Statement of World Aquatic Scientific Societies on the
Need to Take Urgent Action against Human-Caused
Climate Change, Based on Scientific Evidence
American Fisheries Society (AFS) • American Institute of Fishery Research Biologists
American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists • American Water Resources Association
Asian Fisheries Society • Asociación de Oceanólogos de México, A.C.
Asociación Internacional de Hidrogeologos - Mexico Chapter
Asociatia Romana de Limnogeografei (Romanian Limnogeographical Association)
Association Française de Limnologie / French Limnological Association [EFFS member*]
Associazione Italiana di Oceanologia e Limnologia [EFFS member*] • Australian Coral Reef Society
The Australian Freshwater Sciences Society • Australian Marine Sciences Association
Australian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society • Australian Society for Fish Biology • BirdLife Australia
Blue Ventures • The Brazilian Society of Ichthyology • British Phycological Society
Canadian Aquatic Resources Section (CARS) of AFS • Canadian Centre for Evidence-based Conservation
Canadian Conference for Fisheries Research • Canadian Society of Zoologists
Coastal & Estuarine Research Federation • Coastal Research and Education Society of Long Island (CRESLI)The Coastal Society • Community of Arran Seabed Trust • Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland
Croatian Association of Freshwater Ecologists (CAFÉ, HUSEK) [EFFS member]
Czech Limnological Society [EFFS member*] • Deep Ocean Stewardship Initiative (Climate and Fisheries WG)
Desert Fishes Council • EFYR European Fresh and Young Scientists [EFFS member]
European Federation for Freshwater Sciences (EFFS) • Finnish Limnological Society [EFFS member]
Fisheries Society of the British Isles • The Freshwater Biological Association [EFFS member*]Freshwater Fisheries Society of BC • Freshwater Mollusk Conservation Society • German Ichthyological Society
German Limnological Society (DGL) [EFFS member*] • Gilbert Ichthyological Society
Hungarian Hydrological Society [EFFS member] • Hydroecological Society of Ukraine
The Hydrographic Society of America • The Hydrozoan Society • Iberian Association of Limnology [EFFS member]
Ichthyological Society of Japan • Ichthyological Society of Ukraine • The Institute of Fisheries Management
International Association for Danube Research • International Association for Great Lakes Research (IAGLR)
International Association of Aquatic and Marine Science Libraries and Information Centers (IAMSLIC)International Coral Reef Society • International Federation of Hydrographic Societies • International Peatland SocietyInternational Phycological Society • International Seaweed Association • International Society of Limnology
International Water History Association • Irish Freshwater Sciences Association [EFFS member]
The Japanese Society of Fisheries Science • Lake Victoria Fisheries Association
The Limnological Society of Turkey [EFFS member] • Living Oceans Society • Macrolatinos@ Network
Malacological Society of London • Marine and Oceanographic Technology Network
The Marine Biological Association of India • Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom
Marine Stewardship Council • National Association of Marine Laboratories (NAML)
Netherlands Malacological Society (Nederlandse Malacologische Vereniging)
The New Zealand Freshwater Sciences Society (NZFSS) • North American Lake Management Society
Oceania Chondrichthyan Society • Ocean Conservation Society • Philippine Association of Marine Science
Phycological Society of America • Polish Hydrobiological Society [EFFS member*] • Polish Limnological Society
Romanian Ecological Society [EFFS member] • Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research
Serbian Water Pollution Control Society SWPCS [EFFS member] • SIL Austria [EFFS member*]
Slovak Ichthyological Society • Slovak Limnological Society (SLS) [EFFS member*] • Sociedad Chilena de Limnología
Sociedad Científica Mexicana de Ecología, A.C. • Sociedad Iberica de Ictiologia • Sociedad Ictiológica Mexicana
Sociedad Mexicana de Planctologia A.C.
Sociedad Mexicana para el Estudio de los Florecimientos Algales Nocivos (SOMEFAN; Mexican Society for the Studyof Harmful Algal Blooms • Sociedade Brasileira de Carcinologia • Société Française d’Ichtyologie
Society for Conservation Biology Marine Policy Section • Society for Freshwater Science
The Society for Marine Mammalogy • Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles
Society of Canadian Limnologists/Société canadienne de Limnologie (SC) • Society of Wetland Scientists
Southern African Soc. Aquatic Scientists • Spanish Malacological Society (Sociedad Española de Malacología)
Swiss Hydrological and Limnological Society [EFFS member*] • Vietnam Fisheries Society (VINAFIS)
Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association • Wild Oceans • World Aquaculture Society
The World Council of Fisheries Societies • World Sturgeon Conservation Society • Zoological Society of Pakistan*

Denotes both part of EFFS, which signed, and a society that signed individually.

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2aquatic science shows need for immediate climate action

Water is the most important natural resource on Earth as it is vital for life. Aquatic ecosystems, freshwater or marine, provide multiple benefits to human society, such as provisioning of oxygen, food,drinking water, and genetic resources; regulation of atmospheric composition and climate; water purification; storm buffering; mitigation of floods/droughts; recreation areas; and other purposes. Our
existence and well-being depend on the health and well-functioning of aquatic ecosystems. People
naturally distribute around water—approximately 40% of the world’s population lives within 100 km(62 mi) of a coast.1
The world’s aquatic resources are now under their greatest threat in human history. Human-caused
climate change is accelerating the degradation of aquatic ecosystems and the services they provide. Aquatic ecosystems are among the most affected worldwide (e.g., in case of freshwater ecosystems, one measureof biodiversity, the freshwater living planet index for species populations, declined 83% from 1970 to2014, while up to 90% of coral reefs will disappear by mid-century if the current trends continue).2
We, the world’s aquatic scientists, spend our lives studying these systems. We see exceptional anddisturbing changes in the world’s aquatic ecosystems due to climate change and believe that we must
continue to share peer-reviewed scientific findings with the public and policymakers to emphasize
the seriousness of this threat and the need for immediate action. For the first time, the assessment of
global risks conducted by the World Economic Forum ranked the impact of “climate action failure,”“biodiversity loss,” and “water crisis” among the top five risks over the next decade.3 In recent years,
migration has increased and geopolitical tensions have been exacerbated: between 2008 and 2016,
more than 20 million people per year have been forced to move due to extreme weather events, whileaccording to the United Nations, in 2017, water was a major conflict factor in 45 countries.3 These
negative effects are expected to increase under current climatic trends. For example, in the UnitedStates, the climate-related economic damage is estimated to reach 10% of the gross domestic productby the end of the century.3 In Europe, the minimum cost of not adapting to climate change is estimated at €100 billion per year in 2020 and €250 billion in 2050.4
Experts in environmental, social, and economic fields collectively point towards a severe environmental and humanitarian crisis, with repercussions at a global level, unless worldwide concerted
climate actions are implemented urgently.
This document summarizes key scientific findings highlighting the effect of climate changes onaquatic ecosystems. These findings provide evidence of what effects are currently happening and why
world policymakers and all of humankind need to act jointly and launch concerted actions now if theywish to mitigate these impacts.

The Challenge•••

Thousands of peer-reviewed studies by scientists from authoritative institutions worldwide havedocumented evidence for climate effects on aquatic systems that are already occurring and areextensive.5
Many globally respected sources, including the American Geophysical Union,6 National Academiesof Science from dozens of countries,7 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,8 and the
Fourth U.S. National Climate Assessment9 support findings that increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases from fossil fuels (i.e., emissions) and land use changes such as deforestation
are driving current climate change.
Many of these changes are and will be irreversible. They will continue to worsen if we persist on
our current trajectory.10

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Impacts already occurring range from increased frequency, intensification, and severity of droughts,
heat waves, floods, wildfires, and storms; melting glaciers; destabilization of major ice sheets; shift
ing ocean currents, rising sea level; ocean acidification and deoxygenation; shifts in species ranges,
including expansion of alien-invasive species; aquatic plant and wildlife disease outbreaks; masscoral bleaching events; and more, with a mounting toll on vulnerable ecosystems, human societies,
and local and global economies.11
These events are precursors of even more damages to fisheries, biodiversity, and human society atlarge.12
Delaying action to stop underlying causes of climate change will increase the economic, environmental, and societal consequences.13
If humanity wishes to avoid calamitous consequences for our aquatic ecosystems and humans that
depend on them, the time to curb greenhouse gas emissions, sequester greenhouse gasses, andadapt to an already changing climate is now.14 Intelligent, rapid movement toward such goals will
provide great benefits to aquatic ecosystems and the humans that depend on them.
Rapid global response and large-scale actions are possible if public and government commitment
exists.15

The Evidence: Effects on Marine Resources
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Shifts in species composition, behavior, abundance, and biomass production are now occurring.16
Lobster,17 cod,18 mackerel,19 coral reef fishes,20 and other species important to fisheries21 are either
moving poleward to deeper waters or declining.22
Coastal ecosystems are being transformed, degraded, or lost, either largely23 or in part due to climatechange, including sea grass meadows,24 mangroves,25 coral reefs,26 and kelp forests.27
Effects of altered species compositions are affecting entire ecosystems.28
Carbon emissions cause global ocean acidification, which is affecting the survival of organisms,
especially shellfish, and accelerating coral reef erosion.29
Rising frequency and intensity of marine heatwaves has been documented and is projected tocontinue.30
Reductions in global ocean dissolved oxygen concentrations have occurred over the past five decades.31
Climate change is interacting with other stressors such as excess nutrient input,32 overharvesting,33
and novel species interactions34 to further suppress marine ecosystems.
Climate change is linked to emerging and re-emerging disease outbreaks in marine wildlife andplant species.35
Global production of marine animals continues to decrease and shifts in species composition will
increase unless greenhouse gas emissions are reduced.36
Seabirds are recognized as indicators of long-term environmental change: nearly three out of fourof the world’s seabirds have disappeared since 1950, and more than half the remaining species facesubstantial threats.37 In North America alone, two-thirds (389/604) of bird species, which includes
waterbirds, are moderately or highly vulnerable to climate change under a 3°C scenario.38

The Evidence: Effects on Freshwater Resources•

Freshwater ecosystems are among the most threatened on Earth.39

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aquatic science shows need for immediate climate action
Freshwater ecosystems cover less than 1% of the planet’s surface but support one-third of vertebrate
species and 10% of all species.40
The capacity of all freshwater ecosystems to adapt is relatively low given the nature of freshwater
systems and the scale of impacts of climate change.41
Climate change is altering abundance, predator–prey dynamics, expansion of invasive species,
growth, recruitment of species, and novel species interactions, leading to declines in the number
and diversity of freshwater aquatic organisms.42
Increased frequency, intensity, and length of drought are affecting the amount and quality offreshwater available for both aquatic ecosystems and humans.43
Climate change impacts on flow regimes, including both increased droughts and low-flow periods,
and increased flooding impact native species with narrow ranges of flow requirements and allow
expansion of alien-invasive species that affect recreational and commercial harvest of fishes and clog
waterways.44
Geographic ranges of many plants and animals have moved poleward and to higher altitudes whilealien-invasive species expand with the increasingly warm conditions.45 Unlike marine systems,
pathways to other habitats are often blocked, leading to localized extinctions.46
Temporal shifts in seasonal cues, such as spring runoff or monsoon seasons, affect spawning successof fish, resulting in poor survival.47
Higher incidence of wildfires is affecting aquatic systems by making watersheds more susceptible
to flooding and by reducing water quality, especially with post-fire ash and sediment deposition.48
Wetlands capacity for carbon storage and mitigation of climate change are being damaged bychanges linked to climate shifts and other components of global change, such as increased landdevelopment and fires.49
Higher temperatures and precipitation runoff have increased harmful algae blooms, which canhurt fish, mammals, birds, and even humans.50
Climate change may act synergistically with nutrients to magnify eutrophication and further
degrade water quality and ecosystem services, including affecting drinking water.51
Organisms dependent on snow melt and glacial streams are declining or shifting their distribution.52
Release of heavy metals such as mercury, currently stored in glaciers and the permafrost, is projected
to further affect freshwater organisms.53
Climate change is linked to emerging and re-emerging disease outbreaks in freshwater wildlife andplant species.54
These seemingly diverse and small-scale changes combine to create multiple, cumulatively stressful
challenges to aquatic species.55

The Evidence: Effects on World Society Dependent on Aquatic
Resources.
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Clean and sufficient water is needed by all life forms.
Fisheries provide quality protein sources not easily replaced by terrestrial sources. According to the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, fish accounts for 17% of animal protein
consumed globally, fishing and aquaculture directly employ almost 60 million people, and global
trade in fish products has reached US$152 billion per year, with 54% originating in developing
countries.56
In the short term, new fisheries are appearing in some newly formed ice-free areas57; however,overall fisheries catch is projected to decline related to increasing declines in water quality andaquatic science shows need for immediate climate action

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primary production as a result of climate change, with corresponding effects on food security.58
Ocean warming and changes in primary productivity are related to changes in many fish stocks.
Fish population reestablishment has declined 3% per decade, and maximum catch potential declined
4.1% over the 20th century.59 Water temperature increases due to climate change are projected to
exceed the tolerance limits of 10–60% of freshwater and marine species by 2100, depending on theamount of greenhouse gas emissions allowed.60
Climate change impacts on aquatic ecosystems are affecting incomes, food security, key culturaldimensions, and livelihoods of resource-dependent communities.61
Species shifts are affecting traditional fisheries from the tropics to the polar regions through reduced
access to fish stocks, fishing areas, and loss of local knowledge.62
Climate change compounds the impact of other practices such as pollution, overfishing, andunsustainable coastal development. These combined impacts are projected to drive many small-scale
fisheries and economies out of existence.63
Warming of waters affects seafood safety through elevated bioaccumulation of heavy metals andpollutants and an increased prevalence of waterborne pathogens affecting both human and animal
health.64
Tourism and tourist sites are being affected in many areas that are dependent on local ecosystems.
Sustainable diving, snorkeling, angling, marine mammal and bird watching, and other recreational
activities and businesses depend on maintenance of healthy aquatic resources.65
Climate change degrades coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, sea grasses, marshes, peatlands,
and coral reefs that provide services to humans such as protecting coasts from erosion, storms, andflooding, providing key wildlife habitat and sequestering carbon.66
Climate change damages riparian ecosystems that provide services to humans, such as protecting
streams from flooding, intercepting pollutants, reducing erosion, providing shade and wildlife
habitat, sequestering carbon, and storing water during high-flow events.67
Climate change contributes to harming wetlands, which provide many of the same services tohumans, as stated above. Wetlands play a critical role in carbon storage and sequestration. In
particular, peatlands, despite occupying on 3% of the land surface, store twice as much carbon as
the world’s forests.68
The level of impacts will be governed by the level of protective limits our nations place on future
emissions combined with riparian and coastal zoning, and changes in fisheries management
practices.69

The Needed Responses•••

We assert that rapid action is necessary to drastically curb release of greenhouse gas emissions andto remove and store CO2 from the atmosphere to prevent the most calamitous consequences ofhuman-caused climate change to marine and freshwater ecosystems on which all humankind
depends.
Global and national targets are necessary to protect and restore carbon dense ecosystems, such aspeat, sea grasses, and other wetlands to sequester carbon, prevent greenhouse gas emissions, andreduce the impacts of climate change.
Governments, the public, industry, academia, and all other sectors of society must prioritize
actions and act in a concerted way to halt human-caused climate change if they are to prevent
dire consequences.

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aquatic science shows need for immediate climate action
A rapid transition towards energy sources and other products and services that do not releasegreenhouse gases, and research and policies that favor an efficient transition to a low carbon worldis required to slow the degradation of aquatic systems, as above. Such a transition could be accomplished by all governments by immediately acting on the advice of specialists in green energy
technology, carbon sequestration, marketing, education, socioeconomic principles, and related
disciplines.
Robust adaptation measures; identification and easing of other environmental stressors that act
synergistically with climate change; and additional resources for data collection, mapping, andresearch to better understand potential impacts and to arm natural resources agencies with thetools to mitigate these impacts are essential to better understand and plan for changes in aquatic
ecosystems.
Done intelligently, movement to curtail human-caused climate change can result in advanced,
novel technologies; strong economies; healthier aquatic ecosystems; greater food security; and humanwell-being.

It is time to acknowledge the urgent need to act to address climate change. Delaying action
to control greenhouse gas emissions is not an option if humankind wishes to conserve the aquatic
resources and environmental safety of the world.

Notes
1. Center for International Earth Science Information Network. No date. Percentage of total population “living
		 in coastal areas. Center for International Earth Science Information Network, Earth Institute, Colum		 bia University, New York. Available: https://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/es/papers/Coastal_Zone_Pop_		 Method.pdf. (July 2020).
2. Finlayson C. M., G. T. Davies, W. R. Moomaw, G. L. Chmura, S. M. Natali, J. E. Perry, N. Roulet, and		 A. E. Sutton-Grier. 2019. The second warning to humanity—providing a context for wetland manage		 ment and policy. Wetlands 39:1–5.
Finlayson C. M., R. D’Cruz, and N. C. Davidson. 2005. Ecosystems and human well-being: wetlands and		 water, synthesis. World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C. Available: www.millenniumassessment.
		 org/documents/document.358.aspx.pdf. (July 2020).
Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P. R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufou		 ma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I. Gomis, E.
		 Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield, editors. 2018. Summary for policymakers. Pages
		1–24 in Global warming of 1.5°C: an IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C
		 above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of		 strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts
		 to eradicate poverty. Available: www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_SPM_version_		 report_LR.pdf. (July 2020).
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 2018. Global wetland outlook: state of the world’s wetlands and their		 ecosystem services. Ramsar Convention, Gland, Switzerland. Available: www.global-wetland-outlook.
		 ramsar.org. (July 2020).
World Wildlife Fund. 2018. Living planet report 2018: aiming higher. World Wildlife Fund, Gland,		 Switzerland [pages 75 and 54]. Available: https://wwf.panda.org/knowledge_hub/all_publications/		 living_planet_report_2018/. (July 2020).
3. World Economic Forum. 2020. The global risks report 2020 [Figure II and page 31]. World Economic
		 Fund, Geneva, Switzerland. Available: www.weforum.org/reports/the-global-risks-report-2020. (July		2020).

aquatic science shows need for immediate climate action

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4. European Commission. 2020. The EU strategy on adaptation to climate change [fact sheet]. Available:		 https://ec.europa.eu/clima/sites/clima/files/docs/eu_strategy_en.pdf. (July 2020).
5. The number of studies that have investigated effects of human-caused climate change on aquatic systems isvast. Most literature compilations combine already observed effects with those projected. In three reports,
we counted a total of more than 2,000 studies that reported observed effects on aquatic systems. We did notcount projected effects. These reports are as follows:
Barros, V. R., C. B. Field, D. J. Dokken, M. D. Mastrandrea, K. J. Mach, T. E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K. L.
		 Ebi, Y. O. Estrada, R. C. Genova, B. Girma, E. S. Kissel, A. N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P. R. Mastrandrea,
		 and L. L. White, editors. 2014. Climate change 2014—impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: part B:
		 regional aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovern		 mental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, New York.
Field, C. B., V. R. Barros, D. J. Dokken, K. J. Mach, M. D. Mastrandrea, T. E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K. L.
		 Ebi, Y. O. Estrada, R. C. Genova, B. Girma, E. S. Kissel, A. N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P. R. Mastrandrea,
		 and L. L. White, editors. 2014. Climate change 2014—impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: part A:		 global and sectoral aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the fifth assessment report of the		 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, New York.
Krabbenhoft, T. J., B. J. E. Myers, J. P. Wong, C. Chu, R. W. Tingley, J. Falke, T. J. Kwak, C. P. Paukert, and		
A. J. Lynch. 2020. FiCli, the Fish and Climate Change Database, informs climate adaptation and manage		 ment for freshwater fishes. Scientific Data 7:124.
Pörtner, H.-O., D. C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck,		 A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, and N. M. Weyer, editors. 2019. IPCC special
		 report on the ocean and cryosphere in a changing climate. Available: www.ipcc.ch/srocc/home/. (July		2020).
These are just the beginning of peer-reviewed studies and peer-reviewed compilations of studies that discuss
human-caused climate change and the effects of climate change on aquatic ecosystems. Other reports that
include both projections and already observed effects on aquatic systems are as follows:
Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S.
		 Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel, and J. C.
		 Minx, editors. 2014. Climate change 2014: mitigation of climate change. Contribution of Working
		 Group III to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge
		 University Press, New York. [This report gives methods to control greenhouse gas emissions and other		 ways to “mitigate” or control the factors affecting climate change itself. Cites close to 10,000 studies.]
Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P. R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufou		 ma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I. Gomis, E.
		 Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield, editors. 2018. Global warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC
		 special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global
		 greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of		 climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. Available: www.ipcc.ch/site/		 assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/06/SR15_Full_Report_High_Res.pdf. (September 2020). [Cites effects on
		 a variety of systems, including both aquatic and terrestrial. The press release accompanying this document
		 states report cites more than 6,000 scientific references and resulted from contribution of thousands of		 expert and government reviewers worldwide.]
Paukert, G. P., A. J. Lynch, and J. E. Whitney, editors. 2016. Effects of climate change on North American		 inland fishes. Fisheries 41(7). [Full issue concerning effects of climate change on inland fishes containing
		 more than 90 authors and more than 600 cited references.]
Reidmiller, D. R., C. W. Avery, D. R. Easterling, K. E. Kunkel, K. L. M. Lewis, T. K. Maycock, and B. C.
		 Stewart, editors. 2018. Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: fourth national climate
		 assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, D.C. [Cites effects on a

8aquatic science shows need for immediate climate action

		 variety of systems, including both aquatic and terrestrial. More than 5,600 references cited, mostly		 peer-reviewed, and data sets.]
Stocker, T. F., D. Qin, G.-K Plattner, M. Tignor, S. K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex, and P.
		 M. Midgley, editors. 2013. Climate change 2013: the physical science basis. Contribution of Working
		 Group I to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge
		 University Press, New York. [Discusses the physical scientific evidence for change to both terrestrial and		 aquatic systems, citing more than 9,200 scientific publications according to the Working Group 1 fact		sheet.]Wuebbles, D. J., D. W. Fahey, K. A. Hibbard, D. J. Dokken, B. C. Stewart, and T. K. Maycock, editors.
		 2017. Climate science special report: fourth national climate assessment, volume I. U.S. Global
		 Change Research Program, Washington, D.C. [Cites effects on a variety of systems, including both
		 aquatic and terrestrial. Number of references not provided, but likely similar to U.S. Global Change		 Research Program 2018.]
6. American Geophysical Union (AGU). 2019. Society must address the growing climate crisis now. Position
		 statement. AGU, Washington, D.C.
7. Statements from various academies of sciences include the following:
European Academy of Sciences. 2015. Statement. Facing critical decisions on climate change in 2015.
		Available: https://easac.eu/publications/details/facing-critical-decisions-on-climate-change-in-2015/.
		(September 2020).
The Royal Society and the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. 2020. Climate change evidence & causes:		 update 2020. An overview from the Royal Society and the US National Academy of Sciences. Avail		able: https://royalsociety.org/-/media/Royal_Society_Content/policy/projects/climate-evidence-causes/		 climate-change-evidence-causes.pdf. (September 2020).
Academies of Science for the G8+5 Countries. 2008. Joint science academies’ statement: climate change:		 adaptation and the transition to a low carbon society. Available: http://insaindia.res.in/pdf/
		 Climate_05.08_W.pdf. (September 2020).
Academies of Science for the G8+5 Countries. 2007. Joint science academies’ statement on growth and		 responsibility: sustainability, energy efficiency and climate protection. Available: www.scj.go.jp/ja/info/
		 kohyo/pdf/kohyo-20-s4.pdf (September 2020).
Network of African Science Academies (NASAC). 2007. Joint statement by the Network of African Science		 Academies (NASAC) to the G8 on sustainability, energy efficiency and climate change. Available: www.
		interacademies.org/sites/default/files/publication/nasac_g8_statement_07_-_low_res.pdf. (September
		2020).
Interacademy Medical Panel (IAMP). 2010. Statement on the health co-benefits of policies to tackle climate		 change. Available: www.interacademies.org/statement/iamp-statement-health-co-benefits-policies-tackle		 climate-change. (September 2020).
8. See references in 5. References that cite the causes of climate change, including thorough discussions that		 show overwhelming evidence that emissions are the chief factor, are found in Collins et al. (2013),
		 Edenhofer et al. (2014), and Masson-Delmotte et al. (2018).
9. See references in 5. Wuebbles et al. (2017) is the primary U.S. report that discusses the physical basis ofclimate change.
10. “As a result of the large ocean inertia and the long lifetime of many greenhouse gases, primarily carbon
dioxide, much of the warming would persist for centuries after greenhouse gas emissions have stopped.”[From Collins, M., R. Knutti, J. Arblaster, J.-L. Dufresne, T. Fichefet, P. Friedlingstein, X. Gao, W. J.
Gutowski, T. Johns, G. Krinner, M. Shongwe, C. Tebaldi, A. J. Weaver, and M. Wehner. 2013. Long-termclimate change: projections, commitments and irreversibility. Pages 1029–1136 in T. F. Stocker, D. Qin,
G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S. K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex, and P. M. Midgley, editors.
Climate change 2013: the physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the fifth assessment
report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, New York.]aquatic science shows need for immediate climate action

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See also the following:
Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P. R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufou		 ma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I. Gomis, E.
		 Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield, editors. 2018. Summary for policymakers. Pages
		1–24 in Global warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of
		 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context
		 of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts
		 to eradicate poverty. Available: www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_SPM_version_		 report_HR.pdf. (September 2020).
Pörtner, H.-O., D. C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M.
		 Tignor, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, and N. M. Weyer, editors. 2019. Technical		 summary. Pages 37–69 in IPCC special report on the ocean and cryosphere in a changing climate.
		 Available: www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/3/2019/11/04_SROCC_TS_FINAL.pdf (September
		2020).
11. See citations included in references in 5. Impacts are documented in vast numbers of studies in these citations.
12. For increasing impacts on the world’s oceans, freshwaters, and societies, start with the following:
Bindoff, N. L., W. W. L. Cheung, J. G. Kairo, J. Arístegui, V. A. Guinder, R. Hallberg, N. Hilmi, N. Jiao,
		 M. S. Karim, L. Levin, S. O’Donoghue, S. R. Purca Cuicapusa, B. Rinkevich, T. Suga, A. Tagliabue,		 and P. Williamson. 2019. Changing ocean, marine ecosystems, and dependent communities. Pages 447–
		587 in H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K.
		 Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, and N. M. Weyer, editors. IPCC
		 special report on the ocean and cryosphere in a changing climate. Available: www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/		 uploads/sites/3/2019/11/09_SROCC_Ch05_FINAL-1.pdf. (September 2020).
Brugere C., D. M. Onuigbo, and K. L. Morgan. 2017. People matter in animal disease surveillance: challenges
		 and opportunities for the aquaculture sector. Aquaculture 467:158–169.
Fleming, E., J. Payne, W. Sweet, M. Craghan, J. Haines, J. F. Hart, H. Stiller, and A. Sutton-Grier. 2018.
		 Coastal effects. Pages 322–352 in D. R. Reidmiller, C. W. Avery, D. R. Easterling, K. E. Kunkel, K. L.
		 M. Lewis, T. K. Maycock, and B. C. Stewart, editors. Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United
		 States: fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Wash		ington, D.C.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., D. Jacob, M. Taylor, M. Bindi, S. Brown, I. Camilloni, A. Diedhiou, R. Djalante,
		 K. L. Ebi, F. Engelbrecht, J. Guiot, Y. Hijioka, S. Mehrotra, A. Payne, S.I. Seneviratne, A. Thomas, R.
		 Warren, and G. Zhou. 2018. Impacts of 1.5°C global warming on natural and human systems. Pages
		175–311 in V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P. R. Shukla, A. Pirani,		 W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I.
		 Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield, editors. Global warming of 1.5°C: an
		 IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related
		 global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the		 threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. Available: www.ipcc.
		 ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/02/SR15_Chapter3_Low_Res.pdf. (July 2020).
Lipton, D., M. A. Rubenstein, S. R. Weiskopf, S. Carter, J. Peterson, L. Crozier, M. Fogarty, S. Gaichas, K.
		 J. W. Hyde, T. L. Morelli, J. Morisette, H. Moustahfid, R. Muñoz, R. Poudel, M. D. Staudinger, C.
		 Stock, L. Thompson, R. Waples, and J. F. Weltzin. 2018. Ecosystems, ecosystem services, and biodiversity.
		Pages 268–321 in D. R. Reidmiller, C. W. Avery, D. R. Easterling, K. E. Kunkel, K. L. M. Lewis, T. K.
		 Maycock, and B. C. Stewart, editors. Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: fourth national
		 climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, D.C.
Pershing, A. J., R. B. Griffis, E. B. Jewett, C. T. Armstrong, J. F. Bruno, D. S. Busch, A. C. Haynie, S. A.
		 Siedlecki, and D. Tommasi. 2018. Oceans and marine resources. Pages 353–390 in D. R. Reidmiller,

10aquatic science shows need for immediate climate action

		 C. W. Avery, D. R. Easterling, K. E. Kunkel, K. L. M. Lewis, T. K. Maycock, and B. C. Stewart, editors.
		 Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S.
		 Global Change Research Program, Washington, D.C.
Pörtner, H.-O., D. M. Karl, P. W. Boyd, W. W. L. Cheung, S. E. Lluch-Cota, Y. Nojiri, D. N. Schmidt, and		 P. O. Zavialov. 2014. Ocean systems. Pages 411–484 in C. B. Field, V. R. Barros, D. J. Dokken, K.
		 J. Mach, M. D. Mastrandrea, T. E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K. L. Ebi, Y. O. Estrada, R. C. Genova, B. Girma,
		 E. S. Kissel, A. N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P. R. Mastrandrea, and L. L. White, editors. Climate change
		 2014—impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: Part A: global and sectoral aspects. Contribution of		 Working Group II to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
		 Cambridge University Press, New York.
Settele, J., R. Scholes, R. Betts, S. Bunn, P. Leadley, D. Nepstad, J. T. Overpeck, and M. A. Taboada. 2014.
		 Terrestrial and inland water systems. Pages 271–359 in C. B. Field, V. R. Barros, D. J. Dokken, K. J.
		 Mach, M. D. Mastrandrea, T. E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K. L. Ebi, Y. O. Estrada, R. C. Genova, B. Girma,
		 E. S. Kissel, A. N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P. R. Mastrandrea, and L. L. White, editors. Climate change
		 2014—impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: Part A: global and sectoral aspects. Contribution of		 Working Group II to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
		 Cambridge University Press, New York.
Wong, P. P., I. J. Losada, J.-P. Gattuso, J. Hinkel, A. Khattabi, K. L. McInnes, Y. Saito, and A. Sallenger.
		 2014. Coastal systems and low-lying areas. Pages 361–409 in C. B. Field, V. R. Barros, D. J. Dokken,
		 K. J. Mach, M. D. Mastrandrea, T. E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K. L. Ebi, Y. O. Estrada, R. C. Genova, B.
		 Girma, E. S. Kissel, A. N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P. R. Mastrandrea, and L. L. White, editors. Climate		 change 2014—impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: Part A: global and sectoral aspects. Contribution
		 of Working Group II to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
		 Cambridge University Press, New York.
13. Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P. R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufou		 ma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I. Gomis, E.
		 Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield, editors. 2018. Summary for policymakers. Pages
		1–24 in Global warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C
		 above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of		 strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts
		 to eradicate poverty. Avail-able: www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_SPM_version_		 report_LR.pdf. (July 2020). [Pages 7–11.]
World Bank. 2019. Climate change and marine fisheries in Africa: assessing vulnerability and strengthening
		 adaptation capacity. World Bank, Washington, D.C.
14. Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P. R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufou		 ma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I. Gomis, E.
		 Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield, editors. 2018. Summary for policymakers. Pages
		1–24 in Global warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of
		 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the con
		 text of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and		 efforts to eradicate pov-erty. Available: www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_SPM_
		 version_report_LR.pdf. (July 2020). [Page 4.]
15. Some examples of large-scale, rapid action in response to disease epidemics reported in the following:
Cheng, V. C. C., S. C. Wong, J. H. K. Chen, C. C. Y. Yip, V. W. M. Chuang, O. T. Y. Tsang, S. Sridhar, J.
		 F. W. Chan, P. L. Ho, and K. Y. Yuen. 2020. Escalating infection control response to the rapidly evolving
		 epidemiology of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) due to SARS-CoV-2 in Hong Kong.
		 Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 41:493–498.
Smith, N., and M. Fraser. 2020. Straining the system: novel coronavirus (COVID-19) and preparedness for		 concomitant disasters. American Journal of Public Health 110:648–649.

aquatic science shows need for immediate climate action

11

Sohrabi, C., Z. Alsafi, N. O’Neill, M. Khan, A. Kerwan, A. Al-Jabir, C. Iosifidis, and R. Agha. 2020. World		 Health Organization declares global emergency: a review of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19),
		 International Journal of Surgery 76:71–76.
16. Bindoff, N. L., W. W. L. Cheung, J. G. Kairo, J. Arístegui, V. A. Guinder, R. Hallberg, N. Hilmi, N. Jiao,
		 M. S. Karim, L. Levin, S. O’Donoghue, S. R. Purca Cuicapusa, B. Rinkevich, T. Suga, A. Tagliabue,		 and P. Williamson. 2019. Changing ocean, marine ecosystems, and dependent communities. Pages 447–
		587 in H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K.
		 Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, and N. M. Weyer, editors. IPCC
		 special report on the ocean and cryosphere in a changing climate. Available: www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/		 uploads/sites/3/2019/11/09_SROCC_Ch05_FINAL-1.pdf. (September 2020). [Pages 450–451, 478–
		481.]
Burrows, M. T., D. S. Schoeman, A. J. Richardson, J. G. Molinos, A. Hoffmann, L. B. Buckley, P. J. Moore,		 C. J. Brown, J. F. Bruno, C. M. Duarte, B. S. Halpern, O. Hoegh-Guldberg, C. V. Kappel, W. Kiessling,		 M. I. O’Connor, J. M. Pandolfi, C. Parmesan, W. J. Sydeman, S. Ferrier, K. J. Williams, and E.
		 S. Poloczanska. 2014. Geographical limits to species-range shifts are suggested by climate velocity. Nature		507:492–495.
Chambers, L. E., P. Dann, B. Cannell, and E. J. Woehler. 2014. Climate as a driver of phenological change		 in southern seabirds. International Journal of Biometeorology 58:603–612.
Chambers, L. E., C. A. Devney, B. C. Congdon, N. Dunlop, E. J. Woehler, and P. Dann. 2011. Observed		 and predicted impacts of climate on Australian seabirds. Emu 111:235–251.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., D. Jacob, M. Taylor, M. Bindi, S. Brown, I. Camilloni, A. Diedhiou, R. Djalante,
		 K. L. Ebi, F. Engelbrecht, J. Guiot, Y. Hijioka, S. Mehrotra, A. Payne, S.I. Seneviratne, A. Thomas, R.
		 Warren, and G. Zhou. 2018. Impacts of 1.5°C global warming on natural and human systems. Pages
		175–311 in V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P. R. Shukla, A. Pirani,		 W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I.
		 Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield, editors. Global warming of 1.5°C. An
		 IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related
		 global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the		 threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. Available: www.ipcc.
		 ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/02/SR15_Chapter3_Low_Res.pdf. (July 2020). [Pages 218, 222.]
Nagelkerken, I., and S. D. Connell, 2015: Global alteration of ocean ecosystem functioning due to		 increasing human CO2 emissions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States
		 of America 112:13272–13277.
Poloczanska, E. S., C. J. Brown, W. J. Sydeman, W. Kiessling, D. S. Schoeman, P. J. Moore, K. Brander, J.
		 F. Bruno, L. B. Buckley, M. T. Burrows, C. M. Duarte, B. S. Halpern, J. Holding, C. V. Kappel, M.
		 I. O’Connor, J. M. Pandolfi, C. Parmesan, F. Schwing, S. A. Thompson, and A. J. Richardson. 2013.
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Price C. A., K. Hartmann, T. J. Emery, E. J. Woehler, C. R. McMahon, M. A. Hindell. 2020. Climate
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12aquatic science shows need for immediate climate action

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