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Addressing Environmental Issues towards Sustainability in
Mountains of Japan: Past, Present, and Future
Teiji WATANABE1*, Fumiko NAKAO2 and Kazuo MIZUSHIMA3
1

Faculty of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University
N10, W5, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0810, Japan
2
Public Policy School, Hokkaido University
N9, W7, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0809, Japan3
Kurobe River Alluvial Fan Research Institute
Nyzen 5232-5, Toyama 939-0626, Japan*E-mail: teiwata@mac.com

Abstract
This paper first presents primary mountain-related activities in Japan that have taken place beyond theInternational Year of Mountains (IYM) in 2002. Subsequently, it summarizes the prevailing issues related tomountain environments in Japan, particularly based on the discourse at the IYM+20 Symposium held in
December 2022, and discusses the path towards the future sustainability of the mountain environments anddevelopment in Japan. One of the most notable achievements highlighted in this paper is the establishment ofMountain Day (yama-no-hi in Japanese) as a national holiday in Japan. This reflects the longstanding and close
connection between the Japanese people and mountains, while the establishment of Japan’s Mountain Day isalso linked to the fact that many challenges persist regarding the mountains. In the future, Japan will grapple
with an increasingly severe decline in birth rates and an aging society, a situation that has never beenencountered before. This will require a new strategy for addressing mountain-related issues. This paper
concludes by summarizing the discussions at the symposium and identifying the key issues that need to beaddressed based on emerging science and technology.
Key words: International Year of Mountains (IYM), Mountain Agenda, Mountain Day, partnership,sustainable development

1. Introduction
In the year 2002, the United Nations recognized theInternational Year of Mountains (IYM), a project initiatedby the Kyrgyz Republic in response to discussions on thevulnerability of mountainous regions that took place at the
Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The period
following the Earth Summit in 1992 has witnessedsignificant advancements in science and technology thathave helped address various mountain-related issues.
However, this period has also brought forth newchallenges, and other issues remain unresolved (e.g., Price,
2015; Makino et al., 2019a; Ives, 2022).
In 2002, the Japanese National Committee for the
IYM was established under the leadership of Junko Tabei,
the first woman to summit Mount Everest. The committee
held more than 50 symposia and workshops on various
mountain-related topics, and numerous initiatives were
undertaken. The International Year of Mountains Plus 10
Global Environmental Research
27/2023 145-151
printed in Japan(IYM+10) Symposium was held at Nihon University inTokyo in 2012. IYM 2002 served as the driving force
behind the establishment of Mountain Day (yama-no-hi inJapanese), a national holiday in Japan, which wascelebrated for the first time in 2014.
The International Year of Sustainable Mountain
Development (IYSMD) in 2022 continues to encourage
efforts to tackle environmental issues in mountainous
regions worldwide (Romeo et al., 2022). On December 11,
2022, a mountain symposium commemorating theInternational Year of Mountains Plus 20 (IYM+20) as
well as IYSMD was held in Kurobe City, Toyama
Prefecture, Japan.
This paper first provides an overview of theestablishment of Mountain Day, the largest mountainrelated movement in Japan since IYM 2002, and thensummarizes the discussions at the IYM+20 Symposium toidentify key issues for the sustainability of Japanesemountains that need to be addressed in the future.
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2. Major Activities beyond IYM 2002
The Japanese IYM National Committee organized
the “Public Forum – Mountains: Environment and Human
Activities” at the United Nations University (UNU) in
Tokyo, which was coordinated with New Zealand to
welcome Sir Edmund Hillary’s speech on April 8, 2003.
Also, the IYM 2002 Closing Symposium was held at
Nihon University, Tokyo on April 19–20, 2003. Beyond
these, there were three major activities that will be briefly
described in the following sections.
2.1 IYM+10 Symposium in Tokyo in 2012
In 2012, another important symposium, IYM+10,
was held at Nihon University, Tokyo. This symposium
concluded that the sustainable development ofmountainous areas in a changing environment needs to beaddressed in a science-based manner. The participantsalso discussed establishing a Mountain Day in Japan.
2.2 Japan’s Mountain Day
There had been discussions about creating amountain day in Japan for quite some time. The Japanesepeople have long associated with mountains in their daily
life. One such tradition has been mountain worship. The
use of forest resources was widespread during the Edo
period. Ota (2004) pointed out that Japan’s forests weremost devastated from the end of the Edo period (themid-19th century) to the middle of the Meiji period.
Recently, there has been an increasing number ofopportunities to visit mountains for recreation. Such deep
relationships with the mountains are probably the main
reason for establishing a mountain day in Japan.
At least as early as 1961, there was a call at a
meeting of mountaineers for a mountain day. The idea
was conceived and forgotten repeatedly. Among Japan’svarious activities in IYM 2002, the Mt. Fuji Eco-Forumdeclared a call for a mountain day, saying, “to refreshsuch determination every year, we propose here toestablish a ‘Mountain Day’ in Japan” (Japanese IYM
National Committee, 2004).
For a while after that, however, activities toward theestablishment of Mountain Day stalled. Later, the five
major mountaineering associations joined together toform a council for the establishment of Mountain Day in
April 2010. The Law on National Holidays was partiallyamended in 2014, with text was added to Article 2 of thelaw to say: “to take the opportunity to become familiar
with mountains and appreciate their bounty.” This law
came into effect on January 1, 2016.
Following the establishment of Mountain Day, thecouncil for establishment of “Mountain Day” changed its
name to the “Mountain Day Foundation” in 2014 andlaunched activities to promote Japan’s Mountain Day. Its
website (https://www.yamanohi.net/) provides a platform
for various information and activities related to mountains,nature, the environment, people and communities.

Fig. 1 Professor Asylbek Aidaraliev of the Kyrgyz Republicdelivering his keynote speech at the IYM+20
Symposium in Kurobe City (Photo: Maksatbek
Anarbaev, December 10, 2022).

2.3 IYM+20 Symposium in Kurobe in December 2022
As mentioned earlier, the International Year of
Mountains Plus 20 (IYM+20) Symposium took place in
Kurobe on December 10 and 11, 2022 (Fig. 1). The
symposium comprised five distinct sessions: (1) Session 1(Mountain Hazards and their Reconstruction, chaired by
Fukachi Furukawa), Session 2 (Issues and Initiatives for
Mountain Huts and Trails, chaired by Shunji Takekawa),
Session 3 (Measures and Activities to Conserve Natural
Resources in Mountain Areas, chaired by Fumiko Nakao),
Session 4 (Current Status of Mountain Geoparks andInforming the Public about Them, chaired by Hajime Iida),
and Session 5 (Challenges of Tourism Use in
Mountainous Areas, chaired by Thomas Johns).
During the five sessions and the closing session(chaired by Teiji Watanabe), various issues wereaddressed in common. Below, key topics that werediscussed at the symposium will be emphasized, as wellas those that were not raised but were still relevant to thediscussion.

3. Challenges in the Mountains of Japan:
Past and Present
3.1 Mountain Huts and Trails
The majority of Japan’s mountains, excluding thosein Hokkaido, feature privately managed mountain huts
and lodges (Fig. 2). In contrast to the rest of the country,
Hokkaido does not boast business-oriented mountain huts
and lodges, but instead relies on public shelters managed
by local, national or mountaineering organizations that do
not operate for profit. Regardless of the type of huts andlodges, the managers of mountain huts and lodges haveplayed a crucial role in serving the public interest byAddressing environmental issues towards sustainability in mountains of Japan

147

Fig. 2 The Enzan-so mountain hut (lodge) and campsite, Northern Japanese Alps, which are privately managed
although these facilities have many vital public roles (Photo: TW, October 14, 2020).

providing aid to hikers and climbers in distress. Moreover,they are responsible for maintaining hiking trails. Beyond
Hokkaido, the upkeep of mountain trails is essential forthe benefit of those who visit the huts and lodges.
The management of mountain huts and trails in Japan
has been fraught with difficulties. These facets ofmountain culture have traditionally relied on the efforts ofnumerous stakeholders, with inadequate financial backing
from the government.
Traditionally, the upkeep and management ofmountain huts and lodges have been the responsibility of
their owners; however, this may become untenable in theabsence of legal support. Similarly, the maintenance of
hiking trails also faces similar challenges. Volunteers playa significant role in the upkeep of trails in national parksin Hokkaido, but the public nature of shelters, campsites,
and trails warrants legal provisions to facilitate broader
public support for their maintenance.
Although stakeholders, including hut and lodge
managers and volunteers, oversee the management ofhigh-altitude trails, many hikers are unaware of who is
responsible for maintaining the designated facilities.
Users must be cognizant of these realities when utilizing
trails and huts/lodges.
Given that the issue of mountain trails has become asignificant social concern, the Ministry of theEnvironment and local governments are actively
promoting and maintaining long trails. Nevertheless, it is
crucial to allocate more financial resources and humancapital to address the deterioration of existing trails.

3.2 Biodiversity
In Japan, a Japan Biodiversity Outlook series was
published in 2010, 2016 and 2021. These provided
comprehensive assessments of biodiversity and ecosystemservices, which have shown that the status of biodiversity
in Japan has been on a long-term deteriorating trend. The
direct drivers of biodiversity loss in Japan can beclassified under “four crises,” described as “impacts
caused by human activities,” “declining humanintervention,” “things newly brought in by humans” and“changes in the global environment, such as global
warming” (Working Group for Comprehensive
Assessment of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services,2021). Regarding the first and fourth drivers, while it isnecessary to promote measures to combat climate change,
there are challenges in coordinating the introduction ofrenewable energy sources such as wind, solar andgeothermal energy to avoid adverse effects on the
behavior of wildlife, habitats and areas of conservation
importance (Government of Japan, 2023; Nakao &Hashimoto, 2023). With regard to the second driver,
population decline and changing demands for agriculture
and forestry have reduced the use of mountainenvironments, and there are concerns about loss of themosaic structure of the satochi-satoyama environment.
Decline in the use and management of secondary forests
has resulted in changes in species composition anddiversity. In addition, the direct use of wild birds andbeasts has decreased due to a decline in the number ofhunters and aging of the hunting population, which have
reduced hunting pressure and may have contributed to148

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increased populations of Japanese deer and wild boar
since the 1990s. The impact of an overabundance of wild
birds and animals on vegetation is becoming more
serious.
Regarding the driver “things newly brought in byhumans,” the impact of the invasion and establishment of
non-native species has been very significant and istrending in the direction of a long-term increase. The
effects of climate change on ecosystems, such as
reductions in size and quality, have been particularly
apparent in the last 20 years. The effects of risingtemperatures on ecosystems include the decline of alpine
plant communities since the 1970s and northward
expansion of the distribution of non-native bamboo
species over the last 30 years.
3.3 Geodiversity, Hazards, Geotourism andGeoparks
Geodiversity
inJapan’sgeologicallyandgeomorphologically active mountains ranks among thehighest in the world. Although discussions surrounding
biodiversity began in the 1980s, conversations about
geodiversity commenced more recently, in the 1990s. The
significance of geodiversity in Japan’s mountainous
regions was first recognized in a special issue of thisjournal’s Japanese-language series, published in 2005
(Volume 10, Number 2, <https://www.airies.or.jp/
journal_10-2jpn.html>). In the brief period of less than
two decades since then, not only has the concept ofgeodiversity gained traction, but so too has the importanceof geotourism and geo-education, owing to the rise of
geoparks.
Mountain development often results in a decrease ingeodiversity and consequently, biodiversity, but this does
not pose a significant threat to many of the protected areas,such as national parks. Nevertheless, excessive or
inappropriate development can cause a decline ingeodiversity and biodiversity in unprotected areas.
The promotion of geoparks in Japan offers a valuable
opportunity to learn about the natural environment. The
number of geoparks in Japan has been increasing annually,
with many of them situated in mountainous regions. In a
country prone to hazards, geoparks play a crucial role infostering public understanding and preparedness for
mountain disasters.
Hazard-prone areas are often popular tourist
destinations, so it is important to understand theoccurrence of mountain hazards, predict them using thelatest scientific and technological advancements, andprevent and mitigate damage in these areas. Whilescientific and technological progress is essential, it cannot
solve all the problems associated with mountains. It isequally important to consider the humanities and social
sciences, as they are necessary to addressing the various
challenges faced by mountain areas.
Geoparks serve as a useful tool for learning about allof these issues. Japan should collaborate withmountainous countries that do not have geoparks, such as
Nepal, Bhutan and Kyrgyzstan, and assist in the
introduction and establishment of geoparks for the
purposes of geodiversity conservation, geotourism andgeo-education.
3.4 Human Resource Empowerment
It is imperative to develop human resources acrossvarious levels, including national, local governmental(prefectural and municipal), university and individuallevels of researchers and citizens, as well as professionals.
The development of human resources extends tovolunteers and professionals alike.
In Japan, where the population is aging and the birthrate is declining, older individuals in their 60s and 70s
have been vital as volunteers in mountain areas. However,this situation is unsustainable and there is a pressing needto increase the number of young people interested in themountains.
In Japan, the term “volunteer” traditionally refers to
an individual who works without compensation. Hiking
trail maintenance and repair volunteers (Fig. 3) and forest
management volunteers are prime examples (Kobayashi& Watanabe, 2023). Unfortunately, the number of forest
management volunteers is decreasing due to thecomplexity of the tasks required. Effective trail
management also necessitates specialized knowledge andexperience. Therefore, the cultivation of volunteers must
be strategically planned.
The cooperative system in Japan has advanced
considerably over the last few decades, particularly inareas such as partnership management in national parks
with mountains. Geoparks, which aim to implement
geotourism, have also performed quite well in Japan.
However, many geoparks face a significant challenge inrecruiting enough volunteers to serve as interpreters.
During the IYM+20 Symposium, there was a
discussion on the importance of investing in educationand technical training in developing countries, including
Nepal, Bhutan and Kyrgyzstan. It was emphasized thatinvesting in education is essential for fostering humanresources who can act responsibly to protect the naturalenvironment and mitigate hazardous disasters.
In Japan, ecotourism has been promoted in many
areas, and geotourism and geo-education are expected to
be further promoted in mountainous regions throughout
the country.

4. Future Agenda beyond IYM+20
The majority of the challenges previously discussed
in the preceding sections are anticipated to continue andeven increase in the future. We will not reiterate theseissues here, but instead, we will focus on highlightingsome of the more significant obstacles that lie ahead.

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Fig. 3 Volunteers carrying logs for boardwalks in Daisetsuzan National Park on Japan’s Mountain Day(Photo: TW, August 11, 2016).

4.1 Necessity of Further Addressing Biodiversity andGeodiversity
The 10th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to
the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD-COP10)
adopted the Strategic Plan 2011–2020, consisting of 20
targets (Aichi Biodiversity Targets), aiming to realize
society in harmony with nature in 2050. It has been
pointed out that it is necessary to take measures not only
regarding direct drivers, but also for society as a whole(IPBES, 2019; SCBD, 2020).
To this end, the Kunming-Montreal Biodiversity
Framework adopted at CBD-COP15 in 2022 incorporated
the concept of turning the deteriorating trend of
biodiversity and ecosystem services in a positive direction
by 2030. The guidelines issued by the Task Force on
Nature-related Financial Disclosures (TNFD) in 2023 andthe development of “Transition Strategies toward a Nature
Positive Economy” by Japan’s government have led to a
growing interest in biodiversity, especially in the business
community. Mountains are the backbone of richbiodiversity, and this momentum may be an opportunity
to establish a system in which society as a whole can
support the insufficiently funded costs of trail
management and other conservation activities.
However, efforts made at the national andinternational levels for the conservation of geodiversity(geoconservation) fall far behind those dedicated tobiodiversity conservation. Japan, as a geologically andgeomorphologically young and dynamic country, has seen
significant development across its territory, which in turnaffects the geodiversity of the country. Thus, it is essential

to promote systematic efforts to conserve geodiversity inmountain areas through geo-education and geotourism.
The conservation of both biodiversity andgeodiversity is crucial for the preservation of mountainecosystems. Geodiversity conservation (geoconservation)
in a particular area leads to biodiversity conservation inthat same area (Watanabe, 2005). In other words,
geoconservation contributes to the conservation ofgeoecological diversity in the area. Therefore, it isnecessary to adopt a well-balanced approach to bothbiodiversity conservation and geo-conservation.
4.2 Inbound Tourism and Environmental
Conservation
The development of tourism in mountain areas has
become a critical juncture in the rapid growth of inboundtourism. Despite this, the percentage of inbound hikers inJapan’s mountains remains relatively low, with the
exception of a few destinations. For instance, a 2016
survey revealed that 8.8% of the users of the Asahi-dake
Ropeway in Daisetsuzan National Park were foreigners,
and 12.1% of those who hiked to the summit of Mt.
Kuro-dake were foreigners (Table 1). Although the impactof the COVID-19 pandemic on the percentage of
foreigners is yet to be determined, field observations
suggest an increase in their numbers. This increase islikely to exacerbate the problem of overtourism, as both
inbound and domestic hikers compete for access topopular trails and summits. This is already evident inareas such as Mt. Fuji, where overtourism is a pressing
issue.

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Table 1 Numbers of hikers visiting two major areas of Daisetsuzan
National Park, Hokkaido on certain days in August 2016.
Area

Number of hikers
Japanese Foreigners Total

Ratio(J : F)

Asahi-dake

2641

256

2901

91.2 : 8 .8

Mt. Kuro-dake

305

42

347

87.9 : 12.1

The numbers were counted at the Asahi-dake Ropeway Station on
August 10, 13 and 14, and at the summit of Mt. Kuro-dake on
August 12 and 13. Note that the ratio of foreigners may have beensmaller than on other days because the survey was conductedduring the Obon Festival holidays when transportation andlodging costs are highest.

In 2024, the national park system in Japan willcelebrate its 90th anniversary. Four of the country’s
national parks with mountains—Daisetsuzan National
Park, Chubu-Sangaku National Park, Nikko National Parkand Aso National Park—will commemorate this milestone.
Additionally, Hidaka-Sanmyaku Erimo Quasi-National
Park in Hokkaido is set to be upgraded to national parkstatus. Since 2016, the Ministry of the Environment has
been implementing measures to promote inbound tourism
in national parks, aiming to protect the country’s natural
resources and stimulate local economies through amutually beneficial cycle of conservation and utilization.
However, as the popularity of these parks continues togrow, it will be essential to enhance efforts to control
overtourism and reinvest profits from tourism into
environmental conservation and community development
initiatives (<https://www.env.go.jp/en/nature/enjoy-project/index.html>). As the issue of overtourism becomesincreasingly pressing, it will be critical to address thischallenge in the years to come.
4.3 Information Dissemination and Networking
Japan’s domestic initiatives during IYM 2002 werequite active. However, the global dissemination of
information on such activities related to mountains has
been relatively weak, as evidenced during IYM 2002, andimprovements have yet to be made. It is also crucial toestablish an effective system for propagating Japan’s
overseas activities related to mountains. International
information sharing will be essential for addressing
challenges both domestically and abroad, and Japan
should make it a priority to enhance these activities in the
future.
Promoting international cooperation on mountains isvital, and is already included in Chapter 13 of Agenda 21(Makino et al., 2019b). The International Year of
Sustainable Mountain Development (IYSMD) 2022
presented an opportunity to build upon the Mountain
Partnership’s multi-stakeholder network, foster global andregional collaboration, conduct research and share
information and experience to raise awareness ofmountain ecosystems’ significance in our daily lives andthe threats they face (Romeo et al., 2022). It will beessential to leverage existing platforms for disseminatingand exchanging information, such as the Mountain
Partnership and the International Partnership for the
Satoyama Initiative, both of which are led by Japan andthe UNU. We anticipate making further collaborative
efforts to promote the sustainable development of theworld’s mountainous regions for future generations.
4.4 Use of Advanced and Newly Emerging Scienceand Technology in an Aging Society
Advancements in remote sensing technology haveallowed for a deeper comprehension of complex subjects,
such as changes in glaciers and the growth of glacial lakes,
which are vital in predicting water supplies and theoccurrence of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs).
Additionally, technological advancements in fieldobservation have played a significant role in identifying
the presence of glaciers in Tateyama, Toyama Prefecture,long thought to have disappeared in Japan. Similarly, thedevelopment of new strategies for managing sika deer andother wildlife, which often cause damage to agriculture
and humans, has enabled us to understand their
behavioural patterns and habitats. Even devices such as
smartphones, which were not previously envisioned, havebecome valuable tools for gathering information whilehiking and climbing or conducting surveys inmountainous regions. We can anticipate further
advancements and emergence in science and technology
and expect to develop our own knowledge and technology
to enhance our understanding of mountains.
In Japan, where the population is aging, a shortage ofhuman resources is already apparent in various sectors,
including the development and management ofmountainous areas. To promote more sustainable
development and conservation of the natural environment
in mountainous areas, it will be necessary to create newtechnologies that enable more efficient management andconservation in ways that have not been possible before
and that can be done by a smaller number of people.
In recent years, there has been considerable progressin promoting collaboration and partnerships in mountainsustainability. The number of partnerships between
developed and developing countries has increased, andmultilateral efforts have flourished through networking.
Furthermore, the sudden unexpected COVID-19
pandemic led to the development of remotecommunication means, such as Zoom and Webex, thathave facilitated nature conservation, wildlife management
and the resolution of various mountain-related issues.

5. Conclusions
Significant progress has been made in the field of
science and technology over the past three decades,
particularly since the Earth Summit in 1992. However,there are still numerous gaps in our understanding ofAddressing environmental issues towards sustainability in mountains of Japan

mountains that need to be addressed. As the birth rate
declines and the population ages, it may be necessary to
implement a new, highly effective strategy for thesustainable use, management and conservation ofmountains, such as the management of mountain huts andtrails with fewer resources.
It will be essential to gather scientific evidence toaddress various mountain-related issues and exchange
information with relevant domestic and international
sectors. Developing laws and regulations on mountainrelated matters would prevent the emergence of new
problems in mountain areas.
We must confront both unresolved issues inmountains and unforeseen problems that will arise in the
future. It is hoped that Japan will increase its focus onmountain-related issues across all relevant sectors, as
global interest in mountains continues to grow.

151

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Acknowledgements
We thank all the presenters and participants at the
IYM+20 Symposium in Kurobe.
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Teiji WATANABE
Teiji Watanabe is a professor in the Faculty ofEnvironmental Earth Science and Graduate
School of Environmental Science, Hokkaido
University, Japan. He completed his PhD at the
University of California at Davis. Having a
background in alpine geomorphology, hespecializes in mountain geoecology, with interests in interactions ofhuman-geoecoloical systems in high mountain areas and natural resource
management in protected areas. He has been the director of the Global
Land Programme (GLP) Japan Nodal Office for more than 10 years. He
has conducted extensive fieldwork in the Himalayas, Karakorum, Alps,
Pamirs and Japan’s mountains.

Fumiko NAKAO
Fumiko Nakao is a professor at the Graduate
School of Public Policy, Hokkaido University innorthern Japan. She focuses on practice rather
than research, with more than 30 years ofexperience at the Ministry of the Environment,
Japan. Her research and administrative interests
include integrated achievement of climate change solutions andbiodiversity conservation.

Kazuo MIZUSHIMA
Kazuo Mizushima is a professor emeritus at
Nihon University. His research interest is
agricultural geography. He received his
doctorate from Nihon University. He was avisiting professor at the Geography Departmentof the University of California at Davis. He has
been serving as director of the Kurobe Alluvial Fan Research Institute anda trustee of the Japan-Pakistan Association. He has conducted fieldsurveys in the Northern Areas of Pakistan for about 40 years.

(Received 25 December 2023, Accepted 31 December 2023)