E-Journal of Philosophy of Education:
International Yearbook of the Philosophy of Education Society of Japan, Vol. 7, 2022

Knowledge with Sharing and Empathy: Lessons for the ITDriven Modern World from Views on Knowledge in African
Oral Culture
Shoko YAMADA
Nagoya University
Abstract
Today it is easy to acquire information with advanced information technology, but I argue that mere
pieces of information gathered by internet keyword search are not knowledge. Then how can we turninformation into knowledge? Conventionally, learning proceeds from basic to advanced materialpresented hierarchically in textbooks and reference books. But nowadays schools are playing asteadily diminishing role in teaching the knowledge needed to live. Given real-world demands,
learning is becoming less hierarchical but more networked, requiring learners to judge and select fromvarious sources, cutting across disciplines and including audio and visual as well as textual material.
In this paper, to consider the changing nature of learning and knowledge, I investigate theepistemology of traditional oral cultures in Africa. By doing so, I try to objectify and reflect onacademic education and the classic Western epistemology underlying it, which we have taken forgranted. Unlike written culture, where ideas are preserved in the texts, a predominantly oral culture
constructs knowledge collectively, with speaker and audience responding to the context. While
writing is predominantly cognitive and irrespective of context, the oral transmission of knowledge issensory. In such a culture, an educated person is one who not only has a lot of information but also
can interpret and apply it to meet the present situation. The speaker’s moral authority is also essential
to the audience’s acceptance of what is said.
Today, with advancing communication technology and social changes, knowledge is less likely
to be acquired exclusively by reading. Other media and sensory learning are gaining in importance.
Based on these trends, I argue that we have entered a secondary oral culture. Accepting that knowledge
is constructed through multifaceted interactions among presenters and recipients in writing, listening,and seeing, I point out the importance of fostering the moral quality of individuals to better enable
them to judge and select knowledge.
Keywords: oral culture, writing culture, networked knowledge, epistemology, value judgment
Correspondence:
Shoko YAMADA, Nagoya University. Email: syamada@gsid.nagoya-u.ac.jp

Knowledge with Sharing and Empathy

71Introduction
How can humans say that they “know” something? Today, acquiring information
has become very easy and we can easily feel like acquiring knowledge. Meanwhile,school subjects and academic disciplines have not kept up with the rapid changes insociety, and increasingly we cannot learn what is required to live in modern society fromtextbooks and reference books. In other words, passive learning according to existing
systems is not enough; what is required is an ability to generate knowledge independently.
But how can one logically structure easily available information and convert it toknowledge? Many of us may end up being mere collectors of scraps of information.
In this paper, I reflect on academic education and the classical Western epistemology
underlying it. To objectify these concepts, which we take for granted, I will discuss theepistemology of traditional African societies based on oral cultures. The reason for thisexercise lies in my experience as a researcher on education and knowledge in Africansocieties. I frequently visited countries that are said to be “underdeveloped,” with a slow
pace in spreading school education, and I questioned why the formal school systemdominates the world as if it were the only way to teach and learn. Even when there wereno schools, even before the culture of writing took root, people transmitted knowledge
from generation to generation. Perhaps some societies have different perspectives onways of knowing. Even though institutions like schools may qualify students for
employment and social success, they may not impart knowledge that is rooted in daily
life.
With the spread of the internet and new modes of communication brought about by
information technology, in Japan it is now said that 21st-century problem-solving skills
are needed to survive in a knowledge-based society. In addition, the COVID-19
pandemic has dramatically hastened changes in the environment for learning. As students
could not attend school, self-directed learning using tablets and other devices became
common. In light of questions about the value and nature of school-centered education, I
have come to believe that African societies’ ideas about knowledge may have usefulimplications for understanding how knowledge is acquired in contemporary Japan.

1. Knowledge generated in relationship(1) Value judgments as the basis of knowledge generation
Earlier, I stated that knowledge is different from mere information. Then what
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exactly is knowledge? Floridy, a philosopher of information, states that data is a list ofmeanings without interpretation; information involves interpretation, but without ajudgment as to whether the connotation is right or wrong; knowledge is this semantic
information linked with judgments about values (Floridy 2011, xiii).
In the genealogy of Western epistemology, cognition has been considered a mental
process that consists of three elements: an object in front of an individual; an individual,
who recognizes the object and comprehends what it is; and reliable reasoning as the basisof such recognition. Of these, the last corresponds to value judgments, the basis of thesemantic system of knowledge, according to Floridy. In fact, much of the controversy inWestern epistemology stems from differences about where to look for such reasoning.
Authoritarian epistemology posits the existence of divine or supra-scientific authority as
the premise for any subjective judgment. Rationalism based its judgments about
reasoning on scientific evidence, while empiricism believed that the accumulation ofexperience leads the subject to reasoning (Todayama 2002). Although it is not the purposeof this paper to pursue these arguments in depth, I would like to point out that the various
schools of thought agree that it is the human subject who judges the correctness ofcognition and what constitutes knowledge. At the bottom of such judgment is reasoning.
The challenge today is uncertainty about where individuals should look for reasoning as
the basis for judgment.
(2) Networked knowledge generation in an IT-driven societyWith the advancement of information technology, today it is easy for people tocollect information online by typing keywords according to their spontaneous interests.
Pieces of information gathered this way do not become knowledge unless there is aproactive decision to relate and unify them under a single semantic system. At the sametime, the computer algorithm may present information according to the ranking(popularity) of search results for the typed keywords, without following the logic of any
academic field or established structure. Such conjunctions of information, devoid of any
established disciplinary structure, would not have happened in the past. In other words,
in the modern world, knowledge can be formed in a networked manner by combining
information from a variety of sources, using the searcher’s interests as an entry point. The
package of knowledge created in this way may well provide an opportunity to overcome
the limitations of conventional frameworks of logic.
Further, in today’s world, the sources of information can be music, videos, orcartoons as well as text. Transmission of information through these media is accelerating,
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with circulation and interpretation of information happening almost simultaneously.
These transmissions are lifelike and highly interactive; the meanings attached to theinformation and the modes of presentation constantly change in response to reactions of
the audience and the environment.
Seeing such changes, we must accept that acquiring knowledge happens now not
only by reading written texts but also by other methods that are increasingly important.
Examining the nature of knowledge in traditional oral cultures may provide insights into
how knowledge is generated in contemporary society.

2. Differences in knowledge generation and transmission in oral andwritten cultures(1) Communication in oral cultures
In general, speaking is to convey a message to another person in the same physicalspace, face-to-face, in real time. It is also a process that collectively constructs a common
understanding: not only does the presenter influence the receiver but also vice versa. Oral
messages are transient and ad hoc. Because of this simultaneity, oral communication
takes on a sensory nature.
The sound and rhythm of speech, the beauty of expression, and the speaker’s
charisma can elevate oral expression to the level of art. In oral societies, it is notuncommon for sharing and transmitting knowledge to take the form of theater. Taking
the ancient Greek art of rhetoric and poetry as an example, Goody (1987) argues that notwo performances, even of the same play, are exactly the same, since the characteristicsof oral expression depend on the environment and the audience who share the sameexperience. But the introductions, episodes, and method of linking moral implications
with the performance are consistent. Also, unlike written expressions, which can be readmuch later, oral messages can be recalled in detail for only a limited time. Therefore, topromote the recipients’ understanding and memory, oral expressions often use sensory
signals, such as rhyme or repetition of similarly-structured sentences, which give arhythm to the utterance (Goody 1987, 211–220).
(2) Communication in written cultures
While communication in oral cultures is simultaneous and co-creative, in written
cultures it is unrestricted in space and time, since utterances can be noted and stored. As
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a result of careful examination of the structure and grammar of the written language,
systematic methods for classifying and analyzing language are developed, and trained
professionals are sought to deal with this complex system. Through writing, words areaccumulated from the past to the present, and the vocabulary grows.
Writing also enables people to think about concepts that are not directly connectedto their own lifeworld. Abstraction allows people to reconstruct memories and ideas
logically in accordance with set objectives. The possibility of autonomous discourse, freefrom the context of the lifeworld, creates the opportunity for scientific progress and forstructures such as governments and companies to manage activities between physicallydistant individuals (Ong 1982, 77).
While oral expressions are dialogical, collective, using all five senses, written ones
are introspective, with cognition predominating over the other senses. If, as mentioned
above, the accumulation of abstract and logical thought and the exchange of ideas
through documents enabled the emergence of modern systems of politics, economics,and education, then it can be said that the foundation of modernization was written culture.
On the other hand, it is a mistake to consider oral culture a lower developmental stage ofsociety. Writing would not exist without speech; even in the most modern societies,
aspects of orality remain. Writing and orality are not mutually exclusive but coexistent.

3. Theory of knowledge and education in traditional African societies
With a few exceptions, such as the Ethiopian Orthodox and Muslim clergies andMediterranean traders, traditional agrarian and pastoral societies in Africa did notaccumulate knowledge in writing, nor did they have an academic system to teach it to thenext generation. Education in traditional societies is practical, experience-based learning,whereby people acquire the skills, values, and codes of conduct necessary to be part of acommunity through the various stages of life (Ishengoma 2005, 16). Furthermore, inmany African ethnic groups, aphorisms and stories with educational significance arepassed down orally.
(1) Oral narratives and education
In many African countries . . . aphorisms are used only by the truly educated andcultured, who give speeches full of imagination and metaphor. Aphorisms containthe philosophy, humor, symbolic meaning, and religion of the person who uses them.
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They are imbued with a deep knowledge of the world around them, of materiality
and spirituality, and of social reality. . . . Education in traditional societies takes placethrough oral communication, not written. And aphorisms are a means of conveying
social and moral teachings.
(Appiah, Appiah, and Agyeman-Duah 2001, xii)
Aphorisms do not convey information in the literal sense. For example, there is an
Akan saying, “The snake does not fly, but it catches the hornbills that live in the sky.”
When this saying is used in conversation, it does not matter whether a snake actuallycaught a hornbill nearby or not. The symbolic content of the saying is that “if you areresourceful, you can achieve what you are not skilled to do.” However, to understand thisrequires knowledge of the culture and lifestyle of the Akan people. If we do not know
that, to live in the rainforest, it is very important but difficult to catch birds as a source ofprotein, then we would not understand the message behind this saying.
Now, after knowing the background and taking in the moralistic meaning of theaphorisms, the most important task of the speaker is to apply it to the situation faced by
the listeners and present an interpretation of why it happened. The event confronting themmight be a simple quarrel within a family, or a case where someone has suddenly been
struck by misfortune without obvious cause. Through education by the seniors, people inoral cultures acquire the ability to find the meanings of such events, applying the suitable
aphorisms and considering the relationships among the spiritual, material, environmental,
and human worlds.
(2) Epistemological difference between Representation and Presentation
Biesta and Osberg states that school education in the modern era has been based onan epistemology that presupposes that knowledge is to be represented (2008, 15–20).
Truth is singular, and knowledge is the precise demonstration of the only way to explain
what exists. The purpose of education is to develop an ability to constantly and repeatedly
represent this relationship between existence and explanations.
By contrast, in traditional African societies, what exists in front of people can havemultiple meanings, and a speaker will choose how to explain a phenomenon in aparticular context. An educated person is the one with the ability to grasp the implicationsof a phenomenon and convey them to others convincingly. In other words, being
educated is the ability to make a presentation based on interpretation rather than arepresentation. The essence of interpretation is condensed in aphorisms, but they are too
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short to make sense on their own. Compelling interpretation requires extensive
knowledge and insight to fill in the gaps.
Abdi states that an educated person in traditional African societies is often someone
who has not been to school but who can think and explain with a good mix of moralistic
wisdom, interpretive wisdom, and rational ideas based on the context in which thecommunity is situated (Abdi 2008, 319).

ConclusionAs early as the 1980s, Ong foresaw that information technology would usher in anera of “secondary orality” (Ong 1982, 2–3, 133). Technology-enhanced media are theproduct of a sophisticated science developed within a written culture capable ofaccumulating, refining, and logically extending specialized knowledge. In this sense,communication using such technology is still an extension of the written culture. At thesame time, the dissemination of knowledge today cannot be understood solely throughthe models of how knowledge is formed in existing systems. Precisely because
information is so readily available, one should consider the nature of networked
knowledge not only on its surface but also in terms of the underlying epistemology.
In cyberspace, relationships are constantly changing. An audience in one moment
can be a presenter in the next moment. Opinions presented by influential figures areforwarded, retweeted, and “liked.” At the same time, these spreaders interpret, add
meaning, and sometimes even convert the originator’s intentions. People with common
interests may take collective action, but they remain anonymous to each other, and thegroup is constantly reshaping itself like an amoeba.
Online search engines provide information according to a site’s popularity ranking.
Can “popularity” be a valid criterion for judging information to be true in an IT-driven
society? Can information recommended by algorithms be accepted as knowledge? In
ancient oral cultures, knowledge was passed on with a moral message. The speaker ofaphorisms and folk tales had to be a good performer but also a respected personality inthe society. In contemporary secondary oral cultures, does the presenter have thecharacter to bear the weight of what is presented? Does the recipient have the ability todistinguish between meaningful knowledge and misinformation? Intrinsic qualities ofmorality and justice hover over both the receiver and the presenter of communication but
are difficult to acquire in cyberspace. Where do we learn the ability to judge thecorrectness of information and assemble our own knowledge packages? That may be theThematic Research: The Challenges for the Philosophy of Education in a “Data-Driven Society”: Reconsidering“Data,” “Information” and “Knowledge” for the Future of Education

Knowledge with Sharing and Empathy77role of schools today. The social function of schools in transmitting knowledge is inquestion. But school still has a role to play in this information age by becoming the place
where future generations develop morality and the ability to make judgments.

References
Abdi, A. 2008. “Europe and African Thought Systems and Philosophies of Education:‘Re-Culturing’ the Trans-Temporal Discourses.” Cultural Studies 22, no. 2: 309–
327.
Appiah, Peggy, Kwame Anthony Appiah, and Ivor Agyeman-Duah. 2001. Bu Me Be:
Proverbs of the Akans. Accra: Ayebia Clarke Publishing.
Biesta, Gert J. J., and Deborah Osberg. 2008. “Beyond Re/Presentation: A Case for
Updating the Epistemology of Schooling.” Interchange 38, no. 1: 15–29.
Floridy, Luciano. 2011. The Philosophy of Information. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Goody, Jack. 1987. The Interface between the Written and the Oral. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Ishengoma, Johnson M. (2005). African oral traditions: Riddles among the Haya ofnorthwestern Tanzania’, International Review of Education, No. 51, pp. 139-153.
Ong, Walter J. 1982. Orality and Literacy. London: Routledge.
Todayama, Kazuhisa. 2002. Chishiki no Tetsugaku [Philosophy of Knowledge]. Tokyo:
Sangyo Tosho Publishing.

E-Journal of Philosophy of Education: International Yearbook of the Philosophy of Education Society of Japan, Vol. 7, 2022