1NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITYSCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

HG4099 Final Year Project
Investigating the effectiveness of watching videos
with L1 or L2 subtitles on second language acquisition

Student Name:
Yeow Jun Jie (U1230573B)
Supervisor:
Francis Charles BondA Final Year Project submitted to
the School of Humanities and Social Sciences,
Nanyang Technological University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of Bachelor of Arts
in Linguistics & Multilingual Studies
7 March 2016

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Declaration of AuthorshipI declare that this assignment is my own original work, unless otherwise
referenced, as defined by the NTU policy on plagiarism. I have read the NTU
Honour Code and Pledge.
No part of this Final Year Project has been or is being concurrently submitted forany other qualification at any other university.
I certify that the data collected for this project is authentic. I fully understandthat falsification of data will result in the failure of the project and/or failure of
the course.

Name: Yeow Jun Jie

Signature:Date: 7 March 2016

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Additional information
1. My FYP is an extension of my URECA project.

○

Yes / NoIf yes, give details and state how is this project different from your URECA project:

2. My FYP is a part of or an extension of my supervisor’s project.

○

Yes / Noif yes, answer question 5.

3. My FYP is partially supported by my supervisor’s grant.

○

Yes / No

4. Provide details of funding expenditure, (e.g. payment of participants: $10/hour; funded bysupervisor’s grant…)

5. You are reminded that an FYP is an independent project on an area of your own
interests. Any kind of outsourcing (including, but not limited to, transcription, statisticalanalysis, etc.) would have a huge negative impact on your grade. If your project is a partof or an extension of your supervisor’s project, please state clearly i) what are your own
intellectual contributions, and ii) what components of your supervisor’s project have beenborrowed for your FYP (e.g. software tools, audio/visual materials, etc.). If you have any
doubts, please check with your supervisor and/or the FYP coordinator before submission.
*Note that failure to declare may be treated as a case of plagiarism and it will impact
negatively on the assessment of your FYP.

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Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 6
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................6
1.1 Past research .......................................................................................................... 7
1.1.1 Videos in language learning ........................................................................... 7
1.1.2 Subtitles (captions) in language learning ..................................................... 8
1.2 Research focus ....................................................................................................... 9
1.2.1 Japanese comprehension, vocabulary and grammar learning ................... 9
1.2.2 Which subtitles for what level of proficiency? .............................................. 9
2. Experiment ...........................................................................................................10
2.1 Participants.......................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Methodology ........................................................................................................ 11
2.2.1 Video ............................................................................................................. 122.2.1 Test ................................................................................................................ 13
3. Results .................................................................................................................... 14
3.1 Overall.................................................................................................................. 15
3.2 Comprehension ................................................................................................... 16
3.3 Vocabulary ...........................................................................................................17
3.4 Grammar ............................................................................................................. 19
4. Discussion ............................................................................................................. 21
4.1 Japanese subtitles for advanced learners ........................................................... 21
4.2 English subtitles for beginners ........................................................................... 22
4.3 The reverse can do more harm than good .......................................................... 24
4.4 English subtitles impede Grammar acquisition ................................................. 25
4.5 Foreignization and domestication ...................................................................... 26
4.6 Limitations .......................................................................................................... 27
4.6.1 Participant numbers .................................................................................... 27

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4.6.2 Assumption of common baseline in proficiency level of participants ....... 27
4.6.3 Ratio of Xno(correct)/Xno .......................................................................... 28
4.6.4 Number of questions asked ......................................................................... 29
4.6.5 Self-assessment of Yes/No questions .......................................................... 29
4.6.6 Closeness of multiple choice options in vocabulary section to actual
answer ................................................................................................................... 29
4.6.7 Amount of time allocated to view video ...................................................... 30
5. Future research .................................................................................................. 30
6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 32
8. Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 34
7. Appendices ............................................................................................................ 37
Appendix A - Instruction leaflet used to brief participants ..................................... 37
Appendix B - Transcript of Japanese speech and English subtitles ........................ 39
Appendix C - Test paper used in this study .............................................................. 49
Appendix D - Answers to test.................................................................................... 55
Appendix E - Table of data collected ........................................................................ 56

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Abstract
This study investigates the effectiveness of watching videos for L2 learning and theeffectiveness of L1 and L2 subtitles on L2 learning. Specifically it explores thepotential for L2 videos in learning vocabulary and grammar. 60 Japanese L2
learners of various proficiencies were asked to watch clips from a native Japanese
television drama with either English subtitles, Japanese subtitles or no subtitles.
They were then asked to do a test which includes a comprehension section,
vocabulary section and grammar section. A post-study interview was also
conducted. Results were tabulated and overall test scores found that English
subtitles were more beneficial for beginner learners while Japanese subtitles weremore useful for intermediate to advanced learners (referred to as simply advanced
learners in this study). Vocabulary scores showed a similar result. English subtitles
impeded Japanese grammar learning for all levels of learners. Overall, Japanesesubtitles are beneficial for Japanese learning for advanced learners for both
vocabulary and grammar learning, while English subtitles are beneficial for
beginner learners for vocabulary learning. Results from the study can serve as apedagogical tool giving language learners a better idea as to how videos canbenefit their learning, and as to which subtitles, L1 or L2, are more effective for
their current proficiency level. Suggestions for future research have also been
included.

1. Introduction
Ever since video recording devices which were cheap and reliable became available in
the latter half of the 1970s, the world has witnessed a steady growth in audiovisualmaterial, and recent advancements in technology have further allowed people fromall over the world to easily gain access to audiovisual material through video sharing
sites on the Internet. This provides L2 learners with an additional channel to be
exposed to their L2 within the comforts of their home. Studies have shown thatvisual aids are a useful tool in facilitating auditory processing, because they provide
both audio as well as visual stimuli (Guichon & McLornan, 2008; Stempleski, 2003).
Greater listening comprehension can be achieved with the addition of images tosound, along with paralinguistic cues. Subtitles can added to films and television

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shows and have provided a means for non-speakers of the language to still enjoy
them. Close-captions, which are transcripts of the video added for the hearingimpaired or for when audio cannot be heard clearly, are another form of subtitles,
except these are in the language spoken in the video.
While videos have now been recognised as a source of L2 learning, the question
remains to what extent and in what aspects do videos, more specifically subtitled
videos, help learners. For the L2 learner, L1 subtitles can provide an instantaneoustranslation of the spoken L2. On the other hand, in the case of a video with L2
subtitles, subtitles can assist by providing the written form of the utterance, allowing
learners to see the word whilst hearing it. This leads to the second question: How dovarious subtitles affect the L2 learning of people of different levels of proficiency?
1.1 Past research
1.1.1 Videos in language learning
Much research has looked into the advantages of learning language through viewing
videos. Videos expose learners to native L2 speech, which improve listening
comprehension in real-life interactions with time (Herron et. al., 1995). Audiovisualmaterial has visual and auditory cues (often referred to as bimodality or
multimodality) which are more beneficial for L2 comprehension as compared toauditory cues alone (Guichon & McLornan, 2008).
Visual cues in videos have also been found to be advantages in language learning.
Demirezen (1992) points out that videos show the language being used in context,
building social competence by allowing language students to become more sensitive
to nonverbal cues and cultural behaviour of the L2. This is supported by Baltova(1994), who did a study on French L2 learners, and found that audiovisual material
has visual cues tied to speech, encouraging viewers to pay more attention to thecontent, thus allowing more auditory processing takes place. Watching videos also
help learners to gain more cultural information about the language, for example, thegestures and facial expressions associated to certain words or phrases being
spoken. However, the French learners in this study did not have a heightenedcomprehension of specific pieces of text from watching the video. Macedonia &Knösche (2011) also found that L2 acquisition is aided when single words are given
corresponding symbolic gestures, visual cues aid the memory retrieval of abstract

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and non-abstract words, enhances speech production. This symbolic gesturing can belikened to watching people’s actions and emotions when uttering certain words orphrases in videos.
Furthermore, videos have merits which cannot be achieved with instruction within
the classroom alone. Videos where the L2 is used features a natural and ‘real-world’setting for the language, providing a social context to the language that goes beyond
the classroom (McGovern, 1983).
1.1.2 Subtitles (captions) in language learning
Closed-captions (L2 subtitles) were initially thought to have little real pedagogicalvalue (MacKnight, 1983). Because they provide a visual element to the spoken word,some language teachers or language learners view subtitles as a form of ‘cheating’ inlanguage learning (Danan, 2004). In 1983, Price asked 500 students of various
language backgrounds to watch four closed-captioned excerpts in their L2, English,
and found that all participants had had benefitted in terms of L2 acquisition in justone viewing due to increased comprehension, regardless of their language
background or level of education. Unfortunately, little was mentioned in the
MATESOL Newsletter, the only article produced on this study. Vanderplank (1991)
also found that videos with L2 subtitles are useful for both L1 and L2 learning. Oursenses are not overwhelmed by the multimodality of having the nonverbal visual cues,
auditory cues as well as subtitles because they are not in conflict with each other andare instead offering multiple representations to the same piece of information(Holobow et al., 1984; Lambert & Holobow, 1984).
There is now a considerable amount of empirical evidence which support that videos
with L2 subtitles leads to greater comprehension of the content as compared towithout (Price, 1983; Guillory, 1998; Baltova, 1999; Huang & Eskey, 1999; Chung,1999; Guichon & McLornan, 2008; Bianchi & Ciabattoni, 2008; Winke et al., 2010;
Kvitnes, 2013) and also great learning of vocabulary (Danan, 1992; Baltova, 1999;
Huang & Eskey, 1999; Markham, 1999; Bianchi & Ciabattoni, 2008; Sydorenko,
2010; Winke et al., 2010; Montero Perez et al., 2014; Nely, 2015). Segmentation of L2
subtitles along with speech flow is also found to aid listening comprehension(Vanderplank, 1988). Indeed, a meta-analysis done by Montero Perez et al. (2013) on9this topic showed this, citing that both listening comprehension and vocabulary
learning is enhanced from L2 subtitles as compared to no subtitles.
1.2 Research focus
1.2.1 Japanese comprehension, vocabulary and grammar learning
Subtitles, in general, have proved to be useful as a pedagogical tool in L2 learning.
However, it is still unclear whether all aspects of language can be learnt fromwatching videos, and the role that subtitles play in the learning of these language
aspects. As illustrated above, many of the studies done on subtitles and videos wereon comprehension, listening comprehension or vocabulary acquisition, while aside
from studies such as Bianchi & Ciabattoni (2008) and Van Lommel et al. (2006),
grammar acquisition has received significantly lesser attention, and results have notbeen very conclusive, possibly because research methods are less straightforward andmuch more varied as compared to studies on comprehension and vocabulary
learning.
Moreover, much of the research conducted revolves around the learning of English
as a second language. In this study, however, English is the native language of thelearners, while Japanese is being learnt as a second language.
1.2.2 Which subtitles for what level of proficiency?
Past research has attempted to identify which language, whether the native L1 or
non-native L2, subtitles should be in for effective second language learning to takeplace. Markham et al.’s (2001) study suggested that L1 subtitles lead to greater
listening comprehension. The study included writing a summary of the movie andanswering a multiple-choice test in their L1. The results are however inconclusive, as
the greater comprehension when L1 subtitles were used could be attributed to thefact that the participants were not actually listening to the audio, but were basing
their knowledge on the L1 subtitles. In fact, Mitterer & McQueen’s (2009) study on
Dutch natives who possess a good command of English suggested the reverse, thatnative language subtitles can impede L2 English language production. Baltova (1999)
supported that L2 subtitles aided listening comprehension. His study used a gap-filltest and comprehension questions and the results were that the L2 subtitle grouptrumped over the L1 subtitle group. Hummel (1995), on the other hand, argues that

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that L1 subtitles enhance language processing, which leads to better L2 recognition
and recall. De Bot et al. (1986) asked participants to watch news clips subtitled intheir L1, Dutch, with some differences in information between the subtitles and theaudio. They found that audio processing of the L2, English, still occurs, although theexact extent of language learning which took place is not certain.
The usefulness of subtitles in language learning is still not entirely clear. Thereremain many factors that are worth investigating, namely the L1 and L2 of theparticipants, the genre of the visual material (For example, a news report or an action
film can have a vastly different use of words and visual structure.) (Bianchi &Ciabattoni, 2008), and most importantly the proficiency of the learner’s L2. A
beginner learner may be overwhelmed by L2 subtitles, and benefit more from L1
subtitles. An advanced learner may, on the other hand, be distracted by L1 subtitles,
due to interference with their existing knowledge of the L2, and thus benefit morefrom L2 subtitles. The relationship between the viewing of videos with L1 or L2
subtitles and its effectiveness in language learning is explored in this research paper.
Furthermore, this will be compared alongside the condition of viewing videos withno subtitles. Should subtitles be indeed useful in L2 language learning, and L1 or L2
subtitles be more useful than the other, subtitled videos can become a more effective
pedagogical tool that language instructors can incorporate into language teaching.

2. Experiment
2.1 Participants
60 Japanese language learners from Nanyang Technological University (NTU) wererecruited for this study. The participants are bilingual speakers of English andMandarin Chinese. Participants are students who are taking or have taken in theprevious semester a Japanese language course offered in NTU. There are seven
Japanese language course offered in the university, from Japanese Level 1 (J1) toJapanese Level 6 (J6), followed by Advanced Practical Japanese (APJ), which is thehighest level offered in the university. Students taking APJ are expected to have atleast a Japanese-Language Proficiency Test (JLPT) certification of N3, or have taken
J6 previously in the university. As data collection for this study took place about one
month from the commencement of the semester, J1 students were not allowed to11participate in the study, as they would not yet have sufficient knowledge of Japanese
to read or write in Japanese. Therefore, only students from Japanese Level 2 (J2) to
APJ were recruited for the study. Participants were recruited via a mass email sentout to all current students of Japanese language courses in the university, a Facebook
post written on the group page of the university’s Japanese cultural club, theJapanese Appreciation Club, and personal visits to several of the university's
Japanese language classes.
Participants are grouped into one of two groups, the beginner learner group and theadvanced learner group, according to which level they were in. J2 and J3 students
were slotted into the beginner learner group, while J4, J5, J6 and APJ learners wereslotted into the advanced learner group. Although the group is labelled as theadvanced group, they include those at the intermediate to advanced level. People
from this group are usually at least be able to hold simple conversations in Japanese.
The division between beginner and advanced learners is based on the Japanese
proficiency level required to understand the Japanese used in the video. The video
does not use particularly complicated Japanese, thus, while J2 and J3 learners havesome difficulty understanding the video without English subtitles, J4 learners andabove are able to understand most of the video even without the aid of English
subtitles.
2.2 Methodology
Participants were invited to the computer lab in the School of Humanities and Social
Sciences (HSS) in NTU. After reading and signing a consent form saying that they arewilling to participate in the study, participants were given an instruction leaflet (seeAppendix A), which was also used to brief them. Participants held on to the
instruction leaflet throughout the experiment. They were told beforehand that thegoal of the study is to see how much Japanese can be learnt from watching videos,
and were not told explicitly that the study is also looking at the usefulness of subtitlesin L2 acquisition. Instead, they were simply asked ‘not to peek at other participants’
computer screens’, as other participants may be watching a different ‘version’ of thevideo.

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2.2.1 Video
In classroom teaching, videos vary greatly in length, from short sequences of 5
minutes, to 10 to 20 minutes for elementary groups and 20 to 40 minutes forintermediate and advanced groups, or even up to 45 minutes (Demirezen, 1992).
Studies which use subtitled videos as experimental material have various lengths.
Mitterer & McQueen (2009) used a 25-minute video, while Baltova (1999) used a 7.5minute video. Often, shorter clips are extracted from a longer show, which is what
has been done for this study.
In this study, the briefing of participants was followed by the screening of a 9-minutevideo, which features clips from the tenth episode of the Japanese drama Nihonjin
no Shiranai Nihongo. All participants must not have watched this episode of theshow before. Participants were seated apart from each other, and were given a
maximum of 30 minutes to watch the video as many times as they liked, replay
specific parts and pause at any part of the video. Before watching the video,
participants were reminded to take note of the Japanese grammar and vocabularyused in the video, as it will be tested later. Nihonjin no Shiranai Nihongo was chosen
as it presents informational content in the form of light-hearted and humorous
interactions in non-complicated Japanese between the characters in the video, which
provides entertainment similar to typical Japanese dramas, but also has the added
bonus of educating viewers on lesser known aspects of Japanese culture. Also, ample
Japanese vocabulary featured in the video are not taught in Japanese classes, and are
therefore more likely to be new words to the participants. A transcript of the video is
included in Appendix B, to give a better idea of the difficulty level of the Japanese in
the video.
There are three videos used in this study, one with Japanese subtitles, one withEnglish subtitles and one without any subtitles. Participants will be shown one of thethree videos. The English-subtitled version of the video is taken from YouTube andshortened. The Japanese subtitled and non-subtitled versions are cut according to
the English subtitled version, and the Japanese subtitles are formatted to bestylistically similar to the English subtitles (in terms of size, colour, outline ofwording, outline colour, spacing etc.). Considering that most Japanese learners living
outside of Japan will mostly be exposed to Japanese audio-visual media through the13Internet, an English-subtitled video which can be readily found on YouTube, insteadof a video translated and subtitled by the researcher, is intentionally chosen for thisstudy, in hopes that this will be more reflective of subtitles available online.
2.2.2 Test
The viewing of the video was then followed by the commencement of a Japanese
language test to determine what they have learnt. There are three sections to this test,
a comprehension test, vocabulary test and grammar test. The former two are in
multiple-choice format, while the grammar section is in fill-in-the-blank format.
There are 6 comprehension questions, 9 vocabulary questions and 23 grammar
questions. The test paper used in this study can be found in Appendix C, and theanswers to the test can be found in Appendix D. The test paper was printed out in
hardcopy. Each section was collected after being completed before the next section
was distributed, as later sections can give hints to the answers of the previous
sections. Questions used in the test are all pertaining to the video, and the sentencesused for the vocabulary and grammar sections are all taken from the video itself. For
the comprehension section, the questions are written in English, so that beginnerlearners will not have problems understanding these questions. Likewise, the optionsof the multiple-choice questions in the vocabulary section are in English also toensure that beginner learners can understand the multiple-choice options. In the
vocabulary section, participants were given the sentence in which the vocabulary
item appears in in the video, and were asked to select the definition that best defines
the underlined word. The underlined words in question are written in Hiragana, eventhough a Kanji equivalent may exist, to prevent participants from using theirknowledge of Mandarin Chinese to infer the meanings of the words from their Kanji.
Questions asked in the vocabulary questions varied in a number of ways: How often
the word or phrase is used in the video, how many different contexts it appeared in,whether it was uttered only, appeared as text in the video only or both uttered andappeared in text in the video. The words to be defined had an assortment of verbs,
adjectives, nouns and phrases as well. For the grammar section, there are three parts,
the changing of verb forms (for example, present to past tense), filling in of missing
particles, and rearranging of sentences. These types of grammar questions frequently

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appear in the grammar section of Japanese language exams, which means that all
participants should be comfortable with the format of the questions.
After the test is complete, participants were given a debriefing explaining to them
why they did what they did, and participants were asked for their feedback regarding
the video, the test, or the study in general.

3. Results
Participants were put into one of six categories. After splitting the participants into
the beginner group and advanced group, these two groups were further split into oneof three conditions. Each participant from either group was assigned to watch thesame video with either English subtitles, no subtitles or Japanese subtitles, such that
there were exactly 10 participants in each category. The raw data collected can befound in Appendix E. No analysis across each Japanese course level was done, as thestandard of each level varies with each semester, that is, someone who is in level 6
this semester may be of a higher standard of a level 6 student from last semester. In
order to ensure as much accuracy as possible in the divide between the beginnerlearners and advanced learners in this study, participants whose level lie on theborderline of the divide (level 3 and level 4) are all taken from the current batch of
students this semester, so that their standard will not be too varied. The scores
collected were then tabulated and the results have been presented below. After eachtable is the graphical representation, including the standard deviation of each value,of the data. An initial analysis of the data showed that, due to the small effect size,
none of the differences are statistically significant, therefore no further statisticaltests were conducted with the data.

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3.1 Overall
English subtitles

No subtitles Japanese subtitles

Beginner learners

16

14.2

11.8

Advanced learners

25

28

31

Figure 1a. Mean total scores (out of total score of 38)

Mean total scores
35
30
25
20

EnglishNo subs

15

Japanese1050Beginner learners

Advanced learners

Figure 1b. Graphical representation of mean total scores
Advanced learners scored the highest when they watched the video with Japanesesubtitles, while beginner learners scored the highest when they watched the video
with English subtitles. On the other hand, beginner learners scored the lowest when
they watched the video with Japanese subtitles, while advanced learners scored thelowest with English subtitles.

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3.2 Comprehension
English subtitles

No subtitles Japanese subtitles

Beginner learners

5.4

4.6

4

Advanced learners

5.7

5.1

5.6

Figure 2a. Mean comprehension scores (out of total score of 6)

Mean comprehension scores
7
6
5
4

EnglishNo subs

3

Japanese2
1
0
Beginner learners

Advanced learners

Figure 2b. Graphical representation of mean comprehension
The purpose of the comprehension test is to determine how much the learner reliedon the particular subtitles. Naturally, English subtitles aided comprehension themost, especially for the beginner learners. For the advanced learners, there is little
variation in comprehension scores, likely because participants are more or less adept
at understanding the video in Japanese. Interestingly, beginner learners performed
the worst when given Japanese subtitles.

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3.3 Vocabulary
English subtitles

No subtitles Japanese subtitles

Beginner learners

4.9

4.3

2.7

Advanced learners

6.4

6.6

7

Figure 3a. Mean vocabulary scores (out of total score of 9)

Mean vocabulary scores
9
8
7
6
5

EnglishNo subs

4

Japanese32
10
Beginner learners

Advanced learners

Figure 3b. Graphical representation of mean vocabulary scores
Advanced learners scored the highest when they watched the video with Japanesesubtitles, while English learners scored the highest when they watched the video withEnglish subtitles.

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English subtitles (%) No subtitles (%) Japanese subtitles (%)
Beginner learners

53.3

46.9

34.2

Advanced learners

62.3

61.7

70.8

Figure 4a. Mean ratio of questions not known but answered correctly to questions
not known before test for Vocabulary section (Vno(correct)/Vno) i.e. how much theparticipant learnt

Mean ratio of Vno(correct)/Vno
100
90
80
70
60

English50

No subs

40

Japanese

30
20
10
0
Beginner learners

Advanced learners

Figure 4b. Graphical representation of mean ratio of questions answered correctly
to questions not known before test for Vocabulary section (Vno(correct)/Vno)
The ratio of vocabulary questions which the participant did not know how to answer
before viewing the video, but nonetheless answered correctly, over the total numberof vocabulary questions the participant did not know how to answer prior to viewing
the video is Vno(correct)/Vno. This ratio is used to calculate how much of vocabulary
has been learnt. Overall, advanced learners appear to have learnt more vocabulary ascompared to the beginner learners. Advanced learners have the highest mean
Vno(correct)/Vno for the Japanese subtitle condition, which suggests that the mostlearning took place under this condition, while beginner learners have the highest19mean Vno(correct)/Vno for the English subtitle condition, suggesting that thegreatest amount of learning took place under this condition. Interestingly, beginnerlearners learnt the least from the Japanese subtitles. In this case, the Japanesesubtitles could perhaps have confused learners, and their attempt at trying toconcentrate on the subtitles may have caused the reverse effect of learning lessvocabulary.
4.4 Grammar
English subtitles

No subtitles Japanese subtitles

Beginner learners

5.7

5.3

5.1

Advanced learners

12.9

16.3

18.4

Figure 5a. Mean grammar scores (out of total score of 23)

Mean grammar scores
25

20

15

EnglishNo subs

10

Japanese

50Beginner learners

Advanced learners

Figure 5b. Graphical representation of mean grammar scores (out of 23)
Beginner learners scored roughly a 5 to 6 out of 23 across all conditions. English
subtitles, however, impeded the performance of advanced learners when it comes togrammar.

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English subtitles (%) No subtitles (%) Japanese subtitles (%)
Beginner learners

11.0

18.0

13.9

Advanced learners

25.8

27.3

57.8

Figure 6a. Mean ratio of questions not known but answered correctly to questions
not known before test for Grammar section (Gno(correct)/Gno) i.e. how much theparticipant learnt

Mean ratio of Vno(correct)/Vno
80
70
60
50
English40

No subs
30

Japanese20
100Beginner learners

Advanced learners-10

Figure 6b. Graphical representation of mean ratio of questions answered correctly
to questions not known before test for Grammar section (Gno(correct)/Gno)
On calculating (Gno(correct)/Gno), English subtitles seemed to have impeded thelearning of grammar for both the beginner and advanced learners. The advanced
learners, when presented with Japanese subtitles, appear to have acquired much
more grammar as compared to the other conditions.

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4. Discussion
Based on the scores and the (Vno(correct)/Vno) and (Gno(correct)/Gno) ratios(Figures 1-6), we can say that participants were able to learn both L2 vocabulary andgrammar from watching videos when being told to take note of the L2 while watching
the video, however, under certain conditions participants learn more than otherconditions.

4.1 Japanese subtitles for advanced learners
Overall, the total scores (Figure 1) suggest that advanced learners benefited the mostfrom Japanese subtitles. Also, Figure 4a shows that the ratio of vocabulary learnt is
the highest for advanced learners who watched the video with Japanese subtitles.
This is in line with Guichon & McLornan (2008), who tested intermediate level
students, asking them to watch a BBC broadcast, and also found that L2 subtitles
were more beneficial for L2 learning because of the lower lexical interference fromthe L1, as compared to L1 subtitles (note that 'advanced learners' in this study
includes both intermediate and advanced level learners).
During the post-study feedback, participants made comments that were reflective of
the results collected from the test scores. Advanced learners who participated in the
study showed a preference for Japanese subtitles or found it more useful in Japaneselearning, while beginner learners preferred English subtitles. An advanced learner(J6) who watched the video with Japanese subtitles and who enjoys watching
Japanese variety shows in her free time remarked that she recently began watching
more Japanese variety shows without subtitles, which she felt helped her improve
her Japanese. For variety shows in Japan, there are usually captions in Japanese forthe parts which are more amusing or for the parts where emphasis is desired, similar
to Japanese subtitling. She highlighted that these captions were particularly useful in
her learning of Japanese. Another advanced level participant (APJ) who watched thevideo with Japanese subtitles also commented that she usually watches Japanese
videos with either English subtitles or no subtitles, and felt like she had learnt themost from watching in Japanese subtitles during this study. She added that was keen
on watching more Japanese-subtitled videos in the future. These comments reinforce

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the result that advanced learners reap more benefits in terms of L2 learning when
watching videos in L2 subtitles.
Some participants from both the beginner and advanced learner groups who watchedthe video with Japanese subtitles remarked that they were able to derive themeanings of certain Kanji from their knowledge of Mandarin Chinese, and that being
able to do so has helped in being able to understand more of the Japanese subtitles.
This advantage did not affect the results too greatly, as English is still found to be
more beneficial than Japanese subtitles for beginner learners. However, it may lower
the proficiency level needed for the learner to be comfortable with the Japanesesubtitles, as knowledge in Mandarin Chinese means that participants can read theJapanese subtitles faster as compared to a non-Mandarin Chinese speaker, and can
decipher the meanings of certain Kanji due to their possible closeness of meaning to
the word in Mandarin Chinese. Pujolà (2002) found that L2 subtitles are useful forvarious learners (so long as they are able to read the captions). For highly advanced
learners, they serve as backup for comprehension, while for learners who are lessadvanced, they serve as an important tool for L2 comprehension.
4.2 English subtitles for beginners
The converse is true for beginner learners. The total scores (Figure 1) suggest thatbeginner learners benefitted the most from English subtitles. Likewise, Figure 4aalso shows that the ratio of vocabulary learnt is the highest when beginner learners
watch the video with English subtitles. This is in line with past research (Bianchi &Ciabattoni, 2008), where L2 subtitles are more beneficial as proficiency increases.
Reasons for this are that some beginner learners found it difficult to read theJapanese subtitles in real-time, which defeats the purpose of the subtitles in the firstplace. In Vanderplank's (1988) study, L1 Arabic learners of English who had lower
levels of reading were unable to follow the L2 subtitles, and also did not benefit fromwatching videos in the L2. In the current study, a beginner learner (J3) from who
watched the video with Japanese subtitles commented that she was unable to readthe Japanese subtitles as it is being presented in the video and ended up relying on
the spoken Japanese and non-linguistic cues from the video. She jokingly remarked
that she would need all day in order to read the Japanese subtitles, and even thenwill not understand much of the video.

23
Beginner learners also struggle to understand the video when no subtitles are given.
A beginner learner (J2) who watched the video without subtitles commented that he
was only able to pick up little snippets of what was being said without the aid ofsubtitles, which impeded his overall understanding of the video, which in turncaused it to be very difficult to learn of Japanese as he was unable to grasp thecontent of the video.
Unlike advanced learners, beginner learners do not have a capacity to internalise newwords yet, due to their limited knowledge of the Japanese language. English subtitles
help them to make sense of what is being said, allowing them to continue building
the context of the video. Because of this, they are able to grasp the gist of the video
through the English subtitles, and match the spoken Japanese to the English
subtitles, thereby learning some Japanese. The beginner learners who watched withEnglish subtitles remarked that they had learnt from the video by matching certain
sounds they heard in the L2 to the L1 subtitles, finding patterns from there and thus
establishing the relationship of certain words in the L2 to words or phrases in the L1.
If beginner learners were given the time and resources to look up words they did notunderstand, L2 subtitles could perhaps be more useful as compared to when they are
not allowed to look anything up, as they are given much more room for clarification(Katchen, 1996). Note-taking while watching videos with L2 subtitles have beenshown to have a positive impact in learning because the viewer has to focus on the L2
in order to take notes (Vanderplank, 1988, 1990). This is practical for video-viewing
in the classroom. However, few L2 learners meticulously look up every word they do
not understand when watching videos for the purpose of being entertained.
Participants who possess a habit of looking words up while watching videos
commented that even if they do so, they do not look up every single word, but rather
a handful of words, as it will cause too much interruption to their viewing pleasure.
In order to look words up without greatly compromising viewing pleasure, a basic
level of competency in the L2 is nonetheless necessary. In fact, the participants who
said that they watch Japanese shows in either Japanese or no subtitles and look up
words that they did not know tended to be from the advanced learners group.

24
4.3 The reverse can do more harm than good
It is interesting to observe from the results that for the beginner learners, Japanesesubtitles actually impeded their learning of Japanese. Likewise, for the advanced
learners, English subtitles impeded their learning of Japanese. This overall trend
observed is also reflected in the vocabulary results, where a much greater amount oflearning took place for the beginner group with English subtitles, and advanced
group with Japanese subtitles, but the least learning took place when beginnerlearners watched the video with Japanese subtitles and advanced learners withEnglish subtitles (Figure 4a). Interestingly, participants who were given no subtitles
were not the lowest scorers, despite them having no transcription nor translation of
the spoken audio. On conducting written and recall tasks in his study, Sydorenko(2010) found that captioned videos (videos with L2 subtitles) assists the learning of
vocabulary through familiarising the learner with the written form of the word, while
videos with no subtitles helps to improve listening comprehension, as learners will be
more focused on the spoken form rather than relying on the written form.
This means that subtitles do not always act as a constructive tool in L2 learning, but
can be in fact a disruption in L2 learning. In this study, it is found that if the subtitles
are not suitable for the learner’s current proficiency level, learning can also be
impeded. Subtitles which do not suit the learner's needs are distracting to the learner,
because he or she is not able to 'switch off' their focus on the subtitles, regardless of
their proficiency level in either the spoken language or the language of the subtitles(d’Ydewalle & Gielen, 1992). This sentiment that inappropriate subtitles impede
learning was also echoed by the participants. During the post-study feedback, aparticipant from the advanced learner/English subtitle condition felt himself
focusing more on English subtitles than the actual spoken Japanese, which drove his
attention away from the Japanese being spoken and impeded his learning ofJapanese. Another advanced level participant also felt that the English subtitles wereat times distracting because she could more or less understand the bulk Japanese in
the video. A third advanced level participant mentioned that he would
subconsciously translate the Japanese speech in his head, and would get distracted
when the English subtitles were slightly different from what he had in his mind.

25
4.4 English subtitles impede Grammar acquisition
Virtually all participants felt that it was more difficult to learn grammar than
vocabulary from videos. Many remarked that they did learn some vocabulary, but feltthat grammar could not be learnt from watching videos. They were stumped by thegrammar section despite the fact that all the questions in the test were actual
sentences used in the video. An advanced level learner who watched the video withJapanese subtitles was the only participant who commented positively about
learning grammar from videos. She remarked that although she feels that it isdifficult to learn grammar from videos such as the one she had just watched, shemight learn some Japanese grammar if that grammar item is used in a very similar
way repeatedly throughout the video, and if the grammar item is crucial forunderstanding what was being said. This is in a way similar to the concept ofchildren’s shows, where content is often repeated multiple times either by using thesame grammatical structure again and again, or by using different grammaticalstructures expressing the same concept, or both.
However, the results show that some learning of grammar did take place, especiallyfor the advanced learners watching with Japanese subtitles (Figure 6a). Thisobservation suggests that learning of grammar from videos is possible, to a limited
extent, but is a more subconscious process as compared to the learning of vocabulary.
Also, participants in both the beginner and advanced learner groups learnt the leastfrom the English subtitles, which suggests that English is a distraction to grammar
learning from videos. While vocabulary learning is enhanced for beginner learners
when given English subtitles, grammar learning is not improved in the same way.
This could be because vocabulary learning is a more conscious process, andparticipants were constantly trying to map words they did not know to the English
subtitles. As grammar learning seems to be a more subconscious process, the same
sort of mapping does not occur, and so learners learn through listening and watching
to the auditory and visual cues provided in Japanese. However, as mentioned above,
beginner learners are not able to ‘catch’ the Japanese subtitles, and attempting toread the Japanese subtitles actually impedes their learning. This could be why the
beginner learners learnt the most grammar from watching the video without any
subtitles - by focusing on the Japanese audio without distractions from the Japanesesubtitles.

26
4.5 Foreignization and domestication
Another factor worthy of consideration is the foreignization and domestication of thetranslations of the L1 subtitles. Foreignization is when a translator tries to retain asmuch information from the L2 as possible, which may involve the breaking of L1
conventions. Domestication is when a translator tries to translate something tosound as natural as possible in the L1, which may lead to some information from theL2 to be lost (Venuti, 1995, Gile, 2009). Foreignization and domestication deal with“the question of how much a translation assimilates a foreign text to the translating
language and culture, and how much it rather signals the differences of that text”(Venuti, 1998). L1 subtitles which are translated without a large deviation from theL2 (foreignization) will be easier to compare with the L2 audio output, which will bein turn more helpful for learning the L2. On the other hand, L1 subtitles do notconform to the L2 in order to avoid any deviation from the conventions of the L1(domestication) will be less helpful in L2 acquisition. Idiomatic expressions, forexample, in the L2 which does not have an equivalent expression in the L1 aresometimes translated to another idiom in the L1 to serve purpose of progressing theplot. However, the process of domestication of translations to fit the L1 culture canlead to a loss in information, and more importantly make it more difficult forlearners to learn the L2. Some translators who choose not to stray too much from theL2 will choose not to translate the text, or will choose to provide a direct translationof the L2 speech, followed by a short explanation of the idiomatic expression at acorner of the screen. The subtitles in the video used in for this study retain theoriginal Japanese to a certain extent. The teacher, Ms. Haruko, is written in thesubtitles as “Haruko-sensei”, retaining the salutation used for teachers in Japanese.
In some parts of the video where the teacher is explaining certain words, the original
Japanese words are kept in the subtitles, with an explanation of the word following
them in brackets. For example, “sasu (to cut)” and “atari - to be on the mark”.
Additionally, there was a part in the video where a character used a similar sounding
word with a totally different meaning to achieve a humorous effect. This is spoken bya character from the video, Diana, while at a shrine:

ここにいるんですね、おかみさんが！
koko ni iru n desu ne, okami-san ga!

27
The subtitles wrote:
The God is in here! (Diana uses “okami-san” instead of “okami-sama”, which referto a woman running a restaurant).
In this scene, the foreignization approach is employed, where the actual fumbling ofwords is not translated but explained by the translator to aid the viewer’s
understanding. This is commonly found in ‘fansubs’ - subtitles done by nonprofessionals who are fans of the video or people in the video, which are easily foundon the Internet for free and can serves as a great tool for beginner learners ofJapanese.
4.6 Limitations
While the results support the hypothesis, the numbers are not significant. This canbe attributed to several reasons below.
4.6.1 Participant numbers
The participant numbers for each category is 10 people, which means that any
variation in scores can produce a large standard deviation. A larger pool of people
per category will lower the standard deviation and therefore produce moresignificant results.
4.6.2 Assumption of common baseline in proficiency level of participantsParticipants’ language proficiency was determined by the Japanese language course
level which they are attending or have attended in the previous semester. This may
not be a good enough gauge for proficiency, as there can be variations in proficiency
level within each Japanese language course level. In the study, scores were based on
the assumption that all learners from either the beginner or advanced learner group
started out on the same baseline, that is, all beginner learner group participants havethe same proficiency prior to the study. Without assessing each participant's
proficiency before watching the video, it will not be possible to be determine theactual baseline (proficiency prior to viewing the video) of each participant.
Participants taking the same Japanese level course in the university may vary in theirstandard of the language; One participant may score an A for the Japanese language
course that they are taking, while another from the same level course may score a C,

28
which means that the Japanese level course that participants are taking does notreflect one single level of proficiency, but rather a range of it. Because of this, there
may be some overlap between consecutive course levels, that is, a J5 participant whoscores a C for his or her Japanese language course may be similar in standard to a J4
participant who scores an A. Therefore, what the participants' Japanese language
course level does is to narrow the pool of participants down to a smaller range oflanguage proficiencies.
This study has however ensured as much as possible that there is a clear divide
between the beginner and advanced learners. When deciding where to divide thebeginner and advanced learners, data from pilot studies and the actual study, bothwhich use the same video, as well as participant feedback were considered. The
results suggested that there is a clear distinction between J3 and J4 learners. All J3participants tended to struggle with understanding the video as long as there were no
English subtitles, while all J4 participants seemed comfortable with understanding
most of the video without subtitles, or tended to not rely on English subtitles evenwhen they were presented with them. In addition, special precaution has been takensuch that J3 and J4 participants were all from the current batch of students, to avoid
any differences in standards between the students from last semester and thissemester. The level of Japanese used in this video appears to be that of J4 and above,
which is why it was decided that J4 to APJ learners are placed in the advanced group,
while J2 to J3 learners are placed in the beginner group.
4.6.3 Ratio of Xno(correct)/Xno
To avoid the assumed equal baseline, in the results calculations were made for theratio of Xno(correct)/Xno (the ratio of questions which the participant did not know
how to answer before viewing the video, but nonetheless answered correctly, over the
total number of questions the participant did not know how to answer prior toviewing the video, where X is either vocabulary, V, or grammar, G). However, this led
to another limitation, which was that if the number of Xno is small, the ratio of
Xno(correct)/Xno may be overrepresented. What this means is that, if a participant
only has one Xno, and answers it correctly, the Xno(correct)/Xno ratio will be 1, eventhough the participant had only learnt one thing from the video, or perhaps had notlearnt anything but had answered the question correctly by chance. In this case29
where Xno is too small, the standard deviation of Xno(correct)/Xno will be far toolarge, and the results will not be significant.
4.6.4 Number of questions asked
Due to the short length and relatively simple speech used in the video, there were notmany questions which could be asked to test the advanced level learners. The small
pool of questions led to the small number of Xno, which in turn led to theinsignificant Xno(correct)/Xno ratio. A longer video or video that contains moredifficult Japanese will have more Japanese words or grammar that the advanced
learners are unfamiliar with.
4.6.5 Self-assessment of Yes/No questions
After each question in the vocabulary and grammar sections, participants were asked
to circle ‘yes’ or ‘no’, ‘yes’ meaning that they knew how to answer the question before
watching the video, ‘no’ meaning that they did not know how to answer the question
before watching the video, and after viewing the video, now knew how to answer thequestion or still did not know how to answer the question. For the vocabulary section,
participants did not have problem with the self-assessment. For the grammar section,
however, participants faced some problems with the self-assessment as it is lessclear-cut to assess whether he or she has known the grammar beforehand, as
compared to vocabulary. A participant circled yes, citing that she had some
impression of learning a grammar form, but had forgotten what it is. Assuming thatgrammar learning occurs more subconsciously, it is also difficult for learners todecide if they knew how to answer a question before watching the video. Therefore, aproficiency test prior to the actual study will be a better gauge as compared to a selfassessment task.
4.6.6 Closeness of multiple choice options in vocabulary section to actual
answerMultiple choice options in the vocabulary section of this study have been made to bevery close to the correct answer and to fit into the context of the video, which meansthat participants may have possibly gotten the gist of the meaning of the word, but
did not necessarily capture its meaning to such detail as to eliminate the otheroptions which closely resembles the correct answer. Baltova (1994), when testing the

30effectiveness of videos on L2 learning, found that despite having heightened speech
perception from watching videos, learners did not have a heightened comprehensionof specific pieces of text from watching the video.
This could be the case for the Japanese subtitle or no subtitle conditions in this study
as well, where the visual cues are insufficient for giving pinpoint definitions for
specific words. For example, susugu (すすぐ) means ‘to rinse’, but in the video two of
the characters use the word susugu when one of them pours water into the other’smouth from the top, which looked like they could also be gargling the water. As such,some people might use the visual cues to arrive at the misconception that susugu
refers to the option ‘gargle’, instead of the correct answer ‘to rinse’, where no correct
visual cues of the word is used.
4.6.7 Amount of time allocated to view video
The duration of time given to watch the video might be insufficient, especially for theless advanced learners to internalise the information presented in the video. As many
participants have limited time to participate in the study as they have to go off forclasses, participants were given a maximum of half an hour to watch the video.
However, this might be insufficient for the beginner learners. Many beginnerlearners were unable to read the Japanese subtitles in real-time, hence given moretime to watch the video, participants will have more opportunities to pause at certain
parts of the video or watch the video more slowly and carefully, which might possibly
lead to increased beginner learner scores under the Japanese subtitle condition.

5. Future research
Measuring the effectiveness of subtitles on Japanese language acquisition still
depends on many factors which call for further exploration.
Firstly, instead of an assumed baseline where all learners are assumed to have samelevel of proficiency, actual proficiency tests can be carried out before the experiment
to distinguish the beginner learners from advanced learners. This may produce moresignificant results. The study itself took about an hour for each participant, and no
incentive is given for participating, aside from “the opportunity to learn about31Japanese culture and learn some Japanese language” as written in the signup form
for the study. Without sufficient incentive, participants will be less willing to stay fora long duration of time, and also their attention may also dwindle by the time they
are asked to do the test.
Secondly, it has to be noted that the results from this study is not reflective of all
types of videos and further study can be done for other genres of videos as well(variety programmes, for example). This study only suggests that informational
dramas featuring common day-to-day interactions are effective in Japanese learning.
The video used in the study utilises a rather large amount of visual cues, slightly
slower speech and relatively simple speech patterns and vocabulary, which aids
overall comprehension. Considering the importance of visual cues in thecomprehension of a video (Herron et. al., 1995, Baltova, 1994), a video with muchless visual cues may have differing results from those found in this study. Also, in
Canning-Wilson's (2000) paper, she recommends language teachers to show
instructional videos in the L2, as it encourages active listening, which requires moremental effort, over passive listening, which requires much less mental effort.
Thirdly, because of time constraints, this study could only explore the short-term
learning of L2 from videos. Bianchi & Ciabattoni (2008) found that in the long run,
Italian beginner learners of English actually benefitted more from L2 subtitles invocabulary learning, and L1 subtitles were disruptive. Past research has suggested
that there are interesting effects to long-term viewing of L2 subtitles on L2
acquisition. Lambert & Holobow (1984) found that, with time, L2 subtitles increasedin effectiveness. L2 English learners who were asked to watch an hour of L2-subtitled
videos a week over a period of nine weeks witnessed an improved ability to process
longer chunks of spoken and written texts in their L2, as they become more adept insegmenting stretches of L2 better (Vanderplank, 1988). Several other studies havealso indicated that L2-subtitled videos are useful in improving reading
comprehension (Goldman & Goldman, 1988; Bean & Wilson, 1989; Neuman &Koskinen, 1990). It will be worth exploring the impact of the long-term viewing ofsubtitled Japanese videos on the learning of Japanese.

32
6. Conclusion
This study has explored the possible effectiveness of videos and subtitles on theacquisition of Japanese as a second language. Japanese subtitles are more effective
overall and in vocabulary learning for advanced learners, while English subtitles are
more effective overall for beginner learners. Conversely, English subtitles impede
learning for advanced learners while Japanese subtitles impede learning for beginnerlearners. This could be attributed to beginner learners struggling to keep up with theJapanese subtitles, and as a result getting overwhelmed by them. On the other hand,advanced learners are able to grasp most of the Japanese audio, and as a result are
distracted by the English subtitles, which are an additional and unnecessary visual
aspect for advanced learners to focus on. For grammar learning, however, English
subtitles appears to lower the performance of learners, while Japanese subtitles
benefit the advanced learners. This is possibly because grammar cannot be ‘directlytranslated’ the way vocabulary items are, and thus English subtitles do not provide asource of reference to the Japanese grammar being used in the video. Past research
has suggested that L2 subtitles are beneficial for learners across the board, but thisstudy shows that the merits of watching L2 subtitles depends on whether the learneris at a level which has the capacity to read the L2 subtitles. Nonetheless, past studies
have suggested that L2 subtitles can ‘train’ learners in their reading and ‘chunking’ oftexts (Vanderplank, 1988), which calls for further study.
Overall, this study hopes to serve its purpose of promoting the use of videos inindependent learning of Japanese and for Japanese language teaching. With thelarge pool of subtitled (and non-subtitled) Japanese videos available in the form ofDVDs or Internet videos, videos are a valuable resource which should be tapped.
Although there are still areas which have to be explored when it comes to videos andsubtitled videos in L2 learning, the available research suggests strongly that videos
and subtitled videos do play a role in language learning. At the same time, they haveto be used wisely - the learner has to use the appropriate subtitles according to his or
her proficiency level to achieve the most effective learning from videos. Alternatively,
past research mentioned in this article suggests that even if the learner is watchingan L2 video for entertainment and not for conscious learning, and even if learning istherefore less effective, learning does ultimately take place implicitly. Despite its

33
limitations, videos and subtitled videos serve the purpose of entertainment, L2
exposure and L2 education, which in itself makes it a valuable asset.
Unfortunately, while it is not difficult to find Japanese videos with English subtitles
online, the same cannot be said for Japanese subtitles. Japanese subtitles are usuallyavailable in the form of DVDs for Japanese audiences or closed-captions on
television for the hearing impaired. There are much less sources of Japanese subtitles
than English subtitles for Japanese programmes outside of Japan, especially whenlearners search online in English. Given the pedagogical value of same-language
subtitles, it might be good for foreign language teachers to explicitly show students
how and where to search for Japanese-subtitled (and in general L2-subtitled) videos.

34
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8. Appendices
Appendix A - Instruction leaflet used to brief participantsNote: This was also distributed to participants so that they can refer to the
instructions again at any point during the study.

Instructions
About watching the video:

You will now watch a short video of clips from a drama called "Nihonjin no Shiranai
Nihongo".



You may watch the video as many times as you want, pause at any time and re-watch any
parts you want. Just watch it at a leisurely pace.

You are not allowed to take notes nor look anything up on the Internet or any devices.



You are given about half an hour to watch the video. Feel free to take less than half an hour
if you wish.

As your neighbour might not be watching the same version of the video as you, pleaserefrain from looking at other people's computer screens.

When you are done with watching the video, let me know and you will be seated in front
where you will be given the test paper.

About taking the test:

There are 3 sections, a comprehension section, vocabulary section and grammar section.

I will first pass you the first section. When you're done, come up to me with the first section
and I will hand you the second section. Again with the third section.



After each question in the Vocabulary section and Grammar section, you will see this:Y / N
I would like you to indicate whether or not you know the answer to the question before
viewing the video. If you already knew how to answer the question before watching thevideo, circle "Y". If you did not know how to answer the question prior to watching thisvideo, circle "N". Kindly do not leave this part blank.

Don't worry about not being able to do some questions. This test is meant to be for all levels,and so not being able to do some question is normal, especially for beginner andintermediate learners.

38

Once you are done, hand in your paper and I will give you a short explanation about what
my project is about. If you're interested in knowing the answers to the test, you can leave
your email behind.

39
Appendix B - Transcript of Japanese speech and English subtitles「日本人の知らない日本語 10 クリップス」（教室で）王：「するめ」と「あたりめ」どこが違う？味 同じです。
ハルコ：当たり前でしょ。「するめ」も「あたりめ」も同じなんだから。
王：え～っ！？
金麗：じゃあ 何で名前違うの？
ハルコ：それは 「する」が縁起が悪いから言いかえてんの。
ジャック：「する」は悪い言葉なのですか？
ハルコ：この場合の「する」っていうのはお金を無くすっていう意味。
ボブ：おぉ、そういやよく鷹栖先生が…。
鷹栖：なっ！またスッた！くっ！！
ボブ：…って言ってる。
ハルコ：そう。ね？何か やな感じでしょ？だからそういう縁起の悪い言葉を「忌み言葉」って言うの。
エレーン：イミ言葉？
ルカ：どういうイミですか？
ハルコ：「忌み」っていう言葉は嫌うってこと。だから そういう言葉はハッピーな言葉に置きかえようってことで「する」めを「あたり」めにしたわけよ。「あたり」のほうが何かいい感じじゃん？
王：そうですね！
ハルコ：そういう言いかえは他にもあって

例えば「刺身」っていうのを「おつくり」って言うでしょ。「刺す」って言葉が怖い言葉だからよ。
エレーン：身を刺す？ 切腹でござる。
ハルコ：あと、「終わる」って言葉もあんまり縁起が良くないから、結婚式では「お開き」って言うでしょ。
生徒達：へえ～なるほど。そうなんだ。
ハルコ：縁起の悪いものって気になっちゃうとかえたくなるもんなのよ。

ボブ：だったらハルコ、これもかえてくれよ。１３点はないだろ！
ハルコ：はあ？
ジャック：欧米では１３は一般的に不吉な数字とされてますからね。

ボブ：こんなことなら１２点にしてくれよ！

40
ハルコ：下げて どうすんのよ！
ルカ：僕もかえて欲しいです。イタリアでは１７ 縁起悪いです。死を表す。
金麗：中国では４と５がダメ！発音が「スー」（死）と「ウー」（無）で似てる。
ハルコ：あんた達 縁起も悪いけど、もうちょっと勉強しなさいよ！
ボブ：俺達の運は最悪だ！ハルコのせいだぞ！
ハルコ：ちょ…自分のせいでしょ！

（鳥居の前で）ハルコ：はい、みんな！着いたわよ！早く～。
生徒達：ホントだ ホントだ！スッゲ～！
ハルコ：こちらに見えますのが、鳥居でございます。
生徒達：うお～！
王：スゴイ！
ボブ：アメフトのゴールみたいだな。
王：そうそうそう！
ハルコ：違うわよ！いい？鳥居をくぐってから先の道は「参道」っていうの。で、参道の真ん中は「正中」っていって神様が通る道なの。だからみんな 端っこ歩くように。いいわ

かった？
生徒達：は～い。
ハルコ：じゃあ 一礼お辞儀して…はい。はい じゃあ行くわよ！みんな、ストップ！真ん
中ダメよ！ダメよ。真ん中。はい 端っこ！端、端っこ！
鹿取：今日のハルコ先生は頼りになりますね。
ハルコ：ふふん。私の実力はこんなもんよ。

（ボッブとポールの行動を見てびっくりしたハルコ）
ハルコ：えっ！？こらこらこらこら！あ～っ！
ボブ：お～！真ん中にタッチダウンだ。
鹿取：罰が当たりますよ。

ハルコ：いででで…。
鹿取：大丈夫ですか？
ハルコ：私は大丈夫だけどさ～サンダルがさ～ほら。
鹿取：鼻緒が切れたみたいで不吉ですね。

41
ハルコ：遠足始まったばっかなのに…

（狛犬の前で）王：お～！こんなとこにいた！みんな見て！ほら、ハチ公！
生徒達：お～
ルカ：うわ、これがそうか！
ハルコ：ちょ…ちょ…違う違う違う！ピピピピーッ！これは狛犬（こまいぬ）。口をッって開いてる方はライオン。獅子ね。そして、口をアー

んって閉じてる方は犬。

生徒達：へえ～（手水所の前で）ハルコ：はい。ここは神様に会う前に体を綺麗にする所です。
エレーン：体をキレイに？
ルカ：タオル持ってくればよかった…
王：あるよ～。
ハルコ：違う違う！洗うのは手だけ。手を水で洗う所で「手水所」（ちょうずどころ）ね。
手を洗うだけで体を清めたことになんのよ。
金麗：この竜のよだれで？
ハルコ：よだれじゃないから。その後は、口をすすぐ。これは言葉を綺麗にするって意味なの。ただし！柄杓（ひしゃく）には直接口をつけないように。わかった？
ボブ：すぐ すすぐ！
ポール：はい 入れるよ～。美味しいかい？
ハルコ：そういうことじゃないから！

（本殿の前で）ハルコ：はい…ここが本殿です。
ダイアナ：ここにいるんですね、おかみさんが！
ハルコ：料亭じゃないから…。あ こんにちは～。はい！正式なお参りの仕方を今から教えるよ。まず お賽銭を投げます。そして 鈴を鳴らして神様を呼ぶ。２回お辞儀をします。
そして ２回手を打つ。そして お祈りをします。お祈りをし終わったら 最後に 一礼。
わかった？
生徒達：はい。

42（神様が宿ってる木の前で）マリエ：これは何ですか？
鹿取：日本の神様はヤオヨロズの神といって、こういう木とか石とか ありとあらゆるところに宿ってるんです。
ボッブ：ヤオヨロズ？
鹿取：八百万っていう字です。
ボッブ：八百万！？いすぎだろ。
鹿取：それだけ色んなものに宿ってるっていう事ですね。
ダイアナ：お客様にも宿ってます！「お客様は神様です」。
鹿取：それはまた違う意味だと思いますけど…。
ジャック：何んでも魂が宿ってるという考え方ですね。
ポール：あそこに魂抜けた奴がいるぞ。

エレーン：ハルコ！大丈夫でござるか？
ハルコ：ござらんよ…。ああ～！ついてない。
鹿取：あ そうだ。おみくじ引きましょ？流れが変わるかもしれませんよ。
ハルコ：そうね…そうよ！

ポール：小吉！
ボブ：吉！やった～！勝ったぜ。
ポール：マジかよ～ホントに。
ハルコ：違う違う…それ 小吉の方が悪い気がするけど、実は逆なのよ。
ボッブ：おっ？
ポール：マジで？
ボッブ：えっ？小吉の方が上？
ハルコ：そう。ちゃんとした順番に並べると、運のいい方から大吉、中吉、小吉、吉、末吉、凶、大凶ってなんのよ。
ポール：へっへへへ。俺の勝ちだよ、ボブ。
ボッブ：くっそ～！もう１回引く！
ハルコ：ちょっと ダメ！引きなおしは。
ボッブ：えっ！

ハルコ：頼むわよ 大吉！

43
鹿取：ハルコ先生 一緒に開けてみませんか？
ハルコ：いいわよ。せ～の！
鹿取：やった～！大吉！ハルコ先生は？え？大凶！？
ハルコ：最悪だ…。
鹿取：まあ たかがおみくじですからね。
ハルコ：もう１回 引き直すわ。
鹿取：引き直しはダメなんじゃ？
ハルコ：あ…。
鹿取：ま 悪いおみくじも吉に転じろと結んでおけば良いと聞きますよ。

ハルコ：は…そっか！そうしよう！
ハルコ：こら～！
ボッブ：お～ハルコ。ここのおみくじ タダだぞ。
ハルコ：タダじゃないわよ！そのおみくじは誰かが引いたヤツなの！
生徒達：ええ～！？
ハルコ：そこに結んで願かけんの！全部 戻しなさい！早く！
エレーン：早く言ってよ～。

44"Nihonjin no Shiranai Nihongo 10 Clips"
Note: The English subtitled version is extracted from the following link,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9HrcXKITiQc, from the beginning to the 8:53minute mark. There are some errors in the translation, in which case have been left
the way they are.
(In the classroom)
Ou: What's the difference between "surume" and "atarime"? They taste the same.
Haruko: Of course. "Surume" and "atarime" are the same thing.
Ou: Huh?
Kinrei: Then why are the names different?
Haruko: Because "suru" has a bad meaning.
Jack: "Suru" is a bad word?
Haruko: In this case, the "suru" means to lose money.
Bob: Oh yeah, Takasu-sensei says...
Takasu: Ah! I lost (suuta) again! Damn it!
Bob: ...like that.
Haruko: Right. Sounds bad, doesn't it? So, these words with a bad meaning are
actually taboo.
Ellen: Taboo words?
Luca: What's the taboo?
Haruko: Taboo, here, means something to hate. So, these words were replaced with ahappier version. The "suru" in "surume" became "atarime". Doesn't "atari" soundbetter? ("Atari" - to be on the mark)
Ou: That's right.
Haruko: By the way, there are others. Like, sashimi can be "otsukuri" . The "sasu" (tocut) is a scary word.
Ellen: "Mi wo sasu" means to commit ritual suicide.
Haruko: And "owaru" (to end) doesn't sound all that good so, you end a marriage
ceremony with "ohiraki". ("Ohiraki" contains the character meaning 'to open')
Students: Oh, I see...
Haruko: When people worry about the bad meanings, they actually change the word.
Bob: So Haruko, go ahead and change this too. It can't be 13!

45
Haruko: Huh?
Jack: In the West, 13 is actually an unlucky number.
Bob: Why not make it 12?
Haruko: Why do you want it down?
Luca: I'd like to change it too. 17 is a bad omen in Italy. It signals death.
Kinrei: 4 and 5 are no good in China. It sounds like "su" (death) and "uu"(nothingness).
Haruko: Well, if your grades are so bad, study harder.
Bob: You've given us all bad luck, Haruko!
Haruko: Hey, It's your own fault!
(By the Torii gate)
Haruko: Okay everyone, we're here. Hurry!
Students: We are! Wow!
Haruko: This is the gateway to the shrine.
Students: Oh...
Ou: Wow!
Bob: It looks like a goal in American football.
Ou: Yeah!
Haruko: It's not! Okay? The pathway to the shrine right under the gate is called"sandou". And the exact middle of the path, the "seichuu", is the path the god walks.
So everyone walk on the edge. Okay, get it?
Students: Yep.
Haruko: Okay, everyone bow. Let's go in! Everyone stop! Don't go in the middle!
Okay! Edges. Edges!
Katori: You're doing really well today Haruko-sensei.
Haruko: Yep. This is my true strength.
(Haruko sees what Bob and Paul's are doing and is shocked)
Haruko: Huh!?
(Subtext: Don't do this!)
Haruko: Hey hey!
Bob: Oh, touchdown in the middle!
Katori: You're going to be punished now.

46
Haruko: Ow ow...
Katori: Are you okay?
Haruko: I'm fine but my sandal, look!
Katori: Your sandal strap breaking is a bad sign.
Haruko: And our trip just started...
(In front of guardian statues)
Ou: Oh! They have this? Look! It's Hachiko! (Hachiko is a famous statue of a dog in
Shibuya)
Luca: Oh! It is!
Haruko: Hey hey! It isn't! These are the guardian lion and dog. The one on the left
with the mouth open is a lion. And then one with the mouth closed is a dog.
Students: Oh...
(At mouth-rinsing point)
Haruko: Okay. Before you meet the god, you need to cleanse your body.
Ellen: Cleanse your body?
Luca: Should have brought a towel.
Ou: I got one.
Haruko: No no! You just wash your hands. A place where you wash your hands iscalled "chouzu dokoro". All you need to do to cleanse your body is wash your hands.
Kinrei: With this dragon's drool?
Haruko: It's not drool. Next you rinse your mouth. It's to cleanse your words. But!
You have to drink it from the ladle, okay?
Bob: Time to rinse!
Paul: Okay, here it comes. Taste good?
(Subtext: Don't do this!)
Haruko: Not like that!
(At the main shrine)
Haruko: Okay, here's the main shrine.
Diana: The god is in here! (Diana uses “okami-san” instead of “okami-sama”, whichrefer to a woman running a restaurant)47
Haruko: This isn't a restaurant...Hello... Okay, I'll teach you the right way to worshiphere. First, throw in the money. And then, ring the bell. It calls the god. Bow twice.
Clap your hands twice. And then, pray. When you're done, bow again. Got it?
Students: Yep.
(At a tree where the gods are said to be dwelling)
Marie: What's this?
Katori: Japanese gods can be found all over, like in trees or rocks. They can be foundin everything.
Bob: Everything?
Katori: It uses the characters for "eight million".
Bob: Eight million? That's too much.
Katori: Haha... Well, it just means there's a lot of things.
Diana: Even customers have gods! "The customer is our god."
Katori: Well, I think that's something different...
Jack: So they think there's a spirit in everything?
Paul: I think that one there lost her spirit.
Ellen: Haruko! Are you well?
Haruko: I'm not well... I have no luck!
Katori: Oh, how about we pull fortunes? Maybe your luck will change there.
Haruko: Yeah. That's right!
Paul: Slightly good luck!
Bob: Good luck! All right! I won!
Paul: Really? Come on...
Haruko: Hey hey, it might look like "slightly good luck" is worse but it's actually
reverse.
Bob: Huh?
Paul: Really?
Bob: Slightly good luck is better?
Haruko: Yep. From best luck to worse luck... Excellent luck, average luck, little luck,
luck, uncertain luck, bad luck, terrible luck. Just like that.
Paul: I won Bob!

48
Bob: Man! I'm going again.
Haruko: Hey! You just can't pick it again!
Haruko: Come on, excellent luck!
Katori: Haruko-sensei, let's open it together?
Haruko: Okay. One two...
Katori: All right! Excellent luck! Haruko-sensei? Huh? Terrible luck?
Haruko: Horrible...
Katori: Well, it's just a fortune.
Haruko: I'm going to pick again.
Katori: Didn't you say you shouldn't?
Haruko: Right...
Katori: Well, even the bad fortunes can become good if you tie it up here.
Haruko: Yeah! That's right! Let's do that.
(Subtext: Don't do this!)
Haruko: Hey!
Bob: Oh Haruko, these fortunes are free!
Haruko: They aren't free! People left those behind on purpose!
Students: Huh?
Haruko: They left those behind for a reason! Put them all back! Hurry!
Ellen: Should've told us earlier.

49
Appendix C - Test paper used in this study

Question Paper
There are 3 sections to this paper, the Comprehension section, Vocabulary section andGrammar section. Instructions for each section are written before each section. Each section will
be distributed separately. If you are unsure of what to do for any of the sections, please approachthe experimenter for clarification.

I: Comprehension section
Choose which of the options, A, B, C or D, is the most appropriate answer for the questions below.
1. Around the beginning of the video, why did the students want to change their test scores?
A.
B.
C.
D.

In Europe, the scores they obtained have a negative connotation
Their test scores were too low and were unhappy with Ms. Haruko's strict marking
They felt that it was Ms. Haruko's fault that they got the scores they had
The scores they obtained weren't considered auspicious in their own countries

2. Why do certain objects have two different names?
A. Some words have a negative meaning, and so a more positive word is used instead
B. Some words sound vulgar, and so a more sophisticated word is used instead
C. Some words are inappropriate to be used in certain occasions, and so another wordreferring to the same thing is used instead
D. Some words do not sound good, so a better-sounding word is used instead

3. What instruction did Ms. Haruko give the students about walking along the path at the Torii gate?
What reason did she give for asking them to do so?
A.
B.
C.
D.

Don't walk in the middle, as walking in the middle will cause bad luck
Don't walk in the middle, as the middle part is meant for the gods
Walk on the path in twos, far apart from each other, as this will ward off bad luck
Walk on the path in twos, far apart from each other, as this is what the gods do

50

4. At this area, why did the students think that they needed a towel?

A.
B.
C.
D.

Because they thought that they had to wipe their mouths clean
Because they thought that they had to drink the water
Because they thought that they had to bathe themselves
Because they thought that they had to dry their hands after washing them

5. When Ms. Haruko realised that she pulled the worst fortune, she wanted to pull another fortune.
What was she told to do instead by the other teacher?
A.
B.
C.
D.

She was told that she should do more good deeds to improve her luck
She was told that she should ignore the fortune as it was just a slip of paper
She was told that she should tie it up so that her fortune will be improved
She was told that she should exchange fortunes with the other teacher to receive some ofher good luck

6. What misunderstanding did the students have when they helped themselves to the fortunes thatwere tied up?
A.
B.
C.
D.

It will ward off bad luck
The fortunes were specially prepared for them
By taking other people's good fortunes they will improve their own luck
The fortunes were free of charge

51

II: Vocabulary section
Choose which of the options, A, B, C or D, is the best definition for the underlined words below.
いか

１．それは、「する」がえんぎがわるいから 言い換えてんの。
Y / N
A.
B.
C.
D.

Bad energy
Bad omen
Bad vibes
Bad actions

ある

２．だからみんな、はじっこ歩くように。
Y / N
A.
B.
C.
D.

Walk respectfully while keeping on the path
Walk while keeping on the path
Walk respectfully while keeping to the side
Walk while keeping to the sideいろこと

３．ヤオヨロズ（八百万）とは、色んなものに やどってるっていう事ですね。
なん

たましい

かんが

何んでも 魂 がやどってるというかた

考 え方ですね。
Y / N

A.
B.
C.
D.

Dwelling
Existing
Blessing
Keepingはなおき

４．鼻緒が切れたみたいで ふきつ

ですね。
Y / N

A.
B.
C.
D.

Dirty
Physically demanding
Unlucky
Difficult to blow

52
かい

５．２回

おじぎをします。
Y / N

A.
B.
C.
D.

Bow
Clap
Draw
Select

とりい

さき

みち

６．鳥居をくぐってから先の道は「さんどう」っていうの。
Y / N
A.
B.
C.
D.

The sides of the pathway
The middle of the pathway
Both A and B
None of the above

ぜったい

くだ

７．絶対にマネをしないで下さい
Y / N
A.
B.
C.
D.

Attempt
Laugh
Make fun of
Imitateあとくち８．その後は、口をすすぐ。
Y / N
A.
B.
C.
D.

Rinse
CleanseGargleWipe

９．ながれがかわるかもしれませんよ。
Y / N
A.
B.
C.
D.

Change the current situation
As time passes by things will change
The flow of things varies
Change the momentum of things

53

III: Grammar section
Change the underlined verbs to their appropriate verb forms and fill in the brackets provided.
For example, する→した、する→しない etc.
Would you know
this before thevideo?

The verb forms may also be left unchanged. For example, する→する

なんい

１．これは 何という（み）意味ですか？
てん

２．だったらハルコ、これもかえる（
えんそくはじ３．遠足始まる（あとY / N）くれよ。１３点はないだろ！

）ばっかなのに…

くち

ことば

Y / N
Y / N

きれい

い

み

ひしゃく

４．その後は、口をすすぐ。これは言葉を綺麗にするって意味なの。ただし！柄杓にはちょくせつくち直 接 口をつける（
わる

）ように。
きち

てん

Y / N

むす

い

５．悪いおみくじも 吉に転じろと結んでおく（き）良いと聞きますよ。

Y / NFill in the missing particles in the brackets. Each bracket can only contain 1 hiragana. If you do notthink that a particle is missing, mark it with a "×".
よ

ことば

つか

１．良くない言葉（さしみ

２．「刺身」っていう（
えんぎ

わる

３．縁起の悪い（なん）使えば、何（）

かん）いやな感じでしょ？

Y / N

い

（

）「おつくり」って言うでしょ。
き）ものって 気（）なっちゃう（Y / N）かえたくなるもんなのよ。
Y / N

おうべい

４．欧米（

いっぱんてき）は１３は 一般的（

しょうきち

５．それ、 小 吉 （

ほう

わる

き

）方が 悪い気（

ふきつすうじ）不吉な数字（）されてますからね。 Y / N
じつ）するけど、実（ぎゃく） 逆 なのよ。

Y / N

54
Rearrange the following words/phrases to form the correct sentences.
１． ね に です いるん

ここ__________________________________________________________________________。 Y / N
も

２．持って

よかった タオル

くれば__________________________________________________________________________。 Y / N
みとりい

３．に でございます 見えます こちら 鳥居 のが_______________________________________、_________________________________。 Y / N
はなお

ふきつ

き

４．みたい 鼻緒 不吉 ですね が 切れた で__________________________________________________________________________。 Y / N
よ

な

すず

かみさま

５．を 呼ぶ 鳴らして 鈴 神様 を__________________________________________________________________________。 Y / N- End of paper. Thank you for your time! -55
Appendix D - Answers to test
I: Comprehension section
1. D

2. A

3. B

4. C

5. C

6. D

II: Vocabulary section
1. B 2. D 3. A 4. C 5. A 6. C 7. D 8. A 9. D (Option A was also
accepted as it is used as such in the context of the video)
III: Grammar section
First part:
１．いう

２．かえて

３．始まった４．つけない５．おけば/おいたら/おくとSecond part:
よ

ことば

つか

なん

かん

１．良くない言葉（を）使えば、何（か）いやな感じでしょ？
さしみい

２．「刺身」っていう（の） （を）「おつくり」って言うでしょ。
えんぎ

わる

き

３．縁起の悪い（×）ものって 気（に）なっちゃう（と）かえたくなるもんなのよ。
おうべい

いっぱんてきふきつすうじ

４．欧米（で）は１３は 一般的（に）不吉な数字（と）されてますからね。
しょうきち

ほう

わる

き

じつ

ぎゃく

５．それ、 小 吉 （の）方が 悪い気（が）するけど、実（は） 逆 なのよ。

Third part:
１．ここ に いるん ですね。

２．タオル 持って くればよかった。

３．こちら に 見えますのが、鳥居 でございます。

４．鼻緒 が 切れた みたい で
５．鈴 を鳴らして 神様

不吉 ですね。

を 呼ぶ。

56
Appendix E - Table of data collected

6
5
6
3
2
3
7
6
4
4
4.6
1.65
4
4
3
1
6
6
7
7
1
7
4.6
2.37
3
3
2
3
1
1
4
3
1
5
2.6
1.35

0.66670.71430.66670.33330.22220.33330.77780.66670.44440.50000.53250.19200.66670.50000.42860.33330.85710.66670.77781.00000.25000.77780.62580.24140.60000.60000.22220.33330.11110.11110.44440.33330.11110.5556
0.34220.2010

4
10
4
2
3
2
8
9
3
12
5.7
3.68
13
11
10
14
13
12
11
17
14
14
12.9
2.02
6
9
2
4
4
6
8
3
4
5
5.1
2.18

15
1
10
15
15
14
13
14
14
12
12.3
4.27
8
9
13
7
12
2
9
3
5
5
7.3
3.62
7
9
15
14
14
15
13
15
15
15
13.2
2.86

2
0
0
1
3
0
1
3
1
4
1.5
1.43
3
1
3
2
4
0
1
1
2
2
1.9
1.20
0
2
1
1
1
5
2
3
2
2
1.9
1.37

0.13330.00000.00000.06670.20000.00000.07690.21430.07140.33330.10960.1106
0.37500.11110.23080.28570.33330.00000.11110.33330.40000.40000.25800.14010.00000.2222
0.06670.07140.07140.33330.15380.20000.13330.13330.1386
0.0957

Total

6
6
9
6
7
7
6
6
9
4
3
9
4
2
9
5
3
9
6
7
9
6
6
9
5
4
9
6
5
8
5.4 4.9 8.7
0.84 1.79 0.67
6
7
6
6
5
8
5
4
7
6
6
3
6
8
7
5
6
9
6
7
9
6
9
7
5
5
4
6
7
9
5.7 6.4 6.9
0.48 1.51 2.08
5
3
5
4
4
5
5
2
9
2
3
9
3
1
9
3
1
9
5
4
9
6
3
9
2
1
9
5
5
9
4 2.7 8.2
1.41 1.42 1.69

Gno
(correct)Gno(correct)/
Gno

J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J

Gno

2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3

G /23

E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E

Vno
(correct)/
Vno

4
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
6
7

Vno
(correct)

E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E

Vno

Subtitle

2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3

V /9

Level

3
4
12
25
55
33
16
18
24
30
MEAN
STDEV
6
35
36
19
26
8
14
44
49
43
MEAN
STDEV
1
10
48
53
57
58
9
17
22
23
MEAN
STDEV

C /6

No.

Note: Participants belonging to the APJ level are listed as ‘level 7’

16
23
16
9
9
10
21
21
12
23
16
5.75
26
22
19
26
27
23
24
32
24
27
25
3.50
14
17
9
9
8
10
17
12
7
15
11.8
3.74

57
5
4 J
6
7
4
3
34
4 J
6
9
4
4
2
5 J
5
6
7
4
20
5 J
6
7
8
6
38
6 J
6
8
5
4
51
6 J
6
6
4
2
60
6 J
4
7
6
5
21
7 J
6
6
6
3
31
7 J
6
6
7
4
32
7 J
5
8
5
4
MEAN
5.6
7 5.6
3.9
STDEV
0.7 1.05 1.43 1.10
37
2 N
6
5
8
4
45
2 N
4
4
9
4
52
2 N
3
4
9
4
54
2 N
6
5
9
5
56
2 N
5
5
9
5
59
2 N
5
7
8
6
11
2 N
5
4
9
4
15
3 N
3
3
9
3
27
3 N
4
2
9
2
28
3 N
5
4
9
4
MEAN
4.6 4.3 8.8
4.1
STDEV
1.07 1.34 0.42 1.10
29
4 N
4
5
8
4
47
4 N
5
8
5
4
13
5 N
4
5
7
4
46
6 N
5
8
9
8
7
7 N
4
6
6
3
39
7 N
6
6
7
5
40
7 N
6
4
9
4
41
7 N
6
9
4
4
42
7 N
6
7
4
3
50
7 N
5
8
1
0
MEAN
5.1 6.66
3.9
STDEV
0.88 1.65 2.54 1.97
Standard deviation of all English subtitle scoresStandard deviation of all Japanese subtitle scoresStandard deviation of all no subtitle scores

0.750018
1.000016
0.5714170.7500160.8000210.500021
0.8333170.500018
0.5714200.8000200.7076 18.4
0.1651 1.96
0.5000100.44441
0.4444
40.5556
4
0.555620.750090.444450.3333
50.222250.44448
0.46945.3
0.1401 2.91
0.5000130.800021
0.571415
0.8889200.500016
0.7143100.444413
1.0000190.750018
0.000018
0.6169 16.3
0.2831 3.53
6.541366
10.30278
8.422401

4
5
2
7
0
5
10
4
9
1
4.7
3.27
8
14
15
13
15
15
14
14
9
15
13.2
2.57
6
3
4
4
8
4
8
1
1
0
3.9
2.81

2
2
1
3
0
3
6
2
6
1
2.6
2.01
2
0
3
0
2
5
1
2
3
5
2.3
1.77
1
2
0
3
5
0
2
0
0
0
1.3
1.70

0.50000.40000.50000.42860.60000.60000.50000.66671.00000.57720.18000.25000.00000.20000.00000.13330.33330.07140.14290.33330.33330.17980.1316
0.1667
0.66670.00000.75000.62500.00000.25000.00000.00000.27310.3194

31
31
28
29
35
33
28
30
32
33
31
2.31
21
9
11
15
12
21
14
11
11
17
14.2
4.26
22
34
24
33
26
22
23
34
31
31
28
5.08