2004

Asiatic Herpetological ResearchVol. 10, pp. 182-190

The Biology of the Persian Mountain Salamander, Batrachuperus persicus(Amphibia, Caudata, Hynobiidae) in Golestan Province, Iran
HAJI GHOLI KAMI
Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences
and Natural Resources, P. O. Box 49165, Gorgan, Iran.
Abstract. - The Persian Mountain Salamander, Batrachuperus persicus, is a hynobiid endemic to Iran and is distributed in specific localities of Hyrcanian forests in four northern provinces of Iran. The biology of this salamander wasstudied at four localities in Golestan Province of Iran, especially in Shirabad Cave, between 1996 and 1999.
Information is presented about the cave and other localities. This salamander has four fingers and toes. The larvalstages of the salamander are found at all times of year and probably don't transform during the first year. The head
form of small larvae is wider posteriorly while the head form of large larvae, juveniles and adult specimens is moreor less rectangular. Juveniles have more yellow spots than adults. Juvenile and adult specimens are found inside andoutside of water in the cave but in other localities they can be found in burrows around springs and are not active during the day. They feed on larval and adult forms of insects and other arthropods. Adults also feed on small specimensof bats (Myotis blythyii) inside of the cave. Some large specimens are cannibalistic and feed on larvae and juvenilesof B. persicus in natural habitats and in the laboratory. This species does not hibernate inside the cave and is active
all times of the year. The total length of the longest specimen was 268.5 mm.
Key words. - Amphibia, Hynobiidae, Batrachuperus persicus, Iran.

Introduction
The Persian Mountain Salamander, Batrachuperus persicus Eiselt and Steiner 1970, was described based on
five salamander larvae collected near Asalem in theTalesh Mountains in Gilan Province of Iran (Eiselt andSteiner, 1970) (See editorial note and Ebrahimi et al.,2004). Subsequently J. J and J. F Schmidtler collected
some larvae in Weyser, southeast of Chalus, in
Mazandaran Province, Iran, in 1970. These transformedin captivity and a brief description of juvenile specimens
was presented (Schmidtler and Schmidtler, 1971).
Primary information was presented on adult specimens
in Ardabil Province of Iran (Baloutch and Kami, 1995).
New distribution records were published some years ago(Kami and Vakilpoure, 1996). Adult specimens of thisspecies were described for the first time together with
their habitats in Gilan and Ardabil provinces of Iran
(Kami, 1999).
The biology of this salamander has been studied in
the laboratory and in natural habitats especially in
Shirabad Cave of Khanbebain. Students of Gorgan
University and I have visited Shirabad Cave twelve
times between 1996 and 1999. Detailed information on
the other localities is sparse and these localities must be
studied more in the future.
Study areas. - Batrachuperus persicus is distributed in
the four northern provinces of Iran (Fig. 1). Figure 2
shows new localities of Batrachuperus persicus in© 2004 by Asiatic Herpetological Research

Figure 1. The four provinces of Iran that encompass the
distribution of Batrachuperus persicus. 1- Ardabil; 2Gilan; 3- Mazandaran; 4- Golestan.

Golestan Province. Most of the research was done at
locality 1 (Shirabad Cave), other localities were visited
only one time. Climatic information for five cities ofGolestan Province is summarized in Table 1.
Locality 1. Shirabad Cave- Shirabad Cave (36° 57' N,
55° 03' E) is situated 70 km East of Gorgan, southeast of
Khanbebain and Shirabad Village at about 420 m above
sea level (Fig. 3, 4). The cave and waterfalls were designated as a National Park by the Department of

Vol. 10, p. 183

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2004

Tab 1. Summary of climatic information (15 years) in five cities of Golestan province of Iran.
station(city)

elevation
Annual(m)
precipitation(mm)

Mean of Air
temperature(ºC)

Mean ofminimum
temperature(ºC)

Mean ofmaximum
temperature(ºC)

Azadshahr
RamianMinoudasht
Gonbad-ekavous
Gorgan129200
155-18030-45
160

Mean of
Annualrelative
evaporation
moisture (%)
(mm)

847.6
883.1
765.3
388.3

17.1
16.2
17.3
18.2

0.7
-1.0
-1
-3.5

31.9
35.0
36.0
36.5

71.6
65.0
82.1
68.6

-497.0
482.5
510.0

642.7

17.7

2.8

36.4

---

---

Figure 2. Localities of of Batrachuperus persicus in Golestan Province, Iran: 1- Shirabad Cave, 2 - Vantakhteh; 3- Near
Shirabad Cave; 4- Spring of Khouklou; 5- Barankouh (36° 45' N, 54° 25' E), about 10 km south west of Gorgan, almost
1100 m elevation; 6- Spring of Khonakou, situated south southwest of Gorgan, Jahannama Protected Area, Valley of
Sorkhcheshmeh, below elevations of Pir-e-zan (elevations of Pahlavan Ghaleh), 1800 m elevation; 7- elevations of
Yakhkesh (36° 42' N, 54° 23' E) about 15 km south of Gorgan, 2300 m elevation; 8- Water falls of Shirabad; 9- Valleyof Loushan, inside of valley, (36° 42' N, 54° 41' E) about 30 km southeast of Gorgan; 10- Region of Aram-eSorkhcheshmeh opposite side of Siah Marzkouh, Village of Aliabad. Circles are cities: 1- Gorgan; 2- Aliabad; 3Ramian; 4- Azadshahr; 5- Gonbad-e-kavous; 6- Minoudasht; 7- Kalaleh.

2004

Asiatic Herpetological ResearchVol. 10, p. 184

Table 2. Dates of study, air and water temperature of four
localities in Golestan province of Iran.
Locality

Shirabad
Cave

Dates ofstudy

Air temWater
Time
perature temperature
(ºC)
(ºC)
1996/11/1--12
1997/2/28--11
1997/4/11--10-10.5
1997/4/17 12.5-13
1110451997/7/10 19.5-21
13
1100
1997/10/2-3--12
998/4/17--11
1200
998/5/8
18
101430
1998/5/15
18
13
1998/5/19
15
12
1998/7/10--13
1998/9/2
17
11

Near
Shirabad

1997/7/10

20-23.5

1913301530
1000

Khouklou
Spring1999/5/26

26-27

12

1230

Vantakhteh 1996/11/25

2-6

6.5-7

Environment of Gorgan and Gonbad-e-Kavous in 1998.
There are seven waterfalls below the cave. The entranceof the cave is about 15 m high and is at least 3-4 m highin other parts of the cave. It is almost 240 m long and iscompletely dark. Water emerges from the mouth of the
cave and flows to the river and waterfalls at all times ofthe year.
No plant species live inside the cave, but there is
Lycopodium sp on the floor of cave from the entrance toabout 10 m inside of it on large flat stones. Some plant
species that were identified outside the entrance of the
cave on 28 February 1997 and 17 April 1997 are:Pteridum aquilinum, Adianthum capillus-veneris,
Athyrium flix-mas, Phyllitis scolopendrium, Funaria sp,
Celtis australis, Evonymus latifolia, Convulvulus(=Calistegia) sepium, Hedera pastochowii, Lamium
album, Carex pendula, Rubus hyrcana, Ficus carica,
Danae recemosa, Acer insigne, Parrotia persica,
Carpinus betulus Cyclamen elegans, Marcantia sp.
The water temperature of cave is 10-13°C (Mean
11.6°C) and is constant from the entrance to end of cave.
Air temperature of cave varied between 12.5-21°C oversix visits. The inside of the cave is a little warmer thanthe entrance of the cave (Table 2).
Locality 2. Vantakhteh. - The Spring of Vantakhteh (36°40' N, 54° 25' E ) is about 18 km south of Gorgan Cityand 5 km southwest of Ziarat Village at about 1200-1300

Figure 3. That National park that includes the cave andwaterfalls of Shirabad (1650 Hectares).

m elevation. Salamanders were observed in this locality
in 1979 and later in Yakhkesh (2300 m elevation) on 25
November, 1999. There are two springs in this localitythat are formed from soil and limestone and situated toeast. Water flows from springs to the Souteh River.
The sides of the river were frozen and snowy. The
springs are 3-4 m above the river. Water temperature of
one spring was 6.5 and other 7°C. Air temperature was
6°C at 13:30 and 2°C at 15:30. Snow was melted in eastside of the springs. Some plant species found around thesprings are as follows: Rosa albicans, Berberis vulgaris,
Juniperus communis, Carpinus orientalis, Juncus
effusus, Circium nekarmanicum, Stachys bizantica. Fivesalamanders, all metamorphosed, were found inside ofburrows near the springs.
Locality 3. Near Shirabad Cave. - Locality 3 is a small
pond (about 2m x 2m) in southwest of Shirabad Village
and 20 m above Shirabad Cave. Water depth was almost
50 cm. Around this shady pond were stones, lichens andtrees (Danae racemosa, Quercus sp). A Grass Snake(Natrix natrix), Marsh Frogs (Rana ridibunda), crabs(Potamon sp.) and larvae of Batrachuperus persicus
with total length of 3-4 cm were observed. No adult or
metamorphosed salamanders were seen. Air temperature
was 20-23.5°C and water temperature was 19°C at 1000
on 10 July1997. Some larvae such as Gerridae(Heteroptera), Chironomidae (Diptera), Ephemeroptera,andAmphipoda(Gamaridae),earthworms(Lumbricidae), and Gastropoda were collected inside
and around the pond under decaying logs.

Vol. 10, p. 185

Asiatic Herpetological Research

2004

Table. 3. Measurments of living Batrachuperus persicus inside of Shirabad cave of Golestan province of Iran. All specimens were released after measuring. All measurements are in mm.
Dateand number

Form

Total length

Head length

Trunk length

Tail length

1996/11/1n=6

larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
adult
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
adult
adult
adult
adult
adult
juvenile
larva
larva
juvenile
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
adult
larva
adult
adult
adult
adult
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva
larva

80
104.4
88.2
79.2
84.8
236.5
70
83
79
74
50
80
240
245
229.2
227.7
97.3
45
57
90
80
86
62
52
50
67
56
103
108
94
55
217
105
225
225
230
235
100
75
40
41
42
42
44
55
37.9
36.8
36.2
36.9
75.5

10
11.8
9.8
9.7
10.6
24.5
26.6
24.8
29.3
11.9
-

28.4
36.1
33.1
29.6
30.9
85
78.6
81.9
84.2
37.5
-

41.8
54.1
45.2
40.0
43.2
127
124
121
48.6
-

1997/2/28n=4

1997/4/17n=4

1997/7/10n=19

1998/5/19n=13

1999/4/26n=5

Totallength
larva
38.5
larva
38.7
larva
39.2
larva
40.1
larva
40.4
larva
42.0
larva
42.3
larva
51
larva
55.1
larva
75.5
larva
larva
84.8
larva
larva
104.8
juvenile 84.1
juvenile 102.1
juvenile 164.5

Headlength
6.6
6.6
6.8
6.1
6.6
7.3
7.4
8.0
10.6
10.8
12.3
12.5
11.0
14.8
21.7

Head form Upper Between Between Trunk Tail Cloaca Forelimb Forelimb Hindlimb Hindlimb Axilla- Costal
Head
width
eyelids eyelids nostrils
digitsdigitsgroin grooves
Vol.wider10, p. 5 Research
2004
rear
- Asiatic
15.4 Herpetologicalrear wider
15.3
rear wider
8.4
2.2
15
2>3>4=1 4.9 3>2=4>1 10.7
rear wider
7.6
2.0
6.7 2=3>1>4 2.6
11.5
rear wider
7.6
1.8
2
15.7 17.2
6.2 2>3>4=1 5.4 3>2>4>1 11.1
rear wider
6.5
21.2 18.0
6.4
rear wider
7.8
2.1
22.1 19.3
2.7
11.3
rear wider
9.8
1.8
2.2
5.4 2>3>4=1 7.3 3>2>4>1 14.3
rear wider
9.5
2.2
2.0
26.5 19.3
8.3 2>3>4>1 7.4 3>2>4>1 15.0
rear wider
33.7 22.4
8.0
rear wider
12.1
2.9
3.9
22.9
25
2>3>4>1 10.4 3>2>4>1 17.0
rear wider
11.0
3.7
2.7
41.2
1.4
10.7 2=3>4=1 12.9 3>2>4>1 20.4
rectangular
12-12
11.3
.9
2.5
32.1
0.9
11.8 3>2>4>1 11.5 3>2>4>1 16.8
4.1
rectangular
12-11
12.4
1.5
3.2
4.2
35.9 40.3
2.4
11.5 3>2>4>1 16.2 3>2>4>1 30.1?-13
8.1 rear narrower 1.9
3.1
4
72.6
3.4
13.9 2>3>4>1 13.3 3>2>4>1 19.0
10.9 rear narrower 2.8
3.1
3.9
15.4 51.1
4.1
12.9 3>2>4>1 16.6 3>2>4>1 22.5
rectangular
13-14
15.7
3.9
4.5
6.0
15.3
41
4.5
13.8 3>2>4>1 28.2 3>4>2>1 51.1

Asiatic Herpetological Research

428
429
282
286
281
427
278
283
284
333
285
343
246
248
430
278
276

Form
ZMGU

Tab.4 . Morphometric and meristic characters of larvae and juveniles of Batrachuperus persicus in Golestan province of Iran.

2004

Vol. 10, p. 186

Locality 4. Spring of Khouklou. - The Spring of
Khouklou (36° 44' N, 54° 53' E) is situated almost 23 km
south of Aliabad at about 1500 m elevation. This springis 200 m west of Chenarbin and along side of the
Khouklou River and situated to north beneath a large
rock. This locality was studied on 26 May 1999. Six
specimens were seen and three of them were collected.
All specimens had external gills.

Materials and Methods
Shirabad Cave was studied 12 times and the other localities only one time between 1996 and 1999. Air andwater temperature of the cave and two other localities
measured on some dates. Important plant species of
localities were identified. Measurements (total, head,trunk, and tail lengths) were done on living specimens ofsalamanders inside the cave. Some specimens (larval
and transformed) collected and brought to aquaria at thezoology laboratory of Gorgan University and kept withice. Some specimens (30) were fixed in alcohol or formalin. Almost all fixed transformed salamanders weredissected and stomach contents and sexes were noted.
Morphometric and meristic characters of specimens
were taken. The behavior of salamanders was studied
inside the cave and in the laboratory. On each visit the
total number of salamanders was counted from theentrance to the end of the cave.
Preserved specimens of Batrachuperus persicus
studied for this research are as follows: ZMGU 67, 273,
Shirabad Cave collected by H. Naghghash and M.
Rahmani in 1994; ZMGU 246, 281, 282, 283, 284, near
Shirabad Cave collected by H. Kami, A. Maghsoudlou,
M. Rahmani, M. Azma on 10 July 1997; One specimen
without number collected in Shirabad Cave by A.
Maghsoudlou on 8 May 1998; ZMGU 267, Shirabad
Cave, collected by A.Maghsoudlou on 21 May; ZMGU
266, 268, 269, 270, 272, 285, 286, 427, 428, 429, collected by H. Kami, M. Fatemi, N. Okhli, N.
Moghaddam, J. Ghasemi, M. Mahmoudi, R. Zakeri, on
19 May 1998; ZMGU 275, 430, Shirabad Cave, probably collected by H. Kami, S. Afzali, R. Ghaemi on 28
February 1997; ZMGU 276, Jahannama Protected Area,south of Gorgan and Ziarat Spring of Khonakou, collected by N. Torbatinejad on 10 June 1997; ZMGU: 277,
278, Vantakhteh, collected by H. Kami, S. Afzali, M.
Firouznia, H. Rezaee, Y. Shakoumahalli, Y. Nariman, on
25 November 1996; ZMGU 279, 280 without correct
information (probably Vantakhteh or Shirabad); ZMGU
333, 335, Shirabad Cave, collected by M. Goli, S. Afzali
and eight other students of Gorgan University on 27
April 1999; ZMGU 343, Spring of Khouklou, collectedby H. Absalan, S. Hosseini, on 26 May1999.

M
F
F
M
F
F
F
F
M?
M
F
F
F

Asiatic Herpetological Research

267

adult
adult

333

adult
adult

89.4
113.6
124.3
114.8
118.6
111.5
116.9
124.9
121.1
132.8
121.9
136.7

335

adult

343

adult

21.6
25.3
24.6
24.9
28.9
27.2
26.7
28.7
25.4
26.0
25.1
23.9
26.0
28.8

15.1
18.9
15.2
18.6
20.4
21.8
19.2
21.0
21.4
20.6
18.4
18.7
21.0
19.3

rear narr
rear narr
rear narr
rear wid
rectangrear narr
rear narr
rectang
rectangrear narr
rectang
rectang
rectangrear narr

4.1
4.5
3.5
4.8
3.8
4.2
5.2
4.4
4.8
4.7
5.3
5.1

4.5
5.6
5.3
5.4
5.9
5.9
6.3
5.7
5.5
5.8
5.0
6.2
6.1

5.4
7.7
6.4
7.5
7.1
7.6
8.5
7.9
7.8
7.6
4.7
8.5
8.3

5.9
8.1
9.6
4.2
7.5
5.9
7.3
5.5
5.9
8.1
6.6
7.8
6.3

25.0
32.6
32.8
29.9
31.8
35.9
35.5
37.3
30.6
31.6
33.6
34.6

2>3>1=4
3>2>4>1
3>2>1=4
3>2>4>1
2=3>4>1
2=3>4>1
3>2>1=4
3>2>4>1
3>2>4>1
3>2>4>1
3>2>4>1
3>2>4>1
3>2>4>1
3>2>4>1

34.5
37.1
37.4
36.4
37.4
39.7
34.9
35.9
31.5
-

277
75

26

adult

86.5
78.6
72.4
74
80.1
82.8
91.0
84.8
82.4
88
78.7
92.0
83.9
90.6

3>2>4>1
3>2>4>13>2=4>1
3>2>4>1
3>4>2>1
3>4>2>1
3>2>4>1
3>2>4>1
3>2>4>1
3>4>2>13>2=4>1
3>2>4>13>2=4>1

41.9
53.1
54.9
57.7
51.4
52.7
43.9
59.0
43.8
54.0
50/9
-

11-12
13-13
11
12-11
11-11
13-12
12-11
13-12
12-13
14
12-13
14-12
12-13
13-11

Form

276

93.3
10.6
23.2
23.8
28.6
29.2
30.4
32.7
35.1
36.6
37.8
46.6
68.5

2004

Table 6. Summary of information on the feeding of B. persicus in Golestan province of Iran. ZMGU 75 is from
Ardabil province.
ZMGU

67
335
270
275
279
273
269
280
266
75
272
277
267

Upper Between Between Trunk Tail Cloaca Forelimb Forelimb Hindlimb Hindlimb Axilla- Costal Sex
eyelids eyelids nostrils
digitsdigits groin grooves
Head
form
Total Head Head
length length width
ZMGU

Table 5. Morphometric and meristic characters of adult forms of Batrachuperus persicus in Golestan province of Iran (ZMGU 75 from Ardabil province, ZMGU 270
is dried specimen, rear narr =rear narrower, rear wid = rear wider, rectan = rectangular, F = Female, M = Male).

Vol. 10, p. 187

Total
lengthStomach andintestine
contents

Two hairless Bats (Myotis
blythyii), one digested (~3cm) and another undigested(~6 cm). Soft material ismixed with undigested
bones in large intestine.
268.5 One butterfly larva(chrysalid) 28 mm; ~45 vermiform larvae of Diptera(probably Tabanidae), each
~1 cm; two species of black
beetle, (Coleoptera), ~45mm; stomach of salamander
was full.
>164.5 Soft unidentifiable material.
246.6 One larva of B. persicus withsnout - vent length >32 mm,
mostly digested.
236.6 Two mayfly larvae
75.5 (Ephemeroptera). Specimen
was fed on larvae of Iranianwood frog in laboratory
before fixation.
Some algae and a semidigested Earwig (Dermoptera)found in feces.
84.8 Two undigested larvae of B.
persicus with a total lenghtof 30 mm emerged one day
after collecting.

Results
Measurements of specimens from the localities are presented in Table 3. Morphometric and meristic charactersof preserved salamanders are summarized in Table 4 andTable 5. The maximum total length of this species
expected 15-20 cm (Schmidtler and Schmidtler 1971).
The total length of the longest specimen was 268.5 mm.
Description of larvae. - In small larvae (Total length lessthan 80-100 mm), the head is large, depressed, more orless triangular with rounded end anteriorly, wider posteriorly, with small eyes and poorly developed eyelids;
black horny margin present in lower jaw; gills large;
vomerine tooth-bundle arc-shaped, situated anterolaterally, and extending in front of the choanae, short, in the
middle hardly discernibly separated from one another.
Trunk with 11-14 costal grooves, vertebral groove often
present, forelimbs are longer than hind limbs, tips of fin-2004

Asiatic Herpetological ResearchVol. 10, p. 188

Figure 4. A- One of seven waterfalls of Shirabad Cave (Golestand Province, Iran). Batrachuperus persicus are foundin the water near the edges of the pond (Photo by R. Ghaemi 2/28/97); B- The entrance of Shirabad Cave (Photo by
R. Ghaemi 2/28/97); C- Myotis blythyi, an abundant bat species of Shirabad Cave and one of the food items of
Batrachuperus persicus; D- Larval specimen of Batrachuperus persicus from Shirabad Cave collected 2/28/97 (Photoby A. Sanee 3/11/1997); E- Juvenile specimen of Batrachuperus persicus about 10 days after metamorphosis.
Collected from Shirabad Cave 2/28/97 (Photo by A. Sanaee 4/8/97).

gers with black horny pads, their arrangements are
3>2>4>or<1; arrangement of toes are often 3>2>4>1;
adpressed limbs not overlapping; tail highly compressedfrom laterally, upper caudal fin very distinct, reaching to
occiput in some specimens, lower caudal fin reaching toposterior of cloaca, cloacal aperture is oval or elliptical.
In larger larvae the head is more or less rectangular,
adpressed limbs overlapping, upper and lower caudal
fins not clearly distinct. The 12 larvae specimens examined (fixed or living) in this study (see Tables 3, 4) havea tail length which is smaller (Table 4) or longer (Table3) than the head plus body length.
Description of juveniles. - Head more or less elliptical,
decreasing toward the rear, adpressed limbs overlapping, upper and lower caudal fins are not distinct, tailmore or less rounded especially at base of it. Four juvenile specimens examined in this study (see Tables 3, 4),have a tail length which is often smaller than the headplus body length.
Description of adults. - Head form is more or less rectangular, or wider anteriorly. Eyelids well developed andmovable, width of eyelid is less than distance of inter-

eyelids (interoculars), distance of external nostrils are
longer than distance of nostril to anterior of eye, nostrils
are semi-circle; vomerine tooth-bundle is different fromthat of larvae, inner portion of it is longer than outer one.
Trunk with 11-14 costal grooves, adpressed limbs overlapping. Tail compressed laterally in some specimens
and with thin upper and lower caudal fins, and in somespecimens more or less rounded especially at base.
Cloacal aperture is longitudinal and in some specimens
cross-shaped, and longitudinal protuberance is present
inside of cloaca in others. The 16 adult specimens examined in this study (see Tables 3, 5) have a tail length
which is longer than head plus body length except two
specimens (ZMGU 273, 335) which have tail lengths
smaller than head plus body length.
Coloration. - Small larvae (Total length 40 mm) are in
general light yellow without any distinct spots; darkeyes very distinct in small larvae, larger larvae haveirregular dark gray spots, ventral portion of larvae lightand without spots; dorsum of ZMGU 285 is dark gray;
Iris yellowish, pupil dark, bases of all limbs yellow, yellow color of forelimbs not reaching to knee but inhindlimbs reaching to knee. Yellow spots of larvae areVol. 10, p. 189

Asiatic Herpetological Research

2004

more than in adults. Juveniles are darker than larvae.
Yellow spots are less in adult, and ZMGU 269 is deep
violet and have only one yellow spot beside of vertebral
groove. Yellow spots of adults are often in vertebral
groove.

Distribution. - Batrachuperus persicus collected orobserved by students of Gorgan University, staffs ofDepartment of Environment of Gorgan and Gonbad-eKavous, and by me in many localities in Golestan
Province of Iran. These localities are listed on figure 2.

Feeding. - Batrachuperus persicus feeds on larvae andadult forms of some orders of insects and probably otherarthropods. They also feed on bats (Myotis blythyi)in
Shirabad Cave (Fig. 4). Some specimens are cannibalistic and feed on smaller specimens of B. persicus especially in captivity. Algae, that may be eaten with otherinsects, was found in one larva. Stomach is white with athin wall. Total length of digestive system of ZMGU 267
was 337 mm from anterior of stomach to posterior of
cloaca. Contents of stomachs of some dissected B. persicus are shown in Table 6.

Discussion

Behavior. - Small larvae and adult large salamanders areusually almost motionless inside of cave. They have noreaction to light. Adults escape to water. Adults swim
more slowly than larvae under water. Adults are active in
Shirabad Cave in all times of year but in other localities
are not active during the daytime.
Parasites. - Many nematodes and mastigophorans were
found inside the cloaca of one salamander from locality
2. Some nematodes moved freely and some were insideof a cyst.
Metamorphosis. - Larvae are found at all times of theyear in Shirabad Cave and probably don’t transform during the first year. A newly transformed juvenile wasfound on February 25 1997. Larvae transform rapidly incaptivity probably as a result of starvation and higher
temperature.
Habitat. - Batrachuperus persicus was studied in four
localities and observed in some other localities in
Golestan Province of Iran. Larvae were found inside ofsmall shady ponds. Juveniles and adults were foundinside and outside of water in Shirabad Cave but in otherlocalities live in borrows about 20 cm long. Some specimens found above stones, and some in grooves ofstones near water in Shirabad Cave. One specimen was
1 meter away of water and moved 0.5 meter on the stonewhich was in an almost vertical position.
Measurements. - Measurements are summarized inTables 3, 4, and 5. Total length of the smallest larvae was36.2 mm and of the longest one was 105 mm. Juveniles
are smaller than the largest larvae. Total length of thelongest adult was 268.5 mm.

These salamanders are active at all times of year in
Shirabad Cave, but in other localities found in borrowsof near of springs during daytimes and are probably
active at night. Larval salamanders have morphological
adaptations that correlate with the environments that thelarvae inhabit (Noble 1927 in Petranka 1988). One
dichotomy is that between species that typically breed inrunning versus standing water habitats. In this division
larvae of Batrachuperus persicus are “stream-type” larvae. A third group of aquatic larvae (“mountain brook”
larvae) was recognized by Valentine and Dennis (1964)
that is perhaps better viewed as an extreme form of thestream-type morphology (Petranka, 1998). It is better
recognized larvae of B. persicus to this type of larvae.
Feeding on bats by adults of B. persicus may be uniquein the world of salamanders.

Acknowledgments
I am much indebted to N. Okhli for various assistance inthe field and in laboratory and typing the manuscript. I
would like to thank the students of Gorgan University(M. Sabbaghpour, R. Ramezani, S. Afzali, S.Ashrafi, R.
Zakeri, M. Azma, M. Rahmani, H. Naghghash, G.
Daryanabard, H. Zohouri, A. Sanaee, A. Maghsoudlou,
M. Mahmoudi, J. Ghasemi, M. Goli) for their cooperation during field work in Golestan Province and for taking the photographs. Thanks to staffs of Department ofEnvironment of Gorgan and Gonbad-e-Kavous especially R. Ghaemi, M. Firoznia Y. Shahkoumahalli and H.
Abslan for their cooperations. I am gratefull to N.
Abbasy and M. Fatemi, N. Moghaddam for identification of plants and A. Abdoli for identification of water
insects. I am also thankful to T. Papenfuss, Museum ofVertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley,
for all his recommendations, encouragements, and reading the manuscript before publication.

Editor’s Note
The name Batrachuperus persicus Eiselt and Steiner,
1970. Ann. Naturhist. Mus. Wien, 74:77 (Holotype:
NHMW 19435:4 [larval specimen], type locality:
Talysch Mountains near Assalem, Gilan Province, Iran,small creek about 800 m) has priority over

2004

Asiatic Herpetological Research

Batrachuperus gorganensis Clerque-Gazeau and Thorn,
1979. Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. Toulouse 114:455 (Holotype:
MNHMP 1978-1982, type locality: At the edge of a cavernous stream on a clay bank 200 m inside the entranceof a cave, situated between the village of Gorgan and
Ali-Abad, Elborz Mountain Range of north-central Iran,near the southeast shore of the Caspian Sea and with anelevation of 400 m above sea level). The type localitiesof the two nominal taxa lie at the extreme western andeastern ends respectively of the known Iranian range of
Batrachuperus. Most recent authors have considered thetwo specimens conspecific and a small number of populations distributed between the two type localities havebeen discovered. However, the taxonomic status of B.
gorganensis as well as that of intermediate populations
remains unsettled. Unsettled; see also discussion of the
problem in Ebrahimi et al. (2004). Indeed, Risch (1984,
Alytes, Paris 3:44) made B. gorganensis the type of his
monotypic genus, Paradactylodon. SCA

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