The Japanese Society for Aesthetics

Aesthetics No.28 (2024): 66-75

A Study on Rai Sanyo’s Painting Theory:
Through the Reinterpretation of “Raikai (磊磈)” *SHIMAMURA Yukitada
National Institute of Japanese Literature, Tokyo
Abstract: Rai Sanyo (頼山陽, 1781–1832), a literati in the late Edo period, is well known as the author of
Nihon Gaishi (日本外史). He produced many works of art, including landscape paintings, during his life.
Nevertheless, little research has been done on his paintings. This study, by interpreting the keyword “Raikai(磊磈),” which Sanyo often used in his Chinese-style poems, aims to clarify Sanyo’s theory of painting,characteristics of his landscape paintings, and the deep relationship between his landscape paintings and his
historical or political thought. So, the discussion will proceed as follows. In the first section, I point out that
Sanyo’s inscriptions can be divided into two types, and I consider how Sanyo used the word Raikai. In thesecond section, I examine Raikai used in various poems and show that the production of landscape paintings
was connected to Sanyo’s way of life. In the final section, I show that Raikai was often represented as highmountains in Sanyo’s landscape paintings.
Keywords: Rai Sanyo, Literati, Landscape Painting, Theory of Painting

Introduction
This study aims to clarify thoughts on the paintings by the literati Rai Sanyo (頼山陽, 1780–
1832). It focuses on some of Sanyo’s inscriptions (poems written on paintings) and interprets theword “Raikai” (磊磈, also written as 磊塊) used in these poems.
Sanyo was born in Osaka in 1780. His father was Rai Shunsui (頼春水, 1746–1816), a
Confucian scholar of the Hiroshima Domain. In 1800, Sanyo suddenly attempted to leave his
domain but failed to do so. As a result, three years later, he was disinherited. Starting in 1811,
Sanyo lived in Kyoto while running a private school. His representative works are Nihon Gaishi(日本外史: Unofficial history of Japan, 1836–1837) and Tsugi (通議: Sanyo’s political thoughts,
1850). While writing these books, he also produced several works of art including poetry,calligraphy, and painting.
Most of Sanyo’s paintings were produced after the death of his father, Shunsui, in 1816.
Moreover, according to Yoshizawa Tadashi, most of these paintings depict landscapes(Yoshizawa 1977, p. 491). One of his best-known works is Yabakei Zukan (耶馬渓図巻: A scroll
depicting the scenery of Yabakei, painted in 1819 and 1829), which made Yabakei in Oita a
famous tourist destination for its scenic beauty reminiscent of Chinese landscape paintings. We
can read about this in Tanomura Chikuden’s (田能村竹田, 1777–1835) Takedaso Shiyu Garoku*

This paper is based on the Japanese version printed in Bigaku 71, No. 2 (2020): 13-24, published by theJapanese Society for Aesthetics.

A Study on Rai Sanyo’s Painting Theory67(竹田荘師友画録: Records of Chikuden’s teachers and friends, 1833).
Most previous studies about Sanyo have focused on his historical views and politicalthoughts, or his poems. By contrast, there are only a few studies on Sanyo’s paintings and his
painting theory. One of them is Matsushita Hidemaro’s “Typical Literati: Sanyo, Shunkin, andKaioku’s Paintings” (1976). Focusing on Sanyo’s poems, Matsushita points out that Sanyo “often
used the word Raikai in his poems, not only this, but his paintings expressed this Raikai as
landscapes, eliminating color and striving to express the clear shade of his intention in black ink
only” (Matsushita 1976, p. 118). Matsushita does not explain the meaning of Raikai, but Fukushima
Riko gives this matter some attention in her “On the Inscriptions of Rai Sanyo” (1997). According
to Fukushima, Raikai relates to Huang Tingjian (黄庭堅)’s “Kyotyu no Kyugaku” (胸中丘壑:Mountains in the mind) and Su Shi (蘇軾)’s “Kyoutyu no Seichiku” (胸中成竹: Completedbamboo in the mind) from the Song dynasty. In addition, Fukushima mentions that the source ofRaikai is the word “Ruikai” (塁塊: lump), which is found in A New Account of the Tales of theWorld (世説新語). Thus, it also has the meaning of a pent-up feeling that cannot be suppressed.
Such a feeling can be swept away by sake (酒) from his mind (Fukushima 1997, p. 74). It is truethat Sanyo sometimes painted while he drank.
However, the discussions by Matsushita and Fukushima do not clarify the following points.
First, why did Sanyo use Raikai instead of “Kyotyu no Kyugaku” (胸中丘壑) or “Kyoutyu no
Seichiku” (胸中成竹)? Second, even if Ruikai was a pent-up feeling that cannot be suppressed,
what exactly does Raikai mean? Consideration of this second point would help clarify the firstquestion. Third, how did Sanyo depict Raikai in his paintings? By answering these researchquestions, this study aims to clarify Sanyo’s thoughts on his painting.
The rest of the paper proceeds as follows. In the next section, I point out that Sanyo’s
inscriptions can be divided into two types, and I consider how Sanyo used the word Raikai. In
the following section, I examine Raikai used in various poems and show that the production oflandscape paintings was connected to his historical or political thought. In the final section, I
show that Raikai was often represented as high mountains in Sanyo’s landscape paintings.

1. “Raikai” as a landscape image in the mind
According to Ibi Takashi, the inscriptions written on landscape paintings can be divided into
two basic types (Ibi 2009, p. 213). In the first type, the poet’s viewpoint is outside the painting,and in the second type, it is inside. The former contains such information as the circumstances
under which the painting was painted, the relationship between the painter and the client, and theartist’s thoughts about the painting. The latter type is composed “by the painter who accepts theworld depicted in the picture as a reality and immerses himself/herself in that world” (Ibi 2009,p. 211). Hence, if we read a poem with the latter type of inscription, we can more easily understandthe painting.
This distinction also applies to Sanyo’s poems. Ga-ni Dai-su (題画: The poem for paint,1820) is a good example of the latter type. It is included in Sanyo Shisho (山陽詩鈔: Sanyo’s
anthology of Chinese poetry, 1833), which Sanyo edited.

68

SHIMAMURA Yukitada「題画」
石路霜乾踏葉行
秋林連日正牢晴
渓山深処有過雨
却向峰前為水声(Sanyo Shisho, Vol. 5.)
The meaning of this poem is as follows.
“I walked along a leaf-strewn stone path through the autumn woods, which had been clear
for many days in a row. As I approached the peak, I could hear a waterfall, but it was louder thanusual, probably due to a passing shower deep in the mountains.”
This poem is inscribed in such paintings as Keizan Ugo Zu (渓山雨後図: After rain on themountain, 1822). The poem contains information that is not available to the viewer visually,
namely the experience of a person crossing a bridge, which is depicted at the bottom of thepainting. By reading the poem, the viewer will be able to sympathize the painting strongly andget feeling escaped from the mundane world.
So, many of Sanyo’s poems are of a different type. In these poems, the poet’s viewpoint is
outside the painting, and Sanyo often expressed his thoughts about his paintings and used theword Raikai. For example, this term is used in Jiga Sansui-ni Dai-su: Roku Shu (題自画山水 六
首: Six poems for landscapes, 1817), Jiga Sansui-ni Dai-su: Ni Shu (題自画山水 二首: Twopoems for landscapes, 1818), and Chikuto Shunkin-to Yo Gassaku Sansui-ni Dai-su (題竹洞春
琴与余合作山水: Poem for the joint work of Chikuto, Shunkin, and Sanyo, 1830). According to
the production dates of these poems, Sanyo continued using Raikai as his favorite word. Here, I
focus on one of the Jiga Sansui-ni Dai-su: Roku Shu (題自画山水 六首, 1817).
「題自画山水 六首」
董巨倪黄眼未看
唯存磊磈自巑岏
胸中粉本依吾様
休道人間無許山(Sanyo Shisho, Vol. 2.)
The meaning of this poem is as follows.
“I (Sanyo) have never seen the works of Chinese literati painters, such as Dong Yuan (董源), Juran (巨然), Ni Zan (倪瓚), and Huang Gongwang (黄公望). I only have ‘Raikai’ in mymind. Additionally, it has the appearance of a towering peak. I painted its appearance, so it is nowonder that there is no mountain like that in the real world.”
The same theme is repeated in the poem Chikuto Shunkin-to Yo Gassaku Sansui-ni Dai-su(題竹洞春琴与余合作山水, 1830), which is included in Sanyo Iko Shi (山陽遺稿 詩: Sanyo’s
collection of posthumous manuscripts, 1841). Chikuto in the title refers to Nakabayashi Chikuto(中林竹洞, 1776–1853) and Shunkin to Urakami Shunkin (浦上春琴, 1779–1846). Both wereliterati friends of Sanyo.

69

A Study on Rai Sanyo’s Painting Theory「題竹洞春琴与余合作山水」
施皺容易設枝難林有姿容石貌頑
磊磈胸中存紛本
諸君為樹我諸山(Sanyo Iko Shi, Vol. 5.)
In this poem, Sanyo indicates the following.
“It is easy to paint mountains for me (Sanyo), butdifficult to paint trees. This is because, while trees
require skill to draw beautifully, stones are stubborn
and can be painted in a simple manner. As for painting
mountains, I have ‘Raikai’ in my mind. For this reason,
I asked Chikuto and Shunkin to paint the trees and I
painted the mountains.”
Indeed, Sanyo was aware that he was not skilled
at painting trees, flowers, birds, buildings, or people.
There is a short story about this in Sanyo Sensei
Daibatsu (山陽先生題跋, 1832), in which Tanomura
Chikuden knows that Sanyo was not good at painting
buildings and figures, so Chikuden painted them firstand let Sanyo freely paint the mountains.
According to Kono Motoaki’s “Painting Examples
and Reproductions” (2005), Hunpon “was originated in
the process of tracing with white pigment (胡粉) along
the underpainting drawn with black ink, and thentapping it onto paper or silk to complete the painting.”
And later, it came to mean models of paintings,
drawings, or reproductions. However, it is clear fromthe abovementioned poems that “Hunpon (紛本)” is
not used in these senses. Rather, Sanyo used it with thesense of mountains in his mind, and he called it Raikai.
Therefore, in the second poem of Jiga Sansui-ni
Dai-su: Ni Shu (題自画山水 二首, 1818), Sanyo said
that Raikai is what is projected on the screen. This
poem is written in Syacha Taiyu Zu (煮茗待友図:
Making tea and waiting for a friend, 1818) (Fig. 1),
Koshi Hoyu Zu (高士訪友図: A hermit waiting his
friends in his hermitage, 1818).

Fig. 1
Syacha Taiyu Zu (煮茗待友図:
Making tea and waiting for friend)
1818, paper and ink, 134.7 49.9cm

70

SHIMAMURA Yukitada「題自画山水 二首」
薄酒難澆老阮胸
直将墨瀋代醇濃写来磊塊万奇怪
莫道人間無許峰（Rai Sanyo Shishu, Vol.11.）
The meaning of this poem is as follows.
“It is difficult for an old man’s (Sanyo’s) chest to drink sake. So instead of sake, I used black
ink and drew ‘Raikai’ on the screen. ‘Raikai’ refers to mountains with a truly mysterious shape.
Please never say that mountains like this don’t exist in the real world.”
From the three poems discussed in this section, we can understand that the mountains in
Sanyo's paintings of landscapes expressed his Hunpon, that is, Raikai in his mind. Thus, it seems
that Raikai is close in meaning to “mountains in the mind” or “completed bamboo in the mind.”However, as mentioned in the introduction, it is unclear why Sanyo used Raikai instead of thesewords. Why did Sanyo insist on using Raikai? To understand why, we need to clarify a second
meaning of Raikai that includes Sanyo’s pent-up feelings.

2. The reason why Sanyo chose the word “Raikai”
Raikai is an extremely important word in Sanyo’s works. In fact, Raikai often appears in his
Chinese poems and letters, not only in his inscriptions (poems written on paintings).
Rai Sanyo Shisen (2012)’s editor Ibi Takashi treats Raikai as a different probrem thaninscriptions. According to Ibi, Sanyo already used Raikai in a letter in his youth (Ibi 2012, p. 329).
For example, in the letter he sent to his friend Takemoto Hokurin (武元北林, 1770–1820) in
1810, Sanyo wrote that, finally, some Raikai had left without disappearing in his mind. The
meaning of Raikai here is a feeling of guilt toward his family for attempting to leave his domain,
as he was young and desired to redeem himself through historiography. Indeed, Sanyo reunited
with his father Shunsui (1813), from whom he had been estranged, by the completion of Nihon
Gaishi (historiography was also Shunsui’s dream).
However, it seems that Raikai never completely disappeared from Sanyo’s mind.
Throughout his life, Sanyo continued to hold onto Raikai. We can confirm this in the poem
Toketu-wo Wazura-i Tawamu-reni Uta-wo Na-su ( 患 咳 血 戯 作 歌 : The poem composed
immediately after vomiting blood, 1832). At the time when he composed this poem, Sanyo wasalready suffering from a mortal illness. Only the first half of the poem is quoted below.
「患咳血戯作歌」
吾有一腔血有其色正赤其性熱
不能瀝之明主前赤光燦向廟堂徹
又不能濺之国家難A Study on Rai Sanyo’s Painting Theory

71

留痕大地碧弗滅鬱積徒成磊塊凝
欲吐不吐中逾熱
一旦喀出学李賀難収糝地紅玉屑(Sanyo Iko Shi, Vol. 7.)
The meaning of this poem is as follows.
“The red-hot blood that flows in my body cannot be poured out for my monarch or against
the national crisis. This unfulfilled feeling is building up in the mind and hardening into Raikai.
I try to get it out, but I can’t, and it gets hotter and hotter in my mind. I imitated the Tang dynasty
poet Li He and spit it (Raikai) out, my red blood [this is a metaphor for ink] splatters all over thescreen and cannot be contained.”
As indicated in this poem, Sanyo was never satisfied with the political situation of his time.
However, he was not able to directly influence politics. It is not difficult to imagine that Sanyo’s
position would have continued to make him depressed. For example, in the first poem of Shintyo
Tsugi-no Nochi-ni Dai-su: Nana Shu (題新著通議後 七首: Seven poems after the new bookTsugi) (1830), Sanyo said that he remained a bystander to the political situation of the time butthat he still could not help but feel resentment toward the state of the world. Thus, he wrote Tsugi.
Such a feeling must have flowed into his artwork as well.
To verify this, I refer to the poem Koga Hukei So-no Hankou-no Tame-ni Wa-ga Ga-wo
Saku-shi Ken Ippuku-wo Mo-tte Kore-wo Syo-shi Kore-wo Ji-su (古賀溥卿為其藩侯索吾画寄以絹一幅書此辞此: Instead of paintings Koga Hukei commissioned for Hankou, he wrote thispoem on silk, 1830). Koga Hukei (1778–1836) was a Confucian scholar of the Saga Domain, andHankou was 10th Lord of the Saga Domain Nabeshima Naomasa (鍋島直正, 1815–1871). By
the time Sanyo composed this poem, Koga Hukei had already passed away.
「古賀溥卿為其藩侯索吾画寄以絹一幅書此辞此」
磊磈横胸不自持吐為狂墨澷淋漓
此心応有故人識
敢向侯門喚画師
曽謝横経弄翰儒
寧将余技待観娯
懐中画本猶献堪彷彿豳風七月図(Sanyo Iko Shi, Vol. 5.)
The meaning of this poem is as follows.
“I (Sanyo) can’t hold the ‘Raikai’ lying in my mind. If I let it out, it will become an ink
painting overflowing with vigor. The late Koga Hukei knew very well that I do not like to be

72

SHIMAMURA Yukitadacalled a painter by the Lord of the Saga Domain.”“I have already strayed from the way of becoming a Confucian scholar who studies
diligently and enjoy making some texts and poems. Who is looking forward to waiting for mypainting by avocation? Even so, the images in my mind should be worthy of being given to you.
And it will express my feelings about the suffering of people’s lives.”
First, I focus on the phrase “敢向侯門喚画師” in the first verse. As symbolized by words suchas “Chi (痴: unwiseness)” and “Setsu (拙: unskillful),” Sanyo’s attitude like this is typical for literati
who consider that drawing skills are not always positively valued. This theme was particularly
important to Sanyo, and is expressed, for example, in the description he wrote on Kanrin Houyu Zu(寒林訪友図: Visiting a friend in winter mountain, 1827). The description is as follows.
舐筆寧追画匠群
研池余墨愛清氛撑膓書巻為何用結作蓬蓬幾幅雲The meaning of this poem is as follows.
“Even if I [Sanyo] took a brush, I could not draw a painting like made by professionals(because Sanyo is an amateur painter). However, I love the clean fragrance of the ink left on theinkstone. If I wrote some words, I could not earn enough. The mountains drown shapes like clouds
rising up.” According to this poem and the second verse of Koga Hukei So-no Hankou-no Tameni Wa-ga Ga-wo Saku-shi Ken Ippuku-wo Mo-tte Kore-wo Syo-shi Kore-wo Ji-su, Sanyo thought
painting was one of avocations.
Next, let us look at the second verse. Kaityu-no Gahon (懐中画本: Models for painting in
the mind) is a word that paraphrases Raikai and evokes Hinpu Shichigatu (豳風七月). Hinpu
Shichigatu is the name of one of the chapters in Classic of Poetry (詩経: Shijing) that contains
Chinese poems about the hardships of people’s lives. Therefore, we should assume that
underlying Sanyo’s Kaityu-no Gahon (懐中画本) or Raikai is his concern for the lives of peopleor his interest in political issues. Of course, it should be remembered that Koga Hukei wascommissioned by a Confucian scholar of the Saga Domain. However, considering the content ofToketu-wo Wazura-i Tawamu-reni Uta-wo Na-su (患咳血戯作歌), we can understand that
Sanyo’s argument in Koga Hukei So-no Hankou-no Tame-ni Wa-ga Ga-wo Saku-shi Ken Ippukuwo Mo-tte Kore-wo Syo-shi Kore-wo Ji-su (古賀溥卿為其藩侯索吾画寄以絹一幅書此辞此)
was consistent with that of his other works.
From the discussion, it is evident that the landscapes painted by Sanyo were not only
intended to be pleasing to the viewer’s eyes or minds but also need to be considered as an
expression of his thoughts as a historian and political thinker. This may be the reason that Sanyochose the word “Raikai” and did not use “Kyotyu no Kyugaku” (胸中丘壑) or “Kyoutyu no
Seichiku” (胸中成竹) (of course, this could also be a matter concerning the rules of Chinese
poetry, but I do not consider this to be a direct reason for choosing Raikai). Next, the issue is how
Sanyo depicted Raikai in his works. I discuss this question in the following section.

A Study on Rai Sanyo’s Painting Theory73

3. Expression of “Raikai”
According to Sanyo, Raikai has the appearance of towering peaks. In fact, in the poems
mentioned above, Sanyo used the words Sangan (巑岏: Towering peak) or Mine (峰), which means
towering peaks. These are important elements that always appear in Sanyo’s landscape paintings.
Sanyo seems to have a preference for depicting high peaks by using high distancing
perspective ( 高 遠 ) and deep distanting perspective ( 深 遠 ) (these are two of three rules
perspectibve three rules of perspective (三遠法) in chinese landscape drawing). This is supported
by Chikuden’s description on Suiboku Syukei (水墨秋景: Autumn scenery in black ink, 1834).
In this poem, Chikuden said that Sanyo believed that the mountain at the center of the painting
should be high and prominent, and that the mountain should express the personality of the painter.
Furthermore, according to Chikuden’s Matamata Ishiraku Jo-no Nochi-ni Syo-su (書亦復一楽
帖後: Afterword for Yet Again One More Pleasure, 1831), Sanyo was not a great painter, but the
popularity of his work was due to the fact that Kousyo-no Ki (高尚之気: Lofty personality) is
expressed in his landscapes, which were drawn as if he were writing calligraphy.
As is well known, in Asian painting theory including Guo Ruoxu (郭若虚)’s Overview ofPainting (図画見聞志, 11c), the personality of the painter is said to be expressed in the painting. So,
the viewers of Sanyo's landscapes should have perceived his noble and intellectual character in theses.
Thus, how exactly are these high peaks depicted?
According to Sanyo, painting a peak is similar to painting the face of a beautiful woman, as
shown in the following poem.
「題自画山水 六首」
用墨疎疎用筆鬆
画成皴染淡如空貌山匹似美人面眉暈頰渦髣髴中
（Sanyo Shisho, Vol. 2.）
The meaning of this poem is as follows.
“The use of ink and brushwork was so rough, resulting in a very washy painting. Painting
mountains is similar to painting a beautiful woman's face. Thus, mountains will remind people ofblurred eyebrows and dimples on the cheeks.”
A similar poem is written on Jigasan Sansui Zu (自画賛山水図: Landscape and inscription,
date unknown) (Fig. 2), which was painted in the dry brush technique. In this work, there is ameandering line of peaks running from the near view at the bottom to the far view at the top. The
peaks seem to grow higher and higher as one moves farther back. The ridge line, like a blurredeyebrow, becomes thinner as one moves away from the summit. However, only the upper part ofthe mountain is depicted. The body of the mountain also has straight lines parallel to themountain’s ridges. According to the Manual of the Mustard Seed Garden (芥子園画伝, 1679),
straight lines are one of the painting techniques especially favored by Huang Gongwang and areapplied to add strength to the steep appearance of the mountain. In contrast to the mountains, thevalleys are covered with clouds or fog and are hollowed out like dimples so that the bottoms of

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SHIMAMURA Yukitada

the mountains cannot be seen. The depth of the valleys
is emphasized. So, all these aspects are thought toaccentuate the soaring appearance of the peaks.
In addition, “Ha (坡: A flat area drawn in the
middle of mountains)” is placed in various places on thepeaks in this painting. Sanyo frequently depicted suchflat areas in his landscape paintings, not only in thispainting. Viewers of the painting are asked to imagine
themselves sitting on Ha (坡) and enjoying the view inthe painting. In addition, Ha (坡) enhances the height ofthe vertically extending peaks. This is because it makes
the viewer aware of horizontal direction. This is evident
in Syacha Taiyu Zu (煮茗待友図) (Fig. 1).

Conclusion
Most of the landscape paintings produced by
Sanyo depict high peaks. Indeed, as Chikuden
mentioned, we should first read the artist’s character in
Sanyo’s works. However, if we pay attention to theword “Raikai,” we may realize the deeper meaning of
Sanyo’s landscapes. This study confirms that Sanyo
attempted to directly express the Raikai that was inside
his mind. However, it does not only refer to ideal
landscapes in his mind. This is because Raikai is theaccumulation and massification of Sanyo’s concern forthe state of the nation in his heart. In other words,
Sanyo’s paintings were deeply related to his life history,
his view of history, and his political thoughts. Sanyo’s
painting has not been the subject of much discussion,having been regarded as nothing more than amateurish
art by previous studies. However, by focusing on theword Raikai, this study clarifies that Sanyo’s painting
was by no means just a small facet of his life.
Up to now, research on Sanyo’s works has been
conducted separately to consider his poetry,calligraphy, historical views, and political thought.
However, by focusing on the word Raikai as an
example, this study shows that Sanyo’s art, historicalFig. 2
views, and political thoughts are inseparable and should Jigasan Sansui Zu (自画賛山水図:
Landscape and inscription) date unknown,
not be discussed separately.
paper and ink, 122.5 37.0cm

A Study on Rai Sanyo’s Painting Theory

75

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Kizaki, Aikichi & Rai, Seiichi (Eds.). 1932. Rai Sanyo Shishu (Collection of Rai Sanyo’s Chinese
Poems), Hiroshima: The Association in Honor to the Accomplishments of Rai Sanyo.
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Matsushita, Hidemaro. 1976. “Typical Literati: Sanyo, Shunkin, and Kaioku’s Paintings” inBunjingasuihen (Essence of Literati Paintings) Vol.l8, 113-123.
Yoshizawa, Tadashi. 1977. Nihon Nanga Ronso (Studies about Japanese Painting in the Literati
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Acknowledgment
This work was supported by Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Fellows Grant Number 23KJ2143.