ON THE PROPERTIES OF INFANT VOCALIZATION*
IN THE JAPANESE PRE-VERBAL STAGE
Tomomi Nakatani-Murai
Nanzan University

1.

Introduction

Infant vocal behaviors are complicated than it appears. Oller (2000) proposes that there
are five pre-verbal stages in the very young infants’ speech: the Phonation Stage, thePrimitive Articulation stage (or the GOO stage in Oller (1980)), the Expansion Stage, theCanonical Stage, and the Integrative stage (or the Variegated Babbling Stage in Oller (1980)).
(See Table 1 and 2 for the details.) Discussing the language properties of the very young
infants, Oller (2000) contrasts squealing with growling in terms of pitch. Squealing is usuallyat 2 to 4 times the pitch of growling even in the expansion stage (Oller 1980). In addition, “inyelling, infants explore the ability to produce sounds of maximum amplitude, and inwhispering, they delve into sounds of minimum amplitude.” (Oller 2000: 171).
It has been also found that infants are sensitive toward prosody at a very early stage oflanguage acquisition. For instance, English-speaking infants at the age of 7.5 months are
sensitive to their native word stress patterns (Jusczyk, Cutler and Redanz 1993). Hayashi(2003) also reports that Japanese-speaking infants at the age of 7-8 months also show
sensitivity to their native rhythmic patterns. Masataka (1992) examined whether or not thechange in maternal pitch could differentially affect acoustic features of pitch in immediately
subsequent infant utterance. He found that when the infants were responding to maternal
speech with exaggerated pitch patterns, they tended to mimic those patterns, although theytended not to do so in response to maternal speech with non-exaggerated patterns.
Yuta, our subject in the project we report here, at 2 months and 26 days old, produced a*

I would like to thank Keiko Murasugi for her constant and detailed discussion and comments, andTomoko Kawamura for her helpful suggestions for this paper. Part of this paper was presented in theWorkshop on Early Child Phonology at the Chinese University of Hong Kong on August 17, 2007, as“Very Early Language Acquisition: A View from Japanese” by Murasugi and Nakatani (2007). We
thank the organizer, Thomas Hun-Tak Lee, and the participants of the workshop for the discussion andcomments for the paper.
In this paper, we use the same terminology as Oller (1980, 2000) used for the description. We
owe to the website of http://www.abdn.ac.uk/~clt011/psychology/babbling.html, made by Phil
Marston, who is an eLearning advisor of Aberdeen University. This website, Marston (2003), let theuser hear the actual sounds of babbling and others observed in the early infant speech, which
encouraged us to challenge the cross-linguistic study of infant vocalization.

Nanzan Linguistics: Special Issue 3, Vol.2, 123–137© 2008 Tomomi Nakatani-Murai

Nanzan Linguistics: Special Issue 3, Vol. 2

prosodic word [o a yo] with the same intonation contour immediately after his father uttered[o ha yo]. It is notable that this “mimic” was observed in the natural context in our
longitudinal study. Our infant was responding to the paternal speech though it did not haveexaggerated pitch patterns even. Then, at a later stage, he also made request and expressedfeeling not only by vocalization, but also with gestures, despite the fact that he never “learnt”
such coding system based on the input available.
In this paper, we present a longitudinal observational study of a Japanese-speaking boy,Yuta. We videotaped the subject about 30 minutes a week from 1 month 3 days after his birthin natural context. He is at the age of 8.5 months as of December, 2007. When we started theobservational study, he was at the beginning of the Primitive Articulation stage, and now he isin the Canonical stage after about the four-month Expansion stage. Based on the study, we
first show that a Japanese-speaking infant goes through the same stage as Oller’s (1980, 2000)
observation summarized in (1) and (2). Then, we report that our subject conveys his request
by rising intonation at the final edge of the utterance, and indicate the reference he refers to bygestures (such as the shape of the mouth and reaching of his arms) as early as in the Primitive
Articulation stage. By investigating infant vocal and non-vocal behavior carefully, we discussin this paper that the emergence of some language properties is very early, thereby arguing for
the universality of infant vocalization and the innateness of such properties as intonation andgestures.
(1) Table 1 Stages of Development in Phonetic Control (Oller 1980)
Infant’s age
0-1monthphonation stage

Characteristic vocalization types Metaphonological characteristic of mature languages
QRN (quasi-resonant nucleus)
Normal phonation in non-reflexive vocalizations

2-3 months
GOO stage

GOO (QRN plus velar or uvular Vocalizations with closure of the vocal tract
consonant-like element)

4-6 months
expansion stage

FRN (fully resonant nuclei)
RSP (raspberry)
SQ (squeal)
GRL (growl)
YEL (yell)
IES(ingressive-egressive sequence)
MB (marginal babble)

Use of resonance capacity providing possibility forcontrasts of resonance types?Front as opposed to back (GOO) closures?
Further manipulation of vocalizations during closure?
Pitch contrasts
Amplitude contrasts?Further control of vocal breath stream?
Alternation of full opening and closure of the vocal tract

7-10 months
canonical stage

BB (canonical babbling)syllabic timing constraints on relationship of openings
and closures (vocalic transitions)11-12 months
variegatedbabbling stage

VAR (variegated babbling)
GIB (gibberish)

Contrasts of consonantal and vocalic type
Contrasts of stress-124-

On the Properties of Infant Vocalization in the Japanese Pre-Verbal Stage (T. Nakatani-Murai)(2) Table 2 (Oller 2000)
New Vocal
Types
Occurring:
Protophones

New Vocal
Types
Occurring:
Other
SoundsPhonation
Stage

Quasivowels,
sometimes
with glottal
adjustments

Vegetative
sounds;cryingPrimitive
Articulation
Stage

GooingExpansion
Stage

Full vowels,squealing.
growling,
yelling,
whispering,raspberries,
marginal
babbling

Canonical
Stage

Canonical
babbling,
reduplicatedbabbling,
variegatedbabbling

Well-formed
transitions between
margins and nuclei

IntegrativeStage

Gibberish,
mixing ofearly speech
and babbling

Elaboration of
babbling and speech

2.

Laughter

InfraphonologicalAchievement:
Principles ofWell-Formed
Syllabification in
the Human
SystemNormal Phonation

Articulatedness(movements of the
vocal tract during
normal phonation,
creating primitive
consonant-likemargins)
Full resonance of
nuclei, creatingwell-formed
vowel-like centers
for syllables

InfraphonologicalAchievement:
Properties ofPotential
Phonological
Systems

Infrasemiotic
Achievement:
Properties ofPotential Semiotic
Systems

Very Primitive
Syllabification And
Rhythmic Hierarchy

Contextual
Freedom(production ofquasivowels underno external
stimulus control),primitive Free
Expressivity
Directivity(vocalization witheye contact),
Interactivity (useof gooing inturn-taking
interactions)Elaborate Free
Expressivity(use of cry,vegetqative sounds
and protophones
in playful
self-expression),
early Imitability

Primitive Signal
Analysis as
seen in extremely
variable productionof sounds in gooing

Signal Analysis(exploration ofpitch, intensity,
resonance types),
Categorical
Adaptation,primitive
Recombinability in
marginal babbling
Fully well-formed
Syllabification,
early
Recombinability ofsyllables, early
Rhythmical
Hierarchy,
Hot/Cool Synthesis
Further
Recombinability,and early
Segmentatioin

More elaborate
Imitability,
Designation

Conventionality,
Arbitrarity,
Early Semanticity,
Displaceability,
Propositionality

The Sounds of Speech in Infancy

Based on the one-year observation of his verbal and non-verbal behavior, in this section,
we report the phonological development of our subject, Yuta. We discuss the clear parallelism
between Oller’s (1980, 2000) analysis (summarized in Table 1 and Table 2) and ourobservation.

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Nanzan Linguistics: Special Issue 3, Vol. 2

2.1. The Phonation Stage
According to Oller (1980, 2000), in the first stage, which is termed the Phonation stage,
infants produce “comfort sounds” with normal speech-like phonation. Oller calls the syllabic
nasals or nasalized vowels as quasi-resonant nucleus or quasivowels. When infants produce
quasivowels, they will often have the mouth closed, or nearly closed. Though our subject
didn't produce much sound in this stage besides crying, he also sometimes made quasivowel
sound when he was hungry or discomforted.
2.2. The Primitive Articulation stage (GOO stage)
The second stage is the Primitive Articulation stage, which was termed GOO stage byOller (1980). According to Oller (2000), babies use gooing to do something important, andthrough the interactions that include gooing, they establish and build a relationship with theircaretakers. According to Oller (1980), GOOs are back consonant-like sounds, often velars,
and often voiced fricatives. They comprise the sound [x, k, g], and they may combine withquasi-resonant nucleus to produce syllable-like sounds, but the timing of the opening andclosing of these syllables is irregular and not particularly adult-like. The typical sounds in thisstage are [gu] and [ku].
Our subject got into this stage at around two months. It is notable that he started to
produce conversation-like utterances with an addressee in front of him, and started to talk tohimself in this period. Although the sound types were limited, the volume of his voice became
louder. We observed, as Oller (2000) states, that our subject also used gooing to do somethingimportant, and he built a relationship with his caretakers through the interactions that include
gooing: He vocalized for request, discomfort, comfort, and “a talk” with his caregivers.
Murasugi and Nakatani-Murai (2007) presented an analysis of his vocalization at thisPrimitive Articulation stage as the onset of the linguistic expression of request. We observedthat he controls pitch and makes some gestures in order to make a request. Whenever he madea request, he tried to move his hands, and/or pressing out his tongue. An example is shown in(3). In (3), Yuta was lying on his bed, and he requested his mother’s milk with the hands
moving and the tongue pressing out.
(3)

(Yuta (=Y) wants to drink mother’s milk.) (1 mth 5 d.)
Y: [a↑a↑a↑a↑a: a↑a↑a↑a: a: ] + (reaching gesture, pressing tongue out)

On the other hand, when he talked to someone or himself, his utterances were at low-pitchand he did not make gestures. We will come back to the issue on intonation and gestures in
the next section.
In addition, in this stage, the child’s sensitivity to the intonation was also observed.
Hayashi (2003) argues that 7-8 month-old Japanese-speaking infant has sensitivity to theirnative rhythmic pattern. However, we found that infants are sensitive to it at a much earlier-126-

On the Properties of Infant Vocalization in the Japanese Pre-Verbal Stage (T. Nakatani-Murai)

stage. We observed that our subject imitated his father’s intonation contour at the age of 2
months 26 days as shown in (4). This corresponds to the discovery of Kessen et al. (1979) and
Masataka (1992). According to them, infants as young as 3 months can imitate variations in
vocal pitch. In (4), Yuta and his father were having a talk, and right after his father said [o hayo:], meaning “good morning”, Yuta produced [o a yo] in exactly the same pitch accent,while a consonant [ha] became [a].
(4)

(Yuta is talking with his father (=F).) (2 mth 26 d.)
F: [o ha yo:]Y:[o a yo: ]‘Good morning.’

This observation implies that infants are sensitive to intonation at a very early stage oflanguage acquisition, even at as early as the Primitive Articulation stage.
2.3. The Expansion Stage
According to Oller (2000), the third stage, or the Expansion Stage, is a period during
which babies perform important functions with vocalization like the Primitive Articulation
stage. Oller (2000) states that in the Expansion Stage, on the one hand the babies use social
usage of sounds as in the Primitive Articulation stage, but they also use protophones forpractice in vocal control. In this stage, infants produce various sounds. According to Oller(2000), in the Expansion stage, a variety of new types of sound develop such as full vowels,squealing, growling, yelling, whispering raspberries, and marginal babbling. Natheni andOller (2001) also mentions the difficulties of identifying these pre-canonical sounds, because
they do not fit the canonical categories of speech syllables and segments.
Yuta got into this Expansion stage when he was 3 months old. At this stage, he started to“talk” more frequently than before. Then, at the age of around 4-5 months, his voice became
diversified even more. In this stage, He produced full vowels, raspberries, squealing,whispering, yelling, and marginal babbling exactly as Oller (1980, 2000) finds. Those sounds
were often produced as sound play, but by analyzing his vocalization carefully, we noticed
that he made some particular kinds of sound for the particular situation. For example, Yuta
produced full vowels when he talked to himself or made a conversation with someone. In (5),
Yuta “talked” to his father with full vowels, and in (6), he produced full vowels when his
mother talked to him.
(5)

(Yuta talks with Father.) (3 mth 26 d.)
Y: [a:→a:→au a:→a:→uku:→a:→](6)(Yuta is in his baby chair. Mother talks to Yuta.) (3 mth 27 d.)
Y: [a:→u:→a:→a:→↑a:→a:→a:→↓a:→]-127-

Nanzan Linguistics: Special Issue 3, Vol. 2(7) is an example of growling. Yuta produced the vowel sequence, when he felt good or hefound something interesting. At the age of 4 months 13 days, we observed him producing
growling as shown in (7). In (7), Yuta tried to touch the dishes on the table.
(7)(Yuta tries to touch the dishes on the table.) (4 mth 13 d.)
Y: [ua:→ua:→]

On the other hand, when he was frustrated or angry, he produced yelling as shown in (8). In(8), he is lying by his grandmother, and started yelling because he wanted to be held up.
(8)(Yuta wants to be held up.) (4 mth 12 d.)
Y: [ua:→na:→↓a:→↓a: →↓→na:→]

Whispering was vocalized when he felt good. His father talked to Yuta, who was in avery good mood. Then, Yuta produced whispers as in (9).
(9)(Father talks to Yuta.) (4 mth 5 d.)
Y: [a:→a:→]Oller (1980) mentions that the vocalization types of this stage changes radically fromday to day. As Oller (1980) finds, in the case of Yuta also, the day-by-day-change wasobserved. At the middle expansion stage, around 4-5 months, he produced various sounds
such as growling, yelling and whispering, but as time went by, some sounds such as growlingand whispering disappeared. However, at around 6 months, whispering was observed
frequently again, and he started to produce raspberries and marginal babbling.
At the end of his Expansion stage at around 6 months of age, he vocalized marginal
babbling such as [ma n ma: / mya n ma: / ma: ]. Marginal babbling refers to a string of vowels
such as [a: a:]. These sequences are not reduplicated and do not have regular timing to thesyllables, unlike the babbling at the later stage or canonical babbling. Analyzing his
productions, we noticed that he produced it when he needed his mother’s assistancedesperately. For instance, he produced it when he really wanted to drink his mother’s milk.
It should be noted here that [ma n ma: / mya n ma: / ma: ] resembles the sound of [ma nma], which means ‘food’ and/or [ma ma] meaning ‘mother’ in Japanese. AmongJapanese-speaking infants, it is widely known that [ma n ma] or [ma ma] is a common firstword that the Japanese-speaking infants produce. Therefore, it is plausible to conjecture that it
is a one-word utterance referring to the food or the mother. However, we consider the one weobserve in this stage is still one of the marginal babblings, which contains nasal sound as hehas not started any other one-word words.

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On the Properties of Infant Vocalization in the Japanese Pre-Verbal Stage (T. Nakatani-Murai)

2.4. The Canonical Stage
The fourth stage, or the Canonical stage, is usually identified with the onset of babbling.
This stage is characterized by the production of reduplicated sequences. Typically, a string of
consonants and vowels such as [ba ba ba] or [da da da] are produced.
Yuta got into this stage at the age of around 7 months, and he is still at this stage rightnow (8 mths 20 d.). Observing his vocalization carefully, we noticed an interesting fact: The
mastering of canonical babbling goes step by step. We could videotape the process ofacquiring canonical babbling as shown in (10) and (11). In (10), first, Yuta vocalized labial,[b: b:], which is termed the sound of raspberries in Oller (1980, 2000), and he repeatedly
opened and shut his mouth. Then, the next day, he mastered the canonical babbling, [ba ba ba]
as shown in (11). In the context of both (10) and (11), he was in a very good mood.
(10) (Yuta sits in his baby chair.) (6 mth 5 d.)
Y: [b:b:b:](open and shut the mouth)(11) (Yuta stands in his bed.) (6 mth 6 d.)
Y: [bua:bababa babababa:ba:]
As mentioned in 2.3, the sound of infant speech also fluctuates everyday in this stage.
Sometimes [ba ba ba], sometimes [da da da], and sometimes it equips intonation contour.
3.

Intonation and Gestures

3.1. Intonation
Intonation is one of the properties of “language” that children show before the onset of
adult languages. Menn (1975) reports that babbling equips intonation contours, and many
children make requests and rejections with intonation contours carried by babble-sequences.
de Boysson-Bardies and Vihman (1991) reports that babbling equips intonation contours
which are compatible with the language around them by 10 to 12 months of age. As
mentioned in 2.2, our subject Yuta started employing intonation and gestures in Primitive
Articulation stage. In this section, we are going to discuss the function of those properties,
specifically intonation and gestures.
3.1.1. Intonation in Babbling and One-Word Utterances
Nakatani (2005), based on her longitudinal observation, reports that her subject Niko
made proper use of the intonation of babbling and one-word utterances depending on theintended sentence types. Niko’s verbal behavior was characterized of her long VariegatedBabbling stage. From 1:3 through 1:8, despite the fact that she understood the parental speechvery well, her utterances were very much limited to the variegated babbling such as [a, a, a],-129-

Nanzan Linguistics: Special Issue 3, Vol. 2and her one-word was very few in number until 1:8. It was only after 1:8 that she started
producing one-word utterances. Nakatani (2005) discusses that the babbling and one-wordutterances of Niko were associated with the rising intonation contour for request and demand;
while lowering intonation contour was associated with the declaratives. For example, in (12a),
Niko asked a question using babbling with rising contour, and in (12b), she replied with thefalling contour because at that time she was satisfied with the answer that the mother gave.
Arrows indicate the intonation contours.
(12) (Niko (=N) is reading a picture book with mother (=M). She sees a page with a lot of
washing hanged out on the line.) (1 yr 7 mth)a.
N: [a↑a↑a↑a↑] + (points to a pair of socks in the book)
M: Kutsushita da yo.
socks
-Cop

Kore ga Nena-tyan no.
this-Nom Nena’s

Kore ga Niko-tyan no.
this-Nom Niko’s‘This is a pair of socks. This is Nena’s, and this is Niko’s.’b.

N: [a:↓a:↓a:↓a:↓]c.

N: [a↑a↑] + (points to a doll in the book)
M: Kore wa Niko-tyan no oningyoo.
this-Nom Niko’s
doll‘This is Niko’s doll.’d.

N: [a↑a↑] + (points to an apron)
M: Kore wa Aa-tyan no
this-Nom Aa-tyan’s

epuron.
apron‘This is Aa-tyan’s apron.’e.

N: [a↑a↑] + (points to a pair of trousers)
M: Kore wa Aa-tyan no
this-Nom Aa-tyan’s

zubon.
trousers‘This is Aa-tyan’s trousers.’f.

N: [a↑a↑] + (points to a swimsuit)
M: Kore wa Aa-tyan no
this-Nom Aa-tyan’s

mizugi.
swimsuit‘This is Aa-tyan’s swimsuit.’-130-

On the Properties of Infant Vocalization in the Japanese Pre-Verbal Stage (T. Nakatani-Murai)g.

N: [a:↓a:↓a:↓a:↓][a:↓a:↓a:↓] + (points to a pair of socks)

The pattern of intonation in single-word utterances is almost parallel with that of babbling.
Again, Niko was reading a picture book with her mother in (13). In (13a), Niko wanted to ask
whether or not those socks belong to Nena, her sister, and Aatan, her mother. In this case, her
intonation contour was upwards. However, in (13b), since her mother replied Niko’s question,
Niko was satisfied with her production. Then, her intonation contour was downwards in(13b). The line shows the intonation contour.
(13) (Niko is reading a book.) (1 yr 10 mth)a.
N: [nena] (=sister’s name) [a: tan] (=mother)[nn:↑nn:↑] + (points to a pair of pants in a book)
M: Aa-tyant to onaji.
Aa-tyan and same
‘It is the same as Aa-tyan’s pants.’b.

N: [ne na]

[a:

tan]

c.

N: [nn↑nn↑] + (points to a swimsuit in a book)
M: Mizugi
da yo.
swimsuit -Cop
‘It is a swimsuit.’Puuru
de kita desho.
swimming pool at wore -Cop
‘You wore it in the swimming pool.’d.

N: [pu:u][pu:u] (= swimming pool)e.

N: [ji:ji] (=grandpa) + (points to an underwear in a book)

M: Jiiji no pantsu.
grandpa’s underwear‘Yes, it’s Jiji‘s (=grandpa’s) underwear.’
In questions, the subject raised her intonation contours. In contrast, in the production ofstatement with satisfaction, the intonation contour fell. At the stage where the sentences are
not verbally syntactically structured, in the utterances in babbling and one-word stages,
infants represent their request or satisfaction controlling the intonation. Murasugi and
Nakatani (2005) present a further analysis for the questions and requests in the babbling and-131-

Nanzan Linguistics: Special Issue 3, Vol. 2

one-word stages, and find that they are associated with the specific (rising) intonation. They
propose that the intonation carries the function that functional categories eventually take careof in the adult grammar.
3.1.2. The Vocalization in Precanonical Stage
Although Nakatani (2005) and Murasugi and Nakatani (2005) report the use of
intonation in babbling and single-word stages, we find that intonation as a linguistic marker
actually appear much earlier. As we have mentioned in 2.2, we found that utterances in thePrimitive Articulation stage and the Expansion stage are already associated with intonationand gestures. Depending on the intended meaning, we found that there is a specific pattern inthe usage of intonation and gestures. Vocalizations for request are at high-pitch accompanied
by some reaching gestures and tongue pressing out. (3) is one of the examples of vocalization
for request, which is repeated below.
(3)(Yuta wants to drink mother’s milk.) (1 mth 5 d.)
Y: [ a↑ a↑ a↑ a↑ a: a↑ a↑ a↑ a: a: ] + (reaching gesture, pressing tongue out)

(14) and (15) are also the examples of which intended meaning are request. In (14), he wasasking for mother’s milk, and in (15), he wanted to be held up from his bed, or drink mother’smilk. Both vocalizations contain the same properties as shown in (3), i.e., high-pitch, reachinggesture and tongue pressing out.
(14) (Yuta wants to drink mother’s milk.) (1 mth 2 d.)
Y: [a↑a↑a↑a↑a: a↑a↑a↑a↑a: a↑] + (reaching gesture, pressing tongue out)(15) (Yuta wants to be held up or drink mother’s milk.) (1 mth 12 d.)
Y: [a:↑a↑a↑a:↑a↑a↑a↑a↑a: a↑] + (reaching gesture, pressing tongue out)
On the other hand, when Yuta produced declarative utterances in the situation such as
talking with his father, the strings were associated with low-pitch, and he hardly moved hisarms. (16), (17) and (18) are some of the observed data indicating such situation. The example
in (16) was recorded when Yuta was at the age of 2 months and 16 days. Yuta was staying
with his mother at first, but when she left, he started to produce full vowels at high pitch andstarted moving his arms, since he did not want to be left alone. The example is shown in(16a). Then, when his father came along and talked to him, he started to vocalize at low pitchand stopped moving his arms as in (16b).
(16) (Yuta is lying on a cushion.) (2 mth 16 d.)a.
M: Yuta, okaasan
hanare chauyo.
Yuta motherleave -Cop
‘Yuta, mother is leaving.’
Y: [a:→a:→a:→ua:→a↑a↑a↑a↑] + (hand-moving)-132-

On the Properties of Infant Vocalization in the Japanese Pre-Verbal Stage (T. Nakatani-Murai)b.

F: Yuta. (Father coming)
Y: [ua:→a:→a:→a:→]Compare (16a) with (16b), (17) and (18). In (17) and (18), he is talking with his mother. His
vocalizations were low-pitched, and he did not use any gestures.
(17) (Yuta is talking with mother.) (2 mth 29 d.)
Y: [u:→u:→aue:↑u:→u:→u:→](18) (Yuta is talking with mother. Mother asked him what they did that day.) (3 mth 23 d.)
Y: [a:→a: u:→au:→a:→a:u:↓]To the observer, it seemed that Yuta uses different pitch patterns depending on his
intension. Interestingly, the variety of intonation disappeared as he grows and acquires new
ways to express himself after about 4 months. Now, at 8.5 months old, he makes a request
with gestures (mainly by reaching his hands) and crying, stamping the floor. These findings
are not necessarily compatible with Nakatani’s (2005) observation that the vocalization at theearly acquisition stage has intonation patterns depending on the intended sentence types.
However, if intonation is truly innate language properties, Yuta’s intonation patterns should
remain in his vocalizations as Nakatani’s (2005) findings. We will continue observing our
subject and see how he uses intonation.
3.2. Gestures
It has been found that children use gestures instead of lexicons at the pre-verbal stage.
Caselli (1990), for example, investigates the child’s communication with gestures and therelation between the child’s gestures and languages. He states that the deictic gestures arecontext-bound, while the referential gestures contain semantic content which does not change
the meaning depending on the context. Acredolo and Goodwyn (1988) also propose thatsymbolic gestures are equivalent to the vocalization in the early language development.
Pettito and Marentette (1991) state that deaf infants produce the manual babbling. The
similarities between manual and vocal babbling suggest that there is a unitary language
capacity that underlies the signed and spoken language acquisition. Therefore, it is plausiblethat hearing infants at pre-verbal stage use gestures as “language” which corresponds to adultvocal lexicons.
3.2.1. Referential Gestures
Nakatani (2005) reports that her subject also used gestures very early to convey
linguistic meanings. For example, her subject expressed her pleasant feeling by
hugging-gesture at the age of one year and seven months as shown in (19). In (19), Niko waseating jelly, and when a researcher asked whether or not the jelly tasted good to Niko, she-133-

Nanzan Linguistics: Special Issue 3, Vol. 2

replied to the question by giving hugging-gesture to the mother and the researcher.
(19) (Niko is eating jelly.) (1yr 7 mth)
Researcher: Niko-tyan
oishiino?
Niko-tyan
delicious -Cop
‘Niko, is it good?’(Niko hugged the shoulder of her mother first, and then hugged the shoulder of theresearcher.)Since caregivers tend to use gestures when they talk to children, it is natural for children to
perceive gestures linguistically meaningful. However, the forms of gestures Niko used were
not the imitation of her caregivers. Rather they were unique to Niko. Therefore, the gestures
are not considered to be the imitation. Niko created them herself.
In our study, a referential gesture was observed at 7-month-old. He clapped his hands
when he was pleased. (20) and (21) are the examples of referential gestures that Yuta made.
In (20), Yuta was playing with a chestnut with his mother. When Yuta took the chestnut fromhis mother’s hand, he clapped his hands, smiling. Then, in (20), Yuta was playing with hismother again using a ball, clapping his hands.
(20) (Yuta is playing with a chestnut with mother.) (7 mth 3 d.)
Y: (taking a chestnut from mother and clapping his hands)(21) (Yuta is playing with a ball with mother.) (7 mth 4 d.)
Y: (clapping his hands)
In Yuta’s case, his caregivers clapped their hands, whenever he achieved some new things,
for instance, rolling over, or when he did some good things. Hence, it is plausible to consider
that Yuta just imitated the gesture that his caregivers made. Indeed, the form of his gestureprobably based on the input that his caregivers gave.
However, the way he used it was different from the caregivers’. The caregivers clapped
their hands only when they praised him for his achievement. In contrast, he clapped his hands
spontaneously whenever he was pleased. In addition, he patted the person or the object aroundhim when he was pleased at around 8 months. He patted the table when he ate, or he patted
his parents on the shoulders or the legs when he nestled them. By those gestures, he seemed toexpress his pleasant feeling or his affection. Note here that his caregivers patted him on theback or the shoulders when they tried to sooth him, but they never patted the table when they
showed their pleasant feeling. The form of his gesture in those contexts was unique to him.
Therefore, we consider that the gestures above were not imitations, but his original ones.
Although the form of his gestures might have been partly perceived in the input by Yuta, hecreated his own gestures as meaningful signs by himself as Nakatani’s (2005) subject Niko
showed.

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On the Properties of Infant Vocalization in the Japanese Pre-Verbal Stage (T. Nakatani-Murai)

4.

Conclusion

In this paper, based on a longitudinal observational study of a Japanese-speaking childfrom 1 month 3 days till 8 months 20 days of age, first, we proposed the parallel order ofsound acquisition and the types of speech sound with Oller’s (1980, 2000) observation. We
also found that two-month-old infant could imitate several variation of vocal pitch as Kessen,
et al (1979) and Masataka (1992) report. We also presented a longitudinal report that
intonation and gestures are employed at a very early stage of language acquisition. In
particular, we proposed that the control of pitch and the use of gestures for request are
observed even in the Primitive Articulation stage.
As the child develops, the way of representing request seems to change. It seems that
Yuta, who once used intonation in 2 to 4 months frequently, stopped using intonation formaking request at around 4 months. At present (8.5 months, the Canonical Stage), he does notuse intonation to make a request either. After the intonation contour “disappeared” in his
speech, in 2 months through 8.5 months, he actually stretched his hands toward the objects
that he wanted to get. Because of the “exploration” of gestures and various kinds of soundavailable to the babies, the use of intonation may disappear temporarily to convey themeaning of request, which used to be marked by the intonation at the Primitive Articulation
stage.
Recall here that Nakatani (2005) and Murasugi and Nakatani (2005) discuss that the
vocalization of her subject, Niko, employs intonation depending on intended sentence types incanonical and one-word stage. Given their observation and analysis, we expect that ourpresent subject, Yuta, might also start to use intonation again for making a request, as Niko
did. We will leave this possibility for our future research. To attain the full understanding of
the strong continuity of language acquisition and the variation in the nonverbal/verbal
realization, we will keep observing our subject Yuta carefully from now on too.
The research of Infants’ speech is difficult, partly because it is hard to establish the basic
common linguistic unit among the researchers. Oller (2000) discusses that there are culturaldifferences found in the treatment of the categorization of sounds and the interpretation of theinfants’ intended communicative functions. He also indicates the potential lexical ambiguitiesof those terms and imperfection in translating them.

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Nanzan Linguistics: Special Issue 3, Vol. 2(22) Table 3 Terms for a Few infant Sounds in Six Languages (Oller 2000)
EnglishSpanishFrenchGerman

Cry
Laugh
Goo
SquealGrowl
Raspberry
Babble

Lloro
Risa
Gorgojeo
Chillido
GruñidoTrompetilla
Balbuceo

Cri
Rire
Roucoulement
Cri aigu
Grognement
Faire pfft
Babillage

Schrei
LachenGurrenQuietschen
Brummen
PrustenPlappernChinese(Mandarin)
Ku(1)*
Siaw(4)
Tsitsigugu(1)?
How(3)?
Yaya(1)
Sueh(2), Yi(3)

Czech
Křik
Smich
Vrkat
PistěniMrčěniPrskaniŽvatlani*tones according to the Mandarin standard: 1=high/flat, 2=rising, 3=dipping, 4=falling, 5=light

Observe Table 3 in (22), for example, Raspberries and Squeals are very short terms in
English. However, in Mandarin Chinese, Raspberries and Squeals are described in longphrases. They are not represented by common simple terms, unlike English. “Growl” istermed “Gruñido” in Spanish, but “Gruñido” is often used to mean to grunt as well as togrowl. The lexical meaning of “Growl” in English does not exactly correspond to “Gruñido”
in Spanish. Thus, it is inevitable that the categorization or the interpretation of the infant
vocalization tend to be influenced by the background of each researcher.
The paper presented here is an attempt to make a comparative speech study of the very
young English- and Japanese-speaking infants. Despite the potential problem discussed above,
however, if our study correctly describes the infants’ speech, then, the fact that Japanese- andEnglish-speaking children take the same route in the “exploration” of sounds is mysterious
and interesting. Despite the differences of the social background and the order of input the
infants receive, each infant “explores” the same sounds in the same order. If our findings
provide a piece of evidence for the cross-linguistic parallelism in the very young infants’
vocalization and gestures, then, it would indicate that the pre-verbal mechanism is also
programmed in human beings, thereby supporting the innateness and universality of linguisticknowledge.

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