosat-10
Meteosat Second
Generation-3

EUMETSAT

Meteosat-11
Meteosat Second
Generation-4

EUMETSAT

188

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

M
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

MetOp-A

Currently
being flown

19 Oct 06

01 Nov 11

Meteorology, climatology.

SEM (POES), ARGOS, Type: Sun-synchronous
S&R (NOAA), MCP, Altitude: 840 km
Period: 107.1 mins
MHS, IASI, GRAS,
Inclination: 98.8º
GOME-2, ASCAT,
AMSU-A, AVHRR/3, Repeat cycle: 29 days
LST: 9:30
HIRS/4, A-DCS4,SARSAT
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.eumetsat.de/en/area4/topic2.html

Approved

01 Apr 11

01 May 16

Meteorology, climatology.

SEM (POES), ARGOS, Type: Sun-synchronous
S&R (NOAA), MCP, Altitude: 840 km
MHS, IASI, GRAS,
Period: 101.7 mins
GOME-2, ASCAT,
Inclination: 98.8º
AMSU-A, AVHRR/3, Repeat cycle: 29 days
HIRS/4, A-DCS4,
LST: 9:30
SARSAT
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.eumetsat.de/en/area4/topic2.html

Approved

01 Nov 15

01 Dec 20

Meteorology, climatology.

ARGOS, MCP, MHS,IASI, GRAS,
GOME-2, ASCAT,
AMSU-A, AVHRR/3,
HIRS/4, A-DCS4

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 840 km
Period: 101.7 mins
Inclination: 98.8º
Repeat cycle: 29 days
LST: 9:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.eumetsat.de/en/area4/topic2.html

Currently
being flown

26 Aug 05

31 Dec 10

Agriculture and forestry,hydrology, environmental
monitoring,hydrometeorology, ice andsnow, land surface,meteorology.

PSA, RDSA

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 540 km
Period:Inclination: 97.5º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 5:40
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Planned

01 Jan 17

31 Dec 25

Supporting European
atmospheric composition
and air quality monitoring
services.

UVN (Sentinel-4),
IRS

Type: Geostationary
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 0
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPgmes.html

Planned

01 Jan 24

31 Dec 32

Supporting European
atmospheric composition
and air quality monitoring
services.

UVN (Sentinel-4),
IRS

Type: Geostationary
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 0
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPgmes.html

Meteorological
Operational Polar
Satellite - A

EUMETSAT

MetOp-B
Meteorological
Operational Polar
Satellite - B

EUMETSAT

MetOp-C
Meteorological
Operational Polar
Satellite - C

EUMETSAT

Monitor-E

Roscosmos

MTG S1/
EUMETSAT /ESA
Sentinel-4 A
ESA / EC

MTG S2/
EUMETSAT /ESA

Sentinel-4 B
ESA / EC

Orbit details & URL

189

M
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

MTG-I1

Approved

15 Dec 15

15 Sep 23

Meteorology, climatology, FCI, LI
atmospheric dynamics/waterand energy cycles.

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 0
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:
www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/What_We_Do/Satellites/
Future_Satellites/Meteosat_Third_Generation/index.htm

Approved

15 Dec 17

15 Nov 25

Meteorology, climatology, FCI, LI
atmospheric dynamics/waterand energy cycles.

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 0
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:
www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/What_We_Do/Satellites/
Future_Satellites/Meteosat_Third_Generation/index.htm

Approved

15 Mar 23

15 Dec 30

Meteorology, climatology, FCI, LI
atmospheric dynamics/waterand energy cycles.

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 0
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:
www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/What_We_Do/Satellites/
Future_Satellites/Meteosat_Third_Generation/index.htm

Approved

15 Mar 25

15 Dec 32

Meteorology, climatology, FCI, LI
atmospheric dynamics/waterand energy cycles.

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): 0
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:
www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/What_We_Do/Satellites/
Future_Satellites/Meteosat_Third_Generation/index.htm

Currently
being flown

26 Feb 05

26 Feb 10

Meteorology, aeronauticalapplications.

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –140
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Meteosat Third
Generation Imaging
Satellite 1

Instruments

EUMETSAT

MTG-I2
Meteosat Third
Generation Imaging
Satellite 2

EUMETSAT

MTG-I3
Meteosat Third
Generation Imaging
Satellite 3

EUMETSAT

MTG-I4
Meteosat Third
Generation Imaging
Satellite 4

EUMETSATMTSAT-1R
Multi-functional
Transport
Satellite

JMA / JCAB

190

MTSAT Comms,
JAMI/MTSAT-1R,
MTSAT DCS

Orbit details & URL

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

M|N
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

MTSAT-2

Currently
being flown

18 Feb 06

26 Feb 15

Meteorology, aeronauticalapplications.

IMAGER/MTSAT-2,
MTSAT Comms,
MTSAT DCS

Type: Geostationary
Altitude: 36000 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo): –140
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Currently
being flown

27 Sep 03

27 Sep 08

Small satellite mission with NigeriaSat Medium
technical and scientific
Resolution
objectives (environmental)
monitoring.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 686 km
Period: 97 mins
Inclination: 98º
Repeat cycle: 3 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.nasrda.net

Approved

01 Sep 09

01 Sep 16

Small satellite mission with NigeriaSat Medium Type: Sun-synchronous
technical and scientificand High Resolution Altitude: 700 km
Period: 97 mins
objectives (environmental)
Inclination:
monitoring.
Repeat cycle: 4 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: www.nasrda.net

Currently
being flown

21 Nov 00

30 Oct 09

Land surface, earth
resources.

Currently
being flown

01 May 98

31 Dec 10

Meteorology, agriculture
ARGOS, S&R (NOAA), Type: Sun-synchronousand forestry, environmental ATOVS (HIRS/3 +Altitude: 813 km
monitoring, climatology,
AMSU + AVHRR/3), Period: 101.4 mins
physical oceanography,
Inclination: 98.6º
AMSU-A, HIRS/3,
volcanic eruption
AMSU-B, AVHRR/3, Repeat cycle:
monitoring, ice and snow
LST: 7:08
NOAA CommsLongitude (if geo):
cover, total ozone studies,
Asc/desc: Descending
space environment, solar
URL: www.oso.noaa.gov/poes/
flux analysis, search andrescue.

Currently
being flown

21 Sep 00

31 Dec 12

Meteorology, agriculture
SEM (POES), ARGOS, Type: Sun-synchronousand forestry, environmental S&R (NOAA), ATOVS Altitude: 870 km
monitoring, climatology,(HIRS/3 + AMSU + Period: 102 mins
physical oceanography,
AVHRR/3), AMSU-A, Inclination: 98.8º
Repeat cycle:
volcanic eruption
HIRS/3, SBUV/2,
monitoring, ice and snow
AMSU-B, AVHRR/3, LST: 13:54
Longitude (if geo):
cover, total ozone studies, NOAA Comms
Asc/desc: Ascending
space environment, solar
URL: www.oso.noaa.gov/poes/
flux analysis, search andrescue.

Multi-functional
Transport
Satellite

JMA / JCAB

NigeriaSat-1

NASRDA

NigeriaSat-2

NASRDANMP EO-1
New Millenium
Program Earth
Observing-1

NASA

NOAA-15
National Oceanicand Atmospheric
Administration-15

NOAA

NOAA-16
National Oceanicand Atmospheric
Administration-16

NOAA

ALI, Hyperion,
LEISA AC

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 705 km
Period: 99 mins
Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle: 16 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: http://eo1.gsfc.nasa.gov/

191

N
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

NOAA-17

Currently
being flown

24 Jun 02

31 Dec 14

Meteorology, agriculture
SEM (POES), ARGOS, Type: Sun-synchronousand forestry, environmental S&R (NOAA),
Altitude: 833 km
monitoring, climatology,
Period: 101.4 mins
AMSU-A, HIRS/3,
physical oceanography,
Inclination: 98.75º
SBUV/2, AMSU-B,
volcanic eruption
Repeat cycle:
AVHRR/3,
monitoring, ice and snow
LST: 10:00
NOAA Comms
cover, total ozone studies,
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
space environment, solar
URL: www.oso.noaa.gov/poes/
flux analysis, search andrescue.

Currently
being flown

20 May 05

31 Dec 15

Meteorology, agriculture
SEM (POES), ARGOS, Type: Sun-synchronousand forestry, environmental S&R (NOAA), MHS, Altitude: 870 km
monitoring, climatology,
AMSU-A, SBUV/2,
Period: 102.1 mins
physical oceanography,
AVHRR/3,
Inclination: 98.75ºvolcanic eruption
NOAA Comms,
Repeat cycle:
monitoring, ice and snow
HIRS/4
LST: 14:00
cover, total ozone studies,
Longitude (if geo):
space environment, solar
Asc/desc: Ascending
flux analysis, search and
URL: www.oso.noaa.gov/poes/
rescue.

Approved

31 Jan 09

01 Mar 16

Meteorological, climatic,
terrestrial, oceanographic,
and solar-geophysicalapplications; global andregional environmental
monitoring, search andrescue, data collection.

CrIS, VIIRS, ATMS, Type: Sun-synchronous
TSIS, CMIS, A-DCS4, Altitude: 824 km
APS, SARSAT,
Period: 101 mins
SEM-N
Inclination: 98.75º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 13:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.npoess.noaa.gov/

Approved

31 Jan 13

01 Jan 20

Meteorological, climatic,
terrestrial, oceanographic,
and solar-geophysicalapplications; global andregional environmental
monitoring, search andrescue, data collection.

CrIS, VIIRS, ATMS, Type: Sun-synchronous
TSIS, CMIS, A-DCS4, Altitude: 824 km
APS, SARSAT,
Period: 101 mins
SEM-N
Inclination: 98.75º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 13:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.npoess.noaa.gov/

NPOESS-2
Approved
National
Polar-orbiting
Operational
Environmental
Satellite System-2

31 Jan 16

01 Jan 22

Meteorological, climatic,
terrestrial, oceanographic,
and solar-geophysicalapplications; global andregional environmental
monitoring, search andrescue, data collection.

VIIRS, A-DCS4,SARSAT, MIS

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 824 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.75º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 17:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.npoess.noaa.gov/

31 Jan 18

01 Jan 25

Meteorological, climatic,
terrestrial, oceanographic,
and solar-geophysicalapplications; global andregional environmental
monitoring, search andrescue, data collection.

CrIS, VIIRS, ATMS,
TSIS, CMIS, OMPS,
A-DCS4, SARSAT,MIS

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 833 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.75º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 17:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.npoess.noaa.gov/

National Oceanicand Atmospheric
Administration-M

NOAA

NOAA-18
National Oceanicand Atmospheric
Administration-18

NOAA

NOAA-N'
National Oceanicand Atmospheric
Administration-N'

NOAA

NPOESS-1
National
Polar-orbiting
Operational
Environmental
Satellite System-1

NOAA

NOAA

NPOESS-3
National
Polar-orbiting
Operational
Environmental
Satellite System-3

NOAA

192

Approved

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

N|O
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

NPOESS-4

Approved

31 Jan 20

01 Jan 27

Meteorological, climatic,
terrestrial, oceanographic,
and solar-geophysicalapplications; global andregional environmental
monitoring, search andrescue, data collection.

CrIS, VIIRS, ATMS,
TSIS, CMIS, OMPS,
A-DCS4, SARSAT

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 833 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.75º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 21:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.npoess.noaa.gov/

Approved

02 Jun 10

02 Jun 15

Operational Polar weather CrIS, CERES, VIIRS, Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 824 km
and climate measurements. ATMS, OMPSPeriod: 101 mins
Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST: 13:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://jointmission.gsfc.nasa.gov/

Currently
being flown

26 May 99

01 Jul 09

Ocean and atmosphereapplications.

OCM, MSMR

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 720 km
Period: 99.31 mins
Inclination: 98.28º
Repeat cycle: 2 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL:

Approved

15 Sep 08

01 Jan 13

Ocean and atmosphereapplications.

OCM,
Scatterometer(ISRO),ROSA

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 720 km
Period: 99.31 mins
Inclination: 98.28º
Repeat cycle: 2 days
LST: 12:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.isro.org/

Considered

01 Jan 11

01 Jan 15

Ocean and atmosphereapplications.

Scatterometer(ISRO),
Altimeter(OCEANSAT-3),
TIR (OCEANSAT-3),
PMR,
OCM (OCEANSAT-3)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 720 km
Period: 99.31 mins
Inclination: 98.28º
Repeat cycle: 2 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.isro.org/

Approved

15 Dec 08

15 Dec 10

High resolution carbon
Spectrometer (OCO) Type: Sun-synchronous
dioxide measurements to
Altitude: 705 km
Period: 98.8 mins
characterize sources andInclination: 98.2ºsinks on regional scales andRepeat cycle:
quantify their variability
LST:over the seasonal cycle.
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://oco.jpl.nasa.gov/

National
Polar-orbiting
Operational
Environmental
Satellite System-4

NOAA

NPP
NPOESS (National
Polar-orbiting
Operational
Environmental
Satellite System)
Preparatory
Project

NASA / NOAA / DoD(USA)
OCEANSAT-1
Ocean satellite-1

ISRO

OCEANSAT-2
Ocean satellite-2

ISRO

OCEANSAT-3
Ocean Satellite-3

ISRO

OCO
Orbiting Carbon
Observatory

NASA

193

O|P
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

Odin

Currently
being flown

20 Feb 01

31 Dec 08

Atmospheric research,
stratospheric ozone
chemistry, mesosphericozone science, summer
mesospheric science.

OSIRIS, SMR

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 590 km
Period: 97.6 mins
Inclination: 97.8º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 18:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.ssc.se/?id=7180

Currently
being flown

21 Nov 99

31 Dec 08

Earth magnetic field
mapping.

Overhauser
Magnetometer,
CSC FVM, SI

Type: Geostationary
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: http://web.dmi.dk/projects/oersted/

Currently
being flown

01 Dec 04

31 Dec 08

Micro-satellite with the aim POLDER-P
of characterisation of theclouds and aerosols
microphysical and radiative
properties, needed tounderstand and model theradiative impact of clouds
and aerosols.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 700 km
Period: 98.8 mins
Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST: 12:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: http://smsc.cnes.fr/PARASOL/index.htm

Approved

01 Jan 09

01 Jan 11

Simultaneous
measurements of solar
diameter, differential
rotation, solar constant,and variability.

Type:
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: http://smsc.cnes.fr/PICARD/

Approved

01 Jan 10

01 Jan 15

Cartography, land use, risk, HiRI
agriculture and forestry,
civil planning and mapping,
digital terrain models,
defence.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 694 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle: 26 days
LST: 10:15
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: http://smsc.cnes.fr/PLEIADES/Fr/index.htm

Approved

01 Jun 11

01 Jun 16

Cartography, land use, risk, HiRI
agriculture and forestry,
civil planning and mapping,
digital terrain models,
defence.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 694 km
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST: 10:15
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: http://smsc.cnes.fr/PLEIADES/Fr/index.htm

SNSB / TEKES /CNES / CSAØrsted (Oersted)

DNSC / CNES /NASA

PARASOL
Polarization andAnisotropy ofReflectances for
Atmospheric
Science coupledwith Observations
from a LIDAR

CNES

PICARD

CNES

Pleiades 1

CNES

Pleiades 2

CNES

194

SODISM, SOVAP,
PREMOS

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

P|R
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

post-EPS/
EUMETSAT / ESA

Planned

01 Jan 20

01 Jan 27

In early stages of mission
definition.
Other payloads will be
added.

IRS,UVNS (post-EPS)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPgmes.html

Approved

30 Jul 1130 Jul 16

Land surface, agriculture
HYC, PAN CAMERA
and forestry, regional
geology, land use studies,water resources, vegetation
studies, coastal studies andsoils.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 700 km
Period: 98.4 mins
Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle: 26 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.spazio.galileoavionica.com/C35_co.htm

Currently
being flown

22 Oct 01

31 Dec 09

PROBA is a technology
CHRIS
experiment to demonstrate
the on-board autonomy of ageneric platform suitable
for small scientific or
application missions.
A number of earth
observation instruments
are included.
CHRIS – a hyperspectral
imager provides data
related to Earth Resourcesscience and applications.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 615 km
Period: 96.97 mins
Inclination: 97.9º
Repeat cycle: 7 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: http://earth.esa.int/proba/

Currently
being flown

19 Jun 99

31 Dec 08

Acquires accurate, highSeaWinds
resolution, global
measurements ofsea-surface wind vectors in
1 to 2 day repeat cycles forstudies of tropospheric
dynamics and air-sea
interaction processes,
including air-sea
momentum transfer.
End of life date TBD.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 803 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.6º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL:
http://winds.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/quikscat/index.cfm

06 Dec 13

01 Apr 20

Ecosystem monitoring,
maritime surveillance,
disaster management.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 600 km
Period: 96.5 mins
Inclination: 97.7º
Repeat cycle: 12 days
LST: 18:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL:
www.space.gc.ca/asc/eng/satellites/radarsat/default.asp

Sentinel-5
ESA / ECPRISMA
Hyperspectral
Mission

ASI

PROBA
Project for
On-Board
Autonomy

ESA

QuikSCAT
Quick
Scatterometer

NASA

RADARSAT
PlannedCONSTELLATION-1

CSA

SAR (RCM),
AIS (RCM)

195

R
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

14 Mar 15

01 Feb 21

Ecosystem monitoring,
maritime surveillance,
disaster management.

SAR (RCM),
AIS (RCM)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 600 km
Period: 96.5 mins
Inclination: 97.7º
Repeat cycle: 12 days
LST: 18:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.space.gc.ca/asc/eng/satellites/radarsat/

06 Jul 1401 Apr 22

Ecosystem monitoring,
maritime surveillance,
disaster management.

SAR (RCM),
AIS (RCM)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 600 km
Period: 96.5 mins
Inclination: 97.7º
Repeat cycle: 12 days
LST: 18:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.space.gc.ca/asc/eng/satellites/radarsat/

Currently
being flown

04 Nov 95

31 Mar 09

Environmental monitoring,
physical oceanography, ice
and snow, land surface.

SAR (RADARSAT),RADARSAT DTT,RADARSAT TTC

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 798 km
Period: 100.7 mins
Inclination: 98.594º
Repeat cycle: 24 days
LST: 18:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.space.gc.ca/asc/eng/satellites/radarsat1/

Currently
being flown

14 Dec 07

17 Apr 15

Environmental monitoring,
physical oceanography, ice
and snow, land surface.

SAR (RADARSAT-2)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 798 km
Period: 100.7 mins
Inclination: 98.6º
Repeat cycle: 24 days
LST: 18:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.space.gc.ca/asc/eng/satellites/radarsat2/

Approved

15 Aug 08

01 Jan 15

System of 5 satellites for
cartography, land surface,
digital terrain models,disaster management,
environmental monitoring.

MSI

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 622 km
Period:Inclination: 98.7º
Repeat cycle: 1 days
LST: 11:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.rapideye.de/Approved

01 Jul 09

01 Jul 12

Cartography, land
cover/land use, city
planning, disastermitigation/monitoring,
environmental monitoring.

RASAT VIS
Panchromatic,
RASAT VIS
Multi-spectral

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 700 km
Period: 98.8 mins
Inclination: 98.21º
Repeat cycle: 4 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: www.uzay.tubitak.gov.tr/

RADARSAT
PlannedCONSTELLATION-2

CSA

RADARSAT
PlannedCONSTELLATION-3

CSA

RADARSAT-1
Radar satellite-1

CSA

RADARSAT-2
Radar satellite-2

CSA

RapidEye

DLR

RASAT
RASAT Remote
Sensing Satellite

Tubitak196

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

R
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URLRESOURCESAT-1

Currently
being flown

01 Oct 03

01 Oct 08

Natural resourcesmanagement; agricultural
applications; forestry etc.

AWiFS, LISS-IV,
LISS-III(RESOURCESAT)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 817 km
Period: 102 mins
Inclination: 98.72º
Repeat cycle: 26 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.isro.org/

Planned01 Jul 09

01 Jul 13

Natural resourcesmanagement; agricultural
applications; forestry etc.

AWiFS, LISS-IV,
LISS-III(RESOURCESAT)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 817 km
Period: 102 mins
Inclination: 98.72º
Repeat cycle: 26 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.isro.org/

Considered

01 Jul 11

01 Jul 16

Natural resourcesmanagement; agricultural
applications; forestry etc.

WS LISS-III, ATCOR Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 817 km
Period: 102 mins
Inclination: 98.72º
Repeat cycle: 26 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.isro.org/

Currently
being flown

15 Jun 05

30 Jun 11

Land surface.

Geoton-L1, Pamela, Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Arina
Altitude: 600 km
Period: 92 mins
Inclination: 70º
Repeat cycle: 17 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://planet.iitp.ru

Approved

01 Mar 09

01 Mar 14

Land surface, agriculture
SAR (RISAT)and forestry, regional
geology, land use studies,water resources, vegetation
studies, coastal studies andsoils – especially during
cloud season.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 610 km
Period: 96.5 mins
Inclination: 97.844º
Repeat cycle: 12 days
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.isro.org/

Considered

01 Jul 14

01 Jul 20

Land surface, agriculture
SAR L
and forestry, regional
geology, land use studies,water resources, vegetation
studies, coastal studies andsoils – especially during
cloud season.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period: 96.5 mins
Inclination: 97.844º
Repeat cycle: 12 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.isro.org/

Resource
satellite-1

ISRO

RESOURCESAT-2
Resource
satellite-2

ISRO

RESOURCESAT-3
Resource
Satellite-3

ISRO

Resurs DK 1
Resurs DK
Environmental
Satellite 1

Roscosmos /Roshydromet

RISAT-1
Radar Imaging
SatelliteISRORISAT-L
Radar Imaging
Satellite

ISRO

197

S
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

SABRINA

Approved

20 Apr 12

08 Sep 16

Resarch and testing on
interferometric andbistatics techniques.

SAR (SABRINA)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 622 km
Period: 97.15 mins
Inclination: 97.8º
Repeat cycle: 16 days
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL:

Currently
being flown

21 Nov 00

01 Jan 10

Earth Observation, studies
the structure and dynamics
of the Earth’s surface,atmosphere, ionosphereand geomagnetic field.

MMRS, HRTC, HSTC,
MMP, GOLPE, IST,
INES, ICARE, WTE,DCS (SAC-C)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 705 km
Period: 98 mins
Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle: 9 days
LST: 10:25
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.conae.gov.ar/Approved

22 May 10

22 May 15

Earth observation studies;measurement of ocean
salinity; emergency
management.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Lagrange, ICARE,
Aquarius, Microwave Altitude: 657 km
Radiometer (CONAE), Period: 98 mins
Inclination: 98º
HSC, SODAD,NIRST, CARMEN-1, Repeat cycle: 9 days
DCS (SAC-D), ROSA, LST: 10:15
TDP,
Longitude (if geo):
L-band Radiometer, Asc/desc: Ascending
L-band
URL: www.conae.gov.ar/
Scatterometer(Aquarius)

SAC-E/SABIA/mar Planned

01 Jan 12

01 Jan 17

Food production;
environmental monitoring;
inner coastal and water
quality.

MOC

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle: 9 days
LST: 10:15
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.conae.gov.ar/

Planned

01 Jan 14

01 Jan 19

Earth observation studies;emergency management;
landscape epidemiology.

HRMS, HSMS,
TIS (CONAE), HSS

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 705 km
Period: 98 mins
Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle: 9 days
LST: 10:15
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.conae.gov.ar/Approved

01 Jan 11

01 Jan 16

Earth Observation andEmergency managementwith an L-band SAR.

SAR-L (SAOCOM)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 620 km
Period:Inclination: 98º
Repeat cycle: 16 days
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.conae.gov.ar/

SAr Bissat Radarfor
INterferometric
Applications

ASI

SAC-C

CONAE

SAC-D
Satélite deAplicaciones
Científicas-D

CONAE / NASA

CONAE / INPE

SAC-F

CONAE

SAOCOM 1A

CONAE / ASI

198

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

S
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

SAOCOM 1B

Approved

01 Jan 12

01 Jan 17

Earth Observation andEmergency managementwith an L-band SAR.

SAR-L (SAOCOM)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 620 km
Period:Inclination: 98º
Repeat cycle: 16 days
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.conae.gov.ar/

Planned

01 Jan 14

01 Jan 19

Earth Observation andEmergency managementwith an L-band SAR.

SAR-L (SAOCOM)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 620 km
Period:Inclination: 98º
Repeat cycle: 16 days
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.conae.gov.ar/

Planned

01 Jan 15

01 Jan 20

Earth Observation andEmergency managementwith an L-band SAR.

SAR-L (SAOCOM)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 620 km
Period:Inclination: 98º
Repeat cycle: 16 days
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.conae.gov.ar/Approved

01 Oct 09

01 Oct 13

This will provide precise,repetitive global
measurements of sea
surface height, significant
wave heights and windspeed.

ARGOS, AltiKa

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 799 km
Period: 100.59 mins
Inclination: 98.55º
Repeat cycle: 35 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL:

Planned01 May 10

01 May 14

Earth observation studies,
technology testing.

High Resolution
Panchromatic
Camera,Panchromatic HighSensitivity Camera,
SAR components
testing

Type:
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Currently
being flown

09 Feb 93

01 Dec 12

Data collection andcommunication.

DCP (SCD)

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 750 km
Period: 100 mins
Inclination: 25º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: www.inpe.br/programas/mecb/default.htm

CONAE / ASI

SAOCOM-2A

CONAE

SAOCOM-2B

CONAE

SARAL
Satellite with
ARgos and ALtiKa

CNES / ISROSARE-1

CONAE

SCD-1
Data Collecting
Satellite 1

INPE

199

S
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

SCD-2

Currently
being flown

22 Oct 98

01 Dec 12

Data collection andcommunication.

DCP (SCD)

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 750 km
Period: 100 mins
Inclination: 25º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: www.inpe.br/programas/mecb/default.htm

Currently
being flown

12 Aug 03

31 Dec 09

To improve ourunderstanding of thedepletion of the ozone
layer, particularly overCanada and the Arctic.

ACE-FTS, MAESTRO

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 650 km
Period: 97.7 mins
Inclination: 74º
Repeat cycle: 365 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:
www.space.gc.ca/asc/eng/satellites/scisat/default.asp

Approved

01 Nov 11

01 Nov 18

Providing continuity of
C-band SAR data for
operational applications
notably: Marine Core
services, Land Monitoringand Emergency Services.

C-band SAR

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 693 km
Period: 98.74 mins
Inclination: 98.19º
Repeat cycle: 12 days
LST: 18:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPgmes.html

Planned01 Jul 1201 Jul 19

Providing continuity of
C-band SAR data for
operational applications
notably: Marine Core
services, Land Monitoringand Emergency Services.

C-band SAR

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 693 km
Period: 98.74 mins
Inclination: 98.19º
Repeat cycle: 12 days
LST: 18:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPgmes.html

Considered

01 Jul 18

01 Jul 25

Providing continuity of
C-band SAR data for
operational applications
notably: Marine Core
services, Land Monitoringand Emergency Services.

C-band SAR

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 693 km
Period: 98.74 mins
Inclination: 98.19º
Repeat cycle: 12 days
LST: 18:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPgmes.html

Approved

01 Jul 1201 Jul 19

Supporting land monitoring MSI (Sentinel-2)
related services.

Data Collecting
Satellite 2

INPE

SCISAT-1
SCISAT-I/ACE

CSA

Sentinel-1 A

ESA / EC

Sentinel-1 B

ESA / EC

Sentinel-1 C

ESA / EC

Sentinel-2 A

ESA / EC200

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 786 km
Period: 100.7 mins
Inclination: 98.62º
Repeat cycle: 10 days
LST: 10:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPgmes.html

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

S
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Sentinel-2 B

Planned01 Jul 14

01 Jul 21

Supporting land monitoring MSI (Sentinel-2)
related services.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 786 km
Period: 100.7 mins
Inclination: 98.62º
Repeat cycle: 10 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPgmes.html

Considered

01 Jul 19

01 Jul 26

Supporting land monitoring MSI (Sentinel-2)
related services.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 786 km
Period: 100.7 mins
Inclination: 98.62º
Repeat cycle: 10 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPgmes.html

Approved

01 Oct 12

01 Oct 19

Supporting land monitoring OLCI, SLSTR, SRAL
related services.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 814 km
Period: 100 mins
Inclination: 98.65º
Repeat cycle: 27 days
LST: 10:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPgmes.html

Planned

01 Oct 15

01 Oct 22

Supporting land monitoring OLCI, SLSTR, SRAL
related services.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 814 km
Period: 100 mins
Inclination: 98.65º
Repeat cycle: 27 days
LST: 10:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPgmes.html

Considered

01 Jul 19

01 Jul 25

Supporting land monitoring OLCI, SLSTR, SRAL
related services.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 814 km
Period: 100 mins
Inclination: 98.65º
Repeat cycle: 27 days
LST: 10:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPgmes.html

Planned

01 Jan 14

01 Jan 20

Supporting global
atmospheric composition
and air quality monitoring
services.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: www.esa.int/esaLP/LPgmes.html

ESA / EC

Sentinel-2 C

ESA / EC

Sentinel-3 A

ESA / EC

Sentinel-3 B

ESA / EC

Sentinel-3 C

ESA / EC

Sentinel-5
precursor

ESA

UVNS (Sentinel-5
precursor)

Orbit details & URL

201

S
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Instruments

Orbit details & URL

Sich-2

Approved

01 Jan 09

01 Jan 14

Land Observation.

MBEI, MIREI

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 668 km
Period: 98 mins
Inclination: 98º
Repeat cycle: 5 days
LST: 10:50
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL:

Planned15 Jan 13

15 Jan 15

Global soil moisturemapping.

Radar/Radiometer

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: http://smap.jpl.nasa.gov/

Approved

15 Apr 09

01 Dec 14

Overall objectives are to
MIRAS (SMOS)
provide global observationsof two crucial variables formodelling the weather andclimate, soil moisture andocean salinity.
It will also monitor thevegetation water content,snow cover and ice
structure.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 780 km
Period: 100.075 mins
Inclination: 98.445º
Repeat cycle: 149 days
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.esa.int/export/esaLP/smos.html

Currently
being flown

25 Jan 03

01 Oct 09

Continues the precise,
SOLSTICE, SIM,
long-term measurements of TIM, XPS
total solar irradiance at UV
and VNIR wavelengths.
Daily measurements ofsolar UV.
Precise measurements ofvisible solar irradiance forclimate studies.

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 600 km
Period:Inclination: 40º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: http://lasp.colorado.edu/sorce/

Currently
being flown

22 Jan 90

31 Dec 08

Cartography, land surface, HRV, DORIS (SPOT)
agriculture and forestry,
civil planning and mapping,
digital terrain models,environmental monitoring.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 832 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.7º
Repeat cycle: 26 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL:

Currently
being flown

24 Mar 98

01 Jan 12

Cartography, land surface, HRVIR,
agriculture and forestry,
VEGETATION,
civil planning and mapping, DORIS (SPOT)
digital terrain models,environmental monitoring.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 832 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.7º
Repeat cycle: 26 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL:
www.spot.com/home/system/introsat/welcome.htm

NSAU

SMAP
Soil Moisture
Active Passive

NASA

SMOS
Soil Moisture andOcean Salinity(Earth Explorer
Opportunity
Mission)

ESA / CDTI / CNES

SORCE
Solar Radiation
and Climate
ExperimentNASA

SPOT-2
Satellite Pourl'Observation dela Terre - 2

CNES

SPOT-4
Satellite Pourl'Observation dela Terre - 4

CNES

202

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

S|T
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

SPOT-5Currently
being flown

04 May 02

01 Jan 13

Cartography, land surface, HRG, VEGETATION,
agriculture and forestry,
HRS,
civil planning and mapping, DORIS-NG (SPOT)
digital terrain models,environmental monitoring.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 832 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.7º
Repeat cycle: 26 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL:
www.spotimage.fr/home/system/future/spot5/welcome.htm

Currently
being flown

06 Feb 75

31 Dec 50

Geodesy/gravity.
Study of the Earth’s
gravitational field and its
temporal variations.

Laser reflectors

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 812 km
Period: 104 mins
Inclination: 49.83º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Currently
being flown

30 Sep 93

31 Dec 50

Geodesy/gravity.
Study of the Earth’s
gravitational field and its
temporal variations.

Laser reflectors

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 830 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL:

Approved

01 Jan 09

01 Jan 14

Primary payload (imager)
SumbandilaSat
will be used to support
Imagerdecision making in natural
resource management,
disaster management,
agriculture, urban planningand other applications.

Approved

01 Oct 10

01 Dec 14

To provide the best ever
Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
ASM, VFM, STR,
survey of the geomagnetic EFI, ACC,
Altitude: 450 km
field and its temporal
GPS Receiver (Swarm) Period: 90 mins
evolution, and gain new
Inclination: 87.4º
insights into improving our
Repeat cycle:
knowledge of the Earth’s
LST: 6:00
Longitude (if geo):interior and climate.
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: www.esa.int/export/esaLP/swarm.html

Approved

30 Sep 09

31 Dec 14

Cartography, land surface, X-band SAR
civil planning and mapping,
digital terrain models,environmental monitoring.

Satellite Pourl'Observation dela Terre - 5

Instruments

CNES

STARLETTE

CNESSTELLA

CNES

SumbandilaSat
Sumbandila
Satellite

CSIR /
Uni of Stellenbosh

Swarm
Earth's Magnetic
Field andEnvironment
Exploreres;Constellation of
three satellites

Orbit details & URL

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

ESA / CNES / CSA

TanDEM-X
TerraSAR-X
Add-on for Digital
Elevation
Measurements

DLR

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 514 km
Period: 94.85 mins
Inclination: 97.4º
Repeat cycle: 11 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL:
www.dlr.de/hr/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-2317/3669_read-5488

203

T
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

Terra(formerly
EOS AM-1)

Currently
being flown

18 Dec 99

01 Oct 09

Atmospheric dynamics/water MOPITT, MODIS,and energy cycles,
MISR, CERES,
atmospheric chemistry,
ASTER
physical and radiative
properties of clouds,
airland exchanges ofenergy, carbon and water,
vertical profiles of CO andmethane vulcanology.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 705 km
Period: 99 mins
Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle: 16 days
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: http://terra.nasa.gov/

Currently
being flown

15 Jul 07

01 Jan 13

Cartography, land surface, X-band SAR
civil planning and mapping,
digital terrain models,environmental monitoring.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 514 km
Period: 94.85 mins
Inclination: 97.4º
Repeat cycle: 11 days
LST: 18:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.terrasar.de/

Planned

01 Jan 13

01 Jan 18

Commercial follow-on
X-band SAR
mission to TerraSAR-X
operated by Infoterra.
Cartography, land surface,
civil planning and mapping,
digital terrain models,environmental monitoring.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL:

Currently
being flown

22 Oct 01

01 Jul 09

For demonstrating manysatellite technologies for
future Cartosat satellites.

TES PAN

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.isro.org/

Considered

01 Jan 10

01 Jan 14

For demonstrating manysatellite technologies for
future Cartosat satellites.

HySI (TES-HYS)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude:
Period:Inclination:
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL:

Approved

02 Aug 08

01 Jan 13

Earth resources, land
surface and disastermonitoring, civil planning.

PAN (GISTDA),
MS (GISTDA)

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 822 km
Period: 101 mins
Inclination: 98.7º
Repeat cycle: 26 days
LST: 10:00
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: www.gistda.or.thNASA

TerraSAR-X

DLR

TerraSAR-X2
TerraSAR-X
follow-on

DLR

TES
Technology
Experimental
Satellite

Instruments

ISRO

TES-HYS
Technology
Experimental
Satellite on
Hyperspectral

ISRO

THEOS
Thailand Earth
Observation
SystemGISTDA

204

Orbit details & URL

8 Catalogue of Satellite Missions

T|V
MissionStatusLaunch date EOL date

Applications

TIMED

Currently
being flown

07 Dec 01

07 Dec 10

Investigates the influences SABER
of the sun and humans on
the least explored andunderstood region of the
Earth's atmosphere – themesosphere and lower
thermosphere/ ionosphere(MLTI).

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 625 km
Period:Inclination: 74.1º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: www.timed.jhuapl.edu/WWW/index.php

Currently
being flown

27 Oct 05

01 May 09

Prototype low-cost highresolution imager.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 600 km
Period:Inclination: 98º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: www.bnsc.gov.uk/content.aspx?nid=5907

Currently
being flown

27 Nov 97

01 Oct 09

Atmospheric dynamics/water LIS, PR, CERES,
and energy cycles.
VIRS, TMI

Type: Inclined, non-Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 405 km
Period: 93.5 mins
Inclination: 35º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: N/A
URL: http://trmm.gsfc.nasa.gov/

Currently
being flown

27 Sep 03

30 Sep 08

Medium resolution visible
imager for support ofdisaster management.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 785 km
Period:Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle:
LST:Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc:
URL: www.sstl.co.uk/index.php?loc=113

Approved

01 Oct 08

01 Jan 13

Wide area, medium
DMC-2 Imager
resolution optical imaging
for mapping, environmental
resource and disastermanagement.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 686 km
Period: 97.7 mins
Inclination: 98.2º
Repeat cycle:
LST: 10:30
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Ascending
URL: www.dmcii.com

Approved

01 Jul 10

01 Jul 13

Vegetation, agriculture
monitoring, water
management.

Type: Sun-synchronous
Altitude: 720 km
Period:Inclination: 98.27º
Repeat cycle: 2 days
LST:
Longitude (if geo):
Asc/desc: Descending
URL: http://smsc.cnes.fr/VENUS/index.htm

Thermosphere
Ionosphere
Mesosphere
Energetics andDynamics mission

Instruments

NASA

TopSatOptical Imaging
Satellite

TOPSAT Telescope

BNSC

TRMM
Tropical Rainfall
Measuring
MissionNASA / JAXA

UK-DMCUK Disaster
Monitoring
Constellation

DMC Imager

BNSC

UK-DMC2
UK Disaster
Monitoring
Constellation 2

BNSC

VENUS
Vegetationand Environment
monitoringon a New
Micro-Satellite

CNES / ISA

VSC

Orbit details & URL

205

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

This section contains an alphabetical list of all instruments on the missions listed in section 8.
For each instrument the following information is given:

Instrument nameInstrument acronym
Full instrument nameMissions

A list of missions that the instrument is expected to fly on, plus the agency and any partners

StatusShort description of the status of the instrument (eg whether being developed or currently operational)

Type

Instrument type – using the categories outlined in section 6

Measurements &applications

Primary measurements and applications of the instrument

Technical
characteristics

WavebandSpatial resolution
Swath width
Accuracy

The descriptions of waveband adopt the following conventions fordefining which parts of the spectrum are measured:
Frequency
RegionWavelength range
from

to

Ultraviolet

UV~0.01 µm

~0.40 µm

VisibleVIS~0.40 µm~0.75 µm

Near Infrared

NIR~0.75 µm

~1.3 µm

Short Wave Infrared

SWIR~1.3 µm~3.0 µm

Infrared

Microwave

206

Acronym
Sub-region

Mid Wave Infrared

MWIR~3.0 µm~6.0 µm

Thermal Infrared

TIR~6.0 µm~15.0 µm

Far Infrared

FIR~15.0 µm

~0.1 cm

MW~0.1 cm~100 cm

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

A
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

AATSR
Advanced Along-Track
Scanning Radiometer

EnvisatOperational

Imaging
multi-spectral
radiometers(vis/IR) & Multiple
direction/polarisation
radiometers

Measurements of sea surface
temperature, land surface
temperature, cloud top
temperature, cloud cover,aerosols, vegetation,
atmospheric water vapour andliquid water content.

Waveband:GOES-R
GOES-S

Being
developed

Imaging
Detects clouds, cloud properties,
multi-spectral
water vapour, land and sea
radiometers (vis/IR) surface temperatures, dust,
aerosols, volcanic ash, fires, totalozone, snow and ice cover,vegetation index.

Waveband:

Swarm

Being
developed

Precision orbit andspace environment

Measurement of the spacecraft
non-gravitational accelerations,linear accelerations range:± 2*10–4 m/s2;
angular measurement range:± 9.6* 10–3 rad/s2;
measurement bandwidth:
10–4 to 10–2 Hz;
Linear resolution: 1.8*10–10 m/s2;
angular resolution: 8*10–9 rad/s2

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

N/A
0.1 nm/s2
N/A
overall instrument random
error: <10–8 m/s2

Operational

Atmosphericchemistry

Measure and understand thechemical processes that control
the distribution of ozone in the
Earth's atmosphere, especially athigh altitudes.

Waveband:

SWIR – TIR: 2–5.5 µm,
5.5–13 µm(0.02 cm–1 resolution)

BNSC

ABI
Advanced Baseline
ImagerNOAA

ACC
Accelerometer
ESA

ACE-FTSSCISAT-1
Atmospheric Chemistry
Experiment (ACE) Fourier
Transform Spectrometer
CSA

ACRIM IIIACRIMSAT
Active Cavity Radiometer
Irradiance Monitor

NOAA

AIRS
Atmospheric InfraredSounderNASA

16 bands in vis, NIR and IR
ranging from 0.47 µm to 13.3 µm
Spatial resolution: 0.5 km in 0.64 µm band
2.0 km in long wave IR andin the 1.378 µm band
1.0 km in all others
Swath width:
Accuracy:
Varies by productSpatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Operational

Earth radiationbudget radiometer

Measurements of solar
luminosity and solar constant.
Data used as record of time
variation of total solar
irradiance, from extreme UV
through to infrared.

Waveband:
UV – MWIR: 0.15–5 µm
Spatial resolution: 5º FOV
Swath width:
71 mins per orbit of full solar
disc data
Accuracy:
0.1% of full scale

MetOp-A,
MetOp-B,
MetOp-C,NOAA-N',
NPOESS-1,
NPOESS-2,
NPOESS-3,
NPOESS-4

Operational

Data collection

Data collection andcommunication system forreceiving and retransmitting
data from ocean and land-based
remote observing
platforms/transponders.

Waveband:UHF
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Aqua

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

High spectral resolution
measurement of temperatureand humidty profiles in theatmosphere. Long-wave Earthsurface emissivity. Cloud
diagnostics. Trace gas profiles.
Surface temperatures.

Waveband:NASA

A-DCS4
ARGOS-Data Collection
System

VIS–NIR: 0.555 µm, 0.659 µm,
0.865 µm
SWIR: 1.6 µm
MWIR: 3.7 µm
TIR: 10.85 µm, 12 µm
Spatial resolution: IR ocean channels: 1 km x 1 km
Visible land channels: 1 km x 1 km
Swath width:
500 km
Accuracy:
Sea surface temperature: <0.5K
over 0.5º x 0.5º (lat/long) areawith 80% cloud coverLand surface temperature: 0.1K
(relative)

VIS–TIR: 0.4–1.7 µm, 3.4–15.4 µm,
Has approximately 2382 bands
from VIS to TIR
Spatial resolution: 1.1º (13X13 Km at nadir)
Swath width:± 48.95º
Accuracy:
Humidity: 20%
Temperature: 1 K

207

A
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

AIS (RCM)
Automated Identification
System (RADARSAT
Constellation)
CSA

ALADIN
Atmospheric Laser
Doppler Instrument

TypeMeasurements &applications

Technical characteristics

Being
RADARSAT
Constellation-1, developed
RADARSAT
Constellation-2,
RADARSAT
Constellation-3

Communications

Ship identification (name,location, heading, cargo etc.).

Microwave: 162 MHz
Waveband:Spatial resolution: N/A
Swath width:
800 km
Accuracy:

ADM-Aeolus

Beingdeveloped

LidarsGlobal wind profiles (single
line-of-sight) for an improved
weather prediction.

Waveband:UV: 355 nm
Spatial resolution: One wind profile every 200 km
along track, averaged over 50 kmAlong line 285 km parallel to
Swath width:
satellite ground track
Accuracy:Wind speed error below 2 m/s

NMP EO-1

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

Measurement of Earth surface
reflectance.
Will validate new technologies
contributing to cost reduction
and increased capabilities for
future missions.
ALI comprises a wide fieldtelescope and multi-spectral andpanchromatic instrument.

10 bands:
VIS&NIR: 0.480–0.690 µm,
0.433–0.453 µm, 0.450–0.515 µm,
0.525–0.605 µm, 0.630–0.690 µm,
0.775–0.805 µm, 0.845–0.890 µm,
1.200–1.300 µm
SWIR: 1.550–1.750 µm,
2.080–2.350 µm
Spatial resolution: PAN: 10 m
VNIR&SWIR: 30 m
Swath width:
37 km
Accuracy:
SNR at 5% surf refl Pan: 220
Multi 1: 215
Multi 2: 280
Multi 3: 290
Multi 4: 240
Multi 4': 190
Multi 5': 130
Multi 5: 175
Multi 7: 170(prototype instrument exceeds
ETM+ SNR by a factor of 4–8)

HY-2A

Being
developed

Radar altimeters

Global ocean topography,
sea level and gravity fieldmeasurements.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SARAL

Being
developed

Radar altimeters

Sea surface height.

Waveband:
35.5–36 GHz
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

OCEANSAT-3

Being
developed

Radar altimeters

Mainly sea state applications
including SWH, Geoid etc.,
establishment of global
databases.

Waveband:
1306 GHz
Spatial resolution: 1 km
Swath width:1500 m
Accuracy:

ERS-2

Operational

Imaging microwave All-weather images of ocean, ice
and land surfaces.
radarsMonitoring of coastal zones,
polar ice, sea state, geologicalfeatures, vegetation (including
forests), land surface processes,
hydrology.

StatusESA

ALI
Advanced Land Imager
NASA

ALT
Altimeter
NOAA

AltiKaKa-band Altimeter
CNES

Altimeter(OCEANSAT-3)
Ku-band Altimeter
ISRO

AMI/SAR/Image
Active Microwave
Instrumentation.
Image Mode
ESA

208

Waveband:Waveband:

13.58 GHz and 5.25 GHz
16 km
16 km
< 4 cmMicrowave: 5.3 GHz, C-band,
VV polarisation
bandwidth 15.5 ± 0.06 MHz
Spatial resolution: 30 m
Swath width:
100 km
Accuracy:
Landscape topography: 3 m
Bathymetry: 0.3 m
Sea ice type: 3 classes

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

A
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

AMI/SAR/Wave
Active Microwave
Instrumentation.
Wave mode

ERS-2

Operational

Imaging microwave Measurements of ocean wave
radarsspectra.

ERS-2

Operational

Scatterometers

Measurements of wind fields at
Waveband:the ocean surface, wind direction(range 0–360º), wind speed
Spatial resolution:(range 1–30 m/s).
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Microwave: 5.3 GHz (C-band),VV polarisation
Cells of 50 km x 50 km at 25 km
intervals
500 kmSea surface wind speed: 3 m/s
Sea ice type: 2 classes

Jason-2(aka OSTM)

Operational

Imaging
Altimeter data to correct forWaveband:multi-spectral
errors caused by water vapour
radiometersand cloud-cover.
Spatial resolution:(passive microwave) Also measures total water vapour
Swath width:and brightness temperature.
Accuracy:

Microwave: 18.7 GHz, 23.8 GHz,
34 GHz41.6 km at 18.7 GHz, 36.1 km
at 23.8 GHz, 22.9 km at 34 GHz
120º cone centred on nadir
Total water vapour: 0.2 g/cm2
Brightness temperature: 0.15 K

GCOM-W1,
GCOM-W2,
GCOM-W3

Approved

Imaging
Measurements of water vapour,multi-spectral
cloud liquid water, precipitation,
radiometers
winds, sea surface temperature,(passive microwave) sea ice concentration, snow
cover, soil moisture.

Microwave: 6.925 GHz, 7.3 GHz,
10.65 GHz, 18.7 GHz, 23.8 GHz,
36.5 GHz, 89.0 GHz
Spatial resolution: 5–50 km (dependent on frequency)
Swath width:1450 km
Accuracy:
Sea surface temparature: 0.5 K
Sea ice cover: 10%
Cloud liquid water: 0.05 kg/m2
Precipitation rate: 10%
Water vapour: 3.5 kg/m2 throughtotal column
Sea surface wind speed 1.5 m/s

Aqua

Operational

Imaging
Measurements of water vapour,multi-spectral
cloud liquid water, precipitation,
radiometers
winds, sea surface temperature,(passive microwave) sea ice concentration, snow
cover and soil moisture.

Waveband:Microwave: 6.925 GHz, 10.65 GHz,
18.7 GHz, 23.8 GHz, 36.5 GHz,
89.0 GHz
Spatial resolution: 5–50 km (dependent on frequency)
Swath width:
1445 km
Accuracy:
Sea surface temparature: 0.5K
Sea ice cover: 10%
Cloud liquid water: 0.05 kg/m2
Precipitation rate: 10%
Water vapour: 3.5 kg/m2 throughtotal column
Sea surface wind speed 1.5 m/s

Aqua,
MetOp-A,
MetOp-B,
MetOp-C,NOAA-15,
NOAA-16,
NOAA-17,
NOAA-18

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Waveband:ESA

AMI/Scatterometer
Active Microwave
Instrumentation.
Wind mode
ESA

AMR
Advanced Microwave
RadiometerNASA

AMSR-2
Advanced Microwave
Scanning Radiometer-2
JAXA

AMSR-E
Advanced Microwave
Scanning
Radiometer-EOS
JAXA (NASA)

AMSU-A
Advanced Microwave
Sounding Unit-A
NOAA (BNSC)

All-weather night-day
temperature sounding to an
altitude of 45 km.

Technical characteristics

Waveband:Microwave: 5.3 GHz (C-band),VV polarisation
Spatial resolution: 30 m
Swath width:
Accuracy:
Sea surface wind speed: 3 m/s
Significant wave height: 0.2 m

Waveband:Microwave: 15 channels,
23.8–89.0 GHz
Spatial resolution: 48 km
Swath width:2054 km
Accuracy:
Temperature profile: 2 K
Humidity: 3 kg/m2
Ice & snow cover: 10%209

A
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

AMSU-B
Advanced Microwave
Sounding Unit-B

NOAA-15,
NOAA-16,
NOAA-17

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

All-weather night-day humidity
sounding.

Waveband:Glory,
NPOESS-1,

ProposedMultiple
Global distribution of natural anddirection/polarisation anthropogenic aerosols forradiometers
quantification of the aerosol
effect on climate, theanthropogenic component of thiseffect, and the long-term changeof this effect caused by naturaland anthropogenic factors.

9 bands:
VIS and SWIR: 0.412 µm,
0.488 µm, 0.555 µm, 0.672 µm,
0.910 µm, 0.865 µm, 1.378 µm,
1.610 µm, 2.250 µm
Spatial resolution: 10 km
Swath width:
10 km
Accuracy:
AOT Ocean .02, land .04

SAC-D

Being
developed

Scatterometers

Understanding ocean circulation,
including measurements of sea
surface salinity, global water
cycle and cliamte interaction, soil
moisture measurements overArgentina.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy: .

MetOp-A,
MetOp-B,
MetOp-C,NOAA-15,
NOAA-16,
NOAA-17,
NOAA-18,
NOAA-N',SARAL

Operational

Data collection

Location data by doppler
measurements.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Resurs DK 1

Operational

Space environment Insights into electromagnetic
Waveband:field variations as the precursors Spatial resolution:of Earth quakes.
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Operational

Imaging microwave All-weather images of ocean,radarsland and ice for monitoring ofland surface processes, sea andpolar ice, sea state, andgeological and hydrologicalapplications.
Has 2 stripmap modes (Imageand Wave (for ocean wave
spectra)) and 3 ScanSAR modes.

NOAA (BNSC)

APS
Aerosol Polarimetry
SensorNOAA

Aquarius
NASA (CONAE)

ARGOS
CNES (NASA)Arina
Roscosmos

ASAR
EnvisatAdvanced
Synthetic-Aperture Radar
ESA

210

Microwave: 89 GHz, 150 GHz
183.3± 1.0 GHz (2 bands)
183.3± 3.0 GHz (2 bands)
183.3± 7.0 GHz (2 bands)
Spatial resolution: 16 km
Swath width:
2200 km
Accuracy:
Humidity profile: 1 kg/m2

Waveband:Waveband:L-band (1.413–1.260 GHz)
100 km390 km2 psu

Microwave: C-band, with choice of
5 polarisation modes(VV, HH, VV/HH, HV/HH, or VH/VV)
Spatial resolution: Image, wave and alternating
polarisation modes:
approx 30 m x 30 m
Wide swath mode: 150 m x 150 m
Global monitoring mode:
950 mm x 950 m
Swath width:
Image and alternating
polarisation modes: up to 100 km
Wave mode: 5 km
Wide swath and global monitoringmodes: 400 km or more
Accuracy:
Radiometric resolution in range:
1.5–3.5 dB
Radiometric accuracy: 0.65 dB

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

A
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

ASAR (image mode)
Advanced Synthetic
Aperture Radar(Image mode)

EnvisatOperational

Imaging microwave All-weather images of ocean,radarsland and ice for monitoring ofland surface processes, sea andpolar ice, sea state, andgeological and hydrologicalapplications.

See above.

EnvisatOperational

Imaging microwave Measurements of ocean wave
radarsspectra.

See above.

ASCAT
MetOp-A,
Advanced Scatterometer MetOp-B,
MetOp-C
EUMETSAT (ESA)

Operational

Scatterometers

Sea ice cover, sea ice type andwind speed over sea surface
measurements.
Air pressure over ocean, polar ice
contours, ice/snow imagery, soil
moisture.

Waveband:Microwave: C-band, 5.256 GHz
Spatial resolution: Hi-res mode: 25–37 km
Nominal mode: 50 km
Swath width:
Continuous 2 x 500 km
Accuracy:Wind speeds in range 4–24 m/s:
2 m/s and direction accuracy of 20º

ASM
Absolute Scalar
Magnetometer

Swarm

Being
developed

Magnetic field

Absolute calibration of Vector
Field Magnetometer on board
Swarm satellites.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Terra

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

Surface and cloud imaging withhigh spatial resolution,
stereoscopic observation of local
topography, cloud heights,
volcanic plumes, and generationof local surface digital elevation
maps.
Surface temperature andemissivity.

Waveband:

VIS–NIR: 3 bands in 0.52–0.86 µm
SWIR: 6 bands in 1.6–2.43 µm
TIR: 5 bands in 8.125–11.65 µm
Spatial resolution: VNIR: 15 m, stereo: 15 m
horizontally and 25 m vertical
SWIR: 30 m
TIR: 90 m
Swath width:
60 km
Accuracy:
VNIR and SWIR: 4% (absolute)
TIR: 4 K
Geolocation: 7 m

RESOURCESAT-3 Proposed

TBD

Atmospheric correction.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

EarthCARE

Approved

LidarsDerivation of cloud and aerosol
properties – Measurement ofmolecular and particle
backscatter in Rayleigh, co-polarand cross-polar Mie channels.

Waveband:
Laser at 355 nm
Spatial resolution: 300 m horizontal (TBC)
Swath width:
Accuracy:

NPOESS-1,
NPOESS-3,
NPOESS-4,
NPP

Being
developed

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Collects microwave radiance datathat when combined with the
CrIS data will permit calculationof atmospheric temperature andwater vapour profiles.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

NOAA-15,
NOAA-16

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Advanced TIROS Operational
Vertical Sounder insturment
suite.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

ESA

ASAR (wave mode)
Advanced Synthetic
Aperture Radar
Wave mode)

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

ESA

CNES

ASTER
Advanced Spaceborne
Thermal Emission and
Reflection RadiometerNASA (METI (Japan))

ATCOR
Atmospheric correction
ISRO

ATLID
ATmospheric LIDar
ESA

ATMS
Advanced Technology
Microwave SounderNASA (NOAA)ATOVS (HIRS/3 +AMSU + AVHRR/3)
Advanced TIROS
Operational Vertical
Sounder

N/A
0.1 nT
N/A
0.1 nT

Microwave: 22 bands, 23–184 GHz
5.2º – 1.1º
2300 km
0.75–3.60 K

NOAA

211

A|B
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

ATSR/M

ERS-2

Operational

Imaging
Belongs to ATSR payload on
multi-spectral
board ERS1 and ERS2.
radiometers(passive microwave)

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

ERS-2

Operational

Imaging
Measurements of sea surface
multi-spectral
temperature, land surface
radiometers (vis/IR) temperature, cloud top& Multiple
temperature and cloud cover,direction/polarisation aerosols, vegetation,
radiometersatmospheric water vapour andliquid water content.

Waveband:Operational

Imaging
Measurements of land and seaåWaveband:
multi-spectral
surface temperature, cloud cover,radiometers (vis/IR) snow and ice cover, soil moistureand vegetation indices.
Data also used for volcanic
eruption monitoring.
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:

CNES

ATSR-2
Along Track ScanningRadiometer - 2
BNSC (CSIRO)AVHRR/3
MetOp-A,
Advanced Very HighMetOp-B,
Resolution Radiometer/3 MetOp-C,
NOAA-15,NOAA
NOAA-16,
NOAA-17,
NOAA-18,
NOAA-N'

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

VIS–SWIR: 0.65 µm, 0.85 µm,
1.27 µm, 1.6 µm
SWIR–TIR: 1.6 µm, 3.7 µm,
11 µm, 12 µm
Microwave: 23.8 GHz, 36.5 GHz(bandwidth of 400 MHz)
Spatial resolution: IR ocean channels: 1 km x 1 km
Microwave near-nadir viewing:
20 km instantaneous field of view
Swath width:
500 km
Accuracy:
Sea surface temperature to <0.5 K
over 0.5º x 0.5º (lat/long) areawith 80% cloud coverLand surface temperature: 0.1 K
VIS: 0.58–0.68 µm
NIR: 0.725–1.1 µm
SWIR: 1.58–1.64 µm
MWIR: 3.55–3.93 µm
TIR: 10.3–11.3 µm, 11.5–12.5 µm
1.1 km3000 km approx, Ensures fullglobal coverage twice daily

Accuracy:

AVNIR-2
Advanced Visible andNear Infrared
Radiometer type 2

ALOS

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

High resolution multi-spectral
imager for land applications
which include environmental
monitoring, agriculture andforestry, disaster monitoring.

VIS: 0.42–0.50 µm,
0.52–0.60 µm, 0.61–0.69 µm
NIR: 0.76–0.89 µm
Spatial resolution: 10 m
Swath width:
70 km
Accuracy:
Surface Resolution:10 m (Nadir)RESOURCESAT-1,
RESOURCESAT-2

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

Vegetation and crop monitoring,
resource assessment (regional
scale), forest mapping, land
cover/ land use mapping, andchange detection.

Waveband:

EarthCARE

Approved

Earth radiationbudgetradiometers

Top of the atmosphere radiances Waveband:
Shortwave channel: 0.2–4 µm
and radiative flux.
Total channel 0.2–50 µm
Spatial resolution: 10 x 10 km ground pixel sizefor each of the three views
Swath width:
Accuracy:
flux retrieval accuracy 10 W/m2

GRACE A,
GRACE B

Operational

Precision orbit

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

JAXA

AWiFS
Advanced Wide Field
SensorISROBBR (EarthCARE)
BroadBand Radiometer(EarthCARE)
ESABlackJack GPS (TRSR)
BlackJack Global
Positioning System(Turbo Rogue Space
Receiver)
NASA

212

Waveband:VIS: 0.52–0.59 µm, 0.62–0.68 µm
NIR: 0.77–0.86 µm
SWIR: 1.55–1.7 µm
Spatial resolution: 55 m
Swath width:
730 km
Accuracy:
10 bit data

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

B|C
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

BRLK
Synthetic Aperature
Radar

Meteor-M N1, Prototype
Meteor-M N2

Imaging microwave Microwave radar images for ice
radarswatch.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

DMSAR

Proposed

Imaging microwave Disaster management, mainly to
overcome problems of cloudradarsduring observation, most usefulfor flood and cyclone.

Waveband:C/X-bandSpatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Operational

Lidars

SAC-D

Being
developed

Space environment Studying space environment
effects.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Sentinel-1 A,
Sentinel-1 B,
Sentinel-1 C

Being
developed

Imaging microwave Marine core services, landmonitoring and emergency
radarsservices.
Monitoring sea ice zones andarctic environment.
Surveillance of marine
environment, monitoring land
surface motion risks, mapping ofland surfaces (forest, water andsoil, agriculture), mapping in
support of humanitarian aid incrisis situations.

Waveband:HJ-1A, HJ-1B

Being
developed

High resolution
optical imagers

Waveband:
0.43–0.90 µm (4 bands)
Spatial resolution: 30 m
Swath width:
360 km (per set)
720 km (two sets)
Accuracy:

INSAT-2E,
INSAT-3A

Operational

Imaging
Cloud and Vegetation monitoring. Waveband:
multi-spectral
radiometers (vis/IR)
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Roshydromet(Roscosmos)

C/X SARSARISROCALIOPCALIPSO
Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with
Orthogonal PolarizationNASA

CARMEN-1
CNES (CONAE)

C-band SAR
C-band Synthetic
Aperture RadarESA

CCD (HJ, HY)
CCD camera
CAST

CCD camera
Charged CoupledDevice Camera
ISRO

Technical characteristics

Two-wavelength, polarization
Waveband:lidar capable of providing aerosoland cloud profiles andSpatial resolution:
properties.
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Multi-spectral measurements ofEarth's surface for naturalenviroment and disaster
applications.

X-band400–700 m
600 km
1 dB

532 nm (polarization-sensitive),1064 nm, VIS – NIR
Vertical sampling: 30 m,
0–40 km
333 m along-track
5% (532 nm)

C-band: 5.405 GHz, HH, HV, VH,
VV, Incidence angle: 20–45º
Spatial resolution: Strip mode: 5 x 5 m
Interferometric wide swath mode:
5 x 20 m
extra-wide swath mode:
25 x 100 m (3 looks)
wave mode: 5 x 20 m
Swath width:
Strip mode: 80 km
Interferometric wide swath
mode: 250 km
extra-wide swath mode: 400 km
Wave mode: sampled images of
20 x 20 km at 100 km intervals
Accuracy:
NESZ: –22 dB; PTAR: –25 dB;
DTAR: –22 dB
Radiometric accuracy 1 dB
(3 sigma)
Radiometric stability: 0.5 dB(3 sigma)

VIS: 0.62–0.68 µm
NIR: 0.77–0.86 µm
SWIR: 1.55–1.69 µm
1 x 1 km
Normal:6000 km (N–S) x 6000 km (E–W)
anywhere on earth disc
Programme:
6000 km (N–S) x (n x 300) km(E–W) : n and number of frames
programmable

Accuracy:

213

C
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

CCD
High Resolution CCD
CameraCBERS-2,
CBERS-2B

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

Measurements of cloud type andextent and land surface
reflectance, and used for global
land surface applications.

Waveband:

Aqua,
NPP,
Terra,
TRMM

Operational

Earth radiationbudget radiometerLong term measurement of the
Earth's radiation budget andatmospheric radiation from the
top of the atmosphere to thesurface; provision of an accurate
and self-consistent cloud andradiation database.

Waveband:

3 channels: 0.3–5 µm,
0.3–100 µm,
8–12 µm, UV-FIR
Spatial resolution: 20 km
Swath width:
Accuracy:
0.5%, 1%, 1% (respectively forthe 3 channels)

CHAMP

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders& precision orbit

Temperature and water vapour
profiles.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

CHAMP

Operational

Gravity
instruments

Earth gravity field measurements. Waveband:
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

CHAMP Magnetometry CHAMP
Package(1 Scalar + 2 Vector
Magnetometer)
Overhauser
Magnetometer andFluxgate Magnetometer

Operational

Magnetic field

Earth gravity field measurements. Waveband:
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Operational

Imaging
Supports a range of land, ocean
multi-spectral
and atmospheric applications,radiometers (vis/IR) including agricultural science,
forestry, environmental science,
atmospheric science andoceanography.

Waveband:Being
developed

Imaging
Collects microwave radiometry
multi-spectral
and sounding data.
radiometers
Data types include atmospheric(passive microwave) temperature and moisture& Atmosphericprofiles, clouds, sea surface
temperature andwinds, and all-weather
humidity sounders land/water surfaces.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

CAST (INPE)

CERES
Cloud and the Earth's
Radiant Energy System
NASA

CHAMP GPS Sounder
GPS TurboRogue Space
Receiver (TRSR)
NASA (DLR)

CHAMP Gravity Package(Accelerometer+GPS)
STAR Accelerometer
CNES (DLR)

VIS: 0.45–0.52 µm,
0.52–0.59 µm,
0.63–0.69 µm
NIR: 0.77–0.89 µm
PAN: 0.51–0.71 µm
Spatial resolution: 20 m
Swath width:
113 km
Accuracy:

DLR

CHRIS
PROBA
Compact High Resolution
Imaging Spectrometer
ESA (BNSC)

CMIS
Conical-scanning
Microwave
Imager/Sounder
NOAA

214

NPOESS-1,
NPOESS-3,
NPOESS-4

VIS – NIR: 400–1050 nm(63 spectral bands at a spatial
resolution of 36 m; or 18 bands
at full spatial resolution (18 m))
Spatial resolution: 36 m or 18 m depending on
wavebands selected
Swath width:
14 km
Accuracy:
S/N 200 at target albedo of
0.2. 12 bits digitisation

Microwave: 190 GHz
15–50 km depending on frequency
1700 km
Temperature Profiles to 1.6 K
water vapour 20%

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

C|D
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

COCTS
China Ocean Colour &Temperature Scanner

HY-1B,
HY-1C,
HY-1D

Operational

Ocean colour
instruments

Ocean chlorophyll, ocean yellow
substance absorbance, Sea-ice
surface temperature.

B1: 0.402–0.422 µm
B2: 0.433–0.453 µm
B3: 0.480–0.500 µm
B4: 0.510–0.530 µm
B5: 0.555–0.575 µm
B6: 0.660–0.680 µm
B7: 0.740–0.760 µm
B8: 0.845–0.885 µm
B9: 10.30–11.40 µm
B10: 11.40–12.50 µm
Spatial resolution: 1.1 km
Swath width:3083 km
Accuracy:

CloudSat

Operational

Cloud profile andrain radars

Primary goal is to provided dataneeded to evaluate and improve
the way clouds are represented
in global climate models.
Measures vertical profile ofclouds.

Waveband:Microwave: 94 GHz
Spatial resolution: Vertical: 500 m
Cross-track: 1.4 km
Along-track: 2.5 km
Swath width:
Instantaneous Footprint < 2 km
Accuracy:
Cloud liquid water content <=50%
ice water content within +100%, –50%
detect all single layer clouds with
optical depth >=1.0

EarthCARE

Approved

Cloud profile andrain radars

Measurement of cloudproperties, light precipitation,
vertical motion.

Waveband:Microwave: 94 GHz
Spatial resolution: 500 m horizontal
Swath width:
Accuracy:

NPOESS-1,
NPOESS-3,
NPOESS-4,
NPP

Prototype

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Daily measurements of verticalatmospheric distribution oftemperature, moisture, andpressure.

Waveband:Ørsted(Oersted)

Operational

TBD

Measurements of the strengthand direction of the Earth's
magnetic field.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

HY-1B,
HY-1C,
HY-1D

Operational

Imaging
Imagery of coastal regions –multi-spectral
estuaries, tidal regions, etc.
radiometers (vis/IR)

Waveband:

SCD-1,DCP (SCD)
Data Collecting Platform SCD-2
Transponder

Operational

Data collection

Data collection andcommunication.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Operational

Data collection

Data collection andcommunication.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:CAST

CPR (Cloudsat)
Cloud Profiling RadarNASA

CPR (EarthCARE)
Cloud Profiling Radar
(EarthCARE)JAXA (NICT)

CrIS
Cross-track InfraredSounder
NOAA (NASA)

CSC FVM
CSC fluxgate vector
magnetometer
DNSC

CZI
Coast region imager
CAST

INPE (CAST)DCS (CAST)
Data Collecting System
Transponder (CAST)CASTCBERS-2,
CBERS-2B,
CBERS-3

Waveband:

MWIR–TIR: 3.92–4.4 µm,
5.7–8.62 µm, 9.1–14.7 µm,
1300 spectral channels
Spatial resolution: IFOV 14 km diameter,
1 km vertical layer resolution
Swath width:
2200 km
Accuracy:
Temperature profiles: to 0.9 K
Moisture profiles: 20–35%
Pressure profiles: 1%

B1: 0.433–0.453 m
B2: 0.555–0.575 m
B3: 0.655–0.675 m
B4: 0.675–0.695 m
Spatial resolution: 250 m
Swath width:
500 km
Accuracy:215

D
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

DCS (GOES-R)
Data Collection System(NOAA, GOES-R)

GOES-13,GOES-O,GOES-P,
GOES-R,
GOES-S

Approved

Data collection

Collects data on temperature(air/water), atmosphericpressure, humidity and windspeed/direction, speed anddirection of ocean and rivercurrents.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

GOES-11,
GOES-12

Operational

Data collection

Collects data on temperature(air/water), atmosphericpressure, humidity and windspeed/direction, speed anddirection of ocean and rivercurrents.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Elektro-L N1, Operational
Elektro-L N2,
Elektro-L N3,
Meteor-M N1,
Meteor-M N2

Data collection

Collects data on temperature(air/water), atmosphericpressure, humidity and windspeed/direction, speed anddirection of ocean and rivercurrents.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SAC-C

Operational

Communications

DCS is able to receive data from
200 meteorological andenvironmental stations for
re-transmission of all the data to
Cordoba Ground Station.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SAC-D

Being
developed

Communications

UHF 401.55 MHz uplink.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

GPM-BrApproved

Data collection

Support to Data Collection
Platforms.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

MAPSAR

Approved

Data collection

Support to Data Collection
Platforms.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

UK-DMCOperational

High resolution
optical imagers

Visible and NIR imagery in
Waveband:VIS and NIR
support of disaster management. Spatial resolution: 32 m
Swath width:
2 beams of 300 km
Accuracy:

UK-DMC2Approved

High resolution
optical imagers

Visible and NIR imagery insupport of disaster management– part of the Disaster
Management Constellation.

VIS: 0.52–0.62 µm, 0.36–0.96 µm
NIR: 0.76–0.9 µm
Spatial resolution: 22 m
Swath width:
660 km imaging swath
Accuracy:

Operational

Precision orbit

Orbit determination.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:
Orbit error ~2.5 cm

NOAA

DCS (NOAA)
Data Collection System(NOAA)NOAA

DCS (Roshydromet)
Data Collection System
Roshydromet(Roscosmos)

DCS (SAC-C)
Data Collection System
CONAE

DCS (SAC-D)
Data Collection System
CONAE

DCS
Data Collection System
INPE

DCS
Data Collection System
INPE (DLR)DMC Imager
Disaster Management
Constellation Imager
BNSC

DMC-2 Imager
Disaster Management
Constellation Imager
BNSC

DORIS (SPOT)
SPOT-2,
Doppler Orbitography and SPOT-4,
Radio-positioning
Integrated by Satellite(on SPOT)
CNES

216

Waveband:9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

D|E
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

Operational

Precision orbit

Precise orbit determination Real
time onboard orbit
determination (navigation).

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Orbit error ~1 cm
Accuracy:

Operational

Precision orbit

Precise orbit determination Real
time onboard orbit
determination (navigation).

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:
Orbit error ~1 cm

GPM Core

Beingdeveloped

Cloud profile andrain radars

Measures precipitation rateclassified by rain and snow, inlatitudes up to 65º.

Waveband:

INSAT-3A,
Kalpana

Operational

Communications

Relay of search and rescue
information.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

DORIS-NG (SPOT)
SPOT-5
Doppler Orbitography andRadio-positioning
Integrated bySatellite-NG (on SPOT)CNES

DORIS-NG
CryoSat-2,
Doppler Orbitography and Envisat,
Jason-1,
Radio-positioning
Jason-2
Integrated by(aka OSTM)
Satellite-NG
CNES

DPR
Dual-frequency
Precipitation Radar
JAXA (NASA)

DRT-S&R
ISRO

ECHO-V

Kanopus-Vulkan TBDSpace environment

Waveband:
Ee 3–3 MeV, Ee 30–100 MeV
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Roscosmos

EFI
Swarm
Electric Field Instrument

Microwave:
3.6 GHz (Ku-band)
35.5 GHz (Ka-band)
Spatial resolution: Range resolution: 4–5 km
Horizontal
Swath width:
245 km (Ku-band)
100 km (Ka-band)
rainfall rate 0.2 mm/h
Accuracy:

Beingdeveloped

Gravity and spaceenvironment

Suprathermal ion imager andLangmuir probe to measure ion
temp, electron temp, ion density,
electron density, spacecraft
potential and ion incident angle.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

GOCE

Being
developed

Gravity andprecision orbit

The main objective of EGG is tomeasure the 3 components ofthe gravity-gradient tensor(i.e. gradiometer data).

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

EnvisatEnvisat Comms
Communications package
on Envisat

Operational

Communications

Communication package onboard Waveband:Envisat series satellites.
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

FY-3A,
FY-3B

Operational

Earth radiationbudgetradiometers

Measures Earth radiation gains
Waveband:and losses on regional, zonal and Spatial resolution:
global scales.
Swath width:
Accuracy:

ERS-2

Operational

Communications

Communication package onboard Waveband:
ERS series satellites.
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

ESA (CSA)

EGG
3-Axis Electrostatic
Gravity Gradiometer
ESA

ESA

ERM
Earth Radiation
MeasurementNRSCC

ERS Comms
Communication package
for ERSESA

N/A
0.3 mV/m
N/A<3 mV/m

0.2–3.8 µm, 0.2–50 µm
25 km
2200 km
DLR/DSR 10 W/m2
net solar 3 W/m2 OLR 5 W/m2

217

E
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

ETM+
Enhanced Thematic
Mapper Plus

Landsat-7

Operational

Imaging
Measures surface radiance andmulti-spectral
emittance, land cover state andradiometers (vis/IR) change (eg vegetation type).
Used as multi-purpose imagery
for land applications.

VIS–TIR:
8 channels: 0.45–12.5 µm
Panchromatic channel:
VIS 0.5–0.9 µm
Spatial resolution: Pan: 15 m
Vis–SWIR: 30 m
TIR: 60 m
Swath width:
185 km
Accuracy:
50–250 m systematicallycorrected geodetic accuracy

EXIS
GOES-R,
Extreme Ultraviolet and GOES-S
X-ray Irradiance Sensors

Prototype

Other

Waveband:Spatial resolution: N/A
Swath width:
Accuracy:

MTG-I1,
MTG-I2,
MTG-I3,MTG-I4

Prototype

Imaging
Measurements of cloud cover,multi-spectral
cloud top height, precipitation,
radiometers (vis/IR) cloud motion, vegetation,
radiation fluxes, convection, airmass analysis, cirrus cloud
discrimination, tropopausemonitoring, stability monitoring,
total ozone and sea surface
temparature.

VIS: 0.56–0.71 µm, 0.5–0.9 µm(broadband)
NIR: 0.74–0.88 µm
SWIR 1.5–1.78 µm
SWIR: 3.48–4.36 µm
TIR: 5.35–7.15 µm, 6.85–7.85 µm,
8.3–9.1 µm, 9.38–9.94 µm,
9.8–11.8 µm, 11–13 µm,
12.4–14.46 µm
Spatial resolution: 1 km (at SSP) for one
broadband visible channel HRV
5 km (at SSP) for all other channels
Swath width:
Full Earth discAccuracy:
Cloud cover: 10%
Cloud top height: 1 km
Cloud top temparature: 1 K
Cloud type: 8 classes
Surface temparature: 0.7–2.0 K
Specific humidity profile: 10%
Wind profile (horizontal
component): 2–10 m/s
Long wave Earth surface
radiation: 5 W/m2

Jason-3,
Jason-CS

Proposed

Radar altimeters

Nadir viewing sounding radar forprovision of real-time highprecision sea surface
topography, ocean circulation
and wave height data.

Waveband:Microwave
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Resurs DK 1

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

Multi-spectral images of land
surfaces.

Waveband:

Meteosat-10,
Meteosat-11,
Meteosat-8,
Meteosat-9

Operational

Earth radiationbudget radiometer

Measures long and short wave
radiation emitted and reflectedfrom the Earth's surface, clouds
and top of atmosphere.
Full Earth disc, all channels
in 5 mins.

Waveband:

USGS

NOAA

FCI
Flexible Combined
Imager
EUMETSAT (ESA)FJP
Future Jason Payload
CNES

Geoton-L1
Roscosmos(Roshydromet)

GERB
Geostationary Earth
Radiation Budget
EUMETSAT (ESA)218

Measurements &applications

Monitors the whole-Sun X-ray
irradiance in two bands and thewhole-Sun EUV irradiance in fivebands.

Technical characteristics

Waveband:Waveband:

0.58–0.8 µm, 0.5–0.6 µm,
0.6–0.7 µm, 0.7–0.8 µm
Spatial resolution: 1–3 m
Swath width:
30 km within swath band
400 km
Accuracy:
UV–MWIR: 0.32–4.0 µm
UV–FIR: 0.32–30 µm
Spatial resolution: 44.6 km x 39.3 km
Swath width:
Full Earth discAccuracy:
Emitted radiation: 0.12–1.3 W/m2
Reflectance: 1%

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

E|G
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

GGAK-E
Module for GeophysicalMeasurements

Elektro-L N1,
Elektro-L N2,
Elektro-L N3

PrototypeSpace environment Monitoring and forecasting ofand magnetic field solar activity, of radiation andmagnetic field in the near-Earthspace, monitoring of natural andmodified magnetosophere,
ionosphere and upper
atmosphere.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Meteor-M N1

PrototypeSpace environment Space Environmental Monitoringand magnetic field (SEM).

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy

Kanopus-Vulkan TBD

Magnetic field andspace environment

Waveband:1200 MHz, 1600 MHz
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

ICESat-II

Proposed

LidarsProvision of data on ice sheetheight/thickness, land altitude,
aerosol height distributions,cloud height and boundary layerheight.

Waveband:ICESatOperational

LidarsProvision of data on ice sheetheight/thickness, land altitude,
aerosol height distributions,cloud height and boundary layerheight.

Waveband:GOES-R,
GOES-S

Being
developed

Lightning imager

Detect total lightning flash rateover near full disc.

Waveband:Spatial resolution: 10 km
Swath width:
Accuracy:70%

GPM-Br

Proposed

Imaging
Precipitation estimation.
multi-spectral
radiometers(passive microwave)

Roshydromet(Roscosmos)

GGAK-M
Module for GeophysicalMeasurements (SEM)

Measurements &applications

Roshydromet(Roscosmos)

GID-12T
Roscosmos

GLAS Follow-on
Geoscience Laser
Altimeter System(Follow-on)
NASA

GLAS
Geoscience Laser
Altimeter System
NASA

GLM
GEO Lightning Mapper
NOAA

GMI
GPM Microwave Imager
INPE

Technical characteristics

VIS–NIR: Laser emits at 1064 nm(for altimetry) and 532 nm(for atmospheric measurements)
Spatial resolution: 66 m spots separated by 170 m
Swath width:
Accuracy:
Aerosol profile: 20%
Ice elevation: 20 cm
Cloud top height: 75 m
Land elevation: 20 cm
geoid: 5 m

VIS–NIR: Laser emits at 1064 nm(for altimetry) and 532 nm(for atmospheric measurements)
Spatial resolution: 66 m spots separated by 170 m
Swath width:
Accuracy:
Aerosol profile: 20%
Ice elevation: 20 cm
Cloud top height: 75 m
Land elevation: 20 cm
geoid: 5 m

Waveband:

10.65 GHz, 18.7 GHz, 23.8 GHz,
36.5 GHz, 89 GHz, 165.5 GHz,
183.31 GHz
Spatial resolution: 26 / 15 / 12 / 11 / 6 / 6 / 6 km
Swath width:
904 km
Accuracy:219

G
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

GMI
GPM Microwave Imager

GPM
Constellation,
GPM Core

Beingdeveloped

Imaging
Measures rainfall rates overmulti-spectral
oceans and land, combined
radiometers
rainfall structure and surface(passive microwave) rainfall rates with associatedlatent heating.
Used to produce three hour,
daily, and monthly total rainfall
maps over oceans and land.

Microwave: 10.65 GHz, 19.4 GHz,
21.3 GHz, 37 GHz and 85.5 GHz
Spatial resolution: Horizontal: 36 km cross-trackat 10.65 GHz (required – PrimarySpacecraft, goal – Constellation
Spacecraft)
10 km along-track andcross-track (goal – PrimarySpacecraft)
Swath width:
800 km (Primary Spacecraft)
1300 km (Constellation
Spacecraft)
Accuracy:
NEDT 0.5 K–1.0 K

COMS-1,COMS-2

Operational

Ocean colour
instruments

Waveband:

GOES Comms
GOES-11,
Communications package GOES-12,
on GOESGOES-13,GOES-O,NOAA
GOES-P

Operational

Communications

GOLPE
GPS Occultation andPassive reflection
Experiment

SAC-C

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders
and precision orbit

Measurements of atmosphericeffects on GPS signals, andprecise positioning information
to assist gravitational
measurements.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy

GOME
ERS-2
Global Ozone Monitoring
ExperimentOperational

Atmosphericchemistry

Measures concentration of O3,
NO, NO2, BrO, H2O, O2/O4, plus
aerosols and polar stratosphericclouds, and other gases in
special conditions.

Waveband:

UV–NIR: 0.24–0.79 µm(resolution 0.2–0.4 nm)
Spatial resolution: Vertical: 5 km (for O3)
Horizontal: 40 x 40 km
to 40 x 320 km
Swath width:
120–960 km
Accuracy:

Operational

Atmosphericchemistry

Measurement of total column
amounts and stratospheric andtropospheric profiles of ozone.
Also amounts of H20, NO2, OClO,
BrO, SO2 and HCHO.

Waveband:

UV–NIR: 0.24–0.79 µm(resolution 0.2–0.4 nm)
Spatial resolution: Horizontal: 40 x 40 km(960 km swath) to 40 x 5 km
(for polarization monitoring)
Swath width:
120–960 km
Accuracy:
Cloud top height: 1 km (rms)
Outgoing short wave radiationand solar irradiance: 5 W/m2
Trace gas profile: 10–20%
Specific humidity profile:
10–50 g/kg

Operational

Atmosphericchemistry

Stratospheric profiles of
temparature and of ozone, NO2,
H20, aerosols and other trace
species.

Waveband:

NASA

GOCI
Geostationary Ocean
Colour Imager

Measurements &applications

Ocean colour information,
coastal zone monitoring,land resources monitoring.

KARI (NIES (Japan))NASA (CONAE)

ESA

GOME-2
MetOp-A,
Global Ozone Monitoring MetOp-B,
Experiment - 2
MetOp-C
EUMETSAT (ESA)

Envisat
GOMOS
Global Ozone Monitoring
by Occultation of Stars
ESA

220

Technical characteristics

Waveband:

VIS – NIR: 0.40–0.88 µm(8 channels)
Spatial resolution: 236 m x 360 m
Swath width:
1440 km
Accuracy:
Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Spectrometers:
UV–Vis: 248–371 nm, 387–693 nm
NIR: 750–776 nm, 915–956 nm
Photometers:
644–705 nm & 466–528 nm
Spatial resolution: 1.7 km vertical
Swath width:
Not applicable
Accuracy:9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

G|H
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

GOX
Global Positioning
Satellite Occultation
Experiment (GOX)COSMIC-1/
FORMOSAT-3
FM1,
COSMIC-2/
FORMOSAT-3
FM2,
COSMIC-3/
FORMOSAT-3
FM3,
COSMIC-4/
FORMOSAT-3
FM4,
COSMIC-5/
FORM
COSMIC-6/
FORMOSAT-3
FM6

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Each instrument equipped with 4
GPS antennas to receive the L1
and L2 radio wave signals
transmitted from the 24 US GPS
satellites.
Based on the signal transmission
delay caused by the electric
density, temperature, pressure,and water content in theionosphere and atmosphere,
information about ionosphereand atmosphere can be derived.

Waveband:
L1/L2
Spatial resolution: Vertical: 0.3–1.5 m
Horizontal: 300–600 km
Swath width:
Accuracy:

GOCE

Being
developed

Precision orbit

Satellite positioning.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

GPS Receiver (Swarm) Swarm
GPSR (Swarm)

Being
developed

Precision orbit

MeghaTropiques

Beingdeveloped

Precision orbit

Enables measurement of water
vapour and temperature profiles
in the tropics.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Jason-2(aka OSTM)

Operational

Precision orbit

Precision orbit determination.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

MetOp-A,
MetOp-B,
MetOp-C

Operational

Atmospheric
GNSS receiver for atmospherictemperature,temperature and humidty profile
humidity sounders sounding.
and precision orbit

Waveband:Spatial resolution: Vertical:
150 m (trophosphere)
1.5 km (stratosphere)
Horizontal:
100 km approx (troposphere)
300 km approx (stratosphere)
Swath width:
Altitude range of 5–30 km
Accuracy:
Temperature sounding to 1 K rms

GRACE A,
GRACE B

Operational

Gravity
instruments

Waveband:GHz
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

NASA, NSPO (JPL)

GPS (ESA)GPS Receiver
ESA

Waveband:Spatial resolution: L1 C/A code range
error better than 0.5 m RMS;
L1/L2 P-code range
error better than 0.25 m RMS;
L1 carrier phaseerror better than 5 mmSwath width:
Accuracy:

ESA

GPS ROSGPS Radio Occultation
SensorISRO

GPSP
Global Positioning
System Payload
NASA

GRAS
GNSS Receiver for
Atmospheric Sounding
EUMETSAT (ESA)HAIRS (aka KBR)
High Accuracy
Inter-satellite Ranging
System (aka K-band
Ranging System)

Inter-satellilte ranging systemestimestes for global models of
the mean and time variable Earthgravity field.

Microwave: 24 GHz and 32
400 km horizontal, N/A vertical
N/A
1 cm equivalent waterNASA (DLR)

221

H
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

High Resolution
Panchromatic Camera

SARE-1TBD

High resolution
optical imagers

Operational

Atmosphericchemistry

Measures atmospherictemperature, concentrations ofozone, water vapour, methane,
NOx, N2O, CFCs and other minor
species, aerosol concentration,
location of polar stratosphericclouds and cloud tops.

TIR: 6.12–17.76 µm(21 channels)
Spatial resolution: Vertical: 1 km
Horizontal: 10 km
Swath width:
Accuracy:
Trace gas: 10%
Temparature: 1K
Ozone: 10%

Pleiades 1,
Pleiades 2

Being
developed

High resolution
optical imagers

Cartography, land use, risk,
agriculture and forestry, civil
planning and mapping, digitalterrain models, defence.

Waveband:4 bands + PAN:
Near IR (0.77–0.91 µm)
Red (0.61–0.71 µm)
Green (0.50–0.60 µm)
Blue (0.44–0.54 µm)
Pan (0.47–0.84 µm)
Spatial resolution: 0.70 m
Swath width:
20 km swath at nadir
Agile platform giving ±50º
off-track
Accuracy:

NOAA-15,
NOAA-16,
NOAA-17

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Provides atmospherictemperature profiles and data on
cloud parameters, humidity
soundings, water vapour, totalozone content, and surface
temperatures.

Waveband:

MetOp-A,
MetOp-B,
MetOp-C,NOAA-18,
NOAA-N'

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Atmospheric temperature
profiles and data on cloudparameters, humidity soundings,
water vapour, total ozone
content, and surface
temperatures.
Same as HIRS/3, with 10 km
IFOV.

Waveband:

SPOT-5

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

High resolution multi-spectral
mapper.
2 HRG instruments on thismission can be processed to
produce simulated imagery of
2.5 m.
Images are 60 km x 60 km in
size.

Waveband:Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:CONAE

HiRDLS
Aura
High Resolution Dynamics
Limb SounderNASA (BNSC)

HiRIHigh Resolution Imager
CNES

HIRS/3High Resolution
Infrared Sounder/3
NOAA

HIRS/4High Resolution
Infrared Sounder/4
NOAA

HRG
CNES

222

Technical characteristics

Waveband:

VIS–TIR: 0.69–14.95 µm(20 channels)
Spatial resolution: 20.3 km
Swath width:
2240 km
Accuracy:

VIS – TIR: 0.69–14.95 µm(20 channels)
Spatial resolution: 20.3 km
Swath width:
2240 km
Accuracy:

VIS: B1: 0.50–0.59 µm
B2: 0.61–0.68 µm
NIR: B3: 0.79–0.89 µm
SWIR: 1.50–1.75 µm
Panchromatic: 0.49–0.69 µm
Spatial resolution: Panchromatic: 2, 5 m
Multi-spectral: 10 m
Swath width:
60 km (1 instrument)
117 km (2 instruments)
Same as SPOT 4 with off-tracksteering capability (±27º)
Accuracy:9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

H
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

HRMS
High Resolution
Multi-spectral Scanner

SAC-F

TBD

High resolution
optical imagers

High resolution multi-spectral
mapper.
2 HRG instruments on thismission can be processed to
produce simulated imagery of
2.5 m.
Images are 60 x 60 km in size.

Waveband:

GISAT

Proposed

ImagingNatural resources management
multi-spectral
purpose.
radiometers (vis/IR)

GISAT

Proposed

ImagingNatural resources management
Waveband:multi-spectral
and disaster monitoring purpose.
radiometers (vis/IR)

SPOT-5

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

High resolution stereo
instrument.

Waveband:
Panchromatic: VIS 0.49–0.69 µm
Spatial resolution: Panchromatic: 10 m
Altitude: 15 m
Swath width:
120 km
Accuracy:

SAC-C

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

High resolution eath imagery tocomplement MMRS on the same
mission.

Waveband:
VIS–NIR: 400–900 nm
Spatial resolution: 35 m
Swath width:
90 km
Accuracy:

SPOT-2

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

2 HRV instruments on thismission provide 60 km x 60 km
images for a range of land andcoastal applications.

Waveband:VIS:
B1: 0.5–0.59 µm
B2: 0.61–0.68 µm
NIR: B3:0.79–0.89 µm
Panchromatic: VIS 0.51–0.73 µm
Spatial resolution: 10 m (panchromatic) or 20 m
Swath width:
117 km (i.e. 60 km + 60 km with
3 km overlap)
Steerable up to ±27º off-track
Accuracy:

SPOT-4

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

2 HRVIR instruments on thismission provide 60 km x 60 km
images for a range of land andcoastal applications.

Waveband:CONAE

HRMX-TIR
High Resolution
Multi-Spectral TIR
ISROHRMX-VNIRHigh Resolution
Multi-Spectral VNIR

CNES

HRTC
High Resolution
Panchromatic Camera
CONAE

HRV
High Resolution Visible
CNES

HRVIR
High Resolution Visible
and Infrared
CNES (SNSB)

Waveband:3 bands:
Band 1: 8.2–9.2 µm
Band 2: 10.3–11.3 µm
Band 3: 11.5–12.5 µm
Spatial resolution: 1.5 km
Swath width:
Accuracy:
4 bands:
Band 1: 0.45–0.52 µm
Band 2: 0.52–0.59 µm
Band 3: 0.62–0.68 µm
Band 4: 0.77–0.86 µm
Spatial resolution: 50 m
Swath width:
Accuracy:

ISRO

HRS
High Resolution
Stereoscopy

VIS: B1: 0.50–0.59 µm
B2: 0.61–0.68 µm
NIR: B3: 0.79–0.89 µm
SWIR: 1.50–1.75 µm
Panchromatic: 0.49–0.69 µm
Spatial resolution: Panchromatic: 5 m
Multi-spectral: 10 m
60 km (1 instrument)
Swath width:
117 km (2 instruments)
Same as SPOT 4 with off-tracksteering capability (±27º)
Accuracy:

VIS:
B1: 0.50–0.59 µm
B2: 0.61–0.68 µm
NIR: 0.79–0.89 µm
SWIR: 1.58–1.75 µm
Panchromatic: (B2) 0.61–0.68 µm
Spatial resolution: 10 m (0.64 µm) or 20 m
Swath width:
117 km (i.e. 60 km + 60 km with
3 km overlap)
Steerable up to ±27º off-track
Accuracy:223

H
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Humidity soundings forclimatological and atmospheric
dynamics applications.

Waveband:Microwave: 5 discreet channels
in the range of 150–183 MHz
Spatial resolution: 13.5 km
Swath width:
1650 km
Accuracy:
Temperature: 1.0–1.2 K coverageof land and ocean surfaces
Humidity: 20%

SAC-D

Being
developed

Lightning imager

High Sensitivity Camera (HSC)
measures top of atmosphereradiance in the VIS & NIR
spectral range measured by ahigh sensitivity sensor detects:
urban lights, electric storms,
polar regions, snow cover, forest
fires.

Waveband:PAN (VIR–NIR): 450–900 nm
Spatial resolution: 200–300 m
Swath width:
Min 700 km
Accuracy:

HJ-1A

Being
developed

Imaging
Hyperspectral measurements for
multi-spectral
environment and disasterradiometers (vis/IR) management operations.

Waveband:
0.45–0.95 µm
Spatial resolution: 100 m
Swath width:
50 km
Accuracy:

EnMAP

Approved

Imaging
Detailed monitoring andmulti-spectral
characterization of rock and soilradiometers (vis/IR) targets, vegitation, inland andcoastal waters on a global scale.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SAC-F

TBD

Imaging
Detect urban lights, electric
multi-spectral
storms, polar regions, snow
radiometers (vis/IR) cover, forest fires.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SAC-F

TBD

Imaging
multi-spectral
radiometers (vis/IR)

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SAC-C

Operational

Lightning imager

PRISMA

Approved

Imaging
Pancromatic and Hyperspectral
multi-spectral
data for complex land ecosystemradiometers (vis/IR) studies.

VIS–NIR:
400–900 nm, 400–1000 nm
SWIR: 900–2500 nm
Spectral resolution 10 nm for
220 bands
Spatial resolution: 30 m
Swath width:
30 km
Accuracy:
5%

NMP EO-1

Operational

Imaging
Hyperspectral imaging of land
multi-spectral
surfaces.
radiometers (vis/IR)

Waveband:

HSB
Aqua
Humidity Sounder/Brazil
INPE (NASA)

HSC
High Sensitivity Camera
CONAE

HSI (HJ-1A)
Hyper Spectrum Imager
CAST

HSI
Hyperspectral Imager
DLR

HSMS
High Swath
Multi-spectral Scanner
CONAE

HSS
Hyper-spectral Scanner
CONAE

HSTC
High Sensitivity
Technological Camera

Monitors forest fires, electricalstorms and geophysical studiesof aurora borealis.

CONAE

HYC
HYperspectral Camera
ASI

Hyperion
Hyperspectral Imager
NASA

224

420–2150 nm
GSD 30 m
30 km
30 m (1 Pixel)

Waveband:
PAN: VIS – NIR: 450–850 nm
Spatial resolution: 300 m
Swath width:
700 km
Accuracy:

Waveband:

VIS–NIR: 400–1000 nm
NIR–SWIR: 900–2500 nm
Spectral resolution 10 nm for
220 bands
Spatial resolution: 30 m
Swath width:
7.5 km
Accuracy:
SNR at 10% refl target:
VIS: 10–40
SWIR: 10–20

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

H|I
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

HySI (IMS-1)
Hyperspectral Imager(IMS-1)

IMS-1

Operational

Imaging
Ocean and atmosphere study ofmulti-spectral
Earth surface.
radiometers (vis/IR)

64 bands of 8 nm seperation
between 400–950 nm spectral
range
Spatial resolution: 505.6 m
Swath width:125.5 kmAccuracy:

TES-HYS

Being
developed

Imaging
Ocean and atmosphere study ofmulti-spectral
Earth surface.
radiometers (vis/IR)

Waveband:200 channels of 5 nanometer width
Spatial resolution: 15 m
Swath width:
30 km
Accuracy:

GISAT

Proposed

ImagingNatural resources management
multi-spectral
purpose.
radiometers (vis/IR)

Waveband:

GISAT

Proposed

ImagingNatural resources management
multi-spectral
purpose.
radiometers (vis/IR)

Waveband:

DEMETER

Operational

Space environment Density, temperatures, speeds of Waveband:
major ions.
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:
Ion density: +5%
Temperature: +5%
Speed: +5%

IASI
MetOp-A,
Infrared Atmospheric
MetOp-B,
Sounding Interferometer MetOp-C

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders
and atmosphericchemistry

SAC-C,
SAC-D

Operational

Space environment Improvement of risk estimation
models on latest generation of
integrated circuits technology.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

DEMETER

Operational

Space environment Electric field.

Waveband:DC to 3 MHz
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:
DC field +3 mV/mDEMETER

Operational

Space environment Energy spectrum of electrons.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:ISROHySI (TES-HYS)
Hyperspectral Imager(TES-HYS)ISROHyS-SWIR
Hyperspectral SWIRISROHyS-VNIR
Hyperspectral VNIR
ISRO

IAP
Instrument for plasma
analysis
CNES

CNES (EUMETSAT)ICARE
Influence of Space
Radiation on Advanced
Components

Measures tropospheric moistureand temperature, column
integrated contents of ozone,
carbon monoxide, methane,
dinitrogen oxide and other minor
gases which affect troposphericchemistry.
Also measures sea surface andland temperature.

Technical characteristics

Waveband:150 bands
in range 1.0 µm to 2.5 µm
Spatial resolution: 192 m at nadir
Swath width:
Accuracy:

60 bands
in range 0.4 µm to 0.87 µm
Spatial resolution: 320 m at nadir
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Waveband:

MWIR–TIR: 3.4–15.5 µm
with gaps at 5 µm and 9 µm
Spatial resolution: Vertical: 1–30 km
Horizontal: 25 km
Swath width:2052 km
Accuracy:
Temperature: 0.5–2 K
Specific humidity: 0.1–0.3 g/kg
Ozone, trace gas profile: 10%

CNES (CONAE)

ICE
Instrument for Electric
Field
CNES

IDP
Instrument For Plasma
Detection
CNES

225

I
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

IIR
Imaging infrared
radiometer

CALIPSO

Operational

Imaging
Radiometer optimized for
multi-spectral
combined IIR/lidar retrievals ofradiometers (vis/IR) cirrus particle size.

Waveband:

Meteor-M N2

Prototype

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Waveband:

INSAT-3D

Being
developed

Imaging
Cloud cover, severe storm
multi-spectral
warnings/monitoring day andradiometers (vis/IR) night (type, amount, storm
features), atmospheric radiancewinds, atmospheric stability
rainfall.

VIS: 0.55–0.75 µm
SWIR: 1.55–1.7 µm
MWIR: 3.80–4.00 µm, 6.50–7.00 µm
TIR: 10.2–11.3 µm, 11.5–12.5 µm
Spatial resolution: 1 x 1 km (VIS and SWIR)
4 x 4 km (MWIR, TIR)
8 x 8 km (in 6.50–7.00 µm)
Swath width:
Full Earth disc and space around,
Normal Frame (50º N to 40º S
and full E–W coverage)
Program Frame (Programmable,
E–W Full coverage)
Accuracy:

GOES-11,
GOES-12,GOES-13,GOES-O,GOES-P

Operational

Measures cloud cover,Imaging
multi-spectral
atmospheric radiance, winds,
radiometers (vis/IR) atmospheric stability, rainfall
estimates.
Used to provide severe storm
warnings/ monitoring day andnight (type, amount, storm
features).

Waveband:

MTSAT-2

Operational

Imaging
Measures cloud cover, cloudWaveband:multi-spectral
motion, cloud height, waterradiometers (vis/IR) vapour, rainfall, sea surface
temparature and Earth radiation.
Spatial resolution:

CNES

IKFS-2
Fourier spectrometer
Roshydromet(Roscosmos)

Imager (INSAT)
Very High Resolution
Radiometer
ISRO

ImagerNOAA

IMAGER/MTSAT-2
Imager/MTSAT
JMA

Atmospherictemperature/humidity profiles,
data on cloud parameters, water
vapour and ozone column
amounts, water and surface
temperatures.

Technical characteristics

TIR: 8.7 µm, 10.5 µm, 12.0 µm(08.µm resolution)
Spatial resolution: 1 km
Swath width:
64 km
Accuracy:
1K

5–15 µm
more then 2000 spectral channels
Spatial resolution: 35 km
Swath width:
1000/2000 km
Accuracy:
0.5 K

Waveband:

GOES 8–12
N, O, P: VIS: 1 channel(8 detectors)
IR: 4 channels: 3.9 µm, 6.7 µm,
10.7 µm, 12 µm
GOES 12–Q: VIS: 1 channel(8 detectors)
IR: 4 channels: 3.9 µm, 6.7 µm,
10.7 µm, 13.3 µm
Spatial resolution: 1 km in visible 4 km in IR (8 km
for 13.3 µm band (water vapour))
Swath width:
Full Earth discAccuracy:

Swath width:
Accuracy:

IMSC
Instrument Search Coil
Magnetometer

DEMETER

Operational

Magnetic field

Magnetic field.

Waveband:10 Hz–17.4 kHz
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

FY-3C,
FY-3D,
FY-3E,
FY-3F,FY-3G

Approved

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Atmospheric sounding
measurements.

Waveband:

CNES

IMWAS
Improved MicroWave
Atmospheric Sounder
NRSCC (CAST)

226

VIS–SWIR: 0.55–0.90 µm
MWIR–TIR: 3.5–4 µm,
6.5–7 µm, 10.5–11.3 µm,
11.5–12.5 µm
Visible: 1 km
TIR: 4 km
Full Earth disc every hour

Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Microwave: 19.35–89.0 GHz(8 channels)

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

I
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

INES
Italian Navigation
Experiment

SAC-C

Operational

Precision orbit

Composed of GPS Tensor and
GNSS Lagrange Receiver toperform navigation experimenton precise orbit determination.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

HJ-1B

Being
developed

Imaging
Infrared measurements for
Waveband:
0.75–1.10 µm, 1.55–1.75 µm,
multi-spectral
environment and natural disaster
3.50–3.90 µm, 10.5–12.5 µm
radiometers (vis/IR) monitoring.
Spatial resolution: 300 m (10.5–12.5 m)
150 m (the other bands)
Swath width:
720 km
Accuracy:

FY-3A,
FY-3B,
FY-3C,
FY-3D,
FY-3E,
FY-3F,
FY-3G

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Atmospheric sounding forweather forecasting.

VIS–TIR: 0.65–14.95 µm(26 channels)
Spatial resolution: 14 km
Swath width:
Accuracy:

CBERS-2,
CBERS-2B

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

Used for fire detection, fire
extent and temperature
measurement.

Waveband:

VIS–NIR: 0.5–1.1 µm
NIR–SWIR: 1.55–1.75 µm,
2.08–2.35 µm
TIR: 10.4–12.5 µm
Spatial resolution: Visible, NIR, SWIR: 78 m
TIR: 156 m
Swath width:
120 km
Accuracy:

CBERS-3,
CBERS-4

Being
developed

High resolution
optical imagers

Used for fire detection, fire
extent and temperature
measurement.

Waveband:

VIS–NIR: 0.5–1.1 µm
NIR–SWIR: 1.55–1.75 µm,
2.08–2.35 µm
TIR: 10.4–12.5 µm
Spatial resolution: Visible, NIR, SWIR: 78 m
TIR: 156 m
Swath width:
120 km
Accuracy:

MTG S1/
Sentinel-4 A,
MTG S2/
Sentinel-4 B,
post-EPS/
Sentinel-5

Beingdeveloped

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Measurements of verticallyresolved clear sky atmosphericmotion vectors, temperature andwater vapour profiles.

LWIR: 700–1210 cm–1
MWIR: 1600–2175 cm–1
Spatial resolution: Horizontal: 4 km at SSP
Vertical: 1 km
Swath width:
Full Earth discAccuracy:clear sky AMVs: 2 m/s
temperature profile: 1 K
water vapour profile: 5%

DEMETER

Operational

Other

Density of the plasma andelectron temperature.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:
Relative ion and electron density <5%Absolute temperature <5%
Potential 10 mV
Ion direction +15º

SAC-C

Operational

Precision orbit

Test of a fully autonomous
system for attitude and orbit
determination using a star
tracker.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

ASI (CONAE)

IR (HJ-1B)
Infrared Camera
CAST

IRAS
InfraRed AtmosphericSounder
NRSCC (CAST)

IR-MSSInfrared Multi-spectral
Scanner
CAST (INPE)

IRS
CAST (INPE)

IRS
Infrared Sounder
EUMETSAT (ESA)

ISL
Langmuir probes
CNES

IST
Italian Star Tracker
ASI (CONAE)

Waveband:Waveband:

227

I|L
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

IVISSR (FY-2)
Improved Multi-spectral
Visible and Infrared Spin
Radiometer (5 channels)

FY-2C,
FY-2D,
FY-2E,
FY-2F

Operational

Imaging
Meteorological.
multi-spectral
radiometers (vis/IR)

VIS–TIR: 0.5–12.5 µm(5 channels)
Spatial resolution: 5 km
Swath width:
Full Earth discAccuracy:

MTSAT-1R

Operational

Imaging
Measures cloud cover, cloud
multi-spectral
motion, cloud height, waterradiometers (vis/IR) vapour, rainfall, sea surface
temparature and Earth radiation.

Waveband:

Jason-1,
Jason-2(aka OSTM)

Operational

Imaging
Altimeter data to correct forWaveband:multi-spectral
errors caused by water vapour
radiometersand cloud-cover.
Spatial resolution:(passive microwave) Also measures total water vapour
and brightness temperature.
Swath width:
Accuracy:

NRSCC (CAST)

JAMI/MTSAT-1R
Japanese Advanced
Meteorological Imager
JMA

JMR
Jason Microwave
Radiometer
NASA

KMSS
Multi-spectral Imager
(VIS)

Being
developed

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

GPS Receiver including
specialised version equippedwith limb sounding antenna anddedicated signal tracking
capability for meteorological,
climate and space weather
applications.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Operational

Communications

Being
developed

Precision orbit

Measures distance between thesatellite and the laser tracking
stations.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

STARLETTE,STELLA

Operational

Precision orbit

Measures distance between thesatellite and the laser tracking
stations.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SAC-D

Being
developed

Imaging
L-band passive microwave
multi-spectral
radiometer measures brightness
radiometerstemperature of ocean to retrieve(passive microwave) salinity.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Landsat Comms
Landsat-5,
Communications package Landsat-7
for Landsat

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

USGS

Laser Reflectors (ESA) CryoSat-2,
Laser Reflectors
GOCE
ESA

NASA

228

Microwave:
18.7 GHz, 23.8 GHz, 34 GHz
41.6 km at 18.7 GHz
36.1 km at 23.8 GHz
22.9 km at 34 GHz
120º cone centred on nadir
Total water vapour: 0.2g/cm2
Brightness temperature: 0.15 K

Waveband:
0.4–0.9 µm, 6 channels
Spatial resolution: 60–100 m
Swath width:
900 km
Accuracy:

ASI

L-band Radiometer
Microwave radiometer

VIS–SWIR: 0.55–0.90 µm
MWIR–TIR: 3.5–4 µm, 6.5–7 µm,
10.5–11.3 µm, 11.5–12.5 µm
Spatial resolution: Visible: 1 km
TIR: 4 km
Swath width:
Full Earth disc every hour
Accuracy:

Multi-spectral images of landand sea surfaces and ice cover.

Lagrange
SAC-D
LABEN GNSS Receiver for
Advanced Navigation,
Geodesy and Experiments

CNES

Waveband:High resolution
optical imagers

Meteor-M N1, Being
Meteor-M N2 developed

Roshydromet(Roscosmos)

Laser Reflectors

Technical characteristics

L-band (1.4 GHz)
100 km
300 km0.2 psu9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

L
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

L-band Scatterometer(Aquarius)

SAC-D

Being
developed

Scatterometers

L-band scatterometer to provide
roughness corection tobrightness temperature.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

LARES

Operational

Precision orbit

Accuracy measuments on
Lense-Thirring effect andbaseline tracking data for
precision geodesy.
Also for calibration of radar
altimeter bias.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
2 cm overhead ranging
Accuracy:

NMP EO-1

Operational

Imaging
Corrects high spatial resolution
multi-spectral
multi-spectral imager data forradiometers (vis/IR) atmospheric effects.

Waveband:

MTG-I1,
MTG-I2,
MTG-I3,MTG-I4Being
developed

Lightning imager

Real time lightning detection(cloud-to-cloud andcloud-to-ground strokes, with nodiscrimination between the two),lightning location.

Waveband:LIS
GPM-BrLightning Imager Sensor

Proposed

Lightning imager

Atmospheric electrical discharge
imager.

Waveband:
0.7774 µm
Spatial resolution: 3–6 km
Swath width:
600 km
Accuracy:

Operational

Lightning imager

Global distribution and variabilityof total lightning.
Data can be related to rainfall to
study hydrological cycle.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

Data used for vegetation typeassessment, resource
assessment, crop stressdetection, crop production
forecasting, forestry, land use
and land cover change.

Waveband:VIS: Band 2: 0.52–0.59 µm
Band 3: 0.62–0.68 µm
NIR: Band 4: 0.77–0.86 µm
SWIR: Band 5: 1.55–1.75 µm
Spatial resolution: Bands 2, 3, 4: 23.5 m
Band 5: 70.5 m
Swath width:
141 km
Accuracy:

RESOURCESAT-1, Operational
RESOURCESAT-2

High resolution
optical imagers

Data used for vegetation typeassessment, resource
assessment, crop stressdetection, crop production
forecasting, forestry, land use
and land cover change.

Waveband:RESOURCESAT-1, Operational
RESOURCESAT-2

High resolution
optical imagers

Vegetation monitoring, improved Waveband:
crop discrimination, crop yield,
disaster monitoring and rapid
Spatial resolution:assessment of natural resources. Swath width:
Accuracy:

NASA (CONAE)

LCCRA
Laser Corner Cube
Reflector Assembly
ASI

LEISA ACLEISA Atmospheric
Corrector
NASA

LI
Lightning Imager
EUMETSAT (ESA)

INPE

LIS
TRMM
Lightning Imager Sensor
NASA

LISS-III (IRS)
Linear Imaging Self
Scanner - III (IRS)

IRS-1D

ISRO

LISS-III(RESOURCESAT)
Linear Imaging Self
Scanner - III(RESOURCESAT)ISROLISS-IV
Linear Imaging Self
Scanner - IV
ISRO

L-band (1.2 GHz)
100 km
300 km0.2 psu

256 bands
NIR–SWIR: 0.89–1.58 µm
Spatial resolution: 250 m
Swath width:
185 km
Accuracy:
NIR neutral oxygen ligthningemission features at 777.4 nm
Spatial resolution: 2 km at SSP<10 km at 45º N
Swath width:
80% of visible earth disc,all EUMETSAT member states
Accuracy:Lightning intensity:
50/10% hit rate/false alarm rate
Lightning location:
50/10% HR/FAR(for isolated events 90% HR)

NIR: 0.7774 µm
4 km
FOV: 80 x 80º
90% day and night detection
probability

VIS: Band 2: 0.52–0.59 µm
Band 3: 0.62–0.68 µm
NIR: Band 4: 0.77–0.86 µm
SWIR: Band 5: 1.55–1.75 µm
Spatial resolution: 23.5 m
Swath width:
141 km
Accuracy:
VIS: 0.52–0.59 µm, 0.62–0.68 µm
NIR: 0.77–0.86 µm
5.8 m
70 km

229

L|M
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

LM
Lightning Mapper

FY-4 O/A,
FY-4 O/B,
FY-4 O/C,
FY-4 O/D,FY-4 O/E

Approved

Lightning imager

Lightning mapping for locating
thunder storms in flooding
season, CCD camear operating
0.77 µm to count flashes andintensity.

Waveband:
0.77 µm
Spatial resolution: 10 km
Full Earth disc
Swath width:
Accuracy:

LAGEOS-1,
LAGEOS-2

Operational

Precision orbit

Baseline tracking data for
precision geodesy.
Also for calibration of radar
altimeter bias.
Several types used on various
missions.
(ASI involved in LAGEOS 2
development).

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:
2 cm overhead ranging

Jason-1,
Jason-2(aka OSTM)

Operational

Precision orbit

Baseline tracking data for
precision orbit determination
and/or geodesy.
Also for calibration of radar
altimeter bias.
Several types used on various
missions.
(ASI involved in LAGEOS 2
development).

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:
2 cm overhead ranging

GOES-11,
GOES-12,GOES-13,GOES-O,GOES-P,NOAA-N'

Operational

Communications

Follow-on from the Weather
Facsimile (WEFAX) Processing
System.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

MeghaTropiques

Beingdeveloped

Imaging
To estimate rainfall, atmosphericmulti-spectral
water parameters and ocean
radiometers
surface winds in the equatorial(passive microwave) belt.

Waveband:SCISAT-1
MAESTRO
Measurements of Aerosol
Extinction in theStratosphere andTroposphere Retrieved by
Occultation

Operational

Atmosphericchemistry

Chemical processes involved in
the depletion of the ozone layer.

Waveband:

UV–NIR: 0.285–1.03 µm(1–2 nm spectral resolution)
Spatial resolution: Approx 1–2 km vertical
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Beingdeveloped

Atmosphericchemistry

To study the regional/global
distribution of carbon monoxide(CO).

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Approved

Magnetic field

NRSCC

LRA (LAGEOS)
Laser Retroreflector
Array
ASI

LRA
Laser Retroreflector
Array
NASA (ASI)

LRIT
Low-Rate Information
Transmission
NOAA

MADRAS
Microwave Analysis andDetection of Rain andAtmospheric Structures
ISRO (CNES)

18.7 GHz, 23.8 GHz, 36.5 GHz,89 GHz, 157 GHz
Spatial resolution: 40 km
Swath width:
1700 km
Accuracy:

CSA

MAGIS
ISTAG
Measurement ofAtmospheric Gases using
Infrared Spectrometer
ISRO

Magnetometer (NOAA) GOES-R,
Magnetometer
GOES-S
NOAA

230

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

M
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

MAPI
Multi-Angle Polarisation
Imager

ISTAG

Being
developed

Multiple
Measurement of column
direction/polarisation integrated aerosol spectral
radiometers
optical depth.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

ISTAG

Being
developed

Atmosphericchemistry

Vertical profiles of aerosols,ozone and water vapour in thefree troposphere andstratosphere and cloud top
height.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:<1.0 K temperature
Accuracy:
0.2 g/kg humidity

MBEI
SICH-2Multi-band Earth Imager

Beingdeveloped

High resolution
optical imagers

Multi-spectral scanner images ofland surface.

Waveband:Operational

Communications

Meteorological Communications
Package (MCP) onboard MetOp
series satellites.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

FY-4 O/A,
FY-4 O/B,
FY-4 O/C,
FY-4 O/D,FY-4 O/E

Approved

Imaging
Multi-purpose visible/IR imagery Waveband:
12 channels from 0.55–13.8 µm
multi-spectral
and wind derivation.
Spatial resolution: 1 km VIS
radiometers (vis/IR)
2 km NIR
4 km TIR
Swath width:
Full Earth discAccuracy:

EnvisatOperational

Imaging
Main objective is monitoring
Waveband:multi-spectral
marine biophysical andradiometers (vis/IR) biochemical parameters.
Secondary objectives are related
to atmospheric properties such
Spatial resolution:
as cloud and water vapour and tovegetation conditions on land
Swath width:surfaces.
Accuracy:

FY-3A,
FY-3B,
FY-3C,
FY-3D,
FY-3E,
FY-3F,
FY-3G

Operational

Imaging
Measurement of vegetation
multi-spectral
indexes and ocean colour.
radiometers(passive microwave)

Operational

Communications

ISRO

MAVELI
Measurements of
Aerosols by Viewing
Earth's Limb
ISRO

NSAU

MCP
MetOp-A,Meteorological
MetOp-B,
Communications Package MetOp-C(MCP)

Technical characteristics

VIS–NIR: 0.51–0.90 µm
VIS: 0.51–0.59 µm,
0.61–0.68 µm;
NIR: 0.80–0.89 µm
Spatial resolution: 7.8 m
Swath width:46.6 km pointable ±35º from nadir
8 bits
Accuracy:

EUMETSATMCSIMultiple Channel
Scanning Imager
NRSCC

MERIS
Medium-Resolution
Imaging Spectrometer
ESA

MERSI
Moderate Resolution
Spectral Imager
NRSCC

Meteosat-6,
Meteosat Comms
Communications package Meteosat-7
for Meteosat
EUMETSAT

VIS–NIR: 15 bands selectable
across range: 0.4–1.05 µm(bandwidth programmablebetween 0.0025 and 0.03 µm)
Ocean: 1040 m x 1200 m
Land & coast: 260 m x 300 m
1150 kmglobal coverage every 3 days
Ocean colour bands
typical S:N = 1700

Waveband:Spatial resolution: 250 m for broadband channels
1 km for narrowband channels
Swath width:
2800 km
Accuracy:

Communication package onboard Waveband:
Meteosat series satellites.
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

231

M
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

MHS
Microwave Humidity
Sounder

MetOp-A,
MetOp-B,
MetOp-C,NOAA-18,
NOAA-N'

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Atmospheric humidity profiles,
cloud cover, cloud liquid, watercontent, ice boundaries andprecipitation data.

Waveband:

COMS-1

Approved

Imaging
Continuous monitoring capability Waveband:
multi-spectral
for the near-realtime generation
radiometersof high resolution meteorological(passive microwave) products and long-term change
analysis of sea surface
temperature and cloud coverage.

Microwave Radiometer SAC-D(CONAE)MWR Radiometer(CONAE)

Being
developed

Multiple
Precipitation rate, wind speed,
direction/polarisation sea ice concentration, waterradiometers
vapour, clouds.

Waveband:EnvisatOperational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders
and atmosphericchemistry

Data on stratosphere chemistry(global/polar ozone), climate
research (trace gases/clouds),
transport dynamics, troposphericchemistry.
Primary/secondary species: O3,
NO, NO2, HNO3, N2O5, ClONO2,
CH4.

Waveband:

MWIR–TIR:
between 4.15 and 14.6 µm
Spatial resolution: Vertical resolution: 3 km
Vertical scan range 5–150 km
Horizontal: 3 x 30 km
Spectral resolution: 0.035 lines/cm
Swath width:
Accuracy:
Radiometric precision:
685–970 cm–1: 1%
2410 cm–1: 3%

SMOS

Being
developed

Multiple
direction/polarisation
radiometers &Imaging
multi-spectral
radiometers(passive microwave)

Imaging multi-spectral
radiometers (passive microwave)
and multiple
direction/polarisation
radiometers.

Waveband:L-band 1.41 GHz
Spatial resolution: 33–50 km depending on theposition in the swath,
resampled to 15 km grid
Swath width:
Hexagon shape, nominal
width 1050 km allowing a 3 dayrevisit time at the equator
Accuracy:
2.6 K absolute accuracy,
RMS 1.6–4 K depending on thescene and the position within
the swath

FY-3C,
FY-3D,
FY-3E,
FY-3F,
FY-3G

Prototype

Imaging
multi-spectral
radiometers(passive microwave)

SICH-2Being
developed

High resolution
optical imagers

EUMETSAT

MI
Meteorological Imager
NRSCC

1: VIS, 0.55–0.80 µm
2: SWIR: 3.50–4.00 µm
3: WV (Water Vapour): 6.50–7.00 µm
4: TIR1 (Thermal Infrared 1):
10.3–11.3 µm
5: TIR2 (Thermal Infrared 2):
11.5–12.5 µm
Spatial resolution: VIS: 1 km
IR: 4 kmSwath width:
Full Earth discAccuracy:

CONAE

MIPAS
Michelson
Interferometric Passive
Atmosphere SounderESA

MIRAS (SMOS)
Microwave Imaging
Radiometer using
Aperture Synthesis(MIRAS)ESAMIRASMultichannel Infrared
Atmospheric Sounder
NRSCC (CAST)

MIREI
Middle IR Earth Imager
NSAU

232

Microwave: 89 GHz, 166 GHz
and 3 channels near 183 GHz
Spatial resolution: Vertical: 3–7 km
Horizontal: 30–50 km
Swath width:
1650 km
Accuracy:
Cloud water profile: 10 g/m2
Specific humidity profile:
10–20%(K-band) 23.8 GHz V Pol
and 36.5 GHz H and V Pol
Eight beams per frequency
Spatial resolution: < 47 km
Swath width:
380 km
Accuracy:
1K

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Scanner images of land surface
in middle Infrared range.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

NIR: 1.55–1.7 µm
46.0 m55.3 km pointable ±35° from nadir
8 bits9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

M
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

MIS
Microwave
Imager/Sounder

NPOESS-2,
NPOESS-3

Being
developed

Imaging
Collects microwave radiometry
multi-spectral
and sounding data.
radiometers
Data types include atmospheric(passive microwave) temperature and moistureprofiles, clouds, sea surface
winds, and all-weather
land/water surfaces.

Waveband:Microwave: 190 GHz
Spatial resolution: 15–50 km depending on
frequency
Swath width:
1700 km
Accuracy:
Temperature Profiles to 1.6 K
Water vapour 20%

Terra

Operational

Multiple
Measurements of global surface
direction/polarisation albedo, aerosol and vegetation
radiometersproperties.
Also provides multi-angle
bidirectional data
(1% angle-to-angle accuracy) for
cloud cover and reflectances atthe surface and aerosol
opacities.
Global and local modes.

Waveband:VIS: 0.44 µm, 0.56 µm, 0.67 µm
NIR: 0.86 µm
Spatial resolution: 275 m, 550 m or 1.1 km
Summation modes available on
selected cameras/bands:
1 x 1, 2 x 2, 4 x 4, 1 x 4
1 pixel = 275 m x 275 m
Swath width:
360 km common overlap of all 9
camerasAccuracy:
0.03% hemispherical albedo
10% aerosol opacity
1–2% angle to angle accuracy inbidirectional reflectance

MLS (EOS-Aura)
Aura
Microwave Limb Sounder(EOS-Aura)

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Measures lower stratospherictemperature and concentrationof H2O, O3, ClO, HCl, OH, HNO3,
N2O and SO2.

Waveband:Microwave: 118 GHz, 190 GHz,
240 GHz, 640 GHz and 2.5 THz
Spatial resolution: 3 x 300 km horizontal
1.2 km vertical
Swath width:
Limb scan 2.5–62.5 km Limb tolimb
Accuracy:
Temparature: 4 K
Ozone: 50%

SAC-C

Operational

Magnetic field

Measurement of the Earth’s
magnetic field with a vector anda scalar magnetometer.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SAC-C

Operational

Imaging
Applications related tomulti-spectral
agriculture, environment,
radiometers (vis/IR) forestry, hydrology,
oceanography, mineralogy andgeology, desertification,
contamination and protection of
ecosystems.

VIS–NIR: 480–500 nm,
540–560 nm, 630–690 nm,
795–835 nm
SWIR: 1550–1700 nm
Spatial resolution: 175 m
Swath width:
360 km
Accuracy:

SAC-E/SABIA/ma

Approved

Imaging
Sea and coastal studies.
multi-spectral
radiometers (vis/IR)

Waveband:Imaging
multi-spectral
radiometers(vis/IR) and ocean
colour instruments

Waveband:

NOAA

MISR
Multi-angle Imaging
SpectroRadiometer
NASA

NASA

MMP
Magnetic Mapping
PayloadMeasurements &applications

JPL, DNSC (CONAE)

MMRSMulti-spectral Medium
Resolution Scanner
CONAE

MOC
Multi-spectral Optical
CameraCONAE

MODIS
MODerate-Resolution
Imaging
Spectroradiometer
NASA

Aqua, Terra

Operational

Data on biological and physicalprocesses on the surface of the
Earth and in the lower
atmosphere, and on global
dynamics.
Surface temperatures of landand ocean, chlorophyll
fluorescence, land covermeasurements, cloud cover (dayand night).

Technical characteristics

Waveband:

Optical and Thermal Infrared
Cameras, up to 15 bands

Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:
VIS–TIR: 36 bands in range
0.4–14.4 µm
Spatial resolution: Cloud cover: 250 m (day)and 1000 m (night)
Surface temperature: 1000 m
Swath width:
2330 km
Accuracy:Long wave radiance: 100 nW/m2
Short wave radiance: 5%
Surface temperature of land: <1 K
Surface temperature of ocean: <0.2 K
Snow and ice cover: 10%233

M
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

MOPITT
Measurements Of
Pollution In The
Troposphere

Terra

Operational

Atmosphericchemistry

Measurements of CO in the
troposphere.

Waveband:THEOS

Approved

Imaging
THEOS MS consists of 4 spectral
multi-spectral
bands (R,G,B, NIR) withradiometers (vis/IR) resolution 15 m and swath width
at 90 km.
The applications which aresuitable for this instrument suchas cartography, land use, land
cover change management,
agricultural and natural
resources management, etc.

0.45–0.52 µm
0.53–0.60 µm
0.62–0.69 µm
0.77–0.90 µm
Spatial resolution: 15 m
Swath width:
90 km
Accuracy:

KOMPSAT-2

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

High resolution imager for land
applications of cartography anddisaster monitoring.

Waveband:MSG Comms
Meteosat-10,
Communications package Meteosat-8,
for MSG
Meteosat-9

Operational

Communications

Communication package onboard Waveband:
MSG series satellites.
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

BJ-1

Operational

Imaging
To provide multi-spectral analysis Waveband:
multi-spectralof hydrological, oceanographic,
radiometers (vis/IR) land use and meteorologicalparameters.
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

EarthCARE

Approved

Imaging
Observation of cloud properties
multi-spectral
and aerosol (aerosols to beradiometers (vis/IR) confirmed.

Waveband:Sentinel-2 A,
Sentinel-2 B,
Sentinel-2 C

Being
developed

Imaging
Monitoring of land surfaces for
multi-spectral
operational land services: land
radiometers
cover, land use, bio-geophysical(passive microwave) products.

Waveband:13 bands in the VNIR/SWIR
Spatial resolution: 10 m for 4 bands in VNIR
60 m for 3 dedicatedatmospheric correction bands
20 m for remaining bands
Swath width:
290 km
Accuracy:
absolute radiometric accuracy
for L1c data 3–5%

CSA (NASA)

MS (GISTDA)
Multi spectral imager
GISTDA

MSC
Multi-Spectral Camera
KARI

EUMETSAT

MSI (BJ-1)
Multi-spectral Imager
NRSCC (CAST)MSI (EarthCARE)
Multi Spectral Imager(EarthCARE)ESA

MSI (Sentinel-2)
Multi-Spectral
Instrument (Sentinel-2)
ESA (EC)

234

SWIR–MWIR: 2.3 µm, 2.4 µm,
4.7 µmSpatial resolution: CO profile:
4 km vertical
22 x 22 km horizontal
CO, CH4 column:
22x22 km horizontal
Swath width:
616 km
Accuracy:
Carbon monoxide(4 km layers): 10%
Waveband:

VIS–NIR: 0.50–0.92 µm
VIS: 0.45–0.52 µm,
0.52–0.60 µm, 0.63–0.69 µm
NIR: 0.76–0.90 µm
Spatial resolution: Pan: 1 m
VNIR: 4 m
Swath width:
15 km
Accuracy:

Green 520–600 nm
Red 630–690 nm
NIR 760–900 nm
32 m
600 km
800 m

VIS – NIR:
Band1: VIS, 670 nm
Band2: NIR, 865 nm
Band3: SWIR–1, 1.67 µm
Band4: SWIR–2, 2.21 µm
Thermal Infrared: Band5: 8.8 µm
Band6: 10.8 µm
Band7: 12.0 µm
Spatial resolution: 500 x 500 m
Swath width:
150 km asymmetrically
35 km to 115 km versus nadir
point
Accuracy:9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

M
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

MSI
Multi Spectral Imager

RapidEyeApproved

High resolution
optical imagers

High resolution images withshort observing cycle forcommercial and scientificapplications.

Waveband:Operational

Imaging
Sea surface temperature, ocean
multi-spectral
surface winds, cloud liquid water,
radiometers
precipitation over ocean.
(passive microwave)

Microwave: 6.6 GHz, 10.6 GHz,
18 GHz, 21 GHz
Spatial resolution: 40 m at 21 GHz
to 120 m at 6.6 GHz
Wind speed: 75 x 75 km
Sea surface temperature:
146 x 150 km
Swath width:1360 km
Accuracy:
Sea surface temperature: 1.5K
Sea surface wind speed: 1.5 m/s

High resolution
optical imagers

Waveband:

DLR

MSMR
OCEANSAT-1
Multifrequency Scanning
Microwave Radiometer
ISRO

MSS (Roscosmos)
Multi-spectral
film-making system

Kanopus-V N1 Prototype

Multi-spectral images of landand sea surfaces and ice cover.

Roscosmos(Roshydromet)

MSS
Multi-spectral Scanner

4 VIS + 1 NIR band:
440–510 nm, 520–590 nm,
630–685 nm, 690–730 nm,
760–850 nm
Spatial resolution: 6.5 m
Swath width:
78 km
2–3%
Accuracy:
Waveband:

0.5–0.6 µm, 0.6–0.7 µm,
0.7–0.8 µm, 0.8–0.9 µm
Spatial resolution: 12 m
Swath width:
20 km
Accuracy:

Operational

Imaging
Measures surface radiance.
multi-spectral
Data mostly used for land
radiometers (vis/IR) applications.

Waveband:
VIS – NIR: 4 bands: 0.5–1.1 µm
Spatial resolution: 80 m
Swath width:
185 km
Accuracy:

Beingdeveloped

Ocean colour
instruments

Multi-spectral images sea
surfaces for water areas
bioefficiency.

Waveband:
0.41–0.9 µm
Spatial resolution: 80 m, 300 m
Swath width:
800 km, 3000 km
Accuracy:

Kanopus-V N1 Prototype

High resolution
optical imagers

Multi-spectral images of landand sea surfaces and ice cover.

Waveband:
0.54–0.86 µm
Spatial resolution: 25 m
Swath width:
250 km
Accuracy:

Elektro-L N1,
Elektro-L N2,
Elektro-L N3

Imaging
Measurements of cloud cover,multi-spectral
cloud top height, precipitation,
radiometers (vis/IR) cloud motion, vegetation,
radiation fluxes, convection, airmass analysis, cirrus cloud
discrimination, tropopausemonitoring, stability monitoring,
total ozone and sea surface
temparature.

Landsat-5

USGS (NASA)MSS-BIO
Meteor-M N3
Polyzonal scanningsystem of bioefficiency ofsea water areas
Roshydromet(Roscosmos)

MSU-200
Multi-spectral highresolution electronic
scanner (VIS)
Roscosmos(Roshydromet)

MSU-GS
Multi-spectral scanning
imager-radiometer
Roshydromet(Roshydromet)

Prototype

Waveband:VIS: 0.5–0.65 µm, 0.65–0.8 µm(broadband)
NIR: 0.9 µm
MWIR: 3.5–4.01 µm
TIR: 5.7–7.0 µm, 8 µm, 8.7 µm,
9.7 µm, 10.2–11.2 µm,
11.2–12.5 µm
Spatial resolution: 1 km for VIS
4 km for IR channels
Swath width:
Full Earth discAccuracy:
VIS: 5%
IR: 0.35 K

235

M
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

MSU-MR
Images of clouds, snow,
ice and land cover

Meteor-M N1, Prototype
Meteor-M N2

StatusRoshydromet(Roscosmos)

MTSAT Comms
MTSAT-1R,
Communications package MTSAT-2
for MTSAT

Type

Measurements &applications

Imaging
Images of clouds, snow, ice and Waveband:
multi-spectral
land cover for derivation of Earthradiometers (vis/IR) and atmosphere geophysicalparameters.

Visible: 0.5–0.7 µm
NIR: 0.7–1.1 µm
SWIR: 1.6–1.8 µm
MWIR: 3.5–4.1 µm
TIR: 10.5–11.5 µm, 11.5–12.5 µm
Spatial resolution: 1 km
Swath width:
3000 km
Accuracy:
VIS: 0.5%
IR: 0.1 K

Operational

Communications

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Operational

Communications

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Meteor-M N1, Operational
Meteor-M N2

Imaging
Provision of atmosphericmulti-spectral
temperature and humidity
radiometersprofiles, detection of(passive microwave) precipitation etc.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Kanopus-Vulkan Approved

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Waveband:

CBERS-3,
CBERS-4

Being
developed

Imaging
Earth resources, environmental
multi-spectral
monitoring, land use.
radiometers (vis/IR)

Waveband:Spatial resolution: 20 m
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Meteosat-6,
Meteosat-7

Operational

Imaging
Measures cloud cover, motion,
multi-spectral
height, upper troposphericradiometers (vis/IR) humidity and sea surface
temperature.

Waveband:JMA

MTSAT DCS
Data Collection System
for MTSATMTSAT-1R,
MTSAT-2

JMA

MTVZA
Scanning microwave
radiometer
Roshydromet(Roscosmos)

MTVZA-OK
Scanning microwave
radiometer

Multi-Spectral Scanner Imagesof Earth Surface.

Roshydromet

MUX
Multi-spectral CCD
CameraCAST (INPE)

MVIRI
Meteosat Visible andInfrared Imager
EUMETSAT (ESA)

236

Technical characteristics

10.6–183.3 GHz, 26 channels
12–75 km
2600 km0.4–2.0 K depending on spectral
band

Microwave: 6.9 (V,H), 10.6 (V,H),
18.7 (V,H), 23.8 (V), 31.5 (V,H),
36.7 (V,H), 42 (V,H), 48 (V,H),
52.3–57.0 (V,H), 91 (V,H),
183.31 GHz
VIS: 0.37–0.45 µm, 0.45–0.51 µm,
0.58–0.68 µm, 0.68–0.78 µm
IR: 10.4–11.5 µm, 11.5–12.6 µm
Spatial resolution: Microwave: 12 x 200 km
Visible: 1.1 or 4.0 km
IR: 1.1 or 4.0 km
Swath width:
2000 km
Accuracy:

VIS–NIR: 0.5–0.9 µm
TIR: 5.7–7.1 µm (water vapour),
10.5–12.5 µm
Spatial resolution: Visible: 2.5 km
Water vapour: 5 km (after
processing)
TIR: 5 km
Swath width:
Full Earth disc in all threechannels, every 30 minutes
Accuracy:
Cloud top height: 0.5 km
Cloud top / sea surface
temperature: 0.7 K
Cloud cover: 15%

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

M
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

MVIRS
Moderate Resolution
Visible and Infrared
Imaging
Spectroradiometer

FY-3F,FY-3G

Approved

Imaging
Measures surface temparature
multi-spectral
and cloud and ice cover.
radiometers (vis/IR) Used for snow and flood
monitoring and surface
temperature.

Technical characteristics

Waveband:

VIS – TIR: 0.47–12.5 µm(20 channels)

Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

NRSCC (CAST)MVISR (10 channels) FY-1D
Multi-spectral Visible andInfrared Scan
Radiometer (10channels)

Operational

Imaging
To provide multi-spectral analysis Waveband:
multi-spectralof hydrological, oceanographic,
radiometers (vis/IR) land use and meteorologicalparameters.
Global imager & SST.
Ocean colour.

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Meteorological applications.

Meteorological applications.

NRSCC (CAST)

MWAS
MicroWave AtmosphericSounder

FY-3A,
FY-3B

10 channels:
VIS: 0.43–0.48 µm, 0.48–0.53 µm,
0.53–0.58 µm, 0.58–0.68 µm
NIR: 0.84–0.89 µm
NIR – SWIR: 0.90–0.965 µm,
1.58–1.68 µm, 3.55–3.93 µm
TIR: 10.3–11.3 µm, 11.5–12.5 µm
Spatial resolution: 1.1 km
Swath width:
3200 km
Accuracy:

NRSCC (CAST)

MWR
Microwave Radiometer

FY-3C,
FY-3D,
FY-3E,
FY-3F,FY-3G

Approved

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Envisat,
ERS-2

Operational

Imaging
To provide multi-spectral analysis
multi-spectralof hydrological, oceanographic,
radiometers
land use and meteorological(passive microwave) parameters.
and atmosphericGlobal imager & SST.
temperature andOcean colour.
humidity sounders

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

FY-3A,
FY-3B,
FY-3C,
FY-3D,
FY-3E,
FY-3F,
FY-3G

Operational

Imaging
All weather observations ofmulti-spectral
precipitation, cloud features,radiometers
vegetation, soil moinsture, sea(passive microwave) ice, etc.

Waveband:FY-3A,
FY-3B,
FY-3C,
FY-3D,
FY-3E,
FY-3F,
FY-3G

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Waveband:

ESA

MWRI
MicroWave Radiation
Imager
NRSCC (CAST)

MWTS
MicroWave TemperatureSounder
NRSCC

Microwave: 19.35–89.0 GHz(8 channels)

Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

NRSCC (CAST)

MWHS
MicroWave Humidity
Sounder

Waveband:

Temperature sounding in nearly
all weather conditions.

Waveband:Microwave: 19.35–89.0 GHz(8 channels)
Spatial resolution: 15 km at media
41 x 27 km at outer edge
Swath width:
2700 km
Accuracy:
0.1–0.9 km

Microwave: 23.8 and 36.5 GHz
20 km
20 km
Temparature: 2.6 K

12 channels, 6 frequencies:
10.65 GHz, 18.7 GHz, 23.8 GHz,
36.5 GHz, 89 GHz, 150 GHz
Spatial resolution: 7.5 x 12 km at 150 GHz
to 51 x 85 km at 10.65 GHz
Swath width:
1400 km
Accuracy:

50.3 GHz, 53.6 GHz,
54.94 GHz, 57.29 GHz
Spatial resolution: 62 km
Swath width:
Accuracy:

237

M|O
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

MxTMulti-spectral CCD
CameraIMS-1

Operational

ImagingNatural resources management.
multi-spectral
radiometers (vis/IR)

Waveband:Approved

High resolution
optical imagers

High resolution images formonitoring of land surface andcoastal processes and for
agricultural, geological andhydrological applications.

Waveband:NigeriaSat-1

Operational

ImagingMedium resolution images for
multi-spectral
monitoring of land surface andradiometers (vis/IR) coastal processes and for
agricultural, geological andhydrological applications.

Waveband:

SAC-D

Being
developed

Other

Waveband:Operational

Communications

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Other

Waveband:1 Hz – 25 kHz
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Imaging
Used for fire extent detection
multi-spectral
and temperature measurement,
radiometers (vis/IR) coastal and vegetation
monitoring, land cover and land
use mapping.

Waveband:

ISRO

NigeriaSat Medium and NigeriaSat-2
High Resolution
NigeriaSat Remote
Sensing (Medium andHigh Resolution)
NASRDA

NigeriaSat Medium
Resolution
NigeriaSat Remote
Sensing (medium
resolution)
NASRDANIRSTNew Infrared Sensor
Technology
CONAE (CSA)

NOAA CommsNOAA-15,
Communications package NOAA-16,
for NOAANOAA-17,
NOAA-18,NOAA
NOAA-N'
NVK
Low-frequency wave
complex

Kanopus-Vulkan TBDNIRST detects hot spots andHigh Temperature Events (HTE),
caused by biomass fires, volcanic
eruptions, and other phenomena
in order to measure theirtemperatures, and their released
energy over land (fires & volcanic
events).
Supplementary measurements ofsea surface temperatures (SST)
off the coasts of South America
and other targets of opportunity
with 180 km swath, overlapping
the Aquarius inner beams.

RoscosmosAMAZÔNIA-1
OBA
Observador Brasileiro da
Amazonia
INPE

238

Approved

Technical characteristics

VIS: Band 1: 0.45–0.52 µm
Band 2: 0.52–0.59 µm
Band 3: 0.62–0.68 µm
NIR: Band 4: 0.77–0.86 µm
Spatial resolution: 37 m
Swath width:
151 km
Accuracy:

NIR: ~0.75 µm – ~1.3 µm
VIS: ~0.40 µm – ~0.75 µm
Spatial resolution: 2.5 PAN, 5 m multi-spectral(red blue green, NIR),
32 m multi-spectral(red, green, NIR)
Swath width:
20 x 20 km , 300 x 300 km
Accuracy:
25–35 m

NIR: ~0.75 µm – ~1.3 µm
VIS: ~0.40 µm – ~0.75 µm
Spatial resolution: 32 m multi-spectral(red, green, NIR)
Swath width:
600 x 600 km
Accuracy:
150–300 m

Infrared push-broom scannerbased on 2 linear uncooled
microbolometric arrays
sensitive to Mid-Wave Infrared(3.8 µm) and Long-Wave
Infrared (10.85 and 11.85 µm)
spectral bands respectively
Spatial resolution: Space resol: 350 m
Less burned area detectable:
200 m2
Swath width:
Instant: 182 km
Extended: 1000 km
Accuracy:
0.5ºC

VIS: 0.45–0.50 µm,
0.52–0.57 µm, 0.63–0.69 µm
NIR: 0.76–0.90 µm
MWIR: 3.4–4.2 µm
Spatial resolution: VIS–NIR: 100 m
MIR: 300 m
Swath width:
2200 km (equatorial belt fromlatitude 5ºN to 15ºS)
Accuracy:9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

O
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

OCM (OCEANSAT-3)
Ocean Colour Monitor(OCEANSAT-3)

OCEANSAT-3

Proposed

Ocean colour
instruments

Ocean colour data, estimation ofphytoplankton concentration,
identification of potential fishingzones, assessment of primary
productivity.

Waveband:12 channel
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

OCEANSAT-1
OCEANSAT-2

Operational

Ocean colour
instruments

Ocean colour data, estimation ofphytoplankton concentration,
identification of potential fishingzones, assessment of primary
productivity.

Waveband:Sentinel-3 A,
Sentinel-3 B,
Sentinel-3 C

Approved

Imaging
Marine and land services.
multi-spectral
radiometers(passive microwave)

Waveband:21 bands in VNIR/SWIR
Spatial resolution: 300 m
Swath width:1270 km, across-track tilt
12.2º to the West
Accuracy:
2% abs
0.1% rel.

Beingdeveloped

Imaging
Measures surface radiance andmulti-spectral
emittance, land cover state andradiometers (vis/IR) change (eg vegetation type).
Used as multi-purpose imagery
for land applications.

Waveband:VIS–SWIR: 9 bands: 0.43–2.3 µm
Spatial resolution: Pan: 15 m
VIS–SWIR: 30 m
Swath width:
185 km
Accuracy:
Absolute geodetic accuracy of 65 m
Relative geodetic accuracy of 25 m
(excluding terrain effects)
Geometric accuracy of 12 m or
betterDMSP F-14,
DMSP F-15,
DMSP F-16,
DMSP F-17,
DMSP F-18,
DMSP F-19,
DMSP F-20

Operational

Imaging
Day and night cloud cover
multi-spectral
imagery.
radiometers (vis/IR)

Waveband:

Aura

Operational

Atmosphericchemistry

ISRO

OCM
Ocean Colour Monitor
ISRO

OLCI
Ocean and Land Colour
Imager
ESA (EC)

OLI
LDCM
Operational Land Imager
USGS (NASA)

OLS
Operational Linescan
SystemNOAA (DoD (USA))

OMI
Ozone Measuring
Instrument
NIVR (Netherland)(NASA)

VIS–NIR: 0.40–0.88 µm(8 channels)
Spatial resolution: 236 m x 360 m
Swath width:
1440 km
Accuracy:

VIS–NIR: 0.4–1.1 µm
TIR: 10.0–13.4 µm, 0.47–0.95 µm
Spatial resolution: 0.56 km (fine)
5.4 km (stereo products)
Swath width:
3000 km
Accuracy:

Mapping of ozone columns, key
Waveband:air quality components (NO2,
SO2, BrO, OClO and aerosols),
Spatial resolution:measurements of cloud pressure
and coverage, global distribution
and trends in UV-B radiation.
Swath width:
Accuracy:

OMPS
Ozone Mapping andProfiler SuiteNOAA

NPOESS-3,
NPOESS-4,
NPP

Being
developed

Atmosphericchemistry

Measures total amount of ozone Waveband:in the atmosphere and the ozone
concentration variation withaltitude.
Spatial resolution:

Swath width:

Accuracy:

UV: 270–314 nm & 306–380 nm
VIS: 350–500 nm
13 km x 24 km or 36 km x 48 km
depending on the product.
Also has zoom modes(13 km x 13 km) for example forurban pollution detection
2600 km

Nadir Mapper: UV 0.3–0.38 µm
Nadir profiler: UV 0.25–0.31 µm
Limb soundings:
UV–TIR 0.29–10 µm
Mapper: 50 km
Profiler: 250 km
Limb: 1 km vertical
Mapper: 2800 km
Profiler: 250 km
Limb: 3 vertical slits along track± 250 kmTotal Ozone: 15 Dobson units
Profile Ozone: 10% between 15
and 60 km, 20% between
Tropopause and 15 km

239

O|P
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

OSIRIS
Odin
Optical Spectrograph andInfrared Imaging System

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Operational

Atmosphericchemistry

Detects aerosol layers andWaveband:abundance of species such as O3,
NO2, OClO, and NO.
Consists of spectrograph and IR
Spatial resolution:
imager.
Measures temperature for
Swath width:
altitudes above 30 km.

CSA (SNSB)Technical characteristics

Accuracy:

Overhauser
Magnetometer
OMØrsted(Oersted)

Operational

Magnetic field

ALOS

Operational

Imaging microwave High resolution microwave
Waveband:radarsimaging of land and ice for use in Spatial resolution:
environmental monitoring,
agriculture and forestry, disastermonitoring, Earth resource
management and interferometry.

CNES

PALSAR
Phased Array typeL-band Synthetic
Aperture Radar
JAXA (METI (Japan))

Measurements of the strength of Waveband:
the Earth's magnetic field.
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Swath width:

Accuracy:

PamelaOperational

Space environment Cosmic ray research.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

BJ-1

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

To provide panchromatica
analysis of hydrological,
oceanographic, land use andmeteorological parameters.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

CARTOSAT-1

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

High resolution stereo images forstudy of topography, urban
areas, development of DTM,
run-off models etc.
Urban sprawl, forest
cover/timber volume, land usechange.

Waveband:
Panchromatic VIS: 0.5–0.75 µm
Spatial resolution: 2.5 m
Swath width:
30 km
Accuracy:

CARTOSAT-2

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

High resolution stereo images forlarge scale (better than 1:0000)
mapping applications, urban
applications, GIS ingest.

Waveband:VIS: 0.5–0.75 µm
Spatial resolution: 1 m
Swath width:
10 km
Accuracy:

CARTOSAT-3

Being
developed

High resolution
optical imagers

High resolution images for studyof topography, urban areas,development of DTM, run-off
models etc.
Urban sprawl, forest
cover/timber volume, land usechange.

Waveband:
Panchromatic VIS: 0.5–0.75 µm
Spatial resolution: 0.3 m
Swath width:
6 km
Accuracy:

NRSCC (CAST)

PAN (Cartosat-1)
Panchromatic sensor
ISRO

PAN (Cartosat-2)
Panchromatic Camera
ISRO

PAN (Cartosat-3)
Panchromatic sensor
ISRO

240

Microwave: L-band 1270 MHz(depending on looks, incident
angle and bandwidth)
Hi-res: 7–44 m or 14–88 m
ScanSAR mode: 35–77 m or
70–154 m
Polarimetry: 24–88 m
High resolution mode: 70 km
Scan SAR mode: 250–360 km
Polarimetry: 30 km
Surface Resolution: 10 m (Fine Mode)
Surface Resolution: 100 m (Scan Mode)
Radiometric: ±1 dB

Resurs DK 1

Roscosmos

PAN (BJ-1)
Panchromatic Imager

Spectrograph:
UV–NIR: 0.28–0.80 µm
IR Imager, NIR: 1.26 µm, 1.27 µm,
1.52 µm
Spectrograph 1 km at limb,
Imager 1 km in vertical
N/A, but measures in the altitude
range 5–100 km
Depends on species

500–800 nm
4m
24 km
100 m

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

P
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

PAN (GISTDA)
Panchromatic imager

THEOS

Approved

High resolution
optical imagers

THEOS PAN is an optical
instrument with resolution 2 m
and swath width at 22 km.
It can be used in several
applications such as cartography,
land use planning andmanagement, national security,etc.

0.45–0.90 µm
Waveband:Spatial resolution: 2 m
Swath width:
22 km
Accuracy:

IRS-1D

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

High resolution stereo images forstudy of topography, urban
areas, development of DTM,
run-off models etc.
Urban sprawl, forest
cover/timber volume, land usechange.

Waveband:
Panchromatic VIS: 0.5–0.75 µm
Spatial resolution: 5.8 m
Swath width:
70 km at nadir
Accuracy:

PRISMA

Approved

High resolution
optical imagers

Pancromatic and Hyperspectral
data for complex land ecosystem
studies.

Waveband:Spatial resolution: 5 m
Swath width:
30 km
5%Accuracy:

CBERS-3,
CBERS-4

Being
developed

High resolution
optical imagers

Measurements of cloud type andextent and land surface
reflectance, and used for global
land surface applications.

Waveband:VIS: 0.52–0.59 µm,
0.63–0.69 µm
NIR: 0.77–0.89 µm
PAN: 0.51–0.85 µm
Spatial resolution: 5 m panchromatic and 10 m
multi-spectral
Swath width:
60 km
Accuracy:

Ingenio(SEOSAT)

Approved

High resolution
optical imagers

High resolution multi-spectral
land optical images forapplications in cartography, landuse, urban management, water
management, environmental
monitoring, risk management
and security.

Waveband:

SARE-1

TBD

Imaging
multi-spectral
radiometers (vis/IR)

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

OCEANSAT-3

Being
developed

Imaging
Mainly for ocean biology and sea
multi-spectral
state applications including SWH,
radiometers
geoid etc., establishment of(passive microwave) global databases, meteorologicalapplications.

Waveband:18 GHz, 21 GHz, 37 GHz
Spatial resolution: 20 km, 17 km, 10 km
Swath width:1500 km
Accuracy:

PARASOL

Operational

Multiple
Measures polarization, anddirection/polarisation directional and spectral
radiometerscharacteristics of the solar lightreflected by aerosols, clouds,
oceans and land surfaces.

Waveband:

GISTDA

PAN (IRS-1C/1D)
Panchromatic sensor
ISRO

PAN CAMERA
Pancromatic camera
ASI

PAN
Panchromatic andmulti-spectral imager
CAST

PAN+MS (RGB+NIR)
Ingenio PAN+MS(RGB+NIR)
CDTI (ESA)

Panchromatic HighSensitivity Camera
CONAE

PMR
Passive Microwave
Radiometer
ISRO

POLDER-P
POLarization and
Directionality of the
Earth's Reflectances(PARASOL version)
CNES

VIS+NIR band: 450–680 nm,
450–520 nm, 520–600 nm,
630–690 nm, 760–900 nm
Spatial resolution: PAN: 2.5 m
MS: 10 m
Swath width:
60 km
Accuracy:

VIS–NIR: 0.490 µm, 0.670 µm
and 0.865 µm at 3 polarisations,and 0.49 µm, 0.565 µm,
0.763 µm, 0.765 µm, 0.91 µm
and 1.02 µm with no polarisation
Spatial resolution: 5.5 km x 5.5 km
Swath width:
1600 km
Accuracy:
Radiation budget, land surface,
Reflectance: 2%241

P
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

Operational

Radar altimeters

Nadir viewing sounding radar forprovision of real-time highprecision sea surface
topography, ocean circulation
and wave height data.

Waveband:Microwave: Ku-band (13.575 GHz),
C-band (5.3 GHz)
Spatial resolution: Basic measurement: 1/sec(6 km along track)
Raw measurement: 10/sec(600 m along track)
Swath width:
On baseline Topex/Poseidon orbit(10 day cycle): 300 km between
tracks at equator
Accuracy:
Sea level: 3.9 cm
Significant waveheight: 0.5 m
Horizontal sea surface windspeed: 2 m/s

Jason-2(aka OSTM)

Operational

Radar altimeters

Nadir viewing sounding radar forprovision of real-time highprecision sea surface
topography, ocean circulation
and wave height data.

Waveband:TRMM

Operational

Cloud profile andrain radars

Measures precipitation rate intropical latitudes.

Waveband:PICARD

Being
developed

Earth radiationbudget radiometer

Solar UV and visible flux inselected wavelength bands.

Waveband:POSEIDON-2 (SSALT-2) Jason-1
Positioning Ocean Solid
Earth Ice Dynamics
Orbiting Navigator(Single frequency solidstate radar altimeter)
CNES

POSEIDON-3
Positioning Ocean Solid
Earth Ice Dynamics
Orbiting Navigator(Single frequency solidstate radar altimeter)
CNES

PR
Precipitation Radar
JAXA (NASA)

PREMOS
PREcision Monitoring ofSolar variability

ALOS

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

Monitor-E

Operational

Imaging
Earth surface monitoring.
multi-spectral
radiometers (vis/IR)

JAXA

PSA
Panchromatic
film-making equipment
Roscosmos

242

Microwave: 13.796 GHz
and 13.802 GHz
Spatial resolution: Range resolution: 250 m
Horizontal resolution: 4.3 km
at nadirSwath width:
215 km (post-boost: 245 km)
Observable range: from surface
to approx 15 km altitude
Accuracy:
Rainfall rate 0.7 mm/h at storm top

UV: 230 nm, 311 nm, 402 nm
VIS: 548 nm

Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

CNES

PRISM
Panchromatic
Remote-sensing
Instrument for Stereo
Mapping

Microwave: Ku-band (13.575 GHz),
C-band (5.3 GHz)
Spatial resolution: Basic measurement: 1/sec(6 km along track)
Raw measurement: 10 /sec
(600 m along track)
Swath width:
On baseline Topex/Poseidon orbit(10 day cycle): 300 km between
tracks at equator
Accuracy:
Sea level: 3.9 cm
Significant waveheight: 0.5 m
Horizontal sea surface windspeed: 2 m/s

High resolution panchromaticstereo imager for land
applications which include
cartography, digital terrain
models, civil planning,
agriculture and forestry.

Waveband:

VIS–NIR: 0.52–0.77 µm(panchromatic)
Spatial resolution: 2.5 m
Swath width:
35 km (triplet stereo observations)
70 km (nadir observations)
Accuracy:

Waveband:
VIS – NIR: 0.51–0.85 µm
Spatial resolution: 8 m
Swath width:
90/780 km
Accuracy:9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

P|R
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

PSS
Panchromatic
film-making system

Kanopus-V N1 Prototype

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Imaging
Panchromatic data for
multi-spectral
environmental monitoring,radiometers (vis/IR) agriculture and forestry.

Waveband:
0.5–0.8 µm
Spatial resolution: 2.5 m
20 km
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Roscosmos(Roshydromet)

RA
Radar Altimeter

ERS-2

Operational

Radar altimeters

Measures wind speed, significant
wave height, sea surface
elevation, ice profile, land and ice
topography, and sea iceboundaries.

Waveband:Microwave: Ku-band: 13.8 GHz
Spatial resolution: Footprint is 16–20 km
Swath width:
Accuracy:
Wave height: 0.5 m or 10%(whichever is smaller)
Sea surface elevation: better
than 10 cm

EnvisatOperational

Radar altimeters

Measures wind speed, significant
wave height, sea surface
elevation, ice profile, land and ice
topography, and sea iceboundaries.

Waveband:

ESA

RA-2
Radar Altimeter - 2
ESA

RADMicrowave radiometer

Technical characteristics

Microwave: 13.575 GHz(Ku-band) & 3.2 GHz (S-band)

Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:
Altitude: better than 4.5 cm,
Wave height: better than 5% or
0.25 m

HY-2A

Being
developed

Imaging
Ocean wind and temperature
multi-spectral
measurements.
radiometers(passive microwave)

6.6 GHz, 10.7 GHz, 18.7 GHz,
23.8 GHz, 37.0 GHz
Spatial resolution: 100 km, 62 km, 36 km,
30 km, 18 km
Swath width:
1600 km
Accuracy:
1K

GFO (GEOSATFollow-on)

Operational

Radar altimeters

Ocran altimetry observations.

Waveband:13.5 GHz
Spatial resolution: 3.5 cm
Swath width:
Accuracy:SMAP

Proposed

Other

Soil moisture.

Waveband:Microwave
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

RADARSAT-1

Operational

Communications

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

RADARSAT-1
RADARSAT TTC
S-band (Tracking,Telemetry and Command)

Operational

Communications

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

NSOAS

Radar Altimeter
NASA

Radar/Radiometer
NASA

RADARSAT DTT
X-band (downlink of
payload)CSA

CSARadiomet
Roscosmos (Roscosmos)

Meteor-M N2, Approved
Meteor-M N3

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Provision of high verticalresolution atmospherictemperature and humidity
profiles.

Waveband:Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

243

R|S
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Beingdeveloped

ImagingHigh resolution images for
multi-spectral
monitoring of land surface andradiometers (vis/IR) coastal processes and for
agricultural, geological andhydrological applications.

Waveband:Being
developed

ImagingHigh resolution images for
multi-spectral
monitoring of land surface andradiometers (vis/IR) coastal processes and for
agricultural, geological andhydrological applications.

Waveband:
0.42–0.73 µm
Spatial resolution: 7.5 m
Swath width:
30 km
Accuracy:

Kanopus-Vulkan TBD

Magnetic field andspace environment

Waveband:150 MHz, 400 MHz
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Kanopus-Vulkan TBD

Other

Waveband:50 kHz – 15 MHz
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Operational

Imaging
Multi-spectral Earth surface
multi-spectral
monitoring.
radiometers (vis/IR)

Waveband:

VIS–NIR: 0.54–0.59 µm,
0.63–0.68 µm, 0.79–0.9 µm
Spatial resolution: 20/40 m
Swath width:
160/890 km
Accuracy:

Beingdeveloped

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders
and precision orbit

It will provide vertical profiles ofatmospheric density, refractivity,pressure, temperature andhumidity upto height of 30 km.

Waveband:RASAT VISRASATMulti-spectral
RASAT VIS Multi-spectral
cameraTubitakRASAT VISRASATPanchromatic
RASAR VIS Panchromatic
cameraTubitak

RBE
Roscosmos

RCHA

Measurements &applications

Roscosmos

RDSA
Multi-spectral Imager

Monitor-E

RoscosmosROSA
OCEANSAT-2
Radio Occultation
Sounder for Atmosphericstudies
ISRO

ROSA
Radio Occultation
Sounder for the
AtmosphereTechnical characteristics

Band 1: 0.42–0.55 µm
Band 2: 0.55–0.63 µm
Band 3: 0.58–0.73 µm
Spatial resolution: 15 m
Swath width:
30 km
Accuracy:

Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:<1.0 K temperature
0.2 g/kg humidity

SAC-D

Being
developed

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders
and precision orbit

Climate change studies.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Diademe 1&2

Operational

Precision orbit

Satellite laser ranging for
geodynamic measurements.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

GOES-11,
GOES-12,GOES-13,GOES-O,GOES-P

Operational

Other

Satellite and ground based
system to detect and locate
aviators, mariners, andland-based users in distress.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

ASI (CONAE)

RRA
Retroreflector Array
CNES

S&R (GOES)
Search and Rescue
NOAA

244

Frequency 1560–1590 MHz
and 1212–1242 MHz

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

S
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

S&R (NOAA)
Search and Rescue
Satellite Aided Tracking

MetOp-A,
MetOp-B,
NOAA-15,
NOAA-16,
NOAA-17,
NOAA-18,
NOAA-N'

Operational

Other

Satellite and ground based
system to detect and locate
aviators, mariners, andland-based users in distress.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Elektro-L N1,
Elektro-L N2,
Elektro-L N3

Beingdeveloped

Other

For emergency calls.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders
and atmosphericchemistry

SABER provides measurementsof the mesosphere and lower
thermosphere globally to support
investigations into thefundamental processes
governing the energetics,
chemistry, dynamics, andtransport of the atmosphericregion extending from 60 km to
180 km.

NIR–FIR: 1.27–17 µm(10 channels)
Spatial resolution: 2 km vertical resolution
Swath width:
Accuracy:

MeghaTropiques

Beingdeveloped

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Cross-track sounder with theobjective of measuring water
vapour profiles in the
troposphere in six layers from
2–12 km altitudes.

Waveband:SAR (MAPSAR)MAPSAR
Synthetic Aperture Radar(MAPSAR)

Proposed

Imaging microwave Multi-Application Purpose Radar.
radarsWaveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Operational

Imaging microwave All-weather images of ocean, ice
radarsand land surfaces.
Used for monitoring of coastal
zones, polar ice, sea ice, sea
state, geological features,
vegetation and land surface
processes.

Waveband:NOAA

S&R (Roshydromet)
Search and Rescue
Roshydromet

SABER
TIMED
Sounding of the
AtmosphereusingBroadband Emission
Radiometry
NASA

SAPHIR
Sondeur Atmospheriquedu Profil'd’Humidite
Intertropicale parRadiometrie

Waveband:Microwave: 183.3 GHz(6 channels)
Spatial resolution: 10 km
Swath width:
2200 km
Accuracy:

CNES

INPE (DLR)

SAR (RADARSAT)RADARSAT-1
Synthetic Aperture Radar(CSA) C-band
CSA

Microwave: C-band: 5.3 GHz,
HH polarisation
Spatial resolution: Standard: 25 x28 m (4 looks)
Wide beam (1/2): 48–30 x 28 m/
32–25 x 28 m (4 looks)
Fine resolution: 11–9x9 m (1 look)
ScanSAR (N/W): 50 x 50 m/
100 x 100 m (2–4/4–8 looks)
Extended (H/L): 22–19x2 m/
63–28 x 28 m (4 looks)
Swath width:Standard: 100 km
Wide: 150 km
Fine: 45 km
ScanSAR Narrow: 300 km
ScanSAR Wide: 500 km
Extended (H): 75 km
Extended (L): 170 km
Accuracy:
Geometric distortion: < 40 m
Radiometric: 1.0 dB

245

S
StatusType

Operational

Imaging microwave All-weather images of ocean, ice
radarsand land surfaces.
Used for monitoring of coastal
zones, polar ice, sea ice, sea
state, geological features,
vegetation and land surface
processes.

Waveband:Being
SAR (RCM)
RADARSAT
Synthetic Aperture Radar CONSTELLATION-1, developed
RADARSAT(CSA RADARSATCONSTELLATION-2,
Constellation)

Imaging microwave All-weather, C-band data toradarssupport ecosystem monitoring,
maritime surveillance anddisaster management.

Waveband:Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

SAR (RADARSAT-2)
RADARSAT-2
Synthetic Aperture Radar(CSA) C-band
CSA

CSA

SAR (RISAT)
Synthetic AperatureRadiometer (RISAT)ISRORADARSATCONSTELLATION-3

RISAT-1

Being
developed

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

Microwave: C-band 5.405 GHz:
HH, VV, HV, VH polarisation –includes fully polarimetric
imaging modes, and left – andright – looking capability
Spatial resolution: Standard: 25 x28 m (4 looks)
Wide beam (1/2): 48–30 x 28 m/
32–25 x 28 m (4 looks)
Fine resolution: 11–9 x 9 m (1 look)
ScanSAR (N/W): 50 x 50 m/
100 x 100 m (2–4/4–8 looks)
Extended (H/L): 22–19 x 28 m/
63–28 x 28 m (4 looks)
Ultrafine: 3 m
Swath width:Standard: 100 km (20–49º)Wide beam (1/2): 165 km/
150 km (20–31/ 31–39º)Fine resolution: 45 km (37–48º)
ScanSAR (W): 510 km (20–49º)
Extended (H/L): 75 km/170 km(50–60/ 10–23º)Ultrafine: 10–20 km
Accuracy:
Geometric distortion: < 40 m
Radiometric: 1.0 dB

Microwave: C-band 5.405 GHz:
HH, VV, HV, VH polarisation –includes fully polarimetric
imaging modes.
Spatial resolution: Low Resolution: 100 x 100 m(8 looks)Medium Resolution: 50 x 50 m
(4 looks)Medium Resolution Land: 16 x 16 m
(4 looks)Medium Resolution Land
ScanSAR: 30 x 30 m (4 looks)
High Resolution: 5 x 5 m (1 look)
Very High Resolution: 3 x 3 m(1 look)
Ice-Oil Low Noise: 100 x 100 m(8 looks)
Ship Detection Mode: Variable
Swath width:
Low Resolution: 500 km
Medium Resolution: 350 km
Medium Resolution Land: 30 km
Medium Resolution Land
ScanSAR: 125 km
High Resolution: 30 km
Very High Resolution: 20 km
Ice-Oil Low Noise: 350 km
Ship Detection Mode: 350 km
Accuracy:
Radiometric Accuracy: 1.0 dB

Imaging microwave Radar backscatter measurements Waveband:
radarsof land, water and ocean surfaces Spatial resolution:
for applications in soil moisture,
crop applications (under cloud
cover), terrain mapping etc.
Swath width:

Accuracy:

246

C-band (5.350 GHz)
3–6 m (FRS-1)
9–12 m (FRS-2)
25/50 m (MRS/CRS)
30 km (HRS)
30 km (FRS-1/FRS-2)
120/240 km (MRS/CRS)

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

S
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

SAR (Roshydromet)
Meteor-M N3
Synthetic Aperture Radar(CSA) C-band

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Being
developed

Imaging microwave High resolution microwave radar
radarsimages for ice watch.

X-bandWaveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Approved

Imaging microwave All-weather images of ocean,radarsland and ice for monitoring ofland surface processes, ice,environmental monitoring, risk
management, environmental
resources, maritime
management, Earth topographic
mapping and DEM, moving target
indication.

Waveband:Imaging microwave All weather images of ocean,radarsland and ice for monitoring ofland surface processes, ice,environmental monitoring, risk
management, environmental
resources, maritime
management, earth topographic
mapping.

Waveband:Microwave: X-band, with choiceof 4 polarisation modes(VV, HH, VV/HH, HV/HH)
Spatial resolution: Single polarisation mode:
Stripmap: few metres
ScanSAR: from few tens toseveral tens of metres
Frame: resolution: order of 1 m
Two polarisation mode:
PING PONG: few metres
Swath width:
Single polarisation mode:
Stripmap (40 x 40 km)
ScanSAR (100 x 100 km or
200 x 200 km)
Spotlight (10 x 10 km)
Two polarisation mode:
PING PONG (30 x 30 km)
Accuracy:

Roshydromet(Roscosmos)

SAR (SABRINA)
Synthetic Aperature
Radar (SABRINA)SABRINAASI

SAR 2000
Multi-Mode Synthetic
Aperture Radar
ASI (MiD (Italy))

SAR components
testing

COSMO-SkyMed 1, Operational
COSMO-SkyMed 2,
COSMO-SkyMed 3,
COSMO-SkyMed 4

Technical characteristics

Microwave: X-band, with choiceof 4 polarisation modes(VV, HH, VV/HH, HV/HH)

Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SARE-1

TBD

TBD

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

RISAT-L

Proposed

Imaging
Studies related to soil moisturemulti-spectral
and ocean salinity.
radiometers(passive microwave)

Waveband:L-bandSpatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SAOCOM-1A,
SAR-L (SAOCOM)
Synthetic Aperture Radar SAOCOM-1B,(CONAE)
SAOCOM-2A,
SAOCOM-2B
CONAE

Being
developed

Imaging microwave Land, ocean, emergencies, soil
radarsmoisture, interferometry, others.

Waveband:SARSAT
Search and Rescue
Satellite Aided Tracking

Operational

Data collection

Waveband:UHF 406.0 MHZ
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

CONAE

SAR L
Synthetic ApertureRadiometer (L-band)
ISRO

NOAA

MetOp-A,
MetOp-B,
NPOESS-1,
NPOESS-2,
NPOESS-3,
NPOESS-4

Satellite and ground based
system to detect and locate
aviators, mariners, andland-based users in distress.

Microwave: L-band SAR
1.275 GHz
Spatial resolution: 10 x 10 m – 100 x 100 m
Swath width:40–320 km
Accuracy:
5 dB

247

S
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

S-band SAR
S-band Synthetic
Aperture Radar

HJ-1C

Being
developed

Imaging microwave Radar measurements for naturalradarsand disaster monitoring.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SBUV/2
NOAA-16,
Solar Backscattter
NOAA-17,Ultraviolet Instrument/2 NOAA-18,
NOAA-N'NOAA

Operational

Atmosphericchemistry

Data on trace gases including
vertical profile ozone, and solar
irradiance and total ozone
concentration measurements.

Waveband:UV: 0.16–0.4 µm (12 channels)
Spatial resolution: 170 km
Swath width:
Accuracy:
Absolute accuracy: 1%

ScaRaB
Scanner for Earth's
Radiation Budget

MeghaTropiques

Beingdeveloped

Earth radiationbudget radiometer

Measures top-of-atmosphere
Waveband:shortwave radiation (0.2–4.0 µm)
and total radiation (0.2–50 µm).
Two additional narrow-bandchannels (0.5–0.7 µm and
11–12 µm) allow cloud detection Spatial resolution:and scene identification.
Swath width:
Accuracy:

VIS window channel: 0.5–0.7 µm
Solar channel UV–SWIR: 0.2–4 µm
Total channel UV–FIR: 0.2–50 µm
Thermal window channel:
10.5–12.5 µm
40 km
2200 km
Absolute: ± 2.5 W/m2/sr
Relative: ± 0.7 W/m2/sr

HY-2A

Being
developed

Scatterometers

Monitoring global sea surface
winds.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

13.2515 GHz, HH, VV
50 km
1300 km
0.5 dBOCEANSAT-2
OCEANSAT-3

Being
developed

Scatterometers

Ocean surface windmeasurements.

Waveband:
13.515 GHz
Spatial resolution: 50 km
Swath width:
1400–1840 km
Accuracy:

Operational

Atmosphericchemistry

Measures middle atmosphere
Waveband:temperature.
Provides tropospheric andstratospheric profiles of O2, O3,
O4, CO, N2O, NO2, CO2, CH4, H2O,
Spatial resolution:and tropospheric andstratospheric profiles of aerosols
Swath width:and cloud altitude.

CAST

CNES

SCAT
Scatterometer
NSOAS

Scatterometer (ISRO)ISROSCIAMACHY
Envisat
Scanning Imaging
Absorption Spectrometer
for Atmospheric
Chartography
ESA (DLR)

Technical characteristics

Accuracy:

SeaWinds

QuikSCAT

Operational

Scatterometers

GOES-R,
GOES-S

PrototypeSpace environment Monitor proton, electron, andalpha particle fluxes.

NASA (JAXA)SEISSSpace Environment In
Situ Suite
NOAA

248

Measurement of surface windspeed and direction.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

S-band SAR
20 m (4 looks)
100 km
3 dB

UV–SWIR: 240–314 nm,
309–3405 nm, 394–620 nm,
604–805 nm, 785–1050 nm,
1000–1750 nm, 1940–2040 nm
and 2265–2380 nm
Limb vertical 3 x 132 km
Nadir horizontal 32 x 215 km
Limb and nadir mode: 1000 km(max)
Radiometric: <4%

Microwave: 13.402 GHz
25 km
1600 km
Speed: 2–3.5 m/s
Direction: 20º

Waveband:
30 eV–500 MeV
Spatial resolution: 15º, 30º, 60º, 90º
Swath width:
Accuracy:25%

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

S
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

SEM (GOES)
Space Environment
Monitor

GOES-11,
GOES-12,GOES-13,GOES-O,GOES-P

Operational

Space environment Used for equipment failure
analysis, solar flux measurement,
solar storm warning, andmagnetic and electric fieldmeasurement at satellite.

MetOp-A,
MetOp-B,
NOAA-16,
NOAA-17,
NOAA-18,
NOAA-N'

Operational

Space environment Used for equipment failure
Waveband:analysis, solar flux measurement,
solar storm warning, andmagnetic and electric fieldmeasurement at satellite.

NOAA

SEM (POES)
Space Environment
Monitor
NOAA

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Senses and quantifies intensity
in the sequentially selectedenergy bands, with energies
ranging from 0.05–20 keV.
Senses protons, electrons andions with energies from 30 keV
to levels exceeding 6.9 MeV.

Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SEM
Space Environment
Monitor

FY-3A,
FY-3B

Operational

Space environment Measures space environment
parameters to support space
craft operations.

NPOESS-1

Operational

Space environment Used for equipment failure
Waveband:analysis, solar flux measurement,
solar storm warning, andmagnetic and electric fieldmeasurement at satellite

NRSCC

SEM-N
Space Environment
Monitor - NPOESS
NOAA

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Senses and quantifies intensity
in the sequentially selectedenergy bands, with energies
ranging from 0.05–20 keV.
Senses protons, electrons, andions with energies from 30 keV
to levels exceeding 6.9 MeV

Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SEVIRI
Spinning Enhanced
Visible and Infrared
Imager
EUMETSAT (ESA)

Meteosat-10,
Meteosat-11,
Meteosat-8,
Meteosat-9

Operational

Imaging
Measurements of cloud cover,multi-spectral
cloud top height, precipitation,
radiometers (vis/IR) cloud motion, vegetation,
radiation fluxes, convection, airmass analysis, cirrus cloud
discrimination, tropopausemonitoring, stability monitoring,
total ozone and sea surface
temparature.

Waveband:VIS: 0.56–0.71 µm, 0.5–0.9 µm(broadband)
NIR: 0.74–0.88 µm
SWIR 1.5–1.78 µm
SWIR: 3.48–4.36 µm
IR: 5.35–7.15 µm, 6.85–7.85 µm,
8.3–9.1 µm, 9.38–9.94 µm,
9.8–11.8 µm, 11–13 µm,
12.4–14.46 µm
Spatial resolution: 1 km (at SSP) for one broadband
visible channel HRV, 5 km
(at SSP) for all other channels
Swath width:
Full Earth discAccuracy:
Cloud cover: 10%
Cloud top height: 1 km
Cloud top temparature: 1 K
Cloud type: 8 classes
Surface temparature: 0.7–2.0 K
Specific humidity profile: 10%
Wind profile (horizontal
component): 2–10 m/s
Long wave Earth surface
radiation: 5 W/m2

249

S
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

SGLI
GCOM-C1,
Second-generation Global GCOM-C2,
Imager
GCOM-C3

StatusType

Approved

ImagingMedium resolution multi-spectral Waveband:
multi-spectral
imaging of land, ocean andradiometers (vis/IR) atmosphere.
and ocean colour
Spatial resolution:
instruments
Swath width:

JAXA

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

VIS – NIR: 0.38–0.865 µm
SW: 1.05–2.21 µm
TIR: 10.8–12.0 µm
250 m, 500 m, 1000 m
1150 km (VNR)
1400 km (IRS)

Accuracy:

SI
Star Imager

Operational

Precision orbit

Measurements to determine theorientation of both the satellite
and the CSC magnetometer.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Operational

Earth radiationbudget radiometer

Solar irradiance monitoring.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SORCE

Operational

Earth radiationbudget radiometer

Measures solar spectral
irradiance in the 200–2000 nm
range.

Waveband:
UV–SWIR: 200–2000 nm
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

CryoSat-2

Beingdeveloped

Radar altimeters

Marine ice and terrestrial ice
sheet thickness measurement.

Waveband:Microwave: 13.575 GHz (Ku-band)
Spatial resolution: Range resolution 45 cm
along-track resolution 250 m
Swath width:
Footprint 15 km
Accuracy:
Arctic sea-ice: 1.6 cm/year
for 300 km x 300 km cells
Land ice (small scale):
3.3 cm/year for 100 km x 100 km cells
Land ice (large scale):0.17 cm/year for Antarctica size
area

Sentinel-3 A,
Sentinel-3 B,
Sentinel-3 C

Approved

Imaging
Marine and land services.
multi-spectral
radiometers(passive microwave)

Waveband:9 bands in VNIR/SWIR/TIR
Spatial resolution: 500 m (VNIR/SWIR)
1 km (TIR)
Swath width:
1675 km (near-nadir view)
750 km (backward view)
Accuracy:
0.2 K abs., 80 mK rel.

Odin

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders
and atmosphericchemistry

Waveband:SAC-D

Approved

TBDØrsted(Oersted)

DNSC

SIM
FY-3A,
Solar Irradiation Monitor FY-3B
NRSCC

SIM
Spectral Irradiance
MonitorNASASIRAL
SAR Interferometer
Radar Altimeter
ESA

SLSTR
Sea and Land Surface
Temperature Radiomete
ESA (EC)

SMR
Submillimetre
Radiometer
SNSB

SODAD
Orbital System for an
Active Detection of
DebrisCONAE (CNES)

250

Measures global distributions ofozone and species of importancefor ozone chemisty, ClO, HNO3,
H2O, N2O, (HO2, H2O2).
Measures temperature in theheight range 15–100 km.

Microwave: 118.7 GHz + 4 bands
in the region 480–580 GHz:
Tunable measures 2–3 x 1 GHzregions at a time
Spatial resolution: Vertical resolution 1.5–3 km
along track 600 km
Swath width:
Altitudes of 5–100 km
Accuracy:
2–40% depending on species
and altitude

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

S
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

SODISM
SOlar Diameter Imager
and Surface Mapper

PICARD

Being
developed

Earth radiationbudget radiometer

Measures diameter anddifferential rotation of the sun –a whole Sun imager.

Waveband:CNES

Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SOLSTICE
SORCE
SOLar STellar Irradiance
Comparison ExperimentOperational

Earth radiationbudget radiometer

Data on UV and charged particle
energy inputs, and on time
variation of full-disc solar UV
spectrum.
Measures solar UV radiation(115–430 nm) with resolution of
0.12 nm.
Compares solar UV output with
UV radiation of stable bright bluestars.

Waveband:UV: 115–180 nm & 170–320 nm
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:
1%

INSAT-3D

Being
developed

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Atmospheric soundings,
atmospheric stability, thermal
gradient winds.

Waveband:

SWIR: 3.74–4.74 µm
MWIR: 6.51–11.03 µm
TIR: 12.02–14.71 µm
VIS: 0.55–0.75 µm
Spatial resolution: 10 x 10 km
Swath width:
Full (Full Earth disc sounding),
Program (Options provided for
Sector Scans)
Accuracy:

GOES-11,
GOES-12,GOES-13,GOES-O,GOES-P

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Atmospheric soundings and dataon atmospheric stability andthermal gradient winds.

Waveband:
VIS – TIR: 19 channels
Spatial resolution: 10 km
Swath width:
Horizon to horizon
Accuracy:

PICARD

Being
developed

Earth radiationbudget radiometer

Total solar irradiancemeasurements.

Waveband:
Total irradianceSpatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

OCO

Being
developed

Atmosphericchemistry

Global measurements ofatmospheric CO2 needed todescribe the variability of CO2
sources and sinks.

Waveband:
0.76 µm, 1.61 µm, 2.06 µm
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy

Sentinel-3 A,
Sentinel-3 B,
Sentinel-3 C

Approved

Radar altimeters

Marine and land services.

Waveband:DMSP F-14

Operational

Space environment Detects the location, intensity
and spectrum of X-rays emitted
from the Earth's atmosphere.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

DMSP F-14,
DMSP F-15

Operational

Space environment Measurement of the ambient
electron density andtemperatures, the ambient ion
density and ion temperature andmolecular weight.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

NASASounder (INSAT)IR Sounder
ISRO

Sounder
NOAA

SOVAP
SOlar Variability Picard
radiometer
CNES

Spectrometer (OCO)
NASA

SRAL
SAR Radar Altimeter
ESA (EC)

SSB/X-2
Special Sensor Gamma
Ray Particle Detector
NOAA (DoD (USA))

SSI/ES-2
Special Sensor
Ionospheric Plasma
Drift/Scintillation Meter
NOAA (DoD (USA))UV: 230 nm,
VIS: 548 nm,
Active regions: 160 nm plus Lyman
alpha detector

Dual freq radar altimeter,
Ku-band, C-band
Spatial resolution: 300 m
Swath width:
Profiling
Accuracy:
3 cm in range(1 s average, 2 m SWH including
atm. corrections)251

S
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

SSI/ES-3
Special Sensor
Ionospheric Plasma
Drift/Scintillation Meter

DMSP F-16,
DMSP F-17,
DMSP F-18,
DMSP F-19,
DMSP F-20

Operational

Space environment Measurement of the ambient
electron density andtemperatures, the ambient ion
density and ion temperature andmolecular weight.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

DMSP F-14,
DMSP F-15

Operational

Magnetic field

Measurement of transfer energy,
mass and momentum of charged
particles through themagnetosphere-ionosphere in
the Earth's magnetic field.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

DMSP F-16

Operational

Magnetic field

Measurement of transfer energy,
mass and momentum of charged
particles through themagnetosphere-ionosphere in
the Earth's magnetic field.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

DMSP F-14,
DMSP F-15,
DMSP F-16,
DMSP F-17,
DMSP F-18,
DMSP F-19,
DMSP F-20

Operational

Magnetic field

Measures geomagnetic
fluctuations associatedwithMeasures geomagnetic
fluctuations associated withsolar geophysical phenomena.
With SSIES and SSJ provides
heating and electron density
profiles in the ionosphere.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

DMSP F-14,
DMSP F-15

Operational

Imaging
Measures atmospheric, ocean
multi-spectral
and terrain microwave
radiometers
brightness temperatures to(passive microwave) provide: sea surface winds, rain
rates, cloud water, precipitation,soil moisture, ice edge, ice age.

Microwave: 19.35 GHz,
22.235 GHz, 37 GHz, 85 GHz
Spatial resolution: 15.7 km x 13.9 km
to 68.9 x 44.3 km(depends on frequency)
Swath width:
1400 km
Accuracy:

DMSP F-16,
DMSP F-17,
DMSP F-18,
DMSP F-19,
DMSP F-20

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Measures thermal microwave
radiation.
Global measurements of air temp
profile, humidity profile, ocean
surface winds, rainoverland/ocean, ice
concentration/age, ice/snow
edge, water vapour/clouds overocean, snow water content, land
surface temperature.

Waveband:DMSP F-14,
DMSP F-15

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Measures Earth's surface andatmospheric emission in the
50–60 GHz oxygen band.

Waveband:

SSM/T-2DMSP F-14,
Special Sensor
DMSP F-15
Microwave Water Vapour
Sounder

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Water Vapour profiler.

Waveband:NOAA (DoD (USA))

SSJ/4
Special Sensor
Precipitating Plasma
MonitorNOAA (DoD (USA))

SSJ/5
Special Sensor
Precipitating Plasma
MonitorMeasurements &applications

Technical characteristics

NOAA (DoD (USA))

SSM
Special Sensor
Magnetometer
NOAA (DoD (USA))

SSM/I
Special Sensor
Microwave Imager
NOAA (DoD (USA))

SSM/ISSpecial Sensor
Microwave Imager
Sounder
NOAA (DoD (USA))

SSM/T-1
Special Sensor
Microwave TemperatureSounder
NOAA (DoD (USA))NOAA (DoD (USA))252

Waveband:Microwave: 19–183 GHz(24 frequencies)
Spatial resolution: Varies with frequency:
25 x 17 km to 70 x 42 km
Swath width:
1700 km
Accuracy:

Microwave: 7 channels in the
50–60 GHz range
Spatial resolution: 174 km diameter beam
Swath width:1500 km
Accuracy:

Microwave: 91.6 GHz, 150 GHz,
183.31 GHz (3 channels)(Total 5 channels)
Spatial resolution: approx 48 km
Swath width:1500 km
Accuracy:9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

S|T
StatusTypeSSULIDMSP F-16,
Special Sensor Ultraviolet DMSP F-17,
Limb Imager
DMSP F-18,
DMSP F-19,
NOAADMSP F-20

Operational

Space environment Measures vertical profiles of thenatural airglow radiation fromatoms, molecules and ions in theupper atmosphere andionosphere.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SSUSI
DMSP F-16,
Special Sensor Ultraviolet DMSP F-17,
Spectrographic Imager DMSP F-18,
DMSP F-19,
NOAADMSP F-20

Operational

Space environment Monitors the composition andstructure of the upper
atmosphere and ionosphere, as
well as auroral energetic particle
inputs, with spectrographic
imaging and photometry.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

STRStar Tracker Set (3)Beingdeveloped

Precision orbit

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:N/A< 1 arcsec
N/A< 3 arcsec pointing accuracy
around all STR axes

Waveband:Blue 440–510 nm
XAN 520–540 nm
Green 520–590 nm
Red 630–685 nm
RedEdge 690–730 nm
NIR 845–890 nm
6.25 m GSD
45 km; Off-nadir: 530 km

Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

Swarm

ESA

SumbandilaSat Imager SumbandilaSat Approved
CSIR (Uni of Stellenbosh)

Measurements &applications

Precise attitude determinationfrom the combination of two or
three star trackers.

ImagingPrimary payload (imager):
multi-spectral
Support decision making inradiometers (vis/IR) natural resource management,
disaster management,
agriculture, urban planning andother applications.

Technical characteristics

Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

SUVI
Solar Ultraviolet Imager

GOES-R,
GOES-S

Being
developed

Other

The SUVI will monitor the entire
dynamic range of solar x-ray
features, including coronal holes
and solar flares, and will provide
quantitative estimates of thephysical conditions in the Sun’satmosphere.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

CHINOOK

Being
developed

Other

Objective is to measurestratospheric winds and ozone
fluxes.

Waveband:GOES-12,GOES-13,GOES-P

Operational

Earth radiation
Obtains data on structure ofbudget radiometers solar corona.
Full disc imagery also provides
warnings of geomagnetic storms,
solar flares and information on
active regions of sun andfilaments.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

GOSAT

Being
developed

Imaging
Measurement of cloud andmulti-spectral
aerosol for calibration ofradiometers (vis/IR) TANSO-FTS.

Waveband:

NOAA

SWIFT
Stratospheric Wind
Interferometer forTransport Studies
CSA

SXI
Solar X-ray Imager
NOAA (USAF)TANSO-CAI
Thermal And Near
infrared Sensor for
carbon Observation Cloud and Aerosol
ImagerJAXA (MOE (Japan), NIES
(Japan))An ozone rotation-vibration line
near 9 mm
Spatial resolution: Vertical resolution approx 1.5 km(from 15–55 km altitude)
Swath width:
N/A
Accuracy:
3–5 m/s for wind vector
5% for ozone density(from 15–30 km)

0.380 µm, 0.678 µm, 0.870 µm,
1.62 µm
Spatial resolution: 0.5 km (0.380 µm, 0.678 µm,
0.870 µm bands)
1.5 km (1.62 µm band)
Swath width:1000 km (0.380 µm, 0.678 µm,
0.870 µm bands)
750 km (1.62 µm band)
Accuracy:

253

T
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

TANSO-FTS
Thermal And Near
infrared Sensor for
carbon Observation Fourier Transform
Spectrometer

GOSAT

Being
developed

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders
and atmosphericchemistry)

CO2 and methane distribution.

Waveband:

SAC-D

Being
developed

Precision orbit

Develop, test, and operate theTechnological Demonstration
Package (TDP) for demonstratinga newly developed GPS receiverfor position, velocity, and time
determination and an Inertia
Reference Unit (IRU) to measureinertial angular velocity.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

TES

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

High resolution images for studyof topography, urban areas etc.

Waveband:
Panchromatic VIS: 0.5–0.75 µm
Spatial resolution: 1 m
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Aura

Operational

Atmosphericchemistry

3D profiles on a global scale of
all infrared active species fromsurface to lower stratosphere.
Measures greenhouse gas
concentrations, troposphericozone, acid rain precursors, gas
exchange leading tostratospheric ozone depletion.

Waveband:
SWIR–TIR: 3.2–15.4 µm
Spatial resolution: In limb mode:
2.3 km vertical resolution
In down-looking mode:
50 km x 5 km (global)
5 km x 0.5 km (local)
Swath width:
Limb mode:
global: 50 km x 180 km
local: 5 km x 18 km
Accuracy:
Ozone: 20 ppb
Trace gases: 3–500 ppb

Operational

Earth radiationbudget radiometer

Measurement of total solar
irradiance directly traceable to
SI units with an absoluteaccuracy of 0.03% abd relative
accuracy of 0.001% per year.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Looks at the sun every orbit,
providing 15 measurements
per day
Accuracy:

OCEANSAT-3

Being
developed

Imaging
TIR and OCM combination will
multi-spectral
support joint analysis forradiometers (vis/IR) operational potential fishingzones.

Waveband:5 bands
Spatial resolution: 1 km
Swath width:1500 km
Accuracy:

SAC-F

Approved

TBD

Waveband:Thermal IR
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Landsat-5

Operational

Imaging
Measures surface radiance andmulti-spectral
emittance, lands cover state andradiometers (vis/IR) change (eg vegetation type).
Used as multi-purpose imagery
for land applications.

Waveband:
0.45–12.50 µm
Spatial resolution: VIS–SWIR: 30 m
TIR: 120 m
Swath width:
185 km
Accuracy:

0.758–0.775 µm, 1.56–1.72 µm,
1.92–2.08 µm, 5.56–14.3 µm
Spatial resolution: 10.5 km
Swath width:
160 km
Accuracy:

JAXA (MOE (Japan), NIES
(Japan))

TDP
Technological
Development PackageCONAE

TES PAN
Panchromatic sensor
ISRO

TES
Tropospheric Emission
Spectrometer
NASA

TIM
Glory,
Total Irradiance Monitor SORCE
NASA

TIR (OCEANSAT-3)
Thermal Infrared
Radiometer(OCEANSAT-3)
ISRO

TIS (CONAE)
Thermal IR Scanner
CONAE

TM
Thematic Mapper
USGS

254

9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

T|U
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

Operational

Imaging
Measures rainfall rates overmulti-spectral
oceans (less reliable over land),radiometers
combined rainfall structure and(passive microwave) surface rainfall rates withassociated latent heating.
Used to produce monthly total
rainfall maps over oceans.

Waveband:

TopSatOperational

High resolution
optical imagers

Experimental medium-resolution
imaging satellite supporting a
range of possible land
applications.

Waveband:

Panchromatic imagery
Resolution 2.8 m
Spatial resolution: Multi-spectral imagery (RGB)
Resolution 5.6 m
Panchromatic imagery 17 x 17 km
Swath width:
Multi-Spectral – Swath 12 x 18 km
Accuracy:

FY-3A,
FY-3B,
FY-3C,
FY-3D,
FY-3E,
FY-3F,
FY-3G

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders

Ozone total column verticalprofile measurements.

TOU: 6 channels
in the range 308–360 nm
SBUS: in the range 252–340 nm
Spatial resolution: TOU: 50 km total ozone
SBUS: 200 km total ozone
Swath width:
TOU: 3000 km
SBUS: nadir only
Accuracy:

Jason-1

Operational

Atmospherictemperature andhumidity sounders
and precision orbit

Precise continuous tracking dataof satellite to decimeter
accuracy.

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

NPOESS-1,
NPOESS-3,
NPOESS-4

Being
developed

Earth radiationbudget radiometer

0.2–2 µm solar spectral
irradiance monitor.

Waveband:
UV – SWIR: 0.2–2 µm
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:
1.5 W/m2

MTG S1/
Sentinel-4 A,
MTG S2/
Sentinel-4 B

Proposed

AtmosphericchemistrySupporting atmosphericcomposition and air quality
monitoring services.

Waveband:

UV–1: 290–308 nm
UV–2: 308–400 nm
VIS: 400–500 nm
NIR: 750–775 nm
Spatial resolution: < 5 km at SSP,
possibly relaxed to 50 km
for wavelengths < 308 nm
Swath width:
FOV E–W: 30ºW–45ºE at 40ºN,
N–S: 30ºN–65ºN
Accuracy:

Proposed

AtmosphericchemistrySupporting atmosphericcomposition and air quality
monitoring services.

Waveband:

TMI
TRMM
TRMM Microwave Imager
NASA

TOPSAT Telescope
BNSC

TOU/SBUS
Total Ozone Unit & Solar
Backscatter Ultraviolet
Sounder
NRSCC

TRSR
Turbo-Rogue Space
Receiver
NASA

TSIS
Total Solar Irradiance
SensorMeasurements &applications

NOAA

UVN (Sentinel-4)
UV-visible-near-infrared
imaging spectrometer(Sentinel-4)
ESA (EC)UVNS (post-EPS)
post-EPS/
UV-visible-near
Sentinel-5
infrared-shortwave
infrared imaging
spectrometer (post-EPS)
ESA (EC)

Technical characteristics

Microwave: 10.7 GHz, 19.4 GHz,
21.3 GHz, 37 GHz, and 85.5 GHz
Spatial resolution: Vertical: 2.5 km approx
Horizontal: 18 km
Swath width:
790 km
Accuracy:
Liquid water: 3 mg/cm3
Humidity: 3 mg/cm3
Ocean wind speed: 1.5 m/s

Waveband:

UV–1: 270–300 nm
UV–2: 300–400 nm
VIS: 400–500 nm
NIR: 710–775 nm
SWIR–1: 1593–1672 nm
SWIR–2: 1940–2030 nm
SWIR–3: 2305–2385 nm
Spatial resolution: 5–15 km at SSP,
possibly relaxed to 50 km
for wavelengths < 300 nm
Swath width:
Daily global coverage
Accuracy:

255

U|V
StatusType

Measurements &applications

Technical characteristics

Proposed

AtmosphericchemistrySupporting atmosphericcomposition and air quality
monitoring services.

Waveband:

SPOT-4,SPOT-5

Operational

Imaging
Data of use for crop forecast and Waveband:
multi-spectral
monitoring, vegetation
radiometers (vis/IR) monitoring, andbiosphere/geosphere interaction
studies.

Swarm

Being
developed

Magnetic field

INSAT-2E,
INSAT-3A,
Kalpana

Operational

Imaging
Cloud cover, rainfall, windmulti-spectral
velocity, sea surface
radiometers (vis/IR) temperature, outgoing longwave
radiation, reflected solar
radiation in spectral band
0.55–0.75 µm, emitted radiationin 10.5–12.5 µm range.

VIS: 0.55–0.75 µm
NIR: 5.7–7.1 µm
TIR: 10.5–12.5 µm
Spatial resolution: 2 km in visible
8 km in IR
Swath width:
Full Earth disc every 30 minutes
Accuracy:

NPOESS-1,
NPOESS-2,
NPOESS-3,
NPOESS-4,
NPP

Being
developed

ImagingGlobal observations of land,
multi-spectral
ocean, and atmosphereradiometers (vis/IR) parameters: cloud/weather
and ocean colour
imagery, sea-surface
instruments
temperature, ocean colour, land
surface vegetation indices.

Waveband:

VIS – TIR: 0.4–12.5 µm(22 channels)
Spatial resolution: 400 m – 1.6 km
Swath width:
3000 km
Accuracy:
SST 0.35 K

VIRR
FY-3A,
Multi-spectral Visible and FY-3B,
Infrared Scan
FY-3C,
Radiometer
FY-3D,(10 channels)
FY-3E,
FY-3F,NRSCC (CAST)
FY-3G

Operational

Imaging
Multi-spectral Visible andmulti-spectral
Infrared Scan Radiometer.
radiometers (vis/IR)

Waveband:Instrument features 10 channels
over 0.43–10.5 µm
Spatial resolution: 1.1 km at nadir
Swath width:
2800 km
Accuracy:

TRMM
VIRS
Visible Infrared Scanner

Operational

Imaging
Data to be used in conjunction
multi-spectralwith data from CERES instrument
radiometers (vis/IR) to determine cloud radiation.
Will enable 'calibration' of
precipitation indices derived
from other satellite sources.

Waveband:Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

UVNS
Sentinel-5(Sentinel-5 precursor) precursor
UV-visible-near-infrared
imaging spectrometer(Sentinel-5 precursor)
ESA (EC)

VEGETATION
CNES (EC)

VFM
Vector Magnetometer

Operational mode:
VIS: 0.61–0.68 µm
NIR: 0.78–0.89 µm
SWIR: 1.58–1.75 µm
Experimental mode:
VIS: 0.43–0.47 µm
Spatial resolution: 1.15 km at nadir – minimal
variation for off-nadir viewing
Swath width:
2200 km
Accuracy:

Magnetic field vector
measurments.

ESA

VHRR
Very High resolution
Radiometer
ISRO

VIIRS
Visible/Infrared Imager
Radiometer SuiteNOAA (NASA)

NASA

256

UV–1: 270–300 nm
UV–2: 300–400 nm
VIS: 400–500 nm
NIR: 710–775 nm
SWIR–3: 2305–2385 nm
Spatial resolution: 5–15 km at SSP,
possibly relaxed to 50 km
for wavelengths < 300 nm
Swath width:
Daily global coverage
Accuracy:

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy: <N/A<0.1 nT
N/A
0.5 nT/15 days

Waveband:VIS: 0.63 µm
SWIR–MWIR: 1.6 µm and 3.75 µm
TIR: 10.8 µm and 12 µm
Spatial resolution: 2 km at nadir
Swath width:
720 km
Accuracy:9 Catalogue of Satellite Instruments

V|W
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusType

VSC
Venus Superspectral
Camera

VENUS

Being
developed

ImagingHigh resolution superspectral
multi-spectral
images (12 spectral bands) forradiometers (vis/IR) vegetation and landcoverapplications.

Waveband:GFO (GEOSATFollow-on)

Operational

Imaging
Measurement of the water
multi-spectral
vapour content along theradiometers
altimeter pulse path.
(passive microwave)

Waveband:
22 GHz, 37 GHz
Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

GOES-11,
GOES-12

Operational

Communications

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

CALIPSO

Operational

Imaging
Acquires high spatial resolution
multi-spectral
imagery for meteorologicalradiometers (vis/IR) context.

Waveband:VIS: 620 to 670 nm
Spatial resolution: 125 m
Swath width:
60 km
Accuracy:

CBERS-2,
CBERS-2B

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

Waveband:

CBERS-3,
CBERS-4

Being
developed

Imaging
Earth resources, environmental
multi-spectral
monitoring, land use.
radiometers (vis/IR)

Waveband:IRS-1D

Operational

High resolution
optical imagers

Waveband:
2 channels: R–IR
Spatial resolution: 188 m
Swath width:
810 km
Accuracy:

CORIOLIS

Operational

Multiple
Measure ocean surface winddirection/polarisation vectors.
radiometers

6.8 GHz, 10.7 GHz, 18.7 GHz,
23.8 GHz, 37 GHz
Spatial resolution: 8 x 13 km – 40 x 60 km
Swath width:
Accuracy:± 2 m/s, ± 20º

Imaging
For crops and vegetation
multi-spectral
dynamics, natural resources
radiometers (vis/IR) census, disaster management
and large scale mapping of
themes.

Waveband:

CNES (ISA)

Water Vapour
Radiometer
NASA

WEFAX
Weather Facsimile

Measurements &applications

Weather Facsimile.

NOAA

WFC
Wide Field Camera
NASA

WFI
Wide Field Imager

Data used for coastal andvegetation monitoring.

CAST (INPE)

WFI-2
Wide Field Imager 2
CAST (INPE)

WiFS
Wide Field Sensor
ISRO

WindSat
DoD (USA) (NASA)

WS LISS-III
Wide Scan LISS-IIIISRORESOURCESAT-3 Proposed

Vegetation and crop monitoring,
resource assessment (regional
scale), forest mapping, land
cover/land use mapping, andchange detection.

Technical characteristics

420 nm centre wavelength(width: 40 nm), 443 nm (40),490 nm (40), 555 nm (40),620 nm (40), 620 nm (40),667 nm (30), 702 nm (24),742 nm (16), 782 nm (16),865 nm (40), 910 nm (20)
Spatial resolution: 5.3 m spatial resolution
with 27 km swath
Swath width:
27 km
Accuracy:

VIS: 0.63–0.69 µm
NIR: 0.77–0.89 µm
Spatial resolution: 258 m
Swath width:
890 km
Accuracy:
0.3 pixels

VIS: 0.45–0.52 µm, 0.52–0.59 µm,
0.63–0.69 µm, 0.77–0.89 µm
Spatial resolution: 73 m
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Waveband:3 bands in VNIR
and 1 band in SWIR
Spatial resolution: 23.5 m, 10 m
Swath width:
700 km
Accuracy257

W|X
Instrument & agency(& any partners)

Missions

StatusTypeWSAR

HY-3A,
HY-3B,
HY-3C

Proposed

Imaging microwave High resolution radar
Waveband:X-band: 8–12 GHz
radarsmeasurements of land and ocean Spatial resolution: 3 modes: 1 m, 5 m, 10 mfeatures.
Swath width:
3 swaths: 40 km, 80 km, 150 km
Accuracy:

SAC-C

Operational

Data collection

TanDEM-X,
TerraSAR-X,
TerraSAR-X2

Operational

Imaging microwave High resolution images forradarsmonitoring of land surface andcoastal processes and for
agricultural, geological andhydrological applications.

SORCE

Operational

Other

NSOAS (CAST)WTE
Whale Tracker
Experiment

Measurements &applications

Tracking of Eubalean Australis
and environmental datacollection system.

CONAE

X-band SAR
X-band Synthetic
Aperture RadarDLRXPSXUV Photometer System
NASA

258

Technical characteristics

Waveband:Spatial resolution:
Swath width:
Accuracy:

Waveband:

9.65 GHz, 300 MHz bandwidth,
all 4 polarisation modes
Spatial resolution: Spotlight: 1.2 x 1–4 m
Stripmap: 3 x 3–6 m
ScanSAR: 16 x 16 m
Swath width:
Spotlight: 5–10 km x 10 km
Stripmap: 30 km
ScanSAR: 100 km
Accuracy:

Objective is to measure the
Waveband:UV: 1–35 nm
extreme UV solar irradiance from Spatial resolution:
1–35 nm.
Swath width:
Accuracy:

A Further Information on CEOS
A.1 Overview
The Committee on Earth Observation Satellites(CEOS) was created in 1984, in response to a
recommendation from a panel of experts onremote sensing from space, under the aegis of
the Economic Summit of Industrialised Nations
Working Group on Growth, Technology and
Employment. This group recognised themultidisciplinary nature of satellite Earthobservation and the value of coordination acrossall proposed missions.
CEOS combined the previously existing groups for
Coordination on Ocean Remote Sensing Satellites(CORSS) and Coordination on Land Observation
Satellites (CLOS), and established a broad
framework for coordinating all spaceborne Earthobservation missions.

A.2 Purpose
CEOS coordinates civil spaceborne observationsof the Earth. Participating agencies strive toaddress critical scientific questions and to avoidplanning satellite missions which overlap eachother unnecessarily.
CEOS has three primary objectives in pursuingthis goal:— to optimise benefits of spaceborne Earthobservations through cooperation of its
members in mission planning and indevelopment of compatible data products,
formats, services, applications and policies;

A/pre-Phase A, or an equivalent stage of systemdevelopment, or a significant ground segment
activity that supports CEOS objectives; or— Other existing satellite coordination groups
and scientific or governmental bodies that areinternational in nature and currently have asignificant programmatic activity that
supports CEOS objectives.

A.4 CEOS Plenary
Currently, 29 member space agencies, along with
20 other national and international organisations,participate in CEOS planning and activities.
Participating agencies meet in plenary session
annually, with activities and coordination
occurring throughout the year. The Plenary
reviews progress on the various projects andactivities being undertaken within CEOS. The
Chair of CEOS rotates at the annual plenary
meeting. The CEOS Chair for 2008 is the Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) of
South Africa. For 2009, the Geo-Informatics andSpace Technology Development Agency (GISTDA)
of Thailand will undertake CEOS chairmanship.
Plenary

Year

Venue

Host

1st Plenary

1984

Washington, DC, USA

NOAA

2nd Plenary

1986

Frascati, Italy

ESA

3rd Plenary

1988

Ottawa, Canada

CSA

4th Plenary

1990São José dos Campos, Brazil

INPE

5th Plenary

1991

Washington, DC, USA

NASA/NOAA

6th Plenary

1992

London, UK

BNSC— to serve as a focal point for international
coordination of space-related Earthobservation activities;

7th Plenary

1993

Tsukuba, Japan

MEXT/NASDA

8th Plenary

1994

Berlin, Germany

DARA

9th Plenary

1995

Montreal, Canada

CSA— to exchange policy and technical information to
encourage complementarity and compatibilityof observation and data exchange systems.

10th Plenary

1996

Canberra, Australia

CSIRO

11th Plenary

1997

Toulouse, France

CNES

12th Plenary

1998

Bangalore, India

ISRO

13th Plenary

1999

Stockholm, Sweden

EUMETSAT

14th Plenary

2000

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

INPE

A.3 Participants
Members: Governmental organisations that areinternational or national in nature and are
responsible for a civil spaceborne Earthobservation programme that is currently
operating or has reached Phase B or its equivalentstage of system development, are eligible formembership in CEOS.

15th Plenary

2001

Kyoto, Japan

MEXT/NASDA

16th Plenary

2002

Frascati, Italy

ESA

17th Plenary

2003

Colorado Springs, USA

NOAA

18th Plenary

2004

Beijing, PR China

NRSCC

19th Plenary

2005

London, UK

BNSC

20th Plenary

2006

Buenos Aires, Argentina

CONAE

Associates: CEOS Associates are either:

21st Plenary

2007

Hawaii, USA

USGS

22nd Plenary

2008

George, South Africa

CSIR

23rd Plenary

2009

Thailand

GISTDA— Governmental organisations that areinternational or national in nature and currently
have a civil space-segment activity in Phase

CEOS History.

259

A.5 CEOS Secretariat
A permanent Secretariat, chaired by the current
CEOS host organisation, provides most of thecoordination between plenary sessions and ismaintained by:— the European Space Agency (ESA) jointly with
the European Organisation for the Exploitationof Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT);— the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) jointly with the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) of the United States;— the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) jointlywith the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency(JAXA).
The Secretariat is chaired by the current CEOS
host organisation in support of the CEOS Plenary.
As part of the ongoing contribution to CEOS
Secretariat activities, ESA is responsible for the
CEOS Handbook, NASA for the CEOS Annual
Report and Web site content, and MEXT/JAXA for
the CEOS Newsletter, Brochure and maintenanceof the Web site.
ESA currently funds the engagement of a fulltime post to increase the capacity of the CEOS
Secretriat, particularly with regards to therelationship with GEO (Group for Earth
Observations). This post, the CEOS Executive
Officer, is funded by ESA through to the end of
2009 (see below).

A.6 CEOS Working Groups
Working Group on Calibration and Validation(WGCV): The objectives of the WGCV are toenhance coordination and complementarity, topromote international cooperation, and to focus
activities in the calibration and validation ofEarth observations for the benefit of CEOS
members and the international user community.
WGCV addresses sensor-specificcalibration/validation and geophysicalparameter/ derived products validation. WGCV
meets approximately every nine months. The
subgroups of WGCV are as follows:— The Infrared and Visible Optical Sensors
Subgroup;— The Microwave Sensors Subgroup;— The SAR Subgroup;— The Terrain Mapping Subgroup;— The Land Product Validation Subgroup;— The Atmospheric Chemistry Subgroup.
http://wgcv.ceos.org

260

Working Group on Information Systems andServices (WGISS): The objective of WGISS is tofacilitate data and information management andservices for users and data providers in dealing
with global, regional, and local issues. In
particular, it addresses the capture, description,
processing, access, retrieval, utilisation,
maintenance and exchange of spaceborne Earthobservation data and supporting ancillary andauxiliary data and information, enabling
improved interoperability and interconnectivity of
information systems and services. WGISS meets
approximately every six months.
There are two subgroups of WGISS: ‘Technology
and Services’, and ‘Projects and Applications’.
WGISS has started a new initiative called the
WGISS Test Facility which offers a framework forpartnership with selected international scienceand EO projects to test and develop information
systems and services to meet their requirements.
The Global Observation of Forest Cover (GOFC)
international science project was the first test of
this concept. More recent projects include
WTF–CEOP (WGISS Test Facility for CoordinatedEnergy and Water Cycle Observation Project),which aims to provide assistance to the CEOP
science community in the development of dataservices associated with satellite data integration.
http://wgiss.ceos.org

Working Group on Education, Training andCapacity Building (WGEDU): The CEOS Working
Group on Earth Observation, Education, Training,
and Capacity Building (WGEdu) has developed astrategy for EO education and training in order toestablish an effective coordination andpartnership mechanism among CEOS agencies
and institutions offering education and training
around the world. The key objective of thestrategy is to facilitate activities that
substantially enhance international educationand training in Earth System Science and theobservation techniques, data analysis andinterpretation required for its use and application
to societal needs. The Group has developed a
CEOS education portal to provide easy access todata sets available for these purposes.
http://wgedu.ceos.org

A.7 Strategic Implementation TeamCEOS has established a Strategic Implementation
Team (SIT) which is responsible for addressing
implementation issues – notably those related tothe space component of the Global Earth
Observing System of Systems (GEOSS). The SIT
provides a forum where the heads of space
agencies can meet to develop agreements on
programme commitments in order to address
gaps or overlaps in mission planning. Progress
towards the GEOSS space segment is monitored
and managed using the CEOS Implementation
Plan, which is maintained by the SIT Chair andupdated annually for the CEOS Plenary.
In 2008, the SIT is chaired by NOAA. JAXA is
currently Vice-Chair and will commence its 2-year
chairmanship in late 2009.

A.8 CEOS Executive Officer
The post of a full-time CEOS Executive Officer(CEO) was agreed in late 2006 to bolster the
resources available to CEOS. The post is funded by

the European Space Agency for an initial periodof 3 years. The Executive Officer is charged withensuring the efficient conduct of the CEOS
contribution to GEO – including theimplementation of the response to the GCOS IP(Implementation Plan for the Global Observing
System for Climate), the GEO Work Plans, anddevelopment of the CEOS ‘Virtual Constellations
for GEOSS’.

A.9 Further Information on CEOS

Activities

Refer to www.ceos.org
The CEOS Newsletter supplements the latest
information available on-line about CEOS and is
distributed internationally on a 6-monthly basis.
Subscription requests should be sent to:
Ms Kazuko Misawa
RESTEC+81 3 5561 4547 (voice)misawa@restec.or.jp

Committee on
Earth Observation Satellites(CEOS) Plenary
Members/Associates

CEOS Executive Officer
ESA

Strategic Implementation Team
(SIT) NOAA Chair

Secretariat
ESA/EUMETSAT, NASA/NOAA,MEXT/JAXA

Working Group on Calibration
and Validation(WGCV), NOAA Chair

Working Group on Information
Systems & Services(WGISS), NASA Chair

Working Group on EO Education,
Training, and Capacity Building(WGEdu), EUMETSAT Chair

Atmospheric
Chemistry

Microwave
Sensors

Infrared/Visible
Optical Sensors

SAR

Terrain
MappingLand Product
Validation

Technology& Services

Projects &Applications

CEOS Structure.

261

B GCOS Climate Monitoring Principles
Effective monitoring systems for climate should
adhere to the following principles:
The ten basic principles (in paraphrased form) wereadopted by the Conference of the Parties (COP) to
the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) through decision 5/CP.5
at COP-5 in November 1999. This complete set ofprinciples was adopted by the Congress of theWorld Meteorological Organization (WMO) throughResolution 9 (Cg-XIV) in May 2003; agreed by theCommittee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS)
at its 17th Plenary in November 2003; and adopted
by COP through decision 11/CP.9 at COP-9 in
December 2003.
1.

The impact of new systems or changes toexisting systems should be assessed prior to
implementation.

2. A suitable period of overlap for new and oldobserving systems is required.
3. The details and history of local conditions,
instruments, operating procedures, dataprocessing algorithms and other factors
pertinent to interpreting data (i.e. metadata)
should be documented and treated with thesame care as the data.
4. The quality and homogeneity of data should
be regularly assessed as a part of routine
operations.
5. Consideration of the needs for environmental
and climate-monitoring products andassessments, such as IPCC assessments,
should be integrated into national, regionaland global observing priorities.
6. Operation of historically uninterrupted stations
and observing systems should be maintained.
7.

High priority for additional observations
should be focused on data-poor regions,poorly observed parameters, regions sensitive
to change, and key measurements withinadequate temporal resolution.

8. Long-term requirements, including
appropriate sampling frequencies, should bespecified to network designers, operators andinstrument engineers at the outset of systemdesign and implementation.
9. The conversion of research observing systems
to long-term operations in a carefully-planned
manner should be promoted.
10. Data management systems that facilitate
access, use and interpretation of data andproducts should be included as essential
elements of climate monitoring systems.

262

Furthermore, operators of satellite systems formonitoring climate need to:(a) Take steps to make radiance calibration,
calibration monitoring and satellite-tosatellite cross-calibration of the fulloperational constellation a part of theoperational satellite system; and(b) Take steps to sample the Earth system in sucha way that climate-relevant (diurnal,
seasonal, and long-term inter-annual)changes can be resolved.
Thus satellite systems for climate monitoring should
adhere to the following specific principles:
11. Constant sampling within the diurnal cycle(minimising the effects of orbital decay and orbit
drift) should be maintained.
12. A suitable period of overlap for new and oldsatellite systems should be ensured for a period
adequate to determine inter-satellite biases andmaintain the homogeneity and consistency oftime-series observations.
13. Continuity of satellite measurements (i.e.
elimination of gaps in the long-term record)
through appropriate launch and orbital
strategies should be ensured.
14. Rigorous pre-launch instrument characterisationand calibration should be ensured, including
radiance confirmation against an internationalradiance scale provided by a national metrology
institute.
15. On-board calibration adequate for climate
system observations should be ensured andassociated instrument characteristics monitored.
16. Operational production of priority climate
products should be sustained and peer-reviewed
new products should be introduced, as
appropriate.
17. Data systems needed to facilitate user access toclimate products, metadata and raw data,
including key data for delayed-mode analysis,should be established and maintained.
18. Use of functioning baseline instruments thatmeet the calibration and stability requirements
stated above should be maintained for as long as
possible, even when these exist on
decommissioned satellites.
19. Complementary in situ baseline observations forsatellite measurements should be maintained
through appropriate activities and cooperation.
20. Random errors and time-dependent biases insatellite observations and derived products
should be identified.

C Abbreviations
AR4

IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report

ASI

Agenzia Spaziale Italiana

BNSC

British National Space Centre

CAST

Chinese Academy of Space Technology

CCRS

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing

CDTI

Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology

CEO

CEOS Executive Officer

CEOP

Coordinated Enhanced Observing Period

CEOS

Committee on Earth Observation Satellites

CFCs

Chlorofluorcarbons

CGMS

Coordinating Group for Meteorological Satellites

CLIVAR

Climate Variability and Predictability

CNES

Centre National d'Etudes Spatiale

CONAE

Comisión de Actividates Espaciales

COP

Conference of the Parties

CRESDA

Centre for Resources Satellite Data and Applications

CRI

Crown Research Institute

CSA

Canadian Space Agency

CSD

United Nations Commission for Sustainable Development

CSIR

Satellite Applications Centre (SAC)/ Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

CSIRO

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

DEM

Digital Elevation Model

DLR

Deutsches Zentrum für Luft-und Raumfahrt

DMSG

Ad Hoc Working Group on Disaster Management Support

DoD

US Department of Defense

EC

European Commission

ECMWF

European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting

ENSO

El Niño-Southern Oscillation

EO

Earth Observation

EPS

EUMETSAT Polar System

ERB

Earth Radiation Budget

ESA

European Space Agency

ESCAP

Economic and Social Commission of Asia and the PacificEU

European Union

EUMETSAT

European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

FCDR

Fundamental Climate Data Record

FIR

Far Infrared

fAPAR

Fraction of Absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation

GAW

Global Atmosphere Watch

GCMPs

GCOS Climate Monitoring Principles

GCOS

Global Climate Observing System

GEO

Ad-hoc Group on Earth Observations

GEOSS

Global Earth Observing System of Systems

GEWEX

The Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment

GFMC

Global Fire Monitoring Center

GIS

Geographic Information Systems

GISTDA

Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency

GLOSS

Global Sea Level Observing System

GMES

Global Monitoring for Environment and Security

263

264

GOFC-GOLD

Global Observation of Forest and Land Cover Dynamics

GOOS

Global Ocean Observing System

GPS

Global Positioning Satellites

GSICS

Global Space-based Intercalibration System

GTOS

Global Terrestrial Observing System

ICSU

International Council for Science

IDNDRInternational Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction

IGACO

The Integrated Global Atmospheric Chemistry Observations

IGBP

International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme

IGCO

Integrated Global Carbon Observation

IGOL

International Global Observations of Land

IGOS

Integrated Global Observing Strategy

IGOS-P

Integrated Global Observing Strategy Partnership

IGWCO

International Global Water Cycle Observations Theme

IHDPInternational Human Dimensions Programme

INPE

Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais

IOCInter-governmental Oceanographic Commission

IOCCG

International Ocean Colour Coordinating GroupIP

Implementation Plan

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IPY

International Polar YearIR

Infrared

ISCCP

International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project

ISDR

International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

ISPRS

International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

ISRO

Indian Space Research Organisation

JAXA

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

KARI

Korea Aerospace Research Institute

KNMI

Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute

LAI

Leaf Area Index

LIDAR

LIght Detection And Ranging instruments

LSI

Land Surface Imaging

LST

Local Solar Time

MEXT

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology

MWIR

Medium Wave Infrared

NASA

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASDA

National Space Development Agency of Japan

NASRDA

National Space Research and Development Agency of Nigeria

NDVI

Normalised Difference Vegetation IndicesNGOs

Non-governmental organisations

NIR

Near Infrared

NOAA

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NRSC

Norwegian Space Centre

NRSCC

National Remote Sensing Center of China

NSAU

National Space Agency of Ukraine

NWP

Numerical Weather Prediction

OSTC

Federal Office for Scientific, Technical and Cultural Affairs

REDD

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in Developing Countries

RO

Radio Occultation

Roshydromet

Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environment MonitoringRoscosmos

Russian Aviation and Space Agency

SAR

Synthetic Aperture Radar

SBA

Societal Benefit Area

SIT

Strategic Implementation TeamSNSB

Swedish National Space Board

SST

Sea surface temperature

SWIR

Short-wave Infrared

TAR

Third Assessment Report of the IPCC

TCO

Terrestrial Carbon Observations

TIR

Thermal Infrared

TOA

Top of atmosphere

TSI

Total solar irradiance

UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme

UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNOOSA

United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs

USGS

United States Geological Survey

UV

Ultraviolet

VIS

Visible

WCRP

World Climate Research Programme

WGCVWorking Group on Calibration and Validation

WGEDU

Working Group on Earth Observation Education, Training, and Capacity Building

WGISS

Working Group on Information Systems and Services

WMO

World Meteorological Organization

WWC

World Water Council

WWW

World Weather Watch

265

CEOS, the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites,
coordinates civil spaceborne observations of the Earth.
Participating agencies strive to address critical scientificquestions and to harmonise satellite mission planningto address gaps and overlaps.
→ www.ceos.org
ESA, the European Space Agency, is Europe’s gateway
to space. It is an international organisation with
17 Member States. ESA’s mission is to shape thedevelopment of Europe’s space capability and ensurethat investment in space continues to deliver benefits
to the citizens of Europe and the world.
→ www.esa.int→ www.eohandbook.com