Tsunesaburo Makiguchi’s Theory of the State
by Koichi Miyata
1. Introduction
Jinsei Chirigaku [Geography of Human Life] was published in
December 1903, immediately before the outbreak of the RussoJapanese War, and it lays out Tsunesaburo Makiguchi’s observations
on the state and war in the most organized manner of all his writings
on the subject. To do justice to his theory of the state, this work must
be consulted as the primary resource supplemented by statements on
the subject found in his other works. Makiguchi’s thinking can beeasily misunderstood if, in addition, due consideration is not given to
the contextual relevance of the Russo-Japanese War, a crossroads
determining whether Japan would become another Asian colony ortransform itself into an imperialist state rivaling the West.
Makiguchi characteristically shaped his thoughts through carefully
observing social indicators. His proposals tend toward the complex in
his analysis and mapping of practical realities with future possibilities.
To attempt an appropriation or abstraction of his ideas from theircontextual framework would serve only to distort his true aims. The
same is true when examining his views on the state and war.
The period in which Makiguchi lived spans the Meiji Restoration
to the Second World War. The modern-state passion for imperial
expansion was at its height, with Western states vying intensely forhegemony over the world. With this as a backdrop, the sovereignstate struggled to secure for itself an acknowledged place in the world
and for its people a tolerable living standard.
Makiguchi emphasized that the people’s right to liberty, life andproperty could not be secured without securing the independence ofthe state. In an expansionist period, the role of the state wassignificant:We owe it entirely to our nation that we are able to enjoy
peaceful and secure living conditions through defense from the10

T H E O RY OF T H E STAT E

aggression of great powers externally, and through respect forour individual freedom and protection of our lives and property
domestically. It makes it clear that as much as narrow-mindednationalism should be avoided, the other extreme — an empty,
hypocritical cosmopolitanism — must not be adopted.
(Geography 1: 28)

He described the succession of Asian countries colonized by theWest and the consequential loss of pride in Asian traditions of history
and culture:
India, already a great nation with a population of 200 million
whose culture cast an enlightening light on the rest of the world
3,000 years ago, is now under the reign of Britain with a mere
38 million. East Asian and South Asian countries of various
sizes, such as Burma and Vietnam, maintained dignified
independence until recently but have been ruined. China, Korea
and Thailand remain sovereign states only nominally, and they,
too, are on a downfall. (Geography 2: 96)

In light of world trends, Makiguchi pointed out that Japan as wellfaced colonization:
Our country is surrounded by enemies on all sides. It is nothing
short of a miracle that Japan narrowly escaped colonization after
opening its door to the rest of the world. (Geography 2: 97)

The unequal international treaties forced on the military
government of the Tokugawa shogunate — in no small part influenced
by the unexcelled military show of power by Western nations —immunized foreign residents, in the name of extraterritoriality, fromprosecution under Japanese civil law and deprived Japan of theautonomy to regulate customs, a tool for protecting and developing
domestic industry.
The Meiji government, established after the Tokugawas were
overthrown, set out to emulate the West by increasing national wealthand military force. It was a means of safeguarding Japan’s
independence from the Western threat of colonization. Japan did not
abolish extraterritorial rights granted to foreign powers until 1894,
just prior to the Sino-Japanese War, or restore rights to levy duties
until 1911, the threshold of the First World War.
11

Th e Jo ur na l of O ri en t al St u d ie s 1 0: Sp ec ia l I ss ue

Such were the circumstances under which Makiguchi thought overthe state and war, and wrote Geography of Human Life. He firstoutlines his thoughts on the evolution of civilization and its historical
processes leading to contemporary world affairs. While he wasinclined to stress the role of the state in the climate of imperial
expansionism, he also explored alternative roles the state could playin post-imperialistic times.
2. The Theory of Evolution As the Basis of Thinking
In Geography of Human Life, Makiguchi discusses civilization withthe theory of evolution as his frame of reference.
The competition for survival is one principle that permeates alllife forms, and causes natural selection and evolution. This is
attested by the fact that all organisms produce offspring in excessof their own number and at an exponential rate to perpetuate
their existence. (Geography 5: 173)

He draws from not only the then fashionable Darwinian struggle
for existence but also Spencerian social evolution, in which
competition spurred evolutionary progress.
The origin and development of society and the advancement of allits elements are determined by the degree of competition forsurvival taking place within that society. Island countries appear to
be backward, still preserving ancient creatures, manners, customs,
rituals and tradition no longer extant on continents. Cities areculturally far ahead of the country [of Japan]. Western nations arewell developed in contrast to the present rates of development at
which Japan and other Oriental nations still remain. All of this canbe explained by the intensity of competition. This shows that there
is progress where there is tough competition, and natural or
artificial hindrance of free competition leads to stagnation,
inactivity and retrogression. (Geography 5: 187)

Having won the competition with other species for existence,
humankind faced increasing competition within its own. Further, thelocus of competitive activity was continuing to shift with the passageof time and population growth of society, from among individuals andfamilies to tribes and cultures and now to states.
12T H E O RY OF T H E STAT E

Makiguchi, however, did not extend an unconditional welcome tothe apparent progress of civilization. Illuminating the dark, savageside of it, he warned that this progressive trend had brought aboutcolonialism.
Modern civilization has extended the stage of humanity’s struggle
for existence to every corner of the world. The two major kindsof motive power, steam and electricity, have made Earth smaller
in distance and time, making it one world. What used to be smallscale struggles among tribes has now escalated to large-scaleinternational competition. At this stage, all countries and races arevying with each other, seeking every opportunity to conquer one
another, and will resort without hesitation to violent, brutal
means. This is the nature of imperialism. (Geography 1: 27)

While Makiguchi admitted competition influenced society, he refused
to regard it as the exclusive principle that ruled it. He sought atransition from the principle of competition to that of coexistence as
the final stage of social progress.
3. The Four Processes Leading to a Global Sense of Coexistence
As civilization progressed by way of its struggle for existence, effecting
a shift in the locus of competition, progressive modes of competition
also became apparent to Makiguchi. He identified four stages ofcompetition: militaristic, political, economic and, finally,
humanitarian. Although the transition from one mode to the next
occurred gradually, all four modes were simultaneously present
within the events of civilizational progress.
a. The mode of militaristic competition
As weapons used for human survival became more sophisticated,
militaristic competition grew in intensity, brutality and magnitude,according to Makiguchi. He maintained that war, inseparable frominternational politics, could not be wholly settled by an aggressor’s
military might. Gains by armed triumph were extremely limited, andlosses were far greater.
As times change, nations of the world will no longer leave final
settlement of war to belligerents or tolerate a victor’s endless13

The Journal of Oriental Studies 10:Special Issue

demands on a defeated nation. If one belligerent wins a total
victory in war, its gains can never compensate its losses in theend. (Geography 5: 178)

It is quite possible that Makiguchi had in mind the tripartite
intervention of Russia, Germany and France that pressured Japan torelinquish the Liaodong Peninsula secured in 1895 from China after
the Sino-Japanese war. By international political pressure Japan lost aterritory which it had gained by military force.
As competing aggressors developed newer and more effective
weapons, achieving an ultimate victory by force became increasingly
difficult:
Prolonged war affects every aspect of the nation. National
strength is inevitably exhausted in the end. Eventually the publicrecognizes that what is lost through war cannot be easily
compensated by what is gained through war. (Geography 5: 178)

The above observation predicted the real outcome of the RussoJapanese War. He stressed that military action would result in great
losses to the state and its people from an economic standpoint.
Makiguchi repeatedly pointed out that as the public becomesaware of their economic losses brought about by war, the nation
grows in reluctance to use force as a means of winning competition.
Nations now avoid and refrain from mobilizing their troops
readily. They seek to win by peaceful armaments before
attempting to defeat their enemy by force of arms. Thus who
wins a war is determined by the degree of armaments rather
than the result of actual combat today. (Geography 5: 179)b. The mode of political competition
Military action was no longer effective in attaining a national
objective. With that realization, modern states began pursuit of theirinterests by means of diplomacy in the arena of international politics.
In this era, a state will seek victory by placing shrewd diplomats
at strategic points, looking for and taking advantage of every
minute fault in another nation with which to intimidate it, on
one hand, and coax it with flattery and money, on the other —14

T H E O RY OF T H E STAT E

bribing officials close to the sovereign, luring people withimmediate petty profits to sway the sovereign, closing
clandestine treaties to avoid other states’ interference, utilizing
what appears to be a privately owned firm to disturb anotherstate’s domestic affairs, expanding territory by setting up theterms of another nation’s surrender, etc. It was through thisparticular mode of competition that Great Britain augmented its
territory overseas; and other European nations, in East andSouth Asia. (Geography 5: 180)

The Western powers were effective in manipulating diplomatic
relations to expand their colonies. After the Sino-Japan war, Russia
without much resort to military force leased the Liadong Peninsula,which China had re-obtained from Japan through tripartite
intervention. At the same time, Germany leased from Japan the
opposite side of the Thao Zhou Bay. This is an example of results
based on diplomacy backed by military force.
c. The mode of economic competition
When territorial expansion through political negotiation no longer
yielded economic advantage, Makiguchi pointed out, politicalcompetition shifted to economic competition.
Nations will realize eventually that expansion of territory is notin the end worthwhile because it is no longer crucial to theirsurvival unless accompanied by real profit. It also requires
enormous resources to assimilate the people of the newly
acquired territories. Knowing that [expansionist policies] not
only invite other nations’ suspicion and criticism but the profit
return is small, they will seek tangible gains rather than fight for
prestige and jeopardize their survival. (Geography 5: 180)

Owning colonies presented a huge economic burden to the suzerain,
what with the costs of maintaining armed forces to suppress rebellion
and the extension of governance. Competing for colonies as themeans of acquiring resources and markets was losing its
attractiveness.
Where political methods created a peaceable competition ofarmaments, economic competition created a peaceful war forcommercial and industrial power. According to Makiguchi, a military15

Th e Jo ur na l of O ri en t al St u d ie s 1 0: Sp ec ia l I ss ue

war differed from an economic war in that its range of activity had adesignated beginning and ending time. An economic war, on theother hand, was perpetual and seamlessly integrated into daily living.
The miseries of the former were readily apparent, but theconsequences of the latter were opaquely tragic.
Makiguchi drew attention to the fact that in the absence of aninternational system to mediate economic competition, nations werevulnerable to natural selection.
[Economic competition] is severely atrocious in the end. In
military war, peace can be restored by negotiation of limits to theduration of the war. Yet economic war cannot be curtailed soeasily. While mediation by a third party is an option in militarywar, economic war is entirely left to run its own course.
(Geography 5: 181)

Economic struggle solely ruled by the principle of competition tended
to widen the gap between rich and poor, creating problems that weremore serious than war. In a way, Makiguchi foresaw the North-South
problem the world economy continues to face today. The exports ofdeveloping countries integrating into the international market were
those of production — mainly agricultural products, industrial raw
materials and energy source materials — which placed them at a
disadvantage vis-à-vis industrialized countries. Industrialization indeveloping countries was pursued through foreign loans. The
sophistication of production technology was another advantage ofdeveloped countries — leaving only debt on the developing countries.
As pointed out by many economists, it is difficult for developing
countries to overcome the strains of these disadvantages without
international help. This fact demonstrates Makiguchi’s claim — that
economic competition in some cases could bring longer sufferings tomore people than militaristic competition — to be well-grounded.
Concerning the shift in national objective from military victory to
economic victory, Makiguchi stated:
In the past, economic power was developed for the purpose of
winning military competition. Today armaments are merely oneof the elements to ensure victory in economic competition. Arms
were the end and economy was the means of procurement. Now
armaments are a means to economic power. The final outcome16T H E O RY OF T H E STAT E

used to be determined by military competition. At present
economic strength decides who wins the battle. (Geography 5:
181)

d. The mode of humanitarian competition
Makiguchi asserted that international competition toward
humanitarian aims would be possible if the final mode of struggle
among individuals were humanitarian competition.
The humanitarian mode of competition cannot be found intoday’s world. But even our contemporaries of advanced, loftierthought are aware that an economic victor is not necessarily theultimate victor in the struggle for survival. It is therefore easy to
imagine that an era of humanitarian competition will follow thatof economic competition. (Geography 5: 182)

Humanitarian competition, explained Makiguchi, is toward the
expansion of spiritual influence by the “forces” of culture andmorality:
It is to naturally inspire others by invisible force instead of theconventional military or political expansion of territory todominate as many people as possible or economic expansion toachieve the effects of military and political power. In
humanitarian competition, invisible force is used to naturally
influence and inspire respect in others, in place of the resort tosubjugation by authority. This is a method of compassion andreason that attracts and draws others by the power of virtue,
contrary to selfish territorial expansion and conquest. It is inaccordance with humanitarianism. (Geography 5: 183)

By extension, the other modes of competition would be influenced
by it. To Makiguchi’s view, the socially marginalized were to beprotected and to benefit from the reining in of inhumane competition.
Humanitarian competition could effect the transition from an ethos ofcompetition to an ethos of cooperation and coexistence.
There are no simple humanitarian methods. They include any
activity within the framework of humanitarianism, be it political,
military or economic. Essentially the aim must be to safeguard
and improve both one’s own life and others’ instead of the17T he Jou rn a l of Or i ent a l St ud ie s 10 :S p ec ia l Iss u efulfillment of self-interests alone. In other words, humanitarian
methods benefit both oneself and others, and inspire theconscience to choose cooperative life. (Geography 5: 183)

4. The Reality: A World Centered on Economic War
Makiguchi saw at present that economic competition was the primarymode of interaction among nations and that all other modes ofcompetition were present only to a much lesser degree.
From my view of the nature of competition taking place in thesetimes internationally, nations seem to adopt different modes
according to the situation, that is, the extent of their ability tosurvive. Russia still seeks to expand its territory by the ancient
way of political power. Other western countries are pursuing real
profit through economic means. And there are early signs of thehumanitarian method being employed by the United States. In
essence, today is an era of economic competition. Thus all powers
at the disposal of nations are concentrated on economic growth,leaving no room for other methods. It is national self-interest that
determines international alliances and rifts. (Geography 5: 184)

Moreover, the concentration of a nation’s activity in specific areas of
economic competition, including the exportation of labor and goods
and foreign capital investment, depended on the level of its domestic
stability and wealth.
Some nations participate in economic competition primarily
focused on labor, a primitive kind of economic power, because of
their stage of national development. Japan and China, forexample, send laborers overseas to earn menial wages. GreatBritain and the United States increase their wealth by exporting
goods, taking advantage of their natural resources, primarily
iron and fuel, and their competitive advantage in industry.
Germany and France choose to invest capital in foreigncountries; although exporting goods would be morecompetitively profitable, their circumstances do not allow it.
(Geography 5: 185)

The predominance of economic competition outpaced if not rivaled
political and military ventures to expand national territories. Makiguchi
18

T H E O RY OF T H E STAT E

maintained that Russia’s continuing expansion policy to control Asian
trading ports, intrinsically valuable in the race for economic advantage,
could destabilize the tentative peace of the late 1890s. Although he saw
the possibility of humanitarian competition arising in a post-imperialismera, he did not discount the imperialism-era momentum of economic
competition carrying over. With the current trends, he predicted armed
conflict between Japan and Russia to be inevitable and turned his
attention to outlining the role of the state.
5. Community, Nation and the World
The role of the state begins to take shape in Makiguchi’s outline with
the identity of the individual in that state. For him it was a given thathuman beings cannot exist apart from social being. The interactionsof social being take place within three spheres of an individual’s
existence: the community, the nation and the world.
We realize that we are part of a few hundred to several thousand
members of our local communities, of 50 million citizens of ournation, and 1.5 billion people of the world. We are raised in thecradle of our communities and live in the Empire of Japan —where we make our home, associate, compete, make peace andconflict with neighboring nations as with the neighbors next
door. With this awareness we can correctly ascertain genuine,
solid footing and confirm our true duties. (Geography 1: 28)

Among the three social areas of individual identity — as a memberof a community, a nation and the world — Makiguchi placed greatest
importance on membership within the nation, locating one’s home in
the nation of Japan as distinct from the home of neighboring nations.
His emphasis on the citizen within and the role of the state was closely
linked to what he perceived as the current stage of development in
humanity’s social life. His emphasis also was a reflection of the
preoccupation of the times with imperialism. Next let us look at theway he viewed the state.
6. The Four Duties of the State
Makiguchi believed that the state’s activities fell under four
categories: (1) activities to safeguard against domestic troubles, such
19Th e Jou rn a l of O ri ent a l St ud i es 1 0:S p ec ia l I ss u e

as the prevention of civil war (2) activities to safeguard from external
troubles, such as armed and diplomatic conflicts, to maintainnational independence (3) activities related to citizens’ rights andfreedoms, such as crime prevention, and (4) activities to promote thenation’s well-being, such as the establishment of stable economic
systems. The level of civilization was indicated by which category
received. After the Seinan War (Satsuma Rebellion) of 1877, the firstcategory became almost irrelevant in Japan. But in an imperialisticera, the second was critical.
We have entered an era of aggressive imperialism where nationsof their own volition put all their energies at every opportunity
into overpowering and dominating others to achieve genuine
independence. In such times, the first and foremost duty of thestate is to solidify its status with its neighbors. For that purpose,
military power as well as keen diplomatic maneuvering isessential. Since no mediating authority has been establishedinternationally, there is no option other than a military one toprotect one’s territory…. The majority of tax revenues is spenton this purpose. This cannot be avoided in the least when thestate’s existence and prosperity are at stake. These activities toward off external attacks are an absolute prerequisite for the state
to fulfill other duties. (Geography 5: 15)

This was the sense of crisis Makiguchi perceived in the imperialisticera. Insuring the state’s presence served as the basis from which thethird and fourth categories of activities could proceed. The second
category was therefore the most crucial for the time being in his view.
There were two kinds of functions modern states had initiated tosecure the rights and freedom of its citizens: protection of theindividual’s rights and freedom against interference (or infringement)by other individuals, as in crime prevention; protection of theindividual's rights and inviolability against infringement by thegovernment, as in religious freedom, and the guarantee of theirpolitical rights, as in the right to vote. The latter was of particularimportance to Makiguchi, who considered the Meiji Constitution of1889 to offer such guarantees:
The latter, finally established by the recent promulgation of theConstitution, primarily consists of the acknowledgement of20

T H E O RY OF T H E STAT E

freedom of conscience, thought, speech, religion and private
association for political, religious or educational purposes.
(Geography 5: 15)

Compared to the present Constitution of Japan, the Meiji Constitution
did not provide sufficiently for the protection of citizens’ rights. It issignificant, however, that Makiguchi asserted those freedoms had notbeen granted until the Meiji Constitution: There was no freedom of
occupation, residence or religion under the Tokugawa regime.
Activities under the fourth category, to promote the stability of thenational infrastructure, had been adopted recently by European
nations. The most advanced nation, in Makiguchi’s view, would placehighest emphasis on these activities, the objective being essentially the
improvement of living standards as integral to the continuation andprosperity of the state. With the modes of competition in usechanging rapidly, the existence of the state could not be secured byarmed force alone. Without well-rounded and well-coordinateddevelopment in all social activities, the prosperity and well-being ofsociety could not be achieved. The Japanese state therefore sought tointervene — even contravene — in an attempt to regulate and thereby
promote social development.
The progress of civilization could be measured by the level ofawareness that a thriving and content society was more critical to thestate’s survival than military power. Makiguchi highly valued thestate’s demonstration of commitment to this fourth category ofactivities. He further classified them into five areas of intervention:
1. Economic activities to establish an economic infrastructure,develop transportation and communication systems,
undertake public enterprises and assure workers’ welfare
2. Educational activities to develop and improve public
education
3. Moral activities to maintain civil conduct and control
gambling
4. Entertainment activities to curtail indecency
5. Religious activities to restrict any religion that “causes
substantial mental and physical damage to the public by21

The Journal of Oriental Studies 10:Special Issue

taking advantage of ignorance and superstition andemploying various material means” (Geography 5: 19)
It is apparent that Makiguchi focused on the role of the state incommitment and service to its citizens’ safety, freedom and happiness.
Equally apparent is the fact that Geography of Human Life
reflected the nation-oriented concerns of imperialism that included aforeboding sense of an imminent conflict with Russia. Accordingly, heemphasized the role of the state to ward off external threat as a firstpriority in guaranteeing its people’s security.
It must be noted here that Makiguchi also argued the prioritizationof state duties vis-à-vis the activity sectors he enumerated shifted withthe changing times and circumstances. This argument represents thenecessary contextual backdrop for his perspective on the relationshipbetween the state and its people.
7. The Evolution of the State’s Objective:
From National Citizens to World Citizens(a) Three progressive stages
Makiguchi examined the evolution of the state’s recognition of its
duties and discovered three stages through which the state arrived at
its national goals and agenda.
At the first stage, the state finds itself in the process of constructing its
identity through unifying internally and fortifying itself externally. The
state’s objective was to establish national authority, and its activities
corresponded to the first and second modes enumerated above.
The second stage represented the process by which the state
became politically stable, already having achieved a degree ofrecognized authority within its boundaries and autonomy without. At
this juncture, the nation has grown accustomed to public order.
The state began to allow its citizens to exercise freedom byaffording protection of the individual in civil disputes and even fromthe state’s infringement to a certain degree. The state’s activities
corresponded to the third mode enumerated in the above section.
About individual freedom, Makiguchi commented:[The state] now not only safeguards freedom of individuals
against infringement by other individuals but also regards, to22

T H E O R Y OF T H E STAT E

some extent, the individual as sacred and inviolable against
infringement by the state itself, which is considered the state’s
objective in this period. (Geography 5: 26)

To declare the individual “sacred and inviolable” in the era under the
Meiji Constitution, which granted such attributes solely to theemperor, suggests Makiguchi’s empathy with democracy. Makiguchi
wrote in the third volume of his System of Value-creating Pedagogy
that when he had written Geography of Human Life, he had an
association with Heimin-sha [The Association of the Common
People], an organization of socialists who supported democracy,socialism and pacifism. Makiguchi said that he struggled jointly forthe universal suffrage movement (Pedagogy 3: 30).
An era of wealth and foreign trading resulted in this third stage.
The state had compelling interest then to ensure its level of prosperity
by expanding its sphere of economic influence to the rest of the world.
To do so, the state sought more actively to exercise its national
authority at home as well. Domestic policy to both regulate andencourage growth of the social infrastructure was viewed by the stateas the basis of fortifying its authority and so its well-being. This
corresponded with the fourth mode of the state’s activities
enumerated above.
Japan’s economic prowess in the international arena directly
related to its ability to regulate all business activities that crossed its
borders. To achieve a competitive edge, the state protected
domestic businesses by levying duties on imported goods, creating
a bureaucracy to administrate customs, and giving preferential
treatment to domestic over foreign businesses. By the late Meiji era,
Japan had yet to acquire full autonomy to regulate its own customs,
and its economic progress still lagged far behind other modern
states.
Makiguchi maintained there existed a parallel between thedevelopmental stage of the state and the evolution of what the people
wanted. The state could not exist apart from the nation, and so thestate had an obligation to work toward the realization of theindividual’s well-being. The spiritual development of the nation thus
reflected on the progress of the state and its objectives.

23

The Journal of Oriental Studies 10:Special Issue(b) Exploring a shift in the state’s objective: from imperialism to humanitarianism
Makiguchi believed Japan to be at the third stage of development,characterized by the pursuit of capital and trade gains. It was animperialistic time, typified by the state’s objective to shape and solidify
its national identity and character.
He posed the following question: Is imperialism truly the ultimate
objective of the state?
According to his findings, imperialism was mere egotism
manifested on a national level, an equivalent to the self-centered stageof psychological development in an individual. He wrote: “Thiscannot fulfill the ideals of those who are genuinely advanced and haverealized the true meaning of life” (Geography 5: 28). Egotism could
not possibly serve as the ultimate ideal of the spiritually evolved.
Experts feared that the increasing focus of the Western powers on
winning economic and military objectives could lead to tragically farreaching consequences. Seeing this as a growing concern for humanity,
Makiguchi sought alternatives to imperialism as the state’s end.
He considered the German philosopher G. W. F. Hegel’s
conceptualization: “The objective of the state lies in morality.” And
English philosopher Bernard Bosanquet’s conceptualization: “Theultimate objective of society and the state is identical with that of theindividual; namely to realize a life of supreme value” (ThePhilosophical Theory Of The State). Referring also to the writing ofAmerican educator and political scientist John William Burgess(1844–1931), Makiguchi maintained that the ultimate objective of thestate was the perfection of humanitarianism and humanity.
Burgess asserted that the state’s goal was not only to advance its
people’s civilization but also to enhance world civilization and theideals of humanity. Makiguchi concurred with the assertion, in that itcorresponded to his belief that the world citizen should be the finaldestination in the development of the state.
8. Emphasis on a Sense of Community in ‘The System
of Value-Creating Pedagogy’
The System of Value-Creating Pedagogy was published in 1930,
almost 30 years after Geography of Human Life. Although he did not
address the role of the state in the later work, the thinking was24

T H E O R Y OF T H E STAT E

consistent with his earlier work. Makiguchi concluded in Geographyof Human Life that imperialism exemplified state egotism in its
relations with other states, and argued for a conversion to acooperative framework. In The System of Value-Creating Pedagogy,
he argued that a cooperative system of social activity enhanced
society and the individual, and that cultivating this social awarenesswould create a sense of community that underlay morality.
The struggle for existence is one aspect of life; community life,
the other. The same person behaves brutally in atrocious
competitive life on one hand and exhibits compassion incommunity life on the other. It is quite puzzling that both aspects
occur simultaneously in the individual’s life as well as in society.
Yet competitive life arises only from individual consciousness,while community life originates in social awareness. It is futile toencourage moral life in an individual whose mentality is
preoccupied with his or her own existence. It is essential to fostersocial awareness to promote moral life based on a sense ofcooperation and harmony. (Pedagogy 1: 216)

If the majority of the state’s citizens was interested only in competitive
living, both the stability of social order and cooperative relations withother states would be difficult to achieve. Makiguchi called for moral
education grounded in social awareness.
Moral education aims at guiding those who are living inferior
lifestyles, that is, conscious only of competition for survival,
toward a loftier existence, that is, conscious of community life. It
requires the development of social awareness, the instruction anddiscipline to enable them to examine and compare various waysof living. Social life at school provides an excellent environment
for this. (Pedagogy 1: 217)

To engage in community life required a developed social
awareness and rational behavior:
The Japanese people appear to be emotional, highly inclined to
avoid logical thinking. It is a weak point that the entire nation
has to rectify if it is to lead a whole social life, and particularly if
it is to be in harmony with the nations of the world. Instead, they
are under the self-delusion that it is rather their strength, thus
perpetuating the weakness. From an objective standpoint, it is25Th e Jou rna l o f Ori en t a l Stu d ie s 10 :S pec i a l Iss u e

regrettable that this tendency causes unnecessary emotional
conflict in a peaceful, cooperative environment, making
community life troubling, uncomfortable and dismal — ahindrance to everyone’s productivity. (Pedagogy 1: 201–02)

Makiguchi’s emphasis on community life based on social
awareness cannot be construed to indicate a denial or sacrifice ofprivate life. By stark contrast, as economically depressed Japan
entered the Showa era in 1926, the military gradually took control ofgovernment, and selfless devotion to the nation was forced on the
public through a number of instituted measures. Makiguchi firmly
denounced the policy-driven sacrifice of private life as senseless andhypocritical.
Values disregarding loss and gain are meaningless. They aretheoretical and cannot be put into practice. Values of impracticaldesign or devoid of the realities of life are merely an empty
concept. One can realize the ideal of selfless devotion to thenation only once in a lifetime. It is senseless to impose thismorality of extraordinary nature on the home front. (“TheCriteria of Values”)

Here Makiguchi emphasized that people struggling to survive andraise offspring could not sacrifice their life for the nation. Therefore,
he concluded that to demand selfless devotion to the nation was
impossible, senseless, and hypocritical.
Such open criticism angered the security police, and the Soka
Kyoiku Gakkai’s publication Kachi Sozo was shut down for carrying it.
Police measures of suppressing speech and press did not deter
Makiguchi from criticizing the war-mongering state that took over all
private and public life for the war cause. Makiguchi classified good
into minor good, medium good and great good. The first is the selfish
life of minor good and minor evil that is based on a near-sighted
worldview. The second is the anti-individualistic life of medium goodand great evil that is based on a far-sighted worldview. The third is thelife of great good and no evil that is based on a worldview in which allthings are perceived as they are (Complete Works 10: 135).
Makiguchi denouced the militarist leaders as leading lives of
medium good and great evil. He criticized a life seeking medium goodand great evil as follows:26

T H E O RY O F T H E S TAT E

Striving for minor good is unacceptable to the brave-hearted
who do not settle for minor good and minor evil. There arethose in current leadership who are respected by the public.
Upon close examination, however, their ignoble nature isrevealed despite the magnificent façade. For this reason the new
Konoe administration is not able to fully live up to its ideals. It
cannot transcend its own self-serving individualism under theveneer of conducting greater good. Those who are actively
engaged in public programs today, including political parties andgroups, educational circles, economic organizations, and charity
organizations, who profess to serve the public interest are
actually involved in unspeakably corrupt behavior behind closed
doors…. Even educators and religionists are unaware of theirown hypocrisy and self-righteous egotism as they confine theirinterests narrowly to their own schools, temples or circles. They
are showered with abundant respect from the public for
advocating selfless devotion to the great good, yet they arepoisoning society with what is ultimately great evil. (“TheSignificance and Possibilities of the New Administration’s Ideal,
the Life in Pursuit of Greater Good”)

Makiguchi was not only critical of the militarist government but also
negative toward the Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War. His views
were clearly documented in the Special Higher Police interrogations
after his arrest under the Public Security Preservation Law of 1925 forblasphemy of the Emperor and the Ise Grand Shrine. Based on his
religious belief, he categorically condemned the state’s glorification of
the war as a sacred battle for the creation of the Greater East Asia CoProsperity Sphere. He was quoted in the document as saying: “I believethat the China Incident and the Greater East Asia War was caused by
Japan’s slander of the True Law” ( 201). He viewed these crises as
disastrous to the public as famine and epidemic disease.
Makiguchi accepted the inevitability of states at war on thesurvival premise of an imperialistic era, where the independence ofthe state and the safety, freedom and well-being of its citizens were injeopardy. He firmly believed, however, that war could be averted,
given a conversion from a competitive framework of relations to acooperative sense of community. To him armed struggle was merely
an extension of economic struggle. Thus he found it unacceptable forthe state to enter into war and devastate the nation’s economic life.
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The Journal of Oriental Studies 10:Special Issue

9. Summary
The earlier part of this essay, based on the Geography of Human Life,
explains the four types of competition and examines Makiguchi’s
perspective that the state of his times was at the stage of economic
competition — or of imperialism — and that the world eventually must
evolve into the stage of humanistic competition. In the latter part ofthe paper, we see Makiguchi’s view of the state in which he claims thatthe objective of state must move from selfish interest to humanitarian
interest. We also demonstrate — based on Makiguchi’s System ofValue-Creating Pedagogy and some of his essays on religion — that hishumanistic philosophy was consistent throughout his life and that hewas critical of the militarist government before and during World War
II. I tried to quote as many primary words of Makiguchi as I could.
It would be the author’s greatest pleasure to have served in some way
to facilitate an accurate understanding of Makiguchi’s ideas.

Works Consulted
Japan. Ministry of Domestic Affairs Police and Public Peace Bureau.
Excerpted Records of the Interrogation of the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai
President Tsunesaburo Makiguchi. The Monthly Reports of theSpecial Higher Police. August 1943. In Japanese.
Makiguchi, Tsunesaburo. Geography of Human Life. 5 vols. Tokyo: Seikyo
Press Paperback Edition, 1971–80. In Japanese.
———. The System of Value-Creating Pedagogy. 4 vols. Tokyo: Seikyo Press
Paperback Edition, 1972–80. In Japanese.
———. “The Criteria of Values.” Value Creation Number 7. Vol. 10 of The
Complete Works of Tsunesaburo Makiguchi. Tokyo: Daisan
Bunmeisha, 1987. 34. In Japanese.
———. “The Significance and Possibilities of the New Administration’s Ideal,
the Life of Greater Good.” Testimonial Records of Lives Pursuing
Greater Good. Vol. 10 of The Complete Works of Tsunesaburo
Makiguchi. Tokyo: Daisan Bunmeisha, 1987. 136. In Japanese.

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