SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

Note: This document is an English translation of the corresponding Japanese core content text compiled by the Core Curriculum
Editorial Committee. The secretariat of the Committee, the SciREX Center of National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies
contracted the translation out to professional translators. If readers notice questionable English translation, please refer to theJapanese text of the core content.

1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation
TOMIZAWA Hiroyuki 1
First Published December 26, 2022

Final Updated December 26, 2022

Abstract
Although the importance of human resources for science, technology, and innovation is widely recognized, there arevarious policy issues related to them. Major issues include the mismatch between the system to develop humanresources in science and technology and the needs of industry and society, various problems arising from the mismatch
between the supply and demand of research personnel, and the inadequate utilization of highly specialized humanresources by society as a whole. The basic concept of human resources for science, technology, and innovation is
ambiguous and weak, and this has led to a lack of in-depth policy discussions and deliberation.

Keywords
Human resource development system, supply and demand of human resources, human resources in science andtechnology, research personnel, highly skilled human resources

1. Scope of Policy Issues Related to Human Resources for Science, Technology,
and Innovation
The development and promotion of using human resources for science, technology and innovation is an important
issue in science, technology, and innovation policy. Since “people” are responsible for science, technology, andinnovation, it is only natural that “human resources” should be a major theme. From this perspective, policy issues
related to human resources for science, technology, and innovation emerge, such as what kind of human resources

1Senior Research Officer, Research Group 2, National Institute of Science and Technology Policy, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Scienceand Technology

1

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

should be developed for future innovation and solutions to social issues, and how to establish a human resource
development system for this purpose.
It is also necessary to view the various problems that have arisen in Japan’s innovation system in relation to the“human resource development system.” For example, there has been widespread concern in recent years that Japan’s“research capability” is declining, and this may be partly due to problems in the training and supply of personnel with
PhDs, the treatment of young researchers, and the research environment. It is becoming increasingly important toconsider these issues from the perspective of the human resource development system. It is also important to examine
the issue of the lack of progress in the use of information technology in Japan from the perspective of the humanresource development system in information technology.
This alone shows that policy issues related to human resources for science, technology, and innovation are wideranging, but there are many other issues that cannot be captured in the above perspective. Therefore, an exhaustive orsystematic investigation of the issues is difficult. The following sections will provide an overview of the problem, withemphasis on the basic concepts and key issues underlying the various issues.

2. Conceptual Framework for Human Resources for Science, Technology, andInnovation
2-1. Overview of the Concept of Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation
Hitherto, the term “human resources for science, technology, and innovation” has been used, but it is ambiguous andit is unclear what kind of human resources it refers to and what scope it covers. While ambiguity may be useful in somecases, caution should be exercised when using the term to refer to policy or the subject of policy discussions. Although
there are statistical definitions of “human resources in science and technology” and “R&D personnel,” which areconsidered to be sub-concepts of “human resources for science, technology, and innovation,” there has been confusion
surrounding these terms for many years, as described below. Thus, when discussing human resources related to science,technology, and innovation, it should be noted that there are weaknesses in the most basic concepts. This section deals
with that issue and will provide an overview of where the problem lies, given that it is difficult to clearly define terms
and concepts such as “human resources for science, technology, and innovation” at this point in time.
First, it is appropriate to use the term “human resources for science, technology and innovation” in a broad sense torefer to “human resources who are responsible for activities related to science, technology, and innovation.” Although
this alone does not clarify what kind of human resources is being referred to, it may serve as an initial term to broadly
define the target when discussing policy, for example, “What kind of human resources should be developed to promotescience, technology, and innovation?” This term will continue to be used in this paper to refer to a broad range of humanresources. The OECD and European Commission, which have provided concepts and definitions of human resourcesin science and technology and R&D personnel in the past, have described the term as equivalent to “human resources
for science, technology, and innovation” using the generic noun phrase, “human resources for the science andtechnology innovation policy area” in their international database on science, technology, and innovation policy, “STIP2

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

COMPASS” (European Commission and OECD 2019). This suggests that, at this time, there is no internationallyestablished definition of “human resources for science, technology, and innovation.”
For a more concrete human resource concept, it should be recalled that science, technology, and innovation are rather
distant concepts in the first place, and that the term (or concept) “science, technology, and innovation” has only
relatively recently come to be used in policy discussions and debates. Therefore, it is natural to divide “human resources
for science, technology, and innovation” into those related to science and technology and those related to innovation.
Additionally, the former (human resources related to science and technology) has been the subject of policy discussions
from early on and there has been relative progress in its conceptualization and definition. Therefore, the concept anddefinition of human resources related to science and technology will be discussed in Section 2-2, and based on this, theconcept of human resources related to innovation will be discussed in Section 2-3.
Next is a brief discussion of concepts related to the concept of “human resources.” In the context of our discussion
thus far, the term “human resources” has been used to refer to the concept of “human capital” in labor economics,
which refers to the skills, techniques, and knowledge embodied in human beings. Until now, the knowledge of labor
economics has not necessarily been used or referred to in discussions and examinations of science, technology, andinnovation policies. It should be noted, however, that labor economics has conducted various studies and examinations
based on the concept of “human capital,” which may provide useful knowledge for various discussions andexaminations of human resource-related issues.

2-2. Concept of Human Resources in Science,Technology, and Related Concepts(1) Human Resources in Science and Technology as a Technical Term: HRST
“Human resources in science and technology” is a concept that is well established among experts instatistics anddata related to science and technology, as well as among professionals involved in human resource issues related toscience and technology. It has been shaped through academic discussions and years of work on statistics in several
countries and was presented in the Canberra Manual: Manual on the Measurement of Human Resources Devoted to
S&T, compiled and published by the OECD and the Statistical Office of the European Commission in 1995
(OECD/Eurostat 1995). The Canberra Manual is one of a series of manuals published by the OECD that presentinternational standards for the measurement of scientific and technological activities, and covers various matters related
to the measurement of human resources in science and technology.
The manual includes the definition of “Human Resources devoted to Science and Technology (HRST),” which isequivalent to “human resources assigned to science and technology” or “human resources engaged in science andtechnology,” but could also be reworded as “human resources in science and technology.” The definition is “a person
who successfully completed education at the third level in an S&T field of study, or who did not formally qualify as
above-mentioned, but is employed in a S&T occupation where the above-mentioned qualifications are normallyrequired.” The first half of this definition is based on education and qualifications, while the second half is based on
the occupation in which one is engaged. This is a typical way of defining the scope of a certain category of personnel
in terms of two aspects: education/qualifications and occupation/activities.

3

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

The manual’s definition refers to a fairly broad range of human resources and is likely a much broader concept than
the term “human resources in science and technology” might suggest. The first half of the definition implies that all
persons who have completed a course of higher education in a scientific or technological field are included in HRST.
This “course of higher education” is not limited to the graduate level, but in the case of Japan, includes both four-year
universities, junior colleges, and technical colleges. The scope of “science and technology fields” is essentially defined
as natural sciences and engineering, but the framework is also envisioned to include agriculture, medicine, social
sciences, and even humanities in some cases. The second half of the definition, in contrast, includes persons employedin science and technology-related occupations that typically require such education or qualifications, as described in
the first half, even if they do not have such education or qualifications. For example, this would include those working
in systems engineer positions without higher education. The term “science-related human resources” in Japan may berelatively close in meaning as a general term that refers to the human resource category similar to HRST.
When the Canberra Manual was published in 1995, few countries were conducting statistical surveys on humanresources with such a broad scope, and the manual was more of a philosophical document than a practical manual.
However, since then, the number of countries that have promoted data management for human resources in science andtechnology has gradually increased under the influence of the manual, especially in Europe, where the European
Commission promotes the management of data in compliance with the manual. In the U.S., the National Science
Foundation (NSF) and other organizations have compiled extensive statistics on personnel educated in science andtechnology at institutions of higher education and those employed in jobs related to science and technology long before
the manual was published. This U.S. human resource statistic is essentially based on a concept similar to HRST.
The term HRST does not externally contain the element of “innovation,” but is closely related to “innovation” interms of content and history (Kobayashi 2011, Ayabe 2018). For example, the opening statement of the preface to theCanberra Manual states, “how science and technology (S&T) and human resources (HR) are combined will be a key
factor in economic development and human survival over the coming decades,” suggesting that the concept of HRST
reflects the idea of human resources as those who are responsible for the maintenance and development of society andthe economy rather than those who support science and technology systems (OECD/Eurostat 1995).
(2) Definition and Classification of R&D Personnel
In R&D statistics, R&D personnel is a major measurement item along with R&D expenditures. In the OECD’s
Frascati Manual2, which sets the international standard for R&D statistics, “R&D personnel” are defined as “persons
in a statistical unit engaged directly in R&D, whether employed by the statistical unit or external contributors fully
integrated into the statistical unit’s R&D activities, as well as those providing direct services for the R&D activities.”

2 The Frascati Manual is an international guideline on research and development statistics produced by the OECD. Its first edition was publishedin 1963 and endorsed by OECD member countries in 1964. The name was derived from the name of a place in Italy where a meeting was held toformulate the manual, and was initially a common name, which later became the official name. The manual has since been revised several times,
the latest version at this time being the 2015 edition (OECD 2015).

4

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

These R&D personnel are classified as “researchers,” “technicians,” and “other supporting staff” according to theirroles in R&D. In all of these cases, the term “researcher” includes not only those in academic research positions, butalso those engaged in “research and development” in companies, for example, since they are those directly involved in“research and development” as defined in the Frascati Manual.
In the definition and classification of R&D personnel, particular consideration should be given to institutions ofhigher education. University faculty members are included as “researchers” only if they are engaged in research. In thecase of Japan, all university faculty members are included as researchers because of the firm principle that “universities
are composed of both teaching and research.” In the R&D statistics, if a university faculty member does not spend allof their work time on research, they are treated as a part-time researcher rather than a full-time researcher, and thisnumber is measured in terms of “full-time equivalent.” In contrast, doctoral students engaged in R&D activities areincluded as researchers, while master’s students are only included as R&D workers if they are paid for the R&D
activities in which they are engaged. Furthermore, post-doctoral fellows who are engaged in R&D activities as young
researchers at institutions of higher education, public research institutions, or similar, are not treated uniformly, since
their activities, or forms of employment and salary, are diverse, and are treated according to the definition andaggregation criteria for R&D personnel as set forth in the Frascati Manual.
Human resources devoted to science and technology
OECD Canberra Manual
Those with a bachelor's degree or higher in naturalscience/engineering (or equivalent or higher qualification)

Those who engage in professions
related to natural sciences and engineeringThose who engage directly in research and development
Research and Development Personnel
OECD Frascati Manual

Figure 1: Relationship between Human Resources in Science and Technology (HRST) and R&D Personnel
Note: In this section, the scope of “human resources in science and technology” is limited to natural sciences and engineering. If the scope is
expanded to include all fields, including the humanities and social sciences, “R&D personnel” essentially becomes a subset of “humanresources in science and technology.”5SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation(3) Confusion between “Human Resources in Science and Technology” and “R&D Personnel”
As described above, there are definitions for “human resources in science and technology” and “R&D personnel,”and the relationship between the two can be shown in Figure 1, but conceptual confusion can often be seen. First, withregard to “human resources for science and technology,” apart from the aforementioned definition, the term is often
used as a vague term that simply combines two common noun phrases, “science and technology” and “human resources.”
In such cases, not only is there ambiguity, but also the problem of confusion between “human resources in science andtechnology” as a defined term and “human resources in science and technology” as a generic noun phrase, or notknowing which meaning is being used. Moreover, the term “human resources in science and technology” is widelyused, and there are cases where policy discussions have been held under such circumstances; however, the discussions
have not been furthered.
Another typical example of a problem is when the term “human resources in science and technology” is used, but
the content describes “R&D personnel” or “research personnel,” which is an even narrower definition of the term 3. Itis easy to surmise what problems this will create. Policy issues related to “research personnel” will often be internal to
the research system, including issues related to the posting and treatment of researchers and the research environment.
Meanwhile, as mentioned above, “human resources in science and technology,” defined as HRST, was originally aconcept formed in the context of how to link science and technology to the maintenance and development of society
and the economy, rather than from the internal perspective of the science and technology system. Therefore, for example,
when policy discussions are conducted on human resource needs in response to society and the economy, if the term“human resources in science and technology” is used but discussions are conducted with “research personnel” in mind,
the discussions will be closed within the science and technology system and will not be furthered. 4(4) Related Concepts of Human Resources in Science and Technology
There are several terms similar to “human resources in science and technology,” but recently the terms “STEM
worker,” “STEM workforce,” and “STEM Labor Force” are sometimes used. STEM is an acronym for “Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics” and is increasingly used worldwide, including in Japan, to refer to science,technology, engineering, and mathematics as an educational field. Although STEM refers to a field of education, it isinherently closely tied to the concept of human resources in science and technology, as it originally came to be used in
the U.S. to refer to fields of education that needed to be strengthened in the context of the shortage of high-tech talentand the need for human resources that would determine the nation’s industrial competitiveness. The term “STEM
workforce,” which refers to personnel with higher education in STEM fields, is similar in scope to HRST.

3 For “research personnel,” there is no definition that has been circulated internationally, but since it is a complete subset of “R&D personnel” asdefined in the Frascati Manual and the relationship between the two is clear, the two terms are both used in this paper according to the content.
For example, university faculty members are included in the definition of “R&D personnel” in the Frascati Manual, but the term “researchpersonnel” is sometimes used since they are rarely engaged in “development.”
4 In a related discussion, Kobayashi (2004b), after cautioning about the difference in the meaning of scientist and researcher, makes a point to theeffect that in Japan, the discussion is based on the idea that scientist equals researcher, and that policy discussions will not be deepened under sucha perception.

6

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

The terms “highly skilled” or “highly skilled worker” and “highly skilled professionals” are also used relatively often
internationally. In response, Japanese words equivalent to “high-level human resources,” “highly qualified humanresources,” and “highly skilled human resources” have been applied. Although these terms do not explicitly include a“science and technology” component, it is often used in the context of science, technology, and innovation policy tomean something similar to HRST. In the concept of emphasizing the high degree, the meaning is more limited toresearchers and engineers in advanced scientific and technological fields, PhD holders, or similar, rather than to humanresources in science and technology in general. Currently, however, the term is often used primarily to address the issueof the international mobility of human resources involved in science, technology, and innovation.

2-3. Consideration of the Concept of “Innovative Human Resources”
Since the term “science and technology” refers to specialized bodies of knowledge or activities related to such bodies
of knowledge, the term “human resources in science and technology” can be thought of as referring to personnel who
have specialized knowledge in science and technology or who are involved in specialized activities. In contrast, theterm “innovative human resources” is ambiguous as a concept even if it is defined as “human resources involved ininnovation.” This is because innovation is a highly uncertain event, and it is impossible to predict in advance whether
or not it will occur. In other words, it is difficult to define “innovative human resources” based on the activities in which
they are engaged. Therefore, when using this term, it is necessary to clarify its meaning according to its purpose.
One way to define “innovative human resources” is to broaden the definition to include those who are involved in
activities that have the potential to bring about innovation. This would include all human resources in science andtechnology in a broad sense, as well as those who are involved in the practical application of scientific and technologicalknowledge and its application to social systems, or the operators of institutions and organizations that are involved.
However, while such a broad view may be useful in some cases, there is a risk that too broad a category of humanresources could make it a less useful human resources concept.
The contrasting view is to use the term or concept to refer to human resources engaged in activities that are clearly
intended to generate innovation. For example, it could be the founder of a venture or start-up company. Furthermore,experts and others who support industry–academia partnerships and knowledge transfer from universities could be
included here, as they are characteristic of the modern innovation system and are a particular focus of today’s innovation
policy. 5 However, this can create problems, such as targeting only a fairly limited pool of talent and capturing only aportion of the innovation that occurs from unexpected sources.
Even if the emphasis is on the human resources responsible for innovation, there is scope to consider whether it isnecessary to capture this in the concept of “innovative human resources.” For example, if it is based on the idea thatthe source of innovation is science and technology, then the concept of “human resources in science and technology”

5 Many of these specialized personnel are found at universities, including “program managers” for R&D projects, “University Research
Administrators” (URAs) who are primarily responsible for the management of research activities, and “coordinators for industry–academia–
government collaboration” who are responsible for the management of intellectual property and creation of new businesses. Moreover, experts in
intellectual property management, personnel involved in building relationships with society, and activities such as outreach and fundraisers arealso relevant human resources.

7

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

as the core human resources responsible for innovation may be sufficient in many cases. Of course, since innovation
comes not only from science and technology but also from management and organizational reform, “human resourcesin science and technology” alone may not be sufficient in some cases. Even in this case, there is a view that the abovementioned concept of “highly skilled human resources” will suffice. As described above, the need for the term andconcept of “innovative human resources” has not been fully examined, has not been fully accumulated historically, andis not an established concept at this time.

3. Key Policy Issues Related to Human Resources for Science,
Technology, and Innovation
This section addresses the main policy issues related to human resources for science, technology, and innovation.
Since policy issues emerge based on perceptions and analysis of the state of Japan’s science and technology innovation
system, the emphasis here is on explaining the circumstances and history behind each policy issue.

3-1 The Mismatch Between the Science and Technology Human Resource Development Systemand the Needs of Industry and Society
The promotion of science and technology and the creation of innovation require human resources with expertise anda highly developed human resource development system, including institutions of higher education. However, it is noteasy to adapt such a human resource development system to the needs of industry and society, taking into accountfuture changes as well, which often results in a mismatch. Although these mismatches can occur for all categories ofhuman resources for science, technology, and innovation, what has actually occurred on a large scale in Japan thus far
is essentially a mismatch concerning “human resources in science and technology” in the sense described in Section 2.
Since there has been considerable analysis and research on these issues, this section discusses the issue of the mismatch
between the system for fostering “human resources in science and technology” and the needs of industry and society.
The development of human resources in science and technology at institutions of higher education has a long history
as an important policy issue in Japan. This is the issue of how to position universities as a human resource development
system that responds to the needs of society and industry, and how to link science and technology to social and economic
development. The issue is not confined to the narrowly defined framework of science and technology policy and has
been considered and implemented in various policy areas such as education and industrial promotion policies.
Additionally, criticisms have been levelled for many years since the latter half of the period of rapid economic growth
regarding human resource development in institutions of higher education, that there is a mismatch with the needs ofindustry and society, or that they do not supply human resources that respond to changes in industry and society; thishas been a fundamental issue within this theme (Kobayashi 1996, Yano 2001, Kobayashi 2001, Morozumi, Saito, andKobayashi 2004, Tomizawa 2021, Tomizawa, Nagane (Saito), and Yasuda 2021).
When discussing this mismatch, the policy of training human resources in science and technology during the periodof rapid economic growth is often cited as a successful model to be contrasted with. Specifically, “during the period of
rapid economic growth in the late 1950s and 1960s, the strong needs of society and industry led to a substantial

8

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

expansion of higher education institutions and an increase in the number of science and engineering departments atuniversities, which contributed significantly to Japan’s economic growth.” (Anzai 2022) In fact, during the period of
rapid economic growth, the higher education system was greatly expanded 6 with an increase in the number of scienceand engineering faculties, which was called the “science and engineering boom”; moreover, as indicated by the factthat the employment rate of university graduates during this period was consistently over 90%, the Japanese economic
system during the period of rapid economic growth was adequately provided with the large number of university
graduates that it needed (Ito 1996, Tomizawa 2021). The science and engineering faculties that were expanded during
this period continued to develop and supply human resources in science and technology, who were important membersof Japan’s innovation system 7 for many years afterwards. In this sense, the policy of fostering human resources inscience and technology during the period of rapid economic growth appears to be a response to the demands of industry
and social needs. This perception is widespread and has in some respects provided a basic framework for considering
human resource development in the Japanese innovation system (Sawa 1984, Sato 2011, Anzai 2022).
Since after the period of rapid growth in the mid-1970s to the present, it is often said that the same “success” inhuman resource development has not been reproduced (Kobayashi 1996). However, while human resource
development during the period of rapid growth could be handled by quantitative forecasts of the overall demand forscience and engineering personnel, afterward, forecasts that included qualitative factors such as specialized fields andexpertise became necessary, making policymaking more difficult (Morozumi, Saito, and Kobayashi 2004). For example,
from the 1980s to the present day, there have often been predictions of a future shortage of human resources involved
in information technology, and government policies have been put in place to develop these human resources, but there
is always a shortage of human resources 8.
With regard to human resources in information technology, it is believed that the types of personnel and abilities
required differ depending on the era, such as the recent high demand for human resources in AI technology, and thatthe rapid development of information technology is partly responsible for the mismatch between the supply and demandof human resources (Morozumi, Saito, and Kobayashi 2004). Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, human resource
development to meet the needs of society and industry is a comprehensive policy issue, and in the case of Japan, theweakness spanning multiple ministries and agencies in their ability to address policy issues may also be a factor in the

6 This significant expansion of higher education institutions and an increase in the number of science and engineering faculties was achieved undervarious government programs in the period from the late 1950s to the late 1960s. In particular, the “Plan for Increasing the Number of Scienceand Engineering Students” (also called the “Expansion Plan for Science and Engineering”) formulated by the Ministry of Education in February
1961 is linked to the famous “National Income Doubling Plan” (1960) by the Ikeda Cabinet, and is considered an important plan that supported
rapid economic growth (Ito 1996, Kobayashi 1996). However, this expansion of universities’ human resource development systems was notachieved solely through government policy. Private universities voluntarily increased the number of science and engineering faculties in theabsence of sufficient financial support from the government, and their contribution to the “expansion of science and engineering” exceeded thatof public universities. The biggest factor driving the “expansion of science and engineering” was the strong need in industry for human resourcesin science and technology (Tomizawa 2021).
7 The “Japanese innovation system” in this paper refers to the concept of the companies, government, and universities involved in innovation andthe interactions among them as a system across Japan. This is the application of the concept of a “national innovation system” to Japan, which is
widely used in innovation research and other fields. An explanation of this concept is provided in Section 1.0.3 “Viewing the Innovation Process
as a System” of the “SciREX Core Content.” (Nagata 2021)
8 An example of a forecast made in the 1980s is from Inui (1989). As a recent example, the “Survey on Supply and Demand of IT Human Resources”
published by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry on April 23, 2019 predicted that a shortage and surplus of human resources will occur
simultaneously in 2030, with a shortage of 550,000 IT professionals trained in state-of-the-art technology such as AI and IoT, but that there will
be a surplus of 100,000 traditional IT professionals in contract development and maintenance operations.

9SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

mismatch. More serious is the possibility that a shortage of human resources in information technology is hindering
the promotion and utilization of information technology in Japan, but that this shortage has not been recognized.
However, there is one area where the human resource development system in universities has expanded since theperiod of rapid economic growth, reflecting the needs of society. In the health field, the number of university
enrollments tripled from 22,561 in 1992 to 68,603 in 2015, and its share of total university enrollments also increased
from 4.2% to 11.1% (Tomizawa 2021). This increase came to a halt in the 2016 academic year but has since been
followed again by a continued increase in university enrollment in the health field, a consistent long-term upward trend
unparalleled throughout the history of Japanese institutions of higher education. This expansion of universities in thehealth field is thought to be a response to society’s strong need for nursing and healthcare professionals. Furthermore,
the relaxation of the standards for the establishment of universities by the Minister/Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) may have had a significant impact on this expansion. However, the direct
driving force behind the expansion of universities is the needs of society and industry, and it is believed that thisexpansion has occurred due to the relaxation of “regulations” that prevented an effective impact (Tomizawa 2021).
Furthermore, the relaxation of the standards for the establishment of universities may have a significant negative effectin terms of a decline in the quality of university education. It is widely known that the relaxation of standards for theestablishment of universities during the period of rapid growth led to the “inflation” of student capacity and the “massproduction” effect in universities, so to speak (Ito 2013). With regard to human resource development, it is difficult tobalance such quantitative expansion with ensuring the quality of human resources, and this is one of the major policy
issues related to human resource development.

3-2 Problems Related to the Supply and Demand of Research Personnel
The issue of supply and demand for research personnel has become an independent and important theme in scienceand technology policy in Japan, due to the severity of the problem and historical reasons. Today, the problem is often
seen in researchers’ difficulty in finding jobs, worsening treatment of young researchers, and the resulting decline in
the status of the research profession. Some have also linked this problem to the “decline in Japan’s research capabilities”
that became apparent in the 2010s (Nagane 2021). This problem is strongly attributed to the mismatch of supply anddemand between research personnel trained in graduate schools and research positions. Similar problems have occurredin the past, and it is possible that this is a structural problem that tends to occur in the Japanese university system. In
this regard, this section has been separated from section 3-1 because of the different character of this issue from that of
the human resource development system, which is shaped primarily for the needs of industry and society.
In considering this issue, a powerful clue is to revisit the rapid expansion of the university system in the 1960s, whichis also mentioned in section 3-1. During this period, the demand for university faculty increased and the scale of humanresource development by graduate schools expanded. However, once positions for university faculty members andresearch positions at public research institutes were filled, they did not become vacant again for a long period of time,
resulting in a situation of oversupply. In the late 1970s and 1980s, there was a problem of a large number of10

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation“unemployed PhDs” in which doctoral graduates and students who had withdrawn from graduate school continued
their research in university laboratories instead of finding regular jobs (Nagane 2021).
At the end of the 1980s, this problem temporarily subsided as student capacity increased, and the number of teachers
hired increased as the second baby boom generation entered university. However, the expansion of graduate schools interms of size consistently progressed during the 1980s.9 This is against the backdrop of the strong needs of Japaneseindustry and the need to strengthen the scientific research system to address the criticism of “taking a free ride on thebasic research of others”10; the government also took steps to strengthen the training of researchers by graduate schools
and to position graduate schools as core institutions for promoting academic research.11
In the 1990s, the number of graduate schools was further expanded under the policy framework known as the“emphasis on graduate schools.” The number of students enrolled in graduate school increased from 98,650 in the 1991
academic year to over 205,000 in 2000, exceeding the goal of “doubling the number of graduate students” proposed in
the November 1991 University Council Report. Note that the term “emphasis on graduate schools” essentially refers
to a change in the educational and research organization of a university from a traditional undergraduate-basedorganization to a graduate school-centered organization; in general, it often refers to various reforms of graduate schools,
including such organizational changes, as well as the expansion of graduate schools in terms of scale that occurred asa result of such reforms (Kobayashi 2004a).
The rapid increase in the number of graduate students, especially those enrolled in doctoral programs, under theemphasis on graduate school in the 1990s created new problems. Posts at universities and research institutes, which are
the main places of employment for doctoral graduates, did not increase owing to tight government finances, and sincecompanies mainly hired master’s degree graduates for R&D positions, it became increasingly difficult for doctoral
graduates to find employment (Mizuki 2007, Enoki 2010, Hamanaka 2013).
Under these circumstances, the “Support Plan for 10,000 Postdoctoral Fellows” was implemented in the mid-1990s.
The aim of this plan was to support 10,000 postdoctoral researchers, a position for doctoral degree holders to gain
experience as researchers, and the goal was included in the first Science and Technology Basic Plan approved by the
Cabinet in July 1996 to be achieved by FY2000. The plan was intended to strengthen Japan’s research capabilities by
increasing the number of young researchers, which there were fewer of in Japan than in Europe and the U.S., byenhancing and strengthening the positions that would serve as “training periods” for young researchers to become fullfledged researchers. However, since the main means of supporting postdoctoral fellows was fixed-term employment,
and it was clear that increasing the number of permanent research positions would be financially difficult, at the time

9 The expansion of graduate schools in the 1980s saw a marked increase in enrollment in master’s programs in engineering, which has the largest
number of students by discipline; enrollment increased 1.9 times in the 1990 academic year compared to 1980 (Tomizawa 2021).
10 The response of Japan as a whole to the criticism of “taking a free ride on the basic research of others” was not only to strengthen the “university
system,” but also to strengthen the basic research initiatives of companies and the government’s policy response; thus, it is described here as“strengthening the scientific research system.” The “scientific research system” here refers to the part of the Japanese innovation system (seefootnote 8) that is primarily responsible for scientific research.
11 In 1988, the University Council issued a report “On the Streamlining of the Graduate School System” to promote reform of the graduate school
system. Additionally, in May 1991, a report “On the Improvement of Graduate School Facilities” and in November 1991, a report “On the
Quantitative Improvement of Graduate Schools” were published, the latter of which proposed the goal of doubling the number of graduate students
by 2000.

11

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

this plan was drawn up, it was pointed out that it was a temporary policy (Enoki 2010). There are also scattered instanceswhere the perception of the general public was that the purpose of the program was to provide a place for doctoral
graduates, the number of which had increased rapidly due to the emphasis on graduate school.12 Nevertheless, the plan
was received rather favorably at the time due to expectations that it would alleviate, even if only temporarily, problems
such as the difficulty of finding employment for doctoral graduates, as well as hopes for the revitalization of university
research sites (Ledford 2007, Enoki 2010).
Under this plan, the number of persons eligible for assistance increased from approximately 6,000 in 1996 to 10,000
in 1999. Although the goals of the plan itself were achieved, the number of postdoctoral positions at universities andresearch institutes did not increase, and there was no change in hiring trends in the private sector, which pushed backthe age of doctoral graduates who were experiencing employment difficulties and caused the problem of an aging
postdoctoral workforce. Moreover, the difficulty in obtaining future career prospects after completing a doctoral
program is believed to have been a factor in the tendency to shy away from doctoral studies. Furthermore, the limited
job opportunities in Japan have created problems such as brain drain.
Although these issues are directly related to the training of researchers for universities and public research institutions,they are also problems for Japan’s innovation system in that the human resource development system has been
expanded far from the needs of industry (Kobayashi 2010).
It is pointed out below that the above issues and policy challenges surrounding research personnel in Japan are
extremely unique compared to other major developed countries. However, the mismatch between supply and demand
for research personnel, especially the difficulty in finding employment for PhD holders, is observed in many developed
countries, and thus Japan is not unique in this respect (Kobayashi 2011). One of the unique characteristics of theJapanese situation is the lack of a growing need in society for doctoral degree holders. Comparing the number ofdoctoral degree holders per population, Japan’s value is smaller than that of the U.S., U.K., Germany, Korea, or France,and only Japan has shown a declining trend over the past decade or more.13 In major industrialized countries where
the number of doctoral degree holders per population is higher than in Japan, and especially in countries where it isincreasing, the need for highly specialized human resources for innovation, economic growth, or solving social issues
is increasing, as is the need for research personnel, including those with doctoral degrees. The situation in thosecountries also differs significantly from that in Japan in that overall national investment in universities is increasing.

12 Mizuki (2007) describes the plan as “an attempt to help the many graduate students who would otherwise be unemployed by creating a large
number of positions as postdoctoral fellows.” Although this may include the author’s subjectivity and assertions, it can be considered to reflect
the general public’s perception to some extent, as it is preceded by a list of 10 articles in major newspapers and other media that discussed the“post-doctoral issue” from 1997 to 2006. Furthermore, the entry for “Support Plan for 10,000 Postdoctoral Fellows” in Wikipedia states that“around 1994, it began to be described in the mainstream media as a relief measure to hire the overabundance of postdoctoral fellows.” Although
no references or other evidence are provided here, and the content is not fully verifiable, this statement itself, which appears in a widely referenced
medium, is considered to be a typical example of how the general public perceived the plan.
13 In 2019, the number of doctoral degrees per each million of the population was as follows: U. S. (579), U. K. (361), Germany (345), South Korea(296), and France (167); Japan (120) was below those countries. In the 20 years since 2000, this figure has more than doubled in the U.S., U.K.,
and South Korea, and remained almost flat in Germany and France, although it has remained higher than in Japan. Japan peaked in 2006 and has
been on a downward trend since then (National Institute of Science and Technology Policy, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology, 2022).

12

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

Another aspect of Japan’s uniqueness is that while human resource development has long been regarded as animportant issue at the highest level of science and technology policy, in many cases the “vision of human resources”
on which such discussions are based has remained within the framework of academic “researchers” and has rarely beenviewed within the broader framework of human resources who are responsible for innovation.14 For example, theprocess followed by Japanese policy discussions to diversify career paths for doctoral graduates after the “post-doctoral
problem” emerged may be related to the fact that “researchers” were the model for policy discussions.
The uniqueness of the Japanese situation described above is not based on fully analyzed results, as there are very
few studies on international comparisons on this issue, and further research needs to be conducted; survey results thatprovide a clue to this issue will be introduced below. The European Commission and OECD have recently publishedthe results of a study on key national policy issues related to human resources for science, technology, and innovation(European Commission and OECD 2019). The results show that most of the 56 responding countries or regions
emphasize the importance of strengthening human resources to enhance their country’s ability for innovation, but only
approximately one-third of the countries or regions also consider measures related to doctoral students, post-doctoral
fellows, early career researchers, or improving the attractiveness and status of the research workforce to be important
policy issues. Additionally, there are few countries like Japan where these issues are at the top level in the area of
science, technology, and innovation policy.

3-3 Issues Surrounding the Doctoral Personnel in Industry
The lack of hiring doctoral degree holders in industry is often discussed as part of the problem of the difficulty infinding employment for doctoral degree holders, but it is also a separate issue related to the utilization of highly
specialized human resources in industry. The number of doctoral degree holders per capita in Japan is low for adeveloped country, and for many years, Japanese companies have employed master’s and bachelor’s degree holders as
the core of their workforce and provided them with the necessary education in-house, rather than hiring doctoral degree
holders. However, in developed and other semi-developed countries, particularly in Europe and the U.S., there has beena marked increase in the number of doctoral graduates employed in industry since the turn of the century, a situationthat contrasts sharply with that of Japan.
The problem of doctoral degree holders not being active in industry in Japan has often been discussed as a problem
on the part of the universities that train them. For example, Japanese doctoral degree holders are criticized for being
confined to their own specialized fields and having narrow perspectives, or for lacking the flexibility to tackle diverse
issues (Kobayashi 2010). However, there is also criticism that the problem lies with companies that do not treat doctoral

14 Kobayashi (2004b), as mentioned in footnote 5, points out that “in Japan, the argument is that science and technology personnel = researchers.”
Furthermore, Kobayashi (2011), after depicting the situation in other countries and the characteristics of Japan in recent years regarding humanresource issues in science and technology policy, states that “compared to Europe and the U.S., Japan has not emphasized innovation in its humanresource policies. Therefore, there are some differences between Western countries and Japan in their approach to human resource issues.” He also
points out that “over the past decade, there has certainly been a significant difference in policy issues and thinking between Europe and the UnitedStates, where innovation-oriented human resource policies are emphasized, and Japan, where there has been no comprehensive discussion ofhuman resource policies from the same perspective.”

13

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

degree holders appropriately and do not utilize them well. 15 In particular, there is a view that the human resource system
based on lifetime employment and seniority, which has been the mainstream in Japanese companies for many years, isunsuitable for the employment of doctoral degree holders, and it is possible that the spread of job-based employment
may promote the employment of doctoral degree holders in the future (METI/Fujitsu Research Institute Ltd. 2021,
METI/Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu LLC 2022). A more fundamental problem is the lack of appropriate interaction
between the human resource development functions of universities and the human resource needs of society andindustry at the macro level (Kobayashi 2004b, METI 2022).

3-4 Mobility of Human Resources in Science and Technology, International Mobility of Highly
Skilled Human Resources, and “Competition for Talent”
Many have pointed out or argued that human resources in science and technology are “human capital” that embodies
knowledge, experience, and skills in science and technology, and that their mobility is closely related to innovation(OECD 2001a, OECD 2001b, Pogue 2007). Mobility here can either be intra or inter-organizational, between
departments and sectors both domestically and internationally. The reasons why the movement of human resources inscience and technology promotes innovation include the fact that the movement of human resources leads to the
combination of different knowledge and progress in the utilization of knowledge, but it is difficult to quantify themechanism and promoting effect, and there is no clear empirical basis for this. In Japan, because lifetime employment
is the norm, labor mobility among workers in general is extremely low, as is the mobility of human resources in scienceand technology, of which they are a part; mobility of research personnel belonging to universities and public research
institutions is also low. For this reason, the promotion of human resource mobility is often mentioned as an important
issue in government policy documents, including the Science and Technology Basic Plan.
In this mobility of human resources, international mobility is actively discussed and as an important theme in scienceand technology innovation policy worldwide, 16 and is also actively analyzed in science, technology, and innovation
policy research. This is due to the rapid progress of globalization since the end of the Cold War, and also influenced by
the view that in some parts of the world, there is a situation that can be described as a competition for human resources
with highly specialized and advanced knowledge, such as doctoral degree holders (Murakami 2008). Note that thehuman resources under discussion are often referred to as “highly skilled human resources” (OECD 2001b) worldwide,
as mentioned in 2-2(4).
In Japan, to promote the acceptance of highly skilled human resources from abroad, a system was introduced in 2012
to establish a “highly skilled professional” status of residence and to provide preferential treatment in terms ofimmigration control and residency management. Under this system, the activities of high-level foreign human resources

15 Hamanaka (2013) states that the “theory that graduate school is the cause,” which proposes that the content of graduate school education is thecause of employment difficulties for those who have graduated from graduate school, “can be said to be a common theory.” Furthermore, basedon analysis of interview survey data from graduate school graduates and corporate HR personnel, “the ‘theory that corporations are the cause’ canalso be proposed.”
16 According to a survey by the European Commission and OECD, the most frequent theme in policy discussions on human resources for researchand innovation in OECD and European Union member countries is the “international mobility of human resources.” (European Commission andOECD 2021)

14

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

are classified into three categories: “advanced academic research activities,” “advanced specialized/technical activities,”and “advanced business management activities.” A “highly skilled human resource point system” has been introduced,
in which, according to the characteristics of each category, academic background, work experience, and annual income
are scored to determine the “highly skilled professional” status of residence.
Moreover, the Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act stipulates three types of “specified activities” under
the status of residence: (1) specified research activities (activities to engage in research, guidance of research, andeducation related to a specific field at a research institution), (2) specified information processing activities (activities
to engage in work related to information processing requiring technology or knowledge in the field of natural scienceor humanities), and (3) dependent activities related to those engaged in specified research and dependent activities
related to those engaged in specified information processing (activities conducted in Japan by a dependent spouse or
child of a foreign national staying in Japan under (1) or (2) above).

3-5 Other Policy Discussions Related to Human Resources
In the policy issues described thus far, there has been much discussion about institutions of higher education such asuniversities, but policies related to the development of human resources for science, technology, and innovation will
include not only higher education but also primary and secondary education. This is the case in many countries aroundthe world and is thought to be due to the recognition that the development of human resources for science, technology,
and innovation will lead to economic growth and enhanced competitiveness, and that science and technology-related
education from an early stage is important for this purpose. In Japan, policies have long been implemented to linkprimary and secondary education to the development of human resources for science, technology, and innovation, but
the trend is strengthening even more. 17 Recently, in elementary and secondary education, “Art” has been added to“STEM” mentioned in 2-2 (4) to create the acronym “STEAM” (Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, andMathematics), a word that refers to a wide range of areas including arts, culture, life, economy, law, politics, and ethics;
the promotion of STEAM education is being implemented. The 6th Science, Technology, and Innovation Plan (2021–2025) includes a description of “promotion of STEAM education,” and the term is now used in policy discussions on
science, technology, and innovation policy.
Another term that has been increasingly used in discussions of science, technology, and innovation policy is“recurrent education.” 18 “Recurrent education” is a similar concept to “lifelong learning,” but it focuses more on thenature of learning knowledge and skills to apply to work than the latter. 19 “Recurrent education” has come to be

17 All the Basic Plans from the 1st Science and Technology Basic Plan (1996–2000) to the 6th Science, Technology, and Innovation Plan (2021–2025) contain descriptions of policies on “elementary and secondary education.” The frequency of use of the term “elementary and secondary
education” in these basic plans tends to increase with newer plans. (Based on the results using “Science and Technology Basic Policy Document
Search” <https://www.nistep.go.jp/research-scisip-whitepaper-search> published by the National Institute of Science and Technology Policy).
18 The term “recurrent education” is used in six places in the 6th Science, Technology, and Innovation Plan.
19 On “recurrent education” and “lifelong learning,” the Public Relations Office of the Government of Japan website (August 2021) states that “bothare the same in terms of ‘learning,’ but the purpose of learning is different. Recurrent education teaches knowledge and skills to be applied on thejob. …In contrast, lifelong learning is any kind of learning that takes place over the course of a lifetime, and includes schooling, social education,
as well as cultural activities, sports, volunteer activities, hobbies, and other activities unrelated to work or that lead to a ‘purpose in life’.”15

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

discussed in the context of science, technology, and innovation policy because of the rapid progress and change inscience and technology, the rapid obsolescence of expertise, and the need to update the expertise and skills of specialists
who are already active in society. 20 Moreover, it is becoming increasingly difficult to respond to the conventional modelof human resource development in science and technology, in which graduates who have acquired specialized scientificand technological knowledge at institutions of higher education are active in society, and it could also be seen as ameans of strengthening the human resource development system itself. Furthermore, this type of education is expected
to help engineers in various fields learn the latest information technology, which will lead to innovation.
Although different in nature from the above, the promotion of human resource diversity (diversity) has rapidly
become a focus of science, technology, and innovation policy in recent years. Originally, in Japan, social and labor
policies have focused on the promotion of women’s employment and participation in society, but with the enactmentof the Law for the Equal Employment Opportunity for Men and Women (popularized name) in 1985 and the Basic Law
for a Gender-Equal Society (1999), the promotion of female researchers’ activities has gradually increased in the areaof science, technology, and innovation policy. However, it is only more recently that policies such as the quantitative
increase of female researchers have been raised in terms of strengthening human resources for science, technology, andinnovation. For example, in the 3rd Science and Technology Basic Plan (2006–2010), a numerical target of 25% wasset for the ratio of female researchers employed at universities and public research institutions in the natural sciences.
Recently, based on the globally accepted idea that expanding the diversity of human resources leads to innovation, thepromotion of the employment and active roles of women and non-Japanese people has become an important policy
issue, and the 6th Science, Technology, and Innovation Plan also uses the keyword “diversity” when discussing humanresources.

References
Ayabe, Hironori (2018), “Japan’s Policy for Human Resource Development in Science and Technology (1990-2017),”
Rengo Research Institute for Advancement of Living Standards Report, (Special Feature: Toward theDevelopment of Young Researchers to Support Japan as a Nation of Science and Technology: Current Status
and Issues), (335) 4-7, JTUC Rengo Research Institute for Advancement of Living Standards.
Anzai, Yuichiro (2022), “Supporting Doctoral Programs that Produce Innovators,” Sankei Shimbun (Shoron), March
28, 2022, Sankei Shimbun, Inc.
Enoki, Eisuke (2010), The Doctoral Drift Era: What Will Happen to the ‘Surplus Doctors’? Discover Twenty One,Inc.

20 Morozumi, Saito, and Kobayashi (2004) show the obsolescence of expertise and skills by analyzing changes over time in employment informationand qualifications for information professionals. Nakanishi and Yamada (2010) and other studies measured the obsolescence rate of scientific andtechnological knowledge using patent data, although not analyses related to human resources, and the references in the same paper provide
representative examples of such measurements, including English references.

16

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

European Commission and OECD (2019), “2019 EC-OECD STIP Survey: Human resources for research andinnovation policy area,” STIP COMPASS
https://stiplab.github.io/R2r/main.html
European Commission and OECD (2021), “2021 EC-OECD STIP Survey: Human resources for research andinnovation policy area,” STIP COMPASS
https://stiplab.github.io/R3r/main.html
Hamanaka, Junko (2013), “Expanding Graduate Schools and the Employment Shortage Problem,” Teruyuki Hirota,
Fumi Yoshida, Tadashi Kobayashi, Takahiro Ueyama, Junko Hamanaka, Popularization of Universities,
Chapter 4, Iwanami Shoten.
Inui, Susumu (1989), “Demand and Supply Forecast for Information Technology Professionals in the Year 2000,”
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (ed.), The Monthly Journal of the Ministry of
Education, Science and Culture, Gyosei.
Ito, Akihiro (1996), “Policy Development in the Period of Great Expansion of Higher Education,” in Amano, Ikuo
and Yoshimoto, Keiichi (eds.), Study on the Structure and Function of Mass Higher Education in the Learning
Society (National Institute of Multimedia Education Research Report 91), National Institute of Multimedia
Education.
Ito, Akihiro (2013), “Period of Rapid Growth and Engineer Training Education: On Higher Education Institutions,”
Japan Institute of Labour Journal, 634, Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training.
Kobayashi, Shinichi (1996), “The Science and Engineering Boom and Training of Engineers,” Research Report, 91,
National Institute of Multimedia Education.
Kobayashi, Shinichi. (2001), “The University in the Knowledge Society: Transformation of Education, Research, andOrganization,” Journal of Higher Education Research, Vol. 4, Japan Association for Higher Education
Research.
Kobayashi, Shinichi (2004a), “The Merits and Demerits of the Policy of Emphasizing Graduate Schools,” Ehara,
Takekazu and Magoshi, Toru, Reform of Graduate Schools, Lectures: Thinking about Universities and Higher
Education in the 21st Century, Volume 4, Toshindo.
Kobayashi, Shinichi. (2004b), “Training of Young Researchers - A Prediction That Won’t Come True,” Bulletin of
Institute for Higher Education, No. 19, Institute for Research in Higher Education, (Reprinted in: Asonuma,
Akihiro (ed.), Universities and Academia - Transformation of the Community of Knowledge, Readings inJapanese Higher Education 5, Tamagawa University Press, 2010).
Kobayashi, Shinichi. (2010), “The Doctor as a Professional: Current Status and Issues in the Early Career of Doctoral
Personnel,” Japan Institute of Labour Journal, 594, Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training.
Kobayashi, Shinichi (2011), “Human Resource Issues in Science and Technology Policy,” International Trends inScience and Technology Policy [original version], Research Report of the Research Project on Science andTechnology, Research Material March 2010, Research and Legislation Review Bureau, National Diet Library.

17

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

Ledford,

Heidi(2007),“Scientists

toSpare,”Nature,

Vol.

449,

pp.

1084–1085.

(Japanese version: “The Road Ahead for Excess Postdocs,” Nature Digest, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2008.
https://storage.googleapis.com/natureasia-assets/ja-jp/ndigest/pdf/v5/n2/ndigest.2008.080209.pdf）
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (2022), “Vision for Future Human Resources.”
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry/Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu LLC (2022), “Report on the Actual Status ofDoctoral Candidates in Industry,” FY2021 Industrial Technology Research Project, Ministry of Economy, Tradeand Industry.
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry/Fujitsu Research Institute Ltd. (2021), “Research Report on Measures for
Cultivating Circulation of Innovative Human Resources in Industry and Universities,” Industrial Technology
Research Project, FY 2020, Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry.
Mizuki, Akimichi (2007), The Highly Educated Working Poor: Graduate Schools as Production Factories ofPermanent Part-Timers, Kobunsha.
Morozumi, Akiko, Yoshiko Saito, and Shinichi Kobayashi (2004), “University Education and Occupation in the
Knowledge Society: On the Subject of Knowledge and Skill Change of Information Professionals,” Researchin Higher Education, Vol. 34, Research Institute for Higher Education, Hiroshima University, (reprinted in:
Shuichi Tsukahara (ed.), Journal of Higher Education, Readings in Japanese Education and Society 12, Japan
Book Center, 2009).
Murakami, Yukiko (2008), “Japan’s Brain Drain: An Analysis of Japanese Researchers in the U.S.,” Japan Instituteof Labour Journal, 577, Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training.
Nagane (Saito), Hiromi (2021), “Changes in Researcher Training Systems and Their Impact on Research Systems,”
Research and Technology Planning, Vol. 36, No. 3, Japan Society for Research Policy and Innovation
Management.
Nagata, Akiya (2021), “Viewing the Innovation Process as a System,” The Science of Science, Technology andInnovation Policy (SciREX) Core Content (1.0.3), Center for Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy,
National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies.
https://scirex-core.grips.ac.jp/
Nakanishi, Yasuo and Yamada, Setsuo (2010), “Patent Value and Obsolescence Rate,” Journal of Social Science, 61(2),Institute of Social Science, University of Tokyo.
National Institute of Science and Technology Policy, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology(2022), “Science and Technology Indicators 2022,” Survey Data-318
OECD/Eurostat (1995), Manual on the Measurement of Human Resources Devoted to S&T: Canberra Manual, OECD
Publishing, Paris.
OECD (2001a), Innovative People: Mobility of Skilled Personnel in National Innovation Systems, OECD Publishing,Paris.
OECD (2001b), International Mobility of the Highly Skilled, OECD Publishing, Paris.

18

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

OECD (2015), Frascati Manual 2015: Guidelines for Collecting and Reporting Data on Research and Experimental
Development, The Measurement of Scientific, Technological and Innovation Activities, OECD Publishing,Paris.
Pogue, Thomas E (2007), Mobility of Human Resources and Systems of Innovation: A Review of Literature, HSRC
Press, South Africa.
Sato, Makoto (2011), The Real Sixties, Minerva Shobo.
Sawa, Takamitsu (1984), Rapid Growth: A Contemporaneous History of ‘Ideology’ and Policy, NHK Publishing
Tomizawa, Hiroyuki (2021), “The Development of the University Human Resource Development System for Scienceand Technology and its Response to Social and Industrial Needs,” Research and Technology Planning, Vol. 36,
No. 3, Japan Society for Research Policy and Innovation Management.
Tomizawa, Hiroyuki, Nagane (Saito), Hiromi and Yasuda, Satoko (2021), “Demand for Highly Skilled Human
Resources, Policies and Universities,” in Jun Suzuki, Satoko Yasuda, and Akira Goto (eds.), The Changing
Japanese Innovation System, Chapter 5, Yuhikaku Publishing.
Yano, Masakazu (2001), “Universities, Knowledge, and Markets,” Journal of Higher Education Research, Vol. 4,
Japan Association for Higher Education Research.

Related Data Sources
Human Resources in Science and Technology
In Japan, although general statistical data based on the Canberra Manual are not collected, the Basic School Survey(MEXT), a basic educational statistic, provides an annual survey on the number of university graduates, with abreakdown by department and type of organization where they are employed. This corresponds to the “HRST Inflow”
in the Canberra Manual, which is considered a new human resource to be added to HRST.
・https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/toukei/main_b8.htm
The total number of “scientific researchers” and “engineers” is also surveyed in the national census (demographic
survey). However, it is not based on international definitions. There is also a considerable difference between thedefinition of “scientific researcher” here and the definition of “researcher” given in 2-2(2).
・https://www.stat.go.jp/data/kokusei/2020/index.html

R&D Personnel
Data on R&D personnel in each sector (industry, higher education, government, and private non-profit) are collectedannually through the “Survey of Science and Technology Research,” of the Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal
Affairs and Communications, which is the basic R&D statistic in Japan. This is essentially in accordance with the
Frascati Manual.
・https://www.stat.go.jp/data/kagaku/index.html

19

SciREX Core Contents
1.4 Human Resources for Science, Technology, and Innovation

In addition to the above, detailed data on researchers (university faculty and graduate students) affiliated withinstitutions of higher education are compiled annually using the “Basic School Survey” (MEXT). Furthermore, the“Statistical Survey of School Teachers” is conducted every three years for university teachers.
・https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/toukei/main_b8.htm

Doctoral Degree Holders
The National Institute of Science and Technology Policy (NISTEP) of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology (MEXT) is currently developing a “Doctoral Human Resources Database (JGRAD)” to survey
the activities of doctoral degree holders in society. The 52 universities participating in this project (as of April 2022)
provide NISTEP with the initial registration information of the doctoral students, and after the initial registration, theregistrant continuously inputs career and other information into JGRAD after completing the doctoral program.
・https://jgrad.nistep.go.jp/about/about_jgrad.html
In parallel, NISTEP has been conducting the Japan Doctoral Human Resource Profiling (JDPRO) project for those
who have completed graduate school doctoral programs.
・https://www.nistep.go.jp/jdpro/

International Mobility of Human Resources in Science and Technology
Human resources in science and technology outflows and inflows from the country are not in line with international
standards, but the following data sources are available.
The “Immigration Statistics” of the Immigration Bureau of Japan surveys the number of incoming and outgoingforeigners by status of residence and nationality/region, and data on the number of incoming and outgoing foreigners,
including the “highly specialized professionals” mentioned in 3-4, are available. Moreover, the “Statistics on Foreign
Residents” of the Immigration Bureau of Japan of the Ministry of Justice produces statistical data on foreign residents
by status of residence (purpose of residence), and data on the number of foreign residents whose purpose of residence
is “research” or “highly specialized professional” as described in 3-3 are available.
・https://www.moj.go.jp/isa/policies/statistics/index.html

20