The Bay of Bengal: A Forgotten Sea
The Proceeding of the Symposium on the Bay of
BengalYangoon, Myanamar, 4 February 2016

Editors:
Dr. Bishnu B. Bhandari
Reiko Nakamura

4 Feb 2016
Yoma Hotel Yangon
Myanmar1

Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Acronyms
Take Home Message......
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1. Bishnu B. Bhandari– The Bay of Bengal: A Forgotten Sea ...... .....

2. Sanowar Hossain- Problems and Opportunities in the Bay of Bengal:
An Example from Bangladesh ...... ...... ........

14
3. Tapas R. Chakraborty – Community Hint on the Conservation of
Biodiversity of the Bay of Bengal ......

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4
6

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4. Durga P. Das- Coastal Pollution along the Bay of Bengal in India 30
5. Htun Paw Oo- Status of Coastal Zone Management in Myanmar 38
6. Sansanee Choowaew - Thailand’s Ramsar Sites and Isthmus of Kra
44
7. Mashhor Mansor- Straits of Malacca and Penang, Malaysia ......
46
8. Onrizal- Coastal Resources of Aceh, Indonesia...... 49
Annexes
I. Participant, position and organization...... ......
II. Program of activities...... ......
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III. PowerPoint Presentations (8) ........ .......

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Acknowledgement
This is the proceedings of the Symposium on the Bay of Bengal: Assessment ofEnvironmental Problems" held in Yangon on the 4th February 2016. The editors and theRamsar Center Japan (RCJ) would like to extend their heartfelt thanks to the authors andparticipants for their active and responsible engagement in the conceptualization and further
development of issues facing the Bay of Bengal. Our thanks are also due to the Keidanren
Nature Conservation Fund for its generous support to the promotion of the BoB as a study
area.
The Editors----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Acronyms
BEIC
BoB
BOBLME
BOBP-IGOIOC
IUCN
MedWet
MOEF
MPA
NGO
NOAA
OUS
PHC
RCJ
SAARC
USM

= British East India Company= Bay of Bengal.
= Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem= Bay of Bengal Program – Inter-governmental Organization= Inter-Governmental Oceanographic Commission (of UNESCO)= International Union for Conservation of Nature= Mediterranean Wetlands Initiative= Ministry of Environment & Forestry= Marine Protected Area
= Non-Governmental Organization= National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration= Outstanding Universal Value= Petroleum Hydrocarbon= Ramsar Center Japan= South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation= Universiti Sains Malaysia

Photo Credit: The photo on the cover page is from the presentation of Durga P. Das, India.

3

Take Home Message
3. The Symposium on the Bay of Bengal: Assessment of Environmental Problems was held at
Yangon on the 4th February 2016. About 22 participants from 9 countries (Bangladesh, India,
Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Mynamar, Nepal, Philippines and Thailand) attended thesymposium. The list of the participants along with their designation and institutions isannexed as Annex I. It was chaired by Reiko Nakamura and moderated by Bishnu B.
Bhandari. The Symposium began with a short welcoming remark from Bishnu Bhandari
followed by his presenting a paper titled "The Bay of Bengal: A Forgotten Sea". The otherthree papers were from Sanowar Hossain, Durga P. Dash and Htun Paw Oo on Bangladesh,
India and Myanmar respectively. Four other supplementary presentations were made byparticipants from Bangladesh, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. The detailed program of
activities is presented in Annex II. The powerPoint presentations are included in Annex III.
Each presentation was followed by a question & answer session. After the presentation, open
discussion was held to collect the participants' opinion and suggestions for the promotion of
the conservation of the Bay of Bengal as larger wetland system.
The brief summary of the floor discussion is presented below in two parts; observations andsuggested actions.
Observations
1. The nature of the issues, problems and livelihood are similar in the coastal area of theBay. Only it varies in magnitude.
2. The ultimate goal should be to make the Bay of Bengal a healthy ecosystem. And weneed to develop a catchy title for the purpose of procuring funds.
3. In the first stage only the coastal countries -- Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Sri Lanka & Thailand -- should be targeted. Upon the assessment, thesecond stage should be launched to include countries like Maldives, Nepal, Bhutan
and China.
4. Bringing all the countries and stakeholders under the same platform of the Bay of
Bengal should be the goal of our future initiative.
5. Trans-boundary issues should be taken into consideration while embarking on the
study of the Bay of Bengal. The study should adopt a human-centered approach.
6. In the future, it would be realistic to organize the future workshop in Sri Lanka or
Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Actions Suggested
The following are the action suggested for initiating studies and works in the Bay of Bengal.
1. Compile the papers and put it in the RCJ Website
2. As much as possible conduct action research on major issues facing the Bay of Bengal.
3. Document all the available literature, along with an annotated bibliography
4. Prepare an inventory (directory) of major wetlands, Ramsar sites, experts, NGOs,
CBOs, universities and research institutions
5. Conduct action research on biological diversity of the Bay area
6. Undertake participatory action research on life and livelihood of communities anddeveloping their capacity and community resilience47. Focus on biological diversities, particularly fisheries, birds, turtle and endemic floraand fauna
8. Develop a mechanism of establishing an informal network of Ramsar sites which areat or near the coastal area of the Bay of Bengal
9. Raise the profile of the Bay of Bengal through awareness raising and capacity
building of local people, especially the wetland dependent communities.
The symposium was closed with a unanimous recommendation that efforts be made to
procure funds so as to undertake various studies including awareness raising, capacity
building, needs assessment and action research.

5

(1) The Bay of Bengal: A Forgotten Sea1
Bishnu B. Bhandari2
Abstract: The Bay of Bengal is the world's largest basin. It houses Palk Straits,
Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mottama, Gulf of Manar, Mergui Archpelago,
Andaman sea and some part of the Strait of Melaca. From the 10th century, it has beencalled the Bay of Bengal after the name of Bengal. Historically, the Bay is the
highway for millions of emigrants. In a span of 100 years (1840-1940) about 30
millions of people crossed the bay to Sri Lanka, Malaya and Burma for employment.
At one time 140 thousand refugees embarked on a long march from Rangoon to India.
World War II was the turning point. The area houses some endangered animals suchas dolphin, sea cow, whale and sea cucumber. The major concern is the rise of sea
level. The prevailing environmental hazards are water pollution, shipbreaking,planetary warming and loss of critical habitats. The Bay is surrounded by 13 Ramsar
sites from five countries. The area could be a venue for the conservation through thework of the interdisciplinary efforts.
Keywords: Bay of Bengal, Wetlands, Wetlands, Sustainable Development
Introduction
The Bay of Bengal (BOB or the Bay) has again emerged as a region of strategic and politicalimportance. It is simply a "stretch of Sea from the India Ocean to the Pacific" but it is at theheart of global history" (Amith, 2013). This is an area of competition between India, China
and the US for influence in Asia. After the political revolution of the 1950's, again theoversea movement emerged as construction and plantation boomed in Malaysia in 1980's.
The ecologist call it as a large marine ecosystem, whereas as the student of wetlands look at it
as a huge wetland, housing a exceptionally rich aquatic diversity, a source of livelihood of
millions of people in the coastal area, and the habitat of globally threatened fauna such as theRoyal Bengal Tiger in Sundarbans, Leather Sea Turtle, Malayan Box Turtle, Saltwater
crocodile in the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve, the nesting of the Ridley Sea Turtle in
Odisa and other marine life such as whale, hogfish, school of dolphins, Tuna and the
Irrawaddy Dolphin. Plus the area has so many coral reefs, estuarine, fish spawning andnursery areas and mangroves.
Francis Day, an English fishery officer (1873: 12) observed in 1873 that the water around the
Mergui Archipelago off Burma's coast "literally alive with fish". R. Sivasubramaniam (1853)
reported the biological richness of the Bay as follows - demersal species 215, pelagic 65,
cartilaginous 40 species along with shrimps, yellowfin and skipjack tuna.
The paper is an attempt to look at the Bay of Bengal from the perspective of the "principle of
the wise use of wetlands". The paper begins with the description of the location of the area,
its history, general environment and hazards and some opportunities for its conservation
including its coastal area.
1

Paper presented at the "Symposium on the Bay of Bengal: Environmental Issues, Problems and Opportunities"
4 Feb 2916, Yangon, Myanmar (Organizer: Ramsar Center Japan)
2
President, Nepal Wetland Society, Contact Address: bishnunws@gmail.com

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The Geography
The Bay of Bengal is the world's largest triangular basin in the Indian Ocean. It is not only
the largest basin but also one of the 64 Large Marine Ecosystems in the world. It is an
enclosed sea – an arc stretching from the southeastern edgeof India, up and along the coasts of Bangladesh andMyanmar and down to the western coast of Thailand,
Malaysia and Indonesia.
The Bay is bordered in the east by western coast of
Myanmar including the Gulf of Mottama and western
coast of the Isthmus of Kra including Phuket of Thailandor the Andaman Sea. Its western border is marked by theeastern coast of India. The northeast coast of India, entire
south coast of Bangladesh (mouth of Ganges) andnorthwest coast of Myanmar makes its border to the north.
Kanya Kumari of India, Dendra Head of Galle of Sri Lanka and the northern edge of Aceh of
Sumatra (Indonesia) and Penang Island of Malaysia in the Gulf of Malacca mark its southernborder. Major characteristics of the Bay of Bengal are given in Box A.
Box A: The Bay of Bengal at a Glance
1. Basin countries: (1) Bangladesh, (2) India, (3) Indonesia (4) Malaysia, (5)Myanmar, (6) Thailand, and (7) Sri Lanka (Wikipedia)
2. Surface area = (2.2 million km2) (Precisely 2,172,000 km2 )3. Average depth = 2,600 meters
4. Maximum depth = 4,694 meters
5. Important animals = Coral reef, tropical Dolphins, Sharks, Dugongs (swimin sea grass), Olive Ridley Sea Turtle, Game fish (Tuna and Marlins), rare
Irrawady Dolphins, (From Wildlife Conservation Society)6. Major rivers = Kaveri, Krishna, Godawari, Ganga, Brahmaputra (India),
Ayeyarwaddy (Myanmar)
The Bay houses many straits, gulf, islands, Isthmus, archipelagos and mouths of the rivers.
such as the Strait of Malacca (in between Malaysia and Indonesia), Dondra Head(southernmost part of Sri Lanka and has the tallest lighthouse of Southeast Asia), mouths ofmany major rivers, Andaman Sea, Penang Island (Malaysia), Isthmus Kra (Thailand), Palk
Strait and Gulf of Mannar ( between Sri Lanka and India), Gulf of Mottama (west Myanmar).
Others are;.


Myeik Archipelago is the former Mergui Archipelago. This is an unexplored sea andis inhabited by the Moken Peoples. These peoples are nomadic in residence and havesea-based life. They are good for sea diving and can hold their breath longer thanother peoples.
7

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The Gulf of Mannar lies in between India and Sri Lanka. It is one of the richest
coastal region. The area houses some 117 species of coral species. The sea turtle,
sharks, dugongs and dolphins are some frequent visitors. The dolphin, Dudong (seacow), whale and sea cucumbers are the endangered species. For the protection of theresources, there is a Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve.
The Andaman & Nicobar Islands has about 750 islands and only 38% are presently
inhabited. Previously, the place was an isolated prison for the freedom fighters ofIndia but now has been transformed into "an Emerald Island" for tourists. Mahatma
Gandhi Marine National Parke, which is close to Port Blair is famous for the Degong(sea cow).

The Asian monsoon animates the Bay of Bengal. It determines every aspect of life – nature,human society and culture. Mansoon means water. The monsoon stretches from the Arabianarea up to Southern China and down to the northern tropics of Australia. During April to
September monsoon winds move from Southwest to Northeast whereas from April to
September it moves from Northeast to Southwest. The monsoon means heavy rain. It sets therhythm of agriculture across the part of South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia.
The Bay in Different Languages
According to the Wikepedia, the free Encyclopedia, this body of water is referred to as
Mahodadhi (literally great water receptacle) in ancient Sanskrit literature while it appears as
Sinus Gangeticus or Gangeticus Sinus, meaning the "Gulf of the Ganges" in ancient maps.
The other Sankrit names of the Bay of Bengal are "Vangopasagara" (Saskrit: j8=uf]k;fu/,lit. Bengal's Bay), also simply called as "Vangasagara" (Sanskrit: j8=u;fu/, lit. Bengal
Sea) and "Purvapayodhi" (Sanskrit: k"j}kof]l3, lit. Eastern Ocean). Only in the 10th
century, it was known as the Bay of Bengal, after the name of Bengal.
The Bay was, for many countries and for many languages, known as the "Chola Sea" or"Chola Lake". The Portugese gave it the name of "Golfo de Bengala". In Hindi, it is called
Bangal,Ki Khadi" or in Nepali " Bangalko Khadi". In English, it is known by different names
such as South Asia, Southeast Asia, which emerged after World War II. Colonists named the
Bay as "Further India, the Indian Archipelago or simply the Other Side of the Bay". For
Chinese, it was Nanyang or the "Southern Ocean" (Amrith, 2013). Some called it the British
Lake.
The Bay of Bengal in History
The tracing of the history of the Bay shows that Asia fell in the control of European colonists
at the end of the 15th century and became the arena for the competition with themselves andAsian powers. In the 17th century, the Portuguese advance was reversed by the joint forces of
the Dutch and the English. In the 18th century, the English, the Dutch and the French East
India Company had put a foothold here through the establishment of the "factory". The
British started sending their troops, garrison, legal code and officials and dominated the Bay
area.
In the second half of the 19th century, the British Empire envisioned a grand design ofdeveloping rubber plantation in Malaysia, rice in Burma, coffee and tea in Ceylon. This plan
was supported by imperial capital and Asian labor, especially of India. In the implementation8

of the plan, the British authority mobilized the emigration of almost 30 million (some say 28
million) workers between 1840 and 1940 that crossed the Bay of Bengal from India to
Malaysia, Burma, and Ceylon. Only about 2 million of them travelled back and forth. There
was always a circular migration around the Bay. Historically also it is important to note thatabout 140,000 refuges embarked on the long march from Rangoon to India in the late 1930's.
On the way, many died of exposure, exhaustion, starvation, heart failure and amputation.
Indeed, the Bay was the home of the world's biggest emigration.
This vast political and economic connection fell apart when World War II took place in theearly 1940's. World War II was the turning point for political, economic and culturalconnection in Asia. The British Empire collapsed and new nation states emerged, where theissue of citizenship and belongingness was prominent. These nation-states began to exploit
internal resources and internal labor. The sea was of no concern for them. Thus the Bay was
simply a "forgotten sea" in the 1960's.
Environmental hazards at the Bay
The massive exploitation of natural resources took place to feed the imperial factories.
Forests were cleared, mines were excavated and gases were extracted out. The new nationstates, triggered by growing population and intensive land clearance, diverted their attention
to the exploitation of natural resources and establishing factories in the region. And thefactories, in turn, emitted greenhouse gases. The accumulation of greenhouse gases at theatmosphere was the major cause of global warming (or planetary warming) and its direct
effect was on the sea, i.e. the rise of sea level. For example, a meter rise of sea level caninundate a half of Bangladesh and a large area of coast in the littoral zone. This is a singular
ecological issue that concerns all of us. This is the reason why the region is again at the heartof international community. It has successfully drawn their attention. This warrants theirconcentration, cooperation and collaboration for its sustainable development. Global
warming (or climate change) has been frontier for immediate action. Along with its biologicalrichness and strategic importance, the Bay region manifests many environmental problems,
the important ones are briefly summarized below.
(1) Water pollution: The Bay receives about the 4/5th of total pollutants that spill into thearea coming from 7 rivers, important cities that ring the littoral area. These cities were thedeparture points for millions of journeys in the age of sails and steams. In fact, the area is asink of organic and inorganic wastes of the area. Every day the Bay receives (ingests) a
notorious cocktail of refuse, trash, garbage, organic matter, nutrients (including nitrogen,pesticides from agricultural fields), metabolized drugs, medical waste, cytotoxic, antibiotic,
hormone-mimicking materials, bacteria, virus, worms, chemicals (detergents, fertilizer
runoff) and a large quantity of sediments.
Storm and flood surges fan out these pollutants to sea. Also a huge quantity of plastic floatout to the sea.
(2) Decline of critical habitats
9

The critical habitat such as mangroves, coral reef and estuaries are declining and deterioratingin the Bay area due to overfishing, loss of sea turtle and so forth. The impact is in bothterrestrial and aquatic species due to the following.
 The coast line is shifting due to deforestation and human encroachment to themangrove swamps for shrimp and other aqua-cultural activities. The mangroves aregood for both trapping and boding sediments, and for stabilizing soils. In addition, themangroves excel in creating land where there once was sea.
 World's river deltas are shrinking at up to 4 times the rate at which sea levels arerising. The main cause is human intervention (large dam, reservoir, diversion,
pumping, natural drying out etc.). The human interventions have broken "the criticallinks between channels and their floodplains". This disconnection makes, firstly, thedelta devoid of necessary sediments, which are the source of both of their sustenanceand replenishments. The soil, silt and sediments are transported away from the critical
habitats by surging flood and cyclone. Secondly, it makes the rivers weak to infiltrate
the displaced sediments because the dams trap and keep sediments at the reservoirs.
The shrinkage (subsistence) is also due to their compaction, which is caused by overextraction of groundwater, oil and gas from offshore drilling.
(3) Hazards of shipbreaking 3 : The Bay receives the discarded hulks of the world's
unwanted ships. The industry has both beauty and horror. Some 80% of shipbreaking
industry is located in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. Chittagong alone of Bangladesh houses
one of the world's unwanted ships. Some 30 thousand people are employed in this trade. Thisis the beauty of the industry. The other side is that the shipbreaking industry is one of themost dangerous occupations in the world. People have to work and wade into toxic and oilysludge to take the parts of the ships. Every day the workers inhale dangerous chemicals
including lead and asbestos.
(4) Planetary warming
The world's oceans are likely to rise due to planetary warming, the causes being both global
and cumulative. The accumulation of greenhouse gases since the industrial revolution heats
up the Earth. The ice and the snow become the first victim. Thus ice-melt pour into the ocean.
IPCC estimates that globally the sea level will rise between 19 and 59 centimeters by 2100.
Some scientists estimate that sea level will rise, not in centimeters but in meters.
 The first effect is that sea level will rise globally. Though the Bay accounts for a small
portion of GHG emission, should the water rises, it is likely to be the world's mostaffected region. The Bay faces a 2,350 kilometers of Indian coast. The region depends
on the life of the sea for nutrition, winds and currents. About 450 km long coastal areaof Andra Pradesh is under "very high risk" from rising waters. In this regard
Bangladesh is the most vulnerable to sea levels as it is low-lying and densely
populated country. Besides, recent studies show that the Himalayan region (the Third
Pole) is warming faster than the global average.
 The other effect of planetary warming is that climate extremes will occur more
frequently around the world. The extreme will be more frequent, erratic anddevastating in the coming years. The most horrible threat to the Bay and its coastal
3This industry began in Chittagong due to climate-related hazards. In the 1960's, one of the notorious cyclone
Bay blew a 20,000 ton tanker off course and onto the beach in Chittangong. This opened the door for
generating income for the local communities. They used their ingenuity to recycle the ship's components.

10

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



people is storm as the area is hotbed for generating tropical cyclones. The tumult is set
to increase in the future. The horror of the 2008 Cyclone Nargis in the delta of the
Ayeyarwaddy in Myanmar can be summarized as follows – like a bucket of watersloshed over an ink drawing, nearly 85,000 people dead, tens of thousands more
missing, up to 2 million displaced, houses and vegetation wiped out and so forth.
The other effect is the erratic monsoon that will result in drought and flooding.
Average rainfall is likely to decline, while the incidence of abnormally powerfulstorms will increase.
Still other effect is that the displacement of the people (climate refuge) by risingwaters is virtually certain. It is likely that the number of climate change is likely toloom larger and larger in the future, especially climate-induced hazards, climate
cyclical volatility and like El Nino.
In 2004, a rupture more than a hundred km wide occurred on the floor of theAndaman Sea, causing a massive underground earthquake at magnitude of 9 Richter
Scale – a devastating Tsunami that swept across the Indian Ocean. About a quarter
million of people died. This is the Tsunami that took its tool.

Ramsar sites along coastal rim
Ramsar sites along the coastal area of the Bay (at south straight line from the Bundala of Shri
Lanka to Princess Siridhorn Wildlife Sanctuary). The area houses some 13 Ramsar sites
from 5 countries along the rim of the Bay. For example, Bangladesh and Myanmar have onesite each, for example (1) Sundarbans Reserve Forest in Bangladesh and Moeyungyi Wetland
Wildlife Sanctuary in Myanmar. India and Thailand have 5 sites each. The five sites that are
in or near the Indian coastal area are (1) Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary, (2)Kolleru Lake, (3) Chilika Lake, (4) Bhitarkanika Mangroves, and (5) East Calcutta Wetlands.
The coastal wetlands that are in the Bay area include (1) Kaper Estuary-Laemson Marine NPKraburi Estuary, (2) Ko Ra-ko Phra Thong Archipelago, (3) Pang Nga Bay Marine National
Park, (4) Krabi Estuary, and (5) Had Chao Mai Marine NP- Ta Libong Island Non-hunting
Area – Trang River Estuary. The Ramsar sites that is in the coastal area of the Bay in Sri
Lanka is Kumana-Kudimbigal Wetland Cluster.

Some Opportunities
The Bay is a shared area surrounded by 7 countries (India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar,
Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia), millions of people dependent on its resources in the
coastal area and the competition between Asian power like India and China for access toresources, sea lanes and politico-cultural influences. Thus, the Bay provides a new hope andspirit for the region. It could be a new spirit of cooperation and conflict which may evenprovoke "water war" in the region. The stark issue is how to manage it sustainably.
A cursory look at the present situation of the Bay offers us a multitude of opportunities for its
sustainable development. But it does not mean to say that the area does not have any issues
and constraints. It does have many issues and opportunities at the offing, some of which arebriefly touched upon below.
11

1. Develop a network of the Ramsar sites that are at its coastal area to exchange
experiences, constraints and success stories of the wise use of resources. This network
may help them develop a common agenda for the management and conservation of
the Bay of Bengal.
2. Replicate the model of MedWet (Mediterranean Wetlands Initiative) of Ramsar
Convention that has been successful for the wise use of wetland resources in the
Mediterranean Sea in Europe. The experiences from the MedWet would be quite
useful in the management of the Bay of Bengal. Or, the experience from the Wadden
Sea would be quite useful for the Bay area as some organizations like the Bay of
Bengal Program – Inter-governmental Organization (BOBP-IGO) and InterGovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO are already there on
the ground in the Bay area. Learning from, and application of, these models can help
shape the environmental situation of the area.
3. Develop an informal network of relevant stakeholders in the conservation of the Bay
and its resources, firstly bringing wetland organizations together and then otherstakeholder including those which are interested in wetland but outside the Ramsar
family..
4. Conducting exploratory studies of the Bay, its natural as well as marine resources.
References
Amrith, Sunil S. (2013). Crossing the Bay of Bengal: The Furies of Nature and Fortunes ofMigrants. Cambridge: Harward University Press.
Das, PK ( 2009). The Monson. Reprints. New Delhi: National Book Trust, India.
Day, Francis (1873). Report on the Sea Fish and Fisheries of India and Burma. Calcutta:
Government of India.
Dobbym E. G. S. (1961). Monson Asia. London: University of London Press. 27
Scott, David B. Janifer Frail-Gauthier and Petra J. Madie (2014). Costal Wetlands of theWorld. New York: Cambridge Univeristy Press.
Sivasubramaniam, R (1853). Maritime Fishery Resources of the Bay of Bengal. Rome: FAO.

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(2) Problems and Opportunities in the Bay of
Bengal: An Example from Bangladesh
Sanowar Hossain4
Abstract: The coast line of Bangladesh is about 710 km long. More than
118,813 sq km of the Bay falls in territorial sea and exclusive economic zone of
Bangladesh. Bangladesh being a first line littoral state of the Indian Ocean has
a very good source of marine resources from the Bay of Bengal. A total of, 442
marine and 76 species fish from estuarine waters were recorded from the sea
and mangroves. Almost 30 million people directly or indirectly depend upon
marine fisheries industries for their living. Highly commercial fishes include
some 100 species. The coastal zone contains distinctive development
opportunities that can be instrumental in reducing the vulnerability and povertyof coastal community and can contribute significantly to the development of
Bangladesh as a whole. Major threats to biodiversity are post larvae collectionof shrimp and colossal loss of biodiversity, coastal and marine pollution, ship
breaking in the beaches, impact of coastal aquaculture on environment, natural
disasters, sea level rise, persistent organic pollutants etc. Maritime experts havebeen warning that Bangladesh’s marine fish will be threatened in future withuncontrolled use of modern technologies and trawlers. In fiscal year 2007-08,
nearly 497,000 metric tons of fish were caught from the Bay of Bengal. That
number rose to 589,000 metric tons in fiscal year 2012-13. Over 200
commercial fishing trawlers remain engaged throughout the year. A
coordinated protection and conservation measure is required for reflecting thescope from the national and international legislation and for strengthening of
the institutional capacity in coordinated management.
1. The Bay of Bengal
The Bay of Bengal is a northern extension of the Indian Ocean, positioned between India and
Sri Lanka in the west, Bangladesh to the north, andMyanmar (Burma) and the northern part of the Malay
Peninsula to the east. It's approximately 1,000 miles (1,600km) wide, with an average depth near 8,500 feet. The
maximum depth is recorded at 15,400 feet. Bangladesh,
India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, andThailand are the countries bordering the Bay of Bengal(BOB). It occupies an area of 2,172,000 km
The BOB is the largest among 64 bays in the world and an
estimated 1.4 billion people live along its coastline in
Bangladesh, India, Thailand and Myanmar. In Bangladesh,nearly 30 million people are directly dependent on oceanic
activities like fisheries and commercial transportation for their livelihood.

4

President, Bangladesh POUSH, 11/8 Iqbal Road, Mohammedpur, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh

13

The two successive UN tribunal awards have established Bangladesh’s sovereign rights on
more than 118,000 sq km of maritime territory, 200 nautical miles (nm) of Exclusive
Economic Zone and 354 nm of continental shelf. The peaceful resolution of maritime
discords has opened a golden opportunity for Bangladesh to explore and exploit the vast
resources in the Bay of Bengal.
The Sunderbans bordering the Bay of Bengal is the largest single block of tidal halophytic
mangrove forest in the world. Cox's Bazar, the longest stretch of beach in the world and twoother beaches are Kuakata and St. Martins Islands.
The management of coastal and marine biodiversity in Bangladesh is its responsibility andalso an exclusive task of the whole neighboring nations of the BOB and Indian Ocean rim
countries. The BOB is prone to severe natural disaster, such as cyclones, storm surges andfloods. In combination with other natural and man-made hazards, such as erosion, the higharsenic contents of ground water, water logging, water and soil salinity and various forms ofpollution, these disasters have made coastal dwellers very vulnerable and slowed down socialand economic developments (Maruf, H 2004). Bangladesh does not have much knowledge
about marine bio-technology, unlike India which has advanced knowledge in this field. An
overview of the status of BOB is presented in Box A.
Box A: An overview of the Bay of Bengal
Location: South Asia
Position: The Bay of Bengal is a northern extension of the Indian Ocean, positioned
betweenIndia and Sri Lanka in the west, Bangladesh to the north,and Myanmar (Burma) and the northern part of the Andaman-Nicober to the east.
Coordinates: 15°N 88°E15°N 88°E: 15°N 88°E15°N 88°E
Primary inflows: Indian Ocean
Basin countries: India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Myanmar, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka.
The Bay occupies an area of about 2.2 million sq km.
Maximum length: 2,090 km (1,300 mi)
Maximum width: 1,610 km (1,000 mi)
Surface area: 2,172,000 km2 (839,000 sq mi)
Average depth: 2,600 m (8,500 ft)
Maximum depth: 4,694 m (15,400 ft)
Note: Geographically it is a source of water, salt, energy, fish, minerals, transport, and business and so on.
Numerous large river systems drain into its waters, including the massive Ganges and Irrawaddy.

2. Coastal and Marine Biodiversity
The coastal zone contains distinctive development opportunities that can be instrumental in
reducing the vulnerability and poverty of coastal communities and can contributesignificantly to the development of Bangladesh as a whole. The marine resources include oiland gas, fisheries, ship building, ship breaking, salt collecting, tourism etc. According toprimary assessment made by Bangladesh, a few trillion cubic feet of gas is deposited in its
maritime zone.
14

In recent years, Bangladesh coastal areas received international attention due to its highpotential for exploitation of both onshore and offshore natural gas. The coastal zone also
contains several ecosystems that have important conservation values. The world’s largest
uninterrupted stretch of mangrove system, the Sunderban, has been declared World heritagesite in 1997, whereas coral ecosystems are found around St. Martin Island. These ecosystems
are not only biodiversity hotspots, but they also provide the ecological foundation for an
important common property resource.
The Royal Bengal Tiger, for which the Sunderban is the last remaining natural habitat, theOtter, Squirrels, Wild Boar, and in rivers and the sea, a number of dolphin species arereported. Not much inventory work has been carried of invertebrate fauna. Some species suchas the Giant Honey bee, Mud crab and various shrimps are studied intensively because of
their relation with human activities. It is well known that the number of insect species is high.
The IUCN Bangladesh Red Data Book (2000) has listed 442 marine fishes, 22 amphibians,
17 marine reptiles, 388 resident birds, 240 migratory birds, and 3 species of marine mammals
in Bangladesh. According to the Red list of IUCN, 2001 among the marine and migratory
species of animals, 4 fishes, 5 reptiles, 6 birds, and 3 mammals are threatened. The recent
discovery of nearly 6,000 rare Irrawaddy dolphins in the mangroves of Bangladesh, on theedge of the Indian Ocean, highlights the importance of the country’s marine environment andthe need for more research into the status of its threatened species
1. Crabs: As many as 50 species of crabs have so far been identified in the coastal andmarine habitats of the Bay of Bengal of which 11 are purely marine. Only three species arereported to be commercially important. The mud crab, Scylla serrate is abundantly available
and is reported to be suitable for coastal aquaculture.
2. Mollusks, bivalves and reptiles: Mollusks of a variety of forms are available in the Bayof Bengal and adjacent areas. They include bivalves, clams, oysters, scallops, snails and slugs,
cuttleﬁsh, squids, octopuses, etc. Ahmed reported 301 species of marine mollusks in
Bangladesh. However, very little is known about their biology, occurrence, production andmanagement.
3. Shrimps: Besides the large number of ﬁsh species, the mangroves also support many
species of shrimps with high commercial value. These include 24 species of shrimps
belonging to ﬁve families However, the tiger shrimp, Penaeusmonodon, outstands the otherin terms of its commercial importance and availability. The bottom trawling industries ofBangladesh aims mainly to catch shrimps, particularly Penaeusmonodon.
4. Turtles (Globally significant): Sea turtles are significant bio-indicators of the world
ocean environment. Saving these magnificent animal we can in fact protect our ocean life.
Scientists recognize 7 living species of sea turtles under 6 genera like Olive ridley(Lepidochelysolivacea), Green turtle (Cheloniamydas), Loggerhead (Carettacaretta),
Leatherback (Dermochelyscoriacea), Hawksbill (Eretmochelysimbricata), Kemp's ridley(Lepidochelyskempii), Flatback (Natatordepressas). Sadly, sea turtle face many dangers as
they travel the seas - like getting caught in fishing gear meant for other animals, the loss ofnesting and feeding sites, directed hunting and pollution. They laid the eggs on sea shore but
the eggs are damaged not only by wild animals like dogs and foxes but also by the tribal
people who collect the eggs and sell in the market.

15

5. Mangrove biodiversity: The coastal region houses several mangrove ecosystems.
Mangroves are available in the form of natural forests Sunderban and forests together
covering about 50% of the forest area of Bangladesh. The Sunderban Mangrove forests andother parts of coastal area support a wide range of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles andcrustacean.
The Surdarban is a unique ecosystem and provides great opportunities in a number of ways.
Global mangroves are calculated to be just over 1, 80,000 km2, a small area compared toother forests. Bangladesh is the 8th country in the world, which possess a vast mangrove
forest. This is the place where the mainland Bangladesh meets the Bay of Bengal, making thearea a globally unique ecological niche. The Sunderban mangrove forests provide timber,
pulp wood, fuel-wood and raw materials for industries. The major commercial timber/woodspecies of Sunderbans are Sundri, Gewa, Keora and Goran. It is mentionable here that theWorld Heritage Convention (WHC) declared “Sundarban as natural and cultural site ofoutstanding universal value". It is also included for selection of 7 wonders of the world. In
total there are 334 species of plants, 400 spp. of fishes, 53 spp. of reptiles, 315 spp. of birds
and 50 spp. of mammals. There are 283 species of finfish in Indian Sunderban and 222
species of finfish in Bangladesh Sunderban. Marine biodiversity includes 100 species ofshellfish community, 15 species of shrimps, 8 species of prawn, 1 species of lobster, 5species of crabs, 3 species of snails, 22 species of mussels and shells, 4 species of cuttlefish
and squids (MOEF, 2002).
6. Marine fish species: Bangladesh is very rich in fish and shrimp species biodiversity. A
total of 442 marine and 76 species fish from estuarine waters were recorded by IUCN
Bangladesh (2000). The marine list, however, contains 73 species whose distribution includes
estuaries as well. MOEF (2002) surveys made 87 new records from the St. Martin’s Island.
Thus the present total would be 529 marine and 149 estuarine fish species. However, many ofthem are not of commercial importance (Amin &Kawsar 2003). There are about 100
commercial species of which 20 fish families are highly commercial, contributing about 8287% of the total demersal exploitation
7. Sea weeds: Only St. Martin’s Island has favorable substrata of the growth of seaweeds. A
preliminary survey of this Island and of the Sunderbans area revealed the occurrence ofnearly 200 species of seaweeds. There are also 160 taxa of marine phytoplankton in the Bayof Bengal.
8. Shellfish: In addition to finfish Bangladesh also has a rich diversity of shellfish. About 36
species of shrimps have been recorded from the marine water of Bangladesh. With a recent
record a total of 63 shrimp and prawn from inland and marine. The shrimp and prawn culture
sector of Bangladesh is seen as having become very important in economic terms
contributing significantly to foreign exchange earnings and employment generation in rural
areas. About 600,000 coastal people are directly employed in this industry. In addition to thefinfish and shrimps, more than 300 mollusk species are recorded from Bangladesh. Two
species of Trochus are recorded from the St. Martin’s Island, which are depleted worldwide.
Octopus and cuttlefish (sepia) occur in deep waters of the Bay and are exportablecommodities.
3. Socio-economic and Livelihood support
 Reduce vulnerability to natural hazards, climate variability and climate change, andincrease climate resilience
16







Improve the living and working conditions of coastal ﬁshing communities
Medicines such as cod liver oil, cosmetics and toiletries can be produced with marine
resources but Bangladesh lacks investment in the sector.
In Bangladesh, nearly 30 million people are directly dependent on oceanic activities
like fisheries and commercial transportation for their livelihood.
Empower coastal people to participate in, and benefit from, sustainable development
practices
Mainstream gender into ﬁshery and environment management decision making. The
BOB is supporting thousands of coastal community for resources like: oysters, snails,
corals, mangrove forest, Nipa palm, honey collection, fry collection, fuel materials etc.
Among them fisheries are the most important natural source for thousands of coastal
community who depends on it for their livelihood and are the source of protein for theentire country. Loita and Chury dry fishes are from the Bay of Bengal that areavailable in whole country and Rup Chanda fishes are the most delicious fish that areavailable in all five star hotels in Bangladesh. Statistics of Bay of Bengal fisheries are
given below
 Food for approximately 400 million people About 4% of the value of the world`s catch($ 4 billion)
 Annual production for 6 million people
 Livelihoods for 4.5 million people Approximately 2.2 million fishers
 Approximately 460,000 fishing crafts

4. Environmental Pollution
1. Air pollution: Air pollution that covers much of South Asia and the Indian Ocean, every
year between January and March and possibly also during earlier and later months, hangsover the Bay of Bengal. It is considered to be a combination of vehicle exhaust, smoke fromcooking fires, and industrial discharges.
2. Water pollution: The major transboundary issues relating to pollution and water quality
are: (1) sewage-borne pathogens and organic load, (2) solid waste/marine litter, (3) increasing
nutrient inputs, (4) oil pollution persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and persistent toxic
substances (PTSs), (5) sedimentation and (6) heavy metals.
3. Water pollution by leakage of oil tanker: Recently leakage of oil tanker close to
Sundarban spread whole Sundarban area and its impact on flora, fauna and soil. How many
flora and fauna have been damaged is yet to be assessed.
4. Coastal and Marine Pollution: Municipal waters, industrial pollution, oil pollution, ship
breaking, impact of coastal aquaculture on environment, natural disasters, sea level rise, andpersistent organic pollutants are transboundary problems. And they are harmful to coastal andmarine biodiversity (Maruf, H 2004).

5. Disaster of the Bay of Bengal
1. Tropical storms and cyclones seasons: A tropical storm with rotating winds blowing at
speeds of 74 miles (119 kilometers) per hour is called a cyclone when they originate over the17Bay of Bengal; and called a hurricane in the Atlantic. Between 100,000 and 500,000 residentsof Bangladesh were killed because of the 1970 Bhola cyclone.
2. Cyclone Sidr: Cyclone Sidr has a very severe cyclonic storm that resulted in one of theworst natural disasters in Bangladesh. It took a tool of 10,000 in November 2007. Cyclone
Sidr is a tropical cyclone that resulted in one of the worst natural disasters in Bangladesh.
Coastal districts faced heavy rainfall as an early impact of the cyclone. Total damages cameclose to $450 million. Storm surges reaching up to a height of 3 meters (9.8 ft) were reported
in the coastal areas of north, triggering panic among the fishing community.
3. Cyclone Aila: Cyclone Aila also known as Severe Cyclonic Storm was the second tropical
cyclone of the 2009 North Indian Ocean cyclone season. A relatively strong tropical cyclone,
it caused extensive damage in India and Bangladesh. As of 27 May 2009, 330 people were
killed by Aila, and at least 8,208 more are missing, while about 1 million people became
homeless. In Bangladesh, an estimated 20 million people were at risk of post-disaster
diseases due to Aila. The damage is assesses at $552.6 million (2009 USD).
6. Climate Change and its Impacts on Marine Fisheries
From January to October, the current is northward flowing, and the clockwise circulation
pattern is called the "East Indian Current." The BOB monsoon moves in a northwest direction
striking the Nicobar Islands, and the Andaman Islands first at the end of May, then the North
Eastern Coast of India by end of June.
Climate change has direct and indirect adverse effect on fish flora and fauna for theirreproduction, migration and survival. Therefore, reproductive cycle is a harmonious processinterlinked with environmentally mediated routine of various aquatic ecosystems. In suchcase any adverse environmental condition might affect the natural reproduction process ofmarine fish population and ultimately hinder the recruitment in a stock through spawning.
Similarly, fish migration might be hampered due to negative impact over the situation. Hilsa
is the national fish of Bangladesh. It contributes to 13-14% (290,000 mt, Tk 6,000 million,
1.3 % of GDP) of total fish production of Bangladesh. During last two decades Hilsa
production from inland water declined about 20%, whereas marine water yield increased
about 3 times. Major Hilsa catch has been gradually shifted from inland to marine water.
Hilsa fish ascend for spawning from sea into estuaries and most of the river systems of
Bangladesh.

8. Threats to BoB Major threats to the BOB can be summarized as follows; (1) post larvae collection of
shrimp and colossal loss of bio-diversity, (2) coastal and marine Pollution ,(2) ship
breaking in the beaches, (3) impact of coastal aquaculture on environment, (4) natural
disasters, (5) sea level rise, (6) persistent organic pollutants.
 On December 9, 2014, a wrecked tanker released approximately 94,000 gallons ofheavy fuel oil into the Shela River, which runs through the Sundarbans, the sprawlingand remote mangrove forest shared between India and Bangladesh in the Bay of
Bengal.
18Now another shipping disaster is unfolding, as a capsized cargo vessel, Jabalenoor,
leaks 200 tones of potash fertilizer into the Sundarbans’ Bhola River, southeast of theearlier oil spill.
A UNESCO World Heritage site, the Sundarbans is home to the critically threatened
Royal Bengal Tiger and rare Irrawaddy Gangetic dolphins.
The overexploitation of fisheries are due to; Environmental degradation
 Numerous anthropogenic activities: such as over-fishing of inshore fisheries,
indiscriminate catching of juveniles, construction of barrages and dams
 Extensive use of pesticides
 Water pollution and siltation
 Open access to fishing grounds
 Government emphasis on increasing fish catches
 Inappropriate government subsidies provided to fishers
 Increasing fishing effort, high consumer demand for fish, including for seed
and fishmeal for aquaculture Ineffective fisheries management and illegal and destructive fishing Decline in the overall availability of fish resources
 Changes in species composition of catches The high proportion of juvenile fish in the catch and Changes in marine biodiversity, especially through loss of vulnerable andendangered species.

However, the increase in the human population and consequent increases in the demand forfish is intensifying pressure on fishery every year.
9. Degradation of Critical Habitats
The Bay of Bengal is an area of high biodiversity, with a large number of endangered andvulnerable species. The major transboundary issues relating to habitats are:
1. The loss and degradation of mangrove habitats
2. Degradation and3. The loss of, and damage to, sea grasses.
The transboundary nature of these major issues is that all three critical habitats occur in all
BOBLME (Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem) countries. Coastal development forseveral varying uses of the land and sea are common in all BOBLME countries. Trade in
products from all the habitats is transboundary in nature. Climate change impacts are sharedby all BOBLME countries. The main causes of the issues are:
 Food security needs of the coastal poor
 Lack of coastal development plans Increasing trade in products from coastal habitats Coastal development and industrialization
 Ineffective marine protected areas and lack of enforcement
 Upstream development that affects water-flow, intensive upstream agricultural
practices and increasing tourism.
8. Trans-boundary issues affecting the BOB marine ecosystem19A transboundary issue is defined as an environmental problem in which either the cause of
the problem and/or its impact is separated by a national boundary or the problem contributes
to a global environmental problem and finding regional solutions is considered to be a global
environmental benefit. The major transboundary issues relating to habitats are:
 Loss and degradation of mangrove habitats Degradation of coral reefs and Loss of, and damage to, sea grasses.
Sewage and organic discharges from the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna River are likely to betransboundary. Plastics and derelict fishing gear can be transported long distances acrossnational boundaries. Differences between countries with regard to regulation andenforcement of shipping discharges may drive discharges across boundaries. The main causesof the issues are:
 Increasing coastal population density and urbanization
 Higher consumption, resulting in more waste generated per person
 Insufficient funds allocated to waste management and Numerous rivers flow into the bay, which contains several important ports.
The Bay abounds with coral reefs, tropical dolphins and sharks. Endangered olive ridley sea
turtles nest on the Indian beaches, and big game fish like marlins and tuna swim on its waters.
In the Sundarbans mangroves of Bangladesh, a huge population of rare Irrawaddy dolphinssurvives.
The major transboundary issues relating to shared fisheries are: fishing overlaps national
jurisdictions, both legally and illegally – overcapacity and overfishing in one location forces amigration of fishers and vessels to other locations.
Gas pipeline transmission is another significant factor related to the geopolitical arrangementof the Bay of Bengal. From the deep sea source we can collect valuable gas throughestablishing pipeline. That will contribute a lot in our energy sector. As a result the ongoing
electricity problem will be solved and the burden over the population shall reduce. On theother hand our industries could function without any interruption. In these days industries
have to use oil-run generators. To prevent such waste of money, immediate gas transmission
is very important.
9. Conflicts
There are conflicts between large scale and small-scale fishermen. Poverty, unsustainablefishing practices and a decline in income from fisheries are contributing to a crisis.
Addressing this crisis requires the coordinated effort of the 7 countries bordering the BOB.
Other economic activities in the BOB are tourism, mining of coral and sand for construction.
10. Bangladesh’s Blue Economy Dialogue
There are a number of reasons for Bangladesh to harness the ocean.
First, nearly 30 million people in the country obtain their livelihood from the sea throughfishing. The fishing sector is poorly developed and Bangladeshi fishermen venture as far as
only 40 nautical miles from the coast and therefore deep sea fishing capability isunderdeveloped.
20Second, the sea offers Bangladesh connectivity at the domestic level and with international
markets for export and import of goods.
Third, the offshore mineral resources such as oil and gas can contribute to Bangladesh’s
economic wellbeing.
SAARC leaders acknowledged the “manifold contributions of ocean-based Blue Economy in
the SAARC Region and the need for collaboration and partnership in this area”.
11. Governance Increase political priority for the management of marine living resources, habitats andwater quality
 Effective enforcement of laws and regulations and increased compliance Increase consistency and stability in policies and priorities
 Stronger coordination and cooperation
 Integrated planning across various levels of governance Improve local stakeholders' participation
9.3.

Ecosystem Health, Major Step to Conserve the BOB
 Marine protected areas for biodiversity conservation and ﬁshery management
 Restoration and conservation of degraded, vulnerable and critical habitats Reduction of discharge of untreated sewage and wastewater Reduction of solid waste and marine pollution
 Reduction and control of nutrient loading Nutrient modeling and ecosystem health card reporting

10. Conclusion
Some scanty work has been done on marine fauna and flora of the BOB for its explorationand exploitation. No systematic work on coastal and marine biodiversity of the BOB and its
Bangladesh coast so far has been done. Not much inventory work has been carried ofinvertebrate fauna on both coastal and marine environment.
One thing we should never forget that millions of people’s life across regions depends on the
BOB. That’s why we must not limit our activities of taking geopolitical facility from the Bay.
In return, we must work together for protecting its environment, protect its ecology and forest
areas like Shundarbans and other related cases.
Recent ban on collecting shrimp fry from natural sources can be considered a timely step inpreventing massive destruction of shrimp and other ﬁsh population. However, such measures
must take into account the socio-economic conditions and should have proper guidelines forrehabilitation of the poor ﬁsherfolk. The government authorities should critically attend theopinions of the experts and should support the research facilities in order to get better
resource exploitation to keep pace with the increasing demand for ﬁsh in the new century.
All countries are experiencing difficulties in implementing fisheries management, especiallythe ecosystem approach to fisheries. The BOB countries contribute significantly to the global
problem of loss of vulnerable and endangered species.
21

Bangladesh wants to form a group comprising regional littoral states to cooperate in blue
economy. These states are Bangladesh, India, Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Indonesia andMalaysia.
Fishing is another area where both Bangladesh and India can cooperate as the former lacks
deep sea fishing capacities. “Bangladesh has the sovereign right to fish in up to 200 nautical
miles but the vessels can go up to only 40 nautical miles". The deep sea has massive
untapped fishing resources but Bangladesh has been unable to tap it.
11. References
FAO/NACA. 1995. Regional study and workshop on the environmental assessment andmanagement of aquaculture development. (TCP/RAS/2253) NACA Environment andAquaculture Development Series No. 1. Bangkok, Network of Aquaculture Centres in
Asia-Pacific.
IUCN 2000, International Union of Conservation of Nature Bangladesh, Red Data Book Listof Bangladesh p.24
IUCN. 2001. IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1. IUCN Species Survival
Commission.IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
Maruf, H.2004. National Report of Bangladesh.On Sustainable Management of the Bay of
Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME), GCP/RAS/179WBC, FAO), BOBLME
Programme in Bangladesh.P.4-9.
MOEF (Ministry of Environment and Forest) 2002, Report on, Initial National
Communication under the United Nations framework Convention on Climate Change. P.
91-98.
Tomascik, T. 1997. Management plan for coral resources of NarikelJinjira (St.Martin’s
Island). Draft Final Report submitted to NCSIP-1, Ministry of Environment and Forest,
Government of Bangladesh. 125 pp.

22

(3) Community Hint on the Conservation of
Biodiversity of the Bay of Bengal
Tapas Ranjan Chakraborty5 & Dr Sanowar Hossin6

Abstract: About 710 km long coast line and 200 nautical miles seaward of the Bay of
Bengal supports around 529 marine and 149 estuarine fish, around 500 birds, 35
reptiles and 45 species of mammals. Nearly 6,000 Irrawaddy dolphins are in the
Sundarbans mangrove forest and adjacent waters of the Bay of Bengal. The coastal
community who is dependent on the marine and coastal resources has faced thedecline of fish population. Destruction of mangrove, loss of biodiversity and sea side
erosion are the main problems. Community participation in conservation is a must forsustainability and socialization. Marine ecosystem is subject to trans-boundary
planning. Ecosystem conservation needs to consider aspects from breeding biology ofthe species to the market price. The characters of a ‘good participatory conservation
model’ should be specified by the community, scientists, practitioners and policy
makers for the wellbeing of the Bay of Bangle.
Keywords: Bay of Bangle, Biodiversity, Conservation, Planning, Sustainability

Introduction
The Southernmost part of Bangladesh is bordered by about 710 km long coast line of the Bayof Bengal, which has the continental shelf of up to 50 m depth with an area of about 37,000
km2. The Exclusive Economic Zone of Bangladesh lies from the base line to 200 nautical
miles seaward. A humid monsoon climate with moderate rainfall 1638-3558 mm and high airtemperatures 19-330 C prevail in the coastal belt. Surface water temperature varies from
22.8-32.90 C in the Bay of Bengal and the surface salinity varies from 10-29 ppt. The salinity
increases rapidly with depth in the upper 20-30 m. The primary productivity of the Bay isvery high during northeast monsoon, 0.15-1.45 cm2 /day. Tides are semi diurnal showing two
high and two low waters during a lunar day. Wave height in the marine water of Bangladesh
varies from 6.5 to 9.5m. It is prone to severe natural disaster, such as cyclones, storm surges,
and floods. In combination with other natural and manmade hazards, such as erosion, thehigh arsenic contents of ground water, water logging, water and soil salinity and various
forms of pollution, these disasters have made coastal dwellers very vulnerable and slowed
down social and economic developments.

Methodology
The state of the biodiversity in the papers is based on literature review and the community
recommendations came out from three community consultations conducted during February
5
6

Researcher, OXFAM Bangladesh
President, Bangladesh POUSH

23

to July 2015 in Dhalghata village under Moheshkhali Island of Cox’s Bazar District, locatedin south-eastern coastal region of Bangladesh between 21°28´ N and 21°32´E. Consultations
were participated by 27 male and 11 female in total.
Coastal and marine biodiversity
The recording of the biodiversity of the Bay of Bangle has made notably for the coastal
ecosystem, not at that extend. Biodiversity of the Sundarbans and the Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf
peninsular has been recorded by different academic and development interventions.
Coastal biodiversity
A total 453 species of birds, 42 species of mammals, 35 reptiles and 8 amphibian species forthe coastal zone as a whole; for the renowned Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris) the
Sunderban is the largest remaining natural habitat; Otter (Lutra species), Squirrels(Collosciurus pygerythus, Funambalus pennati), Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), and a number ofdolphin species are also found. A total of 301 species of mollusks and over 50 species ofcommercially important crustaceans have been recorded so far in the coastal zone and the
Bay of Bengal. About 46 species of coastal wildlife are endangered; 5 mammals, 25 birds, 1
crocodile, 8 turtles, 4 lizards, 1 snake and 2 frog.
Marine biodiversity
About 442 marine and 76 species fish from estuarine waters were recorded by IUCN
Bangladesh in 2000. The marine list, however, contains 73 species whose distribution
includes estuaries as well. MOEF (2002) surveys made 87 new records from the St. Martin’s
Island. Thus the present total would be 529 (442+87) marine and 149 (76+73) estuarine fish
species. However, many of them are not of commercial importance (Amin & Kawsar 2003).
There are about 100 commercial species of which 20 fish families are highly commercial.
About 36 species of shrimps have been recorded from the marine water of Bangladesh. A
total of 66 coral species were recorded, of which 19 are fossil coral. 36 living coral and therest are under 6 families of sub class octocorallia. A total of 3 species of lobsters wererecorded from the St. Martin’s Island. (Tomascik, 1997). A new census conducted by the
Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and other groups has revealed nearly 6,000 Irrawaddy
dolphins in the Sundarbans mangrove forest and adjacent waters of the Bay of Bengal—anarea where little marine mammal research has taken place up to this point. Five turtle species
are found in the marine water of Bangladesh viz., olive ridley turtle, green turtle, hawksbill
turtle, loggerhead turtle and leatherback turtle. Olive ridleys, green turtles are common while
hawksbills are rare. There was an unconfirmed record of loggerhead. Leatherback turtles are
seldom encountered and with no known records of nesting, in Bangladesh (Marinelife
Alliance).
Table 1: Coastal and Marine Biodiversity
Category
Sponges
CoralsMollusks
Shrimp/Prawns
Crabs (Marine +Freshwater)
Lobsters

Species #
3
66
336
56
16
3
24

Fish
Amphibians
Reptiles
Birds
Mammals (Inland)
Mammals (Marine)

442
22
17
628
42
3

Major threats to biodiversity
The population of the marine biodiversity has declined sharply due to environmental
degradation and numerous anthropogenic activities such as over-fishing of inshore fisheries,
indiscriminate catching of juveniles, construction of barrages and dams, siltation, extensive
use of pesticides, pollution etc. However, increase in the human population and consequent
increases in the demand for fish & fishing pressure is intensifying every year. This is believed
to have caused over fishing of all stocks and populations of fishes and prawns by the use ofeven banned gears and methods. Collection of shrimp fry and soft shell crab is causing loss ofpost larvae, juveniles and pre-adults of many other species. For example, in the coastal
Sundarbans area estimation provides that 97% of the shrimp fry and finfish larvae aredestroyed or thrown on the land during the collection of only 3% seed of tiger prawn for
shrimp culture. Thus during wild collection of 1 million P. monodon, an estimated annual
loss of 75.75 million non- target fin and shellfish larvae occurs. Municipal waters, industrial
pollution, oil pollution, and ship breaking are causing chemical and thermal pollution. An oil
spill that occurred on 9 December 2014 at the Shela River in Sundarbans resulted spread oilover of a 350 km2 (140 sq mi) area in 17 December. The oil spread to a second river and a
network of canals in Sundarbans, which blackened the shoreline. On 13 December 2014, adead Irrawaddy dolphin was seen floating on the Harintana-Tembulbunia channel of theShela River. However, it was not confirmed that the dolphin's death was caused by the oilspill. According to the local residents, few dolphins have been seen in the area since the spill.
On 18 December 2014, two dead otters were recovered from the Shela River by forest
department workers. An autopsy of the two otters confirmed that they had died fromingesting oil. The otter is considered to be an endangered species.
Problems identified by the community
The conservation problems and the effect of loss of the biodiversity were consulted with thecommunity who mainly work in the sallow sea for the livelihood. The finding is as follows:

ProblemFisheries
population has
declined in sea.

Causes Trawling in shallow sea.
 Using kom, current, Tanaand Pocket net for fishing Mother fish harvesting Shrimp fry collection.
 Catching Jatka

Effect Unemployment among thefisher.
 Less supply & higher priceof fishes.
 Financial crisis.
 Increased rate of sea side25

Solution Banning collection of shrimp
fry/mother fish and using
destructive fishing nets.
 Ban on harvesting year round Trawlers without license notallowed to fishingDestruction of
the mangrove
forests.

 Catching marine turtle.
 Increase in the number offisher & boat.
 Fishing round the year.
 Disturbance in fish
habitat.
 Over harvesting of sea
shells.
 Lack of knowledge on
the importance of sea
resources.
 Creating new salt andshrimp farm by cutting
mangrove.
 Over use of mangrove
wood as cocking fuel
 Encroachment ofmangrove forests by local
elites.

Decreasing
number of birds
and wild animals

 Lack of trees and bushes.
 Destruction of mangrove
forests.
 Natural disaster.
 Destruction of eggs ofdifferent birds.
 Lack of food for animal Lack of awareness forconserving wild animals
and birds.

Sea side erosion.

 Changing direction of thesea tide.
 Lack of trees.
 Absence of mangrove
forest in most side of theisland.

erosion due to overharvesting of sea shells.
 Fishermen are to go into
deep sea & stay longer
period for catching fish.

 Decrease of fish habitat.
 Increase of natural disaster.
 Decreasing number of
migratory birds during
winter.
 Tidal waves hit the villages
directly.
 Insects population
increased Loss of natural beauty andbiodiversity.
 Increased attack of insects
in human habitat.

 Loss of agricultural landand villagers households.
 People are to change theirplace of residence
frequently.
 Poorer people are facing
financial crisis Planting mangrove in sea sidearea.
 Alternative income generative
activities for fisher in fishingban Create safe breeding ground for
turtle.
 Create awareness to checkexcessive harvesting of sea
shell.
 Enforce fishing laws strictly.
 Collecting mangrove seedlings
from existing mangrove area
and create new mangrove
plantation in adjacent areas.
 Mangrove nursery should be
setup in the area.
 Enforce laws strictly to preserve
the existing mangroves.
 Save the existing mangrove.
 New plantation.
 Create safe bird/ animal habitatand sanctuary
 Stop illegal killing.
 Gradually reduce the harvestingof sea shells.
 Formation of local conservationgroup
 Create Awareness of people toconserve them.
 Plantation of bushy plan on thesand.
 Stones/ concrete bolder should
be set at the sea side areas.

Solutions suggested by the community
 Mother fish and fish fry collection should be banned
 Fisheries related law should be enforced properly Trawling should be banned in the shallow sea
 Fishing should be banned during fish breeding season (Asar, Sravan, Bhadra) Increase mangrove plantation
 Create public awareness about importance of fisheries resources Alternative income generation for the fishermen
 Awareness raising among the community about effect of bird or animals.
 Increase plantation of mangrove & protection of mangrove forest.
 Law enforcement against illegal catching & hunting of bird
Discussion and conclusion
26

Community participation in conservation is a must for the sustainability and socialization.
Community in and for a marine ecosystem are not traditional. More over in aquatic
ecosystem natural barriers are limited in number. Marine ecosystem is subject to transboundary planning. Considering the characteristic of the ecosystem and the biodiversity for aconservation plan of marine biodiversity requires number of things from breeding biology ofthe species to the market price.
Number of good practices is around the sea and the coast line. A review of those goodpractices can be done to identify the characters of a ‘good participatory conservation model’for the local community who are dependent on the resource. Moreover climate change is anarea to consider and many things are new where the experiences and data are really a few. A
compilation of climactic data for the Bay of Bengal has to make for the use of the community,
planners, policy makers, activitists and scientists.
Policies and regulation in the countries that have boundaries with the Bay of Bangle are notless in numbers. But it is time to have a close look if we can address the issues related tocommunity, climate change, geo-political dynamics, etc. for a just and sustainable use of theresources specifically, the biodiversity.
The sustainable development goal has rightly considered the marine ecosystem in the righttime. The scope within the Sustainable Development Goal needs to be explored andresponded accordingly.
Conservation education at the mass level plays very important role. Mass education includes
not only a form of formal session of events but also the forms of self-understanding. Tourists
need to be included as the target community for the conservation education.

ReferenceAmin. M, A. Kawsar, 2003 UNESCAP, Impact of Climate Variability on Fisheries ofBangladesh - A Case Study, Final Report 2003 under UNESCAP Coastal
Environmental Plan for Bangladesh. ST/ESCAP/618.2. A project of IUCN
Bangladesh.p.11-15
IUCN 2000, International Union of Conservation of Nature Bangladesh, Red Data Book Listof Bangladesh p.24 [3]Marinelife Alliance. Sea Turtle of Bangladesh. http://www.seaturtlebd.org/ (accessed on 24
January 2016)
MOEF 2002, Report on Initial National Communication under the United Nations framework
Convention on Climate Change. Ministry of Environment and Forest, Bangladesh P.
91-98
O. Quader. 2010. Coastal and marine biodiversity of Bangladesh (Bay of Bengal). Proc. of
ICEAB10, Japan, Sept. 2010
Tomascik, T. 1997. Management plan for coral resources of Narikel Jinjira (St. Martin’s
Island). Draft Final Report submitted to NCSIP-1, Ministry of Environment and Forest,
Government of Bangladesh. 125 pp

27

(4) Coastal Pollution along the Bay of Bengal
Durga Pd. Dash7
Abstract: Pollution in Bay of Bengal (BoB) is causing degradation of thenatural quality of the coastal environments in India and the trends are
expected to increase. Polluted runoff entering waterways from diffuse land-based
activities is the leading cause of water quality degradation. Non-point source
pollution includes runoff from agricultural and forestry land, storm water runoff fromurban areas and discharges from on-site sewage disposal systems. As rain water
picks up pollutants such as sediments, nutrients, organic matter, bacteria, oils, metals
and other toxic chemicals and transports them to coastal creeks, rivers, bays andestuaries. As such the pollution has also contributed to coral reef degradation, fishkills, sea grass bed declines and algal blooms. Polluted runoff can cause both
ecological and human health impacts. Increases in polluted runoff have been linked
to a loss of aquatic species diversity and abundance, including many importantcommercial and recreational fish species. Point sources include sewer out-falls,
concentrated animal feeding operations, sanitary sewer overflows, storm water, oilspills, industrial discharges, discharge from boats, and dumping of ballast water fromships. The increased pollution from oil pollution, persistent organic pollutants andpersistent toxic substances, sedimentation, heavy metals, sewage and organic
discharges from the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna rivers. High nutrient discharges
from rivers could intensify large scale hypoxia. Atmospheric transport of nutrients isinherently transboundary. The other sources are persistent organic pollutants,
persistent toxic substance, mercury and organo-mercury that are transported long
distance with sedimentation and most heavy metal. The main causes of the issues are
increased coastal population density and urbanization causing higher consumption,
resulting in more waste generated per person, insufficient funds allocated to waste
management, industrialization and proliferation of small industries.

Introduction: The coast is a zone or strip of land extending from the coastline, which borders
the sea to where the land rises to inland. Its limit is marked by the level of high tide. The
coastline is the triple interface of air, land and sea. The definition of coastal pollution by theWorld Health Organization goes like this “The introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of
substances or energy into the marine environment, including estuaries, which results or is
likely to result in such deleterious effects such as harm to living resources and marine life,
hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities, including fishing and other
legitimate uses of the sea, impairment of quality for use of sea water and reduction of
amenities.” Majority of the anthropogenic activities are conducted in the coastal zones orwithin the river catchments that releases pollutants to coastal zones. The consequence of
these activities – agriculture or industrial activity, transport and commerce, power generation
or urban development results in an inevitable release of pollutants. These pollutants include
nutrients, sediments, organic chemicals and xenobiotics, metals etc. that ultimately end up in
the seas.
The Bay of Bengal, the largest bay in the world, forms the northeastern part of the Indian
Ocean. Roughly triangular in shape, it is bordered mostly by India and Sri Lanka to the west,
Bangladesh to the north, and Myanmar (Burma) and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to the7

Secretarty, Pallishree, Odisha, India

28

east. The Bay of Bengal occupies an area of 2,172,000 square kilometres (839,000 sq mi). A
number of large rivers – the Ganges and its tributaries such as the Padma and Hooghly, theBrahmaputra and its tributaries such as the Jamuna and Meghna, other rivers such as the
Ayeyarwaddy River, Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna and Kaveri flow into the Bay of Bengal.
The important ports are Chennai, Chittagong, Kolkata, Mongla, Paradip, Tuticorin,
Visakhapatnam and Yangon.
Coastal zone: Coastal zone along Bay of Bengal is a dynamic area with many cyclic
processes owing to a variety of resources and habitats. Coastal plains and seas include themost taxonomically rich and productive ecosystems on the earth. Mangroves forests are over
20 times more productive than the average open ocean. Estuaries, salt marshes and coral reefs
are 5 to 15 times higher and shelf seas and upwelling zones 2 to 5 times higher. Theseenhanced rates of primary production result in an abundance of other life forms including
species of commercial importance. Although occupying only 8% of the total surface,ecologically important areas account for 20-25% of global plant growth. The coastal region isa place of hectic human activity owing to urbanization and industrialization resulting inhuman interference of rapid development. In recent years, the coastal ecosystems are highly
disturbed and very much threatened, encountering problems like pollution, siltation, erosion,flooding, salt water intrusion, storm surges etc.

Coastal pollution: Coastal pollution is a change in the physical, chemical and biologicalcharacteristics of water & sediments. It causes degradation of the natural quality of thecoastal environments and affects the health and survival of all forms of life. Coastal pollution
is a major problem in developing countries and the trends are expected to increase.
Table 1: Types, Causes and Impact of Pollution in the Coastal Zone
Major pollutants incoastal and marine
environment
Oil
SewageGarbage
Pesticides
Toxic chemicals
Heavy metal
Radioactive waste
Thermal pollution
Nutrients

Causes of Coastal
Pollution

Industries
responsible forcoastal pollution

Population growth
Urbanization
Industrialization
Domestic waste
Industrial effluents
Agricultural runoff
Shipping activity
Offshore exploration &exploitation
Infrastructuraldevelopment

Fertilizers
Sugar
TextilesChemicals
Mines and minerals
Pulp and paper
Leather tanneries

Impact of pollution on coastal
ecology
Corals Reefs – loss due toanthropogenic stress, collection
and recreational activities
Mangroves– degradation due toover exploitation
Fisheries– decline in catch ratedue
tooverfishingandoverdependence on trawlers
Biodiversity- micro organism,plankton, benthos, mammal areaffected
Beaches– reduction in benthic
organisms due to oil pollution

Source: ????

Table 2: Inflow of pollutants in the coastal area in India
29

Sl No.

Input / pollutant

Quantum - Annual

1

Sediments

1600 million tonnes

2

Industrial effluents

50 x 106 m3

3

Sewage - largely untreated

1.41 x 109 m3

4

Garbage and other solids

34 x 106 tonnes

5

Fertilizer - residue

5 x 106

6

Synthetic detergents - residue

1,30,000 tonnes

7

Pesticides - residue

65, 000 tonnes

8

Petroleum hydrocarbons (Tar balls residue)

3,500 tonnes

9

Mining rejects, dredged spoils & sand extractions

0.2 x 106 tonnes

Source: ????
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 80% of
pollution to the marine environment comes from the land, which occurs as a result of runoff.
This includes many small sources, like septic tanks, cars, trucks, and boats, plus larger
sources, such as farms, ranches, and forest areas. Millions of motor vehicle engines drop
small amounts of oil each day onto roads and parking lots. Much of this, too, makes its way
to the sea. Some water pollution actually starts as air pollution, which settles into waterways
and oceans. In some areas, this pollution is so bad that it causes beaches to be closed after
rainstorms. The flow chart (Figure 1) is based on the path way of entering nutrients andpollutants in coastal and marine environment.

Sewage, domestic waste & municipal waste in the Bay
Raw sewage being dumped into the ocean happens on a regular basis. The oceans are vastand can break down this vile liquid, but it still causes many adverse effects on marine life
causing the coastal environment pollution. Sewage or polluting substances flow throughsewage, rivers, or drainages directly into the ocean. This is often how minerals andsubstances from mining camps find their way into the ocean. The release of other chemical
nutrients into the ocean’s ecosystem leads to reduction in oxygen levels, the decay of plantlife, a severe decline in the quality of the sea water itself. As a result, all levels of oceanic life,
plants and animals, are highly affected. Domestic sewage and industrial effluents are releasedin the water courses along the Bay in untreated or partially treated form. These, of course,
add a mixture of pollutants which include, among others, certain toxic heavy metals andmetalloids.
These, naturally, add environmental pollution in coastal areas along the Bay of Bengal.
Sewage and organic discharges from the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna rivers are likely to betrans-boundary. High nutrient discharges from rivers could intensify large scale hypoxia.
Atmospheric transport of nutrients is inherently trans-boundary.

30

Industry

Port activities- Dumping- Ballast water- Oil spill- Accident etc.
Ship
Breaking

Mangrove
ForestTidal surge

Municipal
waste andsewageTannery
Textile & Paper
Fertilizer
Chemicals
Pharmaceuticals
Food processing
Plastic etc.

River and canal flow

Aquaculture- Fertiliser-Pesticides

Agricultural- Fertiliser

Surface runoff

Erosion andsedimentation

Nutrients and Pollutants in coastal and marine
environment
Figure: Pathways of entering pollutants and nutrients

Nutrient loading, agricultural runoff and eutrophication
While nutrients are chemicals essential for the growth of organisms, nutrient pollution refers
to the contamination by excess inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus into aquatic systems. Overthe last few decades since the era of intensive agriculture, the dependence on nitrogen andphosphorous fertilizers to enhance agricultural productivity has led to massive increase in the
production and application of fertilizers to farm land. The often inefficient use of thisfertilizer has led to substantial run-off and release of nutrients to the waterways ultimately
reaching the oceans. The resulting nutrient enrichment has contributed to coastal
eutrophication, degradation of water quality and coastal habitats, and increases in hypoxic
waters, which in turn has undermined the services and livelihoods supported by the
biologically rich marine and coastal ecosystems. Agricultural nutrient loading to coastal
waters is during rains/floods. Nutrient leakage from sediment transport and upwelling,fisheries, aquaculture and livestock farming is also high, especially in areas of intensive aquafarming.
This nutrient enrichment, eutrophication, initially stimulate growth of phytoplankton,
microalgae and macro-algae, which in turn can lead to other impacts such as:• Loss of sub-aquatic vegetation as excessive phytoplankton, microalgae, and macroalgae growth reduce light penetration.
• Change in species composition and biomass of the benthic (bottom-dwelling) aquaticcommunity, eventually leading to reduced species diversity and the dominance ofgelatinous organisms such as jellyfish.
• Coral reef damage as increased nutrient levels favour algae growth over coral larvae.
• A shift in phytoplankton species composition, creating favourable conditions for thedevelopment of nuisance, toxic, or otherwise harmful algal blooms.
31

•

Low dissolved oxygen and formation of hypoxic or “dead” zones (oxygen-depleted
waters), which in turn can lead to ecosystem collapse due to mass fish kills.

Heavy metal pollution and sedimentation
Heavy metals from natural and anthropogenic sources continuously enter the ecosystems
mainly through aquatic ecosystem. This indirectly affects the aquatic biota due to their
toxicity. Many of the metals (Co, Cu, Mn, Fe and Zn) are essential trace elements for aquaticorganisms and are involved in biochemical processes such as enzyme activation. But mostly
if these elements exceed the limit can cause toxic effects. The most basic property of heavy
metal is that they are bio-available and are indestructible having toxic effects on livingorganisms when they exceed a certain concentration limit. The high metal concentration may
be originated from anthropogenic sources such as waste incineration, vehicle operations,combustible consumed fertilizer use, which likely come from the upper basin of the systemthat flow into the wetland. Evaluation of important and valuable mussels is necessary prior to
the future development of industries or power plants near the marine environment. A realistic
assessment of metals as toxicants in man’s environment is essential to establish meaningfulpollution guidelines.
The Bay of Bengal used to be deeper than the Mariana Trench, the present deepest ocean
point. The Ganga–Brahmaputra River deposits nearly 1000 million tons of sediment per year.
The two rivers currently contribute nearly 8% of the total organic carbon (TOC) deposited in
the world's oceans. Due to high TOC accumulation in the deep sea bed of the Bay of Bengal,
the area is rich in oil and natural gas and gas hydrate reserves. Further south of Bengal, theMahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri Rivers are the major rivers that flow from west toeast in the Indian subcontinent and drain into the Bay of Bengal. Many small rivers also drain
directly into the Bay of Bengal; the shortest of them is the Cooum River at 64 km (40 mi).
Major coastal activities leading to coastal/marine pollution in Tamilnadu along BoB are
presented in Table 3 below.
Mercury hazards: poisoning the coastal environment
Mercury is poisonous in all forms - inorganic, organic or elemental. Methyl mercury is aneurotoxicant: it can damage the developing brain as it crosses the placental and blood-brain
barriers easily. The threat to the unborn is, therefore, of particular concern. It can also trigger
depression and suicidal tendencies, paralysis, kidney failure, Alzheimer's disease, speech andvision impairment, allergies, hypospermia and impotence.
Mercury, a very toxic and dangerous substance, has severely contaminated land, water, airand the food chain throughout India. Lead in water comes from industrial, mines and smelter
discharges before being deposited in the sediment sinks. Industries, which contribute tomercury pollution in India, are coal fired plants viz. thermal power plants, steel industries andcement plants. Plastic industry (mercury is used as a catalyst), pulp and paper industry,
medical instruments and electrical appliances, certain pharmaceutical and agricultural productaccounting for additional consumption of mercury. India consumes 75 million tons of coal
every year in various thermal power plants. Coal contains mercury and its combustion as asource of energy is often cited as significant source of mercury emission. Mercury levels arereported to be extremely high in the working environment of these industrial processes
including thermometer factories, and even medical practices such as dental clinics. The effectof mercury on human health and the working environment in the industry has not been taken
32seriously by Management. The hazardous working conditions and dangerous waste
management practice is still continuing in several industries related to mercury
Table 3: Activities leading to coastal pollution
S. No.

Activities

Places1

Discharge and disposal of domestic Chennai, Pondichery, Cuddalore, Tuticorin
wastes2

Discharge and disposal sewage and Chennai,
Pondichery,industrial wastes
Kayalpattinam

3

Harbour activities
transport

4

Fishing activities

5

Oil exploration,refining

6

Recreation and tourism

Chennai,Pondicherry,
Tranquebar,
Rameswaram,
Thiruchendur
andKanyakumari

7

Salt production

Kovalam, Marakkanam, Vedaranyam

andTuticorin,

maritime Chennai,
Cuddalore,
Nagapattinam,
Tuticorin, Colachel, Vallinokkam
Throughout the coast

production

and Chennai, Cauvery delta, Nagapattinam,
Palk- Strait

Mercury contamination in water in India is verging on an alarming situation due to dischargeof industrial effluents containing mercury ranging from (0.058-0.268 mg/l) against 0.001mg/l.
as per WHO and Indian standards.
••

About 0.20 kg of mercury is lost per ton of caustic produced thereby creating serious
pollution causing adverse effect to biological system.
Mercury levels in water near caustic chlorine industry has been reported as high as
0.176 ± 0.0003
mg/l. in water and 596.67 ± 25.17 mg/kg dry wt. soil against theprescribed limit of 0.001 mg/l. in water and 0.05 mg/kg in soil.

Petroleum hydrocarbon (PHC)
PHC concentration was monitored in water of estuaries, ports, and coastal transects in East
Coast of India. The highest concentration was observed at Haldia port (1.60–20.11 μg/l) due
to the impact of hydrocarbon discharges from nearby oil refinery, petrochemical industries,
handling of crude oils, etc. Hoogly estuary recorded higher values of PHC (1.17–18.50 μg/l)
due to the influence of industrial wastes, land runoff, and port activities. The principal causeof marine pollution with oil is shipping. Ocean is polluted by oil on a daily basis from oil
spills, routine shipping, runoffs and dumping. Oil spills make up about 12% of the oil that33

enters the ocean. The rest come from shipping travel, drains and dumping. Oil spills causes amuch localized problem but can be disastrous to local marine wildlife such as fish, birds andsea others. Oil cannot dissolve in water and forms a thick sludge in the water. This suffocates
fish, gets caught in the feathers of marine birds stopping them from flying and blocks light tophotosynthetic aquatic plants.
India, with the longest coastline of 5,423 km contributes around 50 billion litres of industrial
effluents, 30 billion litres of sewage, 5 million tons of fertilizer residues, 3,500 tons ofpetroleum hydrocarbons and 0.2 million tons of mining rejects, dredged spoils and sandextractions ultimately cause the environmental pollution.
Pollution hotspots along the Coast
Calcutta: The Hoogly river carry effluents that have contaminated fish and shell fish withheavy metals such as Ni, Cu, Cd and Zn. Highest concentration was observed at Haldia port
due to the impact of hydrocarbon discharges from nearby oil refinery, petrochemicalindustries, handling of crude oils and the sediments have observed up to 10 ug/g of pesticides.
These river waters are contaminated by e-coli, shigella, salmonella and other humanpathogens - indication of severe sewage contamination.
Chennai: The levels of hydrological pollution of Chennai coastal zone in the south-easternpart of India have been increased in the recent years by an uncontrolled disposal ofwastewater and pollutants due to human activities. Based on detailed examination, four sites
including Cuvum estuary, Adyar estuary, Kannikoil and Bharathiyar nagar are identified ashighly venerable zones because of receiving a large quantity of municipal and industrial
wastes. To reduce severe pollution levels in these areas it is therefore necessary to design andconstruct the submarine pipeline system to transport and disperse such a large quantity of
waste materials to the deep open ocean areas
Tamilnadu: Coovum River is a live example of toxic metal pollution. The water has almost
no dissolved oxygen, and instead there are traces of heavy metals like copper, besides sewage
and sludge. Apart from this, the microbial load of the river also has gone risen far above theoptimum levels. This is of great concern, because it has a negative impact on oursurroundings. It can be the breeding grounds for several infectious disease causing pathogens.
If this river is going to pollute at this rate, without any measures it will result in several healthand environmental issues. Necessary steps should be taken to stop polluting these waters andsteps to clean the Coovum River should be taken.
Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam along the east coast region is highly polluted byeutriphication and several port activities. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers, containing
high nitrogen quantity ultimately leaches and drains into the coastal zone through rivers andrivulets causing environment pollution along the BoB.
Odisha: Coastal environment is being polluted by nutrient loading like phosphorus fromfertilizer industry in Paradip coastal region. Industrial pollutants drain into the BoB throughBrahmani river causing vulnerability to Mangrove ecosystem in Bhitarkanika Ramsar site.
Suggestions to protect marine environment
34

Improved and sustainable steps should be taken to reduce the environmental pollution in the
coastal region along the BoB. Proper industrial planning and the safe disposal of ship oil,industrial and urban waste can reduce the high levels of pollutants into coastal ecosystem andwould save our enormous coastal resource of the country. Land-based pollution should be
minimized through imposing proper regulations and recycling of waste materials.
Specifically the sources of pollution, quantity, and their causes should be identified andpossible management measures should be developed. Standard and uniform data on pollution
status of the BoB should be developed and compared with the data of neighboring regionalsources. Research should be undertaken to know the bioaccumulation and relation ofpollution with estuarine and brackish water fisheries. Reliable statistic on fish catch, landing,species composition and seasonality should be generated for sustainable management of the
BoB. Capacity building of the BoB’s fishers should be developed and integrated for resourcesmanagement and protect environmental degradation.

35

(5) Status of Coastal Zone Management in
MyanmarHtun Paw Oo8
1. Background
Coastal zone of Myanmar is in the Bay of Bengal with Bangladesh, India and Thailand. The
three coastal zones of Myanmar consist of Rakhine Coast, Ayeyarwady Delta andTanintharyi Coast. The Rakhine Coast, 740 km, deltaic coastal zone, 460 km and is outlets ofthe three major rivers including Ayeyarwady, Sittaung and Thanlwin. Tanintharyi Coastal
area has the longest coastline stretching over 1,200 km from the Gulf of Mottama to Pakchan
River which is bordered with Thailand. It is fringed in southern part by the Myeik
Archipelago and is also home to more than 1,700 inshore and offshore islands.
Myanmar has a tropical to subtropical monsoon climate. The mean annual rainfall is around
2,350 mm. Annual rainfall can be as high as 4,000-6,000 mm along the coastal reaches and in
the mountains of Rakhine and Tanintharyi, and ranges between 2,000-3,000 mm in
Ayeyarwady Delta.

2. Key coastal habitats
With a coastline of over 2,400 km, Myanmar possesses complex and diverse ecological andsocio-economic systems. Coral reefs, sea grass beds and mangroves flourish mainly in the
Myeik Archipelago. Estuaries and mud flats are common in the Ayeyarwady delta.
Mangroves cover an estimated area of 467,330 ha making Myanmar the fourth largest
mangrove coverage in Asia, after Malaysia, Bangladesh and Papua New Guinea. The
majority is located on Ayeyarwady floodplains, with the remainder in Tanintharyi and alesser portion in the Rakhine Coast. Species distributions and compositions of mangrovesdiffer amongst the three coastal regions.

8

Executive member, Myanmar Forest Association, Yangon, Myanmar

36

Mangroves: Mangrove ecosystems contribute a wide range of goods and services to thecoastal population, particularly as charcoal and firewood for cooking, timber for construction,nurseries and artisanal fisheries. The role of mangroves in protecting coastal lands,
settlements and infrastructure against the effects of cyclones and tidal surges is also wellrecognized. However, over the past three decades more than half of mangroves have been
undergoing over-exploitation, illegal felling, agricultural expansion and conversion to
fishponds and shrimp ponds.
Mangrove coverage estimated in 2010 has significantly decreased in the past three decades.
The depletion and degradation of mangroves is comparatively greater in Ayeyarwady region
than in other areas due to higher population, easier accessibility to the forest and thedevastated impacts of Cyclone Nargis.
Coral reefs: Coral reefs in Myanmar remain largely unexplored and the species diversity andhealth of this ecosystem is poorly known. Rakhine and Tanintharyi coastal areas, in particularoffshore island of Myeik Archipelago, are the most favorable grounds for both hard and softcorals. Research studies including master and doctoral degrees theses identify a wide range ofcoral species, from 51 in 1972 to 512 species in 2014. However, Myanmar coral reefs havedeclined due to prolonged exposure to blast fishing, illegally small-meshed fishing nets andunregulated marine product resource extraction.
Fisheries: Fishery resources in Myanmar waters are approximately 470 species of marine
fishes including 67 commercially important pelagic species, and13 crustacean species. Three
species are listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species including Hilsa
shad (Tenualosailisha), Indian threadfin (Polynemusindicus), and four-finger threadfin(Eleutheronematetradactylum). Each of these species is greatly harvested for food along thecoasts of Myanmar, and the regional stock of Hilsa is overfished throughout its range.
According to the Marine Fisheries Law, Myanmar marine fisheries were partitioned into
inshore (coastal) and offshore fisheries, which used a fixed spatial reference foradministration. Inshore fishery includes areas that are within five nautical miles from shore
along the Rakhine coast and ten nautical miles from shore for the Ayeyarwady and
Tanintharyi coasts. Fisheries products are exported alive, fresh frozen or chilled andprocessed. Border trade system, particularly with China and Thailand, has been the majortransaction mode for Myanmar fisheries export.
Production of marine fish through aquaculture is relatively small compared with productionof shrimp from aquaculture or production of wild caught marine fish. Aquaculture ispracticed largely in freshwater and brackish water along the coastal area but on a limited
scale in sea water. Considering the continuing deterioration of fish habitat and inland fishstocks together with high foreign demand for food fish of high-value species such as shrimps,
sea bass (Latescalcarifer) and groupers (epinephilusserranidae), the government has
encouraged the industry to increase total fishery production through culture-based fishery. As
a result, there is a need to develop environmental-friendly aquaculture, sustainableaquaculture as well as conservation measures for mangrove resources.
Port extractive industries: Spreading across the entire coastline, there are currently nine
ports that serve coastal and seaborne trade. These are Sittwe, Kyaukphyu, Thandwe, Pathein,
Yangon, Mawlamyine, Dawei, Myeik and Kawthoung. The coastal area of Yangon Division37

remains highly important for Myanmar's port facilities. Thilawar, a newly built port is crucial
for the development of the nation's expanding trade under the market-oriented economic
system.
Extractive Industry: There are a total of 101 blocks set aside for oil and gas exploration in
Myanmar including 48 offshore blocks. In January 2012, there were 12 foreign oil companies
working in 27 offshore blocks: 10 off the Rakhine Coast, 12 near the Gulf of Mottama and 5
off the Tanintharyi Coast. Oil and gas industries account for about 50% of government
revenues but have a relatively small impact on local employment or local economy. Sand iscurrently being mined from river bottoms as well as the sandy sea floor in Myeik
Archipelago. The product is exported to Singapore for construction use and land reclamation.
There has been limited information on the operation of this industry and the extent of impact
these operations may have on deep water and near-shore ecosystems. Even so, other countries
including Indonesia and Malaysia have enacted bans on the industry due to environmental
concern and potential threats.
Marine and Coastal Tourism: Tourism is one of the fastest-growing industries in Myanmar,
especially since 1996. The number of tourists visiting Myanmar has demonstrated a growing
trend and it was estimated that the number of tourists would be estimated about 5 million on
March 2015. It is expected that the country will experience a rapid coastal tourism
development as a result of overall economic development. There has been a substantial
growth in tourist visitation to the southern islands of Myeik Archipelago through the
Kawthoung border point.
3.Challenges
Myanmar has a population of 51.4 million people. The country has a moderate population
density of 76 people per sq km. Myanmar as a nation is unlikely to face a problem of
overpopulation, but records from the Ministry of National Planning and Economic
Development and Central Statistical Organization indicate high and rising human populationpressure in coastal and delta areas.
Information for the livelihoods and living standards of the coastal population is very limited.
The majority of the coastal communities depend upon fisheries and agriculture, with minority
live on tourism and industrial development. Other economic activities include logging,hunting, snails collecting, aquaculture and fishery industry. A number of coastal
communities suffer from poverty and a lack of viable livelihood options.
Population growth accompanied by increased resource utilization as well as the everincreasing demand for resources from neighboring countries have put biodiversity in
Myanmar under severe pressure. The country remains one of the ten countries in the world
with the largest annual net loss of forest area and among the five countries (Brazil, Indonesia,
Myanmar, Nigeria and United Republic of Tanzania) (FAO, 2015). Mangroves weredegraded and have decreased due to over exploitation of forest products and conversion toagricultural land. When paddy yield declined, land was converted for shrimp farming. When
shrimp farming was affected by increased acidification and water pollution, people
encroached into another mangrove area for repeating the process of mangrove exploitation. In
Tanintharyi Region, palm oil concessions have been granted in large forest areas and rubber
plantations have almost doubled in coastal areas from 1990 to 2010.
38

Overexploitation of mangroves for fuelwood and charcoal production: Mangroves, inAyeyarwady Region in particular, have been degraded because of overexploitation of
fuelwood for Yangon cities and towns in adjacent areas. In Rakhine State and Tanintharyi
Region, mangroves are in better condition although there are increasing needs of fuel-woodfrom Yangon city to meet an annual demand of 700,000 tons. In addition to household
consumption, fuel-wood and charcoal are supplied to cottage industries, restaurants and tea
shops.
Overfishing: The introduction of trawling in the 1970s and use of advanced fishing gears arelikely to increase pressure on fish resources in Myanmar waters. Overfishing has been
persistent due to several reasons involving an increasing demand of fish for local
consumption, high dependency of artisanal fisherfolk upon coastal waters for their livelihood,and a large number of fishing boats from neighboring countries. By 2006, the last year forwhich figures are available, Myanmar’s fishing vessels were catching on average just 86 kg
of fish an hour. To compensate fishers with equal amount of catch as previous, fishing days
has been allowed to fish in one trip at sea for fishing vessels from 25 days to 90 days per trip.
That allows fishers to maintain their total catch and transport their products to the nearby
landing sites.
Climate change and natural disaster: The 2008 Cyclone Nargis caused over 140,000
casualties and catastrophic destruction of vast mangrove areas in Ayeyarwady Region,
impacting food security of coastal communities. In the coastal and marine regimes, frequentand intense storm as well as strong wind and wave can have direct effect in fisheries both
inshore and offshore. Coastal zones especially areas interspersed with tidal waterways likethe Ayeyarwady Delta may face permanent inundation due to sea level rise. The highly
productive deltaic and low-lying coastal rice/local crop cultivation areas will also be exposed
to increased salinity and coastal erosion. As climate change impacts could severely
undermine economic growth in Myanmar, the formulation and implementation of policies on
climate change adaptation is vital for sustainable development.
4. Integrated management concept
Initiatives on Integrated Resource Management and Integrated Mangrove Management havebeen practiced in Ayayarwady Delta in since 1998 and 2003 during the Ayeyarwady
Mangrove Project (FD/UNP/FAO) and Integrated Mangrove Management throughCommunity Participation Project (FD/JICA). It was noted that the following strategies havebeen guided in these approaches: To rehabilitate mangrove resources
 To manage the remaining and rehabilitated mangrove resources for sustainable use
 To sustain production of cultivation and forest areas
 To be compatible with mangrove resources and socio-economic activities.
Constraints to coastal management: There has been no separate policy or legislation
pertaining to management of the coastal resources. Agricultural production in coastal zones iscarried out by farmers through agriculture supervision committee and the Department ofAgriculture, while fisheries management through the Department of Fisheries and mangrove
forest management through the Forest Department. Key challenges in this context are theabsence of appropriate integrated planning, collaboration and coordination mechanisms inpolicy making level.
39

The causes of biodiversity loss and unsustainable use of coastal and marine resources in
Myanmar are correlated with a number of aspects involving: limited knowledge andunderstanding; capacity constraints; lack of environmental safeguards; undervaluation of
resources; lack of comprehensive land-use policies and plans; gaps in legislations and weak
enforcement; poverty and subsistence needs; lack of grassroots support for conservation; andglobal climate change.
There are a number of reports, documentation and research studies in relation to various
aspects of the Myanmar coastal ecology and environment; however a review of publishedstudies shows that there is still much to improve the understanding of the current state of
Myanmar coastal and marine resources. Research is required as a critical component to
identify threats to the ecosystems and responses to the issues and constraints througheffective conservation and management. Having limited and outdated biological or
ecological baseline data means that there is nothing upon which to base management
decisions such as zoning, extraction quotas, usage types or even population models. In theabsence of reliable survey data, it is not possible to undertake Integrated Coastal Management
or Marine Resource Management. In Myanmar, knowledge is not adequately available,
shared and used for informed decision making on the value of biodiversity and coastal
ecosystems. Coastal and marine ecosystems are undervalued, and thus must be analyzed. Incountry capacity to conduct research, particularly at universities, needs to be improved.
The highly productive deltaic and low-lying coastal rice/local crop cultivation areas will also
be exposed to increased salinity and coastal erosion. As climate change impacts could
severely undermine economic growth in Myanmar, the formulation and implementation ofpolicies on climate change adaptation is vital for sustainable management of coastal resources.
Inadequate Capacities: Capacity inadequacies along with minimal allocation of capital forthe management of coastal and marine resources are major barriers to combat persistentillegal activities and unsustainable practices in Myanmar coastal zones. Government
institutions responsible for conserving biology and managing Marine Protected Areas(MPAs) often suffer from shortages of financial resources and technical expertise. Illegal
activities such as logging and destructive fishing have been persisted in the Park boundaries.
Similarly fishery sector has limited staff and budget to regular patrol and interdict or arrest
illegal fishers in the offshore areas of Myanmar Economic zone, except in partnership with
the Myanmar Navy or Army Coastal Defense. Such limitations result in on-going dynamite
fishing and unknown outcome of policy implementation such as the licensing system andbanning of trawl fishing and importantly, bribery. The current constraints however represent
opportunities for NGOs and academic institutions to play a role in strengthening the capacityof key government institutions responsible for conservation.
5. Recommendations
Myanmar has been a member of Mangrove for the Future programme since 2014. The
Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry initiated to establish a national levelcommittee for coastal resource management.
 Develop a guidelin for national coastal resources policy, legal and institutionalframeworks. This is the need of the time.
 Incorporate the latest knowledge of climate change into coastal area development
policy and planning process.
40






Promote the implementation of ecologically sustainable development activities incoastal areas. Recognize and solve problems and conflicts of coastal resourcescompetition among a multitude of users.
Promote coordination with all relevant national and international institutions for theconservation, management and research of coastal resources such as mangrove, coral
reefs and sea grasses and so on. Review and accept scientific advice and integrate thisknowledge into the preparation of natural resource management plans.
Strengthen infrastructure support systems, alternate livelihood programs and basic
health and education services on a priority basis.

References
FAO, 2015, Global Forest Resource Assessment: How are the world’s forests changing?
Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry, IUCN and MFF, 2015, Myanmar
National Strategy and Action Plan (final draft)
Ministry of Forestry and JICA, 2003, The Study on Integrated Mangrove Management
through Community Participation in the Ayeyarwady Delta41

(6) Thailand’s Ramsar Sites and Isthmus of Kra
Sansanee Choowaew9
Bordering the Bay of Bengal, Thailand has at least 5 Ramsar Sites, namely (1) Laem Son
National Park, Kraburi Estuary, and Kapur Canal Outlet in Ranong Province; (2) Krabi
Estuary in Krabi Province; (3) Phang Nga Bay National Park in PhangNga Province; (4) Had
Chao Mai Marine National Park, Mu KoLibong Non-Hunting Area, and Trang Estuary inTrang Province; and (5) Ko Ra and Ko Phra Thong Islands in Phang Nga Province. All these5 Ramsar Sites contain various diverse and important types of wetland ecosystems (e.g. oneof the oldest and best mangrove forests of Thailand, ancient mollusk fossil areas, habitats ofdugongs, sea-turtles, and birds) and thus have very high values for biodiversity conservation,
fisheries, and ecotourism. In addition, the Isthmus of Kra, the narrowest part of the Malay
Peninsula (only 50 km from the Andaman Sea on the West to the Gulf of Thailand on theEast), is another unique ecosystem and landscape in Kraburi District of Ranong Province,
having Kraburi River, a natural boundary between Myanmar and Thailand, flowing into the
Bay of Bengal.
The idea of short-cutting of shipping distance and times between the Andaman Sea and theSouth China Sea was of interest since Ayutthaya Period and has been of almost all
governments’ interest since the 1990s. ‘Kra Canal’ was the first proposed spot due to its
shortest distance. However, due to the landscape, geography and geomorphology, proposed
locations have changed. The feasibility studies of ‘Thai Canal’ instead of ‘Kra Canal’ werecarried out since the 1970s. At least 12 locations/options/routes have been proposed anddiscussed. All are strategically important, having different geomorphology and distances.
Issues considered among proponents of new shipping route options include shorter shipping
distance and time, lower shipping cost, less use of energy, economic benefits, and potential
for economic development. Issues raised by opponents include political stability, socialchange, regional conflicts, shipping demand and traffic, investment cost and benefit sharing,transparency of feasibility studies and environmental impacts assessment, importance of
public participation in decision-making, canal management, and especiallyenvironmental/ecological concerns.
Key issues of environmental/ecological concerns are immediate and long-term threats to
Ramsar Sites, Biosphere Reserves, Protected Areas, and many other important coastal/inland
wetlands especially Songkhla Lake; effectiveness of environmental impacts assessment andmitigation measures; and ecological impacts during pre-, during-, and post-construction
periods as well as pollution of all forms and biodiversity loss. Decision making has not been
made now and may not be materialized in the near future under the political turbulence andineffectiveness of environmental impact assessment mechanism.
Mega-projects such as ‘Thai Canal Project’ have raised public awareness of the values andimportance of the existence and maintenance of naturally healthy ecosystems bordering theAndaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal. At present, the Bay of Bengal and her wetland
ecosystems have been already being facing with various human and natural threats. All
countries bordering the Bay of Bengal should join hands and initiate collective conservation
efforts. For example, a network of communities surrounding Ramsar Sites on the Bay of
9Wetlands Management Research and Training Center, Faculty of Environment and Resource Studies, Mahidol
University, Salaya, Nakhonpathom 73170, Thailand, e-mail :sansanee.cho@mahidol.ac.th.

42

Bengal of each country should be established. Collective efforts and activities such as
wetlands inventory and status monitoring/surveillance are possible.

43

(7) Straits of Malacca and Penang
Mashhor Mansor10
The Bay of Bengal has been an important route to the Straits of Malacca and Penang plays acrucial role as a major port since 1876.
Since 1876 Penang had been colonized by the British through its British East IndianCompany (BEIC). Sir Francis Light was the founder of modern Penang and obtained thePenang from the Sultan of Kedah. The location is at the tip of Straits of Melaka whichconnected to the Bay of Bengal. The island was a suitable location for a port. Ships fromcoastal areas along the Bay of Bengal could easily travel through Penang. From Penang theships can travel through the Straits of Melaka and subsequently reach China through theSouth China Sea.
From as early as 1st Arab traders had travelled through the Bay of Bengal to reach South East
Asia. The first European nation was Portugal followed by the Dutch and the British
respectively. Evidently, the Malay cultures were greatly influenced by the ancient East-Westmaritime trade. Penang came into contact with India since late prehistoric times. It can beconsidered as a gate way from the Bay of Bengal to Malaya and Singapore.
Based on Leng (2009) there were two major components that Penang was a successful Asian
Entrepot where it was the hub and the point of contact and interaction for the sub-region in
the north strait of Melaka and the networking not only within the sub-region but the wider
world beyond the South Asian region.
Langdon (2015) stated that about two centuries ago, Penang had been elevated the fourthmost important settlement of the British East Indian Company. Therefore Penang was part of
the Indian territories. This is because of the expansion of international trade networks linking
Europe with India, Malaya and China. Penang was pointed out to be the future growth of the
British Empire in the east.
Eastern part of Bay of Bengal is included in Indochina bioregion. The region covers
Myanmar coastal zone, Thailand coastal zone and northern part of Peninsular Malaysia.
Penang is in between Indochina bioregion and Sunda Shelf bioregion. Evidently ecoregions
are usable to make suitable planning conservation planning units at regional and global scales.
Bioregion is therefore defined by Ricketts et al. (1999) as cluster of ecoregion that share asimilar biogeographic history and share many genera and families of plants and animals.
Penang capital city, George Town was accorded as UNESCO world heritage centre on the 7
July 2008. It was developed over 500 years of trading and cultural exchanges between Eastand West in the Straits of Malaka. The socio culture due to the influence of various culturesfrom Asia and Europe has a significant impact on the town history. The unique architectural
and British influence on cultural township reflected a town in Britain.
The historic city of George Town met the criteria of Outstanding Universal Value (OUS) as
defined by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee. This is based on values which are
10

School of Biological Sciences, USM. Email: mashhor@usm.my

44

universally recognized as crucial having influenced on human cultures. It is a living
testimony to the multi-culture heritage and tradition of Asia.
The old name of George Town was Tanjung Penaga. It was name after a tree Penaga(Calophyllum inophyllum). George Town has been ranked as the most liveable city in
Malaysia and eight most liveable cities in Asia. During the colonial times, besides Europeans,
there were communities of Siamese, Burmese, Filipino, Ceylonese, Eurasian, Japanese,
Sumatran, Arab, Armenian and Parsee. Muslim made up of 45%, Buddhism 36%,
Hinduism % and Christianity 5%.
Penang has been a popular international and domestic tourist destination. It is known for its
rich heritage, multicultural society and its vibrant culture. The hills, parks, beaches, shoppingand foods are part of the attractions. Penang is also famous for its foods. It is known as thefood capital of Malaysia. The seafront promenade provides delightful and high end cuisine.
Penang is always ahead in Malaysian education. Penang Free School (1816) is the oldest
English school in Asia. St. Xavier’s Institution (1852), Convent Light Strait (1852) is the firstschool for girls in Malaysia. Methodist Boys’ School (1891) and Methodist Girls’ School(1891). The first Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tunku Abdul Rahman was educated at Penang
Free School and the fifth Prime Minister of Malaysia was educated at Methodist Boys School.
There are also a few international schools such as Dalat International School, Tenby
International School and Prince of Wales International School.
The Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) one of the top ranking universities in this part of theworld is in Minden. Muka Head is a field station for USM and it is in Penang National Park.
Several renowned universities have utilized the field station for their field researches.
Penang National Park with an area of 2,562 ha is one of the smallest parks in the world. It
was gazetted in 2003 at the north western tip of the island facing the Bay of Bengal. It is thesite to observe brahminy kite (Haliastur indus), green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and Irrawaddy
dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris).
The most popular beaches in Penang are located at Tanjung Bunga, Batu Ferrighi and Teluk
Bahang. The prime hotels lining along the beaches attracted tourists especially from Europe.
The historical landmark in George Town is Fort Cornwallis. Penang Botanical Garden is ahome of wild monkeys and Penang Hill is a hill station.
The natural ecology of Penang is comprised of tropical rainforest, mangroves, coastal
beaches and rocky shore. There are pocket of secondary forest left over from rubber
plantations. The highest peak Western Hill which is 833 m and the famous Bukit Bendera
732 where farmer British residents enjoyed the cool air. There is a funicular rail to the peakof the hill and the Bay of Bengal can be detected during the clear weather.
Reference
Langdon, M. (2015). Penang, the fourth presidency of India 1805-1830, Volume 2, Fire,
Spice and Edifice. George Town World Heritage Inc. 574 p
Leng, L.W. (2009) . Introduction, Penang: Region and Networking. In Penang and Its
Region; The story of an Asian Entreport. Edt. Guan, Y.S. Mainland Press Pte. Ltd. 284
p45

Ricketts, T.H.E., Dinerstein,D.M. Olson, C.J., Olson, C.J., Loucks, W. Eichbaum, D.
DellaSalla, K., Kavangh, P. Hedao, P.T., Hurley, K.M.Carney,R. Abell, R. and Walters,S. (1999). Terrestrial Ecoregion. A conservation assessment. Washington DC. Island
Press.

46

(8) Coastal Resources of Aceh, Indonesia
Mr. Onrizal11
1. The coastal area of Indonesia is about 95,161 km. The area is tectonically mostvulnerable to natural hazards, especially earthquake and the Tsunami.
2. Aceh Province is located at the westernmost end of Indonesia and to the north and thewest it borders the Malaka Strait, to the west the Indonesian Ocean, and to the south
the province of North Sumatera.
3. The area is highly vulnerable to tsunami, the recent ones being Indian Ocean Tsunami(26 Dec 2004) and Nias Tsunami (28 March 2005).
4. The forested land of Aceh is as follows.
 Primary dry forest (1,417,000 ha.) Secondary dry forest (1,179,000 ha)
 Primary swamp forest (1,000 ha)
 Secondary swamp forest (117,000 ha)
 Secondary mangrove forest (24,000 ha)
 Plantation forest (269,000 ha)
5. The non-forested land could be categorized as follows.
 Shrub land 3,000 (ha.)
 Plantation 246,000 (ha.)
 Dry farm land 374,000 (ha.)
 Dry farm land and shrubs 951,000 (ha.)
 Transmigration area 11,000 (ha.)
 Rice field 44,000 (ha.)
 Aquaculture ponds 36,000 (ha.)
 Mining 7,000 (ha.)
 Settlement area 29,000 (ha.)
 Bodies of water 10,000 (ha.)
6. Biodiversity: The status of flora and fauna of the Aceh, according to the UML
Database (2002) is as follows.
 More than 4,500 species of vegetation
 434 species of birds
 392 species of mammal
 171 species of herpetofauna (amphibians & reptiles) 350 species of insect, and 81 species of fish
7. Habitat of large mammal, such as Coastal peat swamp forest is the good habitat for the critically endangered
Sumatran orangutan, which is endemic to Northern Sumatra.
 Sumatran tiger, Sumatran rhino and Sumatran elephant are endemic to
Sumatra.
8. Most of mangrove forests were converted into aquaculture ponds prior to the Tsunami.
9. Kuala Cangkoi now has good coverage of mangroves. Previously it was almost nude.
11

Faculty of Forestry, University of Sumatera Utara, Indonesia. Email: onrizal@gmail.com

47

Annex I: Participant, Position & Organization
Name
1. Amado Torentino
2. Atsushi Tanabe
3. Bishnu Bhandari
4. DurgaPrasad Dash
5. Emiko Nagakura
6. Hide Nakamura
7. Htun Paw Oo
8. Mashnor Mansor
9. Misato Ohara
10. Onrizal
11. Reiko Nakamura
12. Ryoka Ago
13. Sanowar Hossain
14. Sansanee Choowaew
15. Shiina Suzuki
16. Shimpei Iwasaki
17. Simaba Chan
18. Takayuki Musha
19. Tamotsu Kameyama
20. Tapas Ranjan Chakraborty
21. Thant Zin Tun
22. Yoshiro Natori

Position
Consultant

Organization
Environmental Law,
Philippines
Graduate Student Kumamoto University, Japan
President
Nepal Wetlands Society,
Nepal
Secretary
Palishree, India
Communication
WIJ, Japan
Officer
Consultant
EnVision, Japan
Environmental
Myanmar Forest Association
Consultant
Professor
University of Science,
Malaysia
Researcher
INTEM Consulting
Faculty
University of Sumatera
Utara, Indonesia
SecretaryRCJ, Japan
GeneralStudent
Ritsumeikan University
President
Bangladesh POUSH
Professor
Mahidol Univeristy,
Thailand
Graduate Student Sophia University, JapanProf.
Fukuoka Women’s
University
Official
Birdlife International Tokyo
Vice President
RCJ, Japan
Vice President
RCJ, Japan
Researcher
OXFAM, Bangladesh
Researcher
FFI Mynamar
President
WIJ, Japan

48

Annex II: Program of Activities
Date: 4th Feb 2016
Venue: Yoma Hotel Yangon

Time: 8:25 -11:33 am

When
Who
Chair Person: Reiko Nakamura
Opening remark
08:25
Dr. Bishnu B. Bhandari, Nepal
8:29-8:56
Mr. Sanowar Hossain, Bangladesh
8:59-9:26

What
Rapporteur: Bishnu Bhandari

9:29-9:56

44 min.
11:10-11:20
11:20-11:33

Bishnu B. Bhandari
The Bay of Bengal: A Forgotten Sea
Problems and Opportunities in the Bay of
Bengal: An Example from Bangladesh

Mr. Tapas Ranjan Chakraborty

Community Hint on the Conservation of
Biodiversity of the Bay of Bengal

Mr. Durga P. Das, India
Mt Htun Paw Oo

Coastal Pollution Along the Bay of Bengal

Sansanee Choowaew
Mashhor Mansor
OnrizalThailand's Ramsar Sites & Isthmus of Kra
Strait of Malacca and Penang
Coastal Resources of Aceh, Indonesia

How to move ahead?
Dr. Bishnu B. Bhandari
Chairperson's Closing

Open discussion
Wrap up of the symposium

Status of Coastal Zone Management in
MyanmarNote
1. The time slot for the presentation was 20 min, followed by a 10-minute floor discussion.
2. The papers were circulated digitally to the participants about a week before.
3. The authors brought their presentation file along with them.

49