m tif
Thesaurus construction guidelines: An introduction to thesauri and guidelines
on their construction Catherine Ryan

Thesaurus construction guidelines:
An introduction to thesauri and guidelines on their construction
Catherine Ryan

This work is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 Ireland License.
When citing or attributing this work, please
use the following: Ryan, C. (2014), ‘Thesaurus
construction guidelines: an introduction to thesauri
and guidelines on their construction’. Dublin: Royal
Irish Academy and National Library of Ireland.
ISSN: 2009-6461
DOI: 10.3318/DRI.2014.1
Digital Repository of Ireland series, no. 5

MoTIF project

MoTIF project team: Sandra Collins, Digital Repository of
Ireland; Rebecca Grant, Digital Repository of Ireland;
Eoghan Ó Carragáin, National Library of Ireland; Catherine
Ryan, Digital Repository of Ireland/National Library of
Ireland; Ger Wilson, National Library of Ireland.
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Dr Jodi
Schneider (INSIGHT Centre for Data Analytics, formerly
Digital Enterprise Research Institute (DERI)); Dr Elizabeth
Mullins (University College Dublin (UCD)); Jane Burns (Royal
College of Surgeons in Ireland); Dr Christoph SchmidtSupprian (Trinity College Dublin); Dr Ríonach Uí Ógáin
(National Folklore Collection, UCD); Críostóir Mac
Cárthaigh (National Folklore Collection, UCD); and Anna
Bale (National Folklore Collection, UCD).

Contents

6

Introduction

9

Introduction to thesauri

12

Main elements of a thesaurus

26

Planning a thesaurus

30

Constructing a thesaurus

48

Multilingual thesauri

52

Mapping thesauri

53

Thesauri and the Semantic Web

56

Conclusion

58

Bibliography

61

Appendix I: Initial list of terms

65

Appendix II: Stage 1 facet analysis

69

Appendix III: Pilot thesaurus of Irish folklore alphabetical display

98

Appendix IV: Pilot thesaurus of Irish folklore hierarchical display

Introduction

This guide was constructed as part of MoTIF (Mo Thesaurus of Irish Folklore), a collaborative project led by the Digital Repository of Ireland (DRI) and the National Library of
Ireland (NLI).
One of the project aims was to produce guidelines on the construction of thesauri forlibrarians, archivists, museum professionals and other information professionals. The
guidelines are contained in this document and are accompanied by a pilot thesaurus of
Irish folklore.
A thesaurus is a:‘controlled and structured vocabulary in which concepts are represented
by terms, organised so that relationships between concepts are madeexplicit, and preferred terms are accompanied by lead-in entries for synonyms or quasi-synonyms’ (International Organization for Standardization
2011, 2013).
Thesauri are vital and valuable tools in content discovery, and in information organisation
and retrieval, activities common to all fields, including cultural heritage and higher education as well as business and enterprise. Thesauri allow information professionals torepresent content in a consistent manner and enable researchers, employees and the
public to find this content easily and quickly. These guidelines will give professionals theadvice that they need to improve their own data management processes by adhering tointernational standards and best practices.

Guidelines
These guidelines were produced to provide a comprehensive introduction to and advice
on how to construct thesauri following international standards and best practice. To thisend, ISO 25964 Thesauri and interoperability with other vocabularies, an international
standard published by the International Organization for Standardization1 was consulted
along with other writings in the field by knowledge managers and knowledge organisation experts. Existing thesauri were also consulted.

16

http://www.iso.org/ (last accessed 22 October 2013).

The idea for the project arose following the Digital archiving in Ireland: National surveyof the humanities and social sciences DRI report, which identified a number of problematic areas in the indexing of Irish-language names, both personal names and place
names, as well a large number of either custom-made vocabularies or international
vocabularies adapted for use with Irish content (O’Carroll and Webb 2012). The guidelines offer advice on how to bridge this vocabulary gap and ensure that information
professionals have the advice they need to improve their own data procedures by adhering to international standards and best practices such as ISO 25964-1. Information anddocumentation: Thesauri and interoperability with other vocabularies.
The first section of the guidelines contains an introduction to thesauri, examines the differences between thesauri and other controlled vocabularies and explains why thesauri
are important in indexing and searching. The second section of the guidelines introduces
the main elements of thesauri: terms and concepts; relationships; notes; and methods
used to structure a thesaurus. The third section looks at what to consider when planninga thesaurus while the fourth section covers the construction process itself, using a pilot
thesaurus as an illustrative example of some of the decisions that need to be made.
Multilingual thesauri, mapping thesauri and the Semantic Web are covered in the fifth,
sixth and seventh sections.

Pilot thesaurus
A pilot thesaurus on Irish folklore was constructed as an illustrative example and proof
of concept for the guidelines and is now available online.2 The report data from theDigital archiving in Ireland: National survey of the humanities and social sciences DRI
report, combined with professional knowledge and research, revealed areas where apilot thesaurus would be of use. These included folklore, history, drama, theatre andIrish-language culture (O’Carroll and Webb 2012). Irish folklore had the most potential
for reuse among specialised collections across Ireland and no thesaurus existed for thiscontent to date. There were also a number of existing, comprehensive sources, which
could be consulted in the creation of a pilot thesaurus on Irish folklore.
The pilot thesaurus contains approximately 500 terms, mostly in English, which havebeen organised using the method of facet analysis, the most explicit approach to knowledge organisation in the library and information science field (Hjørland 2013). It has
been arranged with the fundamental facets at the top of the hierarchy. The pilot thesaurus contains examples of the most important elements in a thesaurus, including
equivalence, and hierarchical and associative relationships as well as notes. These are2

http://apps.dri.ie/motif/

7

used as illustrative examples and the pilot should not be considered exhaustive in thisregard. The sources consulted for this pilot include two chapters, on livelihood andhousehold support, and nature, from Seán Ó Súilleabháin’s Handbook of Irish folklore(Ó Súilleabháin 1942). Other sources were Béaloideas, the journal of the Folklore of
Ireland Society and Dundes’ The study of folklore (Dundes 1965; Folklore of Ireland
Society, 2012).
The creation of a more comprehensive thesaurus of Irish folklore would necessitate theinclusion of additional vocabulary resources. Potential future work could include thedevelopment of a multilingual thesaurus in both English and Irish as well as the representation of the thesaurus in the Simple Knowledge Organisation System (SKOS), a
Semantic Web specification designed to support the use of thesauri, taxonomies andcontrolled vocabularies on the Web (World Wide Web Consortium 2012).

8

Introduction to thesauri

What is a thesaurus?
Different types of knowledge organisation systems (KOSs) and knowledge representation
systems abound. From controlled vocabularies to authority lists and from classification
schemes to taxonomies, thesauri and ontologies, different systems are used to define
and describe terms and concepts, and to organise knowledge for better search andretrieval. In practice, there is overlapping in the use of terms such as controlled vocabulary,taxonomy, thesaurus and ontology to describe similar applications and knowledge organisation activities across different fields. Hedden’s The accidental taxonomist (2010) notesthat the word ‘taxonomy’ can be used to denote a wide range of knowledge organisation
systems aside from a traditional hierarchical classification (Hedden 2010a). A number ofcommentators have discussed the similarities and differences between controlled vocabularies, taxonomies and thesauri (Garshol 2004; Hedden 2010a; Leise and Fast 2002;
Pidcock 2003; Taxonomies and Controlled Vocabularies Special Interest Group of theAmerican Society for Indexing, n.d.). Their essential characteristics are outlined below:
Controlled vocabulary: this is a restricted list of terms, as distinct from concepts,3 thatcan be used for names, places and subjects. No structure is required in a controlled
vocabulary although one may be present. Equivalence terms such as USE and Use For(UF) may be used as see reference types and all terms in a controlled vocabulary should
ideally have an explicit definition but this is often not the case. Examples of controlled
vocabularies are authority lists, taxonomies and thesauri such as the Library of Congress
Subject Headings, and The Getty Research Institute’s Art & Architecture Thesaurus (AAT).
They also include website site maps and navigation menus.
A controlled vocabulary is used to provide consistency across search and to ensure that
non-preferred terms are not overlooked. The use of controlled vocabularies to describe
people, places, things, genres, forms and subjects ensures that all the relevant records
are found or collocated under a single term. Controlled vocabularies also remove any
ambiguity in a search and improve the precision of the results. For instance, if a purely
full-text keyword search was performed on a database for the term ‘roses’, the results
would be some text containing quotes from Shakespeare which may not be desired:‘What’s in a name? that which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet;’3

For the purposes of thesauri and their construction, a distinction is made between terms and the concepts
that they describe. This is discussed in the section Main Elements of a Thesaurus.

9By contrast, a search for the controlled vocabulary term ‘roses’ would only bring up
those documents that have been indexed, or tagged, with the subject heading ‘roses’.
Taxonomies: a taxonomy is a controlled vocabulary traditionally arranged into a hierarchical tree structured using parent/child, whole/part or instance relationships.
Taxonomies use broader term (BT) and narrower term (NT) to denote these relationships
and may also use equivalence terms. In recent years, especially in business and corporate
knowledge management, the term taxonomy has taken on a broader usage and tends
to be applied to many types of vocabulary, including controlled vocabularies, authority
lists, thesauri and ontologies.
For the purposes of this document, taxonomies will refer to the simpler hierarchies,
which do not contain associative relationships although the hierarchies may be constructed in much the same way as a thesaurus. Taxonomies can be used for organisationand navigation both internally or in the form of a navigational menu on a website. They
can also be a form of classification where, typically, a child node contains many of theproperties or attributes of its parent nodes. In both cases, the taxonomy tree improves
search by allowing users to browse for terms higher or lower in the hierarchy.
Thesauri: a thesaurus is also a controlled vocabulary but contains more complex relationships than a taxonomy. These relationships include hierarchical relationships such as
BT and NT, see also and equivalence relationships as well as associative relationships
such as related terms (RTs).
A thesaurus can be referred to as a networked collection of terms where all terms areconnected to each other and not only assists users in finding information but also inunderstanding it.4 The most recent international standard for the creation of thesauri is
ISO 25964. Thesauri and interoperability with other vocabularies published in two parts
in 2011 and 2013. This gives recommendations on the development and maintenanceof thesauri for information retrieval and their interoperability with other vocabularies. It
also defines a thesaurus as a:‘controlled and structured vocabulary in which concepts are represented
by terms, organised so that relationships between concepts are madeexplicit, and preferred terms are accompanied by lead-in entries for synonyms or quasi-synonyms’ (International Organization for Standardization
2011, 2013).

4
Thesauri bear some similarity to ontologies, although they both perform separate functions. Gilchrist notedthat semantic networks contain more complex treatment of relationships than thesauri but ‘there is no intrinsic
reason why a conventional thesaurus should not be extended and elaborated to include, for example, term
definitions, notes on term usage, and more explicitly defined relationships’ (Gilchrist 2003). Thesauri, ontologies and other Semantic Web technologies are discussed in the section Thesauri and the Semantic Web.

10

Why are thesauri important?
Improving a user’s ability to find the information that they are looking for quickly andeasily is the main goal of most thesauri and other controlled vocabularies and the ISO
standard mentioned above outlines how they do this. Thesauri are tools that allow boththe indexer and the researcher to use the same terms to describe the same subjects orconcepts, allowing for easier search and retrieval of information about a particulardomain (International Organization for Standardization 2011). By doing so, they support
the indexing, retrieval, organisation and navigation of information (Hedden 2010a). The
relationships in a thesaurus guide users to more general or more specific concepts by
allowing them to navigate through the vocabulary and to choose the most suitable terms
for their content. This navigability of the thesaurus makes it much more useful than asimple controlled list of terms as it allows a user to browse a subject domain or website—
the thesaurus can be displayed alphabetically by terms or instead be used as a systematic
structure of hierarchical or classified relationships to act as a navigational tool and mapof the domain. Associative relationships in a thesaurus can also direct a user towards
related terms making connections that they may not have previously considered. In cataloguing, a thesaurus can also be used as a source of metadata5 for subject cataloguing(Broughton 2006a) as it can connect different objects together and improve discoveryof and access to materials by exploiting all of the above features.
Thesauri also have their place in business. Significant time and money is lost whenemployees spend time searching for content on an intranet and cannot find it quickly
or easily. Indeed, in some cases they cannot find the information they are looking for atall. If a customer cannot find a product on a website they go elsewhere, usually to acompetitor (Stewart 2011). A form of faceted navigation, in which products are arrangedby their characteristics or principles of division, is now visible on many websites, forexample shirts may be arranged by colour, by material or by size. A business may choose
a more complex thesaurus for internal search and retrieval and a simpler taxonomy forwebsite navigation but the construction processes are the same and an effective productnavigation system will employ many of the techniques of thesaurus construction.
The following sections will outline the main elements of a thesaurus as well as the main
issues to consider during the construction and planning process. These sections aim toact as a comprehensive introduction to thesauri and to ensure that information professionals have the advice that they need to improve their own data procedures by adhering
to international standards and best practices.

5
Metadata is ‘data about data’ or ‘a set of data that describes and gives information about other data’ (Oxford
English Dictionary Online), available at www.oed.com (22 November 2013).

11

Main elements of a thesaurus

This section will outline the main elements that are needed to construct a fully functional
thesaurus. It will include an overview of the terms and concepts involved and the relationships between them, the notes that can feature in thesaurus term records, and nodelabels and arrays. This section will also provide a brief introduction to facet analysis, a
popular method of constructing a thesaurus in such a way that it conforms to the hierarchy rules outlined in ISO 25964-1, part one of the most recent international standard
for the creation of thesauri. It also briefly describes the main characteristics of the ISO
29564-1 data model and the reasons for its development.

Terms and concepts
Each term in the thesaurus should be used to represent only one concept. ISO 259641 is the first thesaurus standard to explicitly state the difference between concepts,
which are units of thought, and the terms which we use to express them. This distinction
was maintained rigorously throughout the text and a data model was included to further
clarify the distinction and to ensure that it is followed.

Concept
Concept: Unit of thought
Term: Word or phrase used to label a concept
Term

Fig. 1. Concept and term as defined by ISO 25964-1 (International Organization for Standardization 2011)

Clarke and Zeng note the importance of this distinction between term and concept
when considering thesauri in an electronic environment as humans are able to see thata thesaurus contains both concepts and terms. We can use concepts and terms interchangeably and still draw correct inferences. A computer, however, is unable to do so
and this can easily be seen from the following example they give showing the problem,
which arises when no distinction is made between the word ‘man’ and the concept‘man’ within the computer system (Clarke and Zeng 2012).

12

'man' is a three-lettered word.
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is a three-lettered word.

Fig. 2. Example of incorrect inference where lack of clarity between concepts and terms exists (Clarke andZeng 2012)

This distinction is also very important when considering the possible equivalence relationships, which can exist between terms and concepts. The term/concept distinction
also creates greater clarity and equality among languages when constructing multilingual
thesauri. Both of these issues will be discussed below.

Compound concepts
Compound concepts are common and a decision must be made on whether or not toinclude them as they are in the thesaurus or to break them down into simpler concepts
in a process known as ‘splitting’. This decision is usually based on the needs and knowledge of the users of the thesaurus and what will be of most use and mostunderstandable to them. Compound concepts are usually composed of the focus of theterm, or its head, and the modifier, which narrows the focus and scope of the concept.
For example, in cattle lore, the focus is ‘lore’ or ‘animal lore’ and the modifier is ‘cattle’.
In these cases, where it is possible to split the terms and with full consideration of theusers of the thesaurus, the focus ‘lore’ and the modifier ‘cattle’ are split.

cattle lore

animal lore

cattle

USE animal lore + cattle

UF+ cattle lore

UF+ cattle lore

Fig. 3. Example of ‘splitting’ a compound concept/compound equivalence from the pilot thesaurus

This is the method undertaken by some thesauri such as the Art & Architecture
Thesaurus.6 In the AAT, compound terms are split if the separated terms combined still
express the same concept as the compound term itself. Where the separated terms
express something different to the combined terms, the AAT recommends keeping thecompound concept intact (Harpring 2009). In theory, very complex concepts could be
broken down into many simpler terms but ISO 25964-1 notes that ‘consistency becomeseven harder to achieve if the concept is split into more than two components’6
Getty Research Institute. Art & Architecture Thesaurus, available at: http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/
vocabularies/aat/ (22 November 2013).

13

(International Organization for Standardization 2011). Broughton also advises against
the semantic splitting of compounds, for example ‘arthritis’ USE ‘joints’ + ‘inflammation’,as this can cause confusion especially where a term is well known and familiar to users(Broughton 2006a).
The decision to split compound concepts can often be a subjective one. ISO 25964-1
outlines five options to consider when dealing with compound concepts:
1. Admit the compound concept as is;
2. Split the concept into separate terms, use the compound concept as a non-preferredterm and indicate the preferred terms with a USE tag, for example USE cattle + folklore;
3. Trial the compound concept and accept or reject it after a specified time period;
4. Reject the concept but retain it as a non-preferred term pointing to a broader concept;
5. Reject the compound concept completely if irrelevant or rarely used (International
Organization for Standardization 2011).
The standard also goes into greater detail on factors and circumstances to consider when
deciding to split compound concepts and also recommends developing a set of criteria
appropriate for the subject matter or audience in order to maintain consistency acrossthe thesaurus. Whatever decision is made on the splitting of compounds, their treatment
should be consistent across the thesaurus.

Where compound concepts can be

cattle lore

expressed by the combination of

USE animal lore + cattle

simpler concepts, that is the focus
and the modifier can be split
without ambiguity or loss of
meaning
Where the focus is a part or compo-

household floors

nent of the modifier

USE households + floors

Fig. 4. Examples where splitting of compound concepts is appropriate

14

Where separating the terms

hungry grass

results in a loss of meaning

In Irish folklore, hungry grass, is a spotof cursed grass. To split these terms into
hungry + grass would result in a loss of
meaning and introduce ambiguity.

Where the term is well-defined

fairy forts

and familiar to users

The term could be split into fairies +forts but fairy forts is a common termfamiliar to users.

Where a complex concept isshebeens

semantically split

Semantically splitting the complex
concept shebeens into bars + illegal
activities will be confusing for users andresult in the loss of a specific term thatwill likely be sought.

Where a concept is split into

wedding feast amusements

more than two components that

USE wedding feasts + amusements

is the focus is accompanied by

Splitting the above into weddings +more than one modifier

feasts + amusements would result in
an increasing lack of consistency inindexing and search.

Fig. 5. Examples where splitting of compound concepts is inappropriate

Relationships
Equivalence relationships
Equivalence relationships such as USE and UF (Use For) are used to denote equivalence
between terms (not concepts) and to distinguish between preferred terms and their synonyms or quasi-synonyms. A synonym is a term, which has the same meaning or covers
the same concept as another term or multiple terms. A quasi-synonym is a term that
does not usually have the same meaning as the preferred term but does in the context
of a specific thesaurus. USE and UF occur in pairs as the preferred and non-preferred15terms will reference each other in a reciprocal way. In addition to non-preferred terms,
USE and UF relationships may also be used to denote misspellings, deprecated terms,
abbreviations or slang in the thesaurus. Equivalence relationships are also used when aterm is deemed too specific and can be represented by a broader term.

Synonyms/quasi-synonyms

Use of a broader term

earth

clay

UF clay

USE earthdogs

terriers

UF terriers

USE dogs

sheep-dogs

sheep-dogs

mastiffs

USE dogs
mastiffs
USE dogs

Inclusion of variant spellings

taboostabus

UF tabus

USE taboos

Fig. 6. Example of USE and UF relationships

Equivalence relationships can only occur between preferred and non-preferred terms.
No relationships exist between non-preferred terms. An equivalence relationship cannot
occur between a term and a concept; this is because it is the term that represents theconcept. In a multilingual thesaurus, equivalence relationships exist between concepts
across languages but these do not use any explicit relationship terms to express this.

EnglishGaeilgedogs

madraí

UF hounds

UF cúnnahoundscúnna

USE dogs

USE madraí

ga: madraí

en: dogs

Fig. 7. Example of an equivalence relationship across and within languages

16

Hierarchical relationships
Hierarchical arrangements are common in thesauri and are represented using the broader
term and narrower term relationships. These terms denote relationships between theconcepts (not the terms) in a thesaurus and indicate whether a concept contains or iscontained by another concept. The BT and NT relationships correspond to the terms
superordinate and subordinate used in classification and the terms parent and child usedby taxonomists (Broughton 2006a). BT relationships are used to direct users to a conceptthat is higher up in the thesaurus hierarchy and therefore a broader or more general
concept than the one they were seeking. Likewise, NT relationships direct users further
down the hierarchy to more specific terms. Usually, each term has only one broader term(monohierarchy) but, occasionally, some terms may have more than one broader term
(polyhierarchy). Hedden advises against the overuse of polyhierarchies as they can become
confusing and take away from a clear, navigable structure (Hedden 2010a).
Like USE and UF, BT and NT are reciprocal in nature and occur in pairs.

AnimalsCats

NT cats

BT animals

NT dogsdogs
BT animals

Fig. 8. Examples of BT and NT reciprocal relationships

Hierarchical relationships can be used to broaden and narrow a search effectively andensure that narrower terms fall within the scope of the broader terms, thereby allowing
for an exploded search, also called recursive retrieval. An exploded search occurs when
the terms further down in the hierarchy from the selected term are retrieved along withthe selected term. This feature is dependent on the capabilities of the indexing and display
software. Exploded search may not be implemented in specific software packages.

Animals
NT cats
NT dogs
NT dog kennels
Fig. 9. Examples of mixed categories or types in BT and NT reciprocal relationships

17

Fig. 9 shows an example of mixed categories in a hierarchy. In this instance, a search fordogs would also retrieve information about dog kennels, which many not be desired by
the user. This mixing of categories can be avoided by constructing a thesaurus using thethree main types of hierarchical relationships. These are:
The generic relationship: also known as the genus/species or a thing/kind relationship. This relationship can be tested using the all-and-some test. In the above
example, some animals are dogs and all dogs are animals so dog is placed correctlyin the hierarchical arrangement. However, some animals are not dog kennels andall dog kennels are not animals. By using this test we know that the placement of
the concept ‘dog kennel’ under ‘dog’ does not follow a logical arrangement andshould be reconsidered.7
The partitive relationship: also known as the whole/part relationship. In this typeof relationship, a narrower term belongs under, and only under, one particularbroader term, and cannot form part of another term under any circumstances. ISO
25964-1 recommends that the partitive relationship only be used for systems andorgans of the body, geographical locations, disciplines or fields of discourse, andhierarchical social structures (International Organization for Standardization 2011).
The instance relationship: this relationship is used to name particular instancesof a class of things, for example dogs NTI Spot. (See Fig. 11 for list of relationshipcodes.)
Associative relationships
Associative relationships denote related terms in a thesaurus. They are used to indicatethat different terms in a thesaurus are related in some way or have an overlapping scope.
They thus allow users to expand their initial search into different aspects of the subject.
As Hedden notes:‘since the purpose of the associative relationship is to inform the indexer/
searcher that other terms exist, it is the associative relationship indicating
related terms in other hierarchies that is most helpful’ (Hedden 2010a).
ISO 25964-1 also notes this and recommends that, as terms within the same hierarchy
will already be covered by BT and NT relationships and will share a common broader
scope, they do not need a separate RT relationship. However, this should be reconsidered
where concepts in the same hierarchy have an overlapping scope. In this instance, an
RT link is recommended.
7

If the thesaurus follows a hierarchical thing/kind logical order but the creator wishes to link the concept‘dog’ with the concept ‘dog kennels’, two options are available. The first is to create an associative relationship,
which will be covered in the next section. The second is to create a ConceptGroup, another potential elementof a thesaurus as outlined by ISO 25964-1. This is explained in the section on the ISO 25964-1 data model.
18

Hedden also notes a number of types of associative relationships that are found in thesauri. These include associative relationships between processes and agents such as‘fishing’ and ‘fishermen’, between objects and their properties such as ‘land’ and ‘productivity of the land’, and between raw materials and their products, parts and thewhole, between cause and effect, and others (Hedden, 2010a).

dogs

dog kennels

RT dog kennels

RT dogssmithingsmithsRT smiths

RT smithing

Fig. 10. Examples of associative relationships

Other relationships and codes
Other relationship terms that may be found in a thesaurus record include:TT

Top term

A relationship term pointing to the top or
broadest term in the relevant hierarchy.

BTG/

Broader/narrower term (generic)More specific broader/narrower terms. Used if
the thesaurus editor would like to specify which

NTG

of the hierarchical rules the relationship follows.
BTP/

Broader/narrower term (partitive)

More specific broader/narrower terms. Used if
the thesaurus editor would like to specify which

NTPof the hierarchical rules the relationship follows.
BTI/

Broader/narrower term (instantial)

More specific broader/narrower terms. Used if
the thesaurus editor would like to specify which

NTIof the hierarchical rules the relationship follows.
CC

Concept code (notation)

Used to indicate the notation that represents aparticular concept. Notation is used to denotethe order of concepts in a display. A thesaurus
need not include notation.

Fig. 11. List of relationhips and codes in a thesaurus.

19NotesAnother component of thesauri is notes, its descriptive elements. These appear in thepreferred term records themselves and can include scope notes, history notes and definitions of the preferred term. Additional notes describing the administrative aspects ofa term may also be created but not necessarily displayed to the users. Such information
could include the term identifier, when the thesaurus term record was created, who it
was created by and when it was modified. The capability of the software chosen to construct the thesaurus will determine if these administrative details are included.
Users, however, will need to be able to see the descriptive elements which relate to theterm or the concept itself. These are:SN

Scope note

A short note in the term record, which describes
what the term means, how and when the term
should be used and when it should not be used.
These notes are used extensively to help disambiguate terms and ensure consistency across thethesaurus. They may be made visible to all or tointernal editors only.

HN

History note

A short note on the history and evolution of theconcept, e.g. if it changed over time, if it replaced
any other term, etc.

DEF

Definition of the term/concept

Thesauri may also include a definition of theterm. This may be included in the scope note.

Fig. 12. List of notes in a thesaurus.

Facets and facet analysis
Facet analysis has become a popular choice in the construction of thesauri, beginningwith the Thesaurofacet in the 1960s and includes the Art & Architecture Thesaurus, oneof the most widely used thesauri online, which uses facet analysis to construct its hierarchical structure. It is now ‘firmly established that a classification of some sort is thebest starting point for the construction of a thesaurus’ (Broughton 2006b) and that ‘theeffectiveness of a thesaurus is likely to be reduced if relationships between terms in analphabetical list are determined without resort to classification’ (Aitchison, Gilchrist and
Bawden 1997). Will states that facet analysis ‘is an important technique which should
underlie the construction of any type of knowledge organisation system’ and, in recognition of this, facet analysis has been incorporated into the ISO 25964 standard for theconstruction of thesauri for information retrieval (Will 2013).

20

ISO 25964-1 defines a facet as a ‘grouping of concepts of the same inherent category’and gives examples of some high-level facet categories, including objects, materials,
agents, actions, places and times. It also defines facet analysis as the ‘analysis of subject
areas into constituent concepts grouped into facets, and the subdivision of concepts
into narrower concepts by specified characteristics of division’(International Organizationfor Standardization 2011).
La Barre outlines the history of facet analysis where the fundamental categories of facets
were first devised by Ranganathan as part of a library classification scheme in the 1920s
and 1930s. Ranganathan proposed five categories: Personality, Matter, Energy, Space andTime, or PMEST, which could cover all aspects of a discipline or subject. These were later
expanded by Brian Vickery for the Classification Research Group (CRG) based on the
Aristotelian fundamental categories—thing, kind, part, property, material, process, operation, agent, patient, product, by-product, space and time. The CRG went on to statethat these categories act as guides to analysis and should not be imposed on subjects (LaBarre 2012). Aitchison et al. outlined the fundamental facets which have been settled onafter years of research. These are outlined in the table below. Broughton also suggests
additional categories such as genre for humanities subjects. Ultimately, the choice of
facets will depend on the subject matter and what is most practical (Broughton 2006a).

Entities(By characteristics)
Abstract objects
Naturally occurring entities
Living entities. Organisms
Artefacts (man-made)Attributes
Materials
Parts/components
Whole entities(by function)
Agents (performers of actions)Patients (recipients of actions)End-products

Actions/Activities

Processes (intransitive actions)Operations (transitive actions)Space/place/location
Time

Fig. 13. Fundamental facets (Aitchison et al., 1997)21

Facets can be found either at the top level of the hierarchy where the fundamental facets
themselves are the primary organisation of the thesaurus, or further down in a thesaurus,
which is organised primarily by subject. The advantages and disadvantages of this typeof display will be discussed as part of the section on systematic display.
In the online environment, ‘facets’ can operate a little differently. One example is a clothing website where shirts are arranged by colour, material, size or any other characteristic.
Such divisions have been referred to as facets but this is not strictly speaking division by
facet. It is instead dividing by characteristics or principles of division, where one or more
facets are organised and searchable by their attributes (Broughton 2006b).

Node labels and arrays
Node labels are entries in a thesaurus which indicate how the terms have been grouped.
Subordinate groupings of sibling concepts are known as arrays. Node labels usuallyappear in brackets and are used to divide groups into facets, sub-facets, arrays and characteristics. If the grouping is divided further by sub-facets such as people or animals,then the node label appears as follows: (people), (animals). The division into characteristics is usually called the characteristic or principle of division. If the node label is used
to denote a characteristic or principle of division the word by is introduced, for example
a people facet may be divided (by age), (by occupation) and by other characteristics.

Node label(sub-facet)

Node label(principle ofdivision)

Array

5
5
5

Fig 14. Node labels and arrays.

22(people)(animals)(by age)(by species)• children• mammals• adults• carnivores(by occupation)

 dogs smiths

 cats hunters wolves farmers• birds

 folklore collectors• fish555AgentsTop term

Node label(sub-facet)

ArraySchedule order, notation and citation order
In pre-coordinate indexing, complex subject descriptions are applied by a cataloguer ina predetermined order before search, for example animal lore in the eighteenth century.
In contrast, the post-coordinate method of indexing separates out complex concepts
into simple terms, which are applied to the content and are only combined at the timeof search, for example animal lore + eighteenth century.
Pre-coordinate indexing is most useful when organising physical objects on shelves andto do this consistently, ordering rules are necessary. Broughton (2006a) notes that thedevelopment of the thesaurus, beginning in the early twentieth century and picking up
speed with the advent of electronic catalogues and databases, has trended towards
post-coordinate indexing.8 Broughton also notes that post-coordinate indexing system
is most useful online. It seems at first glance that the notion of linear order and precoordinate indexing in an online environment are obsolete concepts. Nevertheless there
are some advantages to introducing rules for ordering into an online thesaurus. Ordering
allows for better management of compound concepts by creating relationships without
ambiguity and it supports browsing tools by detailing the exact location of concepts.
Furthermore, a thesaurus designed to be used online may find use within a physical collection and so ordering rules should be considered (Broughton 2006a).

Schedule order
The schedule order in a thesaurus outlines how the categories in the thesaurus should
be displayed. Categories have traditionally appeared in the order of general-to-specificas follows:
Time - Space - Agent - Product - Patient - Operation - Process- Material - Property - Part - Thing - Kind
This order (or something similar) may appear either at the top of the thesaurus as fundamental facets or within each subject where subjects are the top classes of thethesaurus.
Citation order
The citation order is order in which concepts are cited when indexing for a pre-coordinated system. The citation order is usually the reverse of the schedule order, movingfrom the specific to the general and allowing the pre-building of compound concepts
to be done in a consistent way:
8

These guidelines will not address the advantages and disadvantages of using either pre- or post-coordinate
indexing. The Library of Congress (2007) has outlined these advantages and disadvantages with reference toworks and comments by experts in this field.

23

Kind - Thing - Part - Property - Material - Process - Operation- Patient - Product - Agent - Space - TimeAn example of this is smiths in the Middle Ages. Smiths are agents, in this case people,
and, as agents come before time, are placed before the Middle Ages in the compoundconcept.
Notation
Many thesauri come with a set of symbols (numeric, alphabetic or signs), which havebeen added to each concept in the thesaurus to indicate where it is located in the hierarchy. Notation codes are not necessary in a thesaurus but are especially useful for
printed thesauri with an alphabetical display as the notation refers back to the systematic
display and the concepts’ location within it. Notation is not necessary for an online thesaurus which links concepts in the background but may still be useful as a control
number or identifier for the concepts, which may ensure greater consistency and accuracy in translation. It may also be useful if the software only displays node labels andsubordinate concepts alphabetically instead of by time, size or other criteria. In this situation, notation allows the thesaurus editor to organise the concepts as they wish.
Broughton outlines some of the advantages of using notation and these include:
It can control the order of the terms;
It can provide reference points from an alphabetic display to a systematic one;
By implementing order on the thesaurus, notation allows the thesaurus to be used
for physical collections and the ordering of a physical sequence (Broughton 2006a).
Different notations or symbols may be used, for instance the Dewey Decimal System
uses numeric symbols to organise concepts and also to combine different symbols whencreating compound concepts.

ISO 25964 data Model
To encourage interoperability, ISO 25964-1 has modelled and defined all of the above
relationships and notes and created a data model, which is available freely online withan accompanying XML schema.9 The model outlines the basic classes: Thesaurus,
ThesaurusConcept, ThesaurusTerm, ThesaurusArray and Note as well as the relationships
924

http://www.niso.org/schemas/iso25964/ (22 November 2013).

that exist between the concepts. The model makes explicit the distinction between terms
and concepts. The data model also contains information on other potential elements ofa thesaurus, including ConceptGroup, a special grouping for terms relating to a particularsubject, domain, theme or other categories, which can be brought together from different hierarchies and sits parallel to the thesaurus itself (International Organization forStandardization 2011). In the earlier example of ‘dogs’ and ‘dog kennels’, where thetwo concepts sit in separate hierarchies, they may be brought together under aConceptGroup if it is considered important enough in light of the subject matter andthe audience with full consideration of resources.
Clarke and Zeng outline the main benefits for defining the structure of a thesaurus andcreating a data model. These are:‘easier implementation by computers, consistency enforced in thesaurus construction and mapping, greater interoperability between
thesauri and with other vocabularies, and enhanced performanceat all stages from design of the thesaurus through development,
management, and exchange’ (Clarke and Zeng 2012).

25

Planning a thesaurus

A thesaurus is a long-term project, which requires a significant amount of planning anda number of aspects of the thesaurus need to be considered before the construction
begins (Hedden 2010a). ISO 25964-1 recommends planning the objectives and featuresof the thesaurus as well as the resources available for the thesaurus, deciding who will
be responsible for different aspects of thesaurus construction and maintenance, andchoosing the software for the thesaurus (International Organization for Standardization2011). Some additional essential points have been drawn from standards and writings
on the construction of thesauri and these are outlined below. More detailed discussion
on planning and maintaining thesauri and taxonomies can be found in ISO 25964-1(2011), Hedden (2010b) and Stewart (2011). A taxonomy governance checklist, published by Term Management, LLC guides the planning process (Doane 2011).

Planning
Documentation should first be written regarding the purpose and objectives of the thesaurus, its intended users, scope and content.
The main purpose of the document should be stated clearly. Usually the main
purpose of a thesaurus is to provide indexing and retrieval support. In enterprise,a simpler taxonomy is more commonly used to provide a navigational structure fora website.
The intended users should be identified. This may include both information professionals and end-users. A clear idea of the intended users will make design
decisions easier. This will also identify whether or not a large enough user baseexists to justify the construction.
The scope and content of the thesaurus should be outlined. Content will include
both the subject and types of content, for example textual and non-textual
resources. The scope will include what types of subject as well as the types of entities that will be included.
The documentation should outline who has responsibility for each aspect of thethesaurus construction and management, from planning to design, disseminationand maintenance. This may be the task of a single editor or an editorial team.

26

Resources should be considered. These include:
People: it should be determined if there are sufficient people available to construct
the thesaurus as well as to provide IT support if the thesaurus will be in an electronic format or integrated with other software applications. IT support will also
be required regardless of whether the management software is open source or
custom built. People proficient in various languages will need to be available if constructing a multilingual thesaurus.
Vocabulary resources: sufficient and relevant vocabulary resources should besourced in preparation for construction and selecting terms. Examples of vocabulary
resources have been outlined in the section Constructing a thesaurus.
Software: decisions must be made in relation to following:• Will the thesaurus management software be open source, commercial or
custom built?
• Is there technical support available for the thesaurus management software?
• Is there an option to publish the thesaurus online and how will this be displayed?
Will it be searchable?
• All expected thesaural relationships, features and notes should be supported
and tested in a trial run where possible. These can range from the basic relationships and notes to more sophisticated disambiguation protocols, which arefound in commercial environments. Search and display features should also be
considered.10• Relationships should be automatically updated if records are amended or
updated.
• How will the thesaurus integrate with other applications and systems? ISO
25964-1 details a number of considerations here including the ability to search,
to use Boolean operators, to navigate up and down a hierarchy, to display a thesaurus alphabetically or systematically among other considerations. A
useable interface is required for users and end-users alike. More detailed considerations can be found in ISO 25964-1, Section 16.
• Is an import/export function available and does it export in standard formats,including MARC (MAchine Readable Cataloguing) and Semantic Web standards
such as SKOS and others if required?
Funding: is there sufficient funding available to support all of the above?

10

More sophisticated software packages are able to remove ambiguity in search completely by clarifying aterm using AND and AND NOT features. For example, fluke AND fish AND (NOT luck). It should be determined
if this level of sophistication is required27

Design
A number of aspects of thesaurus design will need to be considered before construction.
These will be determined based on the planning considerations outlined above as well
the limitations of any software chosen for the project.
Will the thesaurus be available in print or electronic formats, or both? Most thesauri
are now available in electronic formats.
Will the style of the display be alphabetical, hierarchical, classified or another typeof display? If electronic, will the software support this type of display? Can thisdisplay be easily updated? See the section on systematic display for more information on these types of display.
Will the features such as node labels and guide terms be included and supportedby the software?
What types of relationships and other elements will be included in the thesaurus?
A full thesaurus will generally include all types of relationships, non-preferred terms,
scope and other notes. A navigational taxonomy may not need to contain associative relationships or scope or other notes.
How many levels of hierarchy will be needed? Subject experts expect deep hierarchies and indexers expect consistency across the thesaurus. However, a navigationaltaxonomy on a website may not need to be so detailed and may only contain one
or two levels for ease of navigation and use (Hedden 2010a).

Research and construction
It is recommended that the thesaurus construction begin with a selection of between
100 and 500 terms. More may be researched and added to the thesaurus at a later datebut this is a good starting point for construction (Stewart 2011). Vocabulary resources,
the process of selecting terms and constructing the thesaurus are outlined in the section
on selecting terms.

Testing and reviewing the thesaurus
A review of the constructed thesaurus should be undertaken by subject experts, professionals and users. This should highlight any gaps in the thesaurus, any questions overterms chosen, any missing or redundant features as well as any usability issues. Testing28

should also be considered throughout the life of the thesaurus. Continuous testing andevaluation allows editors of a thesaurus to determine how the thesaurus is being used,
to identify common misspellings and synonyms that could be added, and to determine
which searches are not producing any results and could be improved.

Post construction maintenance and administration
Similar to the Oxford English dictionary, a thesaurus is never really finished. Trends insubject areas and in business processes, changes in scope and in language itself meanthat a thesaurus is in need of updating and maintenance over the long term. Procedures
for review and updating of the thesaurus should be in place. If dealing with a multilingual
thesaurus, full consideration should be given to the impact that any change will haveon the other languages.

Communication and dissemination
A thesaurus is built to be used so the greater the audience, the greater the likelihoodthat this will happen. Aitchison et al. recommend that a notification of intent be published in the relevant journals to alert subject experts and professionals in the field who
may be interested in either using the thesaurus or contributing to its construction. Oncethe thesaurus has been constructed and tested, it should be deposited in the appropriate
national centre for controlled vocabularies and information management. If it is in
English, it should be deposited in the international clearinghouse, the Subject Analysis
Systems Collection,11 Faculty of Library Information Science in the University of Toronto(Aitchison et al. 1997).

11

http://onesearch.library.utoronto.ca/content/information-studies-inforum (22 November 2013).

29

Constructing a thesaurus

Once the initial planning has been completed, the construction of the thesaurus canbegin. Certain aspects of the planning process may overlap with the initial stages of theconstruction process as it informs the design and display of the thesaurus.
The process of constructing a thesaurus has a number of broad steps (Aitchison et al.
1997; Broughton 2006a; Hedden 2010a; International Organization for Standardization2011). These are:1. Selecting and recording terms.
2. Determining the preliminary structure of the thesaurus (subject or faceted display).
3. Analysing terms and grouping them according to basic facets.
4. Creating hierarchical and associative relationships along with scope and other notes
where required.12
5. Creating an alphabetical list from the systematic (hierarchical) display.
6. Soliciting feedback and review by experts
7. Creating documentation including an introduction outlining the purpose, scope andnumber of terms as decided in the planning stages. An editorial guide should also be
written.
It should be emphasised that constructing a thesaurus is an iterative process; some stages
inform development and improvement of previous stages. The next few sections willaddress each of these steps briefly.

Step 1: Selecting and recording terms
Following on from the decision to create a thesaurus and a planning overview, the next
step is to research the content that exists on the subject of the thesaurus and determine
how it can be put into the thesaurus. A review of existing vocabulary resources must be
undertaken and terms extracted and selected from these. The following two sections
outline this process.
Assemble vocabulary
The first step in the construction of a thesaurus is to perform a content audit and gather
terms from the vocabulary resources available on the subject or subjects. A content audit
12
ISO 25964-1 recommends constructing the equivalence and hierarchical relationships before inputting
any associative relationships. This is because the most useful associative relationships are between hierarchies
and are easier to input once all hierarchies have been completed (International Organization forStandardization 2011).

30

seeks a list that is representative of the field, rather than an exhaustive list of terms. A
number of vocabulary resources have been suggested by standards and experts(Broughton 2006a; Hedden 2010a; International Organization for Standardization 2011)
and these can be generally divided into the following categories:
Existing vocabularies: ISO 25964-1 recommends consulting existing vocabularies
such as classification schemes and other thesauri (International Organization forStandardization 2011). Other vocabularies such as taxonomies or lists of subjects
and other keyword headings if they are available can be added to this list. Existing
vocabularies will offer synonyms and relationship terms that may not have beenpreviously considered. Reuse, subject to copyright, of existing thesauri and vocabularies or relevant parts of these vocabularies will significantly reduce the time taken
and cost involved.13
Published works: published works such as books, journals, abstracts, summaries,
conference papers, reports and pamphlets should be consulted for terms. Specialist
catalogues and bibliographies can identify recent publications in the field of interest. Particular attention should be paid to the titles and subtitles of journal articles
and other documents, the tables of contents found in books, any section headings
or image captions. Broughton notes that journals are useful to consult as they givean indication of the trends in research and terms from these documents will remaincurrent for a number of years (Broughton 2006a). If documents are online, automatic selection of terms may also be an option.
Reference tools: tools such as indexes and databases are useful for gatheringterms on a subject. ISO 25964-1 recommends that dictionaries and encyclopaedias
not be used for selection of terms but instead for their definitions and as confirmation of correct placement of terms in a hierarchical structure after term selection(International Organization for Standardization 2011).
Web resources: navigational menus and feedback from web search logs and othersearch analytics can be valuable vocabulary resources if dealing with online content.
Internal team sources: Stewart also suggests using invoices, meetings minutes,
correspondence, procedural documents, orientation materials and company
intranets. Again, not all terms need be sourced, focus should be placed on titles,
subtitles, tables of contents, section headings and summaries (Stewart 2011).

13

Even a simple abstraction of how the terms and hierarchies are organised in another thesaurus may
reduce the lead-in time for the project.

31

People: Subject experts, project participants, managers and users can provide
many valuable terms and suggest subjects to be considered or identify any gaps in
the thesaurus coverage.
Stewart recommends gathering terms only from critical core content. In a business, this
could be the documents that are essential to doing one’s job and selecting the top 20
per cent of these documents in terms of importance. Subject experts will be able tohelp in the identification of the core content in a subject thesaurus (Stewart 2011).
Aitchison et al. and Hedden suggest recording potential terms, preferably in an electronic format, noting the preferred terms, the source of the term, any equivalent or
related terms, or any notes and definitions (Aitchison et al. 1997; Hedden 2010a). The
frequency of the terms’ appearance in the literature may also be recorded. The thesaurus management software should be able to record all the information outlined in
the ISO 25964-1 data model, including the date the term was created, when it was
modified and who was responsible.

PILOT THESAURUS OF IRISH FOLKLORE—ASSEMBLING THE VOCABULARY
The pilot thesaurus limited its scope to collecting approximately 350 terms from two chapters of
Seán Ó Súilleabháin’s Handbook of Irish folklore. These two chapters, on livelihood and householdsupport, and nature were chosen as they contained a broad range of terms, which could be used
to demonstrate most thesaural relationships and facet analysis. Due to the time frame of the
project, the approach to identifying terms was selective rather than comprehensive.
Most Irish-language terms were excluded from the pilot thesaurus and will need to be considered
at a later date as part of a multilingual thesaurus. Some commonly used Irish terms were includedin the pilot but this was not done exhaustively. If present, Irish terms are considered non-preferredterms within an English-language thesaurus unless no English-language equivalent exists. In an
Irish-language thesaurus, these terms would be considered preferred terms.
Additional sources consulted included some article titles from Béaloideas, the Journal of theFolklore of Ireland Society (Folklore of Ireland Society 2012). Another source was Alan Dundes’
The study of folklore as it provided a list of many forms of folklore (Dundes 1965).
Existing vocabularies and thesauri such as the Art & Architecture Thesaurus (AAT), AGROVOC,
the thesaurus of the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, and the American
Folklore Society (AFS) Ethnographic Thesaurus were examined as examples of different types ofstructure, display and scope in thesauri.
A comprehensive thesaurus would be extended to cover many of the vocabulary resources listed
in this section and would include consultation with experts.

32

Select terms
After assembling the terms gathered from published literature, existing vocabularies andother vocabulary resources, they must then be organised into a standard list of significant
terms, which is representative of the domain and supports information retrieval. This
process includes:
Grouping terms with similar meanings and choosing a preferred term. Preferredterms may be decided upon in consultation with subject experts and a review ofterms common in the literature. The intended user group should also be consideredwhen choosing the preferred term. ‘Cats’ would be more appropriate for thegeneral public while ‘felis catus’ would be more appropriate for a veterinary or
zoology thesaurus. Spelling should also be considered, especially if there are variants across the literature. If a spelling variant is popular, it should be included as a
non-preferred term. Decisions will also need to be made on the inclusion of abbreviations, jargon, loan words and proper nouns.

Synonyms

Preferred Termcare and management of domestic animals

animal husbandrycare of animals
care and management of livestock
Variant Spellings

Preferred Term

taboo

taboo

tabu
Fig. 15. Example of chosen preferred terms in the pilot thesaurus of Irish folklore

Using qualifiers and definitions to distinguish homonyms from one another.
Homonyms are words that are spelt the same but have different meanings.
Examples are:• bows (musical instruments)• bows (ships)• flukes (fishes)• flukes (anchors)

33

Deciding on the form of entry. In order to standardise the list and ensure consistency, the grammatical form of the selected terms must be decided. This will vary
among languages and dictionaries should be consulted to determine what forms
are most typical in each language. As per ISO 25964-1, terms in English are treatedas follows:• Nouns and noun phrases—these are the most important terms to consider
when constructing a thesaurus. In English, count nouns (dogs, cats) will appear
in the plural in the thesaurus. Non-count nouns (livestock) appear in the singular.
• Verbs—Verbs are also important when gathering terms. They will take thegerund or verbal noun forms, for example fishing and hunting. In a thesaurus,
verbs should never be in the infinitive (‘to hunt’) or the participle (‘hunted’)forms. This is standard among thesauri.
• Adjectives—should be avoided in a thesaurus unless they are deemed significant to the subject or concept. Adjectives such as red, hungry, etc., should ideallybe avoided as these can be found in many different contexts and could potentially confuse results. This may not be possible if the adjectives are considered
important in parts of the literature.
• Adverbs—should be avoided in a thesaurus.
• Articles (a, the)—should be avoided unless they are an integral part of theterm. If articles are used, equivalence relationships should be set up between
the preferred term (which uses the article) and the non-preferred term (which
does not use the article).
Deciding on the treatment of compound terms. See the earlier section Main
elements of a thesaurus for recommendations on when to split complex concepts
and when to retain them.

34

PILOT THESAURUS—SELECTION OF TERMS

During the selection process, terms for the pilot thesaurus were recorded in Microsoft
Excel. A more comprehensive thesaurus may require use of thesaurus-management software from the beginning. Where synonyms existed, a preferred term was chosen andnon-preferred terms were also recorded. Any related terms were also recorded.
Definitions were included where any terms were ambiguous and qualifiers were used
where necessary.
The pilot thesaurus of Irish folklore followed the guidelines set out by ISO 25964-1. This
included the recommendations on forms of entry for the English language. Non-scientificterms were chosen above scientific terms where they appeared as this matched theterms found in most of the vocabulary resources consulted as part of the content audit
and selection. Some adjectives were included as part of the Properties facet but only
where they appeared in the vocabulary resources and were considered important.
In line with trends in thesaurus construction and best practice and on the recommendation of international standards discussed in the section on compound concepts, theseguidelines and pilot will employ the method of ‘splitting’ compound terms where practical and in such a way as to avoid inconsistency, that is no more than two components
per compound concept. Compound concepts will be split when they can be expressed
without ambiguity as the combination of two simpler terms. Additionally, compoundconcepts will be split when:• they are not in the core scope of the thesaurus;• they are too specific for the scope of the thesaurus;• are rarely used in the collection;• they contain more than one difference.
The other options for the treatment of compound concepts outlined in the section oncompound concepts will be employed where appropriate, taking into account user
expectations and their familiarity with the compound concepts in question.

35

Step 2: Determining structure and display
Systematic display
Thesauri can be displayed systematically as well as alphabetically and, as Broughton(2006a) notes, the easiest way to establish the correct relationships between terms is toconstruct a systematic display first, that is, to analyse and organise the terms either in aclassified (subject) or hierarchical display. Relationships can more easily be establishedfrom this method than by simply working with an alphabetical list.
There are a number of ways of structuring a thesaurus systematically and a decision will
have to be made on which method to use as this will impact on how the terms aregrouped in the initial analysis. The three main ways of structuring a thesaurus are:
Structuring by facets: this approach involved using the facets themselves as the topclasses or divisions. In this approach, terms are grouped according to fundamental facets
such as things, materials, activities, etc. This is a more bottom-up approach and ensuresthat all terms within each facet are of the same type or category as the top classes ordivisions. ISO 25964-1 notes that thesauri organised in this way usually have less needfor major revisions as time moves on and the subject evolves (International Organizationfor Standardization 2011).
Fig. 16 takes some examples from the pilot thesaurus of Irish folklore and shows someof the fundamental facets: Place/Space, Objects and Activities.
Structuring by subject: This approach uses a classification scheme with subjects orfields as the top classes or divisions. The subjects would then be further sub-divided
either into narrower subject categories, which could then be divided further and so on.
As the terms would be grouped into subjects first, this can be viewed as more of a topdown approach. The advantage of this approach is that themes and concepts within
subjects that may be important to users are kept together. One disadvantage is thatsome concepts can appear in multiple subjects resulting in multiple polyhierarchies,
which can be difficult to manage effectively.
In Fig.17, the subject nature is not divided by facet and the concept of weather forecasting is located under weather. This groups the topics together but weather
forecasting is neither a type of weather nor something found in nature. While the structure may appear hierarchical, in fact the terms lower down the structure do not36

Place/Space

Activities

natural landscapes

economic activities

riversmountains

agriculture
crop cultivation

man-made landscapesploughing

pasturesdigging

fallow land

harvestingorchards

threshingwinnowing

Objects

land management
fertilisation (agricultural)

natural objects

irrigation

celestial bodies

drainagesolar systemcrop rotation

the sunland rotation

the moon

animal husbandry

the planets
man-made structures

milking
breedingbuildings
residential buildings
housesfarm buildings
cow-houses
Fig. 16. Example of a thesaurus with facets as top-level categories as found in the pilot thesaurus of Irish folklore

necessarily conform to the hierarchy rules recommended by ISO 25964-1 as they are
not kinds of, or types of the broader categories, in this instance weather.
Some thesauri are structured first by subject and then by facet. The below example also
contains livelihood and household support, objects, activities and processes can begrouped together under the same subject. This is an example of a subject divided into
its fundamental facets.

37Subject arrangement

Subject and facet arrangement

NatureLivelihood and household support(activities)

weather
weather phenomenarainanimal husbandry
breeding
agriculturesnow

crop cultivation

weather lore

land management

weather forecasting(equipment)
hunting equipment
traps
snares( products)
food
drink
(events)
meals

Fig. 17. Example of structuring by subject similar to the structure of Ó Súilleabháin’s Handbook of Irish
folklore (1942)

Using characteristics of division: Characteristics of division are used to organise subfacets into arrays in both subject and faceted type displays. They are also an increasingly
important part of website navigation where customers may browse products by attributes such as size and price. Occasionally, these arrangements are also referred to as‘facets’ but, strictly speaking, they are not. In the example given below, the terms areorganised into two facets, Clothing and Electronics (which may both be organised undera fundamental Products facet.) There are two sub-facets in clothing, Shirts and Skirts,
and these are then arranged by their attributes, gender, size and colour. The facet
Electronics contains two sub-facets, Cameras and Televisions. These are then arrangedby their attributes, optical zoom, screen size, display and price. As mentioned, characteristics of division can be found in all thesauri, for example in the pilot thesaurus of
Irish folklore, animals will be ordered by age, by degree of domestication, by function
and by species.

38

ClothingElectronics

ShirtsCameras<by gender><by optical zoom>

male<2.9x–

female

3–5.9x<by size><by price>

small

<€200

medium€200–€500

large€500–€1000<by colour>

Televisions

orange<by screen size>

Skirts<20"<by gender>21" - 23"male

24"–30"female<by display><by size>

LED

small

LCD

mediumPlasmalarge

Fig. 18. Example of structuring a taxonomy on a website

As mentioned, the facet analysis approach is primarily a bottom-up approach whereterms are selected from the vocabulary resources and grouped into facets. Will notesthat the process of analysis is iterative and that top-down and bottom-up approaches
are frequently combined with building hierarchical trees as the hierarchical relationships
created are tested to ensure that they conform to the rules for structuring the hierarchiesor that concepts are located in the correct categories (Will 2013).

PILOT THESAURUS—CHOICE OF STRUCTURE
The decision was taken to structure the pilot thesaurus of Irish Folklore using fundamental facets
as the main divisions. Facet analysis, with facets as top concepts (TTs) in the hierarchies was chosen
as this is a more flexible structure which can be more easily updated and the terms gathered logically fell into fundamental categories. This approach was also considered as a good demonstrationof the hierarchy rules laid down by ISO 26594-1. While the topics will be split among different
fundamental hierarchies, a reference book, the Handbook of Irish folklore, exists and is organised
according to subject should this be required.

39

Step 3: analysing terms—vocabulary analysis
As mentioned in a previous section, facet analysis is now a popular choice for the construction of thesauri. If we begin with a list of concepts, which are then grouped into
fundamental categories similar to the above, then we automatically establish hierarchicalrelationships between these concepts that conform to the rules of relationships set down
by ISO 25964-1, that is that each narrower or subordinate concept must belong in thesame type category or be the same kind of thing as the broader concept, that it must
be a unique part of the broader concept or that it must be an instance of the broader
term (International Organization for Standardization 2011).

P I L O T T H E S A U R U S — V O C A B U L A R Y A N A LY S I S I
Initial analysis
Terms in the vocabulary analysis process were recorded in Microsoft Excel for the initial
analysis and Microsoft Word for the secondary analysis as this allowed for easier basic
arranging and subdividing. Database packages such as Microsoft Access may also be
considered. Dedicated thesaurus management software can also be implemented fromthe beginning of the project.
In the first stage of the analysis, the selected terms were organised into basic facets,
which roughly corresponded to those outlined by Aitchison et al. (1997). These were:• Entities: abstract objects, materials, attributes, parts/components, living
entities, naturally occurring entities, man-made objects, agents, patientsand end-products• Activities and actions: processes and operations• Place/Space/Location• TimeThe process of arranging terms under facets is an iterative one. Terms may be arranged
and rearranged until the most appropriate structure is determined. The approach taken
for the pilot thesaurus combined top-down and bottom-up approaches, looking at
both the fundamental facets as outlined in the facet analysis literature and the terms
that were extracted from the Handbook of Irish folklore and other sources. Context
was also considered when placing terms, for example in a biology thesaurus, fruit
would be considered a reproductive organ. In the Pilot thesaurus of Irish folklore, it isconsidered a product.

40

Following initial groupings, review and analysis, the fundamental facets decided on forthe pilot thesaurus were:• Time• Place/Space/Environment• Products• Activities• Processes and Phenomena• Events• Agents• Objects• Materials• Attributes and Properties• Parts
These fundamental facets will be complemented by the facets of Genre and Form as
well as Abstract Concepts.
It should be noted that facets in different thesauri covering another subject may becompletely different. Facets should be considered in terms of the subject matter andwhat is most appropriate for the thesaurus in question.
The placement of many of the terms was obvious but some required additional thought
and an expansion or readjustment of the fundamental facets as outlined above:• The Time facet is an easy facet to populate and includes all terms relating todivisions of time such as the days, weeks, months, years, etc. It also contains
divisions of historical and chronological time as well as seasons.
• Some thought went into the arrangement of rivers and other natural objects aswell as cities and other types of urban landscape as distinct from individual
buildings. The Place/Space/Environment facet contains all natural features andtypes of environment or landscape. All features which comprise a natural landscape are placed here and these include rivers, lakes and mountains.
Man-made landscapes are placed here and include features of rural or arable
landscapes such as orchards, pastures and gardens. Towns and cities areincluded as part of the urban landscape and environment as they are considered areas as a whole. These are distinct from the individual building
structures, which are found in towns and cities and are placed under the
Objects facet.

41• Animals, fish and people were placed under the Agents facet as these were living creatures, which can perform actions and can have an effect on the environment aroundthem. This category also includes supernatural beings and has the potential to expand toinclude all types of spirits, monsters and other mythical creatures. The Agents facet also
includes other living organisms/entities such as plants and trees.
— Other living organisms were originally located under a separate Living Entities facet.
The decision was taken to include all living organisms, from people to mythical beingsand plants under the one facet as it made more sense to keep all these living entities
together. It is also arguable that, in folklore, some plants, trees and other such living
entities have the potential to perform actions or have an effect on others.
— As per its original definition, the Agents facet has the potential to expand to coverorganisations.
— The Agents facet can also include Equipment as per its original definition but as it was
decided to include all living entities under Agents, different types of equipment wereinstead placed under the Objects facet as they are not living entities.
— The Patients facet in the facet analysis literature was not employed in the pilot thesaurus. The objects of operations or activities in the pilot thesaurus have been listed
either in the Agents facet or the Objects facet. An additional facet for the recipientsof an action only added additional unnecessary complication.
• The Products facet contains terms relating to simple things or substances that are formed
following an action or process and are produced for sale or consumption. These include
food products, animal products, plant products, etc. While there may be some overlap
with the Objects and Materials facets, in the context of the literature, these materials arereferenced as products in support of the household so they have been retained as such in
the thesaurus.
• The Actions /Activities facet as outlined by Aitchison et al. (1997) includes processes andoperations. This has been revised into two separate facets in the pilot thesaurus:— The Activities facet primarily contains what are called operations in the facet analysis
literature. These are external, transitive actions, usually carried out by Agents.
— The Processes and Phenomena facet includes natural processes and phenomena. This
includes naturally occurring process such as the weather, chemical processes such as
fire, biological processes and phenomena such as human behaviour, animal behaviourand diseases. In the context of Irish Folklore, fire is considered an object. Nevertheless,fire will not sit easily in the Object facet and so has been included in the Processes
facet. It can be used together with other concepts such as celebrations or festivals of
the dead.
• As events are a large and significant aspect of human life and as they have an importantrole in folklore, a separate Events facet was created to outline the different types of
events, festivals and rituals that exist or existed in Irish folklore and folk life. This assumes
a narrower definition of event as a thing that happens and does not include activities, thethings that people do, as a type of event. Some questions arose relating to the placement42

of the term meals. They could be included as either regular events or as part of social
activities and foodways. The term was eventually placed with Events as breakfast, lunch
and dinner are things that happen. The term does not refer to the act of eating, which
would be located in foodways. An associative relationship (RT) was then used to link thetwo concepts.
• The Objects facet contains all inanimate objects including natural objects such as planetsand stars, man-made structures, equipment, furnishings, clothing and written documents. Buildings are considered man-made structures in the thesaurus and are placed
under the Objects facet.
• The Materials facet contains basic and constituent substances, both organic and inorganic as well as traditional and supernatural elemental substances, which feature infolklore and folk tales. This includes rocks, wood, and the four elements. This category
also includes fuels. In the context of contemporary Irish folklore today, this is an acceptable place to put fuels as most are natural substances such as coal and wood. If the term
nuclear fuels was to be added, this would necessitate a revision of that arrangement.
• The Attributes and Properties facet contains terms relating to the properties, qualities orstates of things. This includes terms such as hot and cold, productivity or fertility.
• The Parts facet contains terms relating to parts of Agents and Objects. These will include
anatomical parts or systems as well as any object components.
• The Genre/Form facet contains terms relating to the main genres and forms of folklore
found in Ireland and across the world. In the pilot thesaurus, these have been sourced
from Alan Dundes, The study of folklore and will be expanded to include Carl vonSydow’s Kategorien der Prosa-Volksdichtung.
• The Abstract Concepts facet contains terms relating to abstract concepts, ideas and disciplines, which are not within the scope of the thesaurus but which may be discussed inrelation to folklore.
The initial analysis will be followed by further arrangement of the broad groupings into sub-facets
and arrays.
Notation and citation order
The facets in the pilot thesaurus of Irish folklore are, in principle, ordered from general to specific.
The citation order will be the reverse, from specific to general. The order is evident in the paper
version of the thesaurus but is not evident in the online thesaurus as the thesaurus management
software organises terms alphabetically. This issue could be solved with the use of notation.
However, no notation is included in the pilot thesaurus as this is beyond the scope of the project.

43

P I L O T T H E S A U R U S — V O C A B U L A R Y A N A LY S I S II
Next stage of the vocabulary analysis
The next stage of the vocabulary analysis involved breaking down the facets into narrower divisions, using node labels to divide the facets into sub-facets or arrays and to organise themaccording to the characteristics of division. In a full thesaurus, arrays should be expanded as far
as practicable to include all possible terms relevant to the subject. This will not be the case in thepilot thesaurus but will be undertaken should the pilot be expanded.
There are no fundamental sub-facets or fundamental arrays, which can be chosen. Instead, thegrouping of sub-facets and arrays is determined based on the content and on what is deemed to
be a suitable arrangement in the context of the thesaurus. Where possible, it is recommended tofollow the principle of general-to-specific in the arrangement of arrays within a facet. The orderof sibling concepts within an array is also determined based on the content, for example an arraybased on chronological time will be best arranged from the earliest to the most recent time rather
than alphabetically.
Existing thesauri were consulted for their structure around overlapping content but, following theinitial analysis, many of the terms and concepts fell naturally into place. A few examples havebeen outlined below:• The Time facet was easy to arrange as it fell naturally into sub-facets. These included
divisions of time and historical periods. Divisions of time were further divided into subfacets such as days, months, etc., each containing their own arrays. Historical periods
were also further divided into named historical periods and periods by historic time(twelfth century, etc.).

Time
Seasons

times of day

historical periods(by name)dawn(by name)

spring (season)

daytimeearly Irish (pre–1200)

summerdusk

prehistory

autumnnight-time

protohistory

winterdays of the week

Early Christian Ireland(by activity)

SundayViking Ireland (800–1169)

harvest (season)

MondayNorman Ireland (1169–1536)

Tuesday

medieval

Wednesday

Counter-Reformation

Thursday(by historic time)

Fridaytwelfth century

Saturdaythirteenth century(400–800)

Sample of the Time facet divided into sub-facets and by characteristics of division44• The Place/Space/Environment facet was further divided into natural landscapes, manmade landscapes and supernatural or legendary places. These could be divided andarranged with more detail in an expanded thesaurus.

Place/Space/Environment
natural landscapes

man-made landscapeslegendary and spiritual placesswamp

rural landscapes

fairy forts

bogs

pastures

hell

caves

fallow land

purgatoryholesorchards

underground passages

gardens

hills
woods

urban landscapes

forests

towns
citiesSample of the Place/Space/Environment facet divided into sub-facets.

• The Agents facet fell naturally into people, animals, other living organisms and supernatural
beings following the initial analysis. These were further organised by sub-facets and characteristics of division. People were divided primarily by principles of division, mainly those notedin the Handbook of Irish folklore. These include age and occupation. Animals were alsoorganised according to the following characteristics of division: age, species and function.
Again, these could be divided and arranged into more detail in an expanded thesaurus.

AgentsPeopleAgentssupernatural or legendary beings(by age)animals

fairieschildren(by age)evil spirits

adultsnewbornsaints(by occupation)youngbansheessmithsmaturehunters(by function)

farmers

livestock

shoemakers

poultry

dressmakers

dairy animals
working animals
pets
pests
(by species)
mammalsbirds
fish

Sample of the Agents facet divided into sub-facets and by characteristics of division

The remaining facets were organised in this way, using node labels to organise the sub-facets
and arrays. Please see the completed pilot thesaurus for more examples. It is available at
http://apps.dri.ie/motif/.
45

P I L O T T H E S A U R U S — C R E AT I N G R E L AT I O N S H I P S A N D A D D I N G N O T E S
Following the creation of the equivalence and hierarchical relationships, the terms were input into
the open source thesaurus management software, TemaTres.14 Once all terms were present in thesoftware, associative relationships were then added.
Many of the associative relationships were recorded throughout the selection and analysis process.
Some examples of associative relationships from the pilot thesaurus include:

Type of relationshipTerm 1

Term 2Agents / Activities

fishingfishermen

RT fishermen

RT fishing

RT fishing crews

RT fishing crews

supernatural beings

supernatural practices

RT supernatural practices

RT supernatural beings

dung

fuels

RT fuels

RT dungfabricclothing

RT clothing

RT fabric

meals

foodways

RT foodways

RT meals

bonfiresfestivals of the deadRT festivals of the deadRT bonfires

oars

boats

RT boats

RT oars

fleecessheep

RT sheep

RT fleeces

Agents / Activities
Materials / Products
Materials / Products
Events / Activities
Processes / Events
Parts / Objects
Parts / Agents

Adding notes
The scope notes recorded during the selection and analysis stages were then added into the software. These scope notes were primarily for the top-level facets.
The pilot thesaurus does not contain any notes relating to the history of the term within the thesaurus as this is outside the scope of the pilot. Creation and modification dates were added by
the software automatically.
As no notation is included in the pilot thesaurus, no notation was added. This may not be thecase for a more complete thesaurus.

1446

http://www.vocabularyserver.com/

Step 4: creating hierarchical and associative relationships andadding notes
Once the hierarchical relationships have been created using facet analysis, node labels andarrays, associative relationships can then be added. This is the process recommended by
ISO 25964-1. The most useful associative relationships are those that exist between hierarchies and these are easier to create when all hierarchies have been inputted into thethesaurus management software (International Organization for Standardization 2011).
As noted in the section on associative relationships, Hedden goes into greater detail on
creating associative relationships and outlines the most common types of relationships
across hierarchies, including Agents/Processes, Objects/Properties, Parts/Whole, etc.
(Hedden 2010a) Depending on the types of fundamental facets used in a thesaurus, themost important relationships may be slightly different.

47

Multilingual thesauri

IFLA’s Guidelines for multilingual thesauri and ISO 25964-1 discuss the three approaches
to constructing multilingual thesauri: building a new thesaurus, combining existing thesauri and translating an existing thesaurus. When building a thesaurus from the groundup, the creators may choose to start with one source language or work with more than
one language, the source and the target languages from the beginning. When constructing a thesaurus from existing thesauri, the creators may merge existing thesauri
or link to existing thesauri. The translation of an existing thesaurus is not considered aspart of the IFLA guidelines as the language of the existing thesaurus is treated as thedominant language in this approach. This is not appropriate when constructing multilingual thesauri where all languages should be treated equally (IFLA Working Group on
Guidelines for Multilingual Thesauri 2009; International Organization for Standardization2011). ISO 25964-1 considers translation a cost-effective approach to the constructionof multilingual thesauri but also observes the caveat that the languages are not considered equal in this approach (International Organization for Standardization 2011).
The decision to build a new thesaurus or to combine existing ones will depend on theexisting thesauri and resources that are available. Many of the issues encountered inboth approaches are similar to those found in monolingual thesauri and they revolve
primarily around concepts and terms, equivalence, structure and semantics.
Concepts and terms: As mentioned in a previous section, the rigorous distinction
between terms and concepts as found in ISO 25964-1 adds greater clarity and equality
to the construction of multilingual thesauri. This is easily shown in the below diagrams
where, previously, the second or target language would have been treated as a subordinate language. This is not true where the distinction between terms and concepts
ensures that languages are considered equal in the construction.

48

Non-rigorous distinction between terms andRigorous distinction between terms andconcepts subordinates target languages.

concepts treats languages equally.

Concept/
Preferred Term
(English)Concept

Concept(English)(Irish)Non-preferredPreferred

Non-PreferredPreferredPreferred

Term (en)Term (ga)Term (ga)Term (en)Term (ga)Non-Preferred

Non-Preferred

Term (en)Term (ga)Fig.19. Treatment of languages in a thesaurus.

Equivalence: In a multilingual thesaurus, equivalence relationships exist between concepts across languages but they do not use any explicit relationship terms to express
this. In the above diagram, the concept in English and the concept in Irish are considered
exactly equivalent, that is both concepts cover the same scope and meaning in bothlanguages. This is not always the case and examples of inexact, partial and non-equivalent concepts will appear when constructing a multilingual thesaurus. Single to multiple
equivalencies can also exist between languages.
More examples of equivalencies and how to manage them are given in ISO 25964-1,
IFLA’s Guidelines for multilingual thesauri, Broughton’s Essential thesaurus construction
and Aitchison, Gilchrist and Bawden’s Thesaurus construction and use: A practicalmanual.15

15

For a comprehensive discussion of equivalences and translation issues, see Nykyri (2010). In practice,translation machines may be used for bulk processing followed by manual post processing by a translator.

49

Equivalence

Source language

Target language

Note

Exact:

en: fishing lore

ga: seanchas

The two concepts have exactly theiascaireachta

same meaning in Irish and English

fr: site de

The two concepts can be treated as

peuplement

identical.

en: science

Wissenschaft is broader in scope

Concepts match exactly
Inexact:

en: historic settlements

Concepts are not exactly
identical but very close inmeaning
Partial:de: Wissenschaft

One of the concepts isthan science. Here, a scope note

narrower or broader inwould be needed to define thescope than the otherscope of the concepts. Alternatively,
two terms in the target language
may be considered (single-to-manyequivalence)

Single-to-many:en: solar heating

A concept in the source

fr: chauffage

Two terms are needed to express the+ énergie solairesame concept in a different lan-language can only beguage. Alternatively, the concept in

expressed by two or more

the source language may be split,

concepts in the target

for example heating + solar energy.

language
Non-equivalence:

ga: céilí

The term may be borrowed from the

There is no equivalentsource language or a combined

concept in the target

term created in the target language.

language.

Fig. 20. Equivalencies across languages.

50

en: ceilidh

Structure: Multilingual thesauri can have symmetrical or non-symmetrical structures
across language. However, a completely symmetrical structure will only exist where allconcepts are equivalents across the thesauri and there are equal numbers of preferredterms in both languages. This is unlikely in practice given the many different types of
equivalences across languages. It is not recommended that a thesaurus force equivalencies for the sake of a symmetrical structure as this would result in the subordination of
the target language to the structures of the source language and lead to inexact andillogical relationship structures in the target language. Instead, inexact, partial and otherequivalencies should be considered. Non-symmetrical hierarchies may exist across languages depending on the scope and meaning of each concept and the extent of
non-exact equivalencies such as the one given above. Here, non-symmetrical associative
relationships should also be considered.
Semantics: Similar to a monolingual thesaurus, the selection of terms will depend on
the grammatical form preferred in each language. Qualifiers may need to be introduced
not only within but also between languages where necessary. The treatment of compound terms will need to be considered and, generally, where a compound term is split
in one language, it is also split in the other where practicable. Where inexact, partial
and other non-exact equivalencies exist, scope notes should be added.

51

Mapping thesauri

These guidelines do not intend to address mapping thesauri to other vocabularies in
depth. In brief, there are three models by which mapping can be undertaken: the structural unity model where vocabularies are symmetrical, which is an approach suitable fora multilingual thesaurus; the directly linked model where multiple vocabularies are eachmatched to the other; the hub model, in which one thesaurus acts as the central hub
to which all other vocabularies are mapped or which maps to all other vocabularies (orboth). Mappings to consider are equivalence, hierarchical and associative mappings. As
Hedden notes, equivalence mappings across vocabularies do not just occur between
terms that are exactly the same. They can occur between broader and narrower concepts
across vocabularies, depending upon the direction of the mapping (Hedden 2010a).
The Marine Metadata Interoperability Project (Graybeal 2011) outlines a number ofreasons for wanting to map one vocabulary to another. These include identifying relationships and enhancing the search capabilities of an interface as the vocabularies used
are now interoperable that is terms from separate vocabularies are interchangeable anda search for one term will bring up content indexed with the equivalent term fromanother vocabulary. This is useful if an indexing vocabulary is different to the public
search taxonomy, if the vocabulary is to be marketed to both specialised and lay people,
and in federated search (Hedden 2010a). Other useful mappings would be the inclusionof search terms or folksonomies into the controlled vocabulary as non-preferred terms.
However, one of the main reasons given for mapping vocabularies is not one that produces immediate value but is instead will have long-term benefits as part of the Semantic
Web. If vocabularies are published and mapped in Semantic Web standards, this willallow for better and more effective services as more and more resources are brought
into the networked environment. This will be discussed in more detail in the next section.
The Marine Metadata Interoperability Project also outlines a number of tools which canhelp in the mapping process. These are tables, the Resource Description Framework(RDF) and the Simple Knowledge Organisation System (SKOS), ontologies and concept
maps (Graybeal 2011). Hedden provides examples of commercial tools such as
WordMap16 and Synaptica,17 which can assist with the mapping of vocabularies as partof their other features. If the expertise is available in-house, a custom script can also be
developed that will compare the vocabularies (Hedden 2010b).

16
17

52

http://www.wordmap.com/ (13 December 2013)
http://www.synaptica.com/ (22 November 2013).

Thesauri and the Semantic Web

Semantic Web technologies have seen considerable uptake in the fields of science, medicine, business, government, IT and eTourism. These technologies are being used to
improve search capabilities, the integration of data as well as content management anddiscovery. Thesauri have been used as tools to improve indexing, search and retrieval formany decades and, given the similarity of purpose, it comes as no surprise that some
Linked Data technologies and standards18 have been developed to support the use ofcontrolled vocabularies such as thesauri. Among the technologies which relate to thesauri are SKOS and ontologies.

Thesauri and SKOS
Simple Knowledge Organisation System (SKOS)19
SKOS is a data model and vocabulary expressed in the Resource Description Framework
Schema (RDFS), the Web Ontology Language (OWL), and Dublin Core Terms designed
to make controlled vocabularies such as thesauri, classification schemes, taxonomies
and subject heading systems available on the Web with the ability to express hierarchical,
associative and other relationships. A database represented in SKOS is the Semantic Web
version of a subject authority controlled list or vocabulary where Uniform Resource
Identifiers (URIs) are used to provide unique names for the concepts in a thesaurus.20 A
number of online thesauri have now been made available as linked data using SKOS.
These include the Humanities and Social Science Electronic Thesaurus (HASSET),21
AGROVOC22 and others.
The main advantage of representing a thesaurus in SKOS is that the thesaurus will thenbe available online, in a widely recognised format that can be easily reused by otherorganisations, institutions and companies in their own applications, retrieval and indexing systems or in any way that they find useful. This level of interoperability between
systems and applications is also useful internally if a system migration is to take place,or if a company uses many applications across different platforms. SKOS is a W3C
Semantic Web standard, which will ensure interoperability of data and collections as

18

For more information on linked data, please see Berners-Lee (2006).
http://www.w3.org/2009/08/skos-reference/skos.html# (24 November 2013); http://www.w3.org/TR/skosreference/skos-xl.html# (24 November 2013).
20
To ensure stability in the Semantic Web, it is important that URIs don’t change—that they are persistent.
For more information on URIs, see Berners-Lee (1998).
21
http://data-archive.ac.uk/find/hasset-thesaurus/skos-hasset (24 November 2013).
22
http://aims.fao.org/node/16917/ (24 November 2013).
1953

they are brought into a networked environment. Other benefits of publishing and linking
authority data include improved search, the potential to enhance discovery systems andintegrate data from multiple sources, disambiguation and the addition of extra value
through the contextualisation of resources. Many open source and commercial thesaurus
management software now support SKOS.
As Clarke and Zeng note, the ISO 25964 data model was developed at the same timeas the SKOS data model and there was good communication between the working
groups. Consequently, the models are by and large compatible, ensuring that vocabularies published in SKOS are broadly compliant with ISO 25964 (Clarke and Zeng 2012).
A mapping between the ISO 25964 data model and the SKOS data model has beendeveloped by the ISO TC46/SC9/WG8 working group for the ISO 25964 standard about
thesauri and Antoine Isaac, co-editor of the SKOS recommendations and MADS-SKOS
mappings.23

Thesauri and ontologies
Ontologies and thesauri have two different purposes. As stated in the introduction, themain function of a thesaurus is to support information retrieval. An ontology aims to
structure and represent knowledge about a particular domain and to share this knowledge with others by providing a shared vocabulary for talking about that domain. Gruber
originally defined an ontology as an explicit, formal specification of a conceptualisation,
where a conceptualisation is ‘an abstract, simplified view of the world that we wish to
represent for some purpose’. An ontology explicitly defines the entities, and relationships
between them, in this conceptualisation (model) of a knowledge domain and expresses
these in a formal language that can be read, understood and operated on by computers.
The main components of ontologies are classes, sub-classes and their properties, which
include relationships and attributes, and the specific instances of these classes and subclasses (Gruber 1995). As SKOS is used to represent thesauri and other controlled
vocabularies on the Semantic Web, ontologies are formally represented using the data
models RDFS and OWL.
Ontologies are used where there is a need to express more complex and customised
relationships than ‘broader than’, ‘narrower than’, ‘IsA’ or ‘IsPartOf’. These can include‘born in’, ‘located in’, ‘influenced by’, etc. Ontologies are used to make assertions about
the entities in a domain, be they people, things or processes in such a way that logicalinferences can then be made about them. This allows for more sophisticated and automated search and querying capabilities. Stewart notes that while this is not a huge

2354

http://www.niso.org/schemas/iso25964/#skos (24 November 2013).

concern at the moment, both software systems and user demands and expectations are
becoming more sophisticated (Stewart 2011). As the Semantic Web moves forward,these advanced capabilities will become more and more necessary and are being used
to a limited extent today.
As ISO 25964-2 points out, thesauri and ontologies can work well together and it gives
the example of the Europeana Data Model (EDM)24 which uses ontologies such as the
Friend of a Friend (FOAF) ontology and metadata schema such as Dublin Core while recommending specific controlled vocabularies for the content. This combines bothinferencing capabilities with the search and information retrieval capabilities of a thesaurus. A thesaurus may also be reengineered into ontology although this is notguaranteed to be effective and a cost benefit analysis should be considered (International
Organization for Standardization 2013). In general, the more appropriate approach forthesauri and other controlled vocabularies is to express them formally in SKOS andpublish to the Semantic Web.

24

http://pro.europeana.eu/edm-documentation (24 November 2013).

55

Conclusion

These guidelines were produced to provide a comprehensive introduction to and advice
on how to construct thesauri following international standards and best practice. A pilot
thesaurus on Irish folklore was constructed as an illustrative example and proof ofconcept for the guidelines. Thesauri are valuable tools for search and retrieval and theabove document covers the basics of thesaurus construction from planning the thesaurus
through a discussion of the basic elements of a thesaurus and a detailed description of
the process of facet analysis as employed throughout the pilot.
The idea for the project arose following the Digital archiving in Ireland: National surveyof the humanities and social sciences DRI report, which identified a number of problematic areas in the indexing of Irish-language names, both personal names and place
names, as well a large number of either custom-made vocabularies or international
vocabularies adapted for use with Irish content (O’Carroll and Webb 2012). It is hopedthat these guidelines have offered advice on how to bridge this vocabulary gap andensure that information professionals have the advice they need to improve their own
data procedures by adhering to international standards and best practices.
The guidelines and pilot thesaurus have now been reviewed, completed and published
online with accompanying documentation.25 By providing guidelines and a usable pilot
example, the project team hopes to encourage the use of the guidelines in Ireland andelsewhere. Future work following on from the MoTIF project includes the creation of amore comprehensive thesaurus of Irish folklore. The work on this has begun with awidening scope of vocabulary resources as well as consultation with subject experts inthe area of Irish folklore.
Other potential work could include mapping the comprehensive thesaurus to other vocabularies as well as the development of a multilingual thesaurus in both English and Irish.
Much work has gone into the development of the SKOS, a Semantic Web specification
designed to support the use of thesauri, taxonomies and controlled vocabularies on the
Web (World Wide Web Consortium 2012) Many prominent thesauri such as HASSET
and AGROVOC are now published as linked data26 27 while The Getty Institute has plans25

http://apps.dri.ie/motif/ (24 November 2013).
http://data-archive.ac.uk/find/hasset-thesaurus/skos-hasset (24 November 2013).
27
http://aims.fao.org/standards/agrovoc/linked-open-data (24 November 2013).
26

56

to publish all their vocabularies to the LOD cloud (Harpring n.d.). A logical step for any
thesaurus would be its representation in SKOS and publication to the Linked Data cloud.
Publishing the thesaurus of Irish folklore, in a widely recognised format that can be easily
reused by other organisations, institutions and companies in their own applications,retrieval and indexing systems, provides the greatest potential for reuse among cultural
heritage institutions both in Ireland and abroad into the future.

57

Bibliography

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60

Appendices

Appendix I: Initial list of terms

abstinencebutchering

cow-houses

ailments

cabbagescows

air (element)

calvescrews

air (gas)candles

crop rotation

alcoholic beverages

care of livestock

crustaceans

alcoholic drinks

Catholic

currachs

alliancecats

dairy animals

amulets

cattledawn

animal behaviour

cattle lore

daytimeanimal lore

cerealsdeer

appetitecharms (object)

diggingasses

charms (verbal art)

diseases

associations

chickens

divination

autumnchildrendogs

bakingclay

domestic animals

bansheescleanlinessdomestic birds

barleycloth

domestic hygiene

beefcloth manufacture

donkeysbees

cloudsdrainagebeverages

coal

dress

bewitchment

cocks

dressmaking

blindnesscoffeedrifters (fishing boats)

bog-deal splinterscolddrillsbogs

complaints

drinking

bonfirescondiments

drinksbraceletcooking

drought (weather)breadcorn stacks

dry

breeding

corn stands

ducks

buildings

cots

dung

bulls

Counter-Reformation

dusk

61

62

dying (cloth)

fodderhay

early Irish (pre-1200)

folk art

hearthsearth (element)

folk belief

hellearth (soil)

folk costume

hens

east

folk danceherb-books

eatingfolk drama

herding

eggs

folk medicine

hills

elf-shotfolk musicholy wells

embroideryfolk poetry

honeyepitaphs

folk religion

horsesevil eyefolk songs

hotevil spirits

folk speechhousehold economics

eye-ailments

folk tales

household fires

fabricfood preservation

household vessels

fairies

foods

households

fairy forts

forests

housesfairy people

four elements

hungerfairy tales

fowling

huntingfarm implements

foxes

hurling

farmers

Fridayhygienefasting

frost

insects

Feast of St Martin

fruit

irrigationfeathers

fungi

jennets

fertilisation (agricultural)

fur

jokes

fertilisersgame

kinship

fertility

gardens

knitting

fire (element)

geese

knivesfire-fuelgoats

lacemaking

fireplaces

grace

lakes

fire-seedgrace at meals

lambs

fishermen

habits of animals

lamps

fishinghairland rotation

fishing crews

hair-cutting

landmarks (natural fea-

fishing lore

hard-udder/blasttures)

flax

hares

landmarks (structures)

fleeceharvest (season)

lanterns

floorsharvestinglayingflowering plants

hatching

leatherlegends

northproverbs

licencesoars

purgatory

livestockoats

quilting

local cuisine

occupations

rabbits

local foods

oil lights

rain

looms

onionsrain lore

lore of animals

oral epics

raising the windlore of cattle

orchards

rays

lore of foodother celestial objects

remedies

lowering the windother growths

ricks

luxury products

other heavenly bodies

rickstands

management of livestock

other types of fuelridgesmanuresouthouses

ring-forts

masonry

pasturesrites

maturepeculiarities of animals

rituals

May Daypelts

riversmeals

permits

rocks

meat

personal hygiene

roosters

medievalpestsroot vegetables

milk

pets

root-crops

milk disorders

pig farming

ropes

milking

piggeries

rudders

millingpigs

rushlights

modern boats

pike

rye

molluscs

plaicesaintsMondayplanets

salmonmonuments

plantsSaturdaymountainsploughingsayings

mules

poaching

seals

mythical places

pollockseeds

mythology

porpoisesseine-boats

myths

post-Tridentine Catholicism

seiners

nesting

potatoesshaving

nets

poultry

sheep

newbornpowdershrubsnight fires

prayers

signs (portents)night-time

productivity

skies

noise

prophecies

skin

63

64

slingstabooswashingsmithingtabus

water (element)smithstailors

water (liquid)snares

tails

waves

snow

tea

Wednesday

snuff

teasing

weeds

solar folklore

textileswells

solar system

table for meals, thewells with special powers

solethirstwest

sources (water)

thirteenth century

wheat

south

threshingwhiting

spadesThursdaywickerwork

spiders

tides

wild birds

spinning

tobaccowind lore

spring (season)tradeswinds

springs (water)

traditional music

winnowing

St Stephen’s Day

traditions

winter

stars

traps

witchcraft

stonestrawlers

wolvesstorms/high winds

treatment (cloth)wood (fuel)

straw

trees

woods

streamstrout

wool (fibre)

summerTuesdaywool (yarn)

Sundayturf

working animals

sunfishturkeysworms

superstition

twelfth century

young

swamp

vegetables

tablesvernacular architecture

Appendix II: Stage 1 facet analysis
Genre/FormtaboosTuesday

animal lore

traditional music

twelfth century

belieftraditions

Wednesdaycharms (verbal arts)

verbal arts

winterepitaphsvernacular architecture

fairy tales

wind lore

fishing lore

Place / Space /Environment

folk art

Abstract Entities

pasturesfolk belief

and Concepts

bogs

folk costume

religionfairy forts

folk dance

Catholicism

forests

folk drama

economics

gardens

folk medicine

household economics

hellfolk music

noise

lakes

folk poetry

post-Tridentine Catholicism

landmarks

folk religion

soundlandscapes

folk songs

mountainsfolk speechTimeorchards

folk tales

autumnpurgatory

food lore

Counter-Reformation

riversIrish folklore

dawn

springs

jokes

daytimeswampslegends

dusk

material culture

early Irish (pre-1200)

Products

music

Fridayalcoholic drinks

mythology

harvest (season)barleymyths

medieval

beeforal epics

Mondaybread

prayersnight-time

cabbages

prophecies

Saturdaycereals

proverbs

spring (season)coffeerain lore

summercondiments

signs (portents)

Sundaydrinkssolar folklore

thirteenth century

dung

superstition

Thursday

eggs

65

66

fodderdomestic hygiene

teasing

fruitsdrainagethreshinghoneydrinking

washingleathereatingwickerwork

linen

embroidery

winnowing

local foods

evil eyewitchcraft

luxury products

fastingmeat

fertilisation

Processes andmedical products

fishing

Phenomena

milk

food preservation

animal diseases

oatsfowling

appetiteonionsgambling

blindnesspelts

game hunting

bonfiresplant products

hair-cutting

breeding

potatoesharvesting

cloudsremedies

herdingdiseasesroot vegetables

hunting

drought (weather)ryehurling

elf-shotsnuff

irrigation

eye ailmentsteaknitting

fire

textileslacemaking

frost

tobaccolowering the wind

hard udder

vegetables

magic tricks

hatching

wheat

masonryhigh winds

wool (yarn)

milking

household fires

milling

hungerActivities

needlework

layingabstinence

personal hygiene

milk disorders

agriculture

pig farming

nesting

amusements

ploughingnight fires

bakingpoaching

rain

breeding

prayers at meals

snowbutchering

quilting

stormscardingraising the wind

thirstcookingshavingtides

crop rotationsmithing

unnatural phenomena

digging

spinning

waves

divinationtable for meals

windsEvents

domestic animals

pollockAll Soul’s Day

domestic birds

porpoises

breakfast

donkeyspoultry

carnivals

ducks

rabbits

dinnerevil spirits

rays

Easterfairies

reptilesexhibitions

farmers

rodents

Feast of St Martin

fish

saintsfestivals of the deadfishermen

salmonHalloween

fishing crews

saltwater fish

May Day

flax (plant)

seals

meals

foxes

sheep

rites

freshwater fishshrubsritualsfungismithssaints’ days

game

sole

Samhaingeese

spiders

Shrove Tuesdaygoats

sunfishSt Stephen’s Day

hares

tailors

wedding feasts

hens

trees

horsestrout

Agentshouseholds

turkeys

adultshungry grass

weeds

amphibians

insects

whiting

animals

jennets

wild animals

bansheeslambswild birds

bees

livestockwolvesbulls

mature animals

worms

calvesmedicinal plantscatsmolluscs

Objects

cattlemules

amulets

chickens

newborn animals

animal housing

childrenpeoplebog-deal splinters

cocks

pests

bracelets

cows

pets

buildings

crustaceans

pigs

candlesdairy animals

pikecharms (objects)

deerplaiceclothing

dogs

plantscorn stacks

67

cots

shebeens

Catholic

cow-houses

skies

dry

cups

slingseast

currachssnaresfertility

dressessolar systemnorthdrifters (fishing boats)spadesproductivity

drillsspancelssouthfarming equipment

stars

west

fetterstablesfishing boats

traps

Parts and Components

herb books

trawlersfeathers

holy wells

utensils

fireplaces

housesvessels

fleece

kilts

wells

floorsknives (utensils)

wells with special powers

furknives (weapons)hairlandmarks (man-madeMaterials

hearths

structures)air (element)oars

lanterns

air (gas)rudders

licenses

clay

skin

looms

coal

tails

modern boats

earth (element)wool (fibres)monuments

earth (soil)

muzzles

fertilisers

nets

fire (element)

oil lights

fire-seedouthouses

fuels

permitshaypiggeries

rocks

pitchers

seeds

planets

straw

platesturf

powderwater (element)ridgeswater (liquid)

ringfortswood (fuel)

ropes

68

rushlights

Attributes andseiners

Properties

Appendix III:
Pilot thesaurus of Irish folklore alphabetical display
abstinence

alcoholic drinks

TT:

Activities

TT:

ProductsBT:food consumptionBT:drinksaccessories

UF:

alcoholic beverages

TT:

Objects

All Soul’s Day

BT:clothing and accessories

TT:

EventsNT:amuletsBT:

feast days and religiousNT:bracelets

holidaysNT:

charms (objects)

adultsamphibians
TT:

AgentsanimalsTT:

AgentsBT:BT:peopleamulets

agricultural structures

TT:

ObjectsBT:

accessories

TT:

ObjectsBT:

man-made structuresNT:

corn stacks

TT:

Activities

NT:

ridgesBT:entertainment andamusements

agriculture

recreational activities

TT:

Activities

RT:

farmersBT:

economic activities

NT:

animal husbandry

behaviourNT:crop cultivation

animal control equipmentNT:land managementNT:magic tricks

animal behaviour
USE: animal processes andTT:

Objects

RT:

animalsBT:equipmentair (element)NT:

fetters

TT:

MaterialsNT:

muzzles (equipment)

BT:

classical elementsNT:spancelsailments
USE: diseases

air (gas)
TT:

Materials

BT:

inorganic materials

alcoholic beverages
USE: alcoholic drinks

animal diseases
TT:

Processes and PhenomenaRT:animalsBT:

diseasesNT:

eye ailmentsNT:milk disorders69

animal foodstuffs
TT:

Products

TT:

AgentsRT:

animalsRT:

animal control equipment

BT:food productsRT:animal foodstuffs

NT:fodderRT:

animal housing

animal housingRT:

animal husbandryTT:

Objects

RT:

animal loreRT:

animalsRT:

animal processes and behaviourBT:farm buildingsRT:animal productsNT:

cow-houses

RT:

animal diseases

NT:piggeries

BT:

Agentsanimal husbandry

animals, lore ofTT:

Activities

RT:

animals

appetiteBT:

agriculture

TT:

Processes and PhenomenaUF:care of animalsBT:

biological processesUF:management of animals

animal lore

USE: animal lore

Arabian folklore
TT:

Genre

asses

TT:

Genre

RT:

animals

BT:

Genre

UF:

animals, lore of

TT:

Time

UF:

lore of animals

RT:

harvest festivals

animal processes and behaviourRT:

harvestingBT:seasons

USE: donkeys
autumnTT:

Processes and PhenomenaRT:animalsBT:

biological processes

TT:

Activities

UF:

animal behaviourBT:food production

UF:

habits of animals

RT:

bread

UF:

peculiarities of animal

animal products

70

animals

bakingbansheesTT:

AgentsBT:supernatural andTT:

Products

RT:

animalsBT:

Products

NT:dairy productsTT:

Products

NT:hides and skinsBT:cerealsNT:

hive products

NT:

meat

legendary beingsbarleybeef
TT:Products

RT:

cattle

BT:

meat

bees

blindnessTT:

AgentsTT:

Processes and Phenomena

RT:

honey

BT:

eye ailmentsRT:

hive productsBT:

insects

beliefboat parts
TT:

Parts and Components

RT:fishing boats

TT:

Genre

BT:

object componentsRT:religion

NT:

oars

BT:

Genre

NT:

ruddersNT:

folk beliefNT:folk religion

TT:

ObjectsNT:

mythology

BT:lighting equipment

beverages
USE: drinks
bewitchment

bog-deal splinters

bogs
TT:

Place/Space/EnvironmentBT:geographical features

USE: witchcraft

bonfiresbiological processes

TT:

Processes and Phenomena
fire

TT:

Processes and Phenomena

BT:

BT:

Processes and PhenomenabraceletsNT:human processes and behaviour

TT:

ObjectsNT:

animal processes and behaviourBT:

accessories

NT:

diseases

bread

NT:

appetiteTT:

Products

NT:hunger

RT:

bread

NT:

thirstBT:food products

biological properties

breakfastTT:

Attributes and Properties

TT:

EventsBT:

Attributes and Properties

BT:

meals

NT:

fertility

birds

breeding (animal husbandry)TT:

Activities

BT:

animal husbandry

TT:

AgentsBT:animalsNT:

chickens

TT:

Processes and Phenomena

NT:

ducks

BT:

biological processes

NT:

geese

NT:

hatchingNT:

turkeysNT:layingNT:nesting

blast (milk disorder)

breeding (process)

USE: milk disorders71building and decorative crafts
TT:

Activities

TT:

Attributes and Properties

BT:

trades and craftsBT:

positional attributes

NT:masonryUF:points of the compassNT:smithing

cardingNT:wickerwork

TT:

Activities

building componentsBT:textiles and leather crafts

TT:

Parts and Components

RT:buildings

BT:

object componentsNT:fireplaces

TT:

EventsNT:floorsBT:entertainment and recreationalNT:hearthsbuildings

care of animals
USE: animal husbandry
carnivals

eventscarnivores

TT:

Objects

TT:

AgentsRT:building componentsBT:mammalsBT:

man-made structures

NT:

cats

NT:

farm buildings

NT:

dogs

NT:

fortifications

NT:

foxes

NT:

residential buildingsNT:wolvesbulls

catching animals

TT:

AgentsTT:

Activities

BT:

cattleBT:economic activities

butcheringNT:fishing

TT:

ActivitiesNT:huntingRT:animal products

CatholicBT:food production

TT:

Attributes and Properties

cabbages

RT:

Catholicism

TT:

Products

BT:

religious attributes

BT:vegetables

Catholic Reformation
USE: Counter-Reformation

calvesTT:

AgentsBT:cattleCatholic Revival
USE: Counter-Reformation
Catholicism

candles72

cardinal points

TT:

Objects

RT:household equipment

BT:lighting equipment

TT:

Abstract Entities andConcepts

RT:

CatholicBT:

religionNT:

post-Tridentine Catholicism

catschemical processes

TT:

AgentsTT:

Processes and PhenomenaBT:carnivores

BT:

Processes and Phenomena

NT:

fire

cattleTT:

AgentsRT:

animal products

TT:

AgentsBT:hoofed mammals

BT:

birds

NT:

bulls

NT:

cocks

NT:

calves

NT:

hens

NT:

cows

childrencelebratory events
TT:

EventsBT:

EventsNT:wedding feasts

celestial objects

chickens

TT:

AgentsBT:peopleclassical elements
TT:

Materials

BT:

Materials

TT:

ObjectsUF:four elementsBT:natural objectsNT:

air (element)NT:earth (element)

cerealsTT:

Products

NT:fire (element)BT:plant productsNT:water (element)NT:barleyNT:oats

TT: Materials

NT:

rye

BT: earth (soil)

NT:

wheat

ceremonial eventsclay

cleaning and hygiene practices
TT:

Activities

TT:

EventsBT:

social activities

BT:

EventsNT:hair-cutting

NT:

rites

NT:

shavingNT:ritualsNT:washing

charms (objects)

cloth
USE: textiles

TT:

Objects

RT:

charms (verbal arts)

BT:

accessories

TT:

Objects

charms (verbal arts)

RT:

textiles

clothing

TT:

Genre

BT:

clothing and accessories

RT:

charms (objects)NT:dressesBT:

verbal arts

NT:

kilts

73

clothing and accessories
TT:

ObjectsBT:

Objects

NT:

accessories

TT:

Time

NT:

clothingRT:

post-Tridentine Catholicism

BT:

historical periods

clouds

USE: Counter-Reformation
Counter-Reformation

TT:

Processes and Phenomena

UF:Catholic ReformationBT:naturally occurring phenomena

UF:Catholic Revival

UF:

Counter Reformation

coal
TT:

Materials

BT:

fuels

cocks

cow houses
USE: cow-houses
cow-houses

TT:

AgentsTT:

Objects

BT:

chickensBT:animal housingUF:roostersUF:

cow houses

coffeecows

TT:Products

TT:

AgentsBT:drinks

RT:

milk

BT:

cattlecomplaints (sickness)
USE: diseases

craft equipment

condiments

TT:

Objects

TT:

Products

RT:

textiles and leather craftsBT:food productsBT:equipment

NT:

looms

cooking
TT:

ActivitiesBT:food consumption

crews
TT:

Agentscorn stacks

BT:peopleTT:

ObjectsNT:fishing crews

BT:agricultural structuresUF:

corn stands

TT:

Activities

UF:

ricks

RT:

plant products

UF:rickstands

RT:crop rotationBT:

agriculturecorn stands
USE: corn stacks
cots

74

Counter Reformation

crop cultivation

crop rotation
TT:

Activities

TT:

Objects

RT:

plant products

BT:

traditional boatsRT:crop cultivationBT:land managementUF:land rotation

cropsdeer

USE: plant products

TT:

AgentscrustaceansBT:hoofed mammals

TT:

AgentsdiggingBT:

invertebrates

cups

TT:

Activities

RT:

spadescrop cultivation

TT:

ObjectsBT:

BT:

vessels

dinnercurrachsTT:

ObjectsBT:

traditional boats

cursed plants

TT:

EventsBT:

meals

disciplines
TT:

Abstract Entities and Concepts

TT:

AgentsBT:

Abstract Entities and Concepts

BT:plantsNT:economics

NT:physicsNT:religiondairy animals
TT:

AgentsRT:

milk disorders

diseasesRT:

dairy products

TT:

Processes and PhenomenaBT:animalsBT:

biological processesUF:ailments

dairy productsTT:

Products

UF:complaints (sickness)RT:dairy animalsNT:animal diseases

BT:animal productsNT:supernatural diseases

divination

dawn
TT:

Time

TT:

Activities

BT:

times of the dayBT:supernatural practices

days of the week

dogs

TT:

Time

TT:

Agents

BT:

Time

BT:

carnivores

NT:

FridayNT:

MondayTT:

AgentsNT:

SaturdayBT:

animalsNT:

SundayNT:

ThursdayTT:

AgentsNT:

TuesdayBT:animalsNT:

Wednesday

daytimedomestic animals

domestic birds

donkeysTT:

Agents

TT:

Time

RT:

horsesBT:times of the day

RT:

mules

75

BT:

hoofed mammals

UF:

asses

drainage
TT:

Activities

BT:

land management

dressesTT:

ObjectsBT:

clothing

drifters (fishing boats)TT:

ObjectsBT:

traditional boats

drillsTT:

ObjectsBT:

general equipment

drinking
TT:

Activities

RT:

drinksBT:food consumption

drinks

TT:

Time

BT:

times of the day

early Irish (pre-1200)
TT:

Time

BT:

historical periods

earth (element)
TT:

Materials

BT:

classical elements

earth (soil)
TT:

Materials

BT:

inorganic

NT:

clay

east
TT:

Attributes and PropertiesBT:

cardinal points

EasterTT:

EventsBT:

feast days and religious holidays

TT:

Products

eatingRT:

drinking

TT:

ActivitiesBT:food productsBT:food consumptionUF:beveragesNT:alcoholic drinks

TT:

ActivitiesNT:

coffeeBT:

Activities

NT:

tea

UF:

employment

UF:

work

drought (weather)economic activities

TT:

Processes and PhenomenaNT:

agricultureBT:

naturally occurring phenomenaNT:

catching animals

NT:

trades and crafts

dry
TT:

Attributes and PropertiesBT:physical attributes

ducks

economic properties
TT:

Attributes and Properties

BT:

Attributes and Properties
productivity

TT:

Agents

NT:

BT:

birds

economics

dung

76

dusk

TT:

Abstract Entities and Concepts

TT:

Products

BT:

disciplines

RT:

fertilisersNT:household economics

BT:waste productsUF:

manureeggs
TT:Products

RT:

hens

BT:

dairy products

elf-shotTT:

Processes and PhenomenaBT:supernatural diseases

embroidery
TT:

Activities

BT:needlework

employment
USE: economic activities

evil eyeTT:

Activities

BT:

supernatural practices

evil spirits
TT:

AgentsBT:supernatural and legendary
beingsexhibitions
TT:

BT: entertainment and recreational

entertainment and recreational activities
TT:

Activities

RT:

entertainment and recreational

eventsEventseventseye ailments
TT:

Processes and PhenomenaBT:animal diseases

BT:social activitiesUF:

eye diseaseNT:amusementsNT:blindnessNT:gambling

eye diseaseNT:hurlingentertainment and recreational events
TT:

EventsRT:entertainment and recreational

USE: eye ailments
fabric
USE: textiles
fairies

activities

TT:

AgentsBT:

social activities

BT:

supernatural and legendaryNT:carnivalsNT:

exhibitions

beingsUF:

fairy people

fairy forts

epitaphs
TT:

Genre

TT:

Place/Space/EnvironmentBT:folk poetryBT:legendary and spiritual places

equipment

fairy people
USE: fairies

TT:

ObjectsBT:

ObjectsNT:

animal control equipment

TT:

Genre

NT:

craft equipment

BT:narrativesNT:farming equipmentNT:fishing equipment

TT:

Objects

NT:

general equipment

RT:

farmers

NT:household equipment

BT:buildings

NT:hunting equipment

NT:animal housingNT:

lighting equipmentNT:outhousesNT:

weapons

fairy tales

farm buildings

77farmers

festivals of the deadTT:

AgentsTT:

EventsRT:

agriculture

RT:

HalloweenRT:farm buildings

RT:

SamhainRT:

farming equipment

BT:

EventsBT:peoplefetters

farming equipment
TT:

ObjectsRT:

farmersBT:equipment

ObjectsBT:

animal control equipment

fibre products

fasting

TT:

Products

BT:

Products

TT:

Activities

NT:

textilesBT:

food consumptionNT:wool (yarn)

feast days and religious holidays

fire

TT:

EventsTT:

Processes and Phenomena

BT:

EventsBT:chemical processes

NT:

All Soul’s Day

NT:bonfires

NT:

EasterNT:household fires

NT:

HalloweenNT:night firesNT:

Shrove TuesdayNT:saints’ days

Feast of St Martin
TT:

EventsBT:

saints’ days

fire (element)
TT:

Materials

BT:

classical elements

fire-fuelUSE: fire-seedfire-seedfeathers
TT:

Parts and Components

TT:

Materials

BT:parts of the bodyRT:plant materials

BT:

fuels
fire-fuelfertilisation (agricultural)TT:

activities

UF:

RT:

fertilisers

fireplacesBT:

land management

fertilisers

TT:

Parts and ComponentsBT:building components

fish

TT:

Materials

RT:

dung

TT:

AgentsRT:

fertilisation (agricultural)BT:animalsBT:

Materials

NT:

freshwater fishNT:saltwater fish

fertility

78

TT:

TT:

Attributes and Properties

BT:

biological properties

fishermen
TT:

AgentsRT:fishingRT:fishing equipment

TT:

Parts and Components

RT:fishing loreBT:building componentsBT:peoplefishing

floorsflowering plants
TT:

AgentsTT:

Activities

BT:

plantsRT:fishermenNT:flax (plant)RT:fishing equipment

RT:fishing lore

TT:

Products

BT:

catching animals

BT:animal foodstuffs

fodderfishing boats

folk art

TT:

Objects

TT:

Genre

RT:

boat parts

BT:material cultureBT:fishing equipmentNT:

modern boats

TT:

Genre

NT:

traditional boatsBT:belieffishing crews

NT:prophecies

TT:

AgentsNT:

signs (portents)

BT:

crews

NT:

superstitionNT:

taboosfishing equipment

folk belief

TT:

Objects

folk costumeRT:fishermen

TT:

Genre

RT:

fishingBT:material cultureRT:fishing lore

folk danceBT:equipment

TT:

Genre

NT:

fishing boats

BT:other genres and forms

fishing lore

folk drama

TT:

Genre

TT:

Genre

RT:

fishermenBT:narratives

RT:fishingRT:fishing equipment

TT:

Genre

BT:

Genre

BT:

other genres and forms

folk medicine

flax (plant)

folk music

TT:

Agents

TT:

Genre

RT:

linen

BT:

music

BT:

flowering plants

fleecefolk poetry
TT:

Genre

TT:

Parts and ComponentsBT:narratives

BT:parts of the bodyNT:epitaphsNT:oral epics

79

folk religion
TT:

Genre

TT:

Products

BT:beliefRT:food lore

folk songs

BT:

Products

TT:

Genre

NT:

animal foodstuffs

BT:

music

NT:

drinksNT:foodstuffs

folk speech
TT:

Genre

BT:

verbal arts

folk tales

food rituals and practices
TT:

Activities

BT:

foodways

TT:

Genre

NT:

prayers at meals

BT:narratives

NT:table for meals

food consumption

food, lore ofTT:

Activities

USE: food loreBT:

foodwaysfood, preservation ofNT:abstinenceNT:cooking

foodstuffs

NT:drinking

TT:

Products

NT:eatingBT:food productsNT:

fasting

foodwaysfood lore

USE: food preservation

TT:

Activities

TT:

Genre

RT:

food loreRT:food productsBT:social activities

RT:

plant productsNT:food consumptionRT:foodwaysNT:food preparation

BT:

Genre

NT:

food preservationUF:

food, lore ofNT:food rituals and practices

UF:lore of foodforests

food preparation

TT:

Place/Space/Environment

TT:

Activities

RT:

trees

BT:

foodwaysBT:geographical features

food preservation

UF:

woods

TT:

Activities

fortifications

BT:

foodways

TT:

ObjectsUF:

food, preservation ofBT:

buildings

UF:

preservation of foodNT:ringforts

food production

80

food products

four elements
USE: classical elements

TT:

Activities

BT:

trades and craftsNT:bakingTT:

ActivitiesNT:butcheringBT:hunting

fowlingfoxesgambling

TT:

AgentsTT:

ActivitiesBT:carnivoresBT:

entertainment andfreshwater fish

recreational activities

TT:

Agents

BT:

fish

TT:

Agents

NT:

pike

BT:

(by function)NT:salmonNT:sunfishTT:

Activities

NT:

trout

BT:

hunting

Fridaygame

game hunting

gardens

TT:

Time

TT:

Place/Space/EnvironmentBT:days of the weekBT:

man-made landscapes

frost

geese

TT:

Processes and Phenomena

TT:

AgentsBT:naturally occurring phenomena

BT:

birds

fruitsgeneral equipment

TT:

Products

TT:

ObjectsRT:orchards

BT:equipmentBT:plant productsNT:drills

NT:

nets

fuels
TT:

MaterialsNT:

powderBT:

Materials

NT:

ropes

NT:

coal

NT:

slingsNT:

fire-seedNT:

spades

NT:

turf

NT:

wood (fuel)

fungi
TT:

AgentsBT:other living organisms

fur
TT:

Parts and Components

BT:parts of the bodygeographical features
TT:

Place/Space/Environment

BT:

Place/Space/Environment

goats
TT:

Agents

RT:

milk

BT:

hoofed mammals

grace (prayers)

furnishings

USE: prayers

TT:

Objects

habits of animals

BT:

Objects

NT:household furnishingsand decorations

USE: animal processes and behaviour
hair
TT: Parts and Components
BT: parts of the body81hair-cutting

hatching

TT:

Activities

TT:

Processes and PhenomenaBT:cleaning and hygiene practices

BT:

breeding (process)Halloween
TT:

EventsTT:

Materials

RT:

festivals of the deadBT:

plant materials

RT:

SamhainBT:

feast days and religious

holidays
hard udder

hearths
TT:

Parts and ComponentsBT:building components

hell

TT:

Processes and Phenomena

TT:

Place/Space/Environment

BT:milk disordersBT:legendary and spiritual

hares

placesTT:

AgentsBT:

hares and rabbits

hares and rabbits

hens
TT:

AgentsRT:

eggs
chickens

TT:

AgentsBT:

BT:

mammals

herb books

NT:

hares

TT:

Objects

NT:

rabbitsBT:

written communications

harvest (season)

herding

TT:

Time

TT:

Activities

RT:

harvest festivals

BT:animal husbandryRT:

harvestingBT:seasonsTT:

Products

harvest festivals

BT:animal products

hides and skins

TT:

EventsNT:leather

RT:

Autumn

NT:

pelts

RT:

harvest (season)RT:

harvestingTT:

Processes and Phenomena

BT:

EventsBT:stormsNT:

Samhainharvesting

82

hay

high winds

hills
USE: mountains
historical and commemorative structures

TT:

Activities

RT:

AutumnTT:

ObjectsRT:

harvest (season)BT:

man-made structuresRT:

harvest festivalsNT:

monumentsBT:crop cultivation

historical periods

household fires

TT:

Time

TT:

Processes and Phenomena

BT:

Time

RT:

households

hive products

RT:houses

BT:

fire

TT:

Products

RT:

bees

BT:

animal products

TT:

Objects

NT:

honey

RT:

households

RT:housesHollywood folklore

household furnishings and decorations

TT:

Genre

BT:

furnishings

BT:

Genre

NT:

tablesholy wells

households

TT:

Objects

TT:

AgentsBT:wells with special powers

RT:housesRT:household economics

honey
TT:

Products

RT:household equipment

RT:

bees

RT:

household fires

BT:

hive products

RT:household furnishings

hoofed mammals

and decorations

TT:

AgentsBT:

BT:

mammals

houseshorsespeopleTT:

Objects

TT:

AgentsRT:households

RT:donkeysRT:household equipment

RT:

mules

RT:

household firesBT:hoofed mammals

RT:household furnishingsand decorations

household economics
TT:

Abstract Entities andConcepts

BT:

residential buildings

human processes and behaviour

RT:households

TT:

Processes and PhenomenaBT:economics

BT:biological processes

household equipment

hungerTT:

Objects

TT:

Processes and PhenomenaRT:households

BT:biological processesRT:housesBT:equipment

TT:

AgentsNT:utensilsBT:

cursed plantsNT:

vessels

hungry grass83hunting

irrigation

TT:

Activities

TT:

Activities

RT:hunting equipment

BT:land management

BT:catching animals

jennetsNT:

fowling

TT:

AgentsNT:

game huntingBT:hoofed mammals

NT:poachingjokeshunting equipment

TT:

Genre

BT:

verbal arts

TT:

ObjectsRT:huntingBT:equipment

TT:

ObjectsNT:snaresBT:

clothing

NT:

traps

knitting

hurling
TT:

Activities

BT:

entertainment andrecreational activities

inorganic materials

TT:

Activities

BT:

textiles and leather crafts

knives (utensils)
TT:

Objects

RT:knives (weapons)BT:utensils

TT:

Materials

BT:

MaterialsNT:

air (gas)

TT:

ObjectsNT:

earth (soil)RT:knives (utensils)

NT:

rocks

BT:

weaponsNT:water (liquid)

insects

84

kilts

knives (weapons)lacemaking
TT:

Activities

BT:needlework

TT:

AgentsBT:

invertebrates

NT:

bees

TT:

Place/Space/Environment

invertebrates

BT:

geographical features

lakes

TT:

Agentslambs

BT:animalsTT:

AgentsNT:

crustaceans

BT:

sheep

NT:

insectsNT:

molluscs

USE: lanternsNT:spiders

land management

NT:

worms

lamps

TT:

Activities

Irish folkloreBT:agriculture

TT:

Genre

NT:

crop rotation

BT:

Genre

NT:

drainageNT:fertilisation (agricultural)NT:

irrigation

land rotation
USE: crop rotation
landmarks (geographical features)
TT:

Place/Space/Environment

RT:landmarks (man-madeBT:licenses
TT:

ObjectsBT:

written communications

lighting equipment
TT:

ObjectsBT:equipment

linen

structures)

TT:

Products

geographical featuresRT:flax (plant)BT:textileslandmarks (man-made structures)
TT:

Objects

RT:

landmarks (geographicalTT:

Agentsfeatures)BT:animalsBT:

man-made structures

landscapes

livestock

local cuisine
USE: local foods

TT:

Place/Space/Environment

local foods

BT:

Place/Space/Environment

TT:

Products

NT:

man-made landscapesBT:food productsNT:

natural landscapesUF:

local cuisine

looms

lanterns
TT:

ObjectsTT:

ObjectsBT:

lighting equipment

BT:

craft equipment

UF:

lamps

lore of animals
USE: animal lore

layingTT:

Processes and PhenomenaBT:

breeding (process)lore of food
USE: food lore
lowering the windleatherTT:

Products

TT:

Activities

BT:hides and skins

BT:weather manipulation

legendary and spiritual places

luxury products

TT:

Place/Space/Environment

TT:

Products

BT:

Place/Space/Environment

BT:

Products

UF:

mythical places

NT:

snuff

NT:

fairy fortsNT:

tobacco

NT:

hell

NT:

purgatorylegends

magic tricks
TT:

Activities

BT:amusements

TT:

Genre

mammals

RT:

myths

TT:

AgentsBT:narratives

BT:

animals85

NT:

carnivoresNT:

hares and rabbits

TT:

AgentsNT:hoofed mammals

BT:animalsNT:

marine mammals

May DayNT:rodents

man-made landscapes

TT:

EventsBT:springtime festivals

TT:

Place/Space/Environment

BT:landscapes

TT:

EventsNT:

gardensBT:

regular eventsNT:orchardsNT:

breakfastNT:

pasturesNT:dinnerman-made structures

meals

meat

TT:

Objects

TT:

Products

BT:

ObjectsBT:

animal productsNT:

agricultural structures

NT:

beef

NT:

buildings

NT:

historical and commemorativeTT:

Products

structures

BT:

Products

landmarks (man-madeNT:

remediesNT:

structures)NT:water management structures

management of animals
USE: animal husbandry

medical products

medicinal plants
TT:

AgentsBT:

plantsmedievalTT:

Time

USE: dungBT:historical periods

marine mammals

memorials

manure

USE: monuments

TT:

AgentsBT:mammalsNT:

porpoises

TT:

Products

NT:

seals

RT:

cows

RT:

goats

BT:

dairy products

masonryTT:

Activities

BT:building and decorative crafts

material culture86

mature animals

milk

milk disorders
TT:

Processes and Phenomena

TT:

Genre

RT:

dairy animals

BT:

Genre

BT:

animal diseasesNT:folk artUF:

blast (milk disorder)NT:

folk costumeNT:

hard udderNT:vernacular architecturemilking

muzzles (equipment)

TT:

Activities

TT:

ObjectsBT:

animal husbandryBT:

animal control equipment

milling

mythical places

TT:

Activities

BT:

textiles and leather crafts

modern boats

USE: legendary and spiritual places
mythology
TT:

Genre

TT:

Objects

RT:

myths

BT:

fishing boatsBT:beliefNT:

trawlers

molluscs

myths
TT:

Genre

TT:

AgentsRT:legends

BT:

invertebrates

RT:

mythologyBT:narratives

Monday
TT:

Time

BT:

days of the week

narratives
TT:

Genre

monuments

BT:

Genre

TT:

ObjectsNT:

fairy talesBT:historical and commemorativeNT:

folk drama

structuresNT:

folk poetry

memorialsNT:folk tales

mountains

NT:legends

TT:

Place/Space/Environment

NT:

myths

BT:

geographical features

UF:

hills

UF:

mules

natural landscapes
TT:

Place/Space/Environment

BT:landscapes

natural objects

TT:

AgentsRT:

donkeysTT:

ObjectsRT:horsesBT:

ObjectsBT:

hoofed mammals

NT:

celestial objects

naturally occurring phenomena

music
TT:

Genre

TT:

Processes and Phenomena

RT:

sound

BT:

Processes and Phenomena

BT:

Genre

NT:

cloudsNT:folk musicNT:drought (weather)NT:folk songs

NT:

frost

NT:

traditional musicNT:

precipitationNT:

storms

87

NT:

tides

NT:

boat parts

NT:

waves

NT:

building components

NT:

winds

occupations

needlework
TT:

Activities

BT:

textiles and leather crafts

TT:

ObjectsNT:

embroideryBT:lighting equipmentNT:

lacemaking

onionsNT:

quilting

nesting
TT:

Processes and PhenomenaBT:

breeding (process)

nets
TT:

ObjectsBT:

general equipment

newborn animals

oil lights

TT:

Products

BT:root vegetables

oral epics
TT:

Genre

BT:

folk poetry

orchards
TT:

Place/Space/LandscapeRT:fruitsman-made landscapes

TT:

AgentsBT:

BT:

animalsorganicnight fires

TT:

Materials

TT:

Processes and Phenomena

BT:

Materials

BT:

fire

NT:

plant materials

night-timeother genres and forms

TT:

Time

TT:

Genre

BT:

times of the day

BT:

Genre

NT:

folk dance

noise
TT:

Abstract Entities and ConceptsNT:folk medicine

BT:

sound

NT:

traditions

other living organisms

north
TT:

Attributes and Properties

TT:

AgentsBT:

cardinal points

BT:

Agents

NT:

fungi

NT:

plantsoars
TT:Parts and ComponentsBT:boat parts

oats
TT:

Products

BT:cereals

object components

88

USE: trades and crafts

TT:

Parts and Components

BT:

Parts and Components

outhouses
TT:

ObjectsBT:farm buildings

parts of the bodyTT:

Parts and components

BT:

Parts and components

pastures

pike

TT:

Place/space/landscapeTT:

AgentsBT:

man-made landscapesBT:freshwater fish

peculiarities of animals

pitchers

USE: animal processes andTT:

Objects

behaviourBT:vessels

pelts

plaiceTT:

Products

TT:

AgentsBT:hides and skinsBT:

saltwater fishpeopleplanets

TT:

AgentsTT:

Objects

BT:

AgentsBT:celestial objects

permits

plant materials

TT:

Objects

TT:

Materials

BT:written communications

RT:fire-seedBT:organic

pests
TT:

Agents

NT:

hay

BT:

animals

NT:

seeds

NT:

straw

pets
TT:

AgentsBT:animalsTT:

Products

physical attributes

RT:food lore

plant products

TT:

Attributes and Properties

BT:

Products

BT:

Attributes and Properties

NT:

cereals

NT:

dry

NT:

fruitsNT:vegetables

physics
TT:

Abstract Entities andplantsConcepts

TT:

AgentsBT:disciplinesBT:other living organisms

NT:

sound

platespig farming

TT:

Objects

TT:

Activities

BT:utensilsBT:animal husbandry

piggeries
TT:

ObjectsBT:

animal housing

pigs
TT:

AgentsBT:hoofed mammals

ploughingTT:

Activities

BT:crop cultivationpoaching
TT:

ActivitiesBT:hunting89

points of the compass
USE: cardinal points
pollock

USE: food preservation
productivity

TT:

AgentsTT:

Attributes and Properties

BT:

saltwater fishBT:economic properties

porpoises

prophecies

TT:

Agents

TT:

Genre

BT:

marine mammals

BT:folk belief

positional attributes

proverbs

TT:

Attributes and Properties

TT:

Genre

BT:

Attributes and PropertiesBT:verbal arts

NT:

cardinal points

UF:sayings

post-Tridentine Catholicism

purgatoryTT:

Abstract Entities and Concepts

TT:

Place/Space/Landscape

RT:

Counter-Reformation

BT:legendary and spiritual places

BT:

Catholicism

potatoesTT:

Products

BT:root vegetables

poultryTT:

AgentsBT:animals

powderquilting
TT:

Activities

BT:needlework

rabbits
TT:

AgentsBT:

hares and rabbits

rain
TT:

Processes and Phenomena

TT:

ObjectsRT:rain loreBT:

general equipment

BT:

precipitation

prayers

rain lore

TT:

Genre

TT:

Genre

BT:

verbal arts

RT:

rain

UF:

grace (prayers)BT:weather lore

prayers at meals

raising the windTT:

Activities

TT:

ActivitiesBT:food rituals and practices

BT:weather manipulation

precipitation

90

preservation of food

rays

TT:

Processes and Phenomena

TT:

AgentsBT:naturally occurring phenomenaBT:saltwater fish

NT:

rain

NT:

snow

recreational buildings
TT:

ObjectsBT:buildings

regular events

ritualsTT:

EventsTT:

EventsBT:

EventsBT:

ceremonial events

NT:

meals

riversreligionTT:

Place/Space/Environment

TT:

Abstract Entities and ConceptsBT:geographical featuresRT:

beliefUF:

streamsBT:

disciplines

rocks

NT:

Catholicism

TT:

Materials

BT:

inorganic materials
stonesreligious attributes
TT:

Attributes and Properties

UF:

BT:

Attributes and Properties

rodents

NT:

Catholic

remedies
TT:

Products

BT:

medical products

reptilesTT:

AgentsBT:mammalsroosters
USE: cocks
root crops

TT:

AgentsBT:animals

USE: root vegetables
root vegetables

residential buildings

TT:

Products

TT:

Objects

BT:vegetablesBT:buildings

UF:root cropsNT:housesUF:

root-cropsNT:onionsNT:

potatoesricks
USE: corn stacks
rickstands

root-crops
USE: root vegetables

USE: corn stacks

ropes

ridgesTT:

ObjectsTT:

ObjectsBT:

agricultural structuresBT:general equipment

rudders

ring-forts
USE: ringforts
ringforts

TT:

Parts and ComponentsBT:boat partsrushlights

TT:

ObjectsBT:

fortifications

TT:

ObjectsUF:ring-fortsBT:

lighting equipment

rye

rites
TT:

EventsTT:

Products

BT:

ceremonial eventsBT:

cereals91

saints

seine boats

TT:

AgentsBT:supernatural and legendary
beingsseine-boats
USE: seiners

saints’ days

seinersTT:

EventsTT:

ObjectsBT:

feast days and religious holidays

BT:

traditional boats

NT:

Feast of St MartinUF:seine boats

NT:

St Stephen’s Day

UF:seine-boats

salmonshaving

TT:

AgentsTT:

ActivitiesBT:

freshwater fishBT:cleaning and hygiene practices

saltwater fish

shebeens

TT:

AgentsTT:

Objects

BT:

fish

BT:

recreational buildingsNT:

plaicesheepNT:pollock

TT:

Agents

NT:

rays

BT:

hoofed mammals

NT:

sole

NT:

lambs

NT:

whitingSamhain

Shrove TuesdayTT:

EventsBT:

feast days and religious holidays

TT:

EventsRT:

festivals of the deadRT:

Halloween

TT:

AgentsBT:

harvest festivals

BT:woody plants

shrubssigns (portents)

Saturday
TT:

Time

TT:

Genre

BT:

days of the weekBT:folk belief

skies

sayings
USE: proverbs
seals
TT:

AgentsBT:marine mammals

seasonsTT:

Objects

BT:

celestial objects

skin
TT:

Parts and Components

BT:parts of the body

TT:

Time

slings

BT:

Time

TT:

ObjectsBT:

general equipment

seeds

92

USE: seiners

TT:

Materials

BT:plant materials

smithing
TT:

Activities

RT:smithsBT:building and decorative crafts

smithssouth
TT:Attributes and PropertiesBT:

cardinal points

TT:

AgentsspadesRT:smithing

TT:

ObjectsBT:

peopleRT:

diggingBT:general equipment

snaresTT:

ObjectsBT:

hunting equipment

snow
TT:

Processes and PhenomenaBT:precipitation

snuff
TT:

Products

BT:

luxury productssocial activities

spancelsTT:

ObjectsBT:

animal control equipment

spidersTT:

AgentsBT:

invertebrates

spinning
TT:

Activities

BT:

textiles and leather crafts

TT:

Activities

BT:

Activities

TT:

Time

NT:

cleaning and hygiene practices

RT:springtime festivalsNT:

entertainment and recreationalBT:seasons

activities

spring (season)

springs (water)
TT:

Place/Space/Environment

solar folklore

RT:

wells

TT:

Genre

BT:

geographical features

BT:

Genre

UF:

sources (water)NT:foodwayssolar system

springtime festivals

TT:

Objects

TT:

EventsBT:celestial objects

RT:spring (season)

BT:

EventsNT:

May Daysole
TT:

AgentsBT:

saltwater fishsound

St Stephen’s Day
TT:

EventsBT:

saints’ days

TT:

Abstract Entities and Concepts

RT:

music

BT:

physicsTT:

Objects

NT:

noise

BT:

celestial objects

sources (water)stones

USE: springs (water)stars

USE: rocks

93

storms
TT:

Processes and PhenomenaBT:naturally occurring phenomenaNT:high winds
Materials

BT:plant materials

Time

BT:

seasons

Sunday

TT:

Genre

BT:

folk belief

TT:

Place/Space/EnvironmentBT:geographical features

TT:

Objects

BT:

household furnishingsand decorations

taboos

TT:

Time

TT:

GenresBT:days of the weekBT:folk belief

UF:

tabus

sunfishTT:

AgentsBT:freshwater fishsupernatural and legendary beings

tabus
USE: taboos
tailorsTT:

AgentsTT:

AgentsRT:supernatural practicesBT:peopleBT:

AgentsNT:banshees

TT:

Parts and ComponentsNT:evil spirits

BT:parts of the bodyNT:fairiesNT:

saintsTT:

Products

supernatural diseasesBT:drinkstails

teateasing

TT:

Processes and PhenomenaRT:supernatural practices

TT:

Activities

BT:

diseasesBT:

textiles and leather craftsNT:

elf-shotsupernatural practices

94

witchcraft

tablessummerTT:NT:swampsstreams
USE: rivers

weather manipulation

superstition

straw
TT:

NT:

TT:

Activities

RT:

supernatural and legendary

textile manufacturing
TT:

Activities

BT:

textiles and leather crafts

textilesbeingsTT:

Products

RT:supernatural diseases

RT:

clothing

BT:

Activities

BT:

fibre productsNT:

divination

UF:

cloth

NT:

evil eyeUF:fabric

NT:

linen

tobaccotextiles and leather crafts

TT:

Products

BT:

luxury products

TT:

Activities

RT:

craft equipment

BT:

trades and crafts

TT:

ActivitiesNT:

cardingBT:economic activitiesNT:knittingUF:

occupations

NT:millingNT:building and decorative craftsNT:needleworkNT:food productionNT:spinningNT:

textiles and leather craftsNT:teasingNT:textile manufacturingtable for meals

trades and crafts

traditional boats
TT:

ObjectsBT:fishing boats

TT:

Activities

NT:

cots

BT:

food rituals and practicesNT:currachsNT:drifters (fishing boats)NT:seiners

thermal attributes
TT:

Attributes and Properties

BT:

Attributes and Properties

thirstTT:

Processes and PhenomenaBT:biological processes

thirteenth century
TT:

Time

BT:

historical periods

traditional music
TT:

Genre

BT:

music

traditions
TT:

Genre

BT:

other genres and forms

traps

threshingTT:

Objects

TT:

ActivitiesBT:hunting equipment

BT:crop cultivation

Thursday
TT:

Time

BT:

days of the week

tides

trawlers
TT:

ObjectsBT:

modern boats

trees
TT:

AgentsTT:

Processes and PhenomenaRT:forestsBT:

naturally occurring phenomenaRT:wood (fuel)BT:woody plants

times of the day
TT:

Time

trout

BT:

Time

TT:

Agents

NT:

dawn

BT:

freshwater fishNT:daytimeTuesday

NT:

dusk

TT:

Time

NT:

night-timeBT:days of the week

95

turf

waste products

TT:

Materials

TT:

Products

BT:

fuels

BT:

Products

NT:

dung

turkeysTT:

Agents

BT:

birds

TT:

Materials

twelfth century

BT:classical elements

TT:

Time

BT:

historical periods

unnatural phenomena
TT:

Processes and Phenomena

BT:

Processes and Phenomena

utensils

water (liquid)TT:

Materials

BT:

inorganic

water management structures
TT:

ObjectsBT:

man-made structures

NT:

wells

TT:

Objects

BT:

household equipment

NT:knives (utensils)

TT:

Processes and PhenomenaNT:platesBT:naturally occurring phenomena

waves

vegetables

weaponsTT:

Products

TT:

Objects

BT:

plant productsBT:equipmentNT:cabbagesNT:knives (weapons)NT:root vegetables

weather lore

verbal arts

TT:

Genre

TT:

Genre

RT:

weather manipulation

BT:

Genre

BT:

Genre

NT:

charms (verbal arts)

NT:

rain loreNT:

folk speechNT:wind lore

NT:

jokes

NT:

prayers

TT:

Activities

NT:

proverbs

RT:

weather loreBT:

supernatural practices

vernacular architecture

weather manipulation

TT:

Genre

NT:

lowering the windBT:material cultureNT:raising the wind

wedding feasts

vesselsTT:

Objects

TT:

EventsBT:

household equipment

BT:celebratory events

NT:

cups

WednesdayNT:pitchers

TT:

Time

BT:

days of the week

washing96

water (element)

TT:

Activities

BT:

cleaning and hygiene practices

weeds
TT:

AgentsBT:

plantswellsTT:

Objects

BT:water management structures

NT:wells with special powers

wells with special powers

BT:supernatural practices

UF:

bewitchment

wolvesTT:

AgentsBT:carnivores

TT:

Objects

wood (fuel)

BT:

wells

TT:

MaterialsNT:holy wells

RT:

trees

BT:

fuels

west
TT:

Attributes and PropertiesBT:

cardinal points

wheat

woods
USE: forests
woody plants

TT:

Products

TT:

AgentsBT:cerealsBT:

plantsNT:

shrubsNT:

treeswhiting
TT:

AgentsBT:

saltwater fishwool (fibres)

wickerwork

TT:

Parts and Components

TT:

Activities

RT:wool (yarn)BT:building and decorativeBT:parts of the body

craftswool (yarn)wild animals

TT:

Products

TT:

AgentsRT:wool (fibres)BT:animalsBT:

fibre products

wild birds
TT:

AgentsBT:animalswork
USE: economic activities
working animals

wind lore

TT:

Agents

TT:

Genre

BT:

animalsBT:

weather lore

winds
TT:

Processes and PhenomenaBT:naturally occurring phenomena

worms
TT:

AgentsBT:

invertebrates

written communications

winnowingTT:

Objects

TT:

Activities

BT:

ObjectsBT:

crop cultivationNT:

herb booksNT:licensesNT:

permits

winter
TT:

Time

BT:

seasonyoung animals

witchcraft

TT:

AgentsTT:

BT:animals

Activities

97Appendix IV:
Pilot thesaurus of Irish folklore hierarchical display

Genre

98

.

NT1

belief.

.

NT2

folk belief

.

.

.

NT3

prophecies

.

.

.

NT3

signs (portents)

.

.

.

NT3

superstition

.

.

.

NT3

taboos.

.

NT2folk religion

.

.

NT2

mythology.

NT1material culture

.

.

NT2

folk art

.

.

NT2

folk costume

.

.

NT2

vernacular architecture

.

NT1

music

.

.

NT2

folk music

.

.

NT2

folk songs

.

.

NT2

traditional music.

NT1

narratives

.

.

NT2

fairy tales

.

.

NT2

folk drama

.

.

NT2

folk poetry

.

.

.

NT3

epitaphs

.

.

.

NT3

oral epics

.

.

NT2

folk tales

.

.

NT2

legends

.

.

NT2

myths

.

NT1

verbal arts

.

.

NT2

charms (verbal arts)

.

.

NT2

folk speech

.

.

NT2

jokes

.

.

NT2

prayers.

.

NT2

proverbs.

NT1

other genres and forms

.

.

NT2

folk dance

.

.

NT2

folk medicine

.

.

NT2

traditions

(genre by location).

NT1

Arabian folklore.

NT1

Hollywood folklore.

NT1

Irish folklore(genre by subject).

NT1

animal lore.

NT1

fishing lore.

NT1

food lore.

NT1

solar folklore.

NT1weather lore

.

.

NT2

rain lore

.

.

NT2

wind lore

Abstract Entities and Concepts.

NT1

disciplines

.

.

NT2

economics

.

.

.

NT3

.

.

NT2

physics

.

.

.

NT3

sound

.

.

.

.

NT4

.

.

NT2

religion

.

.

.

NT3

Catholicism

.

.

.

.

NT4

.

NT1

days of the week

.

.

NT2

Friday.

.

NT2

Monday.

.

NT2Saturday

.

.

NT2

Sunday.

.

NT2

Thursday

.

.

NT2

Tuesday.

.

NT2

Wednesday.

NT1historical periods.

.

(historical periods by historic time)

.

.

NT2

thirteenth century

.

.

NT2

twelfth century.

.

(historical periods by name)

.

.

NT2

household economics

noise

post-Tridentine Catholicism

Time

Counter-Reformation

99

.

.

NT2

early Irish (pre-1200)

.

.

NT2

medieval.

NT1

seasons.

.

(seasons by activity)

.

.

NT2

.

.

(seasons by name)

.

.

NT2

autumn.

.

NT2spring (season)

.

.

NT2

summer.

.

NT2

winter.

NT1

times of the day

.

.

NT2

dawn

.

.

NT2

daytime

.

.

NT2

dusk

.

.

NT2

night-time

harvest (season)

Place/Space/Environment

100

.

NT1

geographical features.

.

(geographical features by function)

.

.

NT2

.

.

(geographical features by type)

.

.

NT2

bogs

.

.

NT2

forests

.

.

NT2

lakes

.

.

NT2

mountains

.

.

NT2

rivers.

.

NT2springs (water)

.

.

NT2

swamps.

NT1

landscapes

.

.

NT2

man-made landscapes

.

.

.

NT3

gardens

.

.

.

NT3

orchards

.

.

.

NT3

pastures

.

.

NT2

natural landscapes.

NT1

legendary and spiritual places

.

.

NT2

fairy forts

.

.

NT2

hell

.

.

NT2

purgatory

landmarks (geographical features)

Products.

NT1

animal products

.

.

NT2

dairy products

.

.

.

NT3

eggs

.

.

.

NT3

milk

.

.

NT2

hides and skins

.

.

.

NT3

leather

.

.

.

NT3

pelts

.

.

NT2

hive products

.

.

.

NT3

.

.

NT2

meat

.

.

.

NT3

.

NT1

crops

.

.

NT2

cereals

.

.

.

NT3

barley

.

.

.

NT3

oats

.

.

.

NT3

rye

.

.

.

NT3

wheat

.

.

NT2

fruits.

.

NT2vegetables

.

.

.

NT3

cabbages

.

.

.

NT3

root vegetables

.

.

.

.

NT4

onions

.

.

.

.

NT4

potatoes.

NT1

fibre products

.

.

NT2

textiles

.

.

.

NT3

.

.

NT2

wool (yarn).

NT1food products

.

.

NT2

animal foodstuffs

.

.

.

NT3

.

.

NT2

drinks

.

.

.

NT3

alcoholic drinks

.

.

.

NT3

coffee

.

.

.

NT3

tea

.

.

NT2

foodstuffs

.

.

.

(foodstuffs by function)

.

.

.

NT3

honey
beef

linen

foddercondiments

101

.

.

.

(foodstuffs by location)

.

.

.

NT3

international foods

.

.

.

NT3

local foods

.

.

.

(foodstuffs by name)

.

.

.

NT3

.

NT1

luxury products

.

.

NT2

snuff

.

.

NT2

tobacco.

NT1

medical products

.

.

NT2

.

NT1

waste products

.

.

NT2

bread

remedies
dung

Activities

102

.

NT1

economic activities

.

.

NT2

catching animals

.

.

.

NT3

fishing

.

.

.

NT3

hunting

.

.

.

.

NT4

fowling

.

.

.

.

NT4

game hunting

.

.

.

.

NT4

poaching

.

.

NT2

agriculture

.

.

.

NT3

animal husbandry

.

.

.

.

(animal husbandry by type of animal)

.

.

.

.

NT4

.

.

.

.

(by type of procedure)

.

.

.

.

NT4

breeding (animal husbandry)

.

.

.

.

NT4

herding

.

.

.

.

NT4

milking

.

.

.

NT3

crop cultivation

.

.

.

.

NT4

digging

.

.

.

.

NT4

harvesting

.

.

.

.

NT4

ploughing

.

.

.

.

NT4

threshing

.

.

.

.

NT4

winnowing

.

.

.

NT3

land management

.

.

.

.

NT4

crop rotation

.

.

.

.

NT4

drainage

.

.

.

.

NT4

fertilisation (agricultural)

.

.

.

.

NT4

irrigation

pig farming

.

.

NT2

trades and crafts

.

.

.

NT3

building and decorative crafts

.

.

.

.

NT4

masonry

.

.

.

.

NT4

smithing

.

.

.

.

NT4

wickerwork

.

.

.

NT3

food production

.

.

.

.

NT4

baking

.

.

.

.

NT4

butchering

.

.

.

NT3

textiles and leather crafts

.

.

.

.

NT4

carding

.

.

.

.

NT4

knitting

.

.

.

.

NT4

milling

.

.

.

.

NT4

needlework

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

embroidery

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

lacemaking

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

quilting

.

.

.

.

NT4

spinning

.

.

.

.

NT4

teasing

.

.

.

.

NT4

textile manufacturing.

NT1social activities

.

.

NT2

cleaning and hygiene practices

.

.

.

NT3

hair-cutting

.

.

.

NT3

shaving

.

.

.

NT3

washing.

.

NT2

entertainment and recreational activities

.

.

.

NT3

amusements

.

.

.

.

NT4

.

.

.

NT3

gambling

.

.

.

NT3

hurling.

.

NT2

foodways

.

.

.

NT3

food consumption

.

.

.

.

NT4

abstinence

.

.

.

.

NT4

cooking

.

.

.

.

NT4

drinking

.

.

.

.

NT4

eating

.

.

.

.

NT4

fasting

.

.

.

NT3

food preparation

.

.

.

NT3

food preservation

.

.

.

NT3

food rituals and practices

magic tricks

103

.

.

.

.

NT4

prayers at meals

.

.

.

.

NT4

table for meals.

NT1supernatural practices

.

.

NT2

divination

.

.

NT2

evil eye

.

.

NT2

weather manipulation

.

.

.

NT3

lowering the wind

.

.

.

NT3

raising the wind

.

.

NT2

witchcraft

Processes and Phenomena

104

.

NT1

biological processes and behaviour

.

.

NT2

breeding (process)

.

.

.

NT3

hatching

.

.

.

NT3

laying

.

.

.

NT3

nesting.

.

NT2

appetite

.

.

NT2

hunger.

.

NT2thirst.

.

NT2

animal processes and behaviour

.

.

NT2

human processes and behaviour

.

.

NT2

diseases

.

.

.

NT3

animal diseases

.

.

.

.

NT4

eye ailments

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

.

.

.

.

NT4

milk disorders

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

.

NT1

chemical processes

.

.

NT2

fire

.

.

.

NT3

bonfires

.

.

.

NT3

household fires

.

.

.

NT3

night fires

.

.

NT2

supernatural diseases

.

.

.

NT3

.

NT1

naturally occurring phenomena

.

.

NT2

clouds.

.

NT2drought (weather)

.

.

NT2

frost

.

.

NT2

precipitation

elf-shotblindnesshard udder

.

.

.

NT3

rain

.

.

.

NT3

snow

.

.

NT2

storms

.

.

NT2

tides

.

.

NT2

waves

.

.

NT2

winds

.

NT1

unnatural phenomena

Events(events by function).

NT1celebratory events

.

.

NT2

.

NT1

ceremonial events

.

.

NT2

rites

.

.

NT2

rituals.

NT1

entertainment and recreational events

.

.

NT2

carnivals

.

.

NT2

exhibitions.

NT1

regular events

.

.

NT2

meals

.

.

.

NT3

breakfast

.

.

.

NT3

dinnerwedding feasts(events by time of year).

NT1

harvest festivals

.

.

NT2

.

NT1

springtime festivals

.

.

NT2

Samhain
May Day(events by type).

NT1

feast days and religious holidays

.

.

NT2

All Soul’s Day

.

.

NT2

Easter.

.

NT2

Halloween

.

.

NT2

Shrove Tuesday

.

.

NT2

saints’ days

.

.

.

NT3

Feast of St Martin

.

.

.

NT3

St Stephen’s Day.

NT1

festivals of the dead105

Agents

106

.

NT1

people.

.

(people by age)

.

.

NT2

adults.

.

NT2children.

.

(people by occupation)

.

.

NT2

farmers.

.

NT2

fishermen

.

.

NT2

smiths.

.

NT2

tailors.

.

(people by social grouping)

.

.

NT2

crews

.

.

.

NT3

.

.

NT2

households.

NT1animals.

.

(animals by age)

.

.

NT2

mature animals

.

.

NT2

newborn animals

.

.

NT2

young animals.

.

(animals by degree of domestication)

.

.

NT2

domestic animals

.

.

NT2

domestic birds

.

.

NT2

wild animals

.

.

NT2

wild birds.

.

(animals by function)

.

.

NT2

dairy animals

.

.

NT2

game

.

.

NT2

livestock

.

.

NT2

pests

.

.

NT2

pets

.

.

NT2

poultry.

.

NT2

working animals.

.

(animals by species)

.

.

NT2

amphibians

.

.

NT2

birds

.

.

.

NT3

chickens

.

.

.

.

NT4

cocks

.

.

.

.

NT4

hens

fishing crews

.

.

.

NT3

ducks

.

.

.

NT3

geese

.

.

.

NT3

turkeys

.

.

NT2

fish

.

.

.

NT3

freshwater fish

.

.

.

.

NT4

pike

.

.

.

.

NT4

salmon

.

.

.

.

NT4

sunfish

.

.

.

.

NT4

trout

.

.

.

NT3

saltwater fish

.

.

.

.

NT4

plaice

.

.

.

.

NT4

pollock

.

.

.

.

NT4

rays

.

.

.

.

NT4

sole

.

.

.

.

NT4

whiting

.

.

.

NT3

invertebrates

.

.

.

.

NT4

crustaceans

.

.

.

.

NT4

insects

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

.

.

.

.

NT4

molluscs

.

.

.

.

NT4

spiders

.

.

.

.

NT4

worms

.

.

NT2

mammals

.

.

.

NT3

carnivores

.

.

.

.

NT4

cats

.

.

.

.

NT4

dogs

.

.

.

.

NT4

foxes

.

.

.

.

NT4

wolves

.

.

.

NT3

hares and rabbits

.

.

.

.

NT4

hares

.

.

.

.

NT4

rabbits

.

.

.

NT3

hoofed mammals

.

.

.

.

NT4

cattle

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

bulls

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

calves

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

cows

.

.

.

.

NT4

deer

.

.

.

.

NT4

donkeys

bees

107

.

.

.

.

NT4

goats

.

.

.

.

NT4

horses

.

.

.

.

NT4

jennets

.

.

.

.

NT4

mules

.

.

.

.

NT4

pigs

.

.

.

.

NT4

sheep

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

.

.

.

NT3

marine mammals

.

.

.

.

NT4

porpoises

.

.

.

.

NT4

seals

.

.

.

NT3

rodents.

.

NT2

reptiles.

NT1other living organisms

.

.

NT2

fungi

.

.

NT2

plants.

.

.

(plants by function)

.

.

.

NT3

medicinal plants

.

.

.

NT3

weeds

.

.

.

(plants by type)

.

.

.

NT3

flowering plants

.

.

.

.

NT4

.

.

.

NT3

woody plants

.

.

.

.

NT4

shrubs

.

.

.

.

NT4

trees

.

.

.

(plants by effect)

.

.

.

NT3

cursed plants

.

.

.

.

NT4

.

NT1

supernatural and legendary beings

.

.

NT2

banshees

.

.

NT2

evil spirits

.

.

NT2

fairies.

.

NT2saints.

NT1natural objects

.

.

NT2

celestial objects

.

.

.

(celestial objects by grouping)

.

.

.

NT3

lambs

flax (plant)

hungry grass

Objects108

solar system

.

.

.

(celestial objects by type)

.

.

.

NT3

planets

.

.

.

NT3

skies

.

.

.

NT3

stars

.

NT1

man-made structures

.

.

NT2

agricultural structures

.

.

.

NT3

corn stacks

.

.

.

NT3

ridges.

.

NT2buildings

.

.

.

NT3

farm buildings

.

.

.

.

NT4

animal housing

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

cow-houses

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

piggeries

.

.

.

.

NT4

outhouses

.

.

.

NT3

fortifications

.

.

.

.

NT4

.

.

.

NT3

residential buildings

.

.

.

.

NT4

.

.

.

NT3

recreational buildings

.

.

.

.

NT4

.

.

NT2

historical and commemorative structures

.

.

.

NT3

.

.

NT2

landmarks (man-made structures)

.

.

NT2

water management structures

.

.

.

NT3

wells

.

.

.

.

NT4

wells with special powers

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

.

NT1

equipment

.

.

NT2

animal control equipment

.

.

.

NT3

fetters

.

.

.

NT3

muzzles (equipment)

.

.

.

NT3

spancels

.

.

NT2

craft equipment

.

.

.

NT3

.

.

NT2

farming equipment

.

.

NT2

fishing equipment

.

.

.

NT3

fishing boats

.

.

.

.

NT4

modern boats

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

ringfortshousesshebeensmonuments

holy wells

looms

trawlers

109

110

.

.

.

.

NT4

traditional boats

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

cots

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

currachs

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

drifters (fishing boats)

.

.

.

.

.

NT5

seiners.

.

NT2

household equipment

.

.

.

NT3

utensils

.

.

.

.

NT4

knives (utensils)

.

.

.

.

NT4

plates

.

.

.

NT3

vessels

.

.

.

.

NT4

cups

.

.

.

.

NT4

pitchers

.

.

NT2

hunting equipment

.

.

.

NT3

snares

.

.

.

NT3

traps

.

.

NT2

lighting equipment

.

.

.

NT3

bog-deal splinters

.

.

.

NT3

candles

.

.

.

NT3

lanterns

.

.

.

NT3

oil lights

.

.

.

NT3

rushlights

.

.

NT2

weapons

.

.

.

NT3

.

.

NT2

general equipment

.

.

.

NT3

drills

.

.

.

NT3

nets

.

.

.

NT3

powder

.

.

.

NT3

ropes

.

.

.

NT3

slings

.

.

.

NT3

spades.

NT1clothing and accessories

.

.

NT2

accessories

.

.

.

NT3

amulets

.

.

.

NT3

bracelets

.

.

.

NT3

charms (objects)

.

.

NT2

clothing

.

.

.

NT3

dresses

.

.

.

NT3

kilts

knives (weapons)

.

NT1

furnishings

.

.

NT2

household furnishings and decorations

.

.

.

NT3

.

NT1

written communications

.

.

NT2

herb books

.

.

NT2

licenses

.

.

NT2

permits

tablesMaterials.

NT1

inorganic materials

.

.

NT2

air (gas)

.

.

NT2

earth (soil)

.

.

.

NT3

.

.

NT2

rocks

.

.

NT2

water (liquid).

NT1

organic materials

.

.

NT2

plant materials

.

.

.

NT3

hay

.

.

.

NT3

seeds

.

.

.

NT3

straw

.

NT1

classical elements

.

.

NT2

air (element)

.

.

NT2

earth (element)

.

.

NT2

fire (element)

.

.

NT2

water (element)

clay(materials by function).

NT1

fertilisers

.

.

NT2

fuels

.

.

.

NT3

coal

.

.

.

NT3

fire-seed

.

.

.

NT3

turf

.

.

.

NT3

wood (fuel)Attributes and Properties.

NT1

biological properties

.

.

NT2

.

NT1

economic properties

.

.

NT2

fertility
productivity

111

.

NT1

physical attributes

.

.

NT2

.

NT1

positional attributes

.

.

NT2

cardinal points

.

.

.

NT3

east

.

.

.

NT3

north

.

.

.

NT3

south

.

.

.

NT3

west

.

NT1

religious attributes

.

.

NT2

.

NT1

thermal attributes

dryCatholic

Parts and Components

112

.

NT1

object components

.

.

NT2

boat parts

.

.

.

NT3

oars

.

.

.

NT3

rudders.

.

NT2

building components

.

.

.

NT3

fireplaces

.

.

.

NT3

floors

.

.

.

NT3

hearths.

NT1

parts of the body

.

.

NT2

feathers

.

.

NT2

fleece

.

.

NT2

fur

.

.

NT2

hair

.

.

NT2

skin

.

.

NT2

tails

.

.

NT2

wool (fibres)