Hayashi Eiichi

The Process of Heroizing the Holdout Japanese Soldiersin Indonesia
Hayashi Eiichi*
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to clarify the process by which holdout Japanese soldiersin Indonesia have become heroes since the 1980s. The majority of the holdout Japanesesoldiers were young, low-ranking soldiers who were mobilized to the occupied territoriesof the Empire of Japan in World War II and did not return to their homeland after losing
the war. Some 903 holdout Japanese soldiers par ticipated in the Indonesian War of
Independence (1945 to 1949), mainly in western Java and northern Sumatra. This paperclassifies the reasons why they remained in Indonesia into 15 categories, based on the 47
cases confirmed by documents. It also points out that 324 of them wished to live there after
the War of Independence, but the local government was hesitant to grant them nationality.
When Fukushi Tomo no Kai (Yayasan Warga Persahabatan), a benevolent society, wasestablished in 1979, led by some of the successful who had achieved economic prosperity
through the re-entry of Japanese companies to Indonesia, they revealed that the holdout
Japanese soldiers were opposed to being identified as war victims by the Japanese people
over their “homecoming” to Japan, and instead represented themselves as “heroes of
independence.” After tracing such backgrounds surrounding the holdout Japanese soldiers,
the author examines the case of Ono Sakari, a holdout Japanese soldier who was called
the “last hero,” based on description in his “battlefield diary” written during the War of
Independence and the authorʼs interview with Ono and suggests that the reasons for the
holdout Japanese soldiers for remaining behind were not uniform.

T

Introduction
he year 2023 marks the 50th year of ASEAN-Japan friendship and cooperation as wellas the 65th anniversary of Japan-Indonesia diplomatic relations, and the first official
visit to the Republic of Indonesia by Their Majesties the Emperor and Empress ofJapan since 1991. The first “Imperial Diplomacy” by the Emperor and Empress ofJapan since ascending the throne attracted the attention of the Japanese public, and their every
move was reported by the mass media. Among them, the fact that Their Majesties met with thedescendants of the holdout Japanese soldiers and offered flowers at the capital Jakartaʼs National
Main Heroes Cemetery in Kalibata, where the holdout Japanese soldiers are also laid to rest, was*

Dr. Hayashi Eiichi is an Associate Professor at the Department of Histor y and Culture, Faculty of
Literature, Nishogakusha University.

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The Process of Heroizing the Holdout Japanese Soldiers in Indonesia

particularly emphasized.1 Why did the holdout Japanese soldiers, who had largely been neglectedduring the Emperorʼs visit in 1991, come to attract such attention? Hereafter, using notes,
memoirs, relevant documents, documentaries, films, and oral histories of the holdout Japanesesoldiers, this paper will examine the changes in the environment of the holdout Japanese soldiers
over the past 30 years or so, from an intrinsic perspective based on their narratives.

Classification of reasons for remaining
Holdout Japanese soldiers are those who were mobilized to various parts of Asia during WorldWar II and remained there after the collapse of the Empire of Japan, and their total number isestimated to be in the 10,000s.2 They are called “holdout Japanese soldiers” because many of themwere young, low-ranking soldiers. In reality, however, there were military officers and military
civilians as well as civilians.3
The reasons why they did not return to Japan vary greatly, from staying voluntarily to being
coerced to remain. In the case of the holdout Japanese soldiers in Indonesia, the following 47
cases were identified through documents and videos.
(a) Army Lieutenant Komatsu Takashi,4 Army Lieutenant Maeda Hiroshi,5 Army Sergeant

1

The authorʼs stor y was featured in the June 18, 2023 society page of the Sankei Shimbun morning
edition, “Indoneshia zanryū Nipponhei no shison: Heika ni ʻchichi no kokoroʼ tsutaetai―Ryōkoku yūkōno negai, jisedai ni [Descendants of holdout Japanese soldiers in Indonesia: Wishing to convey ʻmyfatherʼs spiritʼ to the Emperor―Passing on the wish for friendship between the two countries to the next
generation],” the June 21, 2023 society page of the Nihon Keizai Shimbun, “Ryōheika, zanryū Nipponhei
nisei ra to menkai: Kunan no rekishi ni hikari keiki ni / Indoneshia―Kenkyūsha ʻkanshin takamari kitaiʼ
[Their Majesties meet with second-generation holdout Japanese soldiers, shedding light on their historyof hardships / Indonesia―Researchers ʻexpect increase in interestʼ],” and in “Rekishi: Shirarezaru
ʻzanryū Nipponheiʼ―Indoneshia dokuritsu sensō ni sanka [History: The unknown ʻholdout Japanesesoldiersʼ―Their participation in the Indonesian War of Independence]” in Yomiuri TVʼs news program“Wake Up” broadcast on June 24, 2023. Additionally, an editorial article written by the author “Ryōheikano Indoneshia hōmon: Zanryū Nipponhei kunan no rekishi―Bidan ni kakureta jitsuzō chokushi wo[Their Majestiesʼ visit to Indonesia: The history of hardship of the holdout Japanese soldiers―Facing
the reality behind the moving tales]” was distributed by Kyodo News, and was published in the July 6,2023 culture page of the Tokyo Shimbun evening edition, etc.

2

Hayashi Eiichi. Zanryū Nipponhei [Holdout Japanese soldiers]. Chuokoron-Shinsha. 2012. pp. 32–37.

3

Some researchers call them “holdout Japanese,” taking into account the civilians.

4

Komatsu Takashi was born in 1922 in Oita Prefecture. He graduated from Waseda University after
attending a commercial school. Following his graduation from a reser ve officersʼ cadet school in
Kurume and the Air Communication Corps, he was assigned to the 35th Anti-Aircraft Radio Squadron
and was in Palembang in southern Sumatra when the war ended in defeat. Oku Genzō. Dassō Nihonhei[Japanese deserters]. The Mainichi Newspapers. 1980. pp. 83–95.

5

Maeda Hiroshi was born in 1920 in Kobe City, Hyogo Prefecture. He graduated from Osaka
Pharmaceutical College and began working for Tanabe Seiyaku in 1941 but joined the 66th Central
Unit the following year. After graduating from reserve officersʼ cadet school in Kumamoto, he was
assigned to the Southern Expeditionary Army Group. He served in the 15th Independent Garrison in
North Sumatra in 1943 with the 57th independent infantry battalion and was stationed in Aceh as thecommander of the 1st Company of the Volunteer Army with the 25th Army Headquarters when the war
ended in defeat. Maeda Hiroshi Sufian. Sumatora, waga funbo no chi [Sumatra, the land of my grave].
Maeda Hiroshi kun shuki kankōkai. 1986. pp. 1–59.

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Hayashi Eiichi

Ono Sakari,6 Army Superior Private Miyayama Shigeo,7 Navy Commissioned Officer
Yoshizumi Tomegorō,8 Army Commissioned Officer Ichiki Tatsuo,9 Army civilian Suzuki
Hideo,10 and trading company employee Shirakawa Masao11 wanted to “make Indonesia
independent.”(b) Army Superior Private Yoshinaga Hayao12 “wanted to make a name for himself and clear
the stigma of being a ʻfugitive soldier.ʼ”6

Ono Sakari was born in 1919 in Minamifurano, Hokkaido. He joined the 28th regiment of the 7th
Division. He volunteered to be a replacement personnel for the Southern Expeditionary Army Groupand went to Java. He was then transferred to the 27th Independent Mixed Brigade Headquarters of
the 16th Army. He was further transferred to the General Staff Department, where he was in charge ofhandling classified documents, etc. when the war ended in defeat. Hayashi Eiichi. Zanryū Nipponhei noshinjitsu [Truth about the holdout Japanese soldiers]. Sakuhinsha. 2007. pp. 34–64.

7

Miyayama Shigeo was born in 1914 in Dalian and raised in Tokyo. After graduating early from Tokyo
Imperial University, he joined the Imperial Guards Search Regiment. After going to Berastagi innorthern Sumatra, he moved to Aceh to guard the coastline when the war ended in defeat. Kinoshita
Michisuke. Miyayama Shigeo kun den [Biography of Miyayama Shigeo]. Private edition. 1995. pp. 2–18.

8

Yoshizumi Tomegorō was born in 1911 in Yamagata Prefecture. He went to Sumatra with the help of
distant relatives, but work did not go well and he returned to Japan. The following year, he went toJava and became a reporter for the Nichi-Ran Shōgyō Shinbun [Japan-Dutch Journal of Commerce] but
returned to Japan again due to deportation. He smuggled into Bangka Island on the day the war started
but was arrested and sent to Australia on a detained ship. Upon returning to Japan through detainee
exchange, he led southern personnel from the navyʼs Special Service Agency and landed on Celebes(present-day Sulawesi) Island. After the Special Service Agency was disbanded, he was appointed as theChief of Section 3 of the Jakarta Naval Office when the war ended in defeat. Hayashi Eiichi. Tōbu Jawa
no Nipponjin butai [Troops made of Japanese soldiers in East Java]. Sakuhinsha. 2009. pp. 56–85.

9Ichiki Tatsuo was born in 1906 in Kumamoto Prefecture. After working for a local bank in southern
Kyushu, he went to Palembang in southern Sumatra to become a photographer. He then moved toBandung in western Java and changed jobs before landing a job at the Nichi-Ran Shōgyō Shinbun. He
was denied re-entry after returning to Japan temporarily, and transferred to the South Seas Bureauof the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Commissioned Officer of Section 6, Department 2 of the General
Staff Department. He returned to Jakarta as a member of the 16th Army Propaganda Team when the
war began and was commissioned as an officer for the Translation Office (later, Leadership) of PETA
(Pembela Tanah Air, Defenders of the Fatherland) when the war ended in defeat. Ibid. Tōbu Jawa no
Nipponjin butai [Troops made of Japanese soldiers in East Java]. pp. 92–113.

10

Suzuki Hideo was born in 1916 in Akita Prefecture. The war ended in defeat while he was working as
an army civilian at the North Sumatra Fuel Arsenal. Hayashi Eiichi. Zanryū heishi no gunzō [Groups ofsoldiers who stayed behind]. Shinyosha. 2023. p. 103.

11

Shirakawa Masao (real name: Konno Hisashi) was born in 1923 in Lüshun. He became an army special
apprentice officer, but was discharged locally due to paralysis from a torpedo attack by a submarine
on the ship transporting him to the south. He later was employed locally by the Singapore branch ofa Japanese trading company and was transferred to the Medan office where he faced defeat one week
later. Honda Tadahisa. Paran to bakuyaku [Parang and explosives]. Nishida Shoten. 1990. pp. 5–7.

12

Yoshinaga Hayao was born in 1920 in Kochi Prefecture. He went to the mainland as a member of theSpecial Advance Team of the Youth Volunteer Corps for Manchuria-Mongolia. He was called into the44th Infantry Regiment and assigned to the Southern Territory Support Unit of the Kwantung Army. He
then moved to Cimahi in Bandung in western Java and was digging holes in the mountains in the 27th
Independent Mixed Brigade Artillery when the war ended in defeat. Ibid. Zanryū heishi no gunzō [Groupsof soldiers who stayed behind]. p. 27.

5Japan Review Vol.6 No.2 2023

The Process of Heroizing the Holdout Japanese Soldiers in Indonesia(c) Army Captain Inoue Tetsurō13 had “a wife and children” there.
(d) Army Second Lieutenant Otsuto Noboru,14 Army Superior Private Narita Genshirō,15 ArmyFirst Class Private Hirooka Isamu,16 and Tanaka Yukitoshi,17 Commissioned Officer of theSouthern Territory Scrap Metal Control Association “thought it was better to remain thanreturn to Japan.”(e) Navy Chief Warrant Officer Chiyomori Michiharu18 “sought a place to die.”

13

Inoue Tetsurō was born in 1903 in Fukuoka Prefecture. After graduating from Hokkaido Imperial
Universityʼs Faculty of Agriculture, he enlisted in the 12th Cavalry Regiment of the 12th Division in
Kokura and became an army lieutenant. He then went to Brazil to establish a farmerʼs dojo to develop
agricultural leaders. Returning to Japan after moving from one place to another in South America, heworked at a textile equipment manufacturing factory in Osaka before running a farm in Aichi in failure.
He was drafted into a cavalry regiment and experienced front-line combat in Shanghai and Hangzhou.
He then went to southern China and served in the Divisional General Staff Department in Guangdong.
He was involved in political maneuvering in the local Special Service Agency. After entering Singapore
as a member of the Yamashita Corps headquarters, he transferred to eastern Sumatra as militar yadministration personnel and served as the general-affairs manager of Sumatra East Coast Province,
then as secretary to the governor, police chief, and assistant-resident. He was later appointed to thegovernor and then to director of a farmer training institute. At the time the war ended in defeat, he wasmobilizing the Indonesians to organize a nation-founding volunteer corps to prevent the Allied Forcesfrom landing. Hayashi Eiichi. Indonesia zanryū Nipponhei no shakaishiteki kenkyū 1942–2014 [Researchon the social history of the holdout Japanese soldiers in Indonesia: 1942–2014]. Doctoral dissertation,
Graduate School of Social Sciences, Hitotsubashi University. 2016. pp. 103–112.

14

Otsuto Noboru was born in 1918 in Tokyo. After graduating from the Specialty Division Commercial
Course, Waseda University, he joined Showa Aircraft Industry. He enlisted in the 3rd Infantry Regimentof the Imperial Guards and went to Medan in northern Sumatra. When the war ended in defeat, he wasguarding the west coast of Sumatra as a machine gun platoon leader. Ibid. Dassō Nihonhei [Japanesedeserters]. pp. 111–120.

15

Narita Genshirō was born in 1918 in Aomori Prefecture. He joined the 5th Infantry Regiment of theImperial Guards and went to Sumatra, which is where he was when the war ended in defeat. Ibid.
Zanryū heishi no gunzō [Groups of soldiers who stayed behind]. p. 104.

16

Hirooka Isamu was born in 1921 in Oshima, Yamaguchi Prefecture. He relied on his brother who
ran an iron factory in Java, and took over the factory after his death, but returned to Japan due to theworsening relationship between Japan and the Netherlands. He later went to Jakarta as a commissioned
officer for the Java Military Administratorʼs Department and joined the 20th Field Air Repair Depot
in Bandung as a local conscript, his position when the war ended in defeat. Hayashi Eiichi. “Ran-In
hikiagesha no raifu hisutori [Life History of Dutch India Repatriates].” In Ajia yūgaku: Teikoku hōkai tohito no sai-idō [Asian studies: Collapse of the empire and the re-migration of people] No. 145, edited by
Araragi Shinzo. Bensei Publishing. September 2011. pp. 150–157.

17

Tanaka Yukitoshi was born in 1907 in Hokkaido and raised in Tokyo. He was employed at the Osakabranch of Arima Yōkō, which had its headquarters in Java. He went to Bandung in western Java asa Commissioned Officer of the Southern Territory Scrap Metal Control Association, which was set
up by the Vital Commodities Corporationʼs War Preparation Division. The war ended in defeat while
he was there. Oku Genzō. Indoneshia dokuritsu sensō wo ikinuite [Surviving the Indonesian War of
Independence]. Sanshintosho. 1987. pp. 120–122.

18

Chiyomori Michiharu was born in 1917 in Kagoshima Prefecture. He volunteered for the navy andjoined the marines in Sasebo. He later became a crew member of the Shōnan Maru No. 17, a patrol boat
converted from a small whaling ship. He was attacked by U.S. aircraft off the coast of Ambon Island andthrown overboard, and was hospitalized in Java when the war ended in defeat. Ibid. Zanryū heishi no
gunzō [Groups of soldiers who stayed behind]. p. 58.

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Hayashi Eiichi(f) Army Sergeant Taira Teizō19 was solicited by an Indonesian who said he would be “treatedas an officer and given a house and a woman.”(g) Army Second Lieutenant Koga Masayoshi20 and Army Corporal Nakamura Tsunegorō21“grew tired of the military.”(h) Kempei (military police) civilian Iwamoto Tomio,22 Army employee Kumazaki Shōzō,23 andNavy civilian Ueda Kaneo24 “did not want to be a prisoner of war.”(i) Army Paymaster Sergeant Yamanashi Shigeru,25 Army Corporal Fujiyama Hideo,26 Army

19

Taira Teizō was born in 1920 on Miyako-jima, Okinawa Prefecture. After working at various small town
factories in Osaka, he was invited by his younger brother to work at a sake factory in Taipei. Later, he
was assigned to the 1st Infantry Regiment in Taiwan and went to Manila, Philippines, Tarakan Island innortheastern Borneo (present-day Kalimantan), and then to guard Palembang, Sumatra. The war ended
in defeat while he was stationed on Sumbawa Island. Sakano Narutaka. Samurai, Bari ni junzu [Samurai,
martyred in Bali]. Kodansha. 2008. pp. 16–35, 46–59.

20

Koga Masayoshi was born in 1920 in Tokyo. After graduating from Meiji Universityʼs Specialty Division,
he enlisted in the 3rd Infantry Regiment of the Imperial Guards. He was sent to northern Sumatra andassigned to a machine gun company, and was positioned on the coast in Langsa when the war ended in
defeat. Murakami Hyōe. Ajia ni makareta tane [Seeds sown in Asia]. Bungeishunju. 1988. pp. 101–123.

21

Nakamura Tsunegorō was born in 1924 in Tokyo. The war ended in defeat while he was serving as adetachment leader of the 6th Company, 2nd Battalion, 3rd Regiment of the Imperial Guard in Aceh,
Sumatra. Aonuma Yōichirō. Kikan sezu [No return]. 2014. Shogakukan (paperback). pp. 242–245.

22

Iwamoto Tomio was born in 1917 in Kagoshima Prefecture. After working as a peasant, he went toManchuria and became a military civilian for the Kempei Training Corps. He was then transferred tothe 3rd Field Kempeitai (military police) and was in Java when the war ended in defeat. Fukushi Tomono Kai (Yayasan Warga Persahabatan, a foundation that unites Japanese descendants in Indonesia).
Geppo [Monthly bulletin]. May 1985. pp. 1–4.

23

Kumazaki Shōzō was born in 1918 in Gifu Prefecture. He was in the 7th Company of the Air Brigade
Headquarters when the war ended in defeat. Fukushi Tomo no Kai. Geppo [Monthly bulletin]. August
1986. pp. 1–4; Geppo. September 1986. pp. 1–3.

24

Ueda Kaneo was born in 1915 in Okayama Prefecture. Having worked as a taxi driver in Kobe, he wasrecruited as an automobile technician in the Kure Naval Munitions Department and went to Davao,
Philippines to drive trucks. Later, he moved to Surabaya and worked as a driver for the South-WestArea Fleet Headquarters, and then was an automobile deliver y section chief for the 2nd Southern
Expeditionar y Fleet Headquarters in Bandung when the war ended in defeat. Chō Yōhiro. RonsōNonfikushon 12: Kaeranakatta Nipponhei (Zōho kaitei-ban) [Ronso Nonfiction 12: Japanese soldiers who
did not return home (Expanded and revised edition)]. Ronsosha. 2021. pp. 182–188.

25

Yamanashi Shigeru was born in 1920 in Tokyo. After graduating from Chuo University, he worked for
Mitsui Trust. He then joined the 3rd Infantry Regiment of the Imperial Guards. He was dispatched
to Manchuria. He was stationed in Berastagi, a summer resort in Sumatra, and was assigned to
procurement of supplies when the war ended in defeat. Ibid. Indoneshia dokuritsu sensō wo ikinuite[Surviving the Indonesian War of Independence]. pp. 105–108.

26

Fujiyama Hideo was born in 1922 in Saga Prefecture. After working as an electrician at a coal mine
power plant, at Yahata Steel Works, and at Sasebo Heavy Industriesʼ airplane factory, he volunteered
for the Japanese Army and fought for two years in various parts of Burma, but was wounded in combat
and transferred to Solo, central Java. He was then transferred to Malang in eastern Java and then to
Gorda Airport in Banten Province in western Java, serving as a weekly noncommissioned officer in themaintenance group of the 35th Training Squadron at the time Japan was defeated in the war. Hayashi
Eiichi. Kōgun heishi to Indoneshia dokuritsu sensō [Soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army and theIndonesian War of Independence]. Yoshikawakobunkan. 2011. pp. 18–44.

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The Process of Heroizing the Holdout Japanese Soldiers in Indonesia

Lance Corporal Ikegami Naruto,27 Army Lance Corporal Motobō Takatoshi, 28 Army
Corporal Takasu Shigeo,29 Army Superior Private Akaiwa Hideyoshi,30 and Army civilian
Tachikawa Shōzō31 “believed groundless rumors.”(j) Army Lance Corporal Shida Yasuo32 struck a superior officer and “feared detention.”(k) Army Second Lieutenant Itami Hideo 33 felt “ responsible for handing weapons ” toIndonesian soldiers. Kempei Corporal Tsutsumi Kiyokatsu34 “tried to persuade the peopleof Aceh to avoid confrontation over weapons.”

27

Ikegami Naruto was born in 1919 in Kagoshima Prefecture and raised in Korea. He transferred fromthe preparatory course at Meiji University to Nihon Universityʼs College of Economics. After graduating
early, he joined the 45th Regiment Replacement Depot in Kagoshima. He served in Burma before being
sent to Seram Island, Indonesia by the Airport Security Battalion. He was in the Independent Battalion
in Magelang, central Java, when the war ended in defeat. Oku Genzō. Kaeranakatta Nipponhei [Japanesesoldiers who did not return home]. Seikaioraisha. 1987. pp. 29–31, 63–78.

28

Motobō Takatoshi was born in 1920 in Miyazaki Prefecture. After serving in the Kwantung Army, thewar ended in defeat while he was in Cimahi, near Bandung. Fukushi Tomo no Kai. Geppo [Monthly
bulletin]. May 1987. pp. 1–3.

29

Takasu Shigeo was born in 1924 in Kanagawa Prefecture. While working as a temporary clerk at thefirst-class post office in front of Yokohama Station, he volunteered for the army and enlisted in the 5th
Regiment of the Imperial Guard, Depot Division, East 8th Unit. Later, he was sent as a replacement
soldier to Medan, Sumatra where the main unit was located. The war ended in defeat while he wasthere. Ibid. Kikan sezu [No return]. pp. 337–355.

30

Akaiwa Hideyoshi was born in 1921 in Kagoshima Prefecture. He was called up as a mechanic in the
Army Air Corps and was in Sumatra when the war ended in defeat. Ibid. Zanryū heishi no gunzō [Groupsof soldiers who stayed behind]. p. 57.

31

Tachikawa Shōzō was born in 1918 in Tochigi Prefecture. After his honorable discharge in Sumatra, he
was working as a military civilian in the Training Section of the Military Administration Department in
the east coast province of Medan when the war ended in defeat. Fukushi Tomo no Kai. Geppo [Monthly
bulletin]. September 1985. pp. 1–3.

32

Shida Yasuo was born in 1921 in Miyazaki Prefecture. He joined the West 99th Unit in Kumamoto. He
was then transferred to Burma, where he drove trucks as a mechanic, moving from place to place.
He was then transferred to the 34th Training Squadron in Java, where he was when the war ended in
defeat. Ibid. Dassō Nihonhei [Japanese deserters]. pp. 15–29.

33

Itami Hideo was born in 1923 in Osaka. He was called up while working at an ironworks, and went toAceh, Sumatra after training with the 3rd Air Army Training Corps. He belonged to a airborne battalion
and was leading local volunteer troops to guard the area around the airfield when the war ended in
defeat. Fukushi Tomo no Kai. YWP dayori [YWP newsletter]. June 1980. pp. 8–9; Geppo [Monthly
bulletin]. June 1989. pp. 1–4.

34

Tsutsumi Kiyokatsu was born in 1919 in Hokkaido. He joined the 4th Infantry Regiment of the Imperial
Guards and was wounded while participating in the Malay Operation. He returned after the Singapore
Operation, going to northern Sumatra. Later, after ser ving in the Kempei Training Corps of theSouthern Expeditionary Army Group in Kuala Lumpur, he was sent to Kutaraja, the capital of Aceh
Province, as a corporal in the 25th Army Kempei, and was studying at the Kempeitai headquarters in
Bukittinggi as a Malay language specialist when the war ended in defeat. Fukushi Tomo no Kai. Geppo[Monthly bulletin]. February 1990. pp. 1–6; Geppo. January 1991. pp. 1–4.

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Hayashi Eiichi(l) Army Warrant Officer Kioka Naoyuki,35 Kempei Sergeant Major Onodera Tadao,36 Kempei
Sergeant Major Sugiyama Nagamoto, 37 Kempei Sergeant Tanaka Toshio, 38 Kempei
Sergeant Hasegawa Toyoki,39 and Army civilian Kage Hitoshi40 “feared becoming war
criminals.”

35

Kioka Naoyuki was born in 1917 in Kagawa Prefecture. He joined the 5th Infantry Regiment of theImperial Guards and was in Sumatra after serving in Manchuria and the southern front when the war
ended in defeat. Ibid. Zanryū heishi no gunzō [Groups of soldiers who stayed behind]. p. 64.

36

Onodera Tadao was born in 1916 in Iwate Prefecture. After working at a silk mill in Sendai, he joined
the Independent Garrison of the Kwantung Army. He then passed the non-commissioned officer
examination and the kempei examination. He was assigned to the headquar ters of the Sun Wu
Kempeitai and participated in the Nomonhan Incident. After transferring to the 2nd Field Army, he wastransferred to the 16th Army and went to Java. He was chief of the Jakarta Pier Kempei Detachment
Special Higher Police when the war ended in defeat. Onodera Tadao (edited by Sasaki Taka). Ojiisan
wa Nipponjin datta [Grandfather was Japanese]. Private edition. 1990. pp. 21–36.

37

Sugiyama Nagamoto was born in 1918 in Niigata Prefecture. He enlisted in the 16th Infantry Regimentof Shibata and was on guard duty at the Soviet-Manchurian border when he passed the kempei
examination. He was assigned to the border area between South Manchuria and Korea. He participatedin the Dutch East Indies Operation and landed in Rembang in central Java, and was stationed in Malang.
Later, he was transferred to Jakarta, where he was preparing for a guerilla warfare in anticipation of theAllied Forces landing when the war ended in defeat. Ibid. Tōbu Jawa no Nipponjin butai [Troops madeof Japanese soldiers in East Java]. pp. 117–131.

38

Tanaka Toshio was born in 1917 in Fukuoka Prefecture. After working as a craftsman at Yahata SteelWorks, he joined the 3rd Railway Regiment in Harbin, Manchuria. He volunteered to become a kempei
there and was sent to the Mukden Kempeitai. Later, he was transferred to the 3rd Field Kempeitai andparticipated in the 16th Armyʼs Java Operation. Later, he was sent to the Semarang Kempei Detachment
in central Java, where he was in charge of Indonesians in the Special Higher Police Unit when the war
ended in defeat. Tochikubo Hiroo. Nikkei Indoneshia jin [Japanese-Indonesians]. Simul Shuppan-kai.
1979. pp. 3–119.

39

Hasegawa Toyoki was born in 1917 in Fukushima Prefecture. After enlisting in Ranam, Korea, hevolunteered to become a kempei. He par ticipated in the Malay Operation and traveled throughSingapore and Penang to Sumatra, and worked in the General Af fairs Section of the Kempeitai
headquarters in Bukittinggi. The war ended in defeat while he was on special dispatch for the Medan
Detachment. Hasegawa Toyoki. Sumatora mushuku [Homeless in Sumatra]. Soubunsha. 1982. pp. 9–88.

40

Kage Hitoshi was born in 1913 in Fukuoka Prefecture. He applied for a position with the Southern
Territor y Militar y Administration of the Army Ministr y and worked in the Enemy Proper tyManagement Section of the Medan Military Administration Department, where he was assigned to
manage the property of prisoners of war when the war ended in defeat. Ibid. Dassō Nihonhei [Japanesedeserters]. pp. 57–69.

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The Process of Heroizing the Holdout Japanese Soldiers in Indonesia(m) Navy civilian Isomura Seitoku,41 Army civilian Chō Juntatsu,42 and Miyahara Eiji43 wereTaiwanese Japanese soldiers and “feared persecution in Taiwan, which became part of the
Republic of China.”(n) Technical Captain Murakami Junjirō44 was “left behind” at the Army hospital where he wasadmitted for mental illness.
(o) Army Paymaster Warrant Officer Ishii Masaharu,45 Army Corporal Doki Tokiji,46 Army
Sergeant Hayakawa Kiyoshi,47 Army Engineer Corps Sergeant Higuchi Osamu,48 Army
Second Class Private Nanri Isamu,49 and Army First Class Private Shimooka Zenji50 were“abducted and confined” by Indonesians.

41

Taiwanese Isomura Seitoku (real name: Kē Shēngdé) was born in 1921. He volunteered at the Takunan
Industrial Warriors Training Center of the Imperial Subjectsʼ Public Service Association. He changed
his surname to a Japanese name and became a military civilian at the 101st Naval Fuel Depot and went
to the northwestern part of New Guinea. Later, he was transferred to the 104th Naval Facility Squadronin Borneo, where he was when the war ended in defeat. Isomura Seitoku. Ware ni kaeru sokoku naku [Nomotherland to return to]. Jiji Press. 1981. pp. 3–162.

42

Taiwanese Chō Juntatsu was born in 1922. He was assigned to the 25th Army Headquarters, Unit Tomi
8991, in Bukittinggi, Sumatra. The war ended in defeat while he was on a business trip to Palembang.
Fukushi Tomo no Kai. Geppo [Monthly bulletin]. August 1988. pp. 1–3.

43

Taiwanese Miyahara Eiji (real name Lǐ Bóqīng) was born in 1922. He served at the Chinese front as aninterpreter for the Japanese Army. He then went to the Philippines and landed in Java as a member ofthe 48th Division. Returning to Taiwan, he assisted in research on malaria at the Epidemic Prevention
and Water Purification Department, Southern Territory Personnel Training Center, Taihoku Imperial
University. Later, he was assigned to the Unit Oka 9420, an Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification
Unit under the direct control of the Southern Expeditionary Army Group, and moved to Singapore.
There, he saw the exclusion of Chinese and left the Army, fleeing to Indonesia when the war ended in
defeat. Kamisaka Fuyuko. Minami no sokoku ni ikite [Living in the Southern Homeland]. Bungeishunju.
1997. pp. 24–25.

44

Murakami Junjirō was born in 1918 in Wakayama Prefecture. The war ended in defeat while he washospitalized in Padang, Sumatra. Mitome Tadao. Bōkyō [Nostalgia] reprinted edition in 2005. pp. 101–
103.

45

Ishii Masaharu was born in 1916 in Hokkaido. After enlisting in the Imperial Guards Cavalry Regiment,
he was transferred to the Accounting Department and went to Aceh in Sumatra, and was in themerchant port of Meulaboh on the west coast of Sumatra when the war ended in defeat. Ishii Masaharu.
Minami kara [From the South]. Nishida Shoten. 1984. pp. 9–135.

46

Doki Tokiji was born in 1910 in Ishikawa Prefecture. He worked for Daishōjigawa Suiden Gaisha. He
then joined the 1st Telegraph Regiment in Sagamihara, Kanagawa Prefecture, participated in the Malay
Operation, traveled to Palembang, Sumatra, and was stationed in Lahat, where he was preparing to set
up a communications station, when the war ended in defeat. Ibid. Kaeranakatta Nipponhei (Zōho kaiteiban) [Japanese soldiers who did not return home (Expanded and revised edition)]. pp. 117–127.

47

Hayakawa Kiyoshi was born in 1915 in Gunma Prefecture. The war ended in defeat while he was in
Sumatra. Hayakawa Kiyoshi. Indoneshia dokuritsu senki: Batakaro Gerira [Chronicle of the Indonesian
War of Independence: Batak Karo guerrilla]. Tokyo Bungeisha. 1987. pp. 2–3.

48

Higuchi Osamu was born in 1919 in Gunma Prefecture. He was in Aceh, Sumatra, when the war ended
in defeat. Ibid. Indoneshia dokuritsu sensō wo ikinuite [Surviving the Indonesian War of Independence].
pp. 49–55.

49

Nanri Isamu was born in 1924 in Chinnampʼo, Korea and raised in Saga Prefecture. He was in Medan,
Sumatra, when the war ended in defeat. Ibid. Kaeranakatta Nipponhei (Zōho kaitei-ban) [Japanesesoldiers who did not return home (Expanded and revised edition)]. pp. 239–243.

50

Shimooka Zenji was born in 1926 in Kyoto. Three months after switching from militar y civilian tosoldier, the war ended in defeat while he was in western Java. Ibid. Kikan sezu [No return]. pp. 321–329.

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Hayashi Eiichi

Of these, (a) through (e) were highly voluntary, (n) and (o) were forced, and (f) through (m)fell somewhere between the two. Although the individual reasons must have been complicatedand compounded, and are not easy to categorize, it is certain that the holdout Japanese soldiersthemselves remembered the past as described above and were represented by the people
concerned.

Response by the Indonesian government
With the declaration of independence on August 17, 1945, a republic-type government wasestablished in Indonesia. Nevertheless, in the ensuing month, British troops advanced into
Indonesia on behalf of the Allies, triggering armed conflicts in various locations. These conflicts
culminated in a War of Independence. What the Indonesian side sought at that time were theweapons and human resources of the remaining Japanese forces. This resulted in 90351 holdout
Japanese soldiers, mainly in western Java and northern Sumatra.
They were involved in the War of Independence by providing militar y training to theIndonesian army and village youth, repairing and modifying weapons from the Japanese military,and serving on the front lines of the guerrilla war.
On the other hand, being an informal presence, the holdout Japanese soldiers foundthemselves in a predicament, having to go into hiding during the truce negotiations with theDutch and being forced out of their units during the reorganization and rationalization of the
new republicʼs army. Even after the Indonesian War of Independence, the republicʼs government
forced the holdout Japanese soldiers in Aceh in northern Sumatra to move,52 fearing they would
become tied to rebel groups. Furthermore, the Indonesian government passed a cabinet decisionin March 1953 requesting all holdout Japanese soldiers to leave, and the Director of the Ministryof Foreign Affairsʼ Pacific Department lodged a request53 with the Consulate-General of Japan,
which indicated that the soldiers were not welcomed with open arms by Indonesia as a nation.
A majority of the 324,54 excluding the 45 who temporarily returned to Japan after the War of
Independence, were discharged from the Indonesian army and blended into local communities
through “rites of passage” such as marrying local women and converting to Islam. However,their status was insecure, being separated from the military in exchange for a simple certificate.
Since Indonesiaʼs Ministr y of Justice made a move to deport those who did not have local
citizenship as “illegal immigrants,” many of the holdout Japanese soldiers applied for Indonesian
citizenship to the Ministry of Veteransʼ Affairs in 1957, and were issued provisional ID cards andbecame “associate Indonesians,” but only a few were able to obtain the nationality determination
certificates that were issued several times between 1961 and the following year, leaving many
without citizenship recognition. The March 4, 1958 edition of the Indonesian-language newspaper
Tempo reported that “ more than 350 holdout Japanese soldiers hope to obtain Indonesian
citizenship (naturalization) when the peace agreement between Japan and Indonesia takes effect.”
The issue of the nationality of the holdout Japanese soldiers was subsequently solved when all re51

Fukushi Tomo no Kai, ed. Indoneshia dokuritsu sensō ni sanka shita “Kaeranakatta Nipponhei” issen-mei
no koe [Voices of 1,000 Japanese soldiers who participated in the Indonesian War of Independence anddid not return home] (Privately printed book). 2005. p. 382.

52

Ibid. Tōbu Jawa no Nipponjin butai [Troops made of Japanese soldiers in East Java]. pp. 290–291.

53

Goto Kenichi. “Zanr yū Nipponhei no sengoshi: Kunpuru Otsudo no ashiato [Postwar journal of aholdout Japanese soldier: Footsteps of Kumpul Otsudo].” In Tōnan ajia kara mita kingendai Nippon[Modern Japan from the perspective of Southeast Asia]. Chapter 8. Iwanami Shoten. 2012. pp. 255–259.

54

Ibid. Indoneshia dokuritsu sensō ni sanka shita “Kaeranakatta Nipponhei” issen-mei no koe [Voices of 1,000
Japanese soldiers who participated in the Indonesian War of Independence and did not return home]. p.
382.

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The Process of Heroizing the Holdout Japanese Soldiers in Indonesia

applicants were granted nationality under the special presidential exception in 1963.55 However,the fact that they could not obtain nationality for nearly 17 years meant that, for the holdout
Japanese soldiers, Indonesiaʼs independence was not synonymous with their own success.

Organization
Rather, what proved to be a turning point in their lives was the presence of Japanese companies
that were looking to re-enter Indonesia. Led by the “successful” who had achieved economic
uplift through being employed locally by Japanese companies due to the growing demand for
trade between the two countries until the diplomatic relations between Japan and Indonesia were
restored in 1958, a friendship and benevolent society called Fukushi Tomo no Kai (Yayasan Warga
Persahabatan) was formed in Jakarta in 1979. The existence of Fukushi Tomo no Kai served as anopportunity to change the situation surrounding the holdout Japanese soldiers.
On December 3, 1981, the Osaka evening edition of the Yomiuri Shimbun listed 583 deceased
or unaccounted for, and 172 survivors of the holdout Japanese soldiers under the headline, “Listof former Japanese soldiers who participated in the Indonesian War of Independence completed.”
The ar ticle said, “ The number of those deceased or unaccounted for during the War of
Independence was 226 killed in action, 238 missing, and 119 deceased after independence. There
were many who were known only by their surnames, such as ʻSuzuki,ʼ ʻKawada,ʼ and ʻOsaki,ʼ orby their local names, such as ʻUsman,ʼ ʻSimin,ʼ and ʻSuroto.ʼ There were also those who remained
known only by their nicknames such as ʻAkachin.ʼ These were people who were afraid of being
identified as war criminals or fugitives and decided to live as locals ( ) Although many of thedeceased were buried in heroes cemeteries, it is believed that many of those killed or missing inaction were left to perish in the fields or were buried without any known surviving relatives.”
In May of the following year, Fukushi Tomo no Kai Kyoryoku Kai, a sister organization of theJapan-Indonesia Friendship Group Council, was formed at the Kensei Kinen Kaikan in Nagatacho, Tokyo. Inamine Ichiro, then chair of the Japan-Indonesia Friendship Group Council, wasa member of the House of Councilors from Okinawa who had ser ved in the Jakarta Naval
Office during the war. He was also chair of the Japan-Indonesia Parliamentar y Friendship
League, which was inaugurated in March. Taniguchi Shigeki, Executive Director of the JapanIndonesia Friendship Council, also served as both the Secretary General of the Japan-Indonesia
Parliamentary Friendship League and Executive Director of Fukushi Tomo no Kai Kyoryoku Kai.
Fukushi Tomo no Kai Kyoryoku Kai played the role of bringing the holdout Japanese soldierscloser to the comradesʼ associations in Japan as well as to politics.

“Homecoming”

In response to the “homecoming” of the holdout Japanese soldiers, which Fukushi Tomo no
Kai Kyoryoku Kai set as its objective, 10 holdout Japanese soldiers were able to return to Japan
temporarily in October 1982 and June of the following year under the Ministry of Health andWelfare ʼ s special suppor t measures for unrepatriated persons. Osaka Asahi Broadcasting
Corporationʼs program “Big News Show: Holdout Japanese soldiers in Indonesia meet theirrelatives after 37 years ” (broadcast on August 20, 1982) and “Japindo II: Holdout Japanesesoldiers in Indonesia 1982” (broadcast in November 1982, awarded the 20th Galaxy Award Grand
Prize by the Association of Broadcast Critics, the Excellence Award in the TV Documentar y
Division of the 37th ACA National Arts Festival, and Encouragement Prize of the ABU [Asia-PacificBroadcasting Union] Prize), which covered this closely and portrayed old holdout Japanesesoldiers struggling with nostalgia, reminded the Japanese people of “abandoned people” deserted
55

Ibid. Kōgun heishi to Indoneshia dokuritsu sensō [Soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army and theIndonesian War of Independence]. pp. 134–139.

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Hayashi Eiichi

by their motherland, and touched their hearts. Japan had become a major economy at the time,and self-affirming theories of Japanese culture and the Japanese people were popular, thus many
viewers may have viewed the holdout Japanese soldiers struggling in “impoverished” Indonesia
as “pitiful.”
However, there was opposition to this from within Fukushi Tomo no Kai, which fully
cooperated with the interview. Fukushi Tomo no Kai initially prepared and submitted a list ofinterview subjects based on the TV stationʼs request to feature holdout Japanese soldiers who had
never returned to Japan after the war and were at that time suffering from poverty and illness.
However, Fukushi Tomo no Kaiʼs Deputy Director Tanaka Toshio, who watched the program,leveled the criticism that “claiming that the ʻwar is to blameʼ without making efforts to have theholdout Japanese soldiers themselves, who left their wives and children in Japan to go to war
and who fled of their own will without fulfilling their responsibilities as husbands (fathers) after
the defeat, and who also gave up Japanese citizenship, explain the reasons for their flight andconvince the audience, is a sales pitch on the part of the interviewers. I believe that ʻthese wereconsequences of their own actions, and not the responsibility of war.ʼ”56 He asked Mr. Okihara,
Executive Director of Fukushi Tomo no Kai Kyoryoku Kai, who visited Jakarta in March 1983, that
“TV and other mass media coverage should be selected based on the impact on the members,
and any coverage that would damage the image of the members should be rejected for the sakeof their honor. It should be noted when dealing with them that the members are not Japanese but
Indonesian nationals.57
Due in part to these developments, the “homecoming” did not attract as many applicants
as expected and ended after only two rounds. Ishii Masaharu, Chief Director of Fukushi Tomono Kai, who had promoted the “homecoming,” expressed his regret at the time, saying, “It
was selfish of us to abandon our hometowns and our country, but the people back home neverthought of us as such. The parents, siblings, wives, and children must have been longing to see
us and were waiting for us to come home one day. Even if their nationality is different and family
registers deleted, the connection between them cannot be cut. When will they return? Whatshould they say to neighbors who ask? With the passage of time, there may be no one left to ask
questions, but what could be said against stories spreading in the background that they cannot
return home because they are fugitives? I can only imagine how uncomfortable and vexing
the people of our hometowns must have felt each time, not knowing the reason why we stayedbehind. I wonder if the unrepatriated brothers have ever thought about their feelings.”58 Ishii ran
a konnyaku and sandal company, and was one of the most successful.

Self-representation as “heroes of independence”

After the “homecoming” efforts stalled, Ishii turned his attention to requesting a military pension
from the Japanese government, which was also one of the objectives of Fukushi Tomo no Kai
Kyoryoku Kai. He was told by Taniguchi Shigeki, Executive Director of Fukushi Tomo no Kai
Kyoryoku Kai, that it had been recognized in Japan that the holdout Japanese soldiers were awareof their legal status and were prepared to give up their pension and other welfare benefits, but
the temporary homecoming brought attention to the new fact that they had remained in a stateof confusion. However, since there was still a big gap between the understanding of those who
remained and the people in Japan, Taniguchi advised Ishii that first of all, “it is necessary toemphasize the explanation that, at the time, the Japanese soldiers participated in the Indonesian
War of Independence out of genuine intentions in a climate that valued trust with Indonesia and56

Fukushi Tomo no Kai. Geppo [Monthly bulletin]. October 1982. p. 1.

57

Fukushi Tomo no Kai. Geppo [Monthly bulletin]. April 1983. p. 1.

58

Fukushi Tomo no Kai. Geppo [Monthly bulletin]. January 1983. p. 2.

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The Process of Heroizing the Holdout Japanese Soldiers in Indonesia

supported independence.”59 Ishii then proposed to the members of Fukushi Tomo no Kai that
he intended to carr y out “awareness-raising activities” focusing on Liberal Democratic Party
politicians, as soon as materials explaining this were available. Ishii believed that the greatest“memorial” for the more than 400 victims of the Indonesian War of Independence would be to
document the role of those who remained behind in the history of the founding of Indonesia,
and that “the most meaningful work” for Fukushi Tomo no Kai would be to have this information
recorded in Japan and translated into Indonesian. As if to make good on his promise, he planned
to publish his autobiography and called on members to write or tape-record their own memoirs.60
On this, some said, “Indonesia, as an independent country, would not like to say that it became
independent with assistance from foreigners, and worse, would not like to write it down as ahistorical fact and leave it for later generations (...) They might think without saying, ʻWhy do they
have to submit it to the Japanese cooperative association now, and speak as if they participated in
the War of Independence as Japanese and provided assistance?ʼ If that were to happen, it would
be another odd relationship.”61 In recording the historical facts of the fight for independence, Ishii
stated that “it is safe to announce that we proudly picked up our guns and fought as Japanese,”and expressed his strong concern that although the Indonesian public equally recognized theexistence of “holdouts” at the time of independence, more than 40 years have passed sincethen, and with public memory fading and impatience growing, the more than 400 victims who
were killed will be buried forever in the darkness of history if their names are not recorded ashistorical facts now.62
Later, the issue of recording of history was settled by Fukushi Tomo no Kai itself keeping
a collection of records rather than taking advantage of Fukushi Tomo no Kai Kyoryoku Kai.63
Otsuto, the editor of Geppo (monthly bulletin), who intended to keep a record of life rather thanwar experiences, often called for contributions of articles about life after the war, but naturally
the contributions tended to be war stories, and Fukushi Tomo no Kai members shared eachotherʼs memories of the war by reading the memoirs of the War of Independence published in
Geppo. As a result, Fukushi Tomo no Kai shifted from a mutual support group to a community ofmemory tied to the experience of the War of Independence, transforming itself into a “comradesʼ
association.” However, while Japanʼs comradesʼ associations were formed by people who had
served in the same unit during World War II and shared the same experiences, the people whogathered at Fukushi Tomo no Kai meetings were from different backgrounds and belonged todifferent units, and had different circumstances that led them to stay behind. That proved to be asetback, and in the end, Fukushi Tomo no Kaiʼs collection of records of the War of Independence
was never published.

Representation on the Japanese side and “restoration of honor”

Even so, the significance of self-representation as “heroes of independence” by the holdout
Japanese soldiers themselves in the 1980s as an opposition to the perception in postwar Japan,
which viewed them as victims of the war, was not small.
For example, in Kagoshima Televisionʼs “No return: Postwar for the Japanese soldiers who
remained in Indonesia” (broadcast on May 31, 1994), Chiyomori Michiharu said, “We must
liberate the people of Greater East Asia, this is a fight for national liberation. We accepted what
our superiors told us and set out in high spirits. However, nearly 50 years after the end of the59

Fukushi Tomo no Kai. Geppo [Monthly bulletin]. April 1983. p. 2.

60

Fukushi Tomo no Kai. Geppo [Monthly bulletin]. April 1983. p. 3.

61

Fukushi Tomo no Kai. Geppo [Monthly bulletin]. May 1983. p. 2.

62

Fukushi Tomo no Kai. Geppo [Monthly bulletin]. August 1983. p. 6.

63

Fukushi Tomo no Kai. Geppo [Monthly bulletin]. January 1986. pp. 5–6.

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Hayashi Eiichi

Greater East Asia War, we are now hearing for the first time that Japan engaged in a war ofinvasion, and it is truly shameful. That is not the way we felt when we went to war.” The program
also showed a Fukushi Tomo no Kai executive stating, “The amount of money was not the issue
when we insisted on a pension. Rather, it was the significance of the fact that the image of thesoldiers as fugitives and deserters has been cleared and that the government recognized them asholdout soldiers,” indicating that they viewed the Japanese governmentʼs granting of temporary
soldierʼs pension to 21 sur vivors in 1991 as a “restoration of honor” from being labeled as“fugitives” and “deserters.”
Additionally, in the documentar y video “ The Light of Independent Asia: Histor y and
the Present of Southeast Asia ”64 (1995), organized by the National Committee for the 50th
Anniversary of the End of the War, the National Main Heroes Cemetery in Kalibata is shown withthe following statement: “It is said that after the defeat of Japan, there were about 2,000 Japanesesoldiers who remained in Indonesia and fought in the War of Independence. (...) The Japanese
who gave their lives in the War of Independence are now respectfully honored in this cemeteryas heroes of independent Indonesia. Ono Sakari, who was wounded fighting against the Dutch
forces, was one of them.” Ono then appears and says, “When the war started, many people whowanted to get support from the Japanese army came to us, from the Indonesian side. I was also
persuaded and joined in Indonesia. (How many people were killed in the war?) About half. At
least 1,000 were killed in the war. That is because we provided guidance in the war and were on
the front lines. We were easily detected by the enemy. That is why there were so many casualties
in the end,” explaining the sacrificial contribution made. In 1995, the year this documentary was
released, the Japanese government awarded certificates of commendation to 69 holdout Japanesesoldiers in the name of the Japanese ambassador to Indonesia.
Furthermore, Yamaguchi Broadcastingʼs “NNN Document 96: Japanese soldiers who did
not return home―Current situation of the soldiers who remained in Indonesia” (broadcast on
January 29, 1996, winner of the Japan Commercial Broadcasters Association Award [44th Award
for Excellence, News Programs Division]), while focusing on the difficult retired lives of DokiTokiji, the main character in “Japindo II and III,” and Kioka Naoyuki, also mentioned that there
were people like Fujiyama Hideo, who “never doubted the liberation of the Asian colonies.” Theprogram quoted Fujiyamaʼs statement, “We are going to decolonize ourselves from the colonies,
they said. We felt their enthusiasm. Why did we fight the war? The Japanese army said theywould bring independence. So why not support that?”Thus, in the documentaries produced in the 1990s, representations of the holdout Japanesesoldiers were no longer focused solely on the image of “abandoned people,” but rather reflect
the voices of those who remained voluntarily, such as Chiyomori Michiharu, Ono Sakari, andFujiyama Hideo. This may be due to the fact that the number of survivors was decreasing as theholdout Japanese soldiers aged and the interviewee became more diverse. As a result, however,the previously dominant image of holdout Japanese soldiers as victims of the war was revised.

“Commendation” by the Japanese government

During this period, the Japanese government, which granted a temporary soldierʼs pension andpresented ambassadorʼs awards to the holdout Japanese soldiers, presented the Order of the
Sacred Treasure, Fifth Class, to four, and the Order of the Rising Sun, Silver Rays (Sixth Class), to
one of the executives of Fukushi Tomo no Kai from 1991 to 1996, promoting their “commendation.”
64

Preceding studies have described “The Light of Independent Asia” as “work based on a typicalʻliberation view of history.ʼ” Goto Kenichi. “ʻKaihō sensōʼ shikan/ʻdokuritsu kōkenʼ shikan no kyomōsei[Deceptiveness of ʻliberation warʼ and ʻcontribution to independenceʼ views of history].” In ibid. Tōnanajia kara mita kingendai Nippon [Modern Japan from the perspective of Southeast Asia]. Chapter 10. p.
333.

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The Process of Heroizing the Holdout Japanese Soldiers in Indonesia

In 2001, the Toho film “Merdeka 17805” was released, depicting the Japanese who contributed
to Indonesiaʼs independence. In the film, Japanese instructors who provided military training
to Indonesian youths during the Japanese occupation are asked to become holdout Japanesesoldiers after the war ended in defeat, and fight in the Indonesian War of Independence against
the Netherlands. In the same year, former Defense Agency Director Nakatani Gen, and Prime
Minister Koizumi Junichiro the following year, visited the National Main Heroes Cemetery in
Kalibata.
When Tokyo Governor Ishihara Shintaro visited the National Main Heroes Cemeter y in
Kalibata in 2004, he laid a wreath with the words “In honor of the heroes, Governor of Tokyo,”
before meeting with Miyahara Eiji, advisor to Fukushi Tomo no Kai, and others. He spoke toreporters, saying, “I came here and was able to meet some of the survivors. They fought theguerrilla war with hardly any weapons. They must have been heroes to the Indonesians at thattime.”65 That year, Fukushi Tomo no Kai received the Foreign Minister ʼs Commendation, andMiyahara personally received the Order of the Rising Sun, Silver Rays 2009.
In 2007 and 2015, Prime Minister Abe Shinzo visited the National Main Heroes Cemeteryin Kalibata. On those occasions, Prime Minister Abe poured sake and offered flowers at thegravestone of Eto Shichio, who lies in the Heroes Cemetery. The “ceremony” of joining hands
in prayer at the individual gravestones of the holdout Japanese soldiers in addition to offering
flowers at the central cenotaph was later followed by Prime Minister Suga Yoshihide in 2020 andPrime Minister Kishida Fumio in 2022 when they visited the National Main Heroes Cemetery in
Kalibata.66
The Emperor and Empressʼs visit to the National Main Heroes Cemetery in Kalibata in 2023
was limited to offering flowers at the central cenotaph and signing the visitorʼs book, and did notinclude a visit to the individual holdout Japanese soldiersʼ cemeteries. However, it was reported
that at a meeting with people with ties to Japan the night before, they met with four second- andthird-generation Japanese descendants who were executives of Fukushi Tomo no Kai where65“Ishihara chiji ga eiyū bochi ni kenka: Fukushi Tomo no Kai kanbu ra to kondan [Governor Ishihara
offers flowers at the heroes cemetery, meets with Fukushi Tomo no Kai executives].” The Daily Jakarta
Shimbun, November 22, 2004. p. 1.

66

Not all of the soldiers who died in the War of Independence against the Netherlands in the late 1940s
are buried in the heroes cemetery where the “patriots” are laid to rest. Many were buried in a typeof general cemeter y called a national cemeter y, for a variety of reasons. Such reasons include nothaving been in the regular militar y and not having documentation to prove their participation in
the War of Independence, bereaved family members not wishing to have a national military funeral
after their death, etc. In interviews I conducted in 2007 with 21 bereaved families of fallen soldiers in
Malang Province, eastern Java, I heard stories such as, even though they participated in the War of
Independence, “I was too lazy to apply for the guerrilla medal” in the confusion of the reorganization
and rationalization of the Indonesian army, and “I was not given the recognition corresponding to
my militar y achievements due to my low educational background” after the War of Independence.
Additionally, there were cases where soldiers were eligible to be buried in the heroes cemetery but
left a will to be buried in a national cemetery for reasons such as “it is too far from the family grave
and it is difficult to visit the grave,” “I do not want to be with my war comrades even in the grave,” “I
was requested to make a monetary contribution to be buried in the heroes cemetery,” “I was too poor
to afford burial in a heroes cemetery,” and “It was difficult to prepare the certificate both financiallyand effort-wise.” In some cases, the bereaved family members decided not to bury the deceased in theheroes cemetery. A comparison of the number of holdout Japanese soldiers buried in a heroes cemeteryand a national cemetery by region shows that the number of those buried in a heroes cemetery exceeds
the number buried in a national cemetery in the metropolitan area, but in western Java, central Java,eastern Java and Bali, and Sumatra, the number buried in heroes cemeteries is less than that buried innational cemeteries. Especially in Sumatra, the number buried in a national cemetery is high. Ibid. Tōbu
Jawa no Nipponjin butai [Troops made of Japanese soldiers in East Java]. p. 45.

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Hayashi Eiichi

the Emperor said, “You have suffered greatly,” and the Empress said, “Tomorrow, we will offer
flowers with all our hearts.”67
The meeting between the Emperor and the descendants of holdout Japanese soldiers was
not seen during the former Emperorʼs visit to Indonesia in 1991.68 What this means is that theenvironment surrounding the holdout Japanese soldiers has changed over the past 30 years,
and what triggered this change was the self-representation of the holdout Japanese soldiersthemselves, which was amplified as a result of the mutual interaction between the parties
concerned and the Japanese side.69
In the process, the holdout Japanese soldiers in Indonesia gradually became heroes. For
example, journalist Inoue Kazuhiko praised Ono Sakari, who passed away in 2014 and was buried
in a national military funeral at the heroes cemetery in Batu City, East Java, as the “last hero.”70

The reality of the “last hero”

In the NHK-produced “The Century in Moving Images Butterfly Effect: 3 Years and 8 Months of
the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere” (broadcast on April 24, 2023), following the narration
stating that “2,000 Japanese soldiers who remained fought alongside them [authorʼs note: theDefenders of the Fatherland organized during the Japanese occupation],” the following captions
were read: “From the words of a holdout Japanese soldier: The Greater East Asia War was a war
to liberate Greater East Asia, and Japan lost without achieving that goal. However, Indonesia
is trying to become independent. We fought to show them what Japan could not achieve, eventhough we were a small force.” These words were spoken in 2004 when the author interviewed
Ono Sakari, who was 85 years old at the time. He continued, “So, to say that I tried to succeed inwhat Japan could not accomplish would be a bit of an exaggeration.”71
However, Ono ʼ s belief that he remained in the area, considering it to be a “ crusade toliberate Asia,” is merely a “memory created” after the fact. In fact, Ono remained in Bandung,
western Java, for a combination of reasons including the following. He was ordered to fly back to
Hiroshima with the brigadeʼs military register immediately after the defeat, but was begged by his
predecessor, a warrant officer, and switched places out of “kindness”; he felt that unconditionalsurrender was unacceptable; he was proud to be an active soldier; as a person he was serious
and responsible at best, and inefficient and stubborn at worst; and was the third son of a farming
family in Hokkaido and had no prospect of getting any farmland to support himself even if he did
return to Japan.72
Ono became inspired by the “crusade to liberate Asia,” after leaving the Japanese militaryand meeting Ichiki Tatsuo, an advocate of Pan-Asianism in Yogyakarta, central Java. He wrote
in his “battlefield diary” on March 12, 1946, that “Japan, which liberated Indonesia from Dutch
67“Ryō heika, zanryū Nipponhei no shison ra to gomenkai [Their Majesties meet descendants of holdout
Japanese soldiers].” The Sankei News. June 20, 2023.

68

Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko met with the families of former holdout Japanese soldiers when
they visited Vietnam in 2017, and in 2023, Crown Prince Akishino and Crown Princess Kiko also met
with the families of former holdout Japanese soldiers.

69

Previous studies tended to downplay this process of intrinsic heroization and simply relate the Asianliberation war theory to the holdout Japanese soldiers. Ibid. “ʻKaihō sensōʼ shikan/ʻdokuritsu kōkenʼshikan no kyomōsei [Deceptiveness of ʻliberation warʼ and ʻcontribution to independenceʼ views ofhistory].” pp. 327–329.

70

Inoue Kazuhiko. Nippon ga tatakatte kurete kansha shite imasu 2: Ano sensō de Nipponjin ga sonkei
sareta riyū [We are grateful that Japan fought for us 2: The reason why the Japanese were respected inthat war]. Sankei Shimbun Publications. 2015. pp. 150–155.

71

Ibid. Zanryū Nipponhei no shinjitsu [Truth about the holdout Japanese soldiers]. pp. 75–76.

72

Ibid. Zanryū Nipponhei no shinjitsu [Truth about the holdout Japanese soldiers]. pp. 86–89.

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The Process of Heroizing the Holdout Japanese Soldiers in Indonesia

oppression, is a nation of the yellow race. We are brothers belonging to the same Asian race. In
order to bring peace to Asia, I hereto pledge to wholeheartedly fight together and die together
hand in hand with my Indonesian brothers.”73 and positioned his reason for remaining as a“crusade to liberate Asia” for the first time. On the other hand, in his battlefield diary for May
1946, he mentions that there were holdout Japanese soldiers who had “left the military due torelations with women or for other reasons such as personal success,”74 and he encourages themto return to it, fearing that “this will be known by the people of Indonesia in the future or eventoday, and when the people of Indonesia find themselves in a difficult fight or in social disorder inthe future, these Japanese who will not be able to directly participate in the fight for independence
may encounter unforeseen disasters.”75
Onoʼs battlefield diar y, a valuable historical document from that period,76 shows that hewas negative about not fighting for a cause and staying behind to live. However, for many of
the holdout Japanese soldiers, it is inferred that their participation in the Indonesian War of
Independence was not an ideological decision, but a decision for survival.

73

Ono Sakari (edited and commented by Hayashi Eiichi). Nampō gunsei kankei shiryō 42: Indoneshia
zanryū Nipponhei no shakaishi [Documents related to military administration in the southern territories#42: Social history of the holdout Japanese soldiers in Indonesia]. Ryuukeishosha. 2010. p. 48.

74

Ibid. Indoneshia zanryū Nipponhei no shakaishi [Social histor y of the holdout Japanese soldiers inIndonesia]. p. 58.

75

Ibid. Indoneshia zanryū Nipponhei no shakaishi [Social histor y of the holdout Japanese soldiers inIndonesia]. p. 58.

76“Kyū nipponhei no nikki wo hakken: Indoneshia dokuritsu sensō ni sansen [Diary of former Japanesesoldier discovered: Joining the Indonesian War of Independence].” Society page of The Asahi Shimbun
morning edition. November 2, 2005. “Ikita akashi: Indoneshia dokuritsu sensō no nikki, jō―Kesshi nohibi, kokumei ni [Proof of his life: Diary of the Indonesian War of Independence, part 1―Clear recordof the desperate days].” General culture page of The Asahi Shimbun morning edition. November 2,
2005. “Ikita akashi: Indoneshia dokuritsu sensō no nikki, ge―ʻTsutaetaiʼ hikitsugu negai [Proof of his
life: Diary of the Indonesian War of Independence, part 2―Taking over their wish to ʻpass onʼ].” Generalculture page of The Asahi Shimbun morning edition. November 3, 2005.

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Japan Review Vol.6 No.2 2023