2004

Asiatic Herpetological ResearchVol. 10, pp. 224-229

Distribution and Conservation Status of Neurergus microspilotus(Caudata: Salamandridae) in Western Iran
MOZAFAR SHARIFI* AND SOMAYEH ASSADIAN
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran.
*E-mail: sharifimozafar@hotmail.com
Abstract. - Field and laboratory observations of the Yellow Spotted Newt, Neurergus microspilotus (Nestrov, 1917),
in western Iran have yielded preliminary data on conservation biology and distribution of this species. New distributional ranges have been determined for Neurergus microspilotus in its Iranian range in the mid-Zagros Mountains. In
streams occupied by Neurergus microspilotus, dissolved oxygen, temperature, discharge, NO3, and PO4 were measured. Land use practices, adjacent riparian habitats and channel substrate were also determined. Four new stream
habitats were identified. On the basis of interviews with local inhabitants, three other streams were identified as likely habitat for Neurergus microspilotus. Measurements of relative abundance of N. microsphilotus indicate that thisanimal is likely to occur in higher numbers in cold and first order streams located at high altitudes in the western edgeof the Iranian plateau on the mid-Zagros Range. The limiting factor for the yellow spotted newts in western Iranappears to be human disturbance. In the last four years, one of the five known streams with N. microspilotus, in thearea of Ghorighala, has virtually lost its entire population due to pollution by a tourist facility and local sewage effluence.
Key words. - Neurergus microspilotus, salamander, first order stream, distribution, conservation.

Introduction
Available information on the conservation biology of thewestern Iranian salamanders is scarce. Investigations
made in the 1970s (Schmidtler and Schmidtler, 1975)
indicated that three of four species of salamanders
belonging to the genus Neurergus (N. crocatus, N.
microspilotus and N. kaiseri) occur in Iran. There is no
recent information on distribution and abundance of
these species for assessment of conservation. However,a world-wide concern over declines in amphibian populations (Wake, 1991; Gardner, 2001) is equally pertinent
in remote areas of western Iran. Amphibians are sensitive to land-use alteration (Wilkins and Peterson, 2000)
and there is widespread concern that environmental pollution and land deterioration are responsible for theirdecline (Richardson, et al 2000). Several factors are
known to have contributed to the declines, including
habitat destruction (Sala et al, 2000), fragmentation of
habitat (Sjogren, 1991, Marsh and Trenham, 2000), andalteration of species composition of communities
through the introduction of exotic predators andpathogens (Beebee, 1977). In addition, acidification andother chemical pollution, alteration of climate (Pounds
and Crump, 1994), disease and road kill (Carey, 1993,
2000) are candidates for the amphibian decline.

© 2004 by Asiatic Herpetological Research

Relatively few caudate species occur in Iran. These
include seven species of the genera Triturus,
Batrachuperus, Neurergus, and Salamandra (Balutch
and Kami, 1995). Newts of the genus Neurergus have arelatively wide geographic distribution, ranging fromwestern Iran (Zagros Mountains) and extending into Iraq
and southern Turkey (Balutch and Kami, 1995). There isno sufficient information regarding the geographic distribution of the three species of newts that occur in western Iran. Previous investigations indicate that the primary distribution range of Neurergus microspilotus is in
the mid-Zagros range at the border of Iran and Iraq
(Nesterov, 1917; Schmidtler and Schmidtler, 1975). This
information also indicates that Neurergus kaiseri and
Neurergus crocatus are expected to occur in southernand northern parts of the Zagros Range, respectively.
Recent investigations on N. microspilotus confirms that
this newt occurs in highland streams in the mid-Zagros
region (Assadian and Sharifi, 2002; Rastegar Pouyani
and Assadian, 2002).
The aims of the present study are to determine thegeographic distribution and conservation biology ofNeurergus microspilotus. To improve conservation
efforts related to this species, information is needed on
physico-chemical characters of the habitat. For this reason, we measured some variables in the aquatic environment and adjacent terrestrial habitats.

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2004

Figure 1. Geographic distribution of Neurergus microspilotus in streams of the mid-Zagros Range in western Iran.
Those streams with the species have been shown by (1). Those streams that expected to have the animal are shownby (2).

Study Areas
The Iranian basin is a large triangular depression flanked
by Elbourz Mountains in the north and the Zagros
Mountains in the west. The Zagros Mountains extend
diagonally from eastern Turkey to the north of the
Persian Gulf and Pakistan border. This range is part of agreater geographic unit arising from the east of theAnatolian Plateau of Turkey and expanding southward
to include Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and further east to
the western edge of the Tibetan Plateau. The Zagros
Mountains act as barriers to the incoming air parcels
from the west and receive precipitation according totheir height and longitude. In general, the northern andwestern portions of the range receive considerably more
rainfall than those in the south and east. The averageannual precipitation in the northern Zagros ranges from
400 to 800 mm. per year. Most of the central and southern Zagros receive between 300 and 500 mm(Ghobadian, 1990).
The western Zagros Range meets the northern
Mesopotamian Plain, a low land with a hot and dry climate. In some parts of the Zagros Range, where thismeeting takes place over a relatively short distance asteep environmental gradient is encountered where highaltitude and cold climate from the Iranian Plateau diffuse into the low altitude and warm Mesopotamian Plainin just few kilometers. The weather condition in thewestern edge of the Iranian Plateau in the mid-Zagros

Range is characterized by a pronounced seasonal variation including a long freezing period in winter and amild summer. Although the average annual precipitationin this area is around 500 mm, most of this comes as
snow. As a result, many seasonal and permanent streams
at the western side of the Zagros Range are nourished byheavy snow accumulated on the high mountains. In thelowlands of the northern Mesopotamian Plain, which insome parts lie only 20 or 30 km from cold uplands, summers are hot and dry and winters are free of frost.
Precipitation in this area approaches 400 mm per annum,
rarely appearing as snow. Information obtained from
Ravansar Synoptic Station (20 km from Kavat Stream in
the highlands) and Sarepolezahab on the northern
Mesopotamian Plain (40 km away from Kavat Stream)summarizes the annual climatological data for these twocontrasting environments.

Materials and Methods
Streams, ponds, and springs were searched for adults
and larvae of Neurergus microspilotus in the mid-Zagros
Range in Kermanshah and Kurdistan provinces in western Iran in the spring and summer 2001 and 2002. In
streams where the salamander was found, channel substrate, channel width, adjacent riparian plant community
type, and land use practice were determined. Where possible, relative abundance of N. microspilotus was deter-

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Asiatic Herpetological ResearchVol. 10, p. 226

Table 1. Altitude at head stream, approximate length of the streams and amount of discharge (l/s) in streams where
Neurergus microspilotus was sighted.

StreamAltitude(m)

Approximate
Length (km)Kavat
DorisanDareh Najar
Ghorighaleh
Paveh rood
DarianShamshirMarakhil

1500
1600
1400
1600
1100
1000
1800
1600

4
3
2
0.1
2.3
2
1.5
2.5

Position(I/s)

Discharge

34° 53' N, 46° 31' E
35° 21' N, 46° 24' E
35° 06' N, 46° 19' E
34° 54' N, 46° 30' E
35° 06' N, 46° 17' E
35° 08' N, 46° 19' E
34° 59' N, 46° 25' E
35° 02' N, 46° 11' E

625.7*
35**
333.7*-* Based on measurement made by department of water resource.
** - Discharge measured in field by determining the velocity of water and the extent of cross-section.

mined and expressed as individuals per every ten paces.
In small streams where there was no routine hydrological measurement of water discharge, the water discharge
was estimated by measuring velocity of water and extent
of cross-section width of the channel. In Kavat Stream,
where highest relative abundance of N. microspilotus
was found, visual estimates were made of percent channel substrate composition (Wilkins and Peterson, 2000)
by bedrock, boulder (>256mm diameter), cobble (64256 mm diameter), gravel (16-64 mm diameter), pebble(2-16 mm diameter), fine sediment and coarse woody
debris. In these streams several water characteristics
were measured. These include dissolved oxygen(Winkler method), temperature (glass thermometer),electrical conductivity (conductivity meter), NO3 andPO4 (spectrophotometer).

Results
The geographic distribution of Neurergus microspilotus
in its Iranian range is shown in Figure.1. These are
Kavat Stream (34° 53´ N, 46° 31´ E), Dorisan Stream(35° 21´ N, 46° 24´ E), Ghorighaleh Stream (34° 54´ N,
46° 30´ E), Najar Stream (35° 06´ N, 46° 19´ E), andPaveh Rood Stream (35° 06´ N, 46° 17´ E). Apart fromstreams in which the newt has already been observed,
there are three other streams where, on the basis of interviews with local inhabitants, the presence of this animal
is likely. These streams are upstream of Marakhil River(35° 02' N, 46° 11' E), Shamshir Stream (34° 59' N, 46°
25' E) and Hajij Stream (35° 08' N, 46° 19' E). Altitude,
approximate length of the streams in which N. microspilotus is expected to occur, geographic position, andwater discharge are shown in Table 1.
Physico-chemical characteristics in streams with N.
microspilotus are shown in Table 1. Water analysis has
been carried out in upper and lower reaches of
Ghorighala Stream in order to demonstrate the humanimpact on the water quality.
Occurrence of the yellow spotted newt in different
aquatic microhabitats has been evaluated using the
Wilkins and Peterson (2000) classification of channel
substrate including bedrock, boulder, cobble, gravel,
pebble and fine sand sediment. The yellow spotted newt
occupies an assortment of aquatic microhabitats during
the breeding season. Visual determination of substratetexture in Kavat Stream indicated that this newt tended
to occupy substrates that are gravel or pebble (60%).
Figure 3 demonstrate the frequency distribution of substrate classes used by this newt.

Table 2. Physico-chemical characteristics of water where Neurergus microspilotus was found.

Streams

Head stream in Ghorighala
Lower reach of Ghorigala
Dareh nagar
Kavat
DorissanDO

NO3-N(mg/l)

PO4-P(mg/l)

EC(micm /cm)

Temperature
(°C)

8.15
6.65
7.8
-

0.38
0.35
1.14
-

N.D
N.D
N.D
-

323
356
549
-

11
11
15
11.5
11

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2004

Ravansar Climograph
120

50

Rainfall

35

90
60

Temperature

25
15
5

0

-5

Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

30

Bedrock Boulder Cobble Gravel

RainfallTemperature

0

Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

20

PebbleSand

Figure 3. Percent occurrence of Neurergus microspilotus in various substrate size group in Kavat Stream(n=42).

Sarpolzahab Climograph
100
80
60
40

% Occurrence

150

60
50
40
30
20
10

Figure 2. Climographs representing the pattern of precipitation and temperature in Ravansar at the western edgeof the Iranian Plateau and Sarepolezahab in the northern
Mesopotamian Plain. Data are 20 years mean monthly
temperature and rainfall collected at the synoptic stationsin these two cities.

Discussion
The presence of Neurergus microspilotus in Ghorighaleh
Stream has also been reported in previous studies(Nesterov, 1917; Schmidtler and Schmidtler, 1975).
Assadian and Sharifi (2002) and Rastegar Pouyani andAssadian (2002) have reported Neurergus microspilotus in this stream. Papenfuss and Sharifi also collected
several salamanders from this stream in Spring 2000.
No information is available regarding the occurrence of
Neurergus microspilotus in other streams, therefore, theother four streams are new records for N. microspilotus
in its Iranian range.
All Neurergus streams reported in this study withoriginated from the western edge of the Iranian Plateau(Figure 2) and join to the Dez-Karkheh watershed system in the northern Mesopotamian Plain and finallyenter into the Persian Gulf. All these stream are firstorder streams located at relatively high altitude (11001600 m) and join to the main rivers in the lowland (300600 m) of the catchments (Table 1).
Neurergus microspilotus is a medium size salaman-

der with a slender body. Adults reach a length (snout tovent) of 60-70 mm (mean=65.6, sd=4.63, n=20). Adults
are black dorsally and laterally, with greenish yellow
blotches. The spots are distributed on the salamander’sbody without an obvious pattern. Neurergus microspilotus characteristically possess broad heads with blunt,rounded snout. N. microspilotus is also structured forswimming using their laterally compressed tails for
propulsion and steering during swimming.
The prevailing climatic conditions are distinctly
different between and within streams. Since thesestreams are located at the western edge of the IranianPlateau, the climatic conditions may vary considerably
at the upper reaches compared with lower reaches of thesame streams. At the same time it appears that streams
closer to the Mesopotamian Plain are experiencing climatic conditions that are different with those that arelocated at the western edge of the Iranian Plateau.
Because of the steep environmental gradient the streams
occupied by Neurergus microspilotus can be conveniently divided into two groups. Those located in the highaltitude and cold weather regions on the western IranianPlateau (Kavat, Ghorighaleh, Dorisan and Shamshir
streams) and those in the north and north eastern part of
the range which because of lower elevation experience
warmer climate (Marakhil River, Dareh Najar andDarian streams). In Dareh Najar Stream where very few
Neurergus microspilotus were located, and also in
Marakhil and Darian streams where the animal is reportedly seen, it is possible that the animal drifted by theaction of water currents. It is also possible that the lower
relative abundance in N. microspilotus in Dareh Najar
and possibly in the other two streams is due to the lower
altitude and the vicinity to the northern Mesopotamian
Plain.
Terrestrial habitats occupied by N. microspilotus
include diverse community types including oak-pistachio open woodlands dominated by Quersus branti andPistachio spp. This woodland grows on various soil

2004

Asiatic Herpetological Researchtypes, including deep sandy loam soils at the bottom ofvalleys or gravelly soils on the slopes of steep valleys.
In warmer parts of its range, riparian vegetation may
also contain willow (Salix spp.) or shrubs such as
Cerrasus and Amygdale (Amygdalus spp.). In colder
parts of the range the riparian vegetation may be characterized by more hydrophobic plants such as sedges(Carex spp.) and sphagnum moss (Sphagnum spp.).
Neurergus microspilotus moves from its winteringsite to the breeding streams as soon as the spring melt
occurs, from late January through early March. Within
its range, in high altitude-cold weather regions, egg-laying was observed in early May. However, it appears
that the reproductive pattern of N. microspilotus is nottightly synchronized because unhatched eggs have been
observed as late as mid-June. No breeding activity, eggs,
or juveniles of N. microspilotus have been observed in
the low altitude warm climate part of the range. Eggs ofN. microspilotus are laid singly or in small clumps onvegetation or on rocks. The number of oocytes in afemale dissected in laboratory was 108. Laboratory
observations of larval growth and development indicatethat larvae complete the metamorphosis in the first year.
In early autumn they still possess their gills. Larvae withlarge heads, well developed dorsal fins, and bushy gills
have the ability to react suddenly with a whole bodyreaction to external stimulus.
Although no information is available regarding
wintering activity of Neurergus microspilotus in its
Iranian range, the appearance of the animal in early
spring and disappearance in summer implies that thisnewt requires both upland and wetland habitat that contain suitable aquatic environment during the breeding
season and subterranean burrows appropriate for wintering. These normally include an aquatic environment forbreeding and a terrestrial habitat where juveniles andadults spend most of their time.
Habitat loss through divergence of streams for irrigation of cultivated lands is probably the single mostimportant factor that threatens Neurergus microspilotus
in its Iranian range. Traditionally, due to the lack of landin steep valleys in the mid-Zagros Range, extensive
attempts have been made to construct a complex of reinforced terraces of land, which is cultivated for walnut
and other orchard trees. Water is diverted from its natural channel to irrigate these lands. Although no harm isdirected toward N. microspilotus in these orchards, theimpact of land use alteration especially in dry periods
causes many of these creatures to be deprived of ahealthy aquatic environment.
Although human settlement in the mid-Zagros area
is characteristically less developed compared with otherlocalities in western Iran, Neurergus microspilotus isexperiencing an environmental impact similar to thatVol. 10, p. 228

found in more urbanized areas in the country. For example, Ghorighaleh Stream originates from a cave that has
been developed by a reclamation project for visitors.
Since the construction of this unit the stream is sufferingfrom gross pollution caused by thousands of visitors.
Changes in water characteristics in the upper and lower
reaches of the stream are shown in Table 2. Although in2000 and 2001 numerous Yellow Spotted Newts werereported (Assadian and Sharifi, 2002; Rastegar Pouyani
and Assadian, 2002) no newts were seen in 2002. The
absence of Neurergus microspilotus is presumably due
to the human impacts resulting from an ecotourism center developed in 1999 at the Ghorighaleh Cave where
the source of the stream is located. Massive solid waste
disposed by thousands of visitors together with raw
sewage released to the stream by residents of
Ghorighaleh Village can be observed in the upper reaches of this stream although only changes in dissolved
oxygen are evident in physico-chemical characteristics
measured in this study.

Conclusions
Although Neurergus microspilotus has been virtually
extirpated from one of five known breeding streams in
its Iranian range, it does not appear to be in immediate
danger of extinction because one is likely to find thisnewt occur in other streams in the area. However, the situation for N. microspilotus is not promising as the major
threatening factors such as habitat destruction and waterpollution are operating. Robust populations occur in atleast in one of its habitats (Kavat Stream). However, thelack of information essential to estimate population sizeand population trends makes it difficult to assess conservation status of this salamander. Future work should
examine the long-term effects of anthropomorphic
impacts associated with land use alteration and pollution.

Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their gratitude to Professor
D. B. Wake for his great help in reviewing the manuscript. This study was supported by Razi University
grant.

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