Asiatic Herpetological Research

2001

Vol. 9. pp. 71-76

The Discovery of Mauremys iversonh\ ike Turtles at a Turtle Farm in Hainan
Province, China: The Counterfeit Golden CoinJames Ford Parham and Haitao Shi 2
1

Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-3140, USA, email:parham@socrates.berkeley.edu. Department of Biology, Hainan Normal University, Haikou City, Hainan
Province 571 158, China

Abstract.- During a visit to a turtle farm in Hainan Province,

we discovered turtles that closely resemble

Mauremys iversoni. The Mauremys iversoni-hke turtles at the turtle farm were intentionally produced hybrids oftwo commonly reared species, Mauremys mutica and Cuora trifasciata. According to the turtle farmer, theintentional production of hybrids between these two turtles is a common practice. The hybrids fetch extremely
high prices (-1000 USD/kg) since they are sold as Cuora trifasciata. the "golden coin" turtle, to unsuspecting
buyers. We suggest, but cannot prove, that all Mauremys iversoni-Mke turtles might be turtle farm hybrids. Thishypothesis could explain all of the available evidence and could alleviate a lot of the confusion surrounding thisspecies unusual geographical distribution, sudden appearance in the pet trade, as well as its variable morphology.

Turtles, Bataguridae, Geoemydidae. Mauremys. Cuora trifasciata.
Hainan, hybrids, turtle farm

Key words.-

Mauremys

iversoni. China.

Introduction
Mauremys iversoni Pritchard and McCord 1991 is oneof ten new Chinese chelonians described from specimens purchased through the pet trade since 1987.
From the beginning, our knowledge of this species'
geographical distribution has been fraught with confusion. The type specimen of Mauremxs iversoni (UF71866: institutional abbreviations follow LevitonaLet1985) and 19 other individuals are reported tohave come from Fujian province (Fig.

la), but eight
additional specimens from a locality in Guizhou (over1000 km away) were also reported (Fig. lb). Prit1991 propose two hypotheses tochard and McCord
explainis()

this disjunct distribution:(or was) continuous

1)

The distribution

between these

localities;

2)

One of the localities (perhaps the type locality) is theresultof turtles being relocated by traveling BudFigure 1.

dhists.

The reported localities of Mauremys iversoni

China: A) Type locality, Nanping, Fujian
Province (Pritchard and McCord, 1991): B) Kweiying,

like turtles in

An additional wrinkle is provided by Iverson and
McCord (1994) who suggest that the type series ofMauremys "guangxiensis"(-'Clemmys guangxiensis" Qin 1992) from Guangxi (Fig. lc) is actually acomposite of Mauremys mutica and Mauremxs iversow- like specimens.
However, some differences
between the M. "guangxiensis" iversoni-Mke specimens, the Guizhou M. iversoni specimens, and the
Fujian M. iversoni specimens have been noted (Pritchard

and1994).

The result is the occurrence of different-look-

ing

M.

McCord.

iversoni-\ikc

1991;

turtles

Iverson

from

and

three

McCord,disparate

Guizhou Province (Pritchard and McCord, 1991); C)
Nanning, Guangxi Province (Qin, 1992); D)Tunchang,
Hainan Province (This study).
regions in China between the years of 1986 and 1991
(Fig. 1 ). Based on observations from a breeding facility

located on Hainan Island (Fig. Id), we propose athird hypothesis that might explain all of the available

data and possibly alleviate much of the confusion: All

Mauremxs iversoni-\'\ke turtles are the result of theVol. 9, p. 72

2001

Asiatic Herpetological Researchbred "everywhere". In the past ten years, the numberof turtle farms is rumored to have increased dramati-

Although it is not possible to provide exact
numbers, there are estimated to be at least ten breed-cally.

ing facilities on Hainan alone.

In an attempt to assess

the impact of this burgeoning business to the Asianturtle trade, one of us (HS) has gained access to alarge turtle farm in Tunchang. Hainan province (Fig.
Id)

from 1996 to the present.

This paper represents

the second report of this effort (see also Shi and Par-ham, 2001).
According to the owner of the turtle farm, the Tun-

An intentionally produced hybrid trom a Chinese turtle farm (MVZ 230475) that closely resembles
Mauremys iversoni. Photo by JFR
Figure 2.

hybridization of Mauremys mutica and Cuora trifasciata in captivity.

chang breeding facility was first established in 1983.
The foundation of its breeding stock came from dozens of wild collected Cuora trifasciata.

Mauremys

mutica, and Ocadia sinensis from Hainan as well as
additional specimens from a farm in Guangdong thatwas established in 1978.

It

currently houses an esti-

mated 15.000+ geoemydids. Early on. the number ofbreeding ponds and turtles was limited and the estab-

Chinese turtle farms

lishment of breeding stocks proceeded without clear

The role of turtle farms in the Asian turtle trade isoften overlooked. The primary reason for this is theaim. Almost all the local species of turtles were col-secrecy of the turtle farmers themselves. Despite ourignorance, the practice of farming turtles in China is aoften kept in the same pond or enclosure.

widespread, lucrative endeavor.

As far back as 1991,

Zhou and Zhou report that Cuora trifasciata is being

lectedfrom thefieldor bought from villagers and

In November of 1999, the authors visited a smaller
facility that

included several indoor breeding ponds.

turtle farm hybrids and putative

Figure 3. A comparison of Mauremys iversonip\as\ta from the type description with
Province

Mau-(MVZ 230477); B-D)
parental species: A) Mauremys mutica Uom a turtle farm in Tunchang, Hainan
remys tVerson/Uom the type description. They are either from Fujian or Guizhou Province; E-F) Intentionally produced hybrids from a turtle farm in Tunchang, Hainan Province; G) Mauremys iverson/'Uom the type description. It
is either from Fujian or Guizhou Province; H) An intentionally produced hybrid from a turtle farm in Tunchang,
Hainan Province (MVZ 130475); I) Cuora trifasciata'from Tai Pin, central Hainan Province (MVZ 23932); J) Cuora
trifasciataAtom the pet trade (MVZ 230636). Photos by JFP [a,e-f,h-j] and Pritchard and McCord (1991 )[b-d,g].

Asiatic Herpetological Research

2001

Vol. 9, p. 73

Although numerous species were observed, Maure-

mys mutica and Cuora trifasciata were the most abundant.

Many of the C. trifasciata were kept separately.

but one pond included C. trifasciata. M. mutica. andWhen asked if any of theever hybridized, the workers of the farm pro-even a Chelydra serpentina.
turtles

duced several animals that closely resembled Maure-

mys iversoni. One of these hybrids, a subadult male,
was procured as a voucher (MVZ 230475; Fig. 2. 3h).
JFP was given permission to photograph two otherhybrids (Fig. 3e,f).

The turtle farm hybrids
As with the three previously reported incidences of M.
iversoni (Fujian, Guizhou. and Guangxi). there aresomedifferences

Unfortunately,

it

in

the

is difficult

Hainanfarm

specimens.

to understand these differ-ences because of inconsistencies

in the reportingof

Figure 4. Cuora trifasciata Uom a Chinese turtle farmshowing light head coloration. Photo by HS.

previous measurements, small sample sizes, and thefact thehands.

most important specimens remain in private
For example, Pritchard and McCord (1991)

present
plots of measurements for adultbut inexplicably include only five
iversoni.
Mauremys
bivariateall

M. iversoni are turtle farm hybrids, then we should

expect them to have an extremely variable morphology, especially if they are the result of separate hybri-

This pattern

not stated from which locality

is borne out by theM.
iversoni-\\kc
turtles (Pritchardpreviously reported(Fujian or Guizhou) these specimens are from or why

and McCord, 1991; Qin. 1992; Iverson and McCord,of the adult males.

It isdogenic events.

measurements of all 10 of the adult males from1994).

of
Fujian (the type locality) are not included. Table
Pritchard and McCord includes 10 shell measure-

In

the

1

ments

for alltwo

the specimens, but excludes themeasurements (the interpectoral length [IPLj and theinteranal length [IAN]) thatwould have allowed theterms of coloration,athybrids photographedtheMVZ 230475 and theTunchang

turtlefarm

closely resemble Mauremys iversoni. The head coloration of

MVZ 230475

lighter than that of the speci-

ismen figured by Pritchard and McCord (1991

).

but a

type series to be included in the bivariate plot. Iverson and McCord (1994) perform a more detailed

variation in head coloration in Mauremys iversoni wasstudy of variation within East Asian Mauremys. but do
not present the raw data and only include one speci-

almost identical to the lighter individual figured inthat work. The variable head coloration in M. iversoni

men of Guizhou Mauremys iversoni (no voucher).
The relevant shell measurements of MVZ 230475
are as follows: IAN= 1.4 cm, IPL= 1.1 cm. CL=
1.4
cm. IAN/CL= .1228, IPL/CL=.096. MVZ 230475 is1

a juvenile and smaller than three specimens excluded

from the adult category by Pritchard and McCord

noted by Fritz and Obst (1999).

MVZ 230475

iscan be linked to the variation in C. trifasciata. For,
while most C. trifasciata have dark postorbital markings.

C.

trifasciata

with light head coloration are

known (Fig. 4), especially in turtle farms. Pritchard
and McCord 1991 state that M. iversoni can be dis()

(1991).

tinguished from M. mutica by a horseshoe-shaped
coalescence of blotches from the pectorals to the anals

the type series of Mauremys iversoni. and apparently(with the open end anterior). Although they state that
this pattern is not found in Mauremys mutica. Zhou

unlike the other Mauremys.

and ZhouBearing this consideration, a comparison
shows that the morphology of MVZ 230475 is unlike

variation

It isuncertain what the

between and among the Mauremys iversoni(

1991, p. 38) illustrate a M. mutica (locality

not stated) with this this plastral pattern.

Later. Iver-

series (from Guizhou and Fujian) is fully represented

son and McCord (1994) illustrate a M. mutica fromby the polygon in Pritchard and McCord (1991).
Since the relevant scale ratios from their entire series,

Taiwan (FMNH 127181

including the subadult specimens, are not reported,
we are forced to rely on the close phenetic similarity

this character,between the turtle farm hybrids and M. iversoni fora prominent gular projection.

our conclusions.

iversoni specimens, including some of the type seriesItisimportant to emphasize that if)that also has a clear horse-

shoe-shaped coalescence of blotches.

Even without

M. iversoni can be distinguished fromM. mutica by its more rounded anterior lobe that lacks
Furthermore, many M.

2001

Asiatic Herpetological ResearchVol. 9, p. 74

has also been suggested that it hasof M. iversoni and the Hainan farm hybrids (Fig. 3b- f)ties, and recently

have transverse trending blotches on the pectorals, a

the ability to cure cancer,

feature not known to occur in Mauremys, but common

result,in juveniles of C. trifasciata.

price of turtles is determined by their weight. In the
kg of M. mutica sold for approximately
year 2000.

The variation among the figured specimens in thetype description is extreme (Fig. 3b-d,g). It is notstated whether these specimens are from Fujian orComparisons of the plastral figures from
Pritchard and McCord (1991) with the specimensfrom the Tunchang farm show that the latter specimens lie within the range of variation of M. iversoni.
Guizhou.

The most notable differences are that one (Fig. 3e) has
more irregularly shaped plastral blotches and MVZ
230475 (Fig. 3h) has only a narrow, light, central figure on the plastron.
ture to be notedisPerhaps the most important feano two specimens look alike.

that

In the type description, Pritchard and McCord ( 1991 )describe the plastral pigmentation as "very variable inintensity", but it is unclear whether the figured speci-

Luckily, there are three characters of M. iversoni
that clearly set it apart from other East Asian Maure-mys:1) its olive

or yellow head, 2) rounded end ofanterior lobe of the plastron and 3) red coloration on
the underside of the limbs.

Until the description ofMauremys iversoni, the red coloration of the limbs
was a diagnostic characteristic of C. trifasciata. The
light head coloration and rounded lobe are also remi-

niscent of C. trifasciata.

Furthermore, in Mauremys

iversoni the sulcus between the humeral and abdominal scutes lies closer to the hyo/hypoplastral suture

An alignment of thisbones is a characterof
thesesulcus with the junction
than it does in other Mauremys.

shared by C. trifasciata and other taxa with a kinetic

itishighly valued.

often called the "golden coin" turtle.

As a
The

1

100-120 yuan (-15 USD) whereas

1

kg of C. trifasci-

ata sold for 6,000-8,000 yuan (-1000 USD). Accordto

ing

the turtle

farmer,itispossible to

sell

the

hybrids of C. trifasciata and M. mutica as pure C. trifasciata since, to the untrained eye, these species
closely resemble one another, especially in the yellow
coloration of the head. The confusion of these twoforms should not be surprising since Timmins andKhounboline (1999) report that even people familiar
with C. trifasciata have mistakenly identified juvenile

M. mutica as this species. Therefore, it is possible toproduce and sell large numbers of counterfeit "goldencoins"

tounsuspecting

buyerswithout

havingtoobtain large numbers of adult Cuora trifasciata.

The high degree of phenetic similarity between

mens represent the most typical patterns of Mauremys
iversoni or the entire range of variation.

is

it

it

the C. trifasciata

X M. mutica hybrids from Hainan

and the M. iversoni-tokc turtles reported from Fujian,

Guizhou and Guangxi strongly suggests that all of

may be the product of accidental orthese animals

intentional hybridization in turtle farms. This hypoth-explains the unusualesis

appearance
lections,

morphology,

itssuddenin the pet trade, absence in historical col-and the confusion surrounding the distribu-

tion of this taxon.

The timing of the discovery ofthese turtles shortly follows the increased demand for

Cuora trifasciata as a reputed cure for cancer (vanDijk et al., 2000). This increased demand may haveinitiated the establishment of numerous turtle breeding facilities that led to the production of Mauremys
iversoni-Yikc turtles.

In other words, the morphology of Maure-

We stress that the practice of housing and breeding

intermediate between C. trifasciata
mys iversoni
andtherefore consistent with a hybrid
and M. mutica,

several species of chelonians in a single enclosure orplastron.

isorigin.

A detailed comparison of the mitochondrial

pond is probably not restricted to the Tunchang farm
alone.

If theestablishment of other facilities mirrors

DNA and allozymes of this specimen and other pet
trade "species" is currently under way (Parham et al.,the one on Hainan, the sudden appearance of new and2000; in prep.).

The ability of turtles to hybridize is well documented

unusual turtles

in the pet trade

would be expected.

(Fritz and Baur, 1994; Fritz, 1995).

Discussion
During our joint visit to the Tunchang turtle farm, theworkers stated that production of Mauremys iversoni-

was the result of infrequent, accidental
hybridization events. Since that time, the owner oflike turtles

the farm has confided that the intentional productionof C. trifasciata X M. mutica hybrids is a common
undertaken by several turtle farmers.
practice

Because practitioners of Chinese traditional medicine
claim that C. trifasciata has many medicinal proper-

Certain species,

such as Mauremys pritchardi McCord 1997. havealready been implicated as possible hybrids (Artner etal..

Others, such as Sacalia pseudocellata1998).

McCord 1992. Ocadia glyphistoma
McCord and Iverson 1994. and Ocadia phillipeni
McCord and Iverson 1992 are known from a paltry
Iversonandnumber of specimens which might be indicative of an
accidental production in a turtle farm (van Dijk, 2000;
It is probably not a coincidenceof the newly described species (O. phil-

Lau and Shi. 2000).
that

many

2001

Asiatic Herpetological Researchlipeni, S. pseudocellata,

and M. iversoni) can be dis-tinguished from their congeners by characters foundin theata.

commonly reared and highly valued C. thfasciStudies of thecompared

species,

DNA of the holotypes of thesewithmultiple,field-collected,

vouchered specimens of established species fromknown localities, could easily determine the validity

Acknowledgments
The authors would

like

to

thank John Iverson forcomparison between theturtle farm
prompting
and
the
of
hybridstype description
Mauremys iver-

a

soni.

We would also like to thank Dr. Jaeger, the edi-

tor of Herpetologica, for granting us permission to

reproduceof these taxa.

Vol. 9, p. 75

partof Figurefrom1

PritchardandMcCord (1991). Ted Papenfuss and Jim Buskirk provided helpful comments. JFP is also grateful to Carl

Conclusions

Kevin Padian, and Tonya Van Leuvan-Smith.

Gillies,

uncertain whether all of the reported collection

data from the pet trade, such as the distributional data

This project was funded by the National Science
Foundation (JFP), the University of California

The

Museum of Paleontology (JFP), The National Naturalof the available evidence strongly suggests, but

Science Foundation of China (HS), The Provincial
Natural Science Foundation of Hainan (HS), and theItisfor Mauremys iversoni are actual or fabricated.
rest

does not prove, that all M. iversoni-Wke turtles could
turtle farm origin.
Parham and Li (1999)
openly question the Yunnan locality of Cuora pani

have aHainan Provincial Ecological Key Discipline Fund(HS).

that was provided by the same pet dealer credited withcollecting the original Mauremys iversoni series.

The

high prices that unusual turtles with locality data canfetch from turtle fanciers could serve as incentive tofabricate collection data.

Furthermore, there is also

incentive to hide the true locality as a trade secret,especially if the locality is a Chinese turtle farm.

Of

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