Eubios Journal of Asian andInternational Bioethics
EJAIB Vol. 24 (2) March 2014www.eubios.info ISSN 1173-2571
Official Journal of the Asian Bioethics Association (ABA)
Copyright ©2014 Eubios Ethics Institute(All rights reserved, for commercial reproductions).

Contents

page

Editorial: Bioethics and Betterment of Lives37- Darryl Macer
Bioethics and the Challenges to Its Development
in Bangladesh
38- A. S. M. Anwarullah Bhuiyan
Ethical Perceptions of Genetically Modified Crops
in Malaysia
50- Latifah Amin, N.A. Ahmad Azlan & J. Ahmad
Ethical Values of Food Safety
61- V. Balambal
Issues of research ethics in developing world: Waysof improving the scenario
66- Amber Ali Muhammad
Editorial address:
Prof. Darryl Macer,
Provost of AUSN and Director, Institute of Indigenous
Peoples and Global Studies,
American University of Sovereign Nations (AUSN),
8800 East Chaparral Road, Suite 250, Scottsdale,
Arizona, 85250 USA
Email: dmacer@au-sn.com darryl@eubios.info
http://au-sn.com http://www.eubios.info
Registered address of EJAIB: P.O. Box 16 329,
Hornby, Christchurch 8441, New Zealand

Editorial: Bioethics and Bettermentof Lives
I would argue that the primary principle of bioethics isbeneficence, loving to do good. There are many waysthat we can improve the lives of others, and some of
the basic dilemmas of such advancement are
represented in the papers published in this issue of
EJAIB. After having 10 articles in the January 2014
issue, this issue sees only 4 – because the length of
the first two is long.
A. S. M. Anwarullah Bhuiyan presents his review of
Bioethics and the Challenges to Its Development in
Bangladesh. The article includes the mention of the
Bangladesh Bioethics Society that I had the great

pleasure to be involved in the establishment of, and thegeneral secretary, Prof. Shamima Lasker is a Vice
President of the Asian Bioethics Association, who also
talked on bioethics in the country during ABC14.
Latifah Amin et al. present the results of a survey on
Ethical Perceptions of Genetically Modified Crops in
Malaysia, which confirms some earlier research thatpeople in different countries draw different reasons
about different applications of plant genetic
engineering. The perceived benefits are important
determinants of the choices that are made, as are risks
and concepts of what is natural. The issue of safety to
the consumer is on of food ethics, but as Prof. V.
Balambal shows, in Ethical Values of Food Safety,
there are many problems in ensuring food safety forpeople in production and dietary habits.
Amber Ali Muhammad discusses some Issues ofresearch ethics in developing world, with somereflections from Pakistan and elsewhere. The idea ofbeneficence also is a common justification forresearch.
Whether we argue that bioethics is love of life, or
follows the system of four principles of bioethics, orvirtue ethics, or utilitarianism, etc., all people argue thatbioethics is about doing good. As we consider the
topics of our next projects for research in bioethics,
reflect on the principles that motivate our choices forhelping make the world better. Some of those topics
will be presented in ABC15 in Japan, or other places(including the conferences of AUSN in Mexico on 29
June; or elsewhere), so please follow the conferenceson the website and look forward to seeing many
readers there.
At American University of Sovereign Nations (AUSN)
we will be holding summer schools to allow people toalso obtain a Postgraduate Certificate in Bioethics andGlobal Public Health, for those who cannot come to do
the whole Masters in Bioethics and Global Public
Health, so I look forward to meeting many readers at
the new campus and environment.
Please follow the updates on the website.
–

Darryl Macer

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

Bioethics and the Challenges to
Its Development in Bangladesh- A. S. M. Anwarullah Bhuiyan (MA, Mphil (JU.BD)
Associate Professor, Dept of Philosophy, Jahangirnagar
University, Savar, Dhaka-1342, Bangladesh
Email: anwarullah1234@yahoo.com

1. Introduction
Several bioethical issues, such as reproductive
medicine, euthanasia, HIV/AIDS and biotechnologicalapplications, have been emerging in the field of
biosciences. Other issues include cloning and stem cellresearch. HIV/AIDS is a bioethical problem that
resulted in ethical guidelines in order to manage its
spread as an epidemic. Informed consent is often
deficient. There are no clear bioethical guidelines formaintaining biotechnological practices or in the case of
end-of-life decision-making. In the context of
Bangladesh, many of the issues in the biologicalsciences cannot be mitigated by our concreteknowledge of science. For example, ethical issues of
informed consent, confidentiality, naturalness, theduties of health caregivers and the status of life areclearly absent in the treatment of infertility or indiscouraging assisted reproduction, termination of life,
the intolerable public health impact of infectious
diseases and practicing biotechnology.
All these problems reflect a rationale that
Bangladesh is an appropriate place in which toincorporate bioethical theories in different sectors ofhealth, bioscience laboratories, etc. However, in
Bangladesh, the academic curriculum, biosciencerelated policy/guidelines and professionals are not yet
preparedtoface
problems
frombioethicalperspectives. In the near future, there is hardly any
hope of development of bioethics in Bangladesh.
Keeping this in mind, this article will take a critical
overview of some issues of bioethics that are poorly
performed in different sectors of health, bioscience andin policy guidelines. Section 2 will focus on urging anessential multidisciplinary approach to bioethics that isalready lacking in our educational policy. Sections 3
and 4 will focus on moral issues related to bioethicalproblems. Against this backdrop, this article intends toseek ways that could reinforce ethical values andpromote compassion in formulating bioethical policy for
Bangladesh.
2. Understanding Bioethics
Before exploring the scenario of bioethical practices
in Bangladesh, firstly, I will attempt to describe thenature of bioethics that will help in understanding the
problem in detail. Bioethics is coined from two Greek
words: bios and ethos which mean life and values,
respectively. According to its etymological meaning,bioethics is concerned with the values of life. Van
1
Rensselaer Potter , a pioneer of modern bioethics,
1

Potter, V.R., 1971. Bioethics: Bridge to the Future, USA:Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall Inc, pp. 3-4.

concludes that the term “bioethics” can be understoodfrom the biological and ethical perspective together. As
such, Potter means that bioethics is linked with boththe biological science and ethical perspective and hastha wider scope from science to ethics. In the early 20
century, it was observed that different issues werebeing incorporated in bioethics. Therefore, an essential
question may arise here: why has Potter’s exposition ofbioethics failed to grasp the leading issues ofbioethics? As we have found, Potter used the term
“bioethics” ⎯ bios in terms of life ⎯ in all its forms.
Undoubtedly, this is a broader approach tounderstanding bioethics. However, in the second halfthof the 20 century, bioethical problems received ethicalconsideration only for assessing the controversies of
medicine, health care and health-related technology. In
the challenge of bioethics, critics often lay blame on
Potter for inviting some irrelevant issues that havecreated far-reaching confusion here. As a discipline,
bioethics examines the ethical issues particularly inhealth science, medicines and policy related to healthpolicy. Owing to the development of bioethics, sickpeople and their rights have been acknowledged byhealth care professionals and concerned people.
Therefore, what should we understand by the term
“bioethics”? And what are the challenges that havebeen faced by Bangladesh? In response to thesequestions, this article considers the definition ofbioethics offered by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
According to UNESCO, we can understand the term
“bioethics” over a wide spectrum of life. It covers
environmental, medical and clinical problems. Darryl
Macer, who used to work for UNESCO, defined the2term “bioethics” as “love of life”. Love helps toovercome selfishness, and craving for love can makethe society pursue a harmonious life with heartfelt ties
between individuals and communities. Therefore, theterms ethics and love can be used interchangeably,and bioethics is understood to mean love of life. The
following discussion may identify the definition ofbioethics that would be compatible for Bangladesh.
2.1 Challenges of Bioethical Practices in Bangladesh
In response to the second question above, thisarticle refers to several challenges that have been
faced by bioethical policy in Bangladesh. At a glance,
they are:a. The challenge of povertyb. Lack of a multidisciplinary approachc. Problems of allocation of health care resources
and rights of people. Equalizing access to health careand medicinesd. Cross-cultural cohesion
e. Ensuring that science and technology are put inthe service of promoting public health
While we are thinking about bioethics in
Bangladesh, we should know about what has been
published or discussed in the last few years about2

Macer, Darryl R.J. 1998. Bioethics is Love of Life: An
Alternative Textbook, Chistchurch : Eubios Ethics Institute.

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

aspects of bioethics. What are the relevant issues
related to bioethics that should to be discussed? Have
we grappled yet with the issues of reproductive ethics,
health care, medicines or biotechnology? Suppose that
it was considered appropriate that most wealthy people
in Bangladesh including political leaders, members ofcabinet and businessmen preferred to have their
medical treatment and post-treatment management
undertaken in affluent countries. This would be reason
for failing to rearrange the governance system in thefield of bioscience and the health care system. There
are some others problems that have also been focusedin the forthcoming sections.
2.1.1 Poverty and Pseudo-Democracy
An understandable relationship exists between poor
economic strength and bioethical formulation whichcannot be ignored in the context of Bangladesh. In
reality, it has been foreseen that less strength ineconomic growth is quite unhelpful in construing aviable bioethical policy. However, in order toincorporate bioethical governance in the existing realmof bioscience and health care sectors, it is essential toprovide available funding and organizational strength.
Bioethical governance in the field of bioscience canplay a role as a regulating force towards motivatingbioscience, medical and health care professionals. It
also shows the way that they can perform at their bestwith responsibility and sincerity. However, poverty andeconomic scarcity have become significant obstacles
in formulating such an ethical framework. This ispotentially one reason for failing to progress the field ofbioethics in Bangladesh. In addition, research in thedomain of bioethics is not financed nor is there any
budgetary allocation or funding in this area of research.
Furthermore, none of the political parties has any
degree of will or promise with regard to bioethics either
in their political agenda or governmental policy. They
are not very interested in this kind of domain of
research. Due to the scarcity of intention, theBangladesh government has not yet formulated thenecessary legislative or structural protection to
introduce bioethical issues. As a result, in the publicsphere, bioethical issues are yet to become popular.
Along with this problem, Bangladesh has a serious
urge towards a renewed sense of democratic values.
However, corruption and lack of good governance as
result of the unstable pseudo-democracy have become
other candidates for the lack of accountability amongbioscience and medical professionals.
2.1.2 Cultural Values and Bioethics
What exactly is working in the nature of values in
Bangladesh? It is not easy to give any straight
response to this question. However, it has been
claimed that we are participating in “shared values” as
the national strategy of Bangladesh. It has sometimes
been urged that to combat national or value-related
crises, we should stress religious tolerance andharmony among the different religious and ethnic
groups. It is an established consensus that Bangladesh

is a pluralistic society consisting of different religious
and ethnic communities.
Muslims, who, in general, follow the norms andprinciples of the Qur’an as the most sacred way of life,
constitute the major segment of the population in
Bangladesh. However, those principles do not explicitly
reveal many means with which to counteract different
bioethical problems. In fact, the roles that civilcommunities play in this regard are based on the
secular ideal of the state. On the other hand, somereligious idealists oppose all possible options thus
deterring a congenial atmosphere in which to formulatea bioethical framework. Yet, we cannot solve someproblems whether we advocate for the values ofindividual rights or promote societal values. Suppose
someone asks a doctor to kill him as he has been
suffering from an incurable disease with intolerable
pain. In that example, a decision based on individual
rights may not see anything wrong with active
euthanasia, but religious values, particularly the Islamic
ideal, may be at stake or in conflict here. However, in
our hospitals and in the context of the contribution ofbioscience, this requires a decision to be made. In
most cases, the values of Islam are not useful as ameans by which to promote quality policy guidelines. If
we only have Islamic values, then our moral discourse
will be impoverished and contradictory to the norms ofother religious segments of the population. It will also
be unable to construe higher and integrated forms ofbioethical policy.
Therefore, in articulating a policy based on aparticular religious vision, it is quite difficult to form
higher visions of human good. Thus, this paper takes
the view of claiming that those religious values havetheir limitations. Rather, we can revoke this view andpromote societal culture as it is offered by Will
3
Kymlicka (1995). His notion of societal culture isconcerned with a particular kind of culture — “societal
culture”. He points out some features of societal
culture: “culture which provides its members withmeaningful ways of life across the full range of humanactivities, including social, educational, religious,
recreational, and economic life, encompassing both4
public and private spheres.”
Within this culture, Kymlicka claims that thefollowing occurs: “an intergenerational community,
more or less institutionally complete, occupying a given
territory or home land, sharing a distinct language
5
history.” From this standpoint, we can easily draw theconclusion that any sort of culture would be meaningful
if able to provide a “meaningful life” across the fullrange of human activities, “including social,educational, religious, recreational, and economic life,3

See for discussion, Bhuiyan, A S M Anwarullah, 2011. “A
Critical Response to Will Kymlicka’s View of Multiculturalism”,
Human Affairs, 21, 129–139, Springer, Institute for Researchin Social Communication, Slovak Academy of Sciences.
4
Kymlicka, W. 1995. Multicultural Citizenship: a Liberal
Theory of Minority Rights. Oxford: Oxford, University Press,
p.76.
5
Kymlicka, 1995. p.18.

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)
6encompassing both public and private spheres.” In my
consideration, within the framework of societal culture,Bangladesh can mitigate all religious controversy toarticulate a bioethical policy.
Incorporating societal culture in the field ofbioethical practices can provide an ad hoc solution tosolve religious and other sorts of cultural differences
which have appeared as challenges or obstacles tohaving a flourishing bioethics field in Bangladesh.
However, the lack of a multidisciplinary approach isanother challenge facing bioethics which is discussed
in the next section.
2.1.3 Bioethics Needs a Multidisciplinary Approach
What exactly is the nature of academic curricula in
Bangladesh? It is well known that recent academic
curricula have been interested in being based on amultidisciplinary approach. Bioethics, as a means of
ethical assessment, has been developed in Westerncountries as multidisciplinary in nature. As such, it
incorporates legal, religious, secular and cultural
knowledge and knowledge of biological science,theology and social sciences. It also has
multidimensional applications such as in the field ofhealthcare among medical practitioners including
nurses, in the case of reproduction and reproductive
technology, in issues of family relationships and in theimpact of new science and technology. In that sense,
bioethics is purely multidisciplinary.
However,ifbioethics
isconsideredasinterdisciplinary, the question needs to be answered
about whether the curricula of higher education in
Bangladesh are comparable to that of other Westernand some Asian countries. The curricula of technicaleducation such as medical science, biotechnology andbiological science lack a multidisciplinary approach.
Like other curricula of tertiary education, thebioscience-related curricula have also been articulated
in a narrow sense that fails to have a holistic approachto the problems of life. Nevertheless, the “Education
Policy 2010” comprises this multidisciplinary approachin the chapter titled “Higher Education”. It indicates thatspecialized knowledge creates discursiveness in thefield of knowledge. Therefore, it sought “increasing
interdependency of different branches of knowledge.
As a result, science and technology, sociology,
literature, arts, economics and other subjects are
becoming interdependent. This is added to by
7
inventions of new technologies.” In the same chapter,the policy paper suggested that some strategies be
undertaken for the proper implementation of thisobjective. As such, it claims that: “The scope of higher
education will include subjects like defense studies,comparative theology, peace and conflict, climate
8change, etc.”

6

Kymlicka, 1995. 75.
NEP, 2010, National Education Policy 2010, Ministry of
Education, Government of the People’s Republic ofBangladesh, 2010, p.31.
8
NEP, 2010, p.32.
7

However, the reality of higher education is to not
implement the policy in terms of its conceptual
framework which is why we do not yet have aninterdependency approach in different branches ofknowledge, including in bioscience. If we want toimplement bioethics to regulate the contribution ofbioscience, certainly it requires that this area ofknowledge be designed from a multidisciplinary
approach. We have to take such an approach in the
different bioethical committees as has been done inWestern countries. Some bioscience-related issues
that are faced in Bangladesh are next mentioned in thefollowing test cases in areas such as animal
biotechnology, medical science, etc.
Firstly, we can look and consider the problem ofanimal biotechnology which is a major issue faced bybioscience. In Bangladesh, some technologicaluniversities and medical colleges have adopted thisarea of knowledge from its own perspective but lacking
the relevant problems of life. Biotechnology deals withthe problems of development of micro-organisms,
modifications of food products and improving thequality of plants and animals. For transgenic animal
production, it also uses plant and animal tissue culture
in order to save plants and animals from extinction andundertakes DNA profiling. Different sorts ofbiotechnologies have given us an enormous amount ofadvantages. For example, by using biotechnology, we
can produce medicine and nutritious food, and cangrow more food both in salinity conditions and on landin stressed and near-drought conditions. Despite thesecontributions, all forms of biotechnology bring forthdifferent ethical controversies, such as environmental
impact, impact on human health, animal welfare andthe question of naturalness, or playing with God, all ofwhich require discussion in this regard. Therefore,
biotechnology or bioscience are not a separate issue
aloof from the society’s values, norms, culture, religion
and the interest of human beings and, in addition toenvironmental interest, deserve due concern.
Therefore, any kind of bioscience needs toincorporate a philosophical, anthropological andnormative approach. In Bangladesh, these kinds ofbioscience curricula have failed to grasp thismultidisciplinary approach to the problem of life. In
order to find suitable solutions that have issued fromthis science, academics, formulators and policy experts
need to incorporate various disciplines and areas ofstudy.
Secondly, the next scenario is from the medical
curriculum. There are 16 government medical colleges
and more than 50 non-governmental medical collegesin Bangladesh none of which are teaching bioethicaltheories or guidelines to students at undergraduatelevel. Even the one university that handles
postgraduate courses has yet to incorporate a fullfledged bioethical course for its students. Medical
students only know about the medical professionals’
oath (particularly Hippocratic Oath). Consequently,
bioscience students do not have enough knowledge tounderstand their moral duty due to the nonmultidisciplinary approach taken.

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

Table 2: Place of Bioethics in Education Policy andMedical Code
Ethical Issue:
9
Education Policy (2010)

Bioethical Issue

Chapter: 1
Under the subtitle of “Education:
Aims and Objective”, this chapter
determines its policy as being todirect towards the “cultivation ofhuman values.” It also claims thatthe policy will help to develop the
pupils to “become rational andintellectually accomplished humanbeings with ethical perceptions …”
Chapter: 10; Medical profession
should be more sensitive and they
are to be motivated and trained as
to
work
as
sensitive
andconscientious
humanbeingsdevotedtotheserviceofhumankind.
Through medical education, they
will be motivated to devote
themselves to social and humanservices.

Here is an urge
towards
ethicalaptitude, but noplace for ethicalresponsetobioscience-related
issues.

10

Code of Medical Ethics;
Bangladesh Medical and Dental
Council, 1983
Ten principles are incorporated inits guidelines. Most of them are
related to ethical advice for medical
professionals. It determines only
thepractitioners
andhealthactivists’ responsibility to thepatient.

Assigned
ethicalcommitments of apractitioner
arementioned
here.
But, in case ofsome controversies
such as the issueofbioethics,
seeking permission
for end his/her life,
are
not
given
emphasis.
However,theguideline does notincorporate
howmedicalprofessionals andhealth activists aretorespondtoarising
controversies.
Infact, in terms ofbioethicalguidelines,
thecode of medical
ethics has simply
wastedsome
pages.

Our “National Education Policy 2010” has a very
light emphasis on the importance of ethicalresponsibility in dealing with medical science-related
problems. The aims and objectives of the chapter titled“Medical, Nursing and Health Education” in this policy
paper stated that: “[s]ince medical profession ischaracteristically more sensitive and is related to thephysical, mental sufferings/sickness that concern theissues of life and death, the specialists and general
doctors, dentists, nurses, health assistants andworkers and health technicians are to be motivatedand trained as to work as sensitive and conscientious
11
human beings devoted to the service of mankind.”

9

NEP, 2010, chapter 1: “Education: Aims and Objective”.
CME, 1983. “Code of Medical Ethics” (hereafter CME),
Bangladesh Medical & Dental Council, Council Act XVI of1980 and Approved by the Council in its meeting held on
24.3. 1983.

10

11

NEP, 2010, Chap. : 10: “Medical, Nursing and Health
Education”.

However, this direction is seriously lacking in our
medical science and bioscience courses. In this way,
guidelines in Bangladesh have failed to grasp bioethics
as an ethical policy.
2.2 Bioethics in Governmental Policy?
Policy can play a role as a directive that helps thegovernment to regulate its administrative body. In a
relevant field, inaccurate implementation of policy may
be declared as being a violation of the law. Therefore,
the policy should have inherent laws, values, norms
and culture in order for proper regulation of law andorder within the state. The question of regulatingbioscience requires policy to be incorporated thatprovides a set of bioethical principles in order to give
substance to the law and order of the state. In the 42
years that have passed since its independence,
Bangladesh has not yet formulated any policy toregulate the contribution of new sciences and its
adverse effect on the society and environment. By
looking at several education policy papers in thefollowing table, we find it is quite difficult to conclude
that they address anything like bioethical matters.
During the past 42 years, Bangladesh has not yet
formulated any coherent health policy. Owing to thelack of a health policy, until 1998, the successive Five
Year Plans directed all health-related decisions. In thatyear, a policy paper was approved by the government:
this was very much engaged with the objectives ofgaining equity and responsibility for its workers andactivists from the health sector. However, the present
paper concludes that, in order to ensure effective
health care policy as well as to promote the regulationof bioscience, ethical governance and rules need to beincorporated to deal with the controversies that havebeen raised in the health sectors and also inbioscience.
3. Bioethical Issues in Bangladesh
However, these are the theoretical as well as theempirical challenges that are faced in developing
bioethical policy. The field of reproductive medicine
and technologies has opened new avenues ofpossibility for mankind to promote reproductive health.
However, these possibilities have, in turn, led to new
moral controversy and dilemma. The next section
considers some bioethical issues involved withinabortion and in-vitro fertilization (IVF). This section also
refers to some moral and regulatory frameworks in its
attempt to help build the awareness of policy makers
and medical practitioners.
3.1. Bioethics in Reproductive Medicine
Here, I use the term “reproductive medicines” as themeans which fosters fertility and assisted reproduction.
Reproductive medicine plays two divergent roles:
firstly, people use reproductive medicine in the case ofterminating pregnancies (abortions) for undesired
pregnancies; secondly, in order to fulfill people’s desire
to have children, reproductive medicine provides one
means of assisting conception. Another way toincrease reproductive choice is to help predict the42

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

health status of a potential child (the fetus).
Reproductive medicine has two aspects: the negative
aspect discourages assisted reproduction, and thepositive aspect fosters reproduction. The positive
aspects of reproductive medicine and technologies
particularly help the infertile couple to have a child.
Recently, even in Bangladesh, a number oftechnologies are being used for that purpose, forexample, artificial insemination for preserving sperm,
hormonal treatment for producing eggs and surrogatesin the case of the female partner’s incapability ofbearing an embryo in her womb. Some bioethicalissues such as abortion and in-vitro fertilization will befocused in the following sections.
3.1.1 Abortion. As a means of reproductive medicine,abortion is the most controversial issue in Bangladesh.
There are many reasons for having an abortion.
Sometimes, women have an abortion in order to savetheir life. Other reasons are to preserve physical andmental health, due to rape or incest, fetal impairment,
for economic or social reasons, and due to unexpected
or illicit sexual activity. The Bangladesh government
only allows abortion in the case of saving the life of the12
woman. However, under the family planning law,“menstrual regulation” services are also effectively
allowed by the government. As a family planning
method, menstrual regulation is not treated as an
abortifacient; rather, it is available until the fetus is ateight weeks at the patient’s request. It seems thatmenstrual regulation is in contradiction to the restrictive
nature of abortion law. Why does contradictory law
exist in the prosecuting manual of the state? In
response to this question, the state jurist’s defense isthat the purpose of the law is to prosecute the offenseof abortion. But, the fact is that prosecuting the offenseof abortion may be unsuccessful only because of
menstrual regulation.
However, in the law related to abortion, informed
consent does not stand in terms of the agent’s
autonomy. It has been mentioned in a loose sense thatabortion should be carried out with the patient’s
consent, that this should be on the basis of saving herlife and that the decision should be performed by acompetent physician with the help of trained
paramedics in a specialized hospital. But in actual fact,
the reality of the governance of reproductive medicine
in Bangladesh, in most cases, faces many problems. It
13
has been reported that 35% of maternal mortality is
the result of induced and unsafe abortion.
Therefore, the question that may arise here is: how
can we formulate bioethical guidelines for mitigating
the risk-taking in having an abortion? In Bangladesh,bioethical issues have been discussed since thebeginning of the 1980s as an issue of practical ethics
in philosophical curricula. In these curricula, Peter
14
Singer’s eminent book Practical Ethics has become
very relevant due to its various topics on equality,
abortion, euthanasia, animal rights, wealth andpoverty, and political issues such as democracy, civil
disobedience, etc. Owing to the influence of Singer on
our academic curricula, it is not unusual to formulatebioethical guidelines associated with the views ofpreference utilitarianism.
The controversies about abortion usually focus on
religion, law and political values. Therefore, thequestions are common in this respect: should abortion
be treated like murder?; and is abortion consistent withreligious values? Behind the controversies, morecrucial moral questions are lacking the deep
concentration that they deserve. The controversy ofabortion involves the legal and moral status of the
fetus. If exponents consider the fetus to be a person, ofcourse, they may decide that abortion as a murder. On
the other hand, abortion should be justified from theperspective of a woman’s physical autonomy. The
state, society or family cannot pressure women to carrypregnancies and even cannot force them for abortion.
Moreover, abortion is an ethical choice when it isrelated to the agent. Therefore, in order to solve thiscontroversy, we should answer this ethical question:(1) does the agent have moral obligations to the fetus?
The question of the bearer’s bodily autonomy should
also be clearly justified. However, in the context of
Bangladesh, a good policy on abortion can only bechosen when it is possible to resolve the controversy
between politics and religion. But our state’s decisionmaking is seriously confused by the political andreligious dimensions.
3.1.2 In-Vitro Fertilization (IVF). In the case ofinfertility, wealthy couples who are incapable of having
a child due to their infertility do not encounter any
problem in receiving IVF or any other assisted
reproductive means. However, religious experts havecreated a psycho-environmental situation in the society
through propaganda which is working effectively. Some15
feminists in Bangladesh have also raised a question
about the trend of using contraceptives being
dependent on women. This is why only women face anumber of adverse side-effects from using
contraceptives. For example, irregular menstruation,
feeling fatigue and also headaches are common
complaints. The means of contraceptives are available
for men in Bangladesh. Some scientific experiments
have found that the impacts of these new techniques
are not as bad as those faced by women.

14
12

United Nations, Abortion Policies: A Global Review,
Bangladesh, 47.
URPL
http://
www.un.org/esa/population/abortion/
profiles.htm, accessed 10 Sep 2012.
13
BDHS, 2011, Bangladesh Demographic and Health
Survey, NIPORT: Mitra and Associates, Demographic and
Health Surveys, Macro International Inc., Dhaka.

Singer, Peter, Practical Ethics, 1989 (1979), Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
15
Begum, Hasna, 2001, “Issues Related to the
Implementation of Reproductive Technology in IslamicSocieties”, in Ethics in Social Practice, Dhaka: Academic
Press & Publishers Limited. Also see her (2001) “Rights of
Woman in Bangladesh”

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)16

17

In the case of women’s infertility , IVF is used at
the suggestion of an expert physician. Receiving the
IVF technique is controversial even in the secular world
where the question has been asked whether it is
ethical to take IVF. In Bangladesh, due to its Islamicorientation, the same question comes to the scenario.
It is also argued by some Islamic research18
associations, particularly Al-Ghazzali Centre , that
there are no clear prescriptions about IVF in the
primary religious texts, the Qur’an and Sunnah. This is
why there are five rulings amongst the Islamic
jurisprudence. Some exponents say that IVF ispermissible; some Islamic jurisprudence says that it isreprehensible; some say that, of course, in the case ofnatural infertility, the married couple could receive IVF
so that it is recommended; some say it is obligatory;
and some take a stand that it is strictly prohibited.
In response to this issue, the Bangladeshi Muslim
community is also divided into two wings: firstly, themass of illiterate people, religious personalities andsome of the Mowlana (Islamic intellectuals) seriously
oppose using any sort of scientific means. They urgethat IVF is one of the “sharing” (shiraq) or “playing with
God” which is strictly prohibited in Islam. In favor of
their argument, they explain that Allah has given
reproductive fluids to all males and females for
producing offspring. In this regard, the Qur’an statesthat “Verily, I created humankind from a small quantity
19
of mingled fluids.”
Another verse of the Qur’an
forwarded for refutation of the option of IVF states that:“He bestows both male and females; and He leaves
20barren whom he Will.” This means that God isalmighty: if His will is to give an offspring, it might bepossible even at the age of 80. For example, theymention the story of Zakariah and his wife Isbah who in21
old age conceived by the blessing of God.
However, another argument in favor of IVF is
influenced by the Islamic Fiqh Council. According toSharee’ah, IVF is possible among married couples, but
not in other situations. This view was explored by
16

I used the term infertility in the sense of Professor Brent
Miller, for more details we can see: Miller, Brent, 2004.
Family and Human Development, Uttah State University
17
IVF (In Vitro Fertilization) is a reproductive technique of
fertilization of the embryo by combining the sperm from themale and egg from the female in a laboratory. In a successfulprocedure, firstly it requires to retrieval of the mature egg. In
the second step, the egg should place into an incubator by aculture medium until optimal fertilization by the sperm. This
stage is called pre-embryo, then in the third stage, after
recovering the egg, the embryo(s) inserted into the uterus
through the cervix. Finally, hormones push to regulate andsupport the early pregnancy.
18
This centre is contributing in the field of Islamic Sciencesand Human development. For this opinion see the booklet :“Ali, Afroz, “ The conditional Permissibility of In Vitro
Fertilization under Islamic Jurisprudence, al-ghazzali centre
for Islamic Sciences and Human development, Australia,
URL : www.alghazzali.org.

22

Sheikh Ahmed Kutty: he argues that IVF ispermissible only in the case where both are husband
and wife by means of the Islamic Nikah (marriage)
system. The sperm and egg should be collected fromthem but if an egg or sperm is introduced from anyother person, not tied by marriage (not the husband orwife), it would be adultery (zina) in Islam. The sameviews have been promoted by the Al-Azhar’s Fatwa
Committee. However, some other radical Muslim
scholars have provided an argument under Islamic
jurisprudence (Usool al-Fiqh, Fiqh) that Islam is forhumankind and also for the benefit of the humanity.
They claim, in accordance with this view, that if any
new sciences would be beneficial for humanity thatshould be acceptable. Accordingly, IVF might bebeneficial in the case of the inability of a couple toachieve a pregnancy. In all respects, the controversy
involving IVF has not yet been solved in Bangladesh
from its bioethical aspect.
Some of the contributions of reproductive medicine
are coming from biotechnological inventions. The next
section focuses on some potential contributions ofbioscience: genetic engineering and stem cellresearch. This section shows that there are anenormous number of ethical issues: it also shows how
the Bangladesh government can attempt to grapple
with these controversial issues. At the same time, thesection also offers some bioethical frameworks toassess their contribution.
3.3 Genetic Engineering and Stem Cell Research
South Asian countries are highly populated. In
terms of fulfilling the necessity of food security andalleviating poverty among the majority of the populationof these countries, they have concentrated on
agriculture and animal protein. Therefore, they havebeen
seriously
considering
biotechnologicalinnovations as a key component in fulfilling this need.
Before entering into discussion on the problem ofanimal biotechnology, firstly, we have to introduce theanimal biotechnology practices in Bangladesh. Then,we will attempt to find out whether the Bangladesh
government takes into account bioethical governancein assessing the contributions and diverse impact ofanimal biotechnology in different fields.
For the last three decades, Bangladesh has
undoubtedly been achieving successful improvement infarming systems, agricultural techniques, livestock
production, health, nutrition, and gene management. In
the late 1970s, Bangladesh initiated a program onplant biotechnology. Recently, some non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs) and universities have initiatedsimilar programs. Some institutions and NGOs areengaged in biotechnology research but the majority ofscientists are trained in conventional biotechnology.
There is a need to build the legal, institutional andhuman capacity so it can cope with the demands andrapid development of modern biotechnology.

19

Holy Qur’an, 76:2.
Qur’an, 51 :28-30.
21
Qu’ran, 21 :89-90.
20

22

Kutty, Sheikh Ahmed, 2002, IVF Symposium, Faith andScience, Toronto, Canada.

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

Except for livestock husbandry, there is no
significant biotechnological application in Bangladesh.
Current infrastructure, legal or institutional capacity,
technical and financial systems are very low in terms ofenhancing biotechnology. Some researchers at the
non-governmental
level
are
engagedinbiotechnological research. In May 2000, theBangladesh government officially adopted “bio-safety
guidelines” which aim to: “[e]nsure safe transfer,handling, use and trans boundary movement of LMOs
to safeguard human and animal health, environment,
biodiversity and the socio-economic welfare of the23society.”
In August 2005, the Ministry of Science andInformation
andCommunication
Technology,
Bangladesh and the National Biotechnology Policy
launched a guideline paper for controlling significant
improvements in different fields of biotechnology. The
section “Goals and Objectives” of the policyemphasizes: “The main goal of the policy is to ensuresustainable development of agriculture-food and othercrops; nutrition; health; environments; and livelihood ofpeople, enhance agricultural competitiveness inrelation to global standards. The other important goals
include strengthening of the national capabilities inmodern biotechnology, bio-safety, and bioethics inorder to ensure judicious use of this modern tool for24
socio-economic development of the country.”
In its objectives, the policy report includes 10 aims:
withinthebiotechnology
policyreport,theunderstanding of biotechnology, whether it is animal,
agricultural or food biotechnology, is centered only forthe benefit of human beings and developing theirconsuming lifestyle: “increased quality and value of
products leading to sustained food security, poverty
25
alleviation and health and livelihood improvement.”
In its objectives 3.2.4 to 3.27, the policy suggests
facilitating the funds for rapid development of [animal]
biotechnology. However, in the last section (3.2.10;p.4), the policy very insignificantly mentions a
precaution: “to create public awareness on
biotechnology by involving all stakeholders to ensure
adequate level of protection in the safe handling of thistechnology.”
In the section “Opportunity Areas of Biotechnology
in Bangladesh” (p.4), the policy report is ambitious inseeking to achieve:“[S]ubstantial benefits to the society
in a wide range of sectors such as agriculture, medical
and health and nutrition, forestry, animal husbandry,
fisheries and livestock, environment protection andimproving the quality of products and services.”
On the other hand, the biotechnology policy report
has no strong commitment to contributing to asustainable lifestyle. Instead, the guidelines reportcovers the following:i. “An identification of any novel genotypic andphenotypic characteristics associated with the
GMO/LMO that may have adverse effects on biologicaldiversity in the likely potential receiving environment,
26
taking also into account risks to human health;”ii. “An evaluation of the likelihood of these adverse
effects being realized, taking into account the level andkind of exposure of the likely potential receiving
27
environment to the living modified organism.”28
According to the Method of Risk Assessment , itseems that the guidelines are committed to contributing
to the sustainable development of society in healthcare and from an ecological sense. While taking thiscommitment into practice, it states that the applicationof biotechnology is committed to a balanced
development of society; it contributes to promoting ahealthy ecological situation and to initiatives in the fieldof self-organization. The guidelines also take into
account
thedirectandindirect
ecologicalconsequences of biotechnology’s activities; it iscommitted to a responsible approach to nature, theenvironment and the welfare of animals as well as toother stakeholders related to this issue.
However, the question which is important to answer
in this regard is: how can [animal] biotechnologicalapplications tackle the problem of sustainability? In
response to this question, we can mention here someof the points from Section 5.9: “Biosafety and Bio29
ethics” :5.9.1: Management of opportunities and challengesof biotechnology viz. productivity, sustainability,
biosafety, access, benefit-sharing and trade be
30
ensured through appropriate mechanism.”
5.9.2: Guidelines, acts and regulations will be
formulated for development and management ofbiotechnology, biosafety, bioethics, biodiversity &environment protections to ensure human rights aswell as social, cultural, ethical and economic
31
perspectives of the country.”
We can raise another question: how do we deal
with the problem of animal biotechnology regarding
sustainability and public health? There is no specificdirection or prescription in the guidelines or even in thepolicy. Sometimes, it is argued that the issue ofsustainability is examining the ethical dilemma of
maintaining the value of sustainability. Furthermore, we
may raise other questions: is animal biotechnology stillsustainable in line with the guidelines of the value ofsustainability? What kind of interpretation ofsustainability is needed to balance the customers’
demand and the public health and environmental
problems in this case?

23

Biosafety Guidelines of Bangladesh, 2005, Ministry ofEnvironment and Forest, Government of the People’s
Republic of Bangladesh. In my discussion, I will use it as
Guidelines.
National Biotechnology Policy, 2005, Ministry of Science andInformation and Communication and Technology.
24
National Biotechnology Policy, 2005, p.3.
25
National Biotechnology Policy, 2005, p.3.

26

Guidelines, 2005.3.1.4., Methodology of Risk Assessment,
p.9.
27
Guidelines, 2005, 3.1.4., p.9.
28
Guidelines, 2005, pp.9-10.
29
NBP (National Biotechnology Policy), 2005, p. 12.
30
Guidelines, 2005, 2005, p.12.
31
Guidelines, 2005, 2005, p.12.

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

Another problem lies in both the guidelines and thepolicy report. In the biotechnological application,
particularly in the application of animal biotechnology,
there are at least four stakeholders or interest groups:
treated organisms (animals), producers (farmers),
consumers (people) and biota (environment: flora and32
fauna). In relation to these stakeholders, the policy or
guidelines report produced by the Bangladesh
government has not given any direction on how these
problems can be mitigated or on how we measure theadverse effects of animal biotechnology. In order tomeasure the adverse effects of animal biotechnology,
the guideline paper has not explicated any ethicalstandards or methods. It only focused on the risk andbenefit of this technique without going deeper. Aftergoing through the guidelines and policy reports, it isfirstly noticeable that the Bangladesh government
incorporates [animal] biotechnology without any
scrutiny of the side-effects of this technology.
Secondly, the interests of stakeholders involved in thistechnology are not well-defined.
Four questions should have been answered earlier
while pursuing the guidelines and the policy of animal
biotechnology:
1. Is it possible to apply animal biotechnology
without following the principles of sustainability?
2. Who will bear the burden and gain the benefit
from the contribution of animal biotechnology?
3. Are animals or treated organisms consideredwithin the norms of “animal integrity”?
4. To what extent are the opportunities
distributed?
In the guidelines and policy report, these questions
33
are not addressed. The report covers only four points :SWOT (i) “S=strengths” and (ii) “W=weaknesses” asinternal to the organization, while (iii) “O=opportunities”
and (iv) “T=threats” are included as external to theorganization. The SWOT analysis of biotechnologicalapplication in Bangladesh has shown only two aspectsof its application. In the SWOT analysis, the first two
factors of internal aspects are positive in enhancing
biotechnology. The latter two are concerned about therisks of the technology. Through the factors “strengths”
and “weaknesses”, the report explored two points:(a) in order to develop biotechnology, it suggests
the use of the enormous resources of animals, aquatic
fauna and plants. It also suggests encouraging young
scientists and professionals to contribute in the field ofbiotechnological researach. The report mentions the
weaknessesofbiotechnologicalresearchinBangladesh. It finds that inadequate funding, scarcity
of skilled researchers, unavailability of laboratories and32

This kind of stakeholders based analysis is emphasized by
Ben Mepham. See for details :Mepham, T. B., 1996. “Ethical analysis of Food
Biotechnologies: An Evaluative Framework,” in B. Mepham(ed.), Food Ethics, London and New York: Routledge.
33
April, 2011. In a recent draft paper : “Strategic Action Plan
to Implement Biotechnology Policy in Bangladesh” completedby Ministry of Science and Information & Communication
Technology. Government of the People’s Republic ofBangladesh,scientific databases, and inappropriateness ofpurchasing techniques are the main obstacles to thedevelopment of animal biotechnology in Bangladesh.
(b) In the draft report, it seems, that the focus has
only been half-hearted on many significant issues. In
order to increase food safety, security, environmental
protection and health, the report suggests developing
the techniques and policies of biotechnology.
Both the SWOT points ignored at least two
important issues relevant to the application of animal
biotechnology. We can introduce this problem by34
raising questions :i. Does animal biotechnology violate the criteria of“animal welfare”?
ii. What are the effects of biotechnologicalapplication upon the environment?
Firstly, in response to the first question, theconcept of animal welfare is important. Before
answering the first question, we shall first have to
make the concept of animal welfare clear. The term,
animal welfare, is used by different types of people,
especially by veterinarians, farmers, consumers andpoliticians. Veterinarians focus on the physicalenvironment such as shelter and feeding; they alsoneed to measure how the animals are coping with the35existing environment. In addition, there are people
who think it is important to maintain the psychologicalstatus of animals. They are of the opinion that animals
have various psychological states such as fear,
frustration and pain, which need to be addressed. This36
should be taken as part of their primary needs.
Therefore, it can now be said that the overall
physiological and mental well-being of the animals iscalled “animal welfare”. However, application of animal
biotechnology affects animal welfare in the following
two ways:(a) By using biotechnology, different kinds of animaldrugs and feed additives are produced which haveadverse effects on animal health. In genetic
rearrangement, either in non-sexual or sexualexchange, or in the laboratory, the unavoidable
sufferings of animals are beyond description. One
37
study shows that after breeding, farm animals sufferfrom infections from rotaviruses, which are caused byheavy diarrheal diseases. These viruses damage theirintestinal mucosa. The same study gives an exampleof the experiments conducted on pigs through which
they are genetically modified. By inserting additional
34

I raised these two questions in my Master Thesis andattempt to draw a critical response to these questions. Seefor details: Thesis “Ethical Challenges of Animal
Biotechnology: Application of Ben Mepham’s Ethical Matrix”,
Centre for Applied Ethics, Linkoping University, Sweden,
available in urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-60923. pp.11-12.
35
cf, I adopted the clarification of the term from Masters
Thesis, see urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-60923. pp.11-12. and also
see Brom, 1991: 4167-4175.
36
Duncan, 2002:, pp. 643-652
37
BABAS, 1999, Ethical Aspects of Agricultural
Biotechnology, Bioethical Aspects of Biotechnology in theAgro Food Sector, Cambridge Biomedical Consultants, The
Hague, 22.

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

gene copies for growth hormone into pigs, it is possible
to bring forth faster growth of their offspring. But the
animals involved in the process suffer from severe
arthritis which seriously affects their health.
(b) Application of animal biotechnology involves
procedures that can cause different types of suffering
for animals. Different sorts of proceedings are related
to animal biotechnology. Firstly, it encourages the useof a large number of animals within a limited space, forexample, intensive livestock farming. What happens inthis kind of farming is made clear by the statement by
38
Peter Singer. He opines that life is intolerable foranimals under intensive livestock farming. Throughout
the year, animals are crowded in a battery cage, or in
the case of a breeding sow, they are unable to walk orturn around. There is no way of socializing; sometimes,
they are thrown out and killed. All this is evidence of illtreatment of animals as they are confined within alimited boundary. Animals are also deprived of theirnecessary ethological and biological needs. In this kindof farming, with its caging, restraining, spacing,breeding, rearing and slaughtering, controlled39
environmental situations are common phenomena.
40
Secondly , in response to question (ii), scientists
have put forward different kinds of arguments. A study
on “animal biotechnology and the environment” by
KrimskyandWrubel,claimsthatanimalbiotechnologies have many environmental benefits.
They argue that in the traditional milking system more
cows give less milk and occupy more agro-land, more
cows also produce more slurry and manure. On theother hand, the use of biotechnology is helpful in
reducing the amount of land required; thus, the land
can be kept for non-agricultural purposes. Anotherstudy has shown that a genetically modified animal
41
generates “low phosphorus manure”. Usually, feed
phosphorus from animal manure is responsible for thepollution of surface water. Low phosphorus contributes
to less pollution. Thus, the use of biotechnology turns
into a great environmental benefit.
Biotechnology is multidimensional in nature;
therefore, its governance also requires the handling ofdifferent stakeholders, that is, farmers, consumers,
animals and the environment. Sometimes, thestakeholders are in conflict with each other infacilitating their own profit and interest. For that reason,
the contribution of biotechnological applications needs
to be managed. In Bangladesh, consciously or
unconsciously, we are incorporating different kinds of[animal] biotechnological applications which include
livestock farming, food, research in medical andmedicinal purposes, etc. In our previous discussion, we
have shown that the application of animal
biotechnologies has dangerous impacts on health, the38Singer, Peter, 1989. Evidence to Committee, 11 Aug,
1989, Australian and New Zealand Federations of Animals
Societies, Evidence, 9470.
39
see urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-60923. pp.11-12. and also see
Brom, 1991: 4167-4175.
40
Krimsky and Wrubel, 1996.
41
Goloven, et.al. 2001, pp. 741-745.

environment and treated organisms. This is theconvincing reason that justifies the applications and theneed to regulate the applications. We should notreceive any contribution whatsoever of biotechnology
products without adequate justification. In order toachieve reasonable results from the production ofanimal biotechnologies, we have to critically justify
them and should also enhance their ethicalgovernance. The ethical governance of biotechnology
would assist the stakeholders involved thebiotechnology.
Euthanasia is slighlty different issue from that of the
reproductive problems such as abortion and invitrofertilization. However, both they have similarities interms of life. Euthanasia, abortion and invitro
fertilization deals either amelioration of life or
discouraging life. The next section will focus oneuthanasia.
3.4 Understanding Euthanasia in Bangladesh
What does the term “euthanasia” mean? The term“euthanasia” simply means mercy killing that is carriedout in order to bring a peaceful end to the life ofpatients who are not able to lead a normal life. Somemay be suffering from critical diseases with unbearable
pain and have no chance of recovery and others may
be in a permanent coma. In such situations, actions toadminister some lethal drug (active euthanasia) or thewithdrawal of treatment to terminally ill patients(passive euthanasia) have been permitted to bring apeaceful death.
The issue of euthanasia has not yet been discussed
at the governmental level in Bangladesh. However,many cases have occurred in hospitals without
following any rules or ethical criteria, simply by medical
doctors stating that the patient is clinically dead. For
example, we may refer here to some cases, such as
the withdrawal of life-support systems from famouspoet Shamsur Rahman, journalist Nirmol Sen, pop
singer Azam Khan, political leader Abdul Matin andnumerous other cases that have occurred in our
hospitals. From these instances of the withdrawal oflife support (passive euthanasia), ethical controversy
can be extracted which has not been considered in allof these cases due to the lack of any euthanasia
committee at hospital or governmental level.
All these instances raise some moral questions: is it
morally right to withdraw patients’ life-support
systems? Is it permissible to stop medical care, foodand other support systems without attempting further
efforts such as better treatment? We may criticize theoption of continuing treatment: at the same time, we
may permit the withdrawal of treatment or food but
which one is morally right requires decision.
Of course, the permissibility of euthanasia hasdeserved assessment of its relevant ethicalcontroversy. In the context of the above-mentioned
cases, the question may be raised here about whether
the decision of the hospital’s medical team is ethicallyor legally permissible. Some may argue that because aperson has the autonomy to live life, this implies thatthey have the right to end it. On the contrary, some47

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

may argue that it is unethical to take one’s own life. In
the former case, some countries such as the
Netherlands and Belgium have permitted euthanasia.
But in the latter case, some other countries consider
the attempt to terminate one’s life as a punishable
offense.
In the context of Bangladesh, the matter is not easy
to resolve owing to its diverse religious and social
dimensions. For example, in a number of cases that
we have observed, the choice of taking life/ ending life
or withdrawal of food/life-support systems/medicines
has involved family members. Some family members
may ask for the continuation of treatment for as long as
possible. Some may argue that the decision to prolong
a terminal situation would increase the suffering andindignity of the patient. Such conflicting situations
among family members require observation from someinteresting religious and cultural dimensions. Somepeople who are not blinded by religion would support apainless death as a dignified one and, therefore,
indicate that we should not prolong suffering and pain.
On the other hand, orthodox Muslims and Hindus
advise to not go against the fate that God had
determined for us, in other words, not to play with the
God that is letting him/her die. Some other aspects
come from the patient’s financial condition. Suppose, if
the patient’s family members wish to prolong his/herlife, it will require nursing, medicines and otheressential equipment which are very expensive and, tosome extent, are consuming time and wasting financial
resources. For prolonging the life of terminally illpatients, there is no home palliative care available toadminister treatment which is another problem in
Bangladesh. Therefore, there is no bioethical or legal
procedure to consider in terms of the end of life of
terminally ill patients. In addition, doctors and nurses
do not have training opportunities available on making
decisions in such critical situations.
HIV/AIDS is different from the above issues as it isrelated to the biological suffering of human beings. As
such, this very significant medical issue is also
concerned with the perception of ethical treatment.
How will the HIV/AIDS patient be treated? And, whatkind of ethical issues are required to protect against the
spread of epidemics of this disease? All thesequestions will be the focus of the next section.
42

3.5 HIV/AIDS and Some Ethical Issues
The major segment of the population in Bangladesh
is Muslims. Muslims, in general, follow the principles of
the Qur'an as the most sacred way of life. However,these principles do not explicitly expose any means tocombat or counteract a dreadful disease like HIV/AIDS.
Apart from that, the governmental measures in thisregard are not complementary to achieving an effective
solution. Against this backdrop, this section, however,intends to seek ways that could help increaseawareness about HIV/AIDS, encourage safe sex
practices, eliminate stigmatization, reinforce ethicalvalues and promote compassion.
43
It may be claimed that framing an infectious
disease as a security risk lends it a sense of urgency. It
is also a way of seeking the extra resources that areassociated with traditional (military) concepts of
security. In this statement, it does not seem to matter if
HIV/AIDS really is a security risk, just that the
expectation of framing it in that way is more beneficial
in regard to the value of the wanted resources. There ishistorical evidence of the increased allocation of
resources when framing the AIDS problem in terms of
security according to Selgelid and Enemark. In otherwords, they expect the best consequences will arise
when the HIV/AIDS problem is framed as a security
risk. It seems that they use this conclusion as a way ofdetermining the value of the outcome of the option offraming HIV/AIDS as a security risk.
4. Ways to Mitigate the Challenges: Ethical
Formulation
At this level, some ethical outlook which is common
to bioethical approaches should be justified. The
44
pervasive ethical notions
are non-maleficence,
beneficence, the autonomy of the client and justice.
These are the moral principles for handling the various
aspects of bioethical problems in various ways anddegrees.
We have discussed abortion as a crucial issue ofbioethics. Regarding the case of abortion, the moral
status of the fetus and the rights of the woman who iscarrying the pregnancy are very important ethicalissues. In the first case, the controversy related toabortion is whether the fetus is a person or not. If theanswer is positive, this requires giving emphasis to theright to life of the fetus. On the other hand, the rightpossessed by the woman implies her entitlement tochoose an abortion. As a person, a woman has theright to decide about or to control her own body andneither the state, society nor anyone else has the rightto force her to continue a pregnancy against her will.
Therefore, ethical points such as the right of awoman to choose an alternative termed as ‘autonomy’or informed consent, and the moral status of the fetus
in terms of personhood are very relevant to abortion.
However, socio-religious conditions cannot be
discarded from the assessment. For example, in
Bangladesh, the fact that the majority of the populationis Muslim plays a significant role underlying theformulation of governmental policy. The most liberal
views of Islam uphold that after the union between egg
and sperm, the zygote formed has become a fullindividual in the sense of carrying its full human genetic
code. Islamic scholars reach consensus that “[f]rom the43

Selgelid & Enemark, 2008, p. 458.
This line of ethical principles were first used by
Beachump and Childress, 2006. Principles of Biomedical
Ethics (For references : Beachump, T.L., and Childress, J.F.,
2006, Principles of Biomedical Ethicsi, Oxford : Oxford
University Press, 394-452.

44
42

Particularly this claim is come from: Selgelid, Michael J.,
and Enemark, Christian. 2008. “Infectious Diseases, Security
and Ethics: The Case of HIV/AIDS”. Bioethics, 22(9): 457–
465; Selgelid & Enemark, 2008, p. 457.

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

moment a zygote settles inside a woman’s body, it
deserves a unanimously recognized degree of respect,
and a number of legal stipulations, known to all
45
scholars, apply to it.” Islamic scholars agree thatwhen the zygote (nutfah) reaches the stage of spiritbreathing, the fetus should receive “sanctity of life”.
Such condemnation is also narrated in the verses of
the Qur’an: 6:151 & 81:2. By giving respect to it as thefull individual, it is a vice (unethical) to kill the fetus at
the said stage. Such a situation is narrated in the
Qur’an by the term “haml” (Qur’an: 19:22, 31:14,
46:15) which means the zygote should be protected
and carried to term. It implies that the zygote has theactive potentiality to become a human being. As such,in addition to comparison with other religious andcultural sects, bioethical policy regarding abortion
should be formulated by the government.
Any kind of [bio]technology, whether it is animal orplant, is one of the means by which we live today. Most
developed countries in the world have achieved
significant technological development so their
population can lead lives that are very smooth andeasy. For example, most agricultural crops and foodare the results of biotechnological development. In
Bangladesh, we are also using suitable processes byapplying certain biotechnological techniques to
production. We are using different techniques for
producing plants and crops, natural processes andtechniques for creative survival and the building andstructure of dwellings which are essential features of
our lives. We cannot suddenly reject or oppose thesedevelopments. This is the reason why we should becautious as well as critical in applying or rejecting
biotechnological techniques. Therefore, tools need to
be selected for better assessment of [bio]technology.
In order to assess the ethical issues raised in theapplication of biotechnologies in animal, health andfood production, the European Union has developed
decision-support “ethical tools”. For pursuing ethicaldecision-making, a group of ethical experts hasdeveloped a set of ethical tools known as Ethical BioTA. There are a number of ethical tools in the decisionmaking framework with the potential to support thework of public policy decision-makers. They are: (i)casuistry; (ii) the COGEM framework; (iii) criticalsystems heuristics; (iv) the Delphi method; (v)discourse ethics; (vi) ethical codes/guidelines; (vii)
ethical matrix; (viii) multi-criteria mapping; (ix) the
precautionary principle; (x) principle-based ethics; (xi)risk analysis; and (xii) stakeholder analysis. To
formulate “ethical governance” in Bangladesh, Ben
46
Mepham’s ethical matrix would be helpful for thefollowing two reasons:45

Anonymus, The Full Minutes of the Seminar on “Human
Life: Its Inception and End as Viewed by Islam”, 1985. URL :http://www.islamset.com/bioethics/incept.html.

46

Ethical Matrix is one of the ethical tools that havedeveloped by T. Ben Mepham and his colleagues from the
University of Nottingham. He introduces this matrix for‘rational ethical analysis’ with an aim to assess the impact of
new technology of food and biotechnology (Mepham, 1996,

Firstly, as an ethical tool, it incorporates Childress
and Beauchamp’s four principles: (1) non-maleficence,(2) beneficence; (3) autonomy and (4) justice. Whereas
the principle of beneficence emphasizes the “practicesof good deeds”, non-maleficence refers to the“obligations not to inflict harm”: the principle ofautonomy is the “guiding principle for the recognition ofhumancapacityforself-determination
and47
independence in decision-making” ; and the principleof justice is based on two things: (1) fair treatment ofall, irrespective of race, color, religion and economic
status, and (2) equity in terms of distribution. In
Mepham’s ethical matrix, the four principles provide
trans-cultural, transnational, trans-religious and trans48
philosophical frameworks for ethical analysis.” It also,“… suitably translated within the context of foodbiotechnologies, provides a framework for ethicalanalysis which should facilitate appropriate public
policy-making in democratic societies [in order toassess] the ethical impacts of biotechnologies in the49
fields of agriculture and food technology”.
Secondly, most of the tools, as mentioned before,
including Childress and Beauchamp’s four principles,
are applicable only to the realms of specific problems
such as health care, livestock and medicine and in the
problems of biological sciences. But Mepham’s ethicalmatrix is applicable to the different fields ofbiotechnology, and even to social and pedagogicalproblems.
What should Bangladesh incorporate in its policy todeal with HIV/AIDS? The present authors emphasize
justifying “obligatory precautions” against HIV infection.
The terms obligatory and precautions can beseparately understood from their etymological sense.
As an ethical term, obligatory means something whichis required or compulsory which also stresses ought to
do. On the other hand, the term precaution means
preventive measurement or carefulness which helps
the person to avoid risk or harm.
Sometimes it is claimed that safe sex, for example,
using a condom or abstinence, is the best precaution
against any sexually transmitted diseases. HIV
transmission is possible through various ways, forexample, by using contaminated needles, transfusion
2000a, 2005, 2006). His ‘matrix’ is a modified version of Tom
Beauchamp and Childress’s principlism (1979); Mepham, T.
B., “Ethical Analysis of Food Biotechnologies: an Evaluative
Framework,” in B. Mepham (ed.), Food Ethics, London and
New York: Routledge, 1996, pp. 101–119; Mepham, T. Ben.,“A Frameworks For Ethical Analysis of Novel Foods : theEthical Matrix” , Journal of Agricultural and Environmental
Ethics, 2000a 12 (2), 165–176; Mepham, T. Ben, “The Roleof Food Ethics in Food policy”, In Proceedings of the Natural
Society, 2000b, 59, 609-618; Mepham,B., Kaiser M,
Thorstensen E, Tomkins S and Millar K, Ethical Matrix
Manual,LEI,
The
Hague,
2006.
http://www.ethicaltools.info/content/ET2%20Manual%20EM%
20(Binnenwerk%2045p).pdf (accessed 1 April 2010).
47
Bhardwaj, Aditya, 2003, “Global Biotechnology and Internal
Governance of Biotechnology”, Asian Biotechnology andDevelopment Review, ABDR, New Delhi, Vol. 1: 39.
48
Mepham, 2000a, p.167.
49
Mepham, 2000a, p.167.

49

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)of HIV-positive blood, tattoos, bodies piercing, etc.
being the most prevalent. The special features of
HIV/AIDS with regard to precaution and transmission
do not discharge us of our prima facie obligation to
avoid spreading this disease. In that case, the practiceof safe sex is the best precaution. First and foremost,this is an individual responsibility that can hardly becontrolled by legal, religious and conventional
obligations. Therefore, people need to always be
conscious about the adverse effects of inappropriate
use of these means. Therefore, they should use clean
needles and other measures in the field of hygiene arealso necessary.
Utilitarianism/consequentialism and contractualism
have been described as important theories. Why does
utilitarianism matter in the case of obligatory
precautions against HIV infection. Why? This tricky
question is related to the claim of citizens’ liberty. For
the sake of public health interest, most countries
undertake some sort of public health interventions in
the case of infectious diseases. These involve
isolation, mandatory treatment of infected persons andquarantine. However, these sorts of interventions
seriously obstruct people’s personal freedom andliberty, for example, a person who follows a special
kind of convention or belief that recommends not taking
any vaccines, medicines or treatment.
5. Concluding Remarks: Recommendations
Many problems are interlinked with bioethics.
However, to properly handle these issues, a qualitative
bioethical discourse needs to be formed in different
institutions, organizations and hospitals. Bioethicalcommittees can play a significant role in saving therights of both patients and experimental subjects inscientific research and health care organizations. In the
1960s, most European countries and the United States(USA) formed bioethics committees. In Bangladesh,
there are no central ethics committees to provide
administrative control over unethical practices.
However, we have observed that there have been nobioethical curricula in bioscience: even medical
physicians are not aware of the ethical controversies ofabortion, ending life, the moral status of the fetus andstem cell research. Almost every medical college andhospital needs a bioethics review committee in order todeal with controversies arising in medical research andhospitals.
Compared to the Western world, Bangladesh has adifferent set of values and cultural affiliation. The
results of this diversity; the structure of the social
systems; the cases of abortion, IVF and sterilization;issues of euthanasia; and practices of biotechnologicalcontributions, in turn, give rise to different kinds ofbioethical controversy. Such controversies can only beresolved following the countrywide spread of public
values and beliefs. However, we should keep in mind
that Bangladesh has diversified values, and a diverse
ethnic and religious composition; this means that we
do not have a coherent set of values. For example, thevalues of orthodox Muslims and the secular civilcommunity are not less than the differences between

eastern and western countries. To some extent, thesedifferences are as threatening as the groups in conflict.
However, in spite of these difficulties in creating publicconsensus, there are some positive things in ourvalues. Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists and different
ethnic communities have particular beliefs which may
promote some of the highest values such as respect
for life, brotherhood, empathy, social relationships andnon-harming virtues. While formulating bioethicalguidelines, committees should consider these values.
Introducing these existing values of our society into
bioethical guidelines could help to draw very interesting
conclusions that mitigate the controversies that havearisen in the aforesaid problems. Adopting societal
values has some significant advantages. Firstly, it
helps to promote public consensus within a known
sphere. Secondly, it helps to promote higher humanends.
If we intend to solve the controversy in abortion on
the basis of our regional societal values instead of theWestern approach of bioethics, we can follow the local
knowledge whether it comes from religion, theindigenous sphere or the historical value of heritage. In
the case of abortion, the rights of the woman, holinessof sexual conjugation, respect for life (life of the fetus),
the mutual understanding of men and women all
require consideration. In our local societal values, allsorts of values are present to a large extent.
In order to monitor these values in bioethicalguidelines, skilled and multidisciplinary learned people
should be co-opted. Religious personalities, doctors,
legal experts, philosophers, ethicists and government
representatives (skilled officers from relevant
ministries) could be included. In the context of
Bangladesh, no central ethics committee has yet been
established. The Bangladesh Medical ResearchCouncil (BMRC) is playing the role of a central ethics
committee. Accordingly, ethics review committees havebeen formed in some government medical colleges
and institutions.
The International Centre for Diarrhoeal Diseases
Research, Bangladesh (ICDDRB) has undertaken
research in prospective areas of infectious diseases
and bioscience-related problems. This has beenpossible only because it receives funding from theWorld Health Organization (WHO). In order to receive
research funds, it is an imperative to form an ethics
committee. Moreover, different research organizations
such as the Bangladesh Institute of Research andRehabilitation in Diabetes, Endocrine and Metabolic
Disorders (BIRDEM), the BMRC and laboratories ofdifferent public universities are also conducting
research involving the formation of ethics committees.
In 2009, some doctors and university teachers formed
the Bangladesh Bioethics Society under the auspicesof the Regional Unit for Social and Human Science inAsia and the Pacific (RUSHSAP), UNESCO Bangkok
and UNESCO Dhaka. In its aims and objectives, thesociety encapsulates a view that: “For theadvancement of sciences and technology, people arefacing dilemmas for ethical issues arising frommedicine, biotechnology, environment and social life.

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

In consideration of these, the country demands anurgentneedforresearch,
educationandimplementation of bioethics principles for social
50
development.”
In order to materialize these thoughts, society
intends to increase awareness about the adverse
effects of biosciences: it also intends to facilitate theformationofgovernmental
policyinmoraldevelopment. This society has an official journal, theBangladesh Journal of Bioethics, which is explicates its
bioethical research. However, they do not have any
ethical guidelines or prescription on how to form a
ethics review committee.
[This paper was presented at KBRT7.]

Ethical Perceptions of Genetically Modified Crops in Malaysia
1*1- Latifah Amin , Noor Ayuni Ahmad Azlan & Jamil Ahmad
1
Centre for General Studies, Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia, 43600 Ukm Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan,
Malaysia
2
Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
43600 Ukm Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
Email: nilam@ukm.my

2

Abstract
The development of genetically modified (GM)crops in Malaysia is now closer to thecommercialization stage. This is in line with the
Malaysian Biotechnology Policy in transforming
science into business by 2011. However, the ethicalaspects of modern biotechnology have not been taken
into consideration while doing the research anddevelopment related to modern biotechnology. The
objective of this paper is to study the ethical perceptionof the Malaysian stakeholders in the Klang Valley
region towards modern biotechnology in general andGM crops. A survey was carried out on 434
respondents from various stakeholder groups in the
Klang Valley region. Results of the survey showed thatthe respondents were ambivalent and cautious aboutmodern biotechnology and GM crops. Although they
perceived modern biotechnology as not threatening thenatural order of things and having high benefit, they feltthat humans have no absolute right to modify living
things, were moderately concerned about its possible
risks and were highly concerned about the possibility ofmarket monopoly by giant companies and developed
countries. They also stressed the high need forlabeling of modern biotechnology products and only
had moderate confidence in modern biotechnology
regulations.
Perceptions towards the ethical aspects of GM
crops were found to vary according to the type of genetransfers involved. GM crops that involve intra-species
gene transfer, such as plant to plant gene transfer,
50

Overview of Bangladesh
http://bioethics.org.bd

Bioethics

Society,

URL:

were perceived as more beneficial, less risky and more
ethically and religiously acceptable, as compared tothose involving cross-species gene transfers. Crossspecies gene transfer that was developed for medicalrelated benefits was more acceptable, compared tothose that offered only additional benefits, such as
nutritional enhancement.
Key words: Ethical perception, Modern biotechnology,
Genetically modified crops, Stakeholders, Malaysia
1. Introduction
Modern biotechnology has the potential to improve
plant characteristics, such as resistance to herbicides,
pesticides and biotic stress (drought, flood and hightemperatures) (Leisinger, 2007; Uzogara, 2000). It has
also opened up opportunities to: increase crop yields;
reduce crop losses to insects, disease and postharvest storage problems; and enhance the safety andnutritional value of some crops (Clark et al., 2002;
Rollin et al., 2011). Currently, there are two techniques
to produce GM crops, which are through genetic
engineering or synthetic biology. Genetic engineering
involves the extraction of the original gene from thedonor to be inserted into the recipient organisms, while
synthetic biology involves the gene being madesynthetically in the laboratory before insertion into therecipient organisms. These two techniques could
transfer the gene across different species oforganisms, compared to traditional techniques. The
earliest genetic engineering in plants was focused on
the management of pesticides (McCullum et al., 2003).
The development of GM crops was divided into twogenerations (Blume & Sorochinsky, 2008). The first
generation was the production of GM crops able toresist to herbicides, pesticides and diseases becauseof viruses, microbes and fungus. The second
generation was the production of crops able to resist
different kinds of stresses, such as high levels of salt,
drought and low temperatures, along with improvementof plant characteristics, such as enhancement of
nutritional values, an effective use of the nitrogen
cycle, increasing high yields, a better cycle of crops
and an effective crop for storage.
In Malaysia there are two major challenges faced
in agriculture, which are: the national food safetyissues and sufficient production of food supply andproduction of food and value-added food (Othman etal., 2007). Biotechnology was identified as one of thetechnologies that can give a solution for thechallenges. Genetic engineering is needed to serve asa catalyst to stimulate the growth in Malaysian
agriculture, food and agro-based industry (Kamruddin
et al., 2007). Areas of genetic engineering ofagricultural interest comprise of environmental
protection and remediation, food and feed production,
medicine and plant-based pharmaceuticals. The
National Biotechnology Policy was launched on 28
April 2005, which highlighted nine policy initiatives,
includingthedevelopmentof
agricultural
biotechnology.
By 2010, Malaysia had targeted more than 250
new companies to be able to produce and51

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

commercialize biotechnology products, including
agricultural biotechnology products (Abu Dardak &Otheman, 2005). Currently, the Malaysian Agricultural
Research and Development Institute (MARDI) has
developed more than 50 products related to agricultural
biotechnology including papaya, rice, orchid, banana,mangosteen and biosensor kits for pesticide residues(Abu Dardak & Otheman, 2005). On the other hand,
genetically modified (GM) palm oil, with high oleic acidcontent, was under development at the MalaysianPalm Oil Board (MPOB), GM rubber (containing humanserum albumin antibody to prevent tooth decay) was
developed by the Malaysian Rubber Board (MRB)
while GM teak was developed by the Forest ResearchInstitute of Malaysia (FRIM). Evenson (2006) reported
that besides rice, papaya, banana, and oil palm, othercrops such as pepper, pea/bean, eggplant, melon,pineapple and tobacco were some of the GM crops
currently either in the laboratory or greenhouse stagein Malaysia.
In a close step towards the commercialization of
GM products, consideration of the ethical aspects
related to GM crops and products could not be
neglected. Connor & Siegrist (2011) and Rollin et al.
(2011) highlighted that moral or ethical views were
important factors influencing consumers’ perceptions
and acceptance towards GM products. Past studies
have shown that negative constructs, such as ethicalconcerns, nature concerns, perceived risks andnegative effects of genetic engineering application tohumans and the environment affect public reaction
towards modern biotechnology applications (Frewer etal., 1995; Blaine et al., 2002). Furthermore, moral
concern has been identified as a ‘veto’ factor for the
support of modern biotechnology applications in
Europe (Gaskell et al., 2000) and in Malaysia (Amin etal., 2011).
Ethical aspects of biotechnology can be classified
into two categories: intrinsic and extrinsic (Comstock,2000). Intrinsic factors has been associated with thespiritual, cultural, moral, or otherwise personal, beliefs
about animals and nature, and the relationship ofhuman beings with animals, while extrinsic factors
include health, environmental, economic and social
risks (Gott & Monamy, 2004). The extrinsic factors
have been covered by many attitude and public
acceptanceofmodernbiotechnology.
Publicacceptance can be understood as the combined
attitude of individuals on certain political issues, suchas those arising from technological innovations (Aerni
1999). An individual’s attitude towards a newtechnology depends on a number of related factors
such as his (or her) perception of its risks and benefits,
his socially communicated values and trusts ininstitutions representing these technologies. With
respect to public perception of biotechnology, Kelley(1995) propose that attitude to genetic engineering isdetermine by the worth of potential benefits offered,knowledge on genetic engineering and having ascientific world-view, minus the perceived risk (rational
worries) and anxieties or fears (irrational worries) andplus/minus various minor factors such as backgroundfactors. Other studies also concluded that the public’s
main concerns about biotechnology are primarily driven
by ethical, value and safety concerns (Einsiedel 1997).
While according to Hoban (1997), the major influenceson acceptance seem to be knowledge level, awarenessof benefits, confidence and trust. Gaskell et al. (2000,
2003) used four dimensions of attitude: perceived use,risks, moral acceptability and encouragement to model
patterns of European public response to biotechnology.
The
studiesofpublicattitudetowards
biotechnology have many similarities with risk
perception studies. Many previous research on publicrisk perception towards various technologies and food
related hazards (Slovic 1992; Sparks & Shepherd
1994; Kirk et al. 2002; Slovic 2004) have adopted thepsychometric approach developed by Paul Slovic andcolleagues (Fischhoff et al. 1978; Slovic 1987). Thisapproach originated from cognitive psychology wasdescribed by Hansen et al. (2003) as the most matureand dominant paradigm in risk perception studies. The
psychometric approach suggests that the public did not
perceive technological risk according to a single
dimension related to predicted injuries or fatalities akinto a risk assessor’s viewpoint but interpret risk as amultidimensional concept, concerned with broader
qualitative attributes (Rowe 2004). Within thisapproach, multi-dimensional risk perception is invoked
to explain the expert-lay disagreement that is ascribed
to lay ignorance in the knowledge deficit model(Hansen et al. 2003). The key variables of risk
perception research are the perceived magnitude ofrisk or dread, risk acceptance, familiarity with thehazard and lately the factor benefit has gained muchinterest (Rohrmann 1999). Sjoberg (2004) has
highlighted the importance of another dimension:‘interference with nature’ in risk perception studies on
genetic engineering. In this study, the ethicalperception of the Malaysian stakeholders in the Klang
Valley region towards modern biotechnology in generaland specific examples of genetically modified crops will
be presented.
2. Methodology
Survey Data Collection
Data for this study was collected by means of asurvey carried out from August 2009 until February
2010. The questionnaires were administered directly to
434 adult respondents (over 18 years old) in the Klang
Valley region and were stratified according tostakeholder groups. The stakeholders consisted ofeleven groups: producers, scientists, policy makers,
non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), the media,
religious scholars, university students and consumers.
Data analysis was carried out using SPSS version
14.0.
Respondents were asked about their perception of
the ethical aspects of modern biotechnology in generaland also their ethical perception of four specificexamplesofmodernbiotechnology
applications/products as follows:i. Rice containing a carrot gene to enrich its vitamin
A content (Golden rice)

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

ii.

Banana containing a human albumin gene to
produce vaccine for disease (GM banana)iii. Rice containing a mouse gene to enrich its vitamin
C content (GM rice)
iv. Rice containing a synthetically-made mouse geneto enrich its vitamin C content (Synthetic rice).
The first product involved plant to plant genetransfer, the second product involved the transfer of ahuman gene to plant, and the third product involved thetransfer of an animal gene to plant, while the mousegene in the fourth product was developed syntheticallyin the laboratory before being transferred to the rice.
Instrument
Based on past studies, the multi-dimensional
instrument measuring perceptions towards the ethicalaspects of modern biotechnology used in this study
was constructed. The instrument incorporated seven
general ethical aspects which are threatening thenatural order of living things (BABAS, 1999; Comstock,
2000; Straughan, 2000; Kaiser, 2005), general
concerns (Shrader-Frechette, 2005), human rights tomodify living things (Macer, 2005), monopoly by giant
companies and developed countries (Tucker &Zilinkas, 2006; Smyth & Phillips, 2003; Bouzenita,
2007; Potrykus, 2001), general promises (Pollara
Research&Earnscliffe
ResearchandCommunications, 200;, Pardo et al., 2002; Zimmerman& Hurrel, 2002), the need for labeling (Taylor & Hefle,
2001; Singh et al., 2006; Herren, 2005) and confidencein biotechnology regulation (Glenn, 2004). It also
included five specific ethical aspects: familiarity (Kirk etal., 2002; Weil, 2002; Blume & Sorochinsky, 2008),
perceived risks (Rohrmann, 1999; Pollara Research &Earnscliffe Research and Communications, 2000;
Herren, 2005; Leisinger, 2007), perceived benefits(Persley & Siedow 1999; Macer, 2001), religious andethical acceptance (Kelley, 1995; Nicholas, 2000). All
items were measured on 7-point Likert scales.
Threatening the natural order of living things(α=0.80) comprised the average mean response to thefollowing five items: modern biotechnology applicationis considered as blasphemy; the work of scientists
modifying the genetic characteristics of livingorganisms is considered over the limit; modern
biotechnology crosses the natural boundaries between
different species of organism; modern biotechnology
interferes with natural integrity of living organisms; andmodern biotechnology seems to give the same status
to living and non-living organisms. Each item wasmeasured on a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree with the statement) to 7 (strongly agree withthe statement). A higher score indicated a greater
perceived threat to the natural order of living things.
General concerns (α=0.85) comprised four items:
modern biotechnology may increase human fatality;
modern biotechnology may give rise to unknown
diseases; consuming modern biotechnology products
may inhibit normal growth among children; and modern
biotechnology products may cause transfer of animal
disease to humans. Each item was measured on a 7point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree with thestatement) to 7 (strongly agree with the statement). A
higher score indicated a greater perceived risk tohuman health.
Human rights to modify living things (α=0.59)
consisted of three items: if animals do not feel pain
humans have the right to modify their genetic makeup;
the use of animals as modern biotechnology researchmodels is appropriate; and humans have the right tomodify living things for the benefit of humans. Each
item was measured on a 7-point scale, ranging from 1(strongly disagree with the statement) to 7 (strongly
agree with the statement). A higher score indicated agreater perception of the human’s right to modify living
things.
Monopoly by giant companies and developed
countries (α=0.86) included seven items, which were:modern biotechnology may enhance bioterrorism; themodern biotechnology product market is dominated by
giant companies; developed countries have amonopoly on the global market of modern
biotechnology products; modern biotechnology may
cause an economic divide between developed anddeveloping countries; the biotechnology industry needs
to be encouraged to patent its biotechnology
innovations; intellectual property rights are the best
reward to cover modern biotechnology’s developmental
costs by industry; and a patent is needed to protect thescientist’s intellectual property rights. Each item wasmeasured on a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree with the statement) to 7 (strongly agree withthe statement). A higher score indicated a greater
perceived monopoly by giant companies anddeveloped countries.
General promise (α=0.86) was measured by using
the three following items: modern biotechnology can
improve Malaysia’s economy; modern biotechnology
can enhance food quality; and modern biotechnology
can reduce starvation in poor countries. Each item wasmeasured on a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree with the statement) to 7 (strongly agree withthe statement). A higher score indicated greater
perceived benefits.
The need for labeling (α=0.87) was assessed byfour items: labeling of biotechnology products isimportant for those who have allergies against certain
foods; labeling is important to provide information
regarding modern biotechnology products; labeling isessential to differentiate between genetically modified
products and the non-genetically modified products;
and labeling of modern biotechnology products is the
responsibility of the producer. Each item wasmeasured on a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree with the statement) to 7 (strongly agree withthe statement). A higher score indicated a greater
perceived need for labeling.
Confidence in biotechnology regulation (α=0.75)
comprised three items: the regulation by the relevant
authority related to modern biotechnology is adequate;
the regulation action on experimental failure ofgenetically modified organisms is adequate inprotecting the safety of Malaysian society; and thegovernment
department
involvedinmodern53

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

biotechnology regulation has monitored the safety ofmodern biotechnology products efficiently. Each item
was measured on a 7-point scale, ranging from 1(strongly disagree with the statement) to 7 (strongly
agree with the statement). A higher score indicated agreater level of confidence in biotechnology regulation.
Familiarity (α=0.74) was measured by using thethree following items: how easy is it for you to know oridentify the following modern biotechnology products? ;how easy is it for you to judge whether is it good or bad
to consume the following modern biotechnology
products?; and are the effects of consuming thefollowing modern biotechnology products well known?
Each item was measured on a 7-point scale, ranging
from 1 (not easy at all for first two items/strongly
disagree for the last item) to 7 (very easy for first twoitems/ strongly agree for the last item). A higher scoreindicated a greater familiarity with biotechnology
products.
Perceived risks (α=0.81) were measured by four
items: do you think that the following organism willcause extinction of its original species?; how worried
are you about potential risks of the following food toyour health?; do you think that any harmful effects fromconsuming the following food will only manifest itself
after long-term duration?; and is there any danger thatthe following food could cause a major catastrophe to
the Malaysian society? Each item was measured on a
7-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree forother items/not worried at all for item 2) to 7 (strongly
agree for other items /very worried for item 2). A higherscore indicated greater perceived risks.
Perceived benefits if it is not developed (α=0.85)
was assessed by the three following items: thepotential of the following application to boost thecountry’s economy will be denied if it is not done; thepotential of the following applications to improve thequality of the Malaysian society’s life will be denied if it
is not done; and the potential of the following
applications to improve the farmer’s and the breeder’slife will be denied if it is not done. Each item wasmeasured on a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). A higher scoreindicated greater perceived benefits if biotechnology is
not developed.
Religious acceptance (α=0.85) was measured by
two items: the following applications can be acceptedby my religion; and the following applications can be
accepted by my customs. Each item was measured on
a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 (not accepted at all) to
7 (strongly accepted). A higher score indicated greater
religious acceptance.
Ethical acceptance (α=0.88) comprised four items:
more intensive research should be encouraged todevelop the following applications; the following
applications should be scaled up or commercialized;
the government should provide more financial support
to researchers and industries in developing thefollowing applications; and how far should the following
applications be encouraged? Each item was measured
on a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)

to 7 (strongly agree). A higher score indicated greater
ethical acceptance.
Data Analysis
Initially, reliability tests and confirmatory factor
analyses were carried out using SPSS version 14.0 toaccess the consistency and one-dimensionality of theconstructs. Analyses of variances (ANOVAs) were also
carried out using the same statistical package.
3. Results
General ethical aspects of modern biotechnology
The stakeholder perception of the general ethicalaspects of modern biotechnology were analyzed basedon seven dimensions: general promise; threatening thenatural order of living things; human rights to modify
living things; general concerns; monopoly by giant
companies and developed countries; the need forlabeling; and confidence in biotechnology regulation.
Results of the survey showed that the Klang Valley
stakeholders perceived modern biotechnology as
having high promise (mean score 5.31 on a scale of 17, Table 1). It has the potential to improve the country’s
economy, enhance food quality and reduce starvationin poor countries.
At the same time, the respondents perceived that:modern biotechnology as moderately threatening to thenatural order of living things (mean score 3.76);
humans have only a moderate right to modify living
things for their benefit (mean score 3.55); and they had
moderate concerns about modern biotechnology(mean score 4.59) (Table 1). The integration of novel
genes into different species of organisms that crossed
the natural boundaries of those organisms wereperceived as interfering with the natural integrity ofliving organisms. The respondents were also highly
worried about the possibility of monopoly of the modern
biotechnology market by giant companies and thedomination of their economy by developed countries(mean score 5.05). The respondents exhibited only
moderate confidence in the adequacy of modern
biotechnology regulations and efficiency of modern
biotechnology monitoring in Malaysia (mean score4.09) and expressed a high level of need for the properlabeling of modern biotechnology products (meanscore of 5.70).
3.1

Specific ethical aspects
Perceptions towards four of the transgenic crops:
golden rice, GM banana, GM rice and synthetic rice
were analyzed based on five dimensions: familiarity,
perceived benefits and risks, religious and ethicalacceptance.
Familiarity
Overall, the stakeholders professed not to be very
familiar with all the GM crops, as the mean scores
were below the mid-point value of 4.0 on a scale of 1-7(Table 2). Among the four transgenic crops, thestakeholders were found to be slightly more familiar
with golden rice, containing carrot gene to enrich its
vitamin A content (mean score 3.41), followed by54

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

Table 1: General ethical perceptions of modern biotechnology
Ethical dimensions
Mean score ± std dev.
General promise
5.31 ± 1.17
Threatening natural order of living things
3.76 ± 1.14
Human rights to modify living things
3.55 ± 1.18
General concerns
4.59 ± 1.11
Monopoly by giant companies and developed countries
5.05 ± 1.02
The need for labeling5.70 ± 1.20
Confidence in biotechnology regulation
4.09 ± 1.11•
Mean score 1-2.99 low, 3.0-5.0 moderate, 5.01-7.0 highTable 2 Familiarity of modern biotechnology products

Table 3 Perceived benefits of modern biotechnology products

Table 4 Perceived risks of modern biotechnology productsInterpretation*highmoderate
moderate
moderatehighhighmoderate

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

Table 5 Religious acceptance of modern biotechnology products

banana containing human albumin gene to produce
vaccine (mean score 3.22), synthetic rice (mean score3.07) and the least familiar with rice containing micegene to enrich its vitamin C (mean score 3.05). For
golden rice, the Islamic and Christian scholars claimed
to have a low level of familiarity. Besides these two
types of scholars, the Hindu scholars had also shown alow level of familiarity towards GM banana. These
three groups and the university students were also
found to have low levels of familiarity towards the othertwo products, GM rice containing mice gene C andsynthetic rice.
ANOVAs showed significant difference found forfamiliarity of golden rice (F=3.81, p<0.001), banana
containing human albumin gene to produce vaccine fordisease (F=4.22, p<0.001), rice containing mice geneto enrich rice vitamin C content (F=4.23, p<0.001), andsynthetic rice (F=4.16, p<0.001). Post hoc tests
showed that the Islamic scholars have a significantly
lower level of familiarity with golden rice and GM
banana compared to the consumers and additionallydiffered with the scientists and the media with respect
to GM banana. The Christian and Hindu scholars werealso found to have a significantly lower level offamiliarity with GM banana compared to the scientists.
On the other hand, the scientists were found to be
more familiar with rice containing mice gene to enrich
its vitamin C content and synthetic rice, as comparedto the university students, Islamic and Hindu scholars
and additionally differed with the Christian scholars on
their familiarity of synthetic rice.
Perceived benefits
Comparing products, GM rice was considered topossess the highest benefits (mean score 4.06)
followed by GM banana (mean score 3.97), synthetic
rice (mean score 3.85) and the least benefit was
attributed to GM rice containing mice gene (meanscore 3.75) (Table 3). Comparing stakeholders, GM
rice and GM banana were rated as beneficial (meanscore above the mid-point value of 4.0) by six groupsof stakeholders (the producers, the scientists, thepolicy makers, the media and the Hindu scholars)(Table 3). For synthetic rice only three groups ofstakeholders ranked its benefits as higher than the
mid-point value and for GM rice containing mice gene,
only the scientists’ rating was above the mid-pointvalue (Table 3).
ANOVAs showed significant differences for theperceived benefits of golden rice (F=2.08, p<0.05), GM
banana (F=2.75, p<0.05), GM rice (F=2.27, p<0.05)
and synthetic rice (F=2.43, p<0.01) acrossstakeholders. However post hoc tests could only
confirm that the scientists’ opinion on the benefits ofGM banana, containing human albumin gene to
produce vaccine, were significantly higher than theChristian scholars. The differences in the benefit
perception of the remaining three GM products acrossstakeholders were not detected by the post hoc tests.
Perceived risks
Comparing products, the rice containing mice geneto enrich its vitamin C content was ranked as the mostrisky (mean score 4.79), followed by synthetic rice(mean score 4.74), GM banana (mean score 4.22) andgolden rice (mean score 3.85) (Table 4). The majorityof the stakeholders perceived golden rice, which
involved the transfer of a carrot gene into rice, as notrisky (mean score below the mid-point value of 4.0),
with the exception of the scientists, the university
students, and the Islamic and Christian scholars (Table4). The opposite pattern can be seen with the otherthree GM products involving cross-species genetransfers, where the majority of the stakeholders
ranked GM banana, GM rice and synthetic rice as risky(mean scores above the mid-point value of 4.0) (Table4). Only three groups of stakeholders, the media, theBuddhist and the Hindu scholars thought GM banana,
which involves the transfer of a human gene intobanana to produce vaccine, as not risky (mean scorebelow the mid-point value of 4.0). The Buddhist
scholars were the only group who claimed GM rice,which involves the transfer of a mouse gene, andsynthetic rice as not risky (mean score below the midpoint value of 4.0).
ANOVAS showed significant differences for theperceived risks of golden rice (F=3.89, p<0.001), GM
banana (F=3.65, p<0.001), GM rice (F=4.45, p<0.001)

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

and synthetic rice (F=4.57, p<0.001) acrossstakeholders. For golden rice, the Islamic scholars
were found to have the highest mean score on
perceived risks and post hoc tests confirmed that theirrating was significantly higher than the producers andthe Buddhist scholars. The scientists and the university
students were also found to have significantly higher
risk rating for golden rice compared to Buddhist
scholars, while the opinion of the scientists further
differed with the producers. With regard to ricecontaining mice gene to enrich its vitamin C content,
the post hoc tests showed that the university students,
Islamic scholars and Christian scholars perceived its
risk as significantly higher than the Buddhist scholars.
The university students and the Christian scholars also
perceived the risks of synthetic rice as significantly
higher than the Buddhist scholars.
Table 6 Ethical acceptance of modern biotechnology
products

Religious acceptance
The stakeholders ranked golden rice highly and themost acceptable from their religious perspective (meanscore 5.03), followed by GM banana (mean score4.37), synthetic rice (mean score 3.46) and GM rice
(3.16), which were considered as only moderately
acceptable (Table 5).
Comparing stakeholder groups, all stakeholders
agreed that GM rice was acceptable from their religious
point of view (mean score above the mid-point pointvalue of 4.0). As for GM banana, the majority of
stakeholders again agreed that it was acceptable fromtheir religious perspectives, with the exception of theIslamic scholars who thought otherwise (Table 5). The
opposite scenario could be seen for GM rice andsynthetic rice where the majority of the stakeholders
rated them as not acceptable due to their religious
views (mean score below the mid-point value of 4.0).
The scientists were the only group who ranked GM
rice, containing mice gene to increase its vitamin C
content, as not risky. The Buddhist and Hindu scholars
joined the scientists in accepting synthetic rice fromtheir religious perspectives.
ANOVAs showed significant differences on
religious acceptance of GM rice (F=5.14, p<0.001) andsynthetic rice (F=6.07, p<0.001) across stakeholders.
Post hoc tests showed that the scientists had thehighest mean score for the religious acceptance of GM
rice containing mice gene, which differed significantlywith the media and Islamic scholars. With regard tosynthetic rice, post hoc tests again confirmed that thescientists’ mean score of religious acceptance weresignificantly higher than the media, Islamic scholars
and consumers. The Buddhist, Hindu and Christianscholars, as well as the university students, were foundto be more accepting of synthetic rice from theirreligious perspectives, compared to the media. The
first two religious scholars’ opinions on the religious
acceptance of synthetic rice further differed with theIslamic scholars and consumers.
Ethical acceptance
Overall, the ethical acceptance of the four GM
crops was classified as moderate. The ethical aspectsof golden rice was ranked as the most acceptable(mean score 4.93), followed by GM banana (meanscore 4.50), synthetic rice (mean score 3.86), and GM
rice (mean score 3.74) (Table 6). All stakeholders
agreed that the ethical aspects of golden rice were
acceptable (mean score above the mid-point value of4.0), with six groups of stakeholders (the producers,
the scientists, the policymakers, the media, the Hindu
scholars and the consumers) perceiving that the ethicalaspects of golden rice were highly acceptable. The
majority of the stakeholders perceived the ethicalaspects of GM banana as acceptable, with the
exception of the Islamic scholars. The opposite pattern
could be seen with GM rice and synthetic rice, where
the majority of stakeholders perceived their ethicalaspects as unacceptable to them (mean score below
the mid-point value of 4.0). Only three groups, thescientists, the Buddhist and Hindu scholars accepted
the ethical aspects of GM rice containing mice geneand synthetic rice.
ANOVAs showed that there were significant
differences on the ethical acceptance of golden rice
(F=2.75, p<0.001), GM banana (F=3.51, p<0.001), GM
rice (F=2.89, p<0.01), and synthetic rice (F=3.80,
p<0.001) across stakeholders. The Islamic scholars
were noticeably the least accepting of the ethicalaspects of golden rice, GM banana, synthetic rice, andthe second lowest in accepting the ethical aspects ofGM rice. On the other hand, the Hindu scholars
seemed to be highly accepting of the ethical aspects ofgolden rice and GM banana. Post hoc tests confirmedthat the opinions of the Islamic scholars were lower
than the Hindu scholars, with regard to the ethicalaspects of all the four GM products surveyed and theiropinion differed with the producers as well, with regard
to golden rice. The Islamic scholars’ opinion ofsynthetic rice was also found to differ significantly fromthe scientists and the Buddhist scholars. Even though
the producers were the most accepting of the ethicalaspects of golden rice, they were the least accepting of
the ethical aspects of GM rice containing mice gene
and were the second lowest in accepting the ethicalaspects of synthetic rice. The producers’ view on the

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

ethical aspects of synthetic rice was found to besignificantly lower than the Buddhist scholars.
4. Discussion
Comparison across GM products
The stakeholders in the Klang Valley region
claimed to be not very familiar with the four GM
products surveyed, with the overall mean scores below
the mid-point value of a 4.0 on a scale of 1-7. Golden
rice enriched with vitamin A was found to be the mostfamiliar (mean score 3.41), followed by GM banana to
produce vaccine (mean score 3.22), synthetic rice(mean score 3.07) and GM rice enriched with vitamin C(mean score 3.05). This finding is not surprising. The
world population at large, including those in developed
countries, is not very aware about modern
biotechnology and its products which have become
part of their life. The Taiwanese were reported to eat
many GM foods (especially soybean based) but they
did not know it (Ganiere et al., 2004) and the American
population also did not realize that GM products havebeen a part of their food (Fritz et al., 2003). Demirci(2008) found that only 49% of his respondents thought
they had seen GM foods at supermarkets while
shopping and only 41% expressed that they had
consumed GM foods.
Results of the survey showed that the Klang Valley
stakeholders acknowledged the high potential ofmodern biotechnology. However, when asked
specifically about the benefits of four examples of GM
products that involved various types of gene transfers
in plants, the Klang Valley stakeholders were not very
enthusiastic about the GM products. Only golden rice,which involved the transfer of carrot gene to rice, wasrated as beneficial, with mean score 4.06, slightly
above the mid-point score of 4.0 on a scale of 1-7. The
other three GM products surveyed were regarded as
not beneficial, with mean scores below the mid-pointvalue of 4.0. Cross-species gene transfers were not
popular among the Klang valley stakeholders, eventhough the GM products promise benefits, such as the
production of vaccine (GM banana) and nutritional
value enhancement (GM rice). The use of animal
genes such as mice genes was not perceived as
beneficial, even when the gene was made synthetically(synthetic rice).
Even though the stakeholders rated modern
biotechnology as not threatening the natural order ofliving things, they felt that humans have no absoluteright to modify living things for their benefit and they
admitted to having moderate concerns about the
impact of modern biotechnology. By using genetic
engineering techniques, genes can be transferred todifferent species of organisms. The integration of novel
genes into different species of organisms seemed tocross the natural boundaries of those organisms
involved. Thus, it was also perceived as interfering with
the natural integrity of living organisms. Kimenju et al.
(2005) and Demirci (2008) reported that their
respondents thought that GM food was artificial. The
GM technology was regarded as akin to tampering withnature (Kimenju et al., 2005). The insertion of novel

genes into organisms could be seen as interfering withoriginal metabolic pathway of the organisms.
Overall, the stakeholders perceived moderate risks
for the four modern biotechnology products. GM rice
enriched with vitamin C (mean score = 4.79) was
ranked as the most risky, followed by synthetic rice(mean score = 4.74), GM banana to produce vaccine(mean score = 4.22) and golden rice enriched withvitamin A (mean score = 3.85). Only the risks
associated with golden rice, which involved plant-toplant gene transfer was rated below the mid-pointvalue of 4.0. The risk ratings of the other three GM
products were below the mid-point value of 4.0,
meaning that they were categorized as risky. This
perception may be due to the gene transfers involvedin the organisms. Past studies have shown that genetransfer across different species of organisms was
assumed to be more risky than gene transfer acrossthe same species of organism (Macer et al., 2000;
Gaskel et al., 2010; Connor and Siegrist, 2010).
Hossain et al., (2002) indicated perceived risk is due tothe uncertainties towards GM food (GMF) safety andthe potential of negative social effects and effects on
the environment. There is also high concern among thestakeholders that modern biotechnology could bemonopolized by giant companies and developed
countries.
In this study, golden rice was shown to be the mostacceptable ethically and from the respondents’religious perspectives followed by GM banana,synthetic rice and GM rice enriched with vitamin C.
Looking at the mean scores, only two GM products,
GM rice and GM banana were rated above the midpoint point value of 4.0. Golden rice was considered
the most acceptable ethically, and from religious
perspectives, due to the involvement of same species
gene transfer (plant-to-plant), compared to the otherthree GM products, which involve cross-species genetransfers. Among the three GM products which involvecross-species gene transfers, GM banana was ranked
as more acceptable than GM rice and synthetic rice,
due to the medical-related benefits that can be offeredby the vaccine produced. This can be seen from thebenefits rating, where GM banana was ranked as
second in perceived benefits next to golden rice. Past
studies have shown that GM products that can offer
clear benefits to the consumers were more acceptable(Amin et al., 2011; Gaskell et al., 2000).
The need for modern biotechnology products to belabeled was perceived as high by the Klang Valley
stakeholders. The labeling of modern biotechnology
products seems essential to differentiate between GM
and non-GM products. Moreover, labeling is importantto provide information regarding modern biotechnology
products. This gives a choice for the consumer whether
to choose to consume GM or non-GM products, basedon their knowledge and personal perception. The needfor labeling might also be related to the risky nature of
GM products perceived by the respondents in thisstudy. Most studies (Hursti et al., 2002; Ganiere et al.,
2004; Sheikhha et al., 2006; Deodhar et al., 2007)
showed that the world population strongly agreed that

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

GMF need to be labeled. Some argued that labeling of
GMF is needed, due to the concern for those who haveallergies against certain foods (Kimenju et al., 2005;
Ganiere et al., 2004). Emiroˆglu (2002) stated that
consumers can be satisfied only if they are correctly
and adequately informed, before and after purchase
GM products. Thus, it is important to encourage clear,
legible, complete, comprehensible and correct labeling.
With respect to regulation, the Klang Valley
stakeholders expressed that they were moderately
confident regarding biotechnology regulation enforcedby the Malaysian government. Abednego et al. (2008)
reported that their respondents strongly agreed withthe statement: “government should monitor the
production of GMOs and all GM products have toregister so that the government can monitor the safetyof modern biotechnology products efficiently”. There isa need to step up public confidence in GMO regulationas confidence in key actors was positively related to
public encouragement of GM food (Amin et al., 2011).
The suggestion is for the government regulators to be
more transparent in carrying out risk assessments of
GMOs, as well as having more open dialogues with thestakeholders on GMO regulation issues. When the
public feel that their views are being seriously
considered by the regulatory bodies, only then will theirconfidence towards the regulatory bodies be increased.
Comparison across stakeholders
It is rather surprising and worrying that thescientists, producers and policy makers, who weremore involved with modern biotechnology activities,
claimed not to be so familiar with the GM products
mentioned above. Theoretically, this will bring some
impact on the development of modern biotechnology in
Malaysia. This is due to the main role played by thescientists in producing the GM products and the
producers who will commercialize them. Although thetraditional role of the scientists is to create new GM
products, they also must become responsible scientists
in making sure that their products are beneficial andacceptable to society. The same goes for the
producers, although their main focus is on making
profits, they also have to become responsible citizens
by making sure that they are familiar with theirproducts to ensure that the goods they sell are safe for
their customers. It is even more important for the policy
makers to become familiar with GM products, as they
are the ones who regulate GM products and who havethe main responsibility to ensure the safety of GM
products in Malaysian society.
All stakeholders were in agreement in professing
their acceptance of the ethical aspects of golden rice,which involved plant-to-plant gene transfer and fromtheir religious stand point. The majority of them werealso accepting of cross-species gene transfer whenallied with medical reasons, such as GM banana,
which was developed to produce vaccine to fightdiseases, but were not accepting of cross-species
gene transfers for nutritional enhancement (GM riceand synthetic rice). GM rice and synthetic rice werealso perceived as not beneficial and risky by the

majority of stakeholders. More stakeholders also
perceived golden rice as beneficial and not risky,
followed by GM banana.
The ethical perception pattern among thestakeholders was found to be ambivalent. Looking at
the benefits and acceptance, the scientists were foundto be more positive towards the GM products surveyed
and they were the only group of stakeholders who
perceived all the four GM products surveyed as
beneficial (mean scores above the mid-point value of4.0), and rated the religious and ethical aspects of thefour GM products as acceptable. However, at the sametime, they also perceived that all the GM products
surveyed as risky (mean score greater than the midpoint value of 4.0). Torres et al. (2006) stated that the
majority of the scientists, policy makers andbusinessmen in the Philippines perceived agricultural
biotechnology in food production as beneficial but at
the same time almost half of them acknowledged that
there are risks associated with GM crops.
Considering perceived benefits and acceptance,
the Hindu scholars were also more positive in theirbenefit rating of three GM products (golden rice, GM
banana and synthetic rice) and professed to accept
them from their religious views. They also considered
all GM products as ethically acceptable but their risk
ratings were similar to the majority of otherstakeholders. The Buddhist scholars professed that all
the four GM products were not risky and were ethically
acceptable, as well as rating three GM products as
acceptable from their religious point of view. However,at the same time, they did not perceive all the four GM
products as beneficial (mean score below the mid-pointvalue of 4.0). The policy makers, however, regarded
three GM products (golden rice, GM banana andsynthetic rice) as beneficial, but only ranked golden
rice as not risky and their acceptance ratings weresimilar to the majority of the other stakeholders.
Although the NGOs did not see all GM products as
beneficial and perceived the three cross-species genetransfers as risky, they did accept golden rice and GM
banana ethically and from their religious views. The
media perceived golden rice and GM banana as notrisky, while their pattern of benefits and acceptance
ratings were in tandem with the majority of
stakeholders.
All religious scholars had no problem accepting
plant-to-plant gene transfers, such as golden rice.
Three groups of stakeholders (university students,
Islamic and Christian scholars) regarded GM rice,containing mice gene, and synthetic rice as having
high risks and not beneficial, besides rating them as
not acceptable ethically and from their religious standpoint. They also rated golden rice and GM banana asrisky and not beneficial. The Islamic scholars weremore sensitive on the religious and ethical acceptanceof cross-species gene transfers, where they also
considered GM banana, which contained human geneas not acceptable. On the other hand, the university
students and the Christian scholars were more
accepting of GM banana containing human gene to
produce vaccine.

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

5. Conclusion
The stakeholders in the Klang Valley region were
found to be cautious and ambivalent in their attitude
towards GM technology and their products. Although
the stakeholders were not familiar with the four GM
products
surveyed,
they
perceived
modernbiotechnology as not very threatening to the naturalorder of things and perceived modern biotechnology as
having high promise for the improvement of the
Malaysian society and economy. At the same time,they felt that humans have no absolute right to modify
living things. Modern biotechnology was perceived as
giving moderate concerns regarding human health andthey were also highly worried about the possibilities ofmodern biotechnology being monopolized by giant
companies and developed countries. They also had
only marginal confidence in the GMOs regulation in the
country and stressed the high need for modern
biotechnology products to be labeled.
Results of this study have revealed that perceptionof modern biotechnology products by the stakeholders
varies according to the types of the gene transfers
involved. Same-species gene transfer (plant-to-plant)
was more generally accepted on an ethical basis,compared to cross-species gene transfers. However,perceived risks and benefits of the products also
influenced the stakeholders’ perception. Cross-species
gene transfer was found to be more acceptable if there
are clear benefits, especially related to medical needs,
compared to those that offer additional benefits, suchas nutrient enhancement. If animal genes weresynthetically produced, the ethical acceptanceincreased slightly but this was not good enough towarrant acceptance.
Ethical acceptance of GM crops and products
should be reflected in the development of modern
biotechnology in the future. It is suggested that thescientists, industries and policy makers seriously
consider the ethical aspects of GM products before
developing new GM products, especially those
involving cross-species gene transfers. They should
only proceed with the research and development ofGM products if the products are well accepted ethicallyby the consumers. This is to ensure Malaysia’s target
in transforming science into business can be achieved
through the commercialization of GM crops. There isalso a need for increased efforts in designing suitable
information dissemination strategies for different
groups of stakeholders to convey correct and balanced
information on modern biotechnology and products toincrease familiarity among all stakeholders.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia for supporting this researchunder the UKM-APCMNB-21-2009/1 and DPP-2013201 grants.
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Ethical Values of Food Safety- V. Balambal M.A.B.T.Ph.D.FRAS (London)
Professor of History (Retd) University of Madras.
thth
159,94 Street, 15 Sector, KK Nagar, Chennai, India,
600078
Email: drbala50@hotmail.com drbala50@gmail.com

Abstract
Food is the basic need of all living beings. Much
food comes from agriculture, animals, birds and fish.
The economic condition of the people is revealed
through the food they eat. Low safety awareness isseen in the poorer classes. There is change in theeating habits of Indian people due to western influence.
Education to lead to a healthy life and greater foodsafety is necessary.

This paper deals with the safety of food in
production, marketing and consumption. Importance is
to be given to clean water, milk, vegetables, fruits,meat, safety of cooked and raw food, environmental
cleanliness and neatness in kitchen. The role ofgovernment and NGOs, the importance of Food Safety
and Standards Act of 2006 & its late implementation,banning of harmful edibles, preventing adulteration invarious foodstuffs, harm in using chemicals in food
stuffs, problems in implementation of the Act,
consumers’ role, importance of ethical values in foodsafety, role of media, consumer awareness andtraining programmes for officials, poor life style of theslum and village people due to poverty, ignorance andilliteracy, personal hygiene, different types of eating
joints, absence of food safety, remedial measures,
importance of home food etc., are also to be dealt with.
The National Food Security Act passed on 31 August,2013 will come in to force soon. It is an improvement
over the previous act.
Key Words: Food Safety; Ethics; Regulations;
Adulteration.
1. Introduction
Food ranks first in the three basic needs of thepeople. Everyone needs food, in adequate quantity andof adequate quality, to survive and maintain health.
India is a developing country and majority of the people
do not even have one full meal a day. Even what theytake cannot be guaranteed for safety. Clean drinking
water and foodstuff should be available to themarginalized people of the society. What little food they
could get, should be clean and neat. Ethics should be
followed in production and distribution of food at homeand outside.
In India, in past years, the best bride was the bestcook. One who satisfied the pallet was considered to
be a worthy person in a family. But the trend ischanging. No doubt Indians are good cooks and love
good food. Men also know to cook. Mahabharatha, anIndian epic makes mention of the two best men cooks
Nala and Bheema. This paper analyses the need forsafe and sufficient food for all; the role of NGOs andGovernment in dealing with the production anddistribution of safe food and food materials; especiallyto the slum and village people; ethical values to befollowed by the producers and consumers andremedial measures. The legal measures taken by theGovernment can strengthen the concept of food safety.
2. Food Practices
Food practices of rich and upper middle classes
have changed a lot. As in most of the nuclear families
both the parents go for job with no elderly persons at
home, easy and fast food have taken a lead. The Fast
Food joints are very handy for such families. But it is tobe found out, how clean these shops are and thequality of the food available there. The neatness of theservers and cleaners is very important. The poorer
section of the society face hurdles due to theireconomic condition. Especially poor men, slog and get
wages but soon a major part goes for liquor and cheap

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

food. Women also work hard for the family. Slums andvillages lack hygienic environments.
3. Food Availability
India is a thickly populated agricultural country.
Many live below the poverty line. Poverty and illiteracy
cause ill health. Unemployment and under employment
affect the poorer class. Lack of basic sanitation causes
diseases. They could not even have one square meal aday which reflects on their health. Many of them do noteven know about food safety. Obesity is very common
among the richer sections of the society, because of
fatty food. The middle class is able to manage food, butsafety of their food is questionable. Food practices of
earlier generations slowly give way to new. Younger
generation has switched over to fast food and roadside joints which are not safe.
4. Food safety
Food safety is a scientific discipline describing
handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways thatprevent food borne illness. This includes a number ofroutines that should be followed to avoid severe healthhazards. Food safety does not mean the safety ofhome food alone it also means safety between industry
and the market and between the market and theconsumer. In considering industry to market practices,
food safety considerations include the origins of foodincluding the practices relating to food labeling, foodhygiene, food additives and pesticide residues, as wellas policies on biotechnology and food and guidelines
for the management of governmental import and export, inspection and certification systems for foods. In
considering market to consumer practices, the usual
thought is that food ought to be safe in the market andthe concern is safe delivery and preparation of the foodfor the consumer.
5. Facts about foodSurvival is impossible without food. Different kinds
of food are available at home as well as outside. The
financial condition of a person could be known from thefood one eats. Food must be tasty, of good quality andsafe. There are innumerable hotels suitable to thefinancial condition of the eaters. Poor go for cheap
joints for cheap food. Rich go to higher standards, themiddle class visit generally average standard hotels
and occasionally big ones. The western contacts andinfluence have brought new recipes. But there is noequals to hygienically made home food.
Safe food should be nutritious and supply energy to
the consumer. Unsafe food can cause ill health andtransmit disease from person to person as well asserve as a growth medium for bacteria that can cause
food poisoning. In developed countries there are
intricate standards for food preparation, whereas inlesser developed countries the main issue is simply theavailability of adequate safe water, which is usually acritical item (Shiklomanov, I. A. (2000),"Appraisal andAssessment of World Water Resources". Water
International 25 (1). International Water Resources
Association. pp. 11–32.)
To help the poorer students in schools in Tamilnadu, the Midday Meal Scheme was introduced. Eachchild is given free food not only to feed them but toreduce dropouts in schools. Many parents send theirchildren to school to get one square meal. On thedarker side, there are complaints about distribution ofunsafe food with rotten vegetables in an unhygienic
environment. Periodical check up of the standard of
cooked food, neatness of the dining hall and kitchen
and strict action against the defaulters are important.
6. Regulations
The Government of India passed the Prevention ofFood Adulteration Act and Rules in 1954 with an aim toensure unadulterated food availability. The Act andRules has prescribed some minimum standards which
are to be followed scrupulously by the vendors. Later
the Central Government enacted the Food Safety andStandards Act, 2006 (34 of 2006) and it has come into
force throughout the country on 5th August 2011 by
repealing the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1954and seven other orders specified in the Second
Schedule of the Act 34 of 2006.It insisted that all
traders engaged in food business conformed to theprovisions of the Act. Following that, the Tamil nadu
Government brought Food Safety and Drug Control
under one administration called the Food Safety andDrug Control Administration Department. Necessary
officials are appointed and training was given to
officials.
7. Functions of the Department:
The functions of the department would include
taking steps to ensure that food supplied to people issafe, issuing licenses to micro and small traders andother commercial establishments engaged in foodbusiness, preventing sale of food products hazardous
to public health, creating awareness of food safety andconducting surveillance. To get the Food Business
Operator license, all restaurants and hotels, snack
bars, cafes, school and office cafeterias, and cafes
within hospitals have to comply with a series ofstringent guidelines including specific hygiene
practices.
The Commission of Food Safety, Tamil nadu has
arranged orientation training for the Food Safety
Officers in ten batches. The training for the first batch
was inaugurated by the Commissioner on 28.01.2013
in the Institute of Public Health, Poonamali in Chennai,
Tamilnadu. To receive complaints from the Public /Food Business Operators, a helpline has been created.
Any complaints under this act can be made to the
Office of the Commissioner of Food Safety in Chennai,
the State capital.
The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India(FSSAI) has proposed to lay down a trap to intercept
manufacturers involved in production or marketing ofadulterated food items. To encourage inflow of
information
fromallstakeholders
regardingadulterated/unsafe food, the FSSAI has proposed to
introduce a scheme of rewards for whistle-blowers andinformants from the funds being made available to thestate governments under a Centrally Sponsored
Scheme (Unavulagam—Food Safety). In this regard,
Section 95 of the Food Safety and Standards Act,
2006, has a provision for rewards to be given to the

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whistle-blowers who provide any relevant information
on food adulteration
8. Commitments of the Food & Food Materials
Producers
All commercial establishments and traders engaged
in food business should obtain licenses under the Act
to start or continue their trade. The traders should
ensure quality and hygiene in the food sold by them.
The premises of the food establishments should besafe and hygienic.
They should not sell food products past their expiry
dates, adulterated, sub-standard or banned foodproducts.. Employees engaged by them should
maintain hygiene.
9. Details in packages of food and food materials
Each packed food item should contain the
mandatory label declarations printed on it, as requiredby the Prevention Of Food Adulteration Act,1954. If it is
not there, the officials have the right to confiscate suchfood packets. The details needed are the following:• The name, trade name or description of foodcontained in the package• The name of the ingredients used in the product• A distinctive Batch Number• The month and year in which the commodity is
manufactured• The month and year up to which the product is bestfor consumption• Vegetarian Food symbol (if it is vegetarian food).
10. Drinking Water
Water is the prime need of the people. The poor
fill up their hunger with water if they could not afford
food. But due to climate change, construction of multistoried buildings etc., there arose the scarcity of water.
Drinking water is in much demand. People pay for
drinking water. Village women walk long distance tofetch water and in the urban slums, women wait for
metro water in lorries or open pumps to get water. The
safety of such water is questionable. As the sewage
pipes and drinking water pipes in cities and towns arelaid under ground side by side, if there is any damage
to one, water gets polluted, especially in the rainyseasons. Adequate precaution is to be taken by the
local authorities in the supply of safe drinking water.
Due to utter necessity, many drinking water
manufacturing package units have been started inIndia. These units are expected to supply clean
unpolluted safe drinking water to public on payment insealed cans and bottles. It has become a lucrative
business in cities and towns. These units are to beapproved by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).
(The Hindu, 17 January, 2013). Knowing the utter needof drinking water, the package units started selling
water in plastic covers also for one rupee. Even thevillage and slum dwellers buy these water covers toquench their thirst. During festivals, the water packets
are in great demand. But the safety of the water isquestionable. The public are not aware of the
distinction between approved and unapproved
companies and often buy the cheaper products. There
should not be any compromise in allowing the fakeunits to supply drinking water as it reflects on thehealth of the consumer. Many unlicensed units whichcheated the public with unsafe water were banned.
11. Banned Products
The government bans the products which are
injurious to health. Use of betel leaves may be good for
health. But panmasala and gutkha containing tobacco
as ingredient are very harmful. People who use these
become addicts. Ultimately, they end up with cancer.
The Tamil nadu State Tobacco Control Cell had
submitted a proposal for a ban on gutkha and panmasala as early as in 2001, but the measure wasbogged down in litigation. The government had theninvoked the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act for
notifying a five-year ban, but the Supreme Court ruledthat only the Centre had the power to issue such
notifications under the law. The ill effect of using theseproducts was realized by the State Government.
Especially the poorer section of the society suffered alot. Hence, to prevent its use, the Chief Minister ofTamilnadu on 08.05.2013 has announced in the State
Assembly that the manufacture, storage, sale,
distribution of panmasala and gutkha containing
tobacco as ingredient will be banned in Tamilnadu.
Based on the announcement, the Tamilnadu
Commissioner of Food Safety and Drug Administration
Department has given a circular to his subordinates forbetter legal implementation of the plan. However, whatmakes the present ban legally tenable is that it relieson the Food Safety and Standards Act, which hasprovisions to prevent tobacco and nicotine from being
used as ingredients in any food product. The State
Food Safety Wing and the Tobacco Control Cell are
likely to implement the ban. It was welcomed by theanti-tobacco groups in the State like Adyar Cancer
Institute.
The ban will be now implemented under theprovisions of the Food Safety and Standards Act,
which specifically states that no food product should
contain tobacco and nicotine as ingredients. Besides
running the risk of having their products seized by
officials, offenders have to face between six months tothree years in jail. Officials in the State say that theimplementation will be done jointly by the office of theFood Commissioner and the State Tobacco Control
Cell.
Madhya Pradesh was the first to ban gutkha andpan masala after the rules and regulations under the
Food Safety and Standards Act were notified. Kerala,
Gujarat and Mizoram followed soon. West Bengal
joined the group very recently. Inspite of theRegulation, the chewing items continue to be used bymany. Unless one makes up his own mind, knowing
the harm it would cause, nothing could change thepractice.
12. Ethical Values of South Indian Food:Contrary to the use of pan masala and kutkha, theSouth Indian practice of taking tambulam (fresh betel
leaves and pasty calcium with areca nut) after a goodmeal helps a lot in digestion of food taken. It has no
addiction like tobacco.
The Sage of Kanchi Sri Sankaracharya has
analysed the daily food taken by the vegetarian South

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Indians and its ethical values. The meal taken withcooked rice (sadam) (i.e) kuzhambu (gravy), rasam(juice or soup ) and butter milk reminds Hindu spiritual
path from confused inaction to a clear flow of action
and finally to the realized bliss of unity. A feast or get
together or function will be complete only after all theguests taking tambulam . It signifies a contented meal,
hospitality, friendly get together, sharing and adigestive component after a heavy meal. (Ra.
Ganapathy., Sollinn Selvar Sri Kanvhi Munivar( The
Sage of Kanchi ,the Expert of Words).
13. Food Poisoning
There are various tests conducted by experts inlaboratories to detect food adulteration (WikipediaAdulterated food). If found guilty, the defaulters arepunished. Food should be prepared and consumed ina healthy and hygienic atmosphere. Basic cleanlinessis to be followed not only by the cook and server but
also by the consumer. The kitchen and cooking
appliances and materials should be neatly washed.
Use of rotton vegetables, fruits, milk, old stuff cause
food poisoning. Proper lids are to be used to cover the
food. Old and rotton food should not be eaten. Lot ofcases of food poisoning in slums and villages are due
to consuming bad food. By following personal hygiene
and environmental cleanliness, food poisoning could
be averted. In theory, food poisoning is 100%
preventable. The five key principles of food hygiene,
according to WHO, are the following: ( "Prevention offoodborne disease: Five keys to safer food". World
Health Organisation. Retrieved 2010-12-10)
1. Prevent contaminating food with pathogens
spreading from people, pets, and pests.
2. Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent
contaminating the cooked foods.
3. Cook foods for the appropriate length of timeand at the appropriate temperature to kill
pathogens.
4. Store food at the proper temperature.
5. Do use safe water and cooked materials.
14. Food Business
Nowadays food is available everywhere. There aredifferent kinds of hotels –Five Star Hotels to road side
joints or Meals on Wheels. As it is done as a business,the owners should follow some ethics in producing,
displaying, marketing, distributing and packing the
products. They are to adhere to the rules andregulations of the government without choosing shortcuts to gain profit or evade tax. Food Safety andStandards Act of 2006 insists on the registration of thefood business units under this Act. It is sad to note thatmost units are yet to register and they function illegally(The Hindu, 17 Jan, 2013).
15. Ration Shops
Ration shops are great boon to the poor as they getfood materials, kerosene at a cheaper rate. But a
deeper survey shows that the things are not be
available through out the month; or bags of rice, sugar,
kerosene, dal, palm oil etc are be sold by the ration
shop people to retail shops in bulk; sometimes thequality of the things are not up to the mark. Use of low
quality materials will cause sickness too. As most of

the buyers are poor people, good and safe products
are to be distributed. Any one who questions the ration
shop about these mishaps will not be given proper
attention thereafter. Periodical inspection of the officials
and checking the quality of the materials will be helpful
to the buyers.
16. Adulteration
It is sickening to notice adulteration in almost all
products. The defaulters show good samples but sell
low quality. Some shops use faulty weighing machines,
Some adulterated products are given below.
16.1. Idli batter
The most favoured breakfast items of the South
Indians are dosa and idli. Prepared with the batter ofground rice and dal. South Indians were preparing
them in stoneware instrument called wural (manuallyoperated grinder) till last two decades. Then came thewet grinders, table-top grinders and many moresophisticated grinders. Refrigerator helps to store thebatter prepared in wet grinders, for a week. In the wural
periods, the batter was prepared freshly and kept for
maximum two days. This home made preparation was
clean and safe. The mechanization is not very safe.
As women now buy the batter from shops which
produce large quantity of batter, the safety of the
product is not guaranteed. It has to withstand climaticand storage conditions. The quality also depends on
the personal hygiene of the food handlers, the qualityof the rice and water used condition of the grinder too.
A Chennai based NGO namely ‘CONCERT’conducted a survey and found that more than half ofsamples of batter — branded and not — bought fromdifferent shops contained bacteria associated with
faecal matter. Most samples answered the tests for thepresence of hydrogen sulphide producing bacteria in it.
This could cause food poisoning.
This drew the attention of the Government to look
into the quality of the batter throughout the State.
Massive raids were conducted throughout the state on
14.02.2011 to check the quality of the idli-dosa wet
flour. Another unit functioned without license and theofficials seized 164 kg of unhygienic batter prepared by
it. FSSAI has to carry out special vigilance during
festive occasions like Diwali, Pongal as the crowd is
attracted towards all food items with out knowing thesafety of the same.
16.2. Milk
Milk is important for all, from children to elders. The
White Revolution has made easy access to milk. Bothprivate and government organizations are engaged incollecting and selling milk and milk products. As milk isa much needed commodity and it loses its quality in notime, it should be supplied safely to the consumers.
Different varieties of milk are in the market. Though theofficials check the quality of the milk adulteration
continues in many ways.
To check milk adulteration and create awarenessamongst people, the Food and Drug Administration(FDA) launched a month-long awareness campaign
from the World Milk Day (Zee News, June 01, 2012,
16:14).

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A report by the FSSAI in January 2013 found thatmost of the country's milk was watered down oradulterated with products -- including fertilizer, bleachand detergent -- used to thicken the milk and help togive it a white, frothy appearance. India is the world's
largest milk producer, where the drink is used forreligious rituals and is a source of protein for hundredsof millions of vegetarians. FSSAI has also found that
13 percent of all food in India failed to meet its
standards. It is the duty of the officials to stop
adulteration in food items, especially in milk.
16.3. Tea
Indian tea is of high quality and very much neededin foreign countries. It earns good foreign exchange.
But some exporters do not follow business and foodethics in supplying the same sample quality shown tothe buyers. It becomes very embarrassing to thegovernment when such illegal activities are processedby the exporters. After passing of the Act, importers
can be better assured about the quality of Indian tea.
The Tea Board of India has put in place a system ofrandom testing of teas meant for exports to ensure that
only the varieties that comply with the standards set by
Food Safety & Standard Authority of India should enter
global markets.
This measure comes at a time when Indian tea isfacing competition in the world market from Kenyan
tea. (22 June 2013). Greedy manufacturers
compromise with quality which results in low quality offood and in turn, bad health. If they follow some ethicalstandards, India could feel proud of her merchandise.
16.4. Papad & Toor dal:
Periodical checkups and surprise inspections also
take place after the passing of the Act. Many shops are
visited and products checked by the officials. Health
Officers too check hotels and food products in shops.
Once the officials visited a provision shop in a cityand found the papad packets did not have themandatory data on the cover of the pack. The papad
packets were taken as food sample and sent foranalysis to the state owned Food Analysis Laboratory.
Upon analysis, the papad packets were found to be
manufacturedinviolationofRule32(a),(b),(e),(f),(i)&42zzz(17) of the Prevention of Food
Adulteration Rules,1955. Hence, the sample wasreported to be misbranded. The sellers of those
papads faced imprisonment (The Hindu, 3 Nov., 2012,
Madurai). The same thing happened in another shop
for toor dal packet. (The Hindu, 14 March 2013).
16.5. The Apple Story: A Case Study
Fruits are perishable goods and the sellers are
cautious that they do not meet with any loss. Hencewhen they buy loads of apples, mangoes, etc from far
off places, they use chemicals for keeping them ingood condition during transport and to ripen. But suchfruits are not good for health. The details collected fromfruit sellers give a shock to the researcher.
The following is a case study of a fruit seller. There
are similar cases from all over India. Before dawn
every day Bhim joins hundreds of wholesale traders at
Delhi's Azadpur Mandi, a sprawling, chaotic market
where trucks loaded with fruits and vegetables. His

own trade is in rosy red apples, laced with calcium
carbide. Traders cannot buy fruits such as apples or
mangoes when they are already ripe, because thesewould go to waste during the bumpy, un-refrigerated
journey from the orchards. Instead, they buy the fruits
and later ripen them with calcium carbide, a substancecolloquially known as "masala," or "spice." Using thewhite powder reduces a ripening process that normallytakes weeks to a matter of hours. Traders are also
tempted to polish or dip fruit in artificial colors to makeits appearance fresh for sale. The ones that shine are
the rotten ones. They look good to the eyes, but end up
bad for the stomach.
Bhim says he has been adding chemicals to hisapples for years to artificially ripen them after a long
journey from the Himalayan foothills, despite being toldthat it causes cancer. As far as he knows, no-one hasever died from eating his produce. So he can notunderstand why the authorities are pestering him now,and why he has to pay so many bribes to keep his
business afloat. Wider enquiries proved that thispractice will continue for ever as no one wants to harm
his sales , although the Food Safety and Standards
Authority of India (FSSAI) has banned the use of
calcium carbide as it is carcinogenic. Officials also
leave it unnoticed as they know that they could not stop
the practice. They also accept bribes.
It is not the case with apple alone. To ripen costly
mangoes in various parts of India, this practice is being
followed. Actually, it results in unsafe and less tasty
fruits. Same thing is with vegetables grown withchemical fertilizers. Very few go for organic things.
Research on these food products prove that the use ofchemicals results in various diseases, especiallycancer. From rat poison found in vegetables and Diwali
festival sweets laced with caustic soda, to batches ofmoonshine liquor that kill scores of people at a time aresamples of unsafe practices to preserve food items. If
people are keen on food safety, correct measures areto be followed with what they consume.
17. Safety Awareness
It is the duty of the parents and teachers toinculcate in the minds of the children the importance ofsafe food, healthy environment and hygienic practices
in day to day life. Even a simple meal should be neatand safe. Outside food kept in bad condition cause
sickness and food poisoning. Hand wash is important
before and after food. Vessels are to be clean. Freshfood is to be consumed. Food kept in refrigerator for
many days should not be eaten. Clean drinking water
is a must for good health.
Adulteration is to be avoided. Poverty tempts sellers
to add dilutants such as water to make more quantity.
Cheap cooking oil is mixed with expensive oil, tea
waste is mixed with new tea, and anything from urea toblotting paper is added to thicken the food sold atfestivals.
In 2008 in China six children died and nearly
300,000 fell ill from drinking powdered milk laced withmelamine, an industrial chemical used to givemisleadingly high readings in protein tests. Two people
were executed in 2009 for their role in the scandal.

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Such severe measures are not followed in India.
Corruption and bribery help the defaulters to carry on
their food business successfully. Food safety is often
worse in poorer areas where ignorance and thetemptation to make a quick buck are greater. Poor
people do not care much about the quality. Whatever ischeaper, they will buy it. Better awareness needs to becreated among them on food safety.
18. Problems of Enforcement
The State and Central governments enact manylaws for food safety. The laws are good, but theimplementation is very weak. Enforcing India's foodsafety laws is a tough task. Enforcement officials are
not sufficient in number and action. Clever traders
come out easily through loopholes. Bribery andcorruption make matters worse. Many eating joints
have not registered. Even assessing the scale ofIndia's food safety problem has been controversial.
After the FSSAI published its survey on milk
adulteration, many State governments spoke out todeny the scale of the problem in their region. Sometimes the food samples given to the lab for test may
not be the real ones. Clever and greedy manufacturers
cheat the lab and officials in no time. Even found guilty,
they know to come out. FSSAI is still in the process of
upgrading laboratories with modern technology andtraining its staff.
19. Conclusion
Despite all mishaps, India's food safety record ismuch better than yester years, largely because there isa growing awareness of the issue. Indians are
becoming more safety conscious thanks to higher
literacy rates, licensing, clearer food packaging and amodernizing of retail sector. Media also can play agreat role in exposing the defaulters as well thegovernment. Basic ethical values of food safety are to
be followed in production, marketing and consumptionof food and food materials.
Acknowledgements
I am thankful to Dr. Soraj Hongladarom for giving me an
opportunity to present my paper in the APSAFE2013
conference.

Issues of research ethics indeveloping world: Ways of
improving the scenario- Amber Ali Muhammad, MBioeth (Aga Khan University)
Senior Research Associate, Department of Pediatrics & Child
Health, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
Email: amber.rajpari@gmail.com

Abstract
Although it is a matter of fact that clinical trials andresearch play a very important role in the scientificand technological development, however, it also gives
birth to many ethical problems and dilemmas speciallywhen these research and trials are conducted indeveloping or resource poor countries. The sponsors
and investigators could prefer to perform research inunderdeveloped countries where there is lack of basic
resources; people are illiterate and are mostsusceptible to exploitation. These research give birth
to many ethical and moral issues. This paper attempts
to discuss some of these issues in detail like; potential
for exploitation of research participants, standard ofcare debates, quality of informed consent, therapeutic
misconception and conflict of interest issues. All ofthem lead to the violation of very basic ethicalprinciples of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficenceand justice. Many interventions could be implimented
and the guidelines mentioned in this paper could be
followed by the research enterprise to make thestudies moral and ethical.
Key words: Ethical issues, clinical trials, research,developing countries, research ethics
Introduction
The significance of new research and clinical orcommunity based trials is high and this is a known
fact that it makes addition in scientific knowledge, thus
helping to improve the quality of lives. On the other
hand, researchers and funding agencies have beeninterested in carrying out research that include publichealth research and clinical studies/trials in thedeveloping nations. The poor countries where there islack of basic resources; people are illiterate and aremost susceptible to exploitation are the places wheremost of the studies are executed. It is easier to
conduct the research in these resource poor countries
as it consumes less cost for research, participants areeasily recruited, it is much easier to implement the
study in these countries and finally in the case ofclinical trials; the new drug under investigation could
be approved easily. All these factors raise many
ethical issues when the research are conducted indeveloping parts of the world.
This paper attempts to discuss these issues thatarise when such research are carried out indeveloping nations. Some of these issues include;
potential for exploitation of research participants,
standard of care debates, quality of informed consent,
therapeutic misconception and conflict of interest
issues. All of them lead to the violation of very basic
ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence and justice.
Quality of informed consent
The issues regarding the incomplete or
inappropriate process of taking informed consent arevery commonly identified in the research. Less time isspent to take informed consent and the level ofcompetence and understanding of the participants tofully understand what has been explained to them isvery rarely evaluated. Furthermore, less time is spentto understand the cultural practices and norms of thepeople living in the community where the research isbeen conducted. This ignorance increases thepotential and possibility of exploitation of the study
subjects and the probability becomes high when thestudies are conducted on the vulnerable groups likethe pediatric population or pregnant women. The so-

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

called “informed consent” does not seem to be
informed in most of the cases. Poverty in the
population coerces them to agree to participate in thestudies when they are offered extravagant amount forparticipating in research/trials. Additionally, lack of
information and availability of health insurance andlack of access of high quality of health care adds tothe burden for these people. Furthermore, committing
to participate in the research, leads them to face great
uncertainties, treatment side effects, paying extra
visits to the hospitals/clinics and filling out the forms
which seem to be of no use for them. It is also
observed that the benefits are highlighted without
informing about the associated risks or adverse
effects resulting in the violation of right to full
information.
Therapeutic misconception
Due to the lack of understanding and low educationlevels of the people in poorer parts of developing
countries, they are more vulnerable to enter in thetrials/research with the misunderstanding that they arereceiving a treatment. This therapeutic misconception
leads to deception of the participants which isunethical. Such studies could be made ethical by
ensuring that the participants have completely
understood all the components and details of thestudy in which they consent to participate; no personal
medical benefits should be provided to avoid any
coercion and that the decision of participation should
entirely be voluntary. Taking informed consent fromthe participants who belong to resource poor areas
ensures that the right to autonomy and respect has
been duly given.
When the participants are encouraged toparticipate in research without proper informed
consent, they are used as mere means to achieve theend which is not ethically justifiable. In addition to theabove points, all the participants participating inresearch are considered as vulnerable as they are
most likely to make coerced decisions to participate.
Informed consent plays a very important role as a tool
to protect the potentially vulnerable research subjects.
Conflict of interest issues
Physicians and researchers could also have theirinternal conflict of interests, thus, the dual role of aninvestigator as a physician is strongly discouraged.
These conflict of interest issues also arise whencorruption occurs at national and local levels.
Furthermore, the review boards sometimes are notindependent enough, which allows the unethicalresearch to be carried out in the developing nations.
In order to eliminate this issue, the review boards at
local and national level should be independent andthat they should not have any intrinsic conflict ofinterest which might endanger the vulnerable research
participants and raise the possibility of exploitation.
This situation occurs mostly because of the lack ofpolitical and economic rights that are entitled to thepeople living in these countries. Along with that, thedesperate circumstances in which they live intensify
the situation.
Thus, when the research/trials are being carriedout in less-developed countries, the local situation
should primarily be analyzed. Furthermore, the study
must aim to address an important problem of thepeople living in those countries. It is not ethical tocarry out such research and clinical studies in thedeveloping nations which would never be available oraffordable for the participants or the people living in
those parts of the world.
Available guidelines to follow
The guidelines that could be followed to make theclinical research ethical in third world nations include;
Nuremberg code, Declaration of Helsinki, Belmont
report and other documents that were made in
response to certain unethical events. Further,
Emanuel, Wendler and Grady, have proposed theethical guidelines in the form of a framework which
could also be followed to make the clinical research
ethical in developing countries and could also
successfully be applied to the clinical research thatare carried out. The main components of theframework include; collaborative partnership, social
value, scientific validity, fair selection of study
population, independent review, informed consent andrespect for study participants. The above given
requirements should be followed to make clinicalresearch ethical.
Responsibility of the research enterprise
The research sponsoring country should firstcollaborate with the host country for the acceptanceand the importance of research in their context. It
should also be determined that whether the trial is
responsive to the community needs. The study should
also be assessed for its appropriateness andapplicability in the local context in which it is carriedout. This includes respect for the values, culture andsocial practices of the host community.
Evaluation of generation of knowledge
The knowledge that would be generated from theclinical studies should also lead to the improvement in
the health of the subjects. Sharing the results of theresearch should add into the knowledge of the local
community resulting in the enhancement of wellbeing.
Funding agencies and review committees could
compare the relative values of different clinicalresearch and could prioritize the studies that havegreater social values as compared to the studies that
does not offer much social value. Along with the social
value an ethical clinical study should have scientificvalidity. A research study should be designed in a waythat its results should be useful for the health problem
the community faces. The study design must be
based upon the research objectives and objectives
should not be made in isolation. It should be madewith including the participants and their problems andobjectives should be equally regarded.

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 24 (March 2014)

Further, the inclusion and exclusion criteria for
selecting the subjects should not be biased. The
recruitment of the participants should not be merelyon the basis of convenience, privilege andvulnerability. Each individual should have equal
opportunity to participate or decide to participate in the
study unless the researchers have any scientificreason to exclude particular participants from thestudy. If some subjects are eligible for the study, but
their participation could harm them or could put themon the higher risks then these subjects should be
excluded from the study. Justice in subject selection interms of fairness maintains that the individuals orgroups who bear the risks of the study should beentitled for getting the benefits as well. No participants
should be selected on the basis of economic coercion
or political affiliation. However, the vulnerability of thesubjects should be identified from before and thereasons for selecting any particular group of people
for the research should be because of the highincidence or prevalence rate of disease or any othergood reasons.
The issue of allocating risks and benefits to theparticipants is one of the major ethical issues in thethird world context. Research that is funded bydeveloping countries are carried out in third world
nations. Clinical studies are done and the participants
are left alone after the completion of research bearing
the side effects and consequences of the study, whichis unethical. In order to eliminate this problem it isimportant to assess the risks and benefits of theresearch before they are started or approved. The
review committees could play an important role inassessing the planning of these research and theresources they have to provide the benefits to theparticipants. It should also be the responsibility of the
ethics review committees to ensure that thesebenefits are provided as said and planned. The risksof any study should not in any way over weigh thebenefits of the research. In order to make this process
more rigorous, it requires that the review boards
should be independent. In the context ofunderdeveloped countries, the review boards might
have several conflict of interest factors like; pressure
from the researchers or relationships with thegovernment, due to which they might allow some
unethical research that does not follow the above
guidelines. Thus, there should be transparency andaccountability in the review process to prevent the
exploitation of the participants.
As the individuals living in these areas usually
have very low literacy levels and poor understandingof research and their purpose, they are more
vulnerable to being coerced by many ways toparticipate in research. Sometimes they think that they
do not have any other option except for participating inthe study or they think that they will have to pay thepenalty if they withdraw from the study. This happens
because of their lack of knowledge regarding theirrights which might be overseen by the investigators.
They might also be deceived because of the same
reasons and most of the times exploited which would

not be justifiable on ethical grounds. All the elements
of informed consent should be properly fulfilled, therights of the participants to participate in the trials
autonomously should be respected, it should be madesure that the participants understand and know thatthey have a right to withdraw from the study without
paying any penalty and most importantly full
disclosure of information regarding all the aspects ofresearch that are discussed above should be
disclosed in culturally and socially appropriatemanner. Moreover, all the information regarding thechanges or developments that are made during thecourse of research should be timely reported andexplained to the participants.
Conclusion
Although it is a matter of fact, that the clinical trials
and research play a very important role in thescientific and technological development. However, italso gives birth to many ethical problems anddilemmas specially when these research and trials are
conducted in developing or resource poor countries.
The participants and the community could easily be
exploited, coerced, deceived and the vulnerable
populations could be posed to greater risks. Certain
guidelines could be followed to make the clinicalstudies ethical in these respective contexts togenerate true moral and ethical scientifically soundknowledge.
References
1. Baldes, Annette S, Vayena E and Andorno NB (2007)
European molecular biology organization, sharing benefits
in international health. Embo reports 8, no. 1 (2007): 08.
2. Kim P. The clinical trial is complete: Now what?
www.bcm.edu/edict/PDF/Post trial_Benefit.pdf (accessed
August 05, 2011).
3. Gupta UC, Mishra S, Bhatia S, Rajul R, Sharma A (2011)
Evaluating the strategies on ethical grounds for phase 0
oncology clinical trials. J Clinic Res Bioeth 2, no. 2.
4. Emanuel, Ezekial J, Wendler D, Grady C (2000). Whatmakes clinical research ethical? Journal of American
medical association, 283, no. 20: 2701-2710.
5. Daugherty CK (1999) Ethical issues in the development of
new agents. Investigational New Drugs, 7:145-153.
6. Zion, D (2003) Justice as Equitable Power Relations:
Beyond the “Standard of Care” Debate and the
Declaration of Helsinki. The American Journal of
Bioethics, 3, no. 2: 34-35.
7. Caballero, B (2002) American society for clinical nutrition.
Am J Clin Nutr, 76, no:717-720.
8. Marcia A (1997). The ethics of clinical research in thethird world. The New England Journal of Medicine, 337,
no. 12:849.

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