E-Journal of Philosophy of Education:
International Yearbook of the Philosophy of Education Society of Japan, Vol. 6, 2021

Education from the Perspective of Psychoanalysis:
Based on Heisaku Kosawa’s Educational Consultations Documented in
the Magazine Shogaku Ichinensei (First Graders)
Minako NISHI
Kyoto University
Abstract
Clinicians often fail to pay attention to the relationship between such psychoanalytic work andeducation. Many clinicians espouse the deeply rooted notion that the psychoanalytic process will be
adversely affected if they also play the role of an educator. Therefore, they tend to avoid opportunities
to examine the relationship between these two domains. However, many cases in which therelationship between psychoanalysis and education is apparent are embedded within the history ofJapanese psychoanalysis. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to examine education from theperspective of psychoanalysis based on Heisaku Kosawa’s educational consultations that wereserialized in the magazine Shogaku Ichinensei (First Graders) shortly after World War Ⅱ.
Heisaku Kosawa (1897–1968) laid the foundations of present-day psychoanalysis in Japan. In
1932, when he was studying abroad, Kosawa met Sigmund Freud and received psychoanalytic
training from Richard Sterba. In 1935, he became a member of the International Psychoanalytical
Association (IPA) and opened a psychoanalytical clinic in Tokyo, where he practiced psychoanalysis.
He published a series of educational consultations in the magazine Shogaku Ichinensei. His advice
was characterized by a unique quality. He advised mothers to allow their children to be free and to
spoil them a lot.
Between the prewar and postwar period, an educational scholar called Seishi Shimoda (1890–
1973) proposed ideas related to the field of education that were similar to the advice that Kosawa
published in the magazine Shogaku Ichinensei. He was Kosawa’s patient. He received psychoanalytic
therapy from him once a week between October 1939 and July 1942. Pertinent details were recorded
in his book. This paper discussed the relationship between education and the demonic nature of humanbeings through these materials in the history of psychoanalysis in Japan.
Key words
history of psychoanalysis, Heisaku Kosawa, educational consultations
Correspondence:
Minako NISHI, Kyoto University. Email: nishi.minako.4w＠kyoto-u.ac.jp

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45

1. Introduction
Let us start with a story about my patient. She often got angry with me and refused
to lie down on the couch. Initially, I did not know why she was so angry with me.
However, after a while, I realized that she felt angry with me whenever I gave a
psychoanalytic interpretation. Soon, what she told me was that my interpretation intended
to lead her to a certain goal or pattern while saying, “Speak freely.” She said that this was
the same tactic that was used by a teacher whom she disliked. After hearing her criticism,
I reflected upon my words and behavior and realized that her criticism made a lot of sense.
She was completely right. I instructed her to lie down on the couch and told her to engage
in free association. As always, she pressed the intercom button on time. Then, she opened
the front door, entered the room wearing the slippers, took off her bag, removed her coat,lay down on the couch, and started engaging in free association after I said, “Let’s get
started.” In free association, one is required to freely speak about the things that come tomind. Subsequently, the therapist will give his or her interpretations. These interactions
are quite different from everyday conversations. Anyone would feel confused the firsttime they participate in this experience because she or he is unlikely to have experienced
this kind of communication in the past. However, patients eventually become acquainted
with such kinds of psychoanalytic communication. They will begin to understand therelationships among the associations embedded within the interpretations conveyed by
the therapist and eventually be able to independently discover unconscious links without
the assistance of their therapist.
Clinicians often fail to pay attention to the relationship between such psychoanalytic
work and education. Many clinicians espouse the deeply rooted notion that thepsychoanalytic process will be adversely affected if they also play the role of an educator.
Therefore, they tend to avoid opportunities to examine the relationship between these twodomains. However, many cases in which the relationship between psychoanalysis andeducation is apparent are embedded within the history of Japanese psychoanalysis.
McWilliams (2003) has noted that psychoanalysis is more educational than it is believed
to be, and this has certainly been confirmed in the history.
Therefore, the objective of this paper is to examine education from the perspectiveof psychoanalysis based on Heisaku Kosawa’s educational consultations that wereserialized in the magazine Shogaku Ichinensei (First Graders) shortly after World WarⅡ.
Kosawa laid the foundation for psychoanalysis in Japan.

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2. Education in Japanese psychoanalysis(1) Heisaku Kosawa’s educational consultations
Heisaku Kosawa (1897–1968) laid the foundations of present-day psychoanalysis
in Japan. In 1932, when he was studying abroad, Kosawa met Sigmund Freud andreceived psychoanalytic training from Richard Sterba. In 1935, he became a member of
the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA) and opened a psychoanalyticalclinic in Tokyo, where he practiced psychoanalysis. In Japan, psychoanalysis flourishedduring the 1920s and 1930s, and several organizations, including the Japanese branch of
the IPA, were instituted. As the war intensified, these organizations disappeared, andmembers left. However, Kosawa continued his psychoanalytical practice and became thechair of the Japanese branch of the IPA after the war. He founded the largest
psychoanalytical organization in Japan, namely, the Japan Psychoanalytical Association.
It is not well known that Kosawa published a series of educational consultations in
the magazine Shogaku Ichinensei shortly after the war. Shogaku Ichinensei is acomprehensive magazine that targets first-grade elementary school students, and it ispublished by Shogakukan. Anyone who has grown up in Japan is likely to have read thismagazine at least once. When this magazine was first published in March 1925, it wascalled “Seugaku Ichinensei”. It has since been published for approximately 100 years.
“Educational consultations for your beloved child” and “Educational consultations formothers,” which were authored by Kosawa, were published between November 1949
and August 1951 (four years after the end of the war). A total of 26 counseling cases were
documented across 21 issues. Those who sought consultations were largely mothers, andthe reasons for which they sought consultations ranged from concerns about theirchildren entering elementary school to concerns about their children’s personality (e.g.,
being bossy at home but timid outside, being greedy, and being disobedient) and physicalproblems (e.g., stuttering and ear discharge). Kosawa answered the consultations not withtitle of Psychoanalyst but as Doctor of Medicine. Although the term “psychoanalysis”
was not used, the contents of his answers clearly reflect psychoanalytic perspectives.
Moreover, his advice was characterized by a unique quality. He advised mothers to allow
their children to be free and to spoil them a lot. Despite the wide range of clients he served,
he provided similar advice to more than half of all individuals (to whom specific advice
was provided). The different kinds of advice that he provided included the following:“Go easy on your child’s selfishness as though you were trying to compensate for thelack of care (love) received during childhood,” “Try to submit to your children” “Afford
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your child greater freedom when he or she becomes selfish,” “Adore your child in all
ways possible until he or she feels satisfied,” and “Allow your child to do the things thatyou think are bad.” He provided this kind of advice because he believed that their children
had experienced a lack of care and affection from mothers during childhood, and heemphasized the role of failures to wean from breastfeeding. As he has illustrated, “If we
use weaning from breastfeeding as an example, the mother’s breast is the place where an
infant can rest and feel safe. However, with the birth of the next child, the breast must be
given up to that child. This task is very difficult for infants.” He highlighted the effects ofbreastfeeding experiences on the mental development of children and the problems
caused by separation, which are regarded as the causes of various problematic behaviors
in children.
In 1951 (when Kosawa was also discussing this issue), a compilation of John
Bowlby’s studies on the mental and physical responses of infants separated from theirmothers and the effects of separation was published. The effects of deficient maternalrearing practices on the mental and physical development of infants, which weredelineated by Bowlby, drew much attention from scholars in Japan. Subsequently,
maternal deprivation, which was examined by Bowlby, was reconceptualized as not only
a one-dimensional problem that involves the presence or absence of a mother but also a
problem that is caused by a series of more complex psychological events. For instance,
research continues to progress across multiple dimensions (e.g., comprehension anddevelopment of multiple attachment objects other than the mother and the role ofseparation in mental development). At first glance, Kosawa’s advice appears to haveoverlapped with the latest findings on the mother-child relationship that were publishedat the time. However, is this observation valid?
(2) Heisaku Kosawa and motherhood
Keiko Kida underwent psychoanalysis with Kosawa three times a week forapproximately six months. She began receiving therapy in 1941—a few years before
Kosawa began to write for Shogaku Ichinensei. Kida continued to receive guidance from
Kosawa and maintained detailed records about him. These records include several
statements that are resonant with Kosawa’s advice documented in Shogaku Ichinensei.
For example, Kosawa often proclaimed that the mercy of Buddha is his unconditional
love and that the purest form of unconditional human love is shown by mothers, who
nourish their children with their milk. Moreover, he often cited an anecdote, according towhich Buddha first attained enlightenment not in an extremely difficult situation but
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M. NISHI

when he consumed a milk-rice pudding that he had received from a young woman who
was passing by.
Kida has also described Kosawa’s own childhood. Kosawa was the ninth child, andit was difficult for his mother to care for him. Therefore, all caregiving duties wereassigned to a wet nurse. According to her records, Kosawa had described his childhoodin the following manner:
I feel that the reason why my eyesight got worse (blindness in one eye) has
something to do with the fact that I was brought up by a wet nurse. While giving asidelong glance to retaliate against the hostility of the other child, which I feared
would make me feel as though I were being stabbed, I fought fiercely and took theother child’s milk away. There is a sense of guilt and fear that stems from the factthat I gave that child a sidelong glance. I think my eyes were punished.
He may have addressed these problems when he underwent psychoanalysis.
Kosawa maintained very brief notes about his psychoanalytic sessions with Sterba.
However, his records narrate an interesting episode. Kosawa always felt the urge topurchase something when he stood in front of a candy shop. He experienced obsessive
thoughts and felt as though someone were telling him, “You are a greedy person.” This
happened in Vienna when he saw chocolates stacked against the store window. On thethird night after he had started undergoing psychoanalysis, he suddenly experienced theneed to have a bowel movement. He ran into the bathroom and had severe diarrhea. The
next morning, when he passed by the store window as usual, he was surprised to find that
his obsessive thoughts had completely disappeared.
Kosawa’s eyes looked at the chocolates wishfully, but his inner voice said, “You are
a greedy person.” The eyes of the baby (Kosawa) who is desperately fighting for his wet
nurse’s milk, the other baby whose milk has been taken away, and the baby (Kosawa)
who gave the other baby a sidelong glance all overlap with one another. This isreminiscent of the advice that he provided to mothers in Shogaku Ichinensei: “The breast
must be given up to the next child. This task is hard for an infant.” This was nothing but
a statement that stemmed from Kosawa’s heart.
Kosawa has recounted that, when he was a high school student, he felt overjoyedwhenever he returned to his parents’ house because his mother would be waiting for him
with a sweet fermented rice drink that she had prepared for him. It is very likely that milkrice pudding and sweet fermented drinks reminded him of breast milk. Kosawa said toKida, “Those battling emotional pain (including those who have had mothers) have not
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received the kind of love infants experience when their mothers breastfeed them.
Therefore, no one other than a therapist can give this to them.” Kida has noted that
Kosawa devoted his life to the pursuit of an answer to the question of “how he could help
those who had not enjoyed their own mothers’ milk sufficiently (including himself) andcompensate for this deficiency in their lives.”
When preschool education is discussed in Japan, it is often indicated thatpsychoanalytic theory underlies the “myth of a child’s first three years,” which is still
strongly endorsed even today. In other words, it refers to the notion that mothers should
devote themselves to child-rearing activities until their child reaches the age of three years.
For example, when addressing the issue of the modernization of families, especiallyduring the postwar period, Ochiai (2019) has referred to the fact that the myth of a child’s
first three years is rooted in psychoanalysis and has introduced insights propounded by
Freud and Erickson. It cannot be argued that this perspective is entirely wrong. Certainly,
psychoanalysis emphasizes the early childhood years. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory,
however, is fundamentally phallocentric and paternalistic. However, Japanese
psychoanalysis has focused on mother-child relationships since the beginning. What is
hidden in the background is not only the perspectives of psychoanalysis but also
identification with the notion of Buddha’s mercy and the relationship between Kosawa
and his mother. In postwar Japan, Gertrud Schwing’s “A Way to the Soul of the MentallyIll” (1940) gained great popularity. Even at present, it is a piece of classical literature towhich students of not only psychoanalysis but also clinical psychology and nursing are
introduced. This book presents the case of a patient with mental illness who was
bedridden and had been plunged into desolation but had begun to recover. The centralityof motherhood experiences within Schwing’s therapeutic framework is resonant with
Kosawa’s therapeutic theory.
The historical context in which such ideas gained popularity cannot be ignored.
During the war, women were encouraged to become mothers through the national policy,“Have children and raise them for the nation.” After the collapse of fatherhood following
Japan’s defeat in the war, women were encouraged to become full-time housewives andplay a primary role in child-rearing activities during the postwar high-economic growth
period. Motherhood was emphasized during this period. As a result, perspectives thatemphasized the role of motherhood in early childhood contributed to the formulation of
the concept of the Ajase complex by Keigo Okonogi, who inherited Kosawa’s idea (Nishi,2020). This concept further developed its educational meaning as a problem of mothers’
own egoism in child rearing.

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M. NISHI(3) Heisaku Kosawa and Seishi Shimoda
Between the prewar and postwar period, an educational scholar called Seishi
Shimoda (1890–1973) proposed ideas related to the field of education that were similar
to the advice that Kosawa published in the magazine Shogaku Ichinensei.
Shimoda was known within the prewar Japanese psychoanalytical community, andhe was interested in psychoanalysis from a very early stage. In 1928, Shimoda met
Alexander Sutherland Neill and visited his school. Neill practiced education grounded in
psychoanalytic theory in Summerhill School in England. After the tour, Shimoda
immersed himself in Neill’s latest book, “The Problem Child,” while returning to Japanon a ship that sailed across the Indian Ocean. He was struck by a story about Neill,
according to which he was beaten by a rebellious child and endured it for three hours
without getting angry. According to him, Affording children the freedom to do what theywant to do will help them learn to accept and forgive others. Strongly influenced by
Neill’s ideas, Shimoda published several translations, including those of a collection of
Neill’s books. He also wrote many books based on Neill’s idea of “free education” andconducted educational programs to spread these ideas within Japan. His book “Practiceof Education without Scolding” (1954) became a best-seller.
There was a period during which Shimoda was Kosawa’s patient. He received
psychoanalytic therapy from him once a week between October 1939 and July 1942.
Pertinent details were recorded in what can be considered to be an autobiography that hewrote at the age of 80 years. He has written that, during psychoanalysis, he experienced
strong feelings of affection toward his mother who had died when he was only 10 years
old. Shimoda has described this experience as follows:
The analysis started with something close to me and gradually progressed to issues
related to deeper unconscious areas. Various problems had risen there, but mostimportant of all was that my love for my mother and my affection for my mother had
dominated my life for many years.
By undergoing psychoanalysis with Kosawa, Shimoda appears to have gained
greater insights into not only himself but also education. However, after undergoing
psychoanalysis for almost three years, a serious problem had emerged. According to
Kosawa, Shimoda sought freedom and endorsed a scolding-free educational paradigm
because he had not experienced Amae during childhood. Shimoda was able to accept thisinterpretation. However, they had different opinions about what caused the emergence ofSymposium: Psychoanalysis and Education: Freudian Thought as an Educational Theory

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this need. Shimoda believed that human beings are fundamentally good. In contrast,
Kosawa believed that human nature is characterized by conflicts between good and evil.
Subsequently, he scolded Shimoda by “blasting his voice throughout the entire room”
and argued that Shimoda’s claim was nothing but the rationalization of his desire toexperience Amae. However, Shimoda refused to change his mind. He tried to prove histheory in a calm manner by offering real-life examples. However, Kosawa was notwilling to change his mind about his theory either. After several such exchanges, Kosawa
told him, “A stubborn fellow like you has paranoia. I can no longer analyze a fellow likeyou. Leave!” Consequently, psychoanalysis was terminated. Shimoda has described thisincident as follows:
Dr. Kosawa, who dismissed the notion of education without scolding, tried tochange my mind by scolding me, but I did not budge even an inch.
This is the event during which a transference had taken place. This is the time point at
which psychoanalytic development appears to have occurred. It is not an exaggeration tostate that modern psychoanalysis aims to answer the question of how these transferences
can be facilitated and how one can survive them. The transference relationship, as we cansee here, is something that has been thrown in and drowning without noticing. According
to Kosawa, “Those with mental illnesses (including those who have had mothers) have
not received the kind of love infants experience when their mothers breastfeed them.
Therefore, no one other than a therapist can give this to them. Moreover, Kosawa wrote
a paper entitled, "The Two Kinds of Guilt," and presented it to Freud. This article
discussed the guilt caused by the state of being forgiven. Forgiving others and being
forgiven were issues of great interest to Kosawa. However, there was a time when hescolded another person so loudly that his voice reverberated throughout the room. The
objective of this discussion is not to question whether Kosawa’s attitude is right or wrong.
Transference can plunge a therapist into a helpless situation that differs from the one forwhich he or she had prepared. Then, a therapist will be able to accurately understand what
is really going on in his or her patient’s mind.
Based on his psychoanalytic process with Kosawa, Shimoda wrote about the events
that had led up to his marriage to his wife. It appears as though he was trying to associatethem to his experiences with Kosawa. Shimoda’s wife was his former student. After
graduating, she became a teacher, faced various difficulties, and had come to Shimoda
for advice. Shimoda enthusiastically provided advice and guidance to his former student.
When they eventually decided to get married, Shimoda thought to himself, “From now
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on, I will teach and guide her for the rest of my life. I will also help her become a sensible
and respectable person.” However, his wife resisted his efforts in this direction. Afterseveral years of conflict with his wife, he realized that it was wrong for him to arrogantly
believe that he could teach and guide his wife. Since then, he tried to remind himself, “Ifsomeone resists, I will accept their resistance. I will never try to teach and guide them.”
Shimoda wrote about this episode within the context of his criticism of Kosawa for trying
to eliminate his resistance by scolding him. Furthermore, it was an illustration of how
resistance should be addressed in psychoanalysis. However, it is evident that his
relationship with his wife was similar to the one he shared with Kosawa across three years.
It was a relationship in which neither one was willing to compromise. Instead, they
continued to demonstrate resistance toward one another. One relationship ended when
the two parties decided to part ways out of anger, whereas the other relationship lasted alifetime.

3. Summary
This paper presented Kosawa’s desire for motherhood and a psychoanalytic processwith Shimoda, starting with a series of educational consultations he provided in Shogaku
Ichinensei after the war. These events illustrate the relationship between the demonic
nature of human beings and education. Freud has described this as follows:…we may say that the patient does not remember anything of what he has forgotten
and repressed, but acts it out.1 He reproduces it not as a memory but as an action;
he repeats it, without, of course, knowing that he is repeating it.
Psychoanalysis places paramount value on such unconscious repetitive acts (i.e.,understanding through transference). In “Beyond the Pleasure Principle,” Freud focusedon those who repeat their unfortunate fate as though they have been possessed by ademon. Unfortunately, we always repeat the same mistake. With regard to theireducational beliefs, both Kosawa and Shimoda believed that it is important to give theother person the freedom to do what he or she wishes to do without scolding him or her(i.e., to forgive and accept the other person). This can certainly be found in what both ofthem have left behind. However, what actually happened between the two of them wasdifferent. It was completely the opposite of what they had been teaching mothers.
However, this may be the very reason why they passionately endorsed similar
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educational beliefs. During psychoanalysis, they failed to demonstrate maternal
forgiveness, which is what they were desperately seeking. The educational advice thatthey provided to mothers was also a reflection of their demonic fate and possibly their
desire to escape their fate.

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