The Bodhisattva Way and Valuing the Real Worldin the Lotus SËtraHiroshi Kanno

The Problem

A

S is well known, the Lotus SËtra is one of the exemplary Mahåyåna
sËtras in India and we infer that it was compiled between the first
century before the common era (hereafter BCE) and the second century
after the common era (hereafter CE), even though we do not know its
precise date. Altogether there are three complete translations of the text
into Chinese: (1) the ten-fascicle Zhengfa hua jing 正法華經, translated in
286 CE by Dharmarak∑a (Zhu Fahu 竺 法 護 ) of the Western Jin 西 晉(born around 230; died age 78); (2) the seven- or eight-fascicle Miaofa
lianhua jing 妙法蓮華經, translated in 406 by Kumåraj¥va 鳩摩羅什 of the
Yao-Qin 姚秦 (dates variously given as 344–413 and 350–409); and (3)the seven-fascicle Tianpin miaofa lianhua jing 添品妙法蓮華經, translated
jointly by Jñånagupta (523–605) and Dharmagupta (d. 619) in 601 CE.
Kumåraj¥va’s translation became the most popular in the area of East
Asia and all of the Chinese commentaries were based on it. Even though
his translation did not include the “Devadatta” chapter, another persontranslated it into Chinese and it had been incorporated into Kumåraj¥va’s translation before the period of Zhiyi 智o (538–598) and Jizang
吉藏 (549–623).1 In this paper I use the Chinese translation of the LotusSËtra consisting of 28 chapters which incorporates the “Devadatta”
chapter.
This paper considers the Bodhisattva way and valuing the real worldin the Lotus SËtra. Nikåya Buddhism, practitioners of which aim toemancipate themselves from the world of rebirth and to enter nirvåˆa bysevering all inner earthly desires, regards rebirth and nirvåˆa as two
entirely different principles. In an extreme case, it considers “reducing
the body to ashes and annihilating consciousness” to be the aim andobject. This idea shows that after severing all the earthly desires ofthreefold world, ßråvakas (in Chinese, literally “voice-hearers”) enter
the flame samådhi, burn both body and consciousness and enter empty
and quiescent nirvåˆa. This seems not to be reality and might be just an
idea. However, even though it is just an idea, to set up such an aim indi180

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cates that ßråvakas are very eager to emancipate themselves from therebirth of threefold world. It is unavoidable that Buddhism is regarded
as a pessimistic religion based on this aspect.
However, Mahåyåna Buddhism developed a different idea fromNikåya Buddhism concerning rebirth and nirvåˆa. For example,Någårjuna states in the chapter on “Examination of Bondage and Liberation” in the MËlamadhyamakakårikå (Zhonglun 中論), “Nirvåˆa is not
something special, separate from birth and death. The meaning of thusness being thus, how can there be any distinctions?”2 and Pi∫gala (青目)comments on the verse, “In the highest sense of the real character of all
dharmas, we do not speak of a special nirvåˆa which exists apart frombirth and death. As the sËtras say, ‘Nirvåˆa is saµsåra, saµsåra isnirvåˆa.’ Within this true character of all dharmas how can you say‘This is saµsåra, this is nirvåˆa’?”3 And Någårjuna states in the chapter
on “Examination of Nirvåˆa,” “Between nirvåˆa and the world, there is
not the slightest distinction. Between the world and nirvåˆa, there is not
the slightest distinction”4 and “The real limit of nirvåˆa and the limit ofthis world, between these two limits, there is not the least distinction.”5Någårjuna advocated a new thought that rebirth and nirvåˆa are notopposed to each other but equal in essence. The world where we experience life and death is a real world for ourselves and is named sahå-loka(suopo shijie 娑 婆 世 界 ) in Buddhism and there are lots of sufferings
which people must endure as sahå-loka is translated into the world ofendurance (kanren shijie 堪忍世界). The new idea that we consider thisreal world not to be disliked and abandoned but to have an affirmativeevaluation was an epoch-making change. This paper considers thethought of valuing the real world through considering the bodhisattva
way proposed by the Lotus SËtra from this point of view.
Viewed from the perspective of the overall structure of the text, thefirst chapter (“Introduction”) is a preface to the Lotus SËtra. The themeof chapters from two (“Skillful Means”) through nine (“Prophecies Conferred on Learners and Adepts”) is an advocacy of the idea of the “oneBuddha vehicle” and prophecies conferred on ßråvakas based on it. And
the theme of chapters ten (“Dharma Preacher”) through twenty-two(“Entrustment”) is Buddha Íåkyamuni’s age-old existence and bodhisattvas emerging from the earth who are in charge of propagating theLotus SËtra after the Buddha’s death. The last chapters from twentythree (“Former Affairs of the Bodhisattva Medicine King”) to twentyeight (“Encouragements of the Bodhisattva Universally Worthy”), arelike an appendix to the previous chapters and are diverse in their contents. They indicate the intimate relationship between bodhisattvas such

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THE BODHISATTVA WAY AND THE REAL WORLDas the Bodhisattva Medicine King, the Bodhisattva Wonderful Sound,Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sounds (Avalokiteßvara) and Bodhisattva Universally Worthy and the Lotus SËtra, and preach dhåraˆ¥swhich protect followers of the Lotus SËtra, and tell the story of King
Wonderful Adornment, who had indulged in heterodoxy but later took
refuge in Buddhism accepting his two sons’ teaching.
If we consider the bodhisattva way in the Lotus SËtra, chapters ten(“Dharma Preacher”) to twenty-two (“Entrustment”) should be regarded
as very important. As for this point, Yoshiro Tamura wrote, “the central
point of the Lotus SËtra is bodhisattva practice related to entrustment.
From this viewpoint, the Lotus SËtra makes a clear distinction between
the ninth chapter (“Prophecies Conferred on Learners and Adepts”) andthe tenth chapter (“Dharma Preacher”), and the chapters from ten to
twenty-one (“Supernatural Powers of the Thus Come One”) or twentytwo (“Entrustment”) compose one group. Even though this group wascompiled later than the former chapters, this group can be said to be acentral part of the Lotus SËtra from the standpoint of the philosophicalcontent.”6
Therefore, this paper first introduces bodhisattvas who can be born inthis world on the basis of their previous vows in the “Dharma Preacher”
chapter. They can be interpreted as bodhisattvas who are in charge of
upholding the Lotus SËtra, i.e., the bodhisattvas of the earth in the“Emerging from the Earth” chapter. Secondly, how does the Lotus SËtra
understand the sahå world, where bodhisattvas who can be born on thebasis of their previous vows wish to be born? I introduce the fact that thesahå world is described as an especially impure and evil land where religiously inferior living beings live after Íåkyamuni’s death. Finally, as
the “The Life Span of the Thus Come One” chapter describes the sahåworld as a pure land where age-old Íåkyamuni permanently abides, I
consider its philosophical meaning in the context of practices of thebodhisattvas of the earth.

1. Bodhisattvas who can be born on the basis of theirprevious vows in the “Dharma Preacher” chapter
At the beginning of the “Dharma Preacher” chapter, Íåkyamuni
expounds the merits of believing in the Lotus SËtra and the true identities
of followers of the Lotus SËtra to eight thousand bodhisattvas including
Bodhisattva Medicine King. I will provisionally divide the sentences ofthe beginning into eight paragraphs and consider them individually.

THE BODHISATTVA WAY AND THE REAL WORLD183(1) At that time the World-Honored One addressed Bodhisattva Medicine King, and through him the eighty thousand great men, saying:“Medicine King, do you see in this great assembly the immeasurable
number of heavenly beings, dragon kings, yak∑as, gandharvas, asuras,
garu∂as, kiµnaras, mahoragas, human and nonhuman beings, as well as
monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen, those who seek to becomeßråvakas, who seek to become pratyekabuddhas, or who seek the Buddha way? Upon these various kinds of beings who in the presence of the
Buddha listen to one verse or one phrase of the Lotus SËtra of the Wonderful Law and for a moment think of it with joy I will bestow on all ofthem a prophecy that they will attain anuttara-samyak-saµbodhi.” (Tno. 262, 9. 30b29–c7; B. Watson, The Lotus Sutra, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993. pp. 160–161 [with minor changes])

This paragraph explains that if in the presence of the Buddha persons
listen to one verse or one phrase of the Lotus SËtra and for a moment
think of it with joy, they will receive a prophecy of future enlightenment.
(2) The Buddha said to Medicine King: “In addition, if after the Thus
Come One has passed into extinction there should be someone who listens to the Lotus SËtra of the Wonderful Law, even one verse or one
phrase, and for a moment thinks of it with joy, I will likewise bestow on
him a prophesy that he will attain anuttara-samyak-saµbodhi.” (T no.
262, 9. 30c7–9; Watson, p. 161 [with minor changes])

This paragraph explains that if after the Buddha’s death persons listen to
one verse or one phrase of the Lotus SËtra and for a moment think of itwith joy, they will receive a prophecy of future enlightenment. Even
though there is a difference in terms of the time both in the presence of
the Buddha and after the Buddha’s death, both (1) and (2) are equal inthat persons who listen to the Lotus SËtra will be given a prophecy of
future enlightenment.
Next, the idea of Bodhisattvas who can be born on the basis of theirprevious vows is shown in paragraphs (3) to (5).
(3) Again if there are persons who embrace, read, recite, expound andcopy the Lotus SËtra of the Wonderful Law, even only one verse, andlook upon this sËtra with the same reverence as they would the Buddha,
presenting various offerings of flowers, incense, necklaces, powdered
incense, paste incense, incense for burning, silken canopies, streamersand banners, clothing and music, and pressing their palms together inreverence, then, Medicine King, you should understand that such person

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have already offered alms to a hundred thousand million Buddhas andin the place of the Buddhas have fulfilled their great vow, and because
they take pity on living beings they have been born in this human world.
(T no. 262, 9. 30c9–15; Watson, p. 161 [with minor changes])

This paragraph explains that persons who embrace, read, recite,
expound and copy even one phrase of the Lotus SËtra and look upon thissËtra with the same reverence as they would the Buddha, presenting various offerings such as flowers and incense and pressing their palms
together in reverence have already offered alms to a hundred thousand
million Buddhas and in the place of the Buddhas have fulfilled theirgreat vow, and because they take pity on living beings they have beenborn in this human world.
(4) “Medicine King, if someone should ask what living beings will beable to attain Buddhahood in a latter-day existence, then you should
show him that all these people in a latter-day existence are certain toattain Buddhahood. Why? Because if good men and good womenembrace, read, recite, expound and copy the Lotus SËtra, even one
phrase of it, offer various kinds of alms to the sËtra, flowers, incense,
necklaces, powdered incense, paste incense, incense for burning, silken
canopies, streamers and banners, clothing and music, and press theirhands together in reverence, then these persons will be looked up to andhonored by all the world. Alms will be offered to them such as would
be offered to the Thus Come One. You should understand that these
persons are great bodhisattvas who succeed in attaining anuttarasamyak-saµbodhi. Pitying living beings, they have vowed to be born
among them where they may broadly expound and make distinctions
regarding the Lotus SËtra of the Wonderful Law.” (T no. 262, 9. 30c15–
23; Watson, p. 161 [with minor changes])

This paragraph explains that persons who embrace, read, recite,
expound and copy even one phrase of the Lotus SËtra and look upon thissËtra, presenting various offerings such as flowers and incense andpressing their palms together in reverence, will be looked up to and honored by all the world and will be offered alms as the Thus Come One
would be. And it explains that they are great bodhisattvas who are deliberately born in this world and broadly expound the Lotus SËtra becauseof pity on living beings.
(5) How much more so is this true, then, of those who can embrace theentire sËtra and offer various types of alms to it! “Medicine King, you
should understand that these persons voluntarily relinquish the reward

THE BODHISATTVA WAY AND THE REAL WORLD185

due for their pure deeds and, in the time after I have passed into extinction, because they pity living beings, they are born in this evil world sothey may broadly expound this sËtra.” (T no. 262, 9. 30c23–26; Watson,
pp. 161–162 [with minor changes])

This paragraph explains that as it is so in the case of only one phrase of
the Lotus SËtra, it is even more so in the case of embracing the LotusSËtra in its entirety and presenting various offerings to it. And it isexplained that these persons abandon the reward of their pure karma andare born in the evil world out of deep compassion for living beings,
where they expound broadly the Lotus SËtra.
Paragraph (3) clarifies that persons who practice the Lotus SËtra in aserious manner have already offered alms to innumerable Buddhas andhave fulfilled their great vow of becoming enlightened, and though they
could have enjoyed their splendid reward sufficiently, they are born inthis evil world from great pity on living beings. Paragraph (4) alsoemphasizes that they are regarded as great bodhisattvas who completed
super perfect enlightenment and honorable existence who should beoffered alms as the Thus Come One would be. Moreover, paragraph (5)points out that they abandoned the reward of their pure karma. Like as
the idea that “they have vowed to be born among them” in paragraph (4)and the idea that “these persons voluntarily relinquish the reward due for
their pure deeds” in paragraph (5), these paragraphs indicate the idea of
bodhisattvas who can be born not on the basis of their past karma but on
the basis of their previous vows.
The idea of bodhisattvas who can be born on the basis of their previous vows was seen in the school of the Mahåsåµghikas in the period ofNikåya Buddhism. For example, in the section describing Mahåsåµghika views, the Yibu zonglun lun 異部宗輪論 translated by Xuanzang 玄奘 states, “If the bodhisattva [Íåkya] wishes to be born in the evil realm
to confer benefits to living beings, he has freedom to do that.”7 (T no.
2031, 49. 15c10–11)
According to the idea of karma in the early period of Buddhism,
rebirth in this world is a repetition of the deluded existence. And thecause of rebirth is bad karma defiled by earthly desires. However, theidea that bodhisattvas assuming that to save living beings is an obligation are born in this world simply on the basis of past evil karma seems
to have been unsuitable for some of Buddhists’ feelings. Then, they paid
notice to the power of vow (praˆidhåna, 誓願) of saving living beings as
the cause of bodhisattvas’ birth in this world. The idea of bodhisattvas
who can be born on the basis of their previous vows seen in the school

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THE BODHISATTVA WAY AND THE REAL WORLDof the Mahåsåµghikas is thought by some scholars to have developed
into the idea of the bodhisattva of Mahåyåna Buddhism. In any event,such a thought shown in the “Dharma Preacher” chapter describedabove can be regarded as one of its typical examples.
It is often pointed out that followers of the Lotus SËtra are practicaland active. I think that this indication is related to the thought shown in
the paragraph from (3) to (5). In fact, followers of the Lotus SËtra aresaid to be advanced bodhisattvas who have been born in this evil world
out of deep compassion for living beings, relinquishing the reward of
their good karma and propagating the Lotus SËtra. According to thisidea, it can be interpreted that no matter how someone embracing faith
in the Lotus SËtra is left in disadvantaged circumstances, it is so because
he daringly abandon his advantaged reward out of deep compassion.
Even though this interpretation seems to be self-righteous overconfidence, it can cast a light which can change the worldview of persons
who really groan under the weight of suffering. However, even though
one may have voluntarily chosen to be born in disadvantaged circumstances, just being content with one’s present circumstances is nothingother than the resigned view of life ruled by fate. In fact, birth on thebasis of past karma and birth on the basis of previous vows might becalled a “double standard” and cause some confusion, but the fact that
one deepens awareness from a perspective of realizing past karmas toone of realizing previous vows (pËrva-praˆidhåna, 本願 ), changes his
circumstances, and actively saves other people, brings a fundamental
conversion in one’s view of life. If someone hopes to transcend the circumstances of an ordinary person ruled by past karma, it is necessary
first that he not ascribe responsibility for his present circumstances toother things or people but rather accept it as his own responsibility. Thisis self-realization of one’s past karma. However, he does not stop there,
but advances in Buddhist practice, aspiring to change and transform
himself. The self-realization of the previous vows can be actualized insuch a process. This is none other than self-awareness as a bodhisattva.
This conversion from “self-awareness of past karma” to “self-awareness of previous vows” is a characteristic of some forms of Mahåyåna
Buddhism, and I would like to call this a “religion of vows.” To
explain this standpoint in fuller detail, followers of the Lotus SËtra do
not seek to attain enlightenment through their own efforts, nor do theyseek to be saved by an absolute savior. They strongly bear in mind
their true identity that they have been born into this evil world of theirown will to propagate the Lotus SËtra for the sake of all living beings,
and thus feel satisfied by fulfilling their mission. Herein lies anTHE BODHISATTVA WAY AND THE REAL WORLD

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extremely interesting religious theory. In fact, there is some faith
which hopes to be saved by Buddhas and bodhisattvas, for example,Amitåbha Buddha and Bodhisattva Avalokiteßvara in Mahåyåna Buddhism. Even though I admit that praying to some great existence
exceeding human powers has important significance, I think that thecentral idea of Mahåyåna sËtras is to realize the conversion from “persons to be saved” to “persons who save” and to actually save otherpeople. I mean this idea by “religion of vows.” As Mahåyåna sËtras
are compiled on the basis of hoping to save lots of living beings, it iscertain that they emphasize the existence of lots of living beings whoshould be saved. However, we can infer that there must be persons
who vow to save other people behind the existence of “persons to be
saved.” Even though many Buddhas and bodhisattvas appear in sËtras
as savior, there must have definitely been unknown bodhisattvas whostood in self-awareness as persons who vowed to save. I think that the
Lotus SËtra, which advocates that everyone is a bodhisattva, aims at
the conversion of each person to someone who vows to save living
beings supported by great power.
What, then, is one’s mission in this life? Paragraph (6) answers thisquestion:(6) If one of these good men or good women in the time after I havepassed into extinction is able to expound the Lotus SËtra in private to
one person, even one phrase of it, then you should know that he or she
is the envoy of the Thus Come One. He has been dispatched by theThus Come One and carries out the Thus Come One’s work. And how
much more so those who in the midst of the great assembly broadly
expound the sËtra for others! (T no. 262, 9. 30c26–29; Watson, p. 162[with minor changes])

This paragraph explains that persons who expound the Lotus SËtra inprivate to one person after the Buddha’s death are envoys of theTathågata, or Buddha, dispatched by the Tathågata to undertake the taskof the Tathågata and how much more so those who expound the LotusSËtra in the midst of the great assembly. As such persons of mission arevery noble and venerable, an offence of a person who speaks only one
evil word to them is more grave than that of a person who speaks evil ofthe Buddha for such an extraordinary long time as one kalpa. Therefore
this person should be rather greeted with reverence and alms. The reason why such persons of mission are very noble and venerable is thatwhen they expound the Lotus SËtra, the listeners can immediately
become Buddhas. Paragraph (7) and (8) indicate this point:

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THE BODHISATTVA WAY AND THE REAL WORLD(7) “Medicine King, if there should be an evil person who, his mind
destitute of goodness, should for the space of a kalpa appear in the presence of the Buddha and constantly curse and revile the Buddha, that
person’s offense would still be rather light. But if there were a person
who spoke only one evil word to curse or defame the lay persons ormonks or nuns who read and recite the Lotus SËtra, then his offense
would be very grave.” (T no. 262, 9. 30c29–31a3; Watson, p. 162 [withminor changes])(8) “Medicine King, these persons who read and recite the LotusSËtra—you should understand that these persons adorn themselves withthe adornments of the Buddha; they are borne upon the shoulders of theThus Come One. Wherever they may go, one should greet them withbows, with palms pressed single-mindedly together, with reverence andalms, with respect and praise, flowers, incense, necklaces, powdered
incense, paste incense, incense for burning, silken canopies, streamersand banners, clothing, delicacies and the making of music. The finest
alms that can be offered to a person should be offered to them. Heavenly treasures should be scattered over them, the treasure hoards of heaven
should be given them as gifts. Why do I say this? Because these persons
delight in expounding the Law. And if one listens to them for even a
moment, he will immediately attain the ultimate anuttara-samyaksaµbodhi.” (T no. 262, 9. 31a3–11; Watson, p. 162 [with minorchanges])

As the Lotus SËtra is considered to be the teaching given immediately
before Íåkyamuni’s death, it is fair to say that the upholders of the
Lotus SËtra referred to at the beginning of the “Dharma Preacher” chapter are actually those who live after the Buddha’s death. Therefore thebodhisattvas described here are none other than the bodhisattvas of theearth who appear in the fourteenth chapter, “Emerging from the Earth.”
In summary, bodhisattvas of the earth are great bodhisattvas who voluntarily choose to appear in this sahå world. Even though in the narrativeof the Lotus SËtra, they appear in the presence of Íåkyamuni Buddha,
they can be said to be the upholders of the Lotus SËtra who wish to beborn in this sahå world after the Buddha’s death.8

2. The Sahā World as an Impure Land in the Lotus SūtraWhat is the nature of the sahå world where bodhisattvas born on thebasis of their previous vows, i.e., bodhisattvas of the earth, wish to beborn in the “Dharma Preacher” chapter of the Lotus SËtra? The “SkillfulTHE BODHISATTVA WAY AND THE REAL WORLD189

Means” chapter explains that the Buddhas appear in evil worlds of five
impurities and do not immediately preach one Buddha vehicle to living
beings of inferior spiritual capacity, but preach three vehicles utilizing
the power of skillful means in accordance with their spiritual capacity.9
The five impurities are impurity of the age, impurity of desire, impurityof living beings, impurity of view, and impurity of life span. Impurity of
the age is the condition of war, epidemics, famines, etc. Impurity ofdesire means being controlled by passion. Impurity of living beings isthe situation in which the bodies and minds of living beings become
weak and experience many sufferings. Impurity of view is when evil
thoughts prevail in the world. Impurity of life span is when living beings
have short life-span. These are the characteristics of the evil world.
Applying this concept of five impurities to the sahå world of Íåkyamuni
Buddha, it goes without saying that the sahå world is regarded as theevil world of five impurities. As in the Lotus SËtra there are many
descriptions which correlate the time after Íåkyamuni Buddha’s deathwith the evil world,10 the sahå world after Íåkyamuni Buddha’s death isespecially regarded as an impure and evil land. Also, the chapter “Simile
and Parable” compares the sahå world where living beings are reborn tothe burning house and depicts its awful situation in detail.11 This is also a
description which emphasizes that the sahå world is an impure land.12
Also in the chapter “The Emergence of the Treasure Tower”
Íåkyamuni Buddha gathers all the Buddhas who are his emanations
from the worlds of the ten directions to open the door of the Many Treasure Tower. After he describes the worlds where Emanation Buddhas
abide as pure lands, he purifies the sahå world and calls the Emanation
Buddhas together. From this narrative, it is obvious that the sahå worldis originally considered to be an impure land.13
The sahå world after Íåkyamuni Buddha’s death, where bodhisattvas
who are born on the basis of their previous vows—i.e., where bodhisattvas of the earth wish to be born—is regarded as an impure and evil
world as described above. The chapter “Encouraging Devotion” tells aninteresting story which explicitly shows this idea from another perspective. Finally the task to uphold and propagate the Lotus SËtra is entrusted to bodhisattvas who are born on the basis of their previous vows, i.e.,
bodhisattvas of the earth. In contrast with these bodhisattvas, the chapter“Encouraging Devotion” refers to bodhisattvas who vow to propagate
the Lotus SËtra in the sahå world but are not permitted to do so andßråvakas who from the beginning refuse to uphold and propagate theLotus SËtra in the sahå world.
As Íåkyamuni Buddha states in the chapter “The Emergence of the190

THE BODHISATTVA WAY AND THE REAL WORLD

Treasure Tower,” “Immediately Íåkyamuni Buddha used his transcendental powers to lift the members of the great assembly up into the air.
And in a loud voice he addressed all the four kinds of believers, saying,‘Who is capable of broadly preaching the Lotus SËtra of the Wonderful
Law in this sahå world? Now is the time to do so, for before long theThus Come One will enter nirvåˆa. The Buddha wishes to entrust thisLotus SËtra of the Wonderful Law to someone so that it may be preserved.’” (T no. 262, 9. 33c11–15; Watson, p. 176 [with minorchanges]), he appeals the audiences to uphold and propagate the LotusSËtra after his death. In response to this appeal, Bodhisattva Medicine
King and Bodhisattva Great Joy of Preaching along with their twenty
thousand bodhisattva followers first vow to propagate the sËtra after the
Buddha’s death. They state in their vow, “Living beings in the evil age
to come will have fewer and fewer good roots. Many will be overbearingly arrogant and greedy for offerings and other forms of gain, increasing the roots that are not good and moving farther away than ever fromemancipation. But although it will be difficult to teach and convert them,
we will summon up the power of great patience and will read and recite
this sËtra, embrace, preach, and copy it, offering it many kinds of alms
and never begrudging our bodies or lives.” (T no. 262, 9. 33c11–15;
Watson, pp. 190–191 [with minor changes]) According to their statement, it is difficult to cultivate living beings in the evil world after the
Buddha’s death because they are inferior in religious capacity, but inspite of this, they vow to become responsible for the Lotus SËtra by “thepower of great patience.”
Next, five hundred arhats, who were bestowed a prophecy of the
future enlightenment in the chapter “Prophecy of Enlightenment for
Five Hundred Disciples,” vow “In lands other than this one we will
broadly preach this sËtra.” (T no. 262, 9. 36a7; Watson, p. 191 [withminor changes]) Moreover, eight thousand ßråvakas, who were given aprophecy of future enlightenment in the chapter “Prophecies Conferredon Learners and Adepts,” vow that “We too in other lands will broadly
preach this sËtra. Why? Because in this sahå world the people are given
to corruption and evil, beset by overbearing arrogance, shallow in merit,irascible, muddled, fawning and devious, and their hearts are not sincere.” (T no. 262, 9. 36a9–12; Watson, p. 191 [with minor changes])
And nuns, who were given a prophecy of future enlightenment in thechapter “Encouraging Devotion,” vow “We too will be able to go tolands in other regions and broadly propagate this sËtra.” (T no. 262, 9.
36b7–8; Watson, p. 192 [with minor changes])
What these ßråvakas have in common is the vow to uphold and propa-

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191

gate the Lotus SËtra in lands other than this sahå world. The reason why
they avoid the sahå world is that living beings are inferior in religious
capacity as shown in the vow of eight thousand ßråvakas. Even though it
is not explicitly stated, they seem to lack “the power of great patience”
shown in the vow of Bodhisattva Medicine King described above. However, in the last case even Bodhisattva Medicine King is not permittedby Íåkyamuni Buddha to uphold and propagate the Lotus SËtra in thesahå world. For needless to say, the task is supposed to be entrusted tobodhisattvas of the earth.
As I have just mentioned, the sahå world is understood as an impureand evil world. Concretely speaking, there are religiously inferior living
beings and monks in the evil world and their persecution of the followers of Lotus SËtra is described at the end of the chapter “Encouraging
Devotion.14 However, the chapter “The Life Span of the Thus ComeOne” proposes a new idea completely different from the sahå world as
an impure and evil world. I will consider this issue in the next section.

3. Śākyamuni Buddha as Enlightened in the Remote Past and
the Purification of the Sahā World
Starting with Bodhisattva Maitreya’s question about bodhisattvas of theearth in the chapter “Emerging from the Earth,” Íåkyamuni Buddha
relates in the chapter “The Life Span of the Thus Come One” that it is
not in this life but in the remote past that he originally attained enlightenment by the parable of “numberless major world-system dust-particle
kalpas” and that his future life span will last twice as many as the years
from the time of his original enlightenment to the time when hepreached the Lotus SËtra. In other words, the Lotus SËtra shows theimmensity of his life span as a Buddha. There are three main points inthe chapter “The Life Span of the Thus Come One.” The first point isthat Íåkyamuni Buddha’s life span is immense. The second one is that
his entry into nirvåˆa is merely intended as a “skillful display ofnirvåˆa” (the idea that the Buddha provisionally shows himself to enter
final nirvåˆa merely as a skillful measure to arouse a keen resolution on
the part of living beings to seek the way). The third one is that the longabiding Buddha will appear to persons of deep faith (from the perspective of living beings themselves, this is to grant the possibility that one
may “see or meet the Buddha”).
The second point, “skillful display of nirvåˆa” means that Íåkyamuni
Buddha entered nirvåˆa merely as a skillful measure and in reality does
not enter nirvåˆa. For example, the sËtra states, “Originally I practiced

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the bodhisattva way, and the life span that I acquired then has yet tocome to an end but will last twice the number of years that have alreadypassed. Now, however, although in fact I do not actually enter extinction, I announce that I am going to adopt the course of extinction. Thisis a skillful means which the Thus Come One uses to teach and convert
living beings.” (T no. 262, 9. 42c22–24; Watson, p. 227 [with minorchanges]) And it states, “In order to save living beings, as a skillfulmeans I appear to enter nirvåˆa. But in truth I am not passing into
extinction. I am constantly here preaching the Law. I am constantly
here, but through my transcendental powers. I make it so that living
beings in their befuddlement do not see me even when close by.” (T no.
262, 9. 43b16–19; Watson, p. 227 [with minor changes]) In other words,Íåkyamuni Buddha enlightened in the remote past continues to abide
here and preach the law, and continues to save living beings. Buddhas
abiding in different pure lands other than the sahå world, e.g., Amitåbha
Buddha, cannot appear as they are in the sahå world since it is an
impure land. Therefore, Mahåyåna sËtras expound various stories thatbodhisattvas such as Bodhisattva Avalokiteßvara and Bodhisattva Earth
Repository (Kßitigarbha) and so on save living beings in the sahå world
instead of the Buddha in the age when the Buddha does not exist. In
contrast, Íåkyamuni Buddha enlightened in the remote past in truth has
not passed into nirvåˆa and is engaged in saving living beings in thesahå world. Therefore, I think that it is possible to say Íåkyamuni Buddha, though enlightened in the remote past, walks on an eternal “bodhisattva way” playing the role of various bodhisattvas in the sahå world.
When we consider the bodhisattva way in the Lotus SËtra, we find thatÍåkyamuni Buddha has an aspect of a bodhisattva in a sense that he is
the agent of saving living beings in the sahå world, which is a point
overlooked easily.15
This idea of valuing the sahå world is also shown in the narrative of
Bodhisattva Never Disparaging. Whatever people Bodhisattva Never
Disparaging happened to encounter, whether monks, nuns, laymen or
laywomen, he would bow in obeisance to all of them and speak wordsof praise, saying a certain set of words. He would say, “I have profoundreverence for you. I would never dare treat you with disparaging andarrogance. Why? Because you are all practicing the bodhisattva way andare certain to attain Buddhahood.” (T no. 262. 9. 50c19–20; Watson, p.
266) However, certain persons became exceedingly annoyed by Bodhisattva Never Disparaging’s bestowals of prophecy of future Buddhahood, since he was not yet a Buddha himself and thus had norecognizable power or authority to make such momentous statements.

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Some beat him with sticks and staves, while others pelted him with tiles
and stones. But even as he fled he would take up his stance at a distanceand continue to call out in a loud voice, “I would never dare disparage
you, for you are all certain to attain Buddhahood!” (T no. 262. 9.
50c29–51a1; Watson, p. 267) Bodhisattva Never Disparaging kept up
this practice for his entire life. When he was on the point of death heheard from the sky the verses of the Lotus SËtra that had been previously preached by the Buddha King of Awesome Sound. He was able toretain them in their entirety, whereupon he immediately gained the merits of purification of the six sense faculties. His life span was extended
for two hundred tens of thousands of millions of nayutas of years, during which time he preached the Lotus SËtra widely for people. Why is
the prolongation of his life introduced as a topic? I think that it is for the
purpose of expounding the Lotus SËtra heard and memorized by him topeople. This can be interpreted as valuing the place where Bodhisattva
Never Disparaging lives in order to practice the bodhisattva way, whichis to expound the Lotus SËtra in this context. This Bodhisattva Never
Disparaging is said to be Íåkyamuni Buddha in a prior life.
In relation to the brand new idea of Íåkyamuni Buddha having been
enlightened in the remote past, a completely new idea of the sahå world,which had been considered an impure and evil world, was proposed. In
other words, Vulture Peak where Íåkyamuni Buddha, who was enlightened in the remote past, now abides is described as a pure land as follows: “This, my land, remains safe and tranquil, constantly filled withheavenly and human beings. The halls and pavilions in its gardens andgroves are adorned with various kinds of gems. Jeweled trees abound inflowers and fruit where living beings enjoy themselves at ease. The gods
strike heavenly drums, constantly making many kinds of music.
Mandårava blossoms rain down, scattering over the Buddha and thegreat assembly. My pure land is not destroyed.” (T no. 262. 9. 43c7–12;
Watson, pp. 230–231) This description of a pure land is opposed to theidea that the sahå world is regarded as an impure land. I think that theexistence of this pure land is established on the ground of the ongoing
activity of saving living beings by Íåkyamuni.
This pure land is described not as an aim to be attained but as anexisting pure land in the chapter “The Life Span of the Thus ComeOne.” Even though we say “an existing pure land,” such a pure land
exists for Íåkyamuni Buddha enlightened in the remote past, but does
not exist as a reality for ordinary people sunk in suffering. Thus someone might propose a practice of contemplating the sahå world as a pureland in meditation, which he thinks is recommended in the Lotus SËtra.

194

THE BODHISATTVA WAY AND THE REAL WORLDIn the period after Íåkyamuni Buddha’s death, this pure land should be
supported and sustained by the bodhisattva ways of bodhisattvas of theearth who are the legitimate successors of Íåkyamuni Buddha. From theviewpoint of ordinary people, this idea shows that the pure land forÍåkyamuni Buddha enlightened in the remote past is shared with ordinary people by the bodhisattva practices of the bodhisattvas of the earth.
And from the viewpoint of the latter, we can understand that they arebodhisattvas who aim at reforming the impure and evil sahå world intoa pure land.
In short, the existence of Íåkyamuni Buddha who was enlightened in
the remote past and the practice of the bodhisattvas of the earth cooperate with one another. From the perspective of Íåkyamuni, the aim is
the recovery of an original pure land; from the standpoint of thebodhisattvas of the earth and ordinary unenlightened people, it is theactualization of a pure land. Even though this might be a progressive interpretation of the Lotus SËtra, we can say that classics maintain theirvitality through such creative interpretation. The original meaning of“pure land” is a land brought about through the fulfillment of vows
taken when a Buddha was a bodhisattva. The sahå world, where lots ofreligiously inferior living beings and lots of persecutors of the bodhisattvas of the earth can be found, cannot be a pure land. Thus we caninfer that the bodhisattvas of the earth aim at the realization of a pureland where living beings can enjoy themselves at ease through theirpractice of bodhisattva ways. As I consider the practice of the bodhisattva of the earth to be very important, I interpret the pure land of the “TheLife Span of the Thus Come One” chapter neither as an existing pureland nor as a pure land perceived in meditation, but as a pure land which
we should aim to achieve.
However, we tend to think of a pure land as completely ideal, as
understood for example from the fact that the absence of living beingsof the three evil paths (hell, hungry ghosts, and animals) is one characteristic of the Pure Land of Perfect Bliss of Amitåbha Buddha.16 But apure land is not a place where only Buddhas and bodhisattvas reside, but
includes various practitioners of Buddhism as well. Considering thenature of the world where we live, we must admit that part of it is still
experiencing sufferings like those of the three evil paths due to war andstarvation. Even in materially rich advanced countries, some people areexperiencing suffering because of various types of violence, discrimination, bullying, and harassment. Such a world cannot be considered apure land. Therefore, even though bodhisattvas of the earth purify thesahå world, it does not necessarily mean that we can bring about a com-

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195

pletely ideal land. In reality, it is important to be practical, aiming at asociety relieved from the sufferings of the three evil paths as a minimum
target. To live one’s life in a humane manner is often set as a goal inpolitical and economic contexts. I think it is a very natural objective forhumanity and we can say that it is also only a very modest objective.
Nevertheless, everyone knows that it is actually a difficult problem tosolve. Therefore, even though it is difficult to achieve the pure land
which bodhisattvas should aim at, it is not simply a pipe dream or theobjective only of a specific religion, but a goal which many people canshare.
Even though there arose the idea that “the sahå world is in itself theLand of Eternally Tranquil Light,” that is, that “this seemingly impure
land is in itself a pure land,”17 it would be pointless were this idea to betaken only as philosophical speculation by aristocrats isolated from thehardships of real life. Needless to say, there was historically an idea of acontemplative pure land, and even though we admit that it played a certain role, I would like to understand the pure land in the chapter “TheLife Span of the Thus Come One” as that which bodhisattvas of theearth should bring about. In other words, I would like to understand thatbodhisattvas of the earth wish to be born in the impure and evil sahåworld and that their aim is to purify it.

4. Conclusion
First, I have shown that the bodhisattvas of the earth, who are responsible for upholding the Lotus SËtra after Íåkyamuni Buddha’s death, aredescribed as bodhisattvas who can be born on the basis of their previous
vows. Secondly, concerning the concept of vows, I have analyzed the
deepening of awareness from realizing past karmas to realizing previous
vows, and I have analyzed the transition from being saved by powerfulsaviors to saving other living beings. Finally, based on the existence ofthe extremely long-lived Íåkyamuni Buddha who is the Teacher of thissahå world and the practice of the bodhisattvas of the earth who are thetrue successors of Íåkyamuni Buddha, I have interpreted the LotusSËtra as saying that people should purify this sahå world without fleeing
from it as an impure and evil place.
In certain forms of Mahåyåna Buddhism, the idea of regarding rebirthand nirvåˆa as two entirely different principles was transcended andthere appeared the idea of valuing the real world where we live.18 Suchan idea seems to have developped Buddhism into a world religion, andcan now serve as the background for proposing an ideal of creating a

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new culture.
The teaching found in the Lotus SËtra that the real world is a place
where human beings can be happy and at ease should encourage us toreconstruct our own society as such a world. I myself want to learn fromthe Lotus SËtra a way of living which changes the world from a place
where much suffering exists to that where living beings are happy and at
ease.
Notes
I would like to offer my sincere thanks to Prof. Jan Nattier for her expertise in editing
the English version of this paper.
1
Daosheng’s (道生 ca. 355?–434) Miaofa lianhua jing shu 妙法蓮華經疏 and the
Fayun’s 法雲 (467–529) Fahua yiji 法華義記 did not include annotation on the “Devadatta” chapter because their commentaries were written on the Lotus SËtra consisting of
27 chapters.
2
T no. 1564, 30. 21b15–16; Brian Bocking, Någårjuna in China: A translation of the
Middle Treatise (Lampeter: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1995), p. 256 [with minorchanges].
3
T no. 1564, 30. 21b17–19; Brian Bocking, ibid, p. 256 [with minor changes].
4
T no. 1564, 30. 36a4–5; Brian Bocking, ibid, pp. 365–366 [with minor changes].
5
T no. 1564, 30. 36a10–11; Brian Bocking, ibid, p. 366 [with minor changes].
6
See Tamura Yoshiro, “The spirit of the bodhisattva in the Lotus SËtra,” in DaijØ
bosatsudØ no kenkyË (edited by Nishi GiyË, Kyoto: Heirakuji shoten, 1968), p. 236.
7
Another translation by Zhendi 真諦, the Bu zhiyi lun 部執異論, states, “If the bodhisattva [Íåkya] wishes to be born in the evil realm, he can rapidly be born there
because of the power of vow.” (T no. 2031, 49. 20c11–12) See Yamada RyËjØ, DaijØ
BukkyØ seiritsu ron josetsu (Kyoto: Heirakuji shoten, 1959), pp. 162–164. Also see
Nakamura Hajime, Genshi BukkyØ kara DaijØ BukkyØ e (Tokyo: ShunjËsha, 1994), pp.
95–96.
8
If we view the compilation of the Lotus SËtra from a historical perspective, it seems
plausible to me that the bodhisattvas of the earth represent the self-image and self-consciousness of the followers of the Lotus SËtra at the time when it was compiled in India.
9
See “The Buddhas appear in evil worlds of five impurities. These are the so-called
impurity of the age, impurity of desire, impurity of living beings, impurity of view, andimpurity of life span. Íåriputra, when the age is impure and the times are chaotic, thenthe defilements of living beings are grave, they are greedy and jealous and put downroots that are not good. Because of this, the Buddhas, utilizing the power of skillfulmeans, apply distinctions to the one Buddha vehicle and preach as though it were three.”(T no. 262, 9. 7b23–27; Watson, pp. 32–33 [with minor changes])
10
For example, see “In the evil world following my extinction” (T no. 262, 9. 31a25;
Watson, p. 163), “But if after the Buddha has entered extinction, in the time of evil” (Tno. 262, 9. 34a22; Watson, p. 179), “But if after the Buddha has passed into extinction,in the time of evil.” (T no. 262, 9. 34a27; Watson, p. 179) and so on.
11
Concerning the description, see T no. 262, 9. 13c19–14b14.
12
As for the viewpoint which takes notice of the evil world of five impurities in theTHE BODHISATTVA WAY AND THE REAL WORLD

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chapter “Skillful Means” and the description of the burning house in the chapter “Simile
and Parable” in relation to the sahå world being an impure land, see Suguro ShinjØ,ZØtei hokekyØ no seiritsu to shisØ, Tokyo: Daitō shuppansha, 1993 [first edition], 1996
[revised edition]), pp. 281–282.
13
The narrative of purification of the sahå world can be interpreted as a preliminary
description of the idea that the sahå world is regarded as an pure land in the chapter“The Life Span of the Thus Come One”, but there is a difference between them. Whilein the chapter “The Emergence of the Treasure Tower” the sahå world is purified by thesupernormal power of Íåkyamuni Buddha, in the chapter “The Life Span of the Thus
Come One” the sahå world is purified by the collaboration of the extremely long-lived
Íåkyamuni Buddha and the bodhisattvas of the earth.
14
See T no. 262, 9. 36b21–37a1.
15
As for this point, the Sanskrit text corresponding to the passages “Originally I practiced the bodhisattva way, and the life span that I acquired then has yet to come to an
end but will last twice the number of years that have already passed. Now, however,
although in fact I do not actually enter extinction, I announce that I am going to adopt
the course of extinction. This is a skillful means which the Thus Come One uses to teachand convert living beings.” (T no. 262, 9. 42c22–24; Watson, p. 227 [with minorchanges]), which was cited in this main text, reads as follows: “And even now, young
gentlemen of good family, I have not accomplished my ancient Bodhisattva-course, andthe measure of my lifetime is not full.” (Saddharma-pundar¥ka or The Lotus of the True
Law, translated by Jan Hendric Kern. Sacred Books of the East, vol. 21. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1884, p. 302) The original Sanskrit text reads as follows: “na ca tåvan me
kula-putrå adyåpi paurvik¥ bodhisattva-caryå parini∑pådit’åyu∑-pramåˆam apy
aparipËrˆam.” (Saddharmapuˆ∂ar¥ka, ed. by H.Kern and Bunyiu Nanjio, p. 319) However, Nakamura ZuiryË pointed out that there is a Sanskrit manuscript corresponding to
the Kumåraj¥va’s translation. See Nakamura ZuiryË, Gendaigo yaku KokekyØ, Tokyo:
ShunjËsha, 1998, p. 237.
16
See the Larger Sukhåti-vyËha, “Even though I become enlightened, if there are hell,
hungry spirits, and animals in my pure land, I would not attain Buddhahood.” (T no.
360, 12. 267c17–18)
17
See Zhanran’s 湛然 Fahua wenju ji 法華文句記 vol. 9B, “A sËtra states, ‘my land is
not destroyed and I live eternally on Vulture Peak.’ Why should we seek for the Land of
Eternally Tranquil Light separately from Buddhagayå? There does not exist a sahåworld outside the Land of Tranquil Light.” (T no. 1719, 34. 333c2–4)
18
The idea of “humanistic Buddhism” (人 間 佛 教 ) proposed by the Chinese monk
Taixu 太Q (1890–1947) shares some common points with the idea of valuing this world
as found in the Lotus SËtra.