North Pacific Marine Science Organization

PICES Press Vol. 22, No. 2

Human dimensions in the Russian Federation – Effectiveness of ecosystemgovernance related to fishingby Ekaterina Kurilova
Main concepts of the fisheries legislation system in the
Russian Federation

Effective ecosystem governance is based on a balance
between ecosystem sustainability, water bioresources
conservation and at the same time economic, cultural, andspiritual satisfaction of the community. To maintain thisbalance requires an integrated understanding of how
ecosystem changes affect human social systems, and how
humans impact ecosystems.

Water bioresources (e.g., harvestable biomass) are regarded
as a basic component of human well-being. Therefore,
fisheries regulation is produced with the recognition thatnatural resources are an essential component and the basisof human activities and at the same time as an object ofprivate ownership. Priority is given to the conservation andrational use of water bioresources. Thus, waterbioresources can be used if human activity (harvest ofliving marine resources) does not damage the environment
and water bioresources status.

Such things as expectations, needs and satisfaction levelfrom ecosystem services of human communities should betaken into consideration. Social status and distance ofcommunities from the ocean are just two of the importantfactors related to ecosystem services values.

The principle and practice of the fisheries regulation systemin the Russian Federation is to invite representatives ofcoastal communities and fisheries associations toparticipate in the decision-making process if the decision
might influence the status of water bioresources. Needs ofthe local and native population in the areas, wheresubsistance fishing is the means of securing the necessities
of life, is taken into consideration. It is a priority to provide
the natives with access to water bioresources fishing.

One of the main difficulties is how to evaluate community
expectations and demands from ecosystem services in large
countries like the Russian Federation where different
communities have various expectations and historicalcultural experiences.
The Russian Far East coast is mostly occupied by small
cities and settlements, with the majority of the populationin these settlements engaged in fisheries. These people andsmall ethnic groups historically consider the ocean and its
products as a source for provision and survival, as fishingis an essential part of people’s daily life. Conversely,
people residing in big cities far from the coast are generally
more concerned, and value more the tendencies in theeconomy, such as the development of the fishing industry,
and coastal recreational and cultural services. People withhigher education level have higher expectations. However,both coastal and inland communities are dependent uponconservation of marine biodiversity and an opportunity toobtain marine ecosystem products.

Fisheries legislation
Fisheries legislation system is rather complicated in the
Russian Federation. Fisheries in the country is mainly
regulated by federal fisheries legislation (laws) describing
the general regulation. All the laws of the RussianFederation that regulate fishing activities in the Russian
EEZ comply with international legislative acts andagreements, in particular, the UN Convention on the Lawof the Sea (December 10, 1982), relating to theconservation and management of straddling (transboundary)fish stocks and highly migratory fish stocks.
All fishery regulation laws are published in the media andavailable to all citizens. The central administrative authority
for fisheries management in the Russian Federation is theFederal Agency for Fisheries. Its main functions are:governmental control and supervision in fields of fisheries
and conservation of marine biological resources in the inland
waters of the Russian Federation (with the exception ofinland marine waters), state supervision of merchantshipping in terms of ensuring the navigation safety of fishingvessels in the fishing areas, public services and managementof the state property in the fields of fisheries, monitoring,sustainable usage, studies, conservation, and reproduction of
aquatic biological resources and their habitats, as well as
aquaculture (fish farming), processing of fish and otherFishermen in Aldoma Bay (photo courtesy of Okhotsk laboratory).

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aquatic biological resources, production operations aboard
the fishing fleet and seaports within the marine terminals forfishing vessels servicing.

factors. Two year forecasts and TAC are applied to themost valuable commercial water bioresources. For undercaught and little used species, so-called Permissible Catchis developed. However, some important fisheries, such as
salmon, do not have a TAC estimate. The reason is that
salmon returns are difficult to predict and often require
adjustment of the catch depending on actual run returns.
Increase or change in a TAC requires a series of formal
procedures which may take up to several months. For
salmon runs, the correction in allowed capture may need tobe approved in a matter of days, before the massive run ofsalmon ends. Thus, it was decided to apply “Permissible
Catch” regulation to salmon fisheries.

On the basis of the Federal laws the subject executive
bodies can issue legal texts on fisheries regulation andwater bioresources conservation. At the regional level
legislative councils may pass their own laws regulating
relations between local authorities and fishing companies.
However, regional laws and their provisions are developedin accordance with the Federal law on fisheries.
Detailed information on fishing gear requirements, fishing
restrictions concerning spawning periods and special
conservation areas are presented in Fishing Regulation
documents issued for each fisheries basin. There are eight
fisheries basins in the Russian Federation whoseboundaries include watersheds located on the land
territories of several regions – republics, oblasts, krais, etc.
(“oblast” and “krai” are analogs of the term “state”),
adjacent territorial and inner marine waters, and EEZ areas.
The Baikal fisheries basin includes freshwater bodies only.
Fishing Regulation documents are elaborated in accordancewith a particular fisheries basin peculiarities, taking into
account the needs of the local populations. This document
is also approved by the Federal Government, but its content
is discussed at the Fishery Research Councils of thesubjects of Russian Federation. Amendments to thisdocument can be proposed by any citizen. They arecollected by the branches of Federal Agency for Fisheries
and discussed by the scientific research organizations andstate authorities. These amendments are approved by thescience councils of the territory institutes and RussianFederal Research Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography.
After the amendments have been approved by theseCouncils, the Federal Government issues the Fishing
Regulation Document. The primary aim of this document isconservation and management of water bioresources.

Information enabling total allowable catch volume
estimation is developed by scientific research organizations,which conduct annual monitoring of water bioresources
status. The evidence is discussed at organized public
meetings with representatives of the community, fisheries
associations and authorities. After being approved, theevidentiary materials are passed to the State Expert
Commission for ecological examination. The Federal
Agency for Fisheries then prepares the order on TAC
followed by the order on quota allocation by different
fisheries types.

Fishery Research Councils (FRC) are established for eachfisheries basin. Their main task is to elaborate therecommendations and proposals on conservation andrational use of the water bioresources. These councils arecomposed of the representatives of federal executive bodies,
executive bodies of the subjects of Russian Federation,scientific research organizations, Fishery Basin Institutions
for the conservation and restoration, and representatives of
non-governmental organizations, including small ethnic
communities of the North, Siberia and the Far East.
Decisions of the Council are advisory. Management of the
FRC facilitates the transparency of decision-making in thefield of fishery regulation, amendments to the fisherylegislation and development of broader discussions.

Engagement of communities into developing total allowable catch (TAC)
levels of water bioresources, which include marine fisheries. (from apresentation by the author in S3 at the FUTURE OSM, April 2014).

Quota allocation
Salmon quotas are allocated among the companies withagreements for fishery plots (for 20 years). The catch
volume (%) of quota allocated to the company in theprevious years and economic indicators (such as taxes) arealso taken into account. The catch share of the quota
depends on the fishery plots. Allocation is made by theregional Commissions on regulation of harvesting theanadromous fish, which are composed of therepresentatives of fisheries enforcement organizations,fisheries associations, research institutes, and territorialadministration officers. Preference is given to companies

TAC determination
Total allowable catch (TAC) volume distribution isestimated in accordance with ecological, social and economic
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PICES Press Vol. 22, No. 2
Fisheriesthat have proved successful in the past, as well as providing
more jobs for local people.

Fishing can be produced only for species whose catch is
not prohibited. All species in general have allowablefishing, except species which are protected (e.g., species in
the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
and Russian Red lists). The list of species for commercial
and coastal fishing is elaborated by the federal executive
body. The same legislative body adopts the list of thevaluable and the most valuable species. Special permission(or license) issued in accordance with Fishing Regulation is
generally needed to harvest fish (with the exception forrecreational fishing by rod but not for all species, plots andperiods). The license contains the list of allowed species
and catch volume for fishing. Red list species, or species
not allowed for catch (e.g., sturgeons), when captured in
bycatch must be released. The following types of fisheries
are distinguished.

Fishery plot allocations used to be provided for a 10 year
period; now they are provided for 20 years. Fishery plots
are allocated by the results of an auction. Applicants pay afee, which remains in the budget of the region. In addition
to considering a company’s financial contribution, priority
depends also on the performance characteristics of thecompany – employment of the local population, fisherycapacity, bid size and development of the quotas allocatedto the company for the past 4 years. If a specific fisheryplot has not been used by a company for two years, or thequota was less than 50 % fulfilled, the government has theright to revoke the contract and put it up for auction.
This system encourages sustainable use of biologicalresources, because the company which has been allocated afishery plot for 20 years is interested in the long-termsustainability of the fishery in this plot, compliance withenvironmental legislation, and developing positive
outcomes of the company in order to continue getting
quotas and fishery plots. However, in this approach toquota allocation, a new user (company) without a work
history has almost no chance of getting commercial quotas.
The system is designed to limit the number of users.

Commercial fisheries
It is a business activity on water bioresources fishing,processing, transportation, conservation and fish production.
Fish products are to be delivered to the seaports in the
Russian Federation or other ports defined by the RussianFederation Government. Allocation of quota shares is given
to companies that historically fulfilled their prior quota
agreements.

For salmonids, there are no fishing areas in offshore sea,
only in the fresh and inshore waters. Auctions are used toallocate quotas on marine and fresh water species to which
TAC is applied. The main criteria considered in allocating
quotas are the history of the company, especially theamount of quota developed in the past. For nonanadromous species to which Permissible Catch rules apply,
quotas are allocated by the State Commission according by
applications, but they cannot exceed the Permissible Catch(volume). At reaching of the Permissible Catch limit,
fishing is closed or catch limits may be increased.

Coastal fisheries
Coastal fisheries can be conducted on the fishery plots. It
differs from the commercial fisheries by the coastal
regional authorities’ involvement in the fishery
management including establishment of fishery areas andlist of species for catch trans-shipment, landings and at-sea
processing.
Fisheries for scientific and research purposes
This type of fishery has the purpose of study andconservation of water bioresources. Scientific researchorganizations are allocated fishing quota on the basis ofannual research plans. A special license is needed. The
catch volume is determined in accordance with needs for a
research purpose. All water bioresources caught by ascientific organization are to be used only for scientificpurposes and should be released afterwards. If waterbioresources are used for bioanalysis, they must be groundup afterwards. If scientific research is conducted on thevessel, fish production process is prohibited. Fisheries
conducted for scientific and research purposes are
regulated by the Federal laws.
Fisheries for educational and cultural purposes
This type of fishery has the purpose of education andcultural activity. Research and educational organizations
are allocated fishing quota on the basis of annual
educational plans. The catch volume is determined inaccordance with needs for these purposes. Water
bioresources are to be used for educational purposes, such

Fish transportation near Plosky Cape. (Photo courtesy of Okhotsk
laboratory.)

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North Pacific Marine Science Organization

as for displays at zoo exhibits and aquaparks. Fishery foreducational and cultural purposes is regulated by theFederal laws.

There is not a long history in the Russian Federation of
conducting social surveys as a means of a obtaining socioeconomic data. In the last years the number of websites
where you can express your opinion is increasing. An online
survey of Russian residents using a site popular withfisherman (www.fishnews.ru) was conducted to inquire
about key fisheries management and ecosystem issues. The
results of the online survey of Russian residents indicatedconcern about the effectiveness of fisheries, including
unlawful poaching of fish, and difficulty getting legally
captured fish to markets and sold. Additional fish marketingmight be suggested, as well as improvements in access topotential customers for fish.

Fisheries for reproduction and naturalization purposes
This type of fishery has the purpose of water bioresources
conservation, aquaculture development, reproduction andnaturalization. Fishing quotas are distributed in accordancewith needs for these particular purposes on the basis ofprograms on artificial reproduction and naturalization activity.
Recreational and sport fisheries
Citizens are allowed to fish for free if it is not under the
restrictions in accordance with Fishing Regulation
Document. Captured organisms can either be released ornot. Special permission is needed to fish in a water
reservoir located on private property. Some areas are given
to entrepreneurs or organizations in order to organize asport fishing there. Recreational and sport fishing in someareas operated by entrepreneurs or organizations require
paid licenses.

Conclusions
The fisheries regulation system in the Russian Federation
has many advantages, but also some disadvantages. The
most obvious advantage is the combination of fish quotas,
catch shares and 20 year fishery area allocations. This
process provides favorable conditions for investments into
the fishery sector and encourages quota users to be more
responsible in relation to water bioresources andenvironmental legislation, because they are interested inlong-term cooperation and sustainable fish resources in the
allocated plots. At the same time, fishery sector on the mostvaluable commercial species are effectively closed (limited
entry) to companies without a prior and long fishery history,
as the past performance at meeting quota levels is one of
the most important considerations in a quota distribution
auction on TAC species. Users without a fishery history arewelcome to participate in non-anadromous fisheries thatare managed using the Permissible Catch criterion.

Fisheries as the means of securing the necessities of life ofnative small ethnic communities
Members of small ethnic communities may fish without alicense or allocated fisheries plot as a means of securing thenecessities of life.
Conservation and management measures
State monitoring is a system of regular observations on
status, distribution, abundance, reproduction, fishery andconservation of water bioresources. Fisheries andconservation are important components of these observations.
The data obtained during the monitoring are applied to theassessment of biological status and abundance of waterbioresources, and for elaboration of the measures on rationaluse and conservation of water bioresources, including
elaboration of the fishery restrictions.

Aquaculture of marine species has not been properly
regulated in the country and therefore was not very popular.
Russia was not one of the top 15 producers of the 38
million tonnes of aquaculture fish in 2012 (SOFIA-2014,
The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture report). Notlong ago, the Law on Aquaculture in the RussianFederation was established, and is expected to become thebasis for aquaculture development in the country.

Monitoring of water bioresources and fishing vessels is doneby the Center for Fishery Monitoring and Communications,which collects, analyzes, stores and transmits data on
location of fishing and research vessels (both Russian andforeign), provides satellite positioning control of fishingvessels, and submits information to federal authorities.

A disadvantage of the fishery legislation system in the
Russian Federation is the rather complicated procedure foramending the law; that requires too much time fordecision-making. It is almost impossible to alter TAC, forexample, because of the complexity of the TAC approval
process. That is why salmonid species were included in the
Permissible Catch regulation. It was done for better fisheryregulation of these commercially valuable species.
Fisheries Regulation Documents that are issued for theeight fisheries basins lack flexibility. For instance, there isno mechanism to temporarily suspend implemented
legislative acts.

Russia has no state integrated programs based on social andeconomic studies directly related to marine ecosystemmanagement, such as IFRAME (Korea) or IEA (USA) andPNCIMA (Canada). Scientific research fisheries institutes in
Russia estimate the potential loss of economic value of
ecosystem resources as a result of anthropogenic activity(e.g., construction of seaports, bridges, pipelines, etc.).
Integrated analysis is needed to better understand socialcultural and economical issues of society and how these canbe used to implement more effective management of marine
ecosystem resources.
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While flexibility in management is a concern at the basin
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regulation policy being implemented. For much of thecoastal populations in the Okhotsk Sea area, fishing,especially on herring in coastal areas, is the only source ofincome. Heavy ice conditions in coastal areas in 2008
prevented access to the traditional and regulated fishinggrounds, and herring catches plummeted. Only the estuarine

regions were sufficiently ice free to catch spawning herring,but these regions under existing regulations were not open to
herring fishing.
Through the joint effort of local
communities, scientists and government, the regulations
were changed to permit herring to be fished in the estuary
since 2009, restoring basic income to local residents.

Ekaterina P. Kurilova (katy_k07@mail.ru) is a linguist and an assistant director in the Khabarovsk branch of
TINRO-Center, Russian Federation. She works in an administrative department and deals with international
cooperation of the Institute. Her particular interests focus on intercultural communication aspects, as well as theprocess of communication in general. She studies the problem of influencing public opinion via mass media,
communicating science and social impacts of fisheries management in Russia. Since 2012, she has been amember of the PICES Section on Human Dimensions of Marine Systems.

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