NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITYSCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

Investigation of Classifiers in Singapore Sign Language through Narratives:
A Pilot Study

Student Name:
Lim Jia Ying, Jody (U1230617D)
Supervisor:
Assoc Prof Francis Charles Bond
Date of Submission:
7th March 2016

A Final Year Project submitted to
the School of Humanities and Social Sciences,
Nanyang Technological University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of Bachelor of Arts
in Linguistics & Multilingual Studies
2016

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Declaration of AuthorshipI declare that this assignment is my own original work, unless otherwise
referenced, as defined by the NTU policy on plagiarism. I have read the NTU
Honour Code and Pledge.
No part of this Final Year Project has been or is being concurrently submitted
for any other qualification at any other university.
I certify that the data collected for this project is authentic. I fully understandthat falsification of data will result in the failure of the project and/or failureof the course.

Name: Lim Jia Ying, Jody

Signature:Date: 7th Mar 2016

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Additional information
1. My FYP is an extension of my URECA project.

Yes / NoIf yes, give details and state how is this project different from your URECA project:

2. My FYP is a part of or an extension of my supervisor’s project.

Yes / Noif yes, answer question 5.
3. My FYP is partially supported by my supervisor’s grant.

Yes / No

4. Provide details of funding expenditure, (e.g. payment of participants: $10/hour; funded bysupervisor’s grant…)
N.A.

5. You are reminded that an FYP is an independent project on an area of your own interests.
Any kind of outsourcing (including, but not limited to, transcription, statistical analysis, etc.)
would have a huge negative impact on your grade. If your project is a part of or an extensionofyour supervisor’s project, please state clearly i) what are your own intellectual

contributions, and ii) what components of your supervisor’s project have been borrowed foryour FYP (e.g. software tools, audio/visual materials, etc.). If you have any doubts, pleasecheck with your supervisor and/or the FYP coordinator before submission.
*Note that failure to declare may be treated as a case of plagiarism and it will impact
negatively on the assessment of your FYP.
N.A.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Assoc Prof Francis Bond forhis kind guidance throughout this project. Thank you for all your patience, encouragement
and invaluable advice along the way. It has been a great joy working with you, anddefinitely a rewarding experience to have embarked on this project under your supervision.
I would also like to express my warmest thanks to Asst Prof Frantisek Kratochvil and Maryfor providing many insights with regards to Singapore Sign Language. Their suggestions
have been both eye-opening and inspirational.
A big thank you also goes out to Ms Low Jarn May, who gave me the inspiration for thisproject. Thank you for igniting my interest, now turned passion, for Singapore Sign
Language, and for always believing in me. Thank you and Ms Jessica Mak too, for agreeing
and taking time off your busy schedules to be deaf facilitators during my recording sessions.
I would also like to express my heartfelt gratitude towards all friends who have very
generously tried to get me into contact with suitable candidates for my data collection,
especially Bernadette for lending me a great helping hand in bridging connections with theDeaf community.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my close friends and family members for cheering
me on tirelessly throughout this journey, as well as all participants who kindly agreed topartake in my study and in return contribute to the Singapore Sign Language Corpus. Thankyou, Mr Alfred Yeo, Mr Aloysius Lee, Mr Dave Chua, Ms Grace Ng, Mr James Ong, Mr
Ken Neo, Ms Lai Li Sha, Mr Lim Chin Heng, Mr Neo Hock Sik, Mr Neo Tick Tiong, Mr
Peter Im, Ms Shirley Chew, Ms Wendy Neo and Ms Yew Hau En for all your precious input.

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ABSTRACT
Several sign language corpora such as the British Sign Language corpus have been set up
over the years, providing a platform for extensive research to be done on classifiers. Yet little
is known about the Singaporean variety as the Singapore Sign Language (SgSL) Corpus
Project only kick-started recently. Focusing on video recordings of 12 SgSL users fromvaried sociolinguistic backgrounds, this study describes in detail the usage of prototypicalclassifiers in SgSL in terms of handshape-orientation combinations and structural patterns ofoccurrences. In addition, it explains why variance in classifier handshapes and morphemic
functions occur. Entity classifiers were the most commonly produced classifier type, andtogether with Instrumental classifiers, the handshapes of the most commonly used classifiersin these two categories were found to be similar to those used in American Sign Language
and Hong Kong Sign Language. Handling and Shape and Size Specifier classifiers were also
found to be multi-morphemic and grammaticized in SgSL, suggesting that the mostcommonly used classifiers from each classifier type are highly lexicalized in SgSL, allowing
them to remain stable and highly productive. This pilot study on classifiers thus serves toprovide an avenue for future research, while highlighting issues of variation in SgSL.

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TABLE OF CONTENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………………..
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………….
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………….
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES………………………………………………………
1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….
2 LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………………..
2.1 Classifiers……………………………………………………………………….
2.1.1 Classifiers in the spoken language……………………………………..
2.1.2 Definition of classifiers in sign language………………………………
2.1.3 Classifier types in American Sign Language…………………………..
2.2 The Singapore context…………………………………………………………..
2.2.1 Background of Singapore Sign Language and its current status……….
2.2.2 The need to document SgSL……………………………………………
2.3 Use of narratives to elicit gestures and signs……………………………………
2.4 Research issues………………………………………………………………….
3 METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………………………
3.1 Profiles of people involved in the study………………………………………...
3.1.1 Participants……………………………………………………………..
3.1.2 Researcher and deaf facilitators………………………………………...
3.2 Procedure………………………………………………………………………..
3.2.1 Acquiring consent………………………………………………………
3.2.2 The main study…………………………………………………………
3.2.3 Setup of study…………………………………………………………..
3.3 Data coding……………………………………………………………………...
3.3.1 Annotation with tiers…………………………………………………...
3.3.2 Glossing of signs……………………………………………………….
3.3.3 Meta data……………………………………………………………….
4 DATA ANALYSIS……………………………………………………………………...
4.1 Overview of classifier usage in SgSL…………………………………………...
4.1.1 Variations of handshapes and orientations……………………………..
4.1.2 Distribution of classifier types in SgSL………………………………...
4.2 Common and prototypical classifiers…………………………………………...
4.2.1 Entity classifiers (ECLs)………………………………………………..
4.2.2 Instrumental classifiers (ICLs)…………………………………………
4.2.3 Shape and size specifier classifiers (SASSCLs)………………………..
4.2.4 Handling classifiers (HCLs)……………………………………………
5 CONCLUSIONS………………………………………………………………………...
5.1 Limitations………………………………………………………………………
5.2 Future research………………………………………………………………….
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………….
APPENDIX A: Data tabulation for each video clip……………………………………….
APPENDIX B: Interview questions for Meta data………………………………………...
APPENDIX C: Sample of ELAN annotation……………………………………………...
APPENDIX D: ASL and SEE2 handshapes……………………………………………….
APPENDIX E: Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY)………………………..

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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 1. Profiles of participants…………………………………………………………...
Table 2. Orientation guidelines for classifier glossing…………………………………....
Table 3. Combinations of handshapes and orientations produced for all classifiers……...
Table 4. Distribution of top 12 most commonly used ECLs across all 3 video clips……..
Table 5. Distribution of ICLs across all 3 video clips………………………………….....
Table 6. Distribution of top 6 most commonly used SASSCLs across all 3 video clips.....
Table 7. Distribution of top 8 most commonly used HCLs across all 3 video clips………
Figure 1. Participant C describes Sylvester (an entity) swinging across a building with
CL(Y-LATERAL):ANIMAL-MOVES in Clip 6…………………………………………
Figure 2. Participant E describes how an antenna (an instrument) is being used toelectrocute someone with CL(X-VERT):ANTENNA in Clip 6………………………….
Figure 3. Participant C describes the shape and size of a wire with CL(9-VERT):LONGTHIN-OBJECT in Clip 6……………………………………………….............................
Figure 4. Participant C using CL(S-LATERAL) to re-enact the way Sylvester held on toa rope when he swung across the building………………………………………………..
Figure 5. Aerial view of recording setup (picture not drawn to scale)…………………….
Figure 6. Starting position of the tag for ‘WATCH’………………………………………
Figure 7. Ending position of the tag for ‘WATCH’……………………………………….
Figure 8. Front and angled views of Participant E describing the arrival of a tram………
Figure 9. Front and angled views of Participant F describing the arrival of a tram……….
Figure 10. Distribution of classifier types according to video clips……………………....
Figure 11. Total distribution of classifier types…………………………………………...
Figure 12. Sylvester getting ready to swing from one building to another…………….....
Figure 13. Sylvester crossing from one building to another via the tram lines……………
Figure 14. Sylvester holds up a cup for Granny to drop a coin in………………………...
Figure 15. Sylvester lifts up the table cloth and other materials in search of Tweety….....
Figure 16. Participant K uses an ICL to represent an umbrella…………………………...
Figure 17. Participant B uses a gesture to represent Sylvester being hit……………….....
Figure 18. Variants of CL(2-DOWN) retrieved from Clip 6……………………………...
Figure 19. Different orientations of CL(2-DOWN) retrieved from Clip 6………………..
Figure 20. Prototypical usage of CL(2-DOWN) by Participant G in Clip 4………………
Figure 21. Variants of CL(Y-LATERAL) retrieved from Clip 6…………………………
Figure 22. Different orientations of CL(Y-LATERAL) retrieved from Clip 6…………...
Figure 23. Prototypical usage of CL(Y-LATERAL) by Participant E in Clip 1……….....
Figure 24. Variants of CL(1-VERT) retrieved from Clip 6…………………………….....
Figure 25. Different orientations of CL(1-VERT) retrieved from Clip 6…………………
Figure 26. Prototypical usage of CL(1-VERT) by Participant J in Clip 4………………...
Figure 27. Variants of CL(9-HORI) and CL(9-VERT) retrieved from Clips 4 and 6….....
Figure 28. Different orientations of CL(9-HORI/VERT) retrieved from Clips 4 and 6.....
Figure 29. Prototypical usage of CL(9-VERT) by Participant C in Clip 6…………….....
Figure 30. Variants of CL(S-LATERAL) retrieved from Clip 6……………………….....
Figure 31. Different orientations of CL(9-HORI/VERT) retrieved from Clips 4 and 6.....
Figure 32. Prototypical usage of CL(S-LATERAL) by Participant E in Clip 4…………..

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1 INTRODUCTION
How does one address a lexical item which has verb-like properties but seems to represent awhole set of entities and provide descriptions on the features of that particular group all at
once? ‘Depicting signs’, ‘polycomponential signs’, ‘polymorphemic signs’ – these are justsome of the names used by researchers investigating the grammatical construction ofclassifiers in sign languages (Cormier, 2014). Despite being a well-researched topic, there arestill many issues about the nature of classifiers that remain unsettled. For example, while
Supalla (1982) emphasizes that individual classifiers are made up of several morphemes,
Liddell argues that there are some features in classifiers that have too limited productivity toregard them as morphemes (Liddell, 2003, p.216). Furthermore, although an extensive
amount of effort has been spent on categorizing classifiers into different classifier types, thedefinition of these categories still vary among researchers, making it hard to determine thelinguistic context in which each classifier type occurs.
The term ‘classifier’ was coined by Frishberg (1975) when he attributed the double index
handshapes () used for the word ‘meet’ in American Sign Language (ASL) to“classifiers for human beings” (pp. 715). Although Frishberg claims that “many of theseclassifiers are productive and analyzable” (1975, pp. 715), there is a need to investigate theuse of classifiers in languages beyond ASL, as different classification systems do exist acrosssign languages, be it in handshape, classifier type, or the environment in which these tokens
occur. One such language is the native variety used in Singapore, Singapore Sign Language(henceforth SgSL). It is unique in that its linguistic makeup is greatly influenced by a variety
of sign language systems, but at the same time, this diversity in influences also causes theissue of variance in the signs produced. While its American counterpart has been wellresearched on, the grammatical constructions in SgSL have been barely investigated on,much less on the usage of classifiers. Hence, this research project is a pilot study aiming todiscover more about classifiers used in SgSL, and to shed new light on the types of classifiers
available in the local variety, as well as their functions.

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2 LITERATURE REVIEWThis section reviews previous research with reference to studies on classifiers, the Singapore
context, and the use of narratives in corpus studies.

2.1 Classifiers
2.1.1 Classifiers in the spoken language
Early studies on sign language classifiers were very much influenced by studies on spoken
language classifiers, and it has been established is research that the latter consists of different
classifier systems (Zwitserlood, 2012, p.175). The closest system to the one used in sign
languages would be the verbal classification system, where verbal classifiers are boundmorphemes affixed to verbs and associated with verb arguments (Zwitserlood, 2012, p.176).
Classifiers in sign language exhibit similar properties in that they behave like affixes (Supalla,
1982, p.24), and are linked to referents. Another similarity lies in variability where spoken
languages allow a noun to be categorized under more than one classifier, and sign languages
allow an entity to be categorized under various classifiers as well (Zwitserlood, 2012, p.178).
However, there are differences too, whereby classifiers in spoken languages can occur on
nouns and determiners on top of verbs, but classifiers in sign language are restricted to acting
on the verbs only (Zwitserlood, 2012, p.178). In addition, the hand configurations in sign
language allow all entities to be classified, whereas not all nouns are classified in spoken
languages (Zwitserlood, 2012, p.179).
2.1.2 Definition of classifiers in sign language
Applied in various sign languages, manual features make up four out of the five sign
parameters with handshape, orientation, movement, and place of articulation; the fifthparameter belongs to non-manual features such as facial expressions (Johnston & Schembri,
2007a, p.117). Like phonemes in spoken languages, the parameters are the smallest
formational units in sign, and hence are combined to form a single meaningful unit in somesigns (Johnston & Schembri, 2007, p.118). However, researchers suggest that they can also
be individually meaningful in certain signs, such as in classifiers where each parameter
performs a different function (Johnston & Schembri, 2007a, p.118). According to Brentari(2010, p.287), classifiers found in sign languages are multi-morphemically constructed with averbal root (actualized by the movement of the sign) and affixes involving other manualfeatures such as handshape, orientation and place of articulation. This means that in sign
language classifiers, the whole handshape and other different manual features associated with10

the handshape all carry meaning and contain different types of information pertaining to aparticular class of referents (Brentari, 2010). For example, by changing the 1-handshape andupright orientation in CL(1-UPRIGHT):PERSON-MOVES-TOWARDS to a b-handshapeand vertical orientation, we get a different classifier CL(B-VERT):VEHICLE-PASSES-BY
representing a different entity of different shape and size and a different path of movement,
indicating that the two parameters, handshape and orientation, carry different meanings ontheir own (Johnston & Schembri, 2007a, p.117). Thus in cases where classifier signs
resemble lexical or verbal signs, they can be differentiated based on the functions of theirparameters; the latter usually requires the parameters to be combined into one meaningful
unit, rather than have meaningful units assigned to each parameter (Johnston & Schembri,
2007a, p.118). Since classifiers do not make use of non-manual features, for the purpose ofdata analysis in this study, classifiers would be examined based on manual features, andidentified as signs that:(i)contain two or more parameters with different meanings/functions AND(ii)

represent a class of referents (e.g. people, vehicles, instruments), AND(iii)- describe the shape and size of a referent, OR- demonstrate how the referent moves or how it is handled, AND/OR- convey how the referent relates to other referents

Classifiers also have other properties such as being arbitrary and language-specific, such thatthe same referent can be represented by different handshapes in different sign languages, andeven if the same handshape is used across different sign languages, it could represent
different entities and mean different things (Brentari, 2010, p.252). While signs made by two
hands usually contribute to the making of one lexical sign, classifier signs allow thehandshapes made by both hands to represent two different entities (Brentari, 2010, p.269).
Unlike non-classifier signs which tend to become symmetrical over time when made with
two hands, classifier signs do not become symmetrical if one handshape contains meaning
independent of the other (Frishberg, 1975). Furthermore, variations in handshape andorientation can also help to distinguish primary and secondary roles between the two different
classifier handshapes (Brentari, 2010, p.271).
2.1.3 Classifier types in American Sign Language
Since American Sign Language is one of the most documented sign language systems to date,
this paper will refer to classification terms adapted from ASL. Also, in line with the

11definition given above, the classifier types further explained below would be accompanied by
movement types such as location, path, manner of motion, and tracing of size and shape ofobject. To signify location of objects, a stamping movement is used for each classifier(Leeson & Saeed, 2012, p.91). Path movement tends to show the general movement of an
object from one location to another (for e.g. a classifier moving from right to left), whereasmanner movement specifies the movement of the object (for e.g. the speed of movement of aclassifier). Lastly, the tracing of an object is usually an iconic description of the object, i.e.
the outline of its size and shape (Leeson & Saeed, 2012, p.91).
(i) Entity classifiers (ECLs)

Starting position

Ending position

Figure 1: Participant C describes Sylvester (an entity) swinging across a building with
CL(Y-LATERAL):ANIMAL-MOVES in Clip 6
Handshapes under this category represent an entity as a whole, and can be iconic or abstract
in nature (Brentari, 2010, p.298). ECLs have a variety of finger combinations, contributing toboth marked handshapes (such as(such asrepresenting an airplane) and unmarked handshapes

representing a person). The combination of fingers selected to form thehandshape do not represent the shape and size of a specific referent (Brentari, 2010, p.298),
that is, a change in one finger would change the meaning of the handshape and represent a
different object altogether. ECLs are usually used together with movements that represent
location in space, orientation, path and manner (Liddell & Johnson, 1987).

12(ii) Instrumental classifiers (ICLs)
Classifiers under this category also represent whole objects, but are more iconic as comparedto ECLs and more representative of physical attributes portrayed by the tools described(Brentari, 2010, p.298). This means that fingers selected to form handshapes can be altered torepresent changes in size and shape of the object; for example,
thin brush, while

can be used to represent a

can be used to represent a thicker brush (Brentari, 2010, p.298). ICLs

are mostly used together with path and manner movements, as well as orientation movements.

Starting position

Ending position

Figure 2: Participant E describes how an antenna (an instrument) is being used toelectrocute someone with CL(X-VERT):ANTENNA in Clip 6(iii) Shape and size specifier classifiers (SASSCLs)
Unlike the previous two categories, SASSCLs do not represent whole entities; instead, theyoutline the shape and size of referents, and are thus used together with tracing movements(Liddell & Johnson, 1987). As such, they can be used to represent the perimeter, depth andwidth, and surface of an object. The types of handshapes used in this category are more
restricted as compared to those in ECLs and ICLs.

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Starting position

Ending position

Figure 3: Participant C describes the shape and size of a wire with CL(9-VERT):LONGTHIN-OBJECT in Clip 6(iv) Handling classifiers (HCLs)
While the previous three categories describe or represent an entity, HCLs are used instead todescribe the shape of the hand manipulating the object (Brentari, 2010, p.300). Here, changes
in fingers selected to form handshapes would thus indicate a difference in size of objects
being handled (Brentari, 2010, p.301). Handshapes used in this category are also moregestural in nature as compared to the other three categories (Slobin, Hoiting, Kuntze, Lindert,
Weinberg, Pyers, Anothony, Biederman & Thumann, 2003) as they often mimic the way
objects are handled, such as using

to pick up an apple. Hence, HCLs are often used

together with manner and path movements.

Starting position

Ending position

Figure 4: Participant C using CL(S-LATERAL) to re-enact the way Sylvester held on to arope when he swung across the building

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2.2 The Singapore context
2.2.1 Background of Singapore Sign Language and its current status
Unlike ASL which boasts a long history of documentation, SgSL is still in its early stages of
documentation as the SgSL Corpus Building Project only kick-started recently. Following
Ang, Low, Mak, Kratochvil and Wang’s study (2015), SgSL stems from Shanghai Sign
Language (SSL) which was first introduced by Mr Peng Tsu Ying in 1952, following which
the development of SgSL during the 1950s resembled that of Hong Kong Sign Language (Sze,Lo, Lo & Chu, 2013). It was only in 1977 that SgSL started to be influenced by other sign
language systems; the enactment of the Bilingual Education of policy in Singapore required
all children to be taught English and this caused deaf educators to turn towards ASL andthereby adopt Signed Exact English (SEE2) as the language of instruction (Ang et al., 2015).
With the implementation of the latter, SSL was phased out of the curriculum, giving rise to a
lingua franca, now known as SgSL, reflecting elements from SSL, ASL, manually coded
English, as well as unique Singaporean lexical innovations coined over the years (Ang et al.,2015). Due to this multilingual influence, current research shows that many concepts can be
expressed by two or more synonymous signs, with ASL-derived signs being more widelyused by the younger generation, and SSL-derived signs still being used by the older Chineseeducated generation (Ang et al., 2015). With this variation in linguistic repertoire acrossgenerations of signers in Singapore, the linguistic makeup of SgSL remains a much debated
topic within the local Deaf community, thus emphasizing the need to officially build a corpus
for SgSL in order to understand the language more. While the SgSL Corpus Building Projectis currently underway, there is still a lot more work to be done in terms of data collection andanalysis of grammatical constructions.
2.2.2 The need to document SgSLAs of 2007, only 3,000 deaf SgSL users in Singapore were reported (Lewis, Simons &Fennig, 2016), even though there may be as many as 360,000 people in Singapore withhearing loss (Low, 2005). This indicates that the language status of SgSL is not very stable inthe community, especially with the increasing number of deaf youths below the age of 19
entering mainstream schools in recent years (The Singapore Association for the Deaf, 2015).
Although positive attitudes towards SgSL have been reported (The Singapore Association for
the Deaf, 2016), the language is still in its developing stage, and there is a lack of consensus
on what SgSL really is, as discussed in the section earlier. Given that language use in deaf
communities is heterogeneous in that native signers may not even agree on conventionally15

used signs (Johnston & Schembri, 2007b, p.146), there is a pressing need to document thelanguage and create a corpus so that an extensive variety of signs can be collated andanalyzed. Building a corpus not only enables researchers to verify and decipher grammatical
patterns and discourse structures of the local variety (Johnston & Schembri, 2007b, p.148), it
also helps SgSL to be recognized as the native sign language of Singapore, and the deaf
community in Singapore to be further recognized as a linguistic minority. Investigative
studies focusing on the structure of SgSL would thus contribute to the corpus in terms of datacollection and analysis, enabling language teaching materials on SgSL and deaf educators’
training materials to be developed.

2.3 Use of narratives to elicit gestures and signs
In order to elicit specific grammatical constructions from languages, some corpus projects
have used a variety of elicitation tasks, such as video stimuli comprising of animation movie
clips (Orfanidou, Woll & Morgan, 2015). With the intention to bring forth representations of
motions together with a subset of referent types, such video stimuli was found to be very
effective and useful in eliciting classifiers in sign languages (Orfanidou et al., 2015). It wasnoted that sign language studies widely employed narratives as elicitation methods, one ofwhich was the use of an episode called “Canary Row” from the Warner Brothers’ Tweety and
Sylvester cartoon series (Orfanidou et al., 2015). This methodology originated from gesturestudies (McNeill, 1992) and has since been used for sign language research. Other than video
stimuli, written stimuli has also been used to elicit narratives, such as “The Hare and the
Tortoise”, an Aesop fable used in the Auslan corpus project (Orfanidou et al., 2015). Whilethe current SgSL Corpus Building Project has dabbled with written stimuli, video stimuli
would be used for this study instead, in consideration of participants who might be illiterate.

2.4 Research issues
Given that Singapore Sign Language (SgSL) is greatly influenced by Shanghai Sign
Language, American Sign Language (ASL), Signed Exact English (SEE2), and locallydeveloped signs, this study aims to find out if like its American counterpart, SgSL uses
classifiers too through elicitation of such signs via video stimuli. If so, it would be interesting
to find out if there are also any differences in categories and functions in the classifiers used,since SgSL has been recognized by the local deaf community to be a reflection ofSingapore’s diverse linguistic culture. Hence, following the review of the literature above, theresearch issues for this project may be specified as follows:

16(i) To find out if classifiers are used in Singapore Sign Language;(ii) To identify handshape categories of classifiers used in Singapore Sign Language;(iii) To investigate structural patterns of classifier occurrence in Singapore Sign Language.
Although there has been extensive research done on the usage of classifiers in other sign
languages such as ASL and Hong Kong Sign Language, little or no research has been doneon the usage of classifiers in SgSL. Research found pertaining to SgSL focused mainly on thederivation of the language, but little has been done to investigate the structure of the language.
While there has been an effort to build up the SgSL corpus, no present work has been doneon the area of classifiers: this project is a pioneer. Findings on this research study could
therefore contribute to the existing SgSL Corpus Project, and offer insights on thecharacteristics of classifiers used in SgSL.

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3 METHODOLOGYThis section of the paper describes the methodology used to collect and codify data relevantto the field of classifiers, of which were retrieved from signs made by Deaf bilinguals.

3.1 Profiles of people involved in the study
3.1.1 Participants
PARTICIPANT
A
B
C

AGE GROUP
18-30 years old
18-30 years old
18-30 years old

GEND
ER
Male
Male
FemaleDE31-40 years old
31-40 years old

Male
FemaleFG31-40 years old
41-50 years old

FemaleMale

H
I41-50 years old
41-50 years old

Male
FemaleJ

51 years and above

Male

K

51 years and above

Male

L
X13
X2

51 years and above
51 years and above
51 years and above

Male
Male
Female

DEGREE OF
DEAFNESS
Both ears profound2
Both ears profound
Left: moderate
Right: profoundBoth ears profound
Left: mild
Right: severe
Both ears profound
Left: severe to profound
Right: profoundBoth ears profound
Left: severe
Right: profoundBoth ears profound
Left: severe to profound
Right: profoundBoth ears profoundBoth ears profoundBoth ears profound

VARIETIES1 OF SIGNLANGUAGE KNOWN
SgSL, PSE, SEE2, ASL
SgSL, SEE2, ASL
SgSL, PSE, SEE2, ASL
SgSL, SEE2, SSL
SgSL, PSE, SEE2
SgSL, SEE2, SSL
SgSL, PSE, SEE2, ASL
SgSL, PSE, SEE2, ASL
SgSL, PSE, SEE2, ASL,SSL
SgSL, PSE, SEE2, ASL,SSL
SgSL, PSE, SEE2, SSL
SgSL, ASL, SSL
SgSL, SSL
SgSL

Table 1: Profiles of participants
In order to capture the widest range of signs available in the Singapore Deaf community atpresent, the participants recruited for this study included Deaf people from various age
groups, genders, signing communities, and family backgrounds. All participants wererecruited through personal contacts and the help of the Singapore Association for the Deaf
(SADeaf); recruitment was done via word of mouth to ensure that participants’ profiles
matched the criteria of this study – deaf and uses SgSL. A total of 14 participants were1

SgSL: Singapore Sign Language; PSE: Pidgin Signed English; SEE2: Signed Exact English; ASL: American
Sign Language; SSL: Shanghai Sign Language
2
Severity of degree of deafness: mild < moderate < severe < profound (The Singapore Association for the Deaf,
2016)
3
Both participants X1 and X2 were not included in the data analysis (discussed in Section 4)

18

recruited, all of whom are bimodal bilinguals. This means that they are proficient in sign
language, and can understand instructions in a written language as well. The categorization ofparticipants is shown in Table 1.
3.1.2 Researcher and deaf facilitators
In order to partake in a study that involves judgment on sign language, one must first be
acquainted with some sign language knowledge. The researcher has attended classes on SEE2
(up to Beginners’ Level 3) and SgSL, undergone basic training for sign language interpreting,and has a 1.5 year experience of tutoring a profound deaf student via sign language. She isable to communicate effectively with members of the Deaf community, and has deaf friends
whom she uses sign language with. Therefore, her knowledge on sign language is proficientenough to make credible judgments on SgSL for the purpose of this study.
To ensure that information was transmitted as accurately as possible to the deaf participants,
the researcher sought help from 2 deaf facilitators during the conduction of the experiment.
One has linguistic training and is a native SgSL user, while the other is a native Malaysian
Sign Language user, bilingual in SgSL.

3.2 Procedure
3.2.1 Acquiring consent
As the data collected from this study would eventually be shared online for the purpose of
research, the signers filmed in this study will be identified and their input may be looked atby responsible individuals from relevant research fields. Therefore, permission was asked
from participants to release the data under a Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY)
prior to filming, as only those who agreed will be filmed. The license allows the datacollected to be shared and adapted for any purpose, as long as it is given proper attribution4(Creative Commons Corporation, 2014). Deaf facilitators were asked to explain in sign
language to participants who were unsure of any technical terms in the license, so that they
fully understood how the data would be used.
3.2.2 The main study
The participants were shown 7 separate video clips from The Canary Row, an episode of the
cartoon Tweety Bird and Sylvester. Each clip narrates a different scenario of Sylvester
attempting to capture Tweety bird, of which lasts between 24 and 66 seconds. 1 clip was used
4

The full license can be found in Appendix E

19for a pre-test5 to ensure that participants understood what was required from the task, while
the other 6 clips were used in the actual study. The cartoon episode was broken down into
several parts so that the participant could retrieve as much information as possible from
his/her memory. This ensured a detailed visual description as participants were required tonarrate what they saw in SgSL after viewing each clip.
Participants were given instructions to narrate the scenarios according to what they saw indetail to the moderator of the session, and that the description process would be videotaped asdata for building the corpus. There was no mention of the experiment being related to theusage of classifiers to avoid priming, but the process was filmed for this purpose. A
confederate (the moderator) was used in this situation to encourage the participant to reenact
the scenarios more accurately in a storytelling manner, which could possibly illicit moreclassifier signs subconsciously.
The Canary Row was chosen because this particular episode has been commonly used instudies to illicit co-speech gestures, such as in Mcneill’s (1992). Also, it has been shown inother studies that the use of stimuli, in this case the video clips, ascertained the presence ofclassifiers in collected data (Pfau, Steinbach & Woll, 2012, p.180), with classifiers occurring
at a higher rate in narratives than in casual speech (Morford & Macfarlane, 2003), hence a
stimuli was used in this study. Given that this stimulus has already been used in many studies,
this would also thus be convenient and useful for cross-linguistic comparison.
Lastly, an interview 6 was conducted to understand more about the participants’ linguistic
history and social background. Information attained from the interviews will be contributed
to the Meta data of the corpus.

5
6

The clip taken for the pre-test was not analyzed in this study
The interview questions can be found in Appendix B

20

3.2.3 Setup of study

Figure 5: Aerial view of recording setup (picture not drawn to scale)
The video recordings were done in a well-lit enclosed room measuring at least 5m by 5m,with ceiling height of at least 3m, in order to capture the full signing window of participants.
The recording location was at SADeaf, a place familiar to the participants so that they would
be comfortable enough to produce natural signing. During a recording session, the participant
was seated on a chair in front of a green-colored backdrop. Three HD cameras were set up:
one provided a frontal view of the participant, while the other two captured the participant’s
signing from the sides at an angle. All three cameras were mounted on tripod stands, andelicitation material shown to the participant was presented on a projector screen in front of
the participant and behind the frontal camera so as not to interfere with the view of the frontal
camera. The moderator was seated next to the frontal camera so that the participant was
facing towards the front when narrating the stories.

3.3 Data coding
3.3.1 Annotation with tiers
Only the front recordings were used for coding; the other angles were used as references
when signs were not clear from the front. The frontal recordings were tagged and glossed
using the software ELAN (version 4.9.1), which allows annotations to be done on multiple

21tiers and be precisely time-aligned with corresponding video sources (MPI/LAT TechnicalGroup, 2009). Following the conventions used for the Auslan corpus which is also built basedon a digital video archive, the basic level of annotation was adopted, involving translation ofvideo data into written English, segmentation and tokenization of individual sign units, andthereafter glossing of these units (Johnston, 2013, p.12). This method of documentation waschosen as it serves to “append linguistically relevant information to units of language”(Johnston, 2010, p.112).
The first tier is the free translation tier, labeled as ‘FreeTransl’ in the annotations. This tierconsists of ‘chunks’ of coherent units of translated text time-aligned to simple or complex
clauses that appear in the video data (Johnston, 2013, p.12). The second and third tiers are
glossing tiers for each hand, labeled as ‘RH-IDgloss’ and ‘LH-IDgloss’ respectively. It isnecessary to separate the tiers for each hand as signers can articulate different signs on eachhand at the same time, or sustain the handshape on one hand for a longer period of time thanthe other. Here, ID glossing refers to the assignment of a unique identifying gloss to each sign
type, so that tokens under the same type can be uniquely and consistently identified (Johnston,
2013, p.13). The last tier serves the purpose of this study by identifying the types ofclassifiers produced in a video clip. It is labeled as ‘ClassifierType’. A typical annotation fora clause would thus look something like this (retrieved from Participant C, Clip 1):
FreeTransl

The cat sees something with its binoculars.

RH-IDgloss

CAT BINOCULARS CL(2-HORI):ANIMAL-SEES-SOMETHING

LH-IDgloss

CAT BINOCULARS CL(2-HORI):ANIMAL-SEES-SOMETHINGClassifierType

ENTITY

3.3.2 Glossing of signs
Each tag in a tier begins when the hand leaves its position from rest or when the handshape
begins to change from the previous sign, and ends when the hand returns to rest position orright before it changes to the next handshape. Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the start and end of a
tag accordingly.

22

Figure 6: Starting position of the tag for ‘WATCH’

Figure 7: Ending position of the tag for ‘WATCH’
Following sign language glossing conventions, the tags for manual features were tagged inuppercase English text, and signs that required more than one word to represent its meaning
accurately were separated by hyphenation (Johnston, 2013, p.16), e.g. ‘FLAP-WINGS’. For
classifier

signs,

theformat

of

the

gloss

would

be

‘CL(HANDSHAPE-

ORIENTATION):DETAILS’, for e.g. ‘CL(Y-LATERAL):ANIMAL-MOVES’. For the
purpose of this study, the handshapes used would follow the manual alphabet used in ASL

23and SEE2, while the orientations were split into 5 separate types according to the following
guidelines:
ORIENTATION
Horizontal
Vertical
LateralUp
Down

EXAMPLE GLOSS
1-HORI
1-VERT
1LATERA
L
1-UP
1-DOWNMEANING
Sign brought down, palm parallel to the floor
Sign in original upright position
Sign brought down and twisted towards the side

Palm of sign faces upwards towards the ceiling
Sign brought down by 180 degrees

Table 2: Orientation guidelines for classifier glossing
3.3.3 Meta data
Sociolinguistic information retrieved from interview responses were translated into text andtabulated in an excel file. This information would be added into the Meta data and linked to
the video data of the corpus after this project for observation of signing trends produced
across sign communities in Singapore.

24

4 DATA ANALYSIS
In this section of the study, the results of participants from all 4 age groups are reported andanalyzed. It gives an overview of the trends of classifier usage in SgSL, discusses in detail theusage of most commonly produced classifiers, and explains why variance in classifiers occurs.
Although a total of 14 participants were recorded, only 12 participants and their signs
produced were taken into account; 1 participant failed to comprehend the task entirely andsummarized the narrative instead of explaining it in detail, hence compromising the signs
produced, while another participant used Shanghai Sign Language to narrate instead of SgSL
which is the focus of this study. It was also noticed that participants tended to replicate thetype of classifiers used over time, hence not all data recorded were analyzed. The following
analysis is thus based on three video clips (1, 4 and 6) which were chosen according to thecontent of the narratives – points taken into consideration included the amount and type ofinteraction among characters, and whether the scenes elicited more actions. Overall, 4 hours,
32 minutes and 42 seconds of video data was recorded with 3 cameras, spread over 14
participants. These videos are Open Data under the Creative Commons Attribution License(CC BY), and will be used to start the SgSL Corpus.

4.1 Overview of classifier usage in SgSL
4.1.1 Variations of handshapes and orientations
In the 2191 seconds (36 min 31s) of video data analyzed, a total of 1104 classifiers were
produced, comprising 65 different combinations from 26 handshapes and 5 orientations (seeTable 3). While this list is not exhaustive, the number of combinations available forclassifiers in the local deaf community already gives us a hint on how this lexical set is not
yet standardized amongst SgSL users. As such, it is common to find variations of handshapeorientation combinations for the same concept in SgSL, and such variations are allowed anddeemed acceptable by SgSL users, as long as the signs have semantic relevance with respect
to other signs produced.

25
HANDSHAPESHORIZONTALALPHABETS

ORIENTATIONVERTICAL LATERAL

A



B





C





SMALLCG

NUMBERS






I



L



O





FLATO





S





T





U

















X



Y













1



2



BENT2








3




4



5









CLOSED5









CLAW5

















BENT5
9

DOWN



F

CLOSEDG

UP






Table 3: Combinations of handshapes and orientations produced for all classifiers

26

Based on Table 3, the probability of a handshape having alternative orientations in the
representation of a single classifier is high, as 18 out of 26 handshapes had more than 1
possible handshape-orientation combination. The inconsistency in handshape-orientation
combinations suggests that most classifiers used in SgSL are non-lexicalized, requiringcontextual support for the explanation of such signs, since there are so many alternative
representations for the same concept. One such variation occurred for the category of vehicle,
where participants used different handshapes and orientations. The signs below were takenfrom Clip 6, where participants were describing the arrival of a tram.

Figure 8: Front and angled views of Participant E describing the arrival of a tram
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss

FS:TRAM
CL(CLOSED5-HORI):VEHICLE-MOVES

Figure 9: Front and angled views of Participant F describing the arrival of a tram
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss

CL(4-VERT):LONG-VEHICLE TRAIN
CL(4-VERT):LONG-VEHICLE TRAIN

27

While Participant E chose to fingerspell the word ‘tram’ to specify the classifier sign she
introduced after, Participant F produced a lexical sign with a similar concept after using theclassifier sign. It is noted that both participants clarified the meanings of the classifiers,suggesting that the classifiers in the figures are both non-lexicalized.
One possible reason for the existence of so many possible handshape-orientation
combinations is that the occurrences of non-lexicalized signs are sparser and lessreproducible across participants as compared to lexicalized signs. This entails that nonlexicalized signs are produced based on individual preferences that are not likely to be knownby others, whereas lexicalized signs are more commonly used for the same concept acrossparticipants, given that people associate handshapes of such signs with particular categories
of referents. This agrees with Brentari’s (2010, p.260) observation that classifier signs do
become lexicalized items that are stable over time, where one representation cannot be
substituted freely for another, indicating that signers do practice a one-to-one mapping ofclassifier sign to category as certain signs become more conventionalized within a signingcommunity. In contrast, non-lexicalized signs tend to be more iconic7 as they are createdbased on the signer’s visual impression of the object or concept at that point in time. This isso, according to Johnston and Ferrara’s (2012, p.239) argument that non-lexical signs consistof gestural components that are determined by iconic mappings of the elements in the mental
space to the spatial arrangements of the signer’s hands. However, Liddell also argues that therelationship between form and meaning may not always be direct, giving rise to classifier
signs that are not straightforward visual representations of the referents being addressed(Brentari, 2010, p.260), and thus explaining the variations in non-lexicalized classifier signs,
like in Figures 8 and 9. This phenomenon can be seen appearing across all classifier types
used in SgSL, as seen in the next few sections.

7

Iconicity is defined as the similarity of relationship between form and meaning (Ponterotto, 2000, p.747)

28

4.1.2 Distribution of classifier types in SgSL

400
350
300
250

Entity200

SASS
Handling

150

Instrumental
100
50
0
Clip 1

Clip 4

Clip 6

Figure 10: Distribution of classifier types according to video clips
Out of the 4 classifier types, Entity classifiers (ECLs) were the most commonly used acrossall 3 video clips, making up 63.0% of the total number of classifiers produced. This comes as
no surprise since the narratives used revolved around the chasing escapades of the two main
characters, Tweety and Sylvester. The ECLs produced thus mostly represented humanizedanimals and objects that were involved in their chase, such as the setting (e.g. buildings) andtools Sylvester used in order to get to Tweety. However, the high usage of ECLs may not be
attributed solely to the topic of elicitation material, as this pattern is also noticed in ASL
where ECLs have been found to be highly produced amongst other classifier types (Williford,2008). Aronoff, Meir, Padden and Sandler (2003) suggest that the high occurrence of ECLs
could be linked to them behaving more like lexical signs, as they have evolved to include
abstract forms in ASL, therefore covering a wider scope of representations.

29

48, 4.3%
219, 19.8%
EntitySASS
Handling
Instrumental

142, 12.9%

695, 63.0%

Figure 11: Total distribution of classifier types
While Shape and Size Specifier classifiers (SASSCLs) had a relatively low occurrence rate at
12.9%, the frequency of occurrence remained fairly stable across all 3 clips. The highest
number of occurrence appeared in Clip 6, possibly because that particular clip was a
combination of two scenarios, both of which required more descriptive explanations in orderto locate referents in space. Figure 12 depicts the first scenario where participants used
SASSCLs to set up the location of the two buildings and describe the tool (rope) Sylvester
used to travel across the buildings. The climax of the second scenario can be seen in Figure
13 where participants used SASSCLs to describe the tram lines and how Sylvester travelledacross them.

Figure 12: Sylvester getting ready to swing

Figure 13: Sylvester crossing from one

from one building to anotherbuilding to another via the tram lines

30

In general, the SASSCLs used had an adjectival quality attached to them, and were used todescribe characteristics of a referent, such as length and thickness, rather than the referent
itself. This agrees with Schembri’s (2003, p. 21) observation that it is usually the salient
properties of a referent that determines the SASS handshape used to describe it. In addition,
the SASSCLs produced in the data collected were often used in situations where more
description was required to provide a fuller visual representation on top of what otherclassifier types (mainly ECLs) can depict. The lower occurrence of SASSCLs as compared to
ECLs can thus be explained by the fact that they are usually only required when otherclassifier types are unable to paint an adequate description of scenarios.
In comparison to SASSCLs, there was a slightly higher occurrence of Handling classifiers(HCLs) at 19.8%, particularly for Clip 4. This could be due to the extensive number of times
the main character of the narrative deals with an object in its hand (as shown in Figures 14
and 15, leading to an increase in the number of HCLs produced for this particular clip.
Another reason could be that since HCLs differ from other classifiers in that they depict
agents manipulating objects instead of referring to the objects themselves, it is less likely that
other classifier types could be used in place of HCLs.

Figure 14: Sylvester holds up a cup for

Figure 15: Sylvester lifts up the table cloth

Granny to drop a coin in

and other materials in search of Tweety

The least occurring classifier type belonged to the category of Instrumental classifiers (ICLs),
occurring at a low rate of 4.3%. In fact, no ICLs were produced by any participant for Clip 1,
and only 3 were produced for Clip 4. It is interesting to note that the three participants who
produced the ICLs for Clip 4, Participants I, J and K, belonged to the older age groups (41 to
50 years old and 51 years and above). It is however too early to say that age group affects the
distribution of signs produced here. Nevertheless, one possible reason for the low occurrence31

of ICLs is that where ICLs could have been used, participants chose to use HCLs or replace
the situation with appropriate gestures instead. This is particularly prominent in Clip 4, where
Granny uses an umbrella to hit Sylvester on the head. An ICL could have been used torepresent the umbrella, as shown by Participant K in Figure 16, but many participants chose
to use HCLs to depict the way someone holds an umbrella or a gesture to indicate that
Sylvester was hit on the head, as demonstrated by Participant B in Figure 17. This isconsistent with the observation that users of most sign languages are allowed to use morethan one classifier to depict a referent, depending on the aspect or characteristic of thereferent that the user wishes to focus on (Zwitserlood, 2012, p.163). Thus this also suggeststhat when faced with the need to represent instruments in sign, SgSL users would prefer tofocus more on how the tool is handled rather than depict the tool itself.

Figure 16: Participant K uses an ICL to

Figure 17: Participant B uses a gesture to

represent an umbrella

represent Sylvester being hit

RH-IDgloss

CL(1-VERT):HITTINGTOOL

RH-IDgloss

G:GOT-HIT-ON-THEHEAD

4.2 Common and prototypical classifiers
While some classifier signs have been studied earlier on, this section of the study focuses on
one to two more commonly used classifiers from each classifier type, shedding light on how
prototypical classifiers and their variants are used in different contexts.

32

4.2.1 Entity classifiers (ECLs)

HANDSHAPES

18-30 years
old

PARTICIPANTS
31-40 years
41-50 years
oldold

51 years old
and above

A

D

I

J

K

L

2

1

5

5

14

9

14

B

C

F

G

H

1

A-LATERAL
B-LATERAL

E

2

C-HORI

1
2

1

3

2
1

T
O
T
A
L

1

1

5

3

4

36

6

5

10

7

8

5

15

107

8

4

4

4

8

6

43

3

5

2

5

13

1

1

40

21

9

3

6

6

8

1

86

26

25

11

7

3

6

14

148

9

66

21

Y-LATERAL

3

8

4

1-HORI

1

3

1

4

1-VERT

1

1

6

2

2-HORI

5

4

8

10

2-DOWN

20

8

5

23

7

1

1

9

7

8

6

7

2

5

4

2

1

1

7

1

2

1

3

1

24

1

1

19

CLOSED5HORI
CLOSED5VERTCLOSED5LATERALCLOSED5-UP

5
4
1

9
2

5

2
1

2
1

1

8

14

Table 4: Distribution of top 12 most commonly used ECLs across all 3 video clips
Out of the total 695 ECLs produced from 43 different handshape-orientation combinations8,
it can be seen in Table 4 that the 2-DOWN handshape-orientation combination is the mostcommonly used ECL at 148 (21.3%), followed by Y-LATERAL occurring at 107 (15.4%).
Both classifier signs were used by most, if not all participants. It is interesting to note thatthese 2 ECLs depict human beings or humanized objects, suggesting that the most established
ECLs in SgSL are those that can relate to human properties. This behaviour can also be foundin most sign languages such as ASL and Auslan where there is a separate classifier form foranimate and legged entities, which include humans and animals (Zwitserlood, 2012, p. 163).
It is also noted that languages tend to create more lexical items for human activities than for
objects (Brentari, 2010, p.260), thus suggesting that it is highly possible that these 2classifiers have been lexicalized in SgSL.
8

Refer to Appendix A for distribution breakdown of all classifier types for individual video clips

33(i) 2-DOWN ()

General meaning: a two-legged entity standing in an upright position
Basic gloss: CL(2-DOWN):HUMAN-DETAILS or CL(2-DOWN):ANIMAL-DETAILS
Handshape: 2-handshape with fingertips pointing downwards; the index and middle fingers
are usually straight with the rest of the fingers kept, but slight limpness in the fingers andslight featuring of other fingers are also accepted.

Participant A

Participant C

Participant D

Participant F

Participant G

Figure 18: Variants of CL(2-DOWN) retrieved from Clip 6
Orientation: The area where the knuckle is protruding is thought to be the front of the referent,
and the fingers function as the legs. While the referent is usually upright, occasions where itis slightly tilted due to limit stretch of the wrist as portrayed by Participant C in Figure 18 canbe accepted. The sign can face any direction and be placed in any location in space, even on
top of another sign. To indicate a referent falling, participants sometimes change theorientation of the sign to portray the referent in a lying position (end position), as shown by
Participant D in Figure 19.

Participant C

Participant D

Participant G

Figure 19: Different orientations of CL(2-DOWN) retrieved from Clip 6

34

Movement:a) To indicate a referent’s location in space, this classifier sign can be held stationary inspace or used with a stamping movement.
b) To indicate a referent moving from one location in space to another, this classifier canbe used together with a path movement and/or a manner movement (for e.g. wrigglingof fingers to depict walking). It was also noticed that some participants bounced thesign across space to signify the referent moving, regardless of manner of movement,
possibly because it was more economic to do so. This has also been noticed in othersign languages, such as Danish Sign Language, where the bouncing movement is used
in a linear path (Brentari, 2010, p.261).
Environment: There were variations in the environment in which the classifier occurred
across all participants, depending on the context of the situation being described.
a) When the referent is first being introduced (Participant G, Clip 4):
FreeTransl

The cat had its arms akimbo as it paced up and down the street.

RH-IDgloss

PT:PRO CAT G:ARMS-AKIMBO
CL(2-DOWN):ANIMAL-PACES-UP-AND-DOWN

LH-IDgloss

G:ARMS-AKIMBOb) When the referent is alone (Participant F, Clip 6):
FreeTransl

The cat walked on the tram line.

RH-IDgloss

CL(9-VERT):LONG-THIN-OBJECT CL(2-DOWN):ANIMAL-WALKS

LH-IDgloss

CL(9-VERT):LONG-THIN-OBJECT
CL(CLOSED5-HORI):FLAT-HORIZONTAL-SURFACEc) When the referent is described with other entities (Participant G, Clip 4):
FreeTransl

The monkey walked towards the cat.

RH-IDgloss

CAT CL(2-DOWN):ANIMAL-WALKS MONKEY
CL(2-DOWN):ANIMAL-WALKS

LH-IDgloss

CL(1-DOWN):ANIMAL-LOCATION

From the above examples, it can be seen that CL(2-DOWN) is usually produced after thereferent has been made known, except when there are no other referents around where theclassifier can be used on its own to depict the referent, the action it is portraying and its
location in space. This suggests that the sign has been lexicalized in SgSL as it is clear to the35users what the sign represents even without referring to it prior to its usage, like in example b
above.
Prototype:Figure 20: Prototypical usage of CL(2-DOWN) by Participant G in Clip 4
FreeTransl

The cat walked.

LH-IDgloss

PT:PRO CAT CL(2-DOWN):ANIMAL-WALKS

Similar to most sign languages, the 2-DOWN classifier in SgSL is used to portray legged
entities, including animals (Zwitserlood, 2012, p.163). While there is a variant BENT2-HORI() that is usually used for animals (Zwitserlood, 2012, p.163), it is not that prominent in

SgSL, or at least in the data collected despite the characters being animals. In the rareoccasion that it is used, it depicts a referent sitting on another object instead.

(ii) Y-LATERAL ()

General meaning: an upright entity standing in position
Basic gloss:

CL(Y-LATERAL):HUMAN-DETAILSor

CL(Y-LATERAL):ANIMAL-DETAILS
Handshape: Y-handshape with thumb pointing upwards and pinky pointing downwards; thethumb and pinky are usually straight with the rest of the fingers kept, but slight limpness inthe fingers and slight featuring of other fingers are also accepted.

36Participant B

Participant E

Participant H

Participant I

Figure 21: Variants of CL(Y-LATERAL) retrieved from Clip 6
Orientation: The back of the thumb (behind the nail) is thought to be the front of the referent,with the thumb representing the head and the pinky representing the legs. While the referent
is usually upright, with the palm facing towards the signer’s body, occasions where it is tilted
outwards to signal change in direction as portrayed by Participant B in Figure 21 can be
accepted. Similar to CL(2-DOWN), the sign can face any direction and be placed in any
location in space. It can be placed on top or below another sign, but this is usually less seen.
To indicate a referent falling, participants sometimes change the orientation of the sign toportray the referent in a lying position (end position), as shown by Participant H in Figure 22.

Participant E

Participant H

Participant L

Figure 22: Different orientations of CL(Y-LATERAL) retrieved from Clip 6
Movement:a) To indicate a referent’s location in space, this classifier sign can be held stationary inspace or used with a stamping movement.
b) To indicate a referent moving from one location in space to another, this classifier canbe used together with a path movement. Unlike CL(2-DOWN), it is less likely to bepaired with manner movements. In the rare occasion that it does, manner is portrayedby wriggling of the thumb up and down to portray the referent doing a vertical climb,
and by shaking the entire sign from side to side to portray a dizzy or shocked referent.
Possibly due to the immobility of the pinky, it was noticed that participants sometimes

37

tended to switch from CL(Y-LATERAL) to CL(2-DOWN) when they wanted toportray movement of the legs. This pattern however, was not consistent, as the twosigns were mostly seen used interchangeably (more explained below).
Environment: There were variations in the environment in which the classifier occurred
across all participants, depending on the purpose of usage.
a) To portray the referent travelling across space (Participant B, Clip 6):
FreeTransl

The cat swung across using a rope, but hit the wall instead.

RH-IDgloss

CL(9-LATERAL):SOMETHING-THIN
CL(S-LATERAL):HOLDING-SOMETHING-THIN
CL(Y-LATERAL):ANIMAL-MOVES-AND-HITS-WALL

LH-IDgloss

CL(9-LATERAL):SOMETHING-THIN
CL(S-LATERAL):HOLDING-SOMETHING-THIN
CL(5-VERT):FLAT-VERTICAL-SURFACEb) When CL(2-DOWN) is preferred (Participant L, Clip 6):
FreeTransl

The cat stood on the tram line and walked across it.

RH-IDgloss

CL(Y-LATERAL):ANIMAL-LOCATION CL(2-DOWN):ANIMAL-LOCATION
CL(CLOSEDG-VERT):LONG-THIN-OBJECT CL(2-DOWN):ANIMAL-WALKS

LH-IDgloss

CL(1-HORI):-THIN-OBJECT CL(CLOSEDG-VERT):LONG-THIN-OBJECT
CL(1-HORI):-THIN-OBJECTc) When the referent is described with other entities (Participant B, Clip 6):
FreeTransl

The tram chased after the cat.

RH-IDgloss

CL(BENT5-LATERAL):VEHICLE-MOVES FS:TRAM CAT
CL(CLOSED5-LATERAL):TRAM-MOVES

LH-IDgloss

CL(Y-LATERAL):ANIMAL-MOVES PT:DET
CL(Y-LATERAL):ANIMAL-MOVESFrom the above examples, it can be seen that when used with other classifier signs, the user
tends to clarify the entity that CL(Y-LATERAL) was used on, which is similar to the usageof CL(2-DOWN). The classifier can also be used on its own to depict the referent, the action
it is portraying and its location in space. Example b shows how CL(2-DOWN) is preferred
when movement of the legs have to be shown, and the switch is made without the need toclarify who the second classifier is referring to. This suggests that both ECLs can be usedinterchangeably in SgSL, and is an interesting phenomenon as it is unlike that of Danish Sign
Language which has three types of classifiers representing human referents, each describing

38

different aspects of movements and strictly cannot be substituted by another (EngbergPederson, 1993).
Prototype:Figure 23: Prototypical usage of CL(Y-LATERAL) by Participant E in Clip 1
FreeTransl

But the cat got hit and flew across.

RH-IDgloss

BUT CAT CL(Y-LATERAL):ANIMAL-FLIES

LH-IDgloss

BUT G:HIT

Originating from SSL, the CL(Y-LATERAL) sign is typically used as a person classifier(Brentari, 2010, p.253). It was used for animals in this case, possibly because the charactersin the story seemed humanized. Nevertheless, it is interesting how this classifier is still being
used despite the phasing out of SSL in the 1970s and the increasing influence of ASL on
SgSL. Referring to Table 4, half of the participants actually used as many Y-LATERAL
ECLs as 2-DOWN ECLs. The co-existence of two classifiers with similar functions possibly
suggests that the grammatical components in SgSL are taking a longer time to change ascompared to lexical items. This is in line with Cabrera’s (1998, p.224) argument that while
languages increase their lexicon pool, they do not necessarily lose their morphology andsyntax.

39

4.2.2 Instrumental classifiers (ICLs)

HANDSHAPES

18-30 years
old

PARTICIPANTS
31-40 years
41-50 years
oldold

51 years old
and above

A

D

J

B

C

E

F

G

H

I

K

1

G-VERT

1
1

O-VERT
1

X-VERT
1-VERT

L

2

T
O
T
A
L

4

4

9

1

3

2

4

14

3

2

3

23

1-UP

1

1

BENT2-UP

8

8

Table 5: Distribution of ICLs across all 3 video clips
A total of 48 ICLs were produced from 6 handshape-orientation combinations. The 1-VERT
combination was the most commonly used, accounting for 47.9% of total ICLs produced. It isclosely followed by the X-VERT combination, which stands at 29.2%. CL(1-VERT) was usedby half of the participants, and used across two video clips9, as compared to CL(X-VERT)which was used exclusively in Clip 6 to describe an antenna. One possible reason for the
exclusive use of CL(X-VERT) in Clip 6 is that the handshape is highly iconic in the way it
imitates the shape of the antenna on top of a tram, but cannot be easily reproduced elsewhere to
represent something else. In contrast, CL(1-VERT) is more generic in its handshape, and canbe used in different classifier types such as Entity classifiers and Shape and Size Specifierclassifiers to represent a number of different entities. High usage of CL(1-VERT) is also seenin Dutch Sign Language where it represents thin and long entities (Zwitserlood, 2012, p.169),
very much like how it is used in SgSL as well, as explained below.

9

Refer to Appendix A for breakdown of classifiers used per individual clip

40(iii) 1-VERT ()

General meaning: a thin and long entity used as an instrument or tool
Basic gloss: CL(1-VERT):INSTRUMENT-DETAILS
Handshape: 1-handshape with index finger pointing upwards; the index is usually straightwith the rest of the fingers kept, but loosely kept fingers are also accepted.

Participant D

Participant G

Participant I

Participant K

Figure 24: Variants of CL(1-VERT) retrieved from Clip 6
Orientation: Where the palm is facing is thought to be the front of the referent, with the index
representing the main body of the referent. The referent is usually upright, depending on how
it is used. If the object being described does not have a front face, for e.g. a cylindrical object,then it does not matter which direction the handshape faces, as seen in the examples below.
Its location in space is determined by how it is used, and since a tool is usually required tointeract with another entity to show how it is being used, it can also be placed on top or below
another sign.

Participant D

Participant I

Participant K

Figure 25: Different orientations of CL(1-VERT) retrieved from Clip 6

41

Movement:a) To indicate a referent’s location in space, this classifier sign can be held stationary inspace or used with a stamping movement.
b) To indicate a referent moving from one location in space to another, this classifier canbe used together with path and manner movements. Unlike Entity classifiers (ECLs),
ICLs are usually paired more with manner movements, as the focus should be on how
they are used. Possible manner movements include striking (CL(1-VERT) was being
used to represent an umbrella in Clip 4), and bouncing/poking (it was later used in
Clip 6 as an antenna).
Environment: Variations occurred according to context and what the classifier sign
represented.
a) When the instrument was part of another entity (Participant G, Clip 6):
FreeTransl

The tram had an antenna on top of it and if the cat touched theantenna, it would get an electric shock.

RH-IDgloss

CL(CLAW5-VERT):VEHICLE CL(1-VERT):ANTENNA IF
CL(2-DOWN)ANIMAL-STANDS CL(1-VERT):ANTENNA
CL(2-DOWN):ANIMAL-STANDS HAVE ELECTRIC

LH-IDgloss

CL(CLOSED5-HORI):FLAT-HORIZONTAL-PLANE HAVE ELECTRICb) To show how an instrument contacts a referent (Participant K, Clip 4):
FreeTransl

The cat got hit on the head and felt dizzy.

RH-IDgloss

CL(A-LATERAL):HOLDING-HITTING-TOOL CL(1-VERT):HITTING-TOOL
CL(1-VERT):ANIMAL-DIZZYFrom the above examples, it can be seen that the order in which the classifier occurs is quiteconsistent, i.e. it appears after an indication of who is wielding the tool, and before thereferent who will receive the impact of the tool. In other words, the ICL has the task of
indicating how the tool is being used by an agent on a recipient, suggesting that ICLs used in
SgSL are iconic in their portrayal of movement. The environment in which they occur in alsosuggests that ICLs rely on the description of agent-classifier and classifier-recipient
relationships, be it location or the way it is handled, to establish and make sense of the tool it
is trying to portray. This is in line with Zwitserlood’s (2012, p.169) observation that what sets
ICLs aside from ECLs is that they do not move independently as they are subject to42manipulation, and their appearance in a grammatical construct entails a purpose, meaning
they do not simply exist in a space.
Prototype:Figure 26: Prototypical usage of CL(1-VERT) by Participant J in Clip 4
FreeTransl

The cat got hit on the head and felt dizzy.

RH-IDgloss

CL(A-LATERAL)HOLDING-HITTING-TOOL CL(1-VERT):HITTING-TOOL
CL(Y-LATERAL):ANIMAL-DIZZYAs discussed earlier, a prototypical ICL is established based on the relationship it has with both
its agent and recipient, often showing the effect it has on the latter. Given that the entities that
CL(1-VERT) represents can differ greatly in appearance (antenna versus umbrella), one
possible reason could be that this particular handshape has been lexicalized by the local deaf
community to mean anything that fits the description ‘long and thin’, and that lexicalized items
need not be entirely iconic in shape. Another possible reason could be that signers usually use amore restricted set of classifiers in actual sign production than what exists in that language,
causing other non-prototypical signs to be less productive (Craig, 1986; Schick, 1990).

43

4.2.3 Shape and size specifier classifiers (SASSCLs)

HANDSHAPES

18-30 years
old

PARTICIPANTS
31-40 years
41-50 years
oldold

51 years old
and above

AJ

S-LATERAL
1-HORI
1-VERT
CLOSED5LATERAL

B

C

D

E

F

G

1

2

1

1

2

7

2

3

1

14
2

9-HORI
9-VERT

5

1

I

2

4

2

1

1

3

4

K

L

1
4

1
4

H

15
3
1

2

T
O
T
A
L

1

14

1

9

1

24

1

7
1

2

13

Table 6: Distribution of top 6 most commonly used SASSCLs across all 3 video clips

142 SASSCLs were produced from 35 different handshape-orientation combinations, most ofwhich had sparse distributions. The most commonly used combination was CL(CLOSED5LATERAL) which accounted for 16.9% of total SASSCLs produced. However, it is notedthat out of the 24 classifier occurrences, 14 of them were produced by the same participant,indicating an unequal distribution of usage across all participants for this combination. If thisanomaly were to be removed, the occurrence of this classifier is actually not that high. In
contrast, the 1-handshape and the 9-handshape are seen to have more productive distribution
across participants, accounting for 16.2% and 14.1% respectively. Here, it should be notedthat for SASSCLs, since they mostly describe the outline of a referent, the orientation of theclassifiers are less meaningful as compared to the handshapes. Rather, it is the movement of
the classifiers (e.g. tracing an outline) that would be more important in understanding theattributes of a referent. In fact, Schembri, Jones and Burnham (2005, p.272) have noted that
Auslan users do have a restricted categorical set of handshapes for SASSCLs, reinforcing theidea that SASSCLs are recognized first and foremost by their handshape, regardless of othermorphemic components. As the 1-handshape has already been discussed earlier on, thissection will focus on the 9-handshape instead.

44(iv) 9-HORI ()/9-VERT ()

General meaning: a long and thing object, or a small round/cylindrical object
Basic gloss: CL(9-HORI):DETAILS-OBJECT or CL(9-VERT):DETAILS-OBJECT
Handshape: 9-handshape with the thumb and index touching each other and last three fingers
extended; the thumb and index can create a pointy edge or a circle, and the extended fingers
are usually straight, but slight limpness or curling in the fingers are also accepted. The pointy
edge is usually used for describing thin objects, while the circle is used to describe round or
cylindrical objects. This suggests that different parts of one handshape can be used todescribe different characteristics of an object for SASSCLs in SgSL. According to Supalla(1978), one reason could be because each part of the hand functions as a separate morpheme
to classify different geometric properties of a referent.

Participant C

Participant F

Participant G

Participant L

Figure 27: Variants of CL(9-HORI) and CL(9-VERT) retrieved from Clips 4 and 6
Orientation: As mentioned earlier, the orientation of the handshape is not as important in
SASSCLs so the sign can face any direction, of which would largely depend on location andfeatures of the referent described. Both hands usually replicate the same handshape and areused simultaneously when outlining the shape of the referent. There are three ways in which
the tip created by the index and thumb can be oriented: 1) the tips from both hands face eachother; 2) the tips both face the same direction; and 3) the tips face opposite direction with thecircles created by the tips overlapping each (usually applies to round descriptions). The
morphemic function can be said to be internalized by users of SgSL as it is portrayed byParticipant G in his usage of the same handshape to describe different properties of different
referents (a pipe in Clip 4 and a wire in Clip 6, shown in Figure 28).

45

Participant F (Clip 6)

Participant J (Clip 4)

Participant J (Clip 6)

Figure 28: Different orientations of CL(9-HORI/VERT) retrieved from Clips 4 and 6
Movement:a) To describe a referent’s shape, the classifier is used with a tracing movement tooutline its perimeters. It starts with both hands in one place and then one hand would
move away from the other, or both would move away from each other in opposite
directions. This behaviour is also seen in other sign languages where the movement oftracing SASSCLs are highly restricted to hands moving away from each other;
movement in the other direction would instead portray the coming together of 2
entities (Craig, 1986, p.189).
b) The size of the referent being described would be determined by the extent throughwhich the handshapes move through space via a path movement.
Environment: There is not much variation in the environment in which the SASSCL occurs,
regardless of the entity it is describing.
a) To portray a long and thin object (Participant F, Clip 6):
FreeTransl

The cat walked on the tram line.

RH-IDgloss

CL(9-VERT):LONG-THIN-OBJECT CL(2-DOWN):ANIMAL-WALKS
CL(9-VERT):LONG-THIN-OBJECT CL(2-DOWN):ANIMAL-WALKS

LH-IDgloss

CL(9-VERT):LONG-THIN-OBJECT
CL(CLOSED5-HORI):FLAT-HORIZONTAL-SURFACE
CL(9-VERT):LONG-THIN-OBJECTb) To portray a cylindrical object/object with round openings (Participant G, Clip 4):
FreeTransl

The cat walked over and climbed up the pipe.

RH-IDgloss

CL(2-DOWN):ANIMAL-WALKS CL(9-HORI):LONG-CYLINDRICAL-OBJECT
G:CLIMBING

46

LH-IDgloss

CL (9-HORI):LONG-CYLINDRICAL-OBJECT G:CLIMBING

From the above examples, it can be seen that the grammatical usage of the SASSCL is fairly
consistent. In fact, it does not require other specifications, and functions like a subject in the
SgSL word order of Subject-Object-Verb. The classifier thus can be used on its own to depict
the referent, on top of providing the properties of the referent. Earlier on, it was suggested
that SASSCLs were used only when Entity classifiers (ECLs) could not provide enoughvisual-geometric information of the referent. Based on the environment it occurs in, thepattern seems to suggest that in cases where ECLs do not suffice in SgSL, SASSCLs would
be used in replacement instead. This behaviour is very much like how adjectives, on top ofmodifying nouns, can sometimes also be used as nouns in spoken languages, for e.g. the rich,the intelligent etc. (Gromisch, 2013).
Prototype:Figure 29: Prototypical usage of CL(9-VERT) by Participant C in Clip 6
FreeTransl

The cat walked on the tram line.

RH-IDgloss

CL(9-VERT):LONG-THIN-OBJECT CL(2-DOWN):ANIMAL-WALKS

LH-IDgloss

CL(9-VERT):LONG-THIN-OBJECTAs seen from above, tracing SASSCLs, such as CL(9-HORI/VERT), allow property
descriptions of referents to be more multi-dimensional as they are not restricted byorientation. It is to be noted that for SASSCLs, the purpose is not for the handshape to be
iconic to the referent, but for the properties of the referent to be highlighted when thehandshape is used together with a movement, such as tracing. The multi-morphemic design
and grammaticalization of the CL(9-HORI/VERT) in SgSL suggests that it seems to obey

47

features of well-formedness that are noticed in lexical signs, thus enabling it to be a stable
sign in the community. The reason for such behaviour can be found in Kendon’s (1998)
explanation that sign languages undergo the process of not only creating a visual
representation that is symbolic to a particular concept, but also the process of transforming
these representations into expressions recognized and shared by the local community (p.162163).
4.2.4 Handling classifiers (HCLs)

HANDSHAPES

18-30 years
old

PARTICIPANTS
31-40 years
41-50 years
oldold

51 years old
and above

A

C

D

1

3

3

1

B

A-HORI2

A-LATERAL
CLOSEDGHORI
S-HORI

1

S-LATERAL

5

2

T-HORI

1

1

3

3
3

2

CLAW5-HORI
9-HORI

E

3

4

G

H

I

J

K

L

3

2

1

1

4

1

3

19

3

1

2

2

5

3

25

2

5

3

2

6

21

2

2

2

3

6

8

2

1

2

2
1

F

T
O
T
A
L

4
3

1

2

1

2

5

1

1

41

3

4

1

1

14

1

3

2

3

4

13

1

17

2

13

Table 7: Distribution of top 8 most commonly used HCLs across all 3 video clips

Out of the 219 HCLs produced from a total of 24 handshape-orientation combinations, SLATERAL was the most common combination accounting for 18.7% of all HCLs produced.
HCLs contained the second least number of combinations out of all 4 classifier types, ofwhich consisted of 10 handshapes matched with different orientations. The relatively small
number of handshapes produced could be attributed to the limited number of ways one canhold an object. This thus suggests that HCLs are more iconic as they tend to directly portraythe actual action of how an object is held. Perniss, Pfau and Steinbach (2008, p.10) also agree
that HCLs are less arbitrary as compared to ECLs, thus having fewer variations in possible
handshapes.

48(v) S-LATERAL ()

General meaning: holding in the hand(s) a long and thin object that is vertically upright
Basic gloss: CL(S-LATERAL):HOLDING-DETAILS-OBJECT
Handshape: S-handshape with all fingers clenched into a tight fist; when in clenched position,
the thumb usually does not go past the first joint of the fingers (right after the nails) as it
would be considered as an O-handshape () instead. Also, tucking in of the thumb below

the fingernails would make it look like an E-handshape (would allude to the A-handshape (Participant B

Participant C), while sticking out of the thumb).

Participant E

Participant F

Participant I

Figure 30: Variants of CL(S-LATERAL) retrieved from Clip 6

Orientation: The direction in which the palm is facing should be towards the side. In certain
cases, the wrist can be snapped so that it faces inwards, towards the body of the signer, as
produced by Participant A in Figure 31. The sign can be pulled close to the body, or awayfrom the body with the entire arm outstretched. It can also be replicated on the other hand,depending on the entity described. For this particular orientation, if the participant is holding
on to one entity, the second hand with the same sign would normally be vertically in line withthe first; having two CL(S-LATERAL)s side by side or in different locations in space would
imply that both hands are either holding onto separate entities or different parts of the same
entity.

49

Participant A (Clip 4)

Participant B (Clip 6)

Participant D (Clip 4)

Figure 31: Different orientations of CL(9-HORI/VERT) retrieved from Clips 4 and 6
Movement:a) To indicate how an object is being handled by an entity or the signer himself, thehandshape is usually accompanied by a manner movement. There are also instanceswhere both hands feature the handling property, but only the dominant hand isaccompanied by the manner movement while the weak hand stays stationary to markthe location of the object in space.
b) To indicate how an object is transported across space, a path movement is used
together with the handshape. Both path and manner can be used in combination withthe handshape, suggesting that each movement type can be thought of as morphemic
components of the sign. This behaviour is also seen in spoken languages such as
Spanish, where some of its manner of motion verbs can project both process and path,like in volar ‘fly’ and corer ‘run’ (Fabregras, 2007, p.185-186).
Environment: The environments seem to differ according to how the manner movements ofthe classifiers were portrayed.
a) When both hands are used but portray different manner (Participant I, Clip 6):
FreeTransl

As the bird drove the tram, the cat received an electric shock every time itcame into contact with the tram’s antenna.

RH-IDgloss

CL(S-LATERAL):ROTATING-THIN-OBJECT CL(1-VERT)):ANTENNAG:SHOCK ELECTRIC

LH-IDgloss

CL(S-LATERAL):HOLDING-THIN-OBJECT
CL(Y-LATERAL):ANIMAL-JUMPS G:SHOCK ELECTRICb) When both hands are used in the same manner (Participant C, Clip 6):

50

FreeTransl

The cat wanted to use a rope to swing over and catch the bird.

RH-IDgloss

ROPE CL(S-LATERAL):HOLDING-THIN-OBJECT WANT
CL(Y-LATERAL):ANIMAL-MOVES CATCH BIRD

LH-IDgloss

ROPE CL(S-LATERAL):HOLDING-THIN-OBJECT WANT CATCH

It is noticed that when one HCL is stationary in space while the other HCL projects manner,participants tended not to introduce the object handled. This seems to imply that thestationary hand functions like an ECL in that it can stand alone to represent a referent without
the need for specifications. In contrast, when two hands functioning as HCLs are used in thesame manner, the object being handled requires specification prior to the occurrence of the
HCL. One possible reason could be that HCLs, like SASSCLs, have a limited number ofhandshape-orientation combinations, causing them to generically represent a class of objects
instead of particular types of subjects (Craig, 1986, p.189). While CL(S-LATERAL) is quite
productive among SgSL users, it is also used to refer to many items that fall into the same
category of ‘thin and upright’. Thus special reference to the object being handled has to bemade first to specify what exactly it is.
Prototype:Figure 32: Prototypical usage of CL(S-LATERAL) by Participant E in Clip 4
FreeTransl
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss

The cat held out a banana to tempt the monkey.
BANANA CL(S-LATERAL):HOLDING-UPRIGHT-OBJECT MONKEY
BANANA G:PSST MONKEY

It is interesting to note how the HCL itself is quite complex as to how it contains a number ofmorphemic parts, some of which are absent in other classifier types. According to Craig

51(1986, p.196), each morphemic-component of a HCL is able to portray “a different aspect inthe visual-tactile mode”. From the prototypical example itself, we can break down CL(SLATERAL) into several meaningful components: the handshape indicates the thinness of theobject handled, while the orientation indicates that the object handled is upright or in thevertical plane, and lastly, the path and manner movements show how the object is transported
across space.

52

5 CONCLUSIONSThe preliminary examination of a small corpus of Singapore Sign Language (SgSL) has
proven that classifiers are used in SgSL. In addition, the handshapes identified in the mostcommonly used classifiers in SgSL, especially from the Entity and Instrumental classifier
types, are similar to those used in other sign languages such as American Sign Language(ASL) and Hong Kong Sign Language. While there may be slight variations in theenvironment that the classifiers occur, the most commonly used classifiers from eachclassifier type are highly lexicalized in the local variety. In particular, the multi-morphemic
design and grammaticization of Handling and Shape and Size Specifier classifiers indicatethat they obey features of well-formedness which are usually noticed in lexical signs, thus
allowing them to remain stable and highly productive in SgSL. This study also acknowledges
that there are many variants of handshapes produced for the same referent or concept, but
distribution for such variations is usually sparse. This agrees with past studies which foundthat variations do occur on various levels due to the many parameters found in sign languages(Brentari, 1998; Perniss, Pfau & Steinbach, 2008). Overall, this study is the first descriptionof classifiers in SgSL, and has served to provide a platform for further research, while
highlighting issues of variation in SgSL. In addition, on top of researching on classifiers, thisstudy has also contributed a substantial body of useful data for future research.

5.1 Limitations
The 12 participants whose data were analyzed in this study were all regarded as SgSL users
based on self-reporting. However, as discussed in the literature review, the linguistic makeupof SgSL is a much debated topic within the local Deaf community as there is still no official
standardization of the language. This means that the proficiency level of SgSL for eachparticipant cannot be controlled for, and can only be based on their personal judgment.
Nevertheless, all signers displayed ability in using a natural sign variety and had no problems
communicating with the deaf facilitators.
In addition, due to the nature of this project10, only the researcher herself was allowed to tag
and gloss the signs produced, without moderation from another annotator. Despite her
proficiency in sign language, the researcher is not a natural signer, and may have different
perceptions on classification methods as compared to a Deaf. Thus it would have been good
10

Linguistics and Multilingual Studies Final Year Project guidelines do not allow help in data gathering andannotation, although having multiple annotations is the best practice.

53

to have had at least one more annotator going through the same data to prevent researcher’sbiasness. Also, due to the scale of the project, this study is only able to document and analyze
in detail a subset of all classifiers available in SgSL. More research needs to be done on alarger scale to gather information on the extent of classifiers used in SgSL. Nonetheless, thisstudy has provided a good starting point on the analysis of classifier usage in SgSL.

5.2 Future research
Research on SgSL can contribute greatly to the ongoing SgSL Corpus Building Project andmore follow-up work will be done after this project to build up the interface of the corpus andlink up all recorded video data with the Meta data collected. As all signs produced in thisstudy were elicited via a stimulus, more studies need to be conducted across different
linguistic contexts before a definitive description of SgSL classifiers can be come up with.
Furthermore, the current study concentrates on the usage of classifiers in SgSL, focusing
primarily on the types and functions of commonly used classifiers. Further research looking
into the influence of ASL and Shanghai Sign Language on local classifiers would help in
better understanding the current variance occurring in SgSL classifiers. Another area ofinterest is the investigation of factors that influence classifier usage, such as education
background, degree of deafness etc. By identifying what motivates the development ofclassifiers in SgSL, this would be particularly useful in understanding how SgSL is structured
differently from other sign languages, and provide explanation on why certain features are
unique to the local variety.

54

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Frishberg, N. (1975). Arbitrariness and iconicity: Historical change in American Sign
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56

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57

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58

APPENDIX A: Data tabulation for each video clip
Distribution of classifiers for Clip 1
PARTICIPANTS
CLTYPE

HANDSHAPES

18-30 years old

31-40 years old

41-50 years old

51 years old
and above

A

D

G

J

B

C

E

F

H

A-LATERAL
B-LATERAL

I
2

K

L

2

2

2

C-HORI

62

1

1

C-VERT

2

1

1

SMALLCVERT1

1

L-VERT

1

1

O-VERT

1

1

U-HORI

2

Y-VERT

1

Y-LATERAL
ENTI
TY

T
O
T
A
L

1-HORI

1

5

1

4

1

1-VERT

2

3

1

1
1

2

2-HORI

1

2-DOWN

2

1

CLAW5-

2

6

3
1

3

4

1

3

2

9

5
6

2

1

1

2

2

3

1

1

1
1

1

1

1

1
2

4
1

36
8

5-UP

CLOSED5-UP

17

1

3-LATERAL

CLOSED5HORI
CLOSED5VERTCLOSED5LATERAL

1

1

1-DOWN

2

2

7
2

2
1

1

1

6
1

3
1

1

59
HORI
BENT5-VERT

1

B-HORI

1
1

2
1

B-LATERAL

1

C-HORI

1

2
1

2

1

1

4

S-LATERAL

7

7

1

1

1-VERT

1

1-DOWN

1

1
1

CLOSED5LATERAL

2

S-VERT

2

11

1

1

TOTAL

1

2

1

16
2

T-HORI1

CLAW5-UP

1

1
11

4

13

2
1

5-LATERAL

HAND
LING

1

1

SMALLCVERT

1-HORI

31

B-VERT

SASS

1

27

1
14

22

20

11

12

4

11

8

157

60

Distribution of classifiers for Clip 4
PARTICIPANTS
CLTYPE

HANDSHAPES

18-30 years old

31-40 years old

41-50 years old

51 years old
and above

A

D

G

J

K

L

1

2

3

B

C

A-LATERAL

E

F

H

I

1

C-HORI

1

1

2

1

1

5

3

3

C-VERT

1

1

FLATO-UP

1
2

3

1

T-VERT

3

1

13

2

3

5

1-HORI
1-VERT
E
N
T
I
T
Y

1

1-DOWN

1

4

2

2

1

2-HORI

1

2-DOWN

7

1

4

5

1

2

1

1

5

9

3

3

1

10

2

4

1

1

1

12

46

1

3

1

31

3

1

3

2

4

27

10

10

4

4

1

1

52

2

1

4

1

2

1

5-VERT

3

5

1
1

1

2

1

1
2

2

1
1

1
3

2
1

5
1

2

BENT2HORI
BENT2VERT5-HORI

5-UP
CLOSED5HORI
CLOSED5VERTCLOSED5LATERALCLOSED5UP
CLAW5HORI

3

1

Y-VERT
Y-LATERAL

7
18

1

FLATOHORI

T
O
T
A
L

1

1

2

6

1

4

1

1
1

1

3

1

7

10
3

61
CLAW5VERTCLAW5LATERAL

221

CLAW5-UP
BENT5VERTBENT5LATERALBENT5DOWN

1

1
1
1

1

A-LATERAL

1

1
1

CLOSEDGVERT

1

1
1

1

1
1
1

1-HORI
CLOSED5HORI
CLOSED5VERTCLOSED5LATERALCLOSED5UP
CLAW5HORI
CLAW5VERTCLAW5LATERALBENT5LATERAL

2

1

1

1

1

1

7

1

1

1

1

1
2

1
1

2

5
1

1

1

1

2

2

2
1

1

1

1

3
1

A-LATERAL

2

3

C-HORI

2

1

CLOSEDG-

1

1

4

3

1

2

1

1

4

1

3

19

3

1

1

2

5

3

24

2

1

1

3

3
3

1

1

9-HORI
A-HORI

4
1

O-VERT

S
A
S
S

1

1

C-HORI

2

1

1

9-HORIS-LATERAL

1

4

6
2

7

62

H
A
N
D
L
I
N
G

HORI
CLOSEDGVERT

1

O-HORI

1

4

O-VERT

3
1

FLATOHORI
FLATOVERTFLATODOWN
S-HORI

1

2

S-LATERAL

4

1

8
1

2
1

2

1

1

1

1

4

1

2

2

2

1

2
2

1

2

2

1

12
1

1

2

2

2

3

3

1

1

13

1

1

4

2

1
1

3

2

1

1

17

1

1

1

2

1

1
1

1

2

4

1-VERT

21

17

15
2

1

9-HORI

TOTAL

1

2

CLAW5-UP

I
N
S
T
R
U
M
E
N
T
A
L

5

1

T-VERT
BENT2HORI
CLAW5HORI
CLAW5VERTCLAW5LATERAL

3

1

S-DOWN
T-HORI

1

30

37

35

50

55

32

1

1

1

38

40

31

3

43

429

63

Distribution of classifiers for Clip 6
PARTICIPANTS
CLTYPE

HANDSHAPES

18-30 years old

31-40 years old

41-50 years old

51 years old
and above

A

D

G

J

B

C

E

F

H

I

A-LATERAL
B-HORI

1
3
1

C-HORI

1

6
9

1

L-VERT

1

1

2

2

2

O-VERT

3

1

1
1
7

Y-UP
1-HORI

3

1-VERT

3
1

18

2

1

1
4

3

7

1

1

5
2

2

5
3

1

2-HORI

332

32-DOWN

11

4

3

10

3-LATERAL

1

7
16

14

6

1
6

1
3

44

5

2
34

4

1-UP
1-DOWN

8
1

1

1

2
23

1

2

1

3

2

5

14

2
2

5-VERT

1

5-LATERAL

1
1

88
2

4

6

4
1

Y-VERT
Y-LATERAL

121

1

CLOSEDGVERT

CLOSED5HORI

3

2

C-VERT

5-HORI

1

1

B-LATERAL

S-LATERAL

L

1

B-VERT

E
N
T
I
T
Y

K

T
O
T
A
L

2

8

1

2
1

1

8

6

7

6

7

1

4

3

6

56

64
CLOSED5VERTCLOSED5LATERALCLOSED5UP
CLAW5HORI
CLAW5VERTBENT5LATERAL

4

2
4

1

1

4

1

3

1

1

1

16

1

9
1

3

1

1
2

4

1

1

C-HORI

1

C-VERT

1

1

1

SMALLCVERT2

F-LATERAL

2

1

G-VERT

1

1

CLOSEDGHORI
CLOSEDGVERT

1
1

1

1

3

2

A-LATERAL

S
A
S
S

1

1

1

2

1

5

I-VERT

1

1

I-LATERAL

2

2

I-DOWN

1

1

S-LATERAL

1

1-HORI

2

1-VERT

1

1-LATERAL

3

1-DOWN

1

3

3
1

4

3

11
1

1

1

1

8
4
1

4-VERT

1

5-HORI

11

1

5-LATERAL

1

1

CLOSED5VERT

1

1

65
CLOSED5LATERAL

2

9-HORI

1
2

9-VERT

5

9-LATERAL

1

1

3

4

1

1

1
1

1

CLOSEDGHORI
CLOSEDGVERTS-HORI

2

1

1

2

2
2

3

6

2

1

2

1

S-LATERAL

1

2

3

7

2
2

4

7

2

2

6

3

26

1
3

1
2

1

1

2

1

1

1

O-VERT

1

X-VERT
1-VERT

91

G-VERT

1
2

14

1

9-VERT
I
N
S
T
R
U
M
E
N
T
A
L

3

1

S-VERT

9-HORI

1

2

S-UP

13
1

A-LATERAL

H
A
N
D
L
I
N
G

2

1

9-UP

C-HORI

3

4

4

9

1

3

2

4

14

2

1

2

20

1-UP

1

1

BENT2-UP

8

8

TOTAL

39

45

34

47

42

65

56

27

36

37

40

50

518

66

APPENDIX B: Interview questions for Meta data
1. Were you born deaf? If not, at which age did you turn deaf?
2. What is the degree of your hearing loss? Mild/Moderate/Severe/Profound
3. Did you grow up in a deaf family? Other than you, is there any other member in thefamily who is also deaf?
4. Is sign language your first language? If not, when did you pick it up? And how did
you learn sign language?
5. How long have you been using sign language?
6. Which variety(s) of sign language do you use? Singapore Sign Language/Pidgin
Sign/Signed Exact English II/Shanghai Sign Language/American Sign Language
7. What other languages do you know?
8. Please provide us with your name, contact number and email address so that we cancontact you to clarify about the data if need be.

67

APPENDIX C: Sample of ELAN annotation
The following was extracted from an ELAN file (Participant B, Clip 1):
TIME
START
FreeTransl
00:02.3
RH-IDgloss
00:02.3
LH-IDgloss
00:02.3
ClassifierType 00:02.3
RH-IDgloss
00:03.0
LH-IDgloss
00:03.0
ClassifierType 00:03.9
RH-IDgloss
00:04.0
LH-IDgloss
00:04.0
RH-IDgloss
00:04.8
LH-IDgloss
00:05.1
RH-IDgloss
00:05.1
RH-IDgloss
00:05.7
RH-IDgloss
00:06.4
LH-IDgloss
00:06.4
RH-IDgloss
00:07.1
LH-IDgloss
00:07.1
FreeTransl
00:08.1
RH-IDgloss
00:08.2
LH-IDgloss
00:08.5
RH-IDgloss
00:08.5
RH-IDgloss
00:09.4
LH-IDgloss
00:09.8
RH-IDgloss
00:09.9
RH-IDgloss
00:10.4
RH-IDgloss
00:10.6
LH-IDgloss
00:10.6
RH-IDgloss
00:10.7
LH-IDgloss
00:11.6
RH-IDgloss
00:11.7
FreeTransl
00:11.7
RH-IDgloss
00:13.3
LH-IDgloss
00:13.3
RH-IDgloss
00:14.2
LH-IDgloss
00:14.2
RH-IDgloss
00:15.5
FreeTransl
00:15.5
RH-IDgloss
00:16.6
LH-IDgloss
00:17.0
RH-IDgloss
00:17.0
RH-IDgloss
00:17.9
LH-IDgloss
00:18.2
TIER

TIME
END
00:07.900:02.900:03.0
00:03.0
00:03.900:03.900:04.8
00:04.7
00:04.8
00:05.0
00:05.6
00:05.6
00:06.4
00:07.1
00:07.1
00:07.900:07.8
00:11.5
00:08.4
00:09.4
00:09.4
00:09.6
00:10.5
00:10.3
00:10.6
00:10.7
00:10.9
00:11.5
00:13.3
00:13.3
00:15.2
00:14.1
00:14.1
00:15.2
00:15.2
00:16.1
00:20.3
00:17.0
00:18.0
00:17.8
00:18.1
00:18.8

ANNOTATION
There was a building named "Bird Watchers Society".
CL(C-HORI):BUILDING-LOCATION
CL(C-HORI):BUILDING-LOCATIONENTITY
BUILDING
BUILDING
SASS
CL(C-HORI):BUILDING-SIZE
CL(C-HORI):BUILDING-SIZE
PT:LOC
NAME
NAME
BIRD
WATCH
WATCH
SOCIETY
SOCIETY
At the window, there was a bird.. cat using a pair of binoculars.
PT:LOCWINDOW
WINDOW
PT:PROBINOCULARS(FALSE-START)BINOCULARS(FALSE-START)BIRD(FALSE-START)INDECIPHERABLE
INDECIPHERABLE
CAT
BINOCULARSBINOCULARSHe used the binoculars to stare out of the building.
STARE
STARE
BINOCULARSBINOCULARSPT:LOC
There was another building across named "Broken Arms".
ANOTHER
BUILDING
BUILDING
PT:LOC
NAME

68
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
FreeTransl
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
FreeTransl
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss

00:18.2
00:19.0
00:19.1
00:19.5
00:20.4
00:20.4
00:21.4
00:21.4
00:22.5
00:23.1
00:23.5
00:23.9
00:24.8
00:24.900:25.4
00:25.8
00:25.8
00:26.3
00:26.4
00:26.8
00:26.8

00:18.8
00:19.5
00:19.4
00:20.3
00:21.2
00:25.7
00:22.3
00:22.6
00:23.0
00:23.4
00:23.8
00:24.7
00:25.7
00:25.3
00:25.7
00:26.2
00:27.3
00:26.6
00:26.7
00:27.3
00:27.3

FreeTransl

00:27.7

00:31.7

LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
ClassifierType
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
FreeTransl
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
FreeTransl
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss

00:27.7
00:27.7
00:28.2
00:28.2
00:28.2
00:29.2
00:29.3
00:29.6
00:30.0
00:30.900:30.9
00:31.8
00:31.8
00:31.900:32.2
00:32.5
00:33.3
00:33.4
00:34.9
00:34.900:35.7
00:35.7
00:35.7
00:35.900:35.900:28.2
00:28.1
00:29.1
00:29.1
00:29.1
00:29.5
00:29.6
00:30.0
00:30.7
00:31.7
00:31.7
00:35.6
00:32.2
00:32.1
00:32.5
00:33.2
00:34.8
00:34.8
00:35.6
00:35.6
00:35.900:35.9
00:36.6
00:36.3
00:36.3

NAME
BREAK
BREAK
ARM
PT:PROHe took up his binoculars and saw another bird cage.
BINOCULARSBINOCULARSSEEANOTHER
PT:DET
BIRD
CAGE
CAGE
PT:PRO
BIRD
The bird was also using a pair of binoculars.
ALSO
ALSO
BINOCULARSBINOCULARS
It was when they were looking at the same direction then did the bird
realize.
WHEN
WHEN
CL(2-HORI):ANIMAL-SEES-SOMETHING
CL(2-HORI):ANIMAL-SEES-SOMETHING
ENTITY
THEN
THEN
BIRD
REALIZE
BINOCULARSBINOCULARSThen the cat smirked to himself.
THEN
THEN
PT:DETCAT
BINOCULARSBINOCULARS
G:UP-TO-NO-GOOD
G:UP-TO-NO-GOOD
WANT
WANT
He wanted to get out.
OUT
OUT

69
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
FreeTransl
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
FreeTransl
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
ClassifierType
FreeTransl
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
FreeTransl
RH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
FreeTransl
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
RH-IDgloss
LH-IDgloss
FreeTransl

00:36.3
00:36.3
00:36.9
00:36.9
00:37.3
00:37.3
00:38.2
00:39.0
00:39.0
00:39.4
00:39.5
00:40.3
00:42.1
00:42.1
00:42.1
00:42.6
00:43.7
00:43.7
00:44.1
00:44.1
00:44.7
00:44.7
00:44.7
00:46.4
00:46.7
00:46.8
00:47.1
00:48.2
00:48.6
00:48.6
00:48.6
00:49.5
00:49.8
00:50.5
00:50.5
00:50.5
00:50.8
00:50.8
00:50.9

00:36.5
00:36.6
00:40.8
00:37.1
00:38.0
00:38.0
00:38.6
00:39.2
00:39.3
00:40.2
00:40.2
00:40.8
00:44.5
00:42.6
00:42.6
00:43.0
00:44.0
00:44.0
00:44.5
00:44.5
00:46.2
00:46.2
00:48.4
00:46.6
00:47.0
00:47.0
00:48.1
00:48.4
00:49.7
00:49.2
00:50.4
00:49.8
00:50.4
00:50.7
00:50.7
00:50.7
00:51.3
00:51.3
00:51.4

OUT
OUT
He ran over to that building over there.
CL(BENT2-DOWN):ANIMAL-MOVESG:RUNNING
G:RUNNING
PT:LOCTHATTHATBUILDING
BUILDING
PT:LOC
But he got kicked out.
BUT
BUT
PT:PRO
KICK
KICK
OUT
OUT
CL(Y-LATERAL):ANIMAL-FLIESENTITYHe flew across and landed on a rubbish pile.
PT:PROON
ON
RUBBISH
PT:PRO
G:GETS-HIT-ON-HEAD
G:GETS-HIT-ON-HEAD
He gets hit on the head by a can.
PT:DET
FS:CANOh well.
G(5-UP):WELL
G(5-UP):WELL
FINISHFINISHThe end.

70

APPENDIX D: ASL and SEE2 handshapes(Shield & Meier, 2012, p.452)

71

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