·..-

INTERNATIONAL CLOUD ATLAS
Volume 11WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION11"]~ii[Ulilliiill~lllifiiilllll

INTERNATIONAL CLOUD ATLAS

Volume 1111'-;> oz-;WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

1987

© 1987, World Meteorological Organization

ISBN 92 - 63 - L2407 - 8

NOTE
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World
Meteorological Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or
area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The photographs contained in this volume may not be reproduced without the authorization of the copyright owner. All inquiries regarding reproduction rights should be addressedto the Secretary-General, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva (Switzerland).

03- 4365v'Z, c~~FOREWORD

With this new, thoroughly revised edition of Volume 11 of theInternational Cloud Atlas a key publication is once again madeavailable for professional meteorologists as well as for a wide circle ofinterested amateurs. For meteorologists this is a fundamental handbook, for others a source of acquaintance with the spectacular world of
clouds.
The present internationally adopted system of cloud classificationis the result of work which started in the nineteenth century. The firststudies on the topic were pub Iished by J. B. Lamarck (1802) and L.
Howard (1803). The first attempt to use photography for cloudclassification was made by H. Hildebrandsson (1879), in Uppsala,who prepared a cloud atlas of 16 photographs. The further development of this work, following the recommendation of an International
Meteorological Conference which took place in Munich in 1891,
resulted in the publication in 1896 of the first International Atlas,containing 28 coloured plates accompanied by definitions and descriptions of clouds and instructions on cloud observations in threelanguages (French, German, English). The first International Atlas,which was then adopted in almost all countries, was a great step
forward in making internationally comparable cloud observations.
This Atlas was reprinted in 1910, without substantial amendments.
The subject of further refinement of cloud classification still remained
to the fore, however, during the following decades. As a result theInternational Atlas o./Clouds and Study of the Sky, Volume I, General
Atlas was published in 1932 by the International Commission for the

Study of Clouds. A modified edition of the same work appeared in
1939, under the title International Atlas 0/ Clouds and of Types 0./
Skies, Volume I, General Atlas. The latter contained 174 plates: IQ I
cloud photographs taken from the ground and 22 from aeroplanes, and51 photographs of types of sky. From those photographs, 31 wereprinted in two colours (grey and blue) to distinguish between the blueof the sky and the shadows of the clouds. Each plate was accompaniedby explanatory notes and a schematic drawing on the same scale as thephotograph, showing the essential characteristics of the type of cloud.
When the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) came into
being in 1951 in place of the non-governmental International Meteorological Organization, the First Meteorological Congress noted theneed for a new International Cloud Atlas and referred the task to theCommission for Synoptic Meteorology. Within a relatively short timevery substantial work was accomplished and the new Atlas was
published in 1956 in two volumes: Volume I contained a descriptive
and explanatory text on the whole range of hydrometeors (including
clouds), lithometeors, photo meteors and electrometeors; Volume 11
contained a collection of 224 plates (123 in black and white and 101 incolour) of photographs of clouds and of certain meteors. Each photograph in Volume 11 was accompanied by an explanatory text, to enable
the pictures in Volume 11 to be understood without the detailed
technical definitions and descriptions contained in Volume I.
The 1956 edition of Volume 11 has not been reprinted or revised
until the preparation of the present edition. A revised version ofVolume I, however, was published in 1975 under the title Manual on
the Observation o.!,Clouds and Other Meteors. In the meantime there
have been substantial advances in techniques of cloud photography
and a growing requirement for more photographs taken at locations
outside Europe.
In 1981 a WMO Informal Planning Meeting on Volume U of theInternational Cloud Atlas drew up a plan for the preparation of a newedition. It recommended the deletion of 26 black-and-white plates andeight in colour, and their replacement by 41 new colour plates selectedfrom a large number of photographs received from various countries.
The section containing illustrations of certain meteors was also expanded by the addition of nine more plates. The legends for the newplates selected by the Informal Planning Meeting were edited by thechairman of the meeting, Mr. R. L. Holle, of the U.S. National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and those for the new plates
in the section on meteors by Mr. C. S. Broomfield, of theU. K. Meteorological Office.
Later it became apparent that many of the original photographs of
the 1956 edition had deteriorated with time to an extent excluding thepossibility of their inclusion in the new edition. Moreover, it was feltthat the geographical distribution of the photographs was still somewhat restricted and that the balance between the various sections could
be improved. With the approval of the president of the Commission
for Basic Systems, it was therefore decided to revise the Atlas
extensively, bearing in mind the urgent requirement for the newedition, and Mr. Holle kindly agreed to undertake this complex task,
including the soliciting at short notice of new photographs from
specialists. The final editorial work was carried out by the WMO
Secretariat. The result of the work, the present Volume 11 of theInternational Cloud Atlas, contains 196 pages of photographs, 161 incolour and 35 in black and white. Each illustration is accompanied by
an explanatory text.
The excellent work of the consultants and the authorization willingly given by all contributors for publication of photographs in boththe original volume and this new edition are gratefully acknowledged.
Particular thanks are due to the printer, whose painstaking work
permitted much of the original material to be conserved and blended
harmoniously with the new contributions.
It is felt that this new edition of the Atlas, besides being a mostvaluable reference work for meteorologists and those working inaviation, in agriculture and at sea, will also be a fascinating addition to
the amateur's bookshelf.

~Q.A-(G. O. P. OBASl)
Secretary-General

INTRODUCTION

The legend accompanying each picture consists of two parts. The
first part relates directly to the illustration; it draws attention toimportant features, explains the identity of the cloud (genus, species orvariety) and frequently gives an explanation of the coding. The second
part supplies a short description of the synoptic situation.
Important features in the illustrations arc referenced in the legends
by numbers. Each number usually relates to two arrows, one on theright- or left-hand edge of the illustration and the other along thc top.
The place in the illustration to which a number refers is located at theinterscction of imaginary horizontal and vertical lines along the shaftsof the two arrows bcaring the same number. Numbers in thc text
usually indicate only the most outstanding features and on manyoccasions similar, though less striking, features can be found in theillustration.
The name of the photographer, the place where the photograph
was taken (station) and the date, time and direction are given whcre
possible. The designations of geographical locations given are thosewhich werc valid when the photographs wcre taken. The time indi-cated is the local official time. In the case of photographs fromaircraft, the altitude is also mentioned.
Usually the name of the most important cloud illustrated provides
the heading of the legend; however, when other clouds are present inappreciable amounts, they are also indicated in the heading. In
general, the sequence of the photographs within each of the five
major sections corresponds to the listing of the definitions given in
Volume I.
Code figures printed under the legends refer to the specifications
given in the code tables for CL, CM, and C II clouds when the clouds
illustrated are seen from the Earth's surface. The sequence of code
figures is always from the lower clouds to the higher clouds. The
particular code figure for which the illustration provides an example isprinted in heavier type.
An appendix listing the plates in the order in which they appear
serves as a table of contents and at the same time assists the user inquickly finding the illustrations corresponding to the various code
figures and different cloud forms.

2
~

4
~

3
~

I

~

5
~

+-5
+-1

+-3

4---+
2---+

R. L. Holle, Grand Canyon (Arizona, U.s.A.), 18 August 1977, 1240 hours (towards E)

Cumulus humilis
A field of Cumulus humilis fills the sky at midday over the elevated dry plateau surrounding the Grand Canyon. All of the tops
are flat (I) or are only very small and rounded (2, 3). Clear-cut horizontal bases are present everywhere. A few Cirrus fibratus
streaks are visible at 4 and 5.
The Cumulus clouds began to form during the morning on an undisturbed dry day dominated by the diurnal cycle of heating.
Only a few isolated Cumulonimbi formed toward sunset.

CL = 1,

CM = 0,

CH = I

3

1

~

2
~

1--+

2--+

A. Viaut, Paris (France), 28 April/952, 1305 hours (towards NE)

Cumulus humilis with haze
These Cumulus clouds are scattered; most of them are fairly dense masses with definite horizontal bases. Their vertical extent
is small and they are consequently of the species humilis. In the vicinity of the main clouds there are some isolated fragments(I, 2). Haze veils the distant units.
The station was in old maritime polar air on the south-western margin of a cold upper low centred over the northern part of theFederal Republic of Germany, but far from any front and in a zone of weak surface pressure gradients. The winds at the surface
were light N to NE, turning to NW aloft.
CL = 1,

4

CM = 0,

CH = 0

1
~

2
~

1--+
~2

T. Bergeron, Ann (Sweden), 14 July 1950, 1000 hours (towards ESE)

Cumulus humilis and Cumulus fractus
Most of these clouds are typical Cumulus humilis. They have distinct horizontal bases, generally shaded; their outlines are notvery ragged, their tops are flattened as a whole and only slightly rounded in places. There are some Cumulus fractus (I, 2).
The sky was observed in the western portion of a weak anticyclone which covered Finland and Sweden.

CL = 1,

CM = 0,

CH = 05

M. Mhin, Paris (France), 3 April 1948, 0901 hours (towards SE)

Cumulus mediocris and Cumulus fractus
Cumulus is the only genus present. Some of the clouds are in the form of tufts of cotton-wool (species fractus); others are better
developed and exhibit the beginning of bulging growth, already appreciable in places in spite of the early hour (species
mediocris). Wind and turbulence cause asymmetry of form and raggedness of outline.
The picture is typical for maritime polar air behind a cold front; winds at lower levels were WSW, fairly strong (8 to 12 m S·1 at
the surface) and gusty. Thunderstorms with hail were observed in the same air mass.
CL = 2,6

CM = 0,

CH = 0

2

1

t

t
1--7

+-2

A. Viaut, La Rochepot (France), 7 September 1952, 0915 hours (towards N)

Cumulus congestus
Despite the early hour the vertical extent of these Cumulus congestus clouds is considerable, compared with their horizontal
dimensions. Some units, somewhat torn and ragged, rise like towers leaning towards the right (1,2), indicating a wind shear in
the vertical.
The photograph was taken in a flow of fresh, unstable polar air skirting a strong Atlantic anticyclone.
CL = 2,

CM = 0,

CH = 0

7

2

t

6

1

3

t

8

t

t

t

5

4

7

t

t

t

~7

-"~~~:~;:~~~

1-'>

~

,....

/i'l. --~_

1\.

, .$/"~'

2,3-'>

6-'>

~.

.. ":

'

...."

~

_;.;~

','t.,

..

,~:{,

>

";

•

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1Ili:,

--

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. - ..-

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.

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I
I

w. P. Bowman, Atlantic Ocean (9° N, 22.6° W), 7 September 1974, 1315 hours (towards ESE)
Cumulus affected by wind shear. Altocumulus
This plate shows a good example of horizontal wind shear restricting the growth of Cumulus congestus as seen by the
pronounced tilt of the Cumulus tower at I. The Cumulus.occurs in a continuous row consisting of the species congestus (I, 2,3,4), mediocris (5) and fractus (6), all with their bases at the same level. Altocumulus translucidus is seen at 7 and opacus at 8.
The base of the latter is lower than the Altocumulus translucidus, but the layers are combined (duplicatus).
The photograph was taken during fair weather conditions of limited convective activity.
C L =2,8C M =7,

CH=O

~8

~5

3

2

5

5

t

t

t

t

4

t

7

6

t

t

4-4
~

2-4
+--7

+--1

3-4
5-4

R. L. RoUe, Long Key (Florida, U.5.A.), 17 September 1972, 1600 hours (towards SE)

Cumulus congestus, mediocris and fractus
Three species of cumuliform cloud are present in this illustration, photographed over a warm, tropical ocean. All have theirbases at the same level (I). Cumulus fractus is seen at 2, Cumulus mediocris at 3 and Cumulus congestus at 4. The Cumulus
congestus (4) is past its mature stage but its top continues to be sharply defined although falling rain makes the tower look
diffuse. The rain can be seen reaching the sea at 5. Another tower, which has almost completely evaporated, is apparent at 6,with further congestus at 7. These clouds over the ocean do not show the well-defined hard tops as frequently as are seen overland.
The area was dominated by a low-level ESE flow with no disturbances in the region. The lack of significant wind shear
through the depth of the cloud is indicated by the near-verticality of the main tower at 4.
CL = 2,

CM = 0,

CH = 0

9

2

5
~

I

~

~

3

t

4

t

+-2
6

~

<-3

A. J. Aalders, North Atlantic Ocean (52 0 N, 200 W), 8 April 1951, 1637 hours (towards SSW)

Cumulus congestus praecipitatio, with haze
The huge cumulifonn masses show in their upper parts some ragged outlines (visible especially at I, 2), which indicate thebeginning of dissolution. The cloud at the right is giving precipitation (3), and it could be considered as an intermediate stage
between Cumulus congestus and Cumulonimbus calvus. However, as none of the cloud tops are flattened or show a fibroustexture, the clouds should be called Cumulus congestus praecipitatio rather than Cumulonimbus calvus and the coding should
be CL = 2 and not CL = 3. Note the frayed, irregular appearance of the rainy base (4), the presence of Cumulus fractus (5) andthe patches of Altocumulus at 6. Haze aloft is revealed by the shadows cast by the projecting cumulifonn tops.
The station was in the rear of a depression over the North Sea area in a rather strong north-westerly current of maritime polarair.
CL = 2,10

CM = 6,

CH = 0

4
~

2
~

I
~

~2

~l

4~

+-3

R. L. Hol/e, near Miami (Florida, U.S.A.), 26 August 1967, 1600 hours (towards W)

Cumulus congestus praecipitatio
The Cumulus clouds in this photograph show large vertical extent and hard tops. This is typical in the subtropics and tropics ofthis type of cloud which has been heated from land masses below. The tips (1,2) have well-rounded towers, and the bases are
well-defined and horizontal (3). The Cumulus on the right of the picture (I) has begun to grow tall, but is not yet producing
precipitation. The cloud in the centre (2) is older, and precipitation can be seen falling from its base. The rain at 4 is from anolder cloud which will soon dissipate.
.
The area was in the region of a low-level flow from the south-east, and a weak trough was located to the east of Florida. Winds
gradually backed with height to ENE at 200 hPa, and the shear was responsible for the cloud tops leaning towards the left in the
picture.

CL = 2,

CM = 4,

CH = 0

II

I

2

3

!

!

!
Cumulus congestus praecipitatio~3

A column of rain (I) can be seen
falling from the base of thisCumulus congestus cloud. The
cloud is mature but shallow, andhas an unusually high base (2).
These features reflect the low
humidity of the semi-arid highplains of eastern Colorado. The
cloud top (3) appears hard andwell-defined. Later the cloud glaciated as it moved eastwards.
The cloud formed in response todiurnal heating. A weak highpressure circulation dominated theregion.

CL = 2,~2~l

R. F. Reinking, Ault (Colorado, U.s.A.), 14 July 1965, 1400 hours (towards E)

12

CM = 0,

CH =

°

2

3

I

i

i

i

2-'>

+-1

3-'>

+-4

J. H. Golden, Miami (Florida, U.5.A.), September 1966, 1930 hours (towards W)

Cumulus congestus in a row
The Cumulus towers at I, 2 and 3 all rise from a uniform cloud base. The cloud column at I shows some evidence ofevaporation, but there are no cirri form features which would identify it as Cumulonimbus. The tallest tower (2) extends to aheight of about 6000 metres. These clouds are growing vertically over a tropical land mass and no precipitation is evident fromthe clear-cut, horizontal base (4). A Cumulonimbus calvus developed from these clouds soon after the photograph had beentaken. Some of the cloud tops are inclined towards the right of the picture because of a vertical wind shear. Some patches of
Altocumulus can be seen to the left of the tallest Cumulus tower.
The clouds were aligned SSW-NNE along a sea-breeze convergence line which had moved inland during the afternoon.

CL = 2,

CM = 3,

CH = I

13

3

I

I

t

t

t
~I

~I

~2

3---+

~2

M. W. Maier, Clewiston (Florida, U.S.A.), August 1978, 1730 and~1740 hours (towards E)

Evaporating and precipitating Cumulus congestus
This Cumulus congestus cloud formed over a heated tropical land mass. In the first photo, the cloud has a number ofbulging elements in the upper part (I) which show sharp outlines and resemble cauliflower heads. These features
distinguish the cloud from Cumulonimbus calvus where the sproutings in the upper part are more or less indistinct andare flattened without sharp outlines. The cloud had grown rapidly from its dark, horizontal base (2). At 3 the cloudappears diffuse where its growth has passed through a dry or warmer layer.
In the second photo (which was taken ten minutes later), the cloud top (I) has grown even higher, but has become
separated from the main body of the cloud at 2 as part of the cloud tower has evaporated. Precipitation, probably ofsmall raindrops, can be seen falling at 2.
This sequence of pictures shows that the diffuse cloud patch in the first picture at 3 marked the beginning of theseparation of the upper part of the cloud from the main body.

CL = 2,14

CM = 4,

CH = 2

5.8
.j,

1
.j,

11
.j,

3

.j,

11~

-<-10
-<-3

5->

1->

...- 2

+-9

8->

+-7

T. Bergeron, Ann (Sweden). 29 June 1945, 1427 hours (towards ESE)

Transition from Cumulus congestus to Cumulonimbus calvus
The clouds (1-2) show protuberances with fairly well-defined vertical or overhanging sides. The cloud at 3-4 is starting to lose
its sharp outline, this being an indication of the transition from Cumulus congestus to Cumulonimbus calvus. At 5-6 the
beginning of anvil formation can be discerned, but no fibrous appearance can yet be observed. In the distance (at 7), however,a virga is vaguely visible, presumably from an older cloud of the same type. The clouds are arranged in large bands (1-2, 8-9)
probably parallel to each other, although owing to perspective they appear to converge.
In the same sky we see at 10 some fairly thin patches of Altocumulus, probably due to the spreading out of the upper parts ofthe convective clouds, and at 1I some Cumulus fractus.
The station lay in a weak northerly continental polar air stream between an anticyclone extending from Greenland to northern
Scandinavia and a depression over the Baltic.

CL = 3,CM = 6,

CH = 0

15

1

2

3

6

4

5

t

t

t

t

t

t

1,2,3~
4,5~~

R. K. Pilsbury, Tot/and (Isle of Wight, U.K.), 18 September 1981, 1300 hours (towards NW)

Cumulonimbus calvus
A bank of Cumulonimbus calvus towers has become flattened at 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 after losing their rounded tops. The coding istherefore CL = 3. A line of thin Altocumulus at 6 is also apparent. A number of Cumulus lie along the main cloud bank and thebases of many others are visible beyond the base of the principal clouds.
A cold-front system connected to a complex depression north and west of Scotland had crossed the area in the early hours ofthe morning. Large Cumulonimbi and showers built rapidly behind the fronts in the deep cold air. At the time of this picture,
however, the Cumulonimbus development had become less active.
CL = 3,16

CM = 3,

CH = 0

5
~

1
~

2
~

3

4

~

~

+-1,2
+-3

+-4
+-5

R. L. Holle, Spanish Wells (Bahama Islands), 29 May 1978, 1500 hours (towards NW)

Cumulonimbus calvus praecipitatio and pannus
The tops of Cumulonimbus ealvus are evident at I, 2, 3 of the picture. The cumuliform tops have lost some of their sharp
outlines but no distinct cirri form features are present. Being over the ocean, these clouds do not pass through their life cycle as
rapidly as over land and few hard tops are present. Some Cumulonimbus congestus clouds are apparent at 4. Precipitation is
falling from beneath nearly all the clouds, and shreds of pannus can be seen at 5.
A weak low-level trough was located in the area. Winds were from the east-north-east.

CL = 3,CM = 0,

CH = 3

17

7
~

4,6
~

I
~

3
~

2
~

5
~

~

~3
~5

~7

6->

~1,2

P. G. Black, Miami (Florida, U.S.A.), July 1966, 2000 hours (towards W)

Cumulonimbus calvus praecipitatio
Several large cumuliform towers are situated in a group in this striking picture taken at sunset. Although these clouds are quite
massive, they do not show many of the distinctive structural features of Cumulonimbus. However, the lightning at I, 2, 3
leaves no doubt that the cloud should be classified as Cumulonimbus. Cloud-to-ground discharges are seen at I, 2, and a
portion of the same or a different flash is seen in the cloud at 3. Other less obvious clues are the somewhat flattened andsmoothed top at 4 and the implication that the feature at 5 is part of a large cloud which is becoming diffuse and the top ofwhich (out of the picture) is likely to be cirri form. Precipitation is falling at 6, 7.
The clouds were located about 20 kilometres from the coast and developed as a result of the sea breeze.

CL = 3,18

CM = 0,

CH = I

3

4

2

I

t

t

t

t

Cumulonimbus calvus
Explosively growing towers (I, 2)
are feeding this severe thunderstorm along the dry line in western
Oklahoma. Some tower tops curlaround toward the back of thestorm (3) and descend. The base of
the SW portion of the storm islaminar (4), and is indicative offorced, stable, upward motion.
This supercell storm moved northeast and produced large hail and amesocyclone. The environment of
the storm was characterized bystrong vertical shear and a steep
lapse rate.

CL = 3,CM = 0,~l2-+

CH = 3

3-+

4-+

H. Bluestein, Cheyenne (Oklahoma, U.S.A.), 20 April 1985, 1742 hours(towards N)

19

1
~

2,3
~

<-4
+-1

+-2
+-3

R. A. Keen, from summit (4/96 m) of Grand Teton Mountain (Wyoming, USA), // August /97/, /600 hours (towards SE)

Cumulonimbus capillatus praecipitatio
Cumulonimbus capillatus (I) over the semi-arid region of Wyoming is seen in this photograph. A tapering column ofprecipitation (2) is evident. The tapering is due to the evaporation of the precipitation as it falls through the dry environment sothat very little reaches the ground. The precipitation probably consists of snow pellets above the apparent melting level (3).
The symmetrical shape of the anvil (4) and vertical shaft of precipitation indicate that winds were light throughout the lower
and middle troposphere.
The area was under the influence of a warm, high-pressure area in the middle troposphere.

CL = 3,20

CM = 0,

CH =

°

6

t

3

t

2

4

5

t

t

t

2~

~1,3,4,5l~~

R. K. Pilsbury, Bracknell (Berkshire, U.K.), 8 November 1972, 1600 hours

Stratocumulus cumulogenitus from Cumulus mediocris
A line of Cumulus mediocris (I) is being lit by the late afternoon sun, below the layer of Stratocumulus (2). The tops of these
Cumuli, particularly at 3, 4, and 5, can be seen to be spreading into the Stratocumulus above, forming at an inversion level. A
single Cumulus mediocris, with its top also spreading into Stratocumulus, can be seen at 6.
A cold front had moved southwards, and was lying along the English Channel some 125 km to the south. There was a strong
ridge of high pressure building across the area as the upper-air situation rapidly stabilized.

CL = 4,

CM = 0,

CH = 0

21

2,3

I

!

!

3~

2~

~l

R. L. Holle, Lake Gogebic (Michigan, U.S.A.), 21 August 1985, 0915 hours (towards NW)

Stratocumulus cumulogenitus from Cumulus mediocris
Cumulus mediocris (I) is located in a curved line across the photo. The Cumulus cloud at 2 has a rather hard base, but weakens
with height as it reaches a stable layer. At 3, the vertical nature of the cloud disappears and it becomes diffuse, the cloud mass
spreading into a horizontal Stratocumulus cloud. While none of the cumuliform clouds appear to rise above the stratiform
layer, the Stratocumulus can be directly associated with the Cumulus because of the blue sky between cumuliform cloudgroups.
The area was under the influence of a weak anticyclone, with light surface winds and a subsiding NW flow aloft.
CL = 4,22

CM = 0,

CH = 0

1

2

3

!

!

!

4~

~

~1,2,3R. K. Pilsbury, Lymington (Hampshire, U.K), 31 October 1979, 1222 hours

Stratocumulus cumulogenitus with Cumulus mediocris
The tops of the Cumulus mediocris at I, 2, and 3 have reached an inversion layer where the increasing westerly wind aloft has
carried the tops forward as they spread into Stratocumulus cumulogenitus (4).
A cold front had moved across the area twelve hours earlier, and was lying 200 km to the east, with a ridge building up rapidly
behind it.
CL = 4,

CM = 0,

CH = 0

23

3

t

4

t

1.2

t

·~3

+-1

~2

<-4

G. Rouillon, Greenland (70 0 55' N, 40 0 38' W), 17 July 1951,0200 hours (towards W)

Stratocumulus stratiformis opacus undulatus
The right half of the photograph shows a sheet of undulated Stratocumu!us; the undulations are particularly well marked at I
and 2. The margin (3-4) of the sheet is remarkably abrupt and ragged.
The picture was taken approximately 12 hours after the passage of an occlusion; a weak anticyclone was developing overcentral Greenland.

CL = 5,24

CM = 0,

CH = 0A. J. Aa/den, Bussum (Nether/ands) , /8 January 1950, 1538 hours (towards S)

Stratocumulus stratiformis translucidus

This rather thin Stratocumulus consists of a layer of large, flat and irregularly shaped merged elements; it is therefore identified
as species stratiformis. The greater part of the layer appears sufficiently translucent to reveal the position of the sun (variety
translucidus). This is a typical example of winter Stratoeumulus in polar continental air. There was a high-pressure area overthe Baltic, and winds were ENE at the station. A marked inversion was observed at 1300 m.
CL = 5,CM = I,C II = /

25

I

t

2

3

t

t

1

2-+

+-3

French Meteorological Service, Paris (France), 15 December /949, 1056 hours (towards SSE)

Stratocumulus stratiformis translucidus perlucidus
The regularly arranged elements (I, 2) are large (especially at the upper right-hand corner), blurred, grey; most of them showshading. This cloud therefore, being rather low, belongs to the genus Stratocumulus, despite the smallness, whiteness andsharpness of outline of numerous fragments (3) into which the larger units seem to be breaking up. Almost everywhere the blue
sky can be seen between the elements.
The station was near a warm-front-type occlusion moving towards the east-south-east and causing strong variations.

Cl = 5,26

CM = 0,

CH = 0

3
~

5

t

1

2

t

4

t

t

6

t

3->1->+--4
<-2

5->-

...\re~.•&* ~ +-6

T. Bergeron. Stockholm (Sweden), 14 September 1944, 1403 hours (towards ENE)

Stratocumulus stratiformis opacus mamma and Stratocumulus lenticularis
A slate-grey layer of Stratocumulus covers most of the sky. There are fairly large, rounded units (I, 2), everywhere
sufficiently opaque to blot out the sun (variety opacus). Several units (3, 4) have a shape suggesting udders (supplementaryfeature mamma). At 5 and 6 some lower patches of Stratoeumulus lentieularis can be seen. The station was in the warm sector(close to the warm front) of the disturbance over northern Scandinavia.

CL = 5,CM = 0,

CH =

°

27

4

3

I

t

t

t

5.6 2

.} t

-<-5

1~

-<-6

3~

~2
~

F. A. Milan, Thule (Greenland), summer /947

Stratus nebulosus undulatus
Owing to the purity of the air in this polar region the base (1-2) of the Stratus is clearly visible; it is low enough to conceal the
top of the cliff (3). The height of the cloud base is not absolutely uniform; moreover the layer is definitely thinner near thehorizon (4). Differences in optical thickness reveal very large indistinct rolls (5, 6) which indicate the variety undulatus.

CL = 6,28

CM = /,

CH = /

3

t

+-3

+-1

2~

R. L. Holle, Boulder (Colorado, U.S.A.), 20 February /986, /555 hours (towards SW)

Stratus nebulosus
The layer of Stratus has a uniform base as it intersects the foothills at 1-2. Except for this feature, there is little structure to thecloud, besides the semi-transparent area at 3, where the sun is almost visible.
A cold front had passed through the area during the previous night leaving a light dusting of snow. The cold air layer had begun
to dissipate during the afternoon.

CL = 6,

CM = /,

CH = /

29

Stratus nebulosus
The cloud layer is completely uniform; its base, not very distinct,
blots out the Eiffel Tower progressively, beginning with the second
platform. Below the cloud the air issomewhat misty.
The station was in the warm sectorof a disturbance centred over northern Scotland. The surface wind waslight and from the south-west.

CL = 6,30

French Meteorological Service. Paris (France).
(towards SSW)

12 October 1944. morning

CM = /,

CH = /

2

3

4

I

5

t

t

t

t

t

+-1

+-5
2-'>

+-3,4

R. K. Pilsbury, Totland (Isle of Wight, U.K.), 13 September 1975, 1530 hours (towards WSW)

Stratus fractus and Cumulus fractus (pannus) of bad weather below Altostratus opacus
Dark grey, ragged low cloud masses of Stratus fractus (pannus) are visible at I below an upper layer of Altostratus opacus.
There are some rounded and darker Cumulus fractus (pannus of bad weather) at 2, 3, 4 and 5.
A vigorous depression had developed to the west of Ireland, and by this time was situated in the western approaches of the
English Channel. The warm front was about ISO km south-west of this area, bringing extensive clouds and rain.

CL = 7,

CM = 2,

CH = /

31

M. Mhin, Paris (France), 4 April 1948, 1350 hours (towards NNW)

Stratus fractus and Cumulus fractus (pannus)
The sky is covered with low, ragged clouds, probably below Altostratus; there was no precipitation. The somewhat menacing
appearance of these clouds identifies them as pannus, thus favouring the coding CL = 7.
The station was situated in maritime polar air ahead of an occlusion which was moving rapidly eastward.

CL = 7,32

CM = /,

CH = /

7
-I-

I
-I-

3
-I-

5
-I-

4
-I-

2
-I-

6.8
-I-

-<-4

+-2

1->

3-+

-<-6
5->

-<-8
7->

A.1. Aa/ders. Valkenburg (Netherlands). 24 May 1950. 1303 hours (towards NW)

Stratus fractus (pannus) and Cumulus fractus radiatus (pannus) under Nimbostratus
Dark, grey, ragged masses (I, 2) of Stratus fractus of bad weathcr (pannus) are seen against a lighter background of
Nimbostratus (3, 4). Somewhat rounded and heavily shaded Cumulus fractus clouds of bad weather (pannus). clearly arranged
in bands (5-6, 7-8), are present near thc horizon.
Thc station was situated in a northerly flow of maritime polar air about 150 km behind a cold front. The upper flow, however,
was from S to SW, 10-15 m s", and disturbances moving with this flow had caused thundery showers during the precedingnight and morning.

CL = 7,

CM = 2,

CH = /

33

2
~

3
~

4
~

5
~

~1

1~

2,3~

~,5

R. K. Pilsbury, Bracknell (Berkshire, U.K.), mid-September 1973, 1800 hours

Stratocumulus stratiformis and Cumulus congestus
There is a high layer of Stratocumulus above I, with its base just catching the evening sun. Below this layer are a number of
Cumulus mediocris and congestus at 2,3,4, and 5 which are just reaching the layer of Stratocumulus but are not spreading intoit.

CL = 8,34.";

CM = 0,

CH = 0

3

t

3---+

~2

2---+

~I

1---+

R. L. Ho/le, Milchell (SoUlh Dakota, U.S.A.), 24 Augusl 1985, 1305 hours (towards NNW)

Stratocumulus stratiformis perlucidus and Cumulus mediocris
Long rows of Cumulus mediocris have formed across the picture (I, 2). They developed beneath an extensive layer ofStratocumulus over the region. The two layers arc separate, however - for example at 3, where the Cumulus is not spreadingout at the layer cloud. The coding, then, is CL = 8 rather than CL = 4, which would have been the ease if Cumulus formed theStratocumulus.
A cold front had passed over the area during the previous night. Moist low-level NW winds prevailed, and some cumuliform
clouds developed under the influence of afternoon heating.

CL = 8,CM = 0,

CII =

°
35

2

I
~

~

<-2

1-,>

R. F. Reinking, Niwot (Colorado, U.S.A.), 10 June 1986, 1830 hours (towards N)

Cumulus and Stratocumulus with bases at different levels
A line of small Cumulus (I) is occurring simultaneously with higher-based Stratocumulus (2). Light but steady rain with large
drops is falling under a light surface flow.
The region was dominated by cold ups lope advection and lifting over the High Plains of Colorado.

CL =8,36

C M =/,C H =/

I

t

3

t

2

4

5

t

~,

t

4
-<-5

T. Bergeron. S((}ckho/m (Sweden). / Seplemher /943. /600 hours (Iowards W)

Stratocumulus stratiformis opacus and Cumulus congestus
The dense Stratoeumulus layer is sufficiently opaque throughout to be identified as Stratocumulus opacus. A somewhat
wrinkled structure (1,2) of its under-surface becomes vaguely visible as a result of the grazing twilight illumination. Cumulus
clouds (3, 4) with distinct horizontal bases and large vertical bulges enter the upper layer. There arc also some Cumulus fractus
clouds (5).
The station was in a north-easterly flow of maritime polar air on the southern edge of a high ccntrcd over Spitsbergen.

Cl. = 8,CM = 0,C II =

°
37

4
~

I
~

2

3

~

~

7
~

5
~

6
~

I
~

~

<c-7

2~
l~

3~

<c-5
<c-l

~

R. J. Polavarapu, Atlantic Ocean (9° N, 22.5° W), 6 September 1974, 1015 hours (towards SSW)

Rows of Cumulus and Cumulonimbus of strong vertical development
This plate shows Cumulus and Cumulonimbus in organized lines. This is a typical arrangement found over ocean areas.
Cumulus congestus is seen at I, Cumulonimbus calvus at 2 and Cumulonimbus capillatus at 3. The bases are generally at thesame level, except for the slightly lower base of the precipitating Cumulonimbus at 4. As is usual in the humid tropics,
Cumulus fractus clouds are present around the edges of the larger clouds and appear in the photograph as darker elements (5).
Cirrocumulus lenticularis undulatus is present at6, but Cirrus fibratus intortus predominates at 7.
The photograph was taken during conditions of isolated showery activity.

CL = 9,38

CM = 0,

CH = I

7

I

2,3,4

t

t

t

6

t

5

8

t

t

4~

---

3~

•. "--"<-.'.- ..__...

~--

~5

~

I

2~

.-,-

",""

...-

""

"

~<1'.-,~ J';'~'....

1"":-- v._.

: ,~ , .: ..

:','~l~8

7~J, M. Brown, Coral Gables (Florida, U.S.A.), 23 August 1967, 0930 hours (towards S)

Isolated Cumulonimbus capillatus with Cumulus congestus and mediocris
The isolated tall, narrow Cumulonimbus eapillatus in the centre of the picture is located just seawards of a long, narrow island
about ten kilometres off the south coast of Florida, The cloud has a primary updraught region the top of which is near I, but the
updraught is composed of several surges seen at 2, 3 and 4. The cloud is leaning slightly to the south (away from the camera)
due to a weak northerly shear in the lower and middle troposphere. Strong north-easterly winds in the upper troposphere have
led to the spreading downwind of the glaciated upper section of the cloud to form an elongated anvil (5). Virga can be seen
falling from the anvil at 6. This is undoubtedly ice because of the high altitude. Adjacent to the main cloud, the lifting of amoist, stable layer has produced a patch of Altocumulus stratiformis cumulonimbogenitus at 7. All other Cumulus in the
picture range from mediocris to the largest congestus at 8.
An upper~tropospheric cold low located 400 kilometres to the south-east was responsible for a north-easterly airflow at upper
levels. The lower tropospheric flow was weak from the east~south-east since the subtropical high-pressure ridge was orientated
E-W well to the north of the area.

CL = 9,CM = 6,

CH = 0

39

5
~

3
~

1

2

~

~

4
~

Cumulonimbus calvus pileus
and Cumulonimbus capillatus

+-1
+-2
+-4
5~

3~

6
~

4
~

I
~

3
~

5
~

+-1

2~

+-3
+-5
~

~

This pair of time-sequence photographs shows the development of
Cumulonimbus from a vigorous
mass of Cumulus congestus.
The large group of Cumulus congestus towers seen in the first
photograph formed along the seabreeze line inland from the coast of
the Florida peninsula. Their hardtops with sharp outlines (1, 2, 3)
are most striking. The flattened
appearance of a distant top (4) indicates that it is turning to ice, thusclassifying it as Cumulonimbus.
The anvil of a more distant
Cumulonimbus capillatus can beseen at 5.
By the time the second photographhad been taken the tower at 1 wasdisplaying the characteristics ofCumulonimbus calvus. A pileus
cloud had developed at 2, indicating that the tower was continuing torise. The tops at 3, 4, 5 had notchanged significantly since the first
picture was taken, and the anvil
structure (6) remained similar to
the earlier view.
Although Cumulonimbus calvus
dominates the second picture, thedistant anvil at 6 determines thecoding as CL = 9.
The region was under the influenceof undisturbed anticyclonic southeasterly flow at low levels. At
higher levels winds were light,
ranging from south to east. The
upper winds were not strong
enough to produce any tilt in the
major new tower (I).

CL = 9,H. B. Bluestein, off the coast of Florida (U.S.A.), 28 August 1971, afternoon(towards W)

40

CM = 0,

CH = 3

2

3

t

t

4

I

5

t t

t

2.3,4--7+-1

H. B. Bluestein, Sanibellsland (Florida, U.s.A.), 8 August 1971, morning (towards S)

Cumulonimbus capillatus incus
The drawn-out anvil (I) of this maritime Cumulonimbus is shearing off the mother cloud which extends above it at 2. Twoother cirriform features at 3 and 4 are the remains of past convective towers of which the lower portions have evaporated andthe upper portions turned to ice and blown downwind. A smaller Cumulonimbus capillatus (5) has started to form an anvil. The
formation of multiple pulses within a long anvil such as at I occurs more often in the tropics and subtropics, in clouds evolving
slowly over water in undisturbed conditions, than over land.
The area was dominated by a light south-westerly airflow at low levels, while a weak closed circulation was located several
hundred kilometres to the north. At upper levels an easterly flow prevailed which caused the anvil to be sheared to the right ofthe photograph.

CL = 9,CM = 0,

CH = 3

41

7

2

!

!

8

!

5

2

3

I

4

6

!

!

!

!

!

!
+--5

+--3
+--6
+--1

2~

~

8~
7~

J. M. Brown, Miami (Florida, U.S.A.), 15 July 1967, 1530 hours (towards ENE)

Cumulonimbus, Altocumulus and Altostratus of weakly disturbed tropical conditions
The mixture of stratiform and cumuliform clouds depicted in this photograph is typical of weakly disturbed conditions in thetropics. Cumulonimbus calvus (I) and capillatus (2) are present with patches of Altocumulus stratiformis at various levels (3,4). The uniform appearance of the cloud at 5 suggests Altostratus. A small element of Cirrus spissatus cumulonimbogenitus
can be seen at 6. In the foreground, shaded by the Altostratus, is a band of Cumulus fractus, mediocris and congestus (7),beyond which stretches Altocumulus (8).
The axis of the east-west subtropical high-pressure ridge was several hundred kilometres to the north. Easterly flow extended.
through middle levels of the troposphere but became westerly at upper levels, as evidenced by the shape of the Cumulonimbus
tops at I. The presence of multiple layers of Altocumulus is evidence of high relative humidity in the middle troposphere.
When a region is under the influence of a strong disturbance, frequently only Stratocumulus is visible, and the elements shown
here are not apparent.
.

CL = 9,42

CM = 7,

CH = 3

1

2

3

t

t

t

5

t

4

t

<-3

(-,>

<-4

<-5

2-,>

D. O. Blanchard, Jupiter Island (Florida, U.S.A.), 4 September 1978, 1330 hours (towards N)

Cumulonimbus capillatus praecipitatio arcus
Two columns of precipitation can be seen in this photograph; the nearer is at I, with a more distant shaft at 2. The cloud is
Cumulonimbus, which was moving slowly towards the right (E) of the picture. Ahead of the main cloud a curved arcus cloud
extends from 3 to 4 on the near side of the rain columns, then on to 5 on the farther side. This area represents the leading edgeof the outflow from the parent Cumulonimbus.
A NE-SW trough was moving slowly across the area, causing a south-westerly airflow in the lower troposphere. The
Cumulonimbus and accompanying thunderstorm formed along the east coast of Florida, where a light east-south-east sea
breeze developed at the surface.

CL = 9,CM = /,

CH = /

43

2

+

1,3

4

t

t
Formation of a Cumulonimbus
capillatus incus

+-4

0(-1

The four photographs on pages 44
and 45 show the rapid formation of
a Cumulonimbus cloud in maritime
polar air associated with a low
centred over the Heligoland area.
in (a), a strongly bulging mass (1)penetrates patches of Stratocumulus cumulogenitus (2). Beneath the cumuliform mass at 3, thehorizon is very dark. Altocumulus
cumulogenitus is present at 4.

CL = 3,2->

CM = 6,

CH = 0+--3

A. J. Aalders, Naarden (Netherlands),
28 July /952(a) /956 hours (towards NW)
5t
In (b), 16 minutes later, the mass,
having continued its vertical development, seems to reach a stablelayer and spreads out, forming at 5
an anvil with very dark shading .

. CL = 9,+--5

A. J. Aalders, Naarden (Netherlands),
28 July /952

44(b) 20/2 hours (towards NW)

CM = 6,

CH = 0

2
.j.

I

.j.

Further development of a
Cumulonimbus capillatus incus
The evolution of the Cumulonimbus on page 44 continues.
In (e), 15 minutes after (b), thecloud has approached the observer,
while a wind shear in the verticalcauses the tower to lean towards
the left. There is a second anvil
close behind the tower (I). Altocumulus fragments are still present
at 2.

CL = 9,CM = 6,+-1

2->-

CH = 0(e) 2027 hours (towards WNW)

A. J. Aalders, Naarden (Netherlands),

28 July 1952

3.j.

Finally, in (d), disintegration starts
in the upper part of the anvil, whileclouds formed by lateral spreading(3) persist around the base.

CL = 9,CM = 6,

CH = 0~-3

A. J. Aalders, Naarden (Netherlands),(d) 2041 hours (towards WNW)

28 July 1952

45

5

7

1,2

t

t

t

4

3 8

6

t

t t

t

+-1
+-6
7--'>

+-3

5--'>

+-4
+-8
+-2

C. A. Doswell, Morrison (Colorado, U.S.A.), 26 July 1986, 1300 hours (towards SE)

Cumulonimbus capillatus incus
A complex of Cumulonimbus capillatus clouds with anvils is visible at I and 3 in different growth stages. The mature
updraught at 1 has cumuliform updraughts restricted to the upper portion and streaks of precipitation falling at 2. The
updraught at 3 is considerably younger, and is developing into an anvil left behind by a now-dissipated Cumulonimbus. The
sharply-defined updraught bases at 4 and 5 contrast with the indistinct cloud base associated with the mature storm at I.
Patches of Cirrus, as for example at 6, are approaching the Cumulonimbus complex from the west, having been generated bythunderstorms over the mountains to the west. Numerous patches of suppressed Altocumulus (7) are scattered in the clear air
behind the system. Distant Cumulus (8) shows some limited vertical growth.
The situation was typical of High Plains convection, since the axis of an upper-air ridge of high pressure moved eastwards, andunstably stratified air returned. A weak cold front had passed through Colorado two days earlier.

Cl = 9,46

CM = 4,

CH = 3

A. ViaUl. A/tkirch (France). 23 May /950, /400 hours (towards SW)

Cumulonimbus mamma
The main mass of a Cumulonimbus is towards the left of the picture. Mamma stand out in relief under the lower surface of thc
anvil.
The station was situated in an area of weak pressure gradients with thundery disturbances all over France. Thunder was heard
when the picture was taken.

CL = 9.

CM = /

CH = /

47

4

t

I 3

t t

2

t
Cumulonimbus capillatus withmamma in anvil~I~2

Pouches of mamma (I, 2) are
illuminated by the setting sun (3).
The mammatus clouds appear
under the anvil north-east of asmall cyclonically rotating Cumulonimbus (4). At the time of thephotograph, two larger severe,
cyclonically rotating storms werein progress to the north-east andeast.
The Cumulonimbus formed along
the dry line in an environment of
weak to moderate vertical shear
and steep lapse rate.

CL = 9,4~~3

H. Bluestein, Hennessey (Oklahoma, U.S.A.), 26 May 1985, 1923 hours(towards WNW)

48

CM = 0,

CH = 3

A. Viaut, Paris (France), 16 February 1951, 1525 hours (towards SSW)

Altostratus translucidus
The major part of this layer of Altostratus is sufficiently thin to reveal the position of the sun (variety translucidus).
An occlusion was present 150 km to the west, moving eastwards in a general westerly flow.
CL = 0,CM = 1,

CH = /

49

I
-I-

-<-1

R. Beaulieu, Paris (France), 17 QClOber 1950, 0940 hours (towards SE)

Altostratus translucidus
This very uniform layer of Altostratus is differentiated from Stratus of rather similar appearance by the haziness of thc spot (I)where the sun is.
The station was 300 km ahead of a warm front, associated with a disturbance coming from the west.
CL = 0,50

CM = 1,

CH = /

3
~

5

J,2,4

~

~

5->

3->
-<-4
-<-1

-<-2

A.1. Aalden', Naarden (Netherlands), 22 May 1952, 0526 !Jours (towards W)

Altostratus translucidus and Cumulus fractus
The major part of this Altrostratus is sufficiently translucent to reveal the position of the sun. The appearance of the layer as awhole is more or less fibrous; differences in opacity produce darker bands which cross the sky. At low level, dark clouds lit
from behind are present. They show more or less horizontal bases (1,2) and slightly rounded tops (3, 4) and are intermediate
between Cumulus humilis and Cumulus fractus. A particularly good example of Cumulus fractus is seen at S. One might be
inclined to code these lower clouds as Cl. = I; however, the presence of the Altostratus and the fact that not much day-time
convective activity is to be expected in the early morning make the coding Cl. = 7 more appropriate.
The station was situated in a weak north-north-easterly current in the south-east segment of an anticyclone extending from theAtlantic to central Norway. A weak disturbance in this flow passed the Netherlands during the morning.
Cl. = 7,

CM = 1,

CII = 1

51

I
~

3

2

~

~

l~

+-2
3~

R. F. Reinking, Niwot (Colorado, U.S.A.), 4 June 1986, 1653 hours (towards W)

Nimbostratus
A dense, dark layer cloud is raining at the left (1) and in the distance (2). The Nimbostratus cloud is sufficiently dense to cover
the sun and all other cloud layers that may be above it.
Cold, upslope advection was lifting the air over the rising terrain of the High Plains of Colorado and above the foothills of the
Rocky Mountains (3).
CL = 0,52

CM = 2,

CH = I

I

2

t

t

3

t

I~

~3
2~

R. K. Pilsbury, Bracknell (Berkshire, U.K.), 24 January 1972, 1350 hours (towards N)

Nimbostratus with Stratus fractus
A layer of Nimbostratus covers the sky and completely hides the sun. Below this layer are a few patches of Stratus fractus atsuch locations as I, 2 and 3. Rain is falling at the time of the picture.
A cold front had passed over the area earlier in the day, but a wave forming to the south-west had brought a return of middle
cloud and rain for a time.

CL = 7,

CM = 2,

CII = /

53

2
~

3
~

<,-\

3-i>
<,-2

R. L. Holle, Waterloo (Indiana, U.5.A.), 19 August 1985, 0705 hours (towards ENE)

Nimbostratus with Altocumulus stratiformis
A large, raining cloud area is located at the top of the picture (I), extending for a large distance to the south. This dark, diffuse
Nimbostratus cloud is raining lightly at its edge at 2. In the distance is found blue sky (3), where the Nimbostratus gives way toscattered layers of Altocumulus stratiformis and possibly some Cirrus.
The photo was taken on the north edge of a large rain area associated with a stationary E- W front.
CL = 0,54

CM = 2,

Cl-! = /A. ViauI. Paris (France). /8 March /952. 1000 hours (Iowards SSW)

Nimbostratlls

Some differences in opacity appear in this very low layer of Nimbostratus. which partly hides the top of the Eiffel Tower.
The station was situated to the south-cast of the centre of a cold upper low. A weak surface low was centred over Biscay with aquasi-stationary warlll-front-type occlusion extending from Ireland to southern France.
Cl. = 0,CM = 2,C II = /

55

3,4
~

I

2
~

~

~l

3~
~2

~

R. L. Holle, Tucson (Arizona, U.S.A.), 21 January 1984, 1615 hours (towards W)

Altocumulus translucidus
A single layer of Altocumulus is present in this view. While the cloud type covers the sky, there are numerous breaks (I, 2)
between Altocumulus elements, which range from thin (3) to thick (4). The clouds were not progressively invading the sky;
had this been so, the coding would have been CM = 5.
The Altocumulus clouds spread over southern Arizona during the afternoon as a weak short wave moved to the north of theregion.

CL = 0,56

CM = 3,

CH = 0

2
.j,

2->

1-+

A. J. Aalden', Bussum (Netherlands), 18 April 1943, 1553 hours (towards WSW)

Altocumulus stratiformis translucidus perlucidus
The regular and extensive layer of Altocumulus is composed of elements, either well detached from one another (I) or moreclosely assembled like pieces of a mosaic (2). The sky is visible everywhere between the elements, except near the horizon(variety perlueidus); the cloud layer is sufficiently translucent, almost everywhere, to reveal the position of the sun (variety
translueidus) .
The station was in the warm sector not far from the warm front of a depression travelling from south of Iceland to central
Norway.
CL = 0,CM = 3,

C II =

°
57

I

t

3->

2->

<-1

L. BuJfault. lard-sur-Mer (France). 8 August 1950. /9/0 hours (towards WNW)

Altocumulus stratiformis translucidus perlucidus

A sheet of lightly shaded white to dark-grey elements, showing the chief characteristics of Altocumulus: regularly arranged
laminae, merged at I, detached at 2, ragged at 3. The layer is of variety translucidus as one may assume that it would bepossible to determine the position of the sun through most of it. The clouds were not progressively invading the sky and thecoding is therefore CM = 3 rather than CM = 5.
A disturbance was centred off Ireland and the station was about 300 km ahead of its warm front, whieh was undergoing rapid
frontolysis.
CL = 0,58

CM = 3,

CH = 0

2
~

I

3

~

~

5
~

4
~

+-5

+-4

2,3~

B. Colman, Denali National Park (Alaska, U.S.A.), 26 May 1984, 1245 hours (towards SSE)

Altocumulus lenticularis
Numerous small Altocumulus patches are seen in the photograph. At I a pile of smooth lens-shaped elements is visible. Threeapparent waves are defined by the fibrous elements with crests at 2, 3,4. The wave signature is also seen in the Cirrus at 5.
A vigorous short-wave trough was approaching from the west, the local area experiencing an increasing SW flow at all levels(right to left in the photograph).
CL = 2,

CM = 4,

CH = I

59

6

41

~

H

2
~

5
~

3
~

1--+

3--+
2--+

6--+
4,5--+J. M. Brown, Boulder (Colorado, U.S.A.), 3 December 1979. 1200 hours (towards WNW)

Altocumulus lenticularis duplicatus with Cirrostratus libratus
Altocumulus lenticularis is shown at two different levels (I, 2) against a background of Cirrostratus fibratus. Duplicatus
structure is evident at 3. The Continental Divide of North America, obscured by a smooth, fOhn wall cloud of laminar
appearance (4,5), is 30 km to the west. This cloud is partially shaded by the Altocumulus above, accounting for its variation inapparent brightness. A downstream rotor cloud with cumuliform top is visible at 6, partially obscuring the fohn cloud.
The flow at mountain-top level (about 4000 m) was from the north-west at about 15 ms-I, increasing to 25 m S-I at 9000 m.
above mean sea-level.
CL = 5,60

CM = 4,

CH = 7

1
,j,

3

t

2

t

~-3

~-2

L. Sui/aull, SI. Srice (5eine-el-Oise, France), 25 Augusl 1950, 1758 hours

Altocumulus lenticularis radiatus
The lower part of the picture shows many cigar-shaped Altocumulus patches, with on the whole fibrous, but not silky,
extremities. The wavy band (1-2), brilliantly lit from the side, shows superimposed layers, four of which are clearly
distinguishable at 3, and it has a flat, horizontal and greyish base. Similar clouds were seen at the same time at Tours andRennes, 200 and 300 km from the place of observation.
A weak Atlantic depression extended from Cape Finisterre to Cornwall and a strong upper current from the south-west wascrossing the Pyrenees. There was strong instability, with thunderstorms over southern and western France.
CL = 0,CM = 4,

CH = 0

61

7

+

1

+

3

4

+

+

6

+

5

2

8

+ ++

2

~4

j-+

-<-5
~6

-<-8

7->

A. H. Boujon and R. Pommier. Adelie Land (Antarctica). /0 January /951. 0600 hours (lOwards NW)

AItocumulus lenticularis undulatus radiatus and Cirrostratus
The lenticular patch (1-2) consists of fairly small, lightly shaded, whitish elements. In places (3-4) the elements are aligned insinuous files, which give the cloud a wavy appearance (variety undulatus); there is also a banded structure (variety radiatus).
Near the horizon are banded Cirrostratus (5 and 6) and a thin and particularly straight band of coastal Stratocumulus (7-8).
The station was on the margin of a depression.

CL = 5,62

CM = 4,Cl-! = 5

5

2

4

1

t

t

t

t

3

t

~

+-4
~3

~l

2~
5~

J. M. Brown, Boulder (Colorado, U.S.A.), 6 December 1979, 1515 hours (towards S)

Altocumulus lenticularis
The large patch at I is an example of a mountain-wave cloud at a great height (estimated 8 000 m above ground), hence it isvery probably composed primarily or entirely of ice particles. These clouds are suggested also by the rather fibrous structure ofthis and of the more extensive Altocumulus lenticularis mass (2) at a greater distance but at the same level. The clouds areclassified as Altocumulus because of the very marked shading evident in much of the cloud. The elongated structures in thiscloud mass clearly suggest wave motion. The patch of Cirrus fibratus at 3 is also wave-induced, but lacks clear lenticularappearance. The N-S oriented Continental Divide of North America is located 30 km to the west. A jet contrail (4) and a small
patch of Stratocumulus (5) are also present.
The flow aloft was from the north-west, increasing from 20 m S-I near mountain-top level to 35 ms-I, with strong anticyclonicshear, at 9 000 m above mean sea-level.
CL = 5,CM = 4,

CH = 1

63

2

+

3

+

lA

+
Altocumulus lenticularis
undulatus radiatus

+-1

2-+

CL = 0,+-4

A. H. Boujon and R. Pommier, Adrflie Land (660 49' S, /4/ 0 25' E), 4 February/95/, 2300 hours (towards SE)

64

The sky is barred with more or lesssmooth patches, many of them oflenticular shape, and composed oflightly shaded rounded elements, incontinual transformation, dispersed(I, 2) or aligned (3) in waves (variety undulatus). The cloud system
as a whole also shows a banded
structure (variety radiatus). The
Altocumulus, consisting of water
droplets, has a pale, almost yellowish, shade which contrasts with thebrilliant whiteness of nearby snow
(4).
There was a cold front 400 km
north-west of the station.

CM = 4,

CH = 0

1.2

3

4

-I-

-I-

-I-

<"-4

<-3

2~

G. A. Clarke. Aherdeen (Aherdeenshire. U.K.), 29 OC/oher 1927. 1510 hours

Altocumulus lenticularis
Some of the lenticular patches arc darkly shaded in their central parts (I, 2) and show no detailed structure; others arc without
shading and consist partly of small rounded elements (3). The lenticular shape of the Altoeumulus is most probably due tostationary waves, caused by orography. Above the Altoeumulus there arc some filaments of fine Cirrus (4) and a thin veil of
Cirrostratus extending down to the horizon.
The sky was observed in maritime polar air with fresh SW winds, 500 km ahead of a warm-front-type occlusion.
Cl. = 0,CM = 4,

CII = 6

65

3

t

I

5

t

2.4.6

t

t

~-6

5->

~-2

1->

<--4

3->

M. Bonnet, Amsterdam Island (Indian Ocean 37" 50' S, 77" 34' E), 8 April 1952, 1835 hours (towards NE)

Altocumulus lenticularis and Stratocumulus
In this photo. taken by moonlight. the characteristic form of the Altocumulus lenticularis (1-2). its fibrous fringes and its
subdivision into smaller elements arc clearly seen. Stratocumulus patches of varying thickness occupy the rest of the sky.
Some banks in the lower part of the picture (3-4) arc without a fibrous fringe and have the form of twisted rolls. again vaguelyof lenticular shape, probably as a result of OI'ographic waves. The Stratoeumulus patch at the top of the picture (5-6) is much
lower and has blurred outlines. the latter feature presumably being due to movement of the cloud during the relatively longtime of exposure.
The station was on the southern side of the Indian Ocean anticyclone centred at 32° S. 79° E. and therefore on the northernborder of disturbances moving from WNW towards ESE between the parallels 45° and 60° S.

CL = 5.

66

CM = 4,

CH = 0

I

2

-I,

-I,

5
-I,

3
-I,

~5

1->-

+-4
~- 2

~

3

A. Sil/lo/l. Cairo (Egypt). 17 November 1943. 1302 hours (towards WSW)

Altocllmulus stratiformis lacllnosus
In view of the appreciable size of the elements (I. 2. 3) the genus is identified as Altocumulus. The variety lacunosus isindicated by the prescnce of more or less circular holes (4. 5) through which the sky can be seen. The sharply defined holessuggest downward motion and it may be surmised that the cloud as a whole is continuously changing. The station was in thesouthern segment of a weak depression.
CL = O.

CM = 4.

C II = 0

67

+--4

A. Viaut, Saint-Palais-sur-Mer (France), 22 July 1950, 1108 hours (towards NNE)

Altocumulus stratiformis perlucidus undulatus
The cloud layer is made up for the most part of fairly large rolls (1-2,3-4), roughly rectilinear and parallel. Clear sky is visible
between the rolls (variety perlucidus). The clouds were progressively invading the sky.
The photograph was taken in a maritime polar air mass between a cold front and an occlusion, both of thundery character.

CL = 0,68

CM = 5,

Clot =

0~-3French Meteorological Service. Paris (France), /5 December /949. 0903 hours (towards £S£)

Altocumulus stratiformis translucidus undulatus

The Altoeumulus layer is composed of fairly large elements having the appearance of irregular rolls (I), the relief of which isparticularly accentuated by the grazing illumination. In spite of the heavy shading, the cloud belongs to the variety
translueidus, as it may be surmised that the position of the sun, visible at 2, would be revealed through the major part of thelayer. Some Cirrostratus nebulosus is observed at 3.
The layer of Altoeumulus tended to thicken and it had invaded the sky progressively with the approach of a warm-front-type
occlusion which was 100 km to the west-north-west and passed over the station at 1115 hours.
CL = 0,CM = 5,C II = 8

69

5
.j,

1

2

3

.j,

.j,

.j,

7

8.9
.j,

4.6
.j,

2-~

1->

3 ~>
4

<-8
<-9

L. Bufj'au!l. Car/wc (France). 30.ht/v /950. 063/ hour,\' (IowaI'd,\' SE)

Altocumulus stratiformis undulatus translllcidlls pcrlllcidlls radiatlls
This layer of Altocumulus is clearly translucent (variety translucidus). Numerous intervals between the elements (I. 2) also
permit the sky to be seen (variety perlucidus). The presenee of elongated elements, almost parallel to one another (3. 4),
indicates the variety undulatus; there is also a banded strueture (variety radiatus) across the pieture (5~6. 7~8). The layer was
rapidly invading the sky; in the direetion in whieh the picture was taken, there is still an opening at 9.
The station was in a maritime polar warm~air mass, about 100 km ahead of a cold front moving W~E which produced scattered
thunderstorms at the end of the morning and later. The winds were SW~WSW up to 6 km.

Cl. = O.

70

CM = S,C II = 0

7

t

2.6.9

4

t

3
~

I

8

I

5

I

2

4'>-~<;:
7

I =-_~,.

.~ ~-~ :....:~~f~~\·:'.. ':~~_ ~_~"~.7:·:·~~~~~f:'::·1-___=.~ -:- - .

..

.~ ~A"-:".- ~~l_'_ -.:_

¥

-

~

"

3

I
6
--8
9
5

French Meteorological Service, Paris (France), 2 August 1946, 1600 hours (towards W)

Altocumulus stratiformis undulatus radiatus translucidus perlucidus
The Altoeumulus clouds were invading the sky progressively. The translucent layer consists of elements some of which aremerged; others are separated by clear spaces. At various places (1,2), the cloud elements are arranged in small rolls (variety
undulatus). Elongated patches (3, 4), which seem to converge towards point 5, indicate the variety radiatus. At 6 some fused
Altocumulus lenticularis are observed. Under the Altocumulus there are some Cumulus fractus (7), Cumulus humilis (8) andCumulus mediocris (9).
The picture was taken in maritime tropical air, about 300 km from the advancing cold front of a depression centred north of
Scotland and moving south-eastwards.

CL = 2,

CM = 5,C II = 0

71

I

2

3

4

t

t

t

t

~

+-3
2~

I~

B. Colman, Atlin (British Columbia, Canada), 29 June 1977, 1130 hours (towards SSW)

Altocumulus cumulogenitus with Cumulus congestus
The cluster of Cumulus clouds (I), approximately 20 km down the lake, has reached a stable layer with the vertical growthcompletely stopped. The Altocumulus cumulogenitus is clearly seen spreading out from the summits of the parent Cumulus(2). The Altocumulus cumulogenitus appears fairly thick and opaque near its source and is visibly thinner near the edges (3).
The Cumulus clouds in the right foreground (4) have recently formed and have not yet reached the stable layer.
The station was in a post-frontal SW flow. The cold upper-level trough had passed the station to the east, weak ridging
occurring to the west.
CL = 2,72

CM = 6,

CH = 0

1
~

3

2
~

~

2~

l~

<-3

R. K. Pilsbury, Lymington (Hampshire, U.K.), 7 September 1975. 1210 hours (towards NE)

Altocumulus cumulogenitus formed by Cumulus congestus
The Cumulus congestus cloud at I has its top reaching, and spreading into, the Altocumulus layer at 2. The Cumulus congestus
at 3 have formed well inland to the north-east, but have not reached the inversion level.
The nearby congestus (I) formed on the sea-breeze front caused by the onset of a southerly sea breeze meeting the light NW
flow of the ridge, and the top was carried well to the south-east by the upper NW flow.
CL = 2,

CM = 6,

CH = 0

73

3->

-<-4

5......
l--........c_2->

A. Viaut, near Tarbes (France), 24 July 1951. 1705 hours (towards SSW)

AItocumulus cumulogenitus
The principal patch of Altocumulus (I) resulted from the spreading out of the top of a moderately developed Cumulus (2).
Patches of Altocumulus (3, 4) on the margin of the main patch are disintegrating. At 5 a whitish sheet, constituting the top of a
Cumulonimbus capillatus, can be seen.
The station was situated in a northerly flow of polar air on the eastern side of a high over the Bay of Biscay.

CL = 9,74

CM = 6,

CH = 0

3

t

1

2

t

t

-<-2

T. Bergeron, Rundhogen (Sweden), 10 July 1945,2130 hours (towards NNW)

AItocumulus stratiformis opacus
The grazing illumination makes the relief of the sheet of Altocumulus opacus, which covers the right half of the photograph,particularly evident near the horizon, where ripples and waves (I, 2) can be seen. At a lower level, at 3, a patch ofStratocumulus is observed, apparently formed out of the convective clouds which developed during day-time but subsided
during the evening.
A quasi-stationary front, with an Altostratus-Nimbostratus system, oriented NNW-SSE, was lying over Sweden. The station
was situated exactly at the western margin of the withdrawing cloud system, which at the place of observation had degenerated
into Altocumulus.
CL = 4,

CM = 7,

CH = 075

A. J. Aa/deI's. Blarieum (Netherlands). I November 1953. 1605 hours (towards WSW)

Altostratus translucidus above Altocumulus stratiformis perlucidus
The higher cloud layer consists of a rather featureless grey veil of Altostratus through which the sun is seen as through groundglass; apparently no part of the veil is of sufficient optical thickness to obscure the sun (variety translucidus). Over most of thepicture there are medium-sized units of a lower Altoeumulus sheet; through breaks between the elements the higher Altostratus
can be seen (variety perlucidus). Somc Altocumulus elements have a more or less lenticular shape.
A rapidly deepening depression was centred over Ireland. with a strong south-south-easterly current over the Netherlands. An
occlusion of cold-front character. lying ovcr eastern England and moving towards the Netherlands, caused some rain during
the following night.

CL = 0,76

CM = 7,

CH = 0

I
,j,

+-1

A. J. Aalders, Oud Loosdrechl (Netherlands), 16 September 1950. 1840 hours (Iowards W)

Altostratus undulatus radiatus translucidus
The general fibrous appearance of the layer and its considerable range of luminance identifies the cloud as Altostratus. The
greater part of the layer is sufficiently thin to reveal the position of the sun (variety translucidus). The long streaks radiatingfrom a point outside the picture to the right indicate the variety radiatus. In view of the fact that there is also a more detailed
waved structure, the cloud may also be considered as belonging to the undulatus variety. Near the horizon, particularly at I,
elongated elements of Altocumulus can be seen, which make it necessary to select code figure CM = 7.
A ridge of high pressure had dominated the weather, but at the time the picture was taken the pressure was falling, the windbacking and the cloudiness increasing with the approach of a very active disturbance (originally a tropical cyclone) over the
British Isles (compare with p. 109).

CL = 0,CM = 7,

Cl_I

= /

77

3

t

4

I

t

t

2

t

1-+

3->-

k@1iI<-4~~.
'-;'~.....-~•

A. 1. AaLders, Bussum (Netherlands), 20 April /94/, /950 hours (towards W)

Altocumulus with virga
There are Altoeumulus clouds at different levels. This is clear at I where the wave patterns show different directions and at 2
where there are darker units below a higher sheet; the correct coding is therefore CM = 7. From the denser portions (3, 4) of thecloud masses, striated to smooth virga trail towards the left.
The station was in a region of rising pressure in the rear of a trough associated with a depression far to the north-west.

CL = 0,78

CM = 7.

C II =

°

~-2

2

3

I

t

t

t
~l

3~

2~

C. A. Doswell, Erick (Oklahoma, U.S.A.), 20 May 1974 (towards E)

Altocumulus castellanus with Cumulus congestus
An extensive area of Altocumulus castellanus is shown in concentrations at I and 2. Other clouds include Altostratus, and a
Cumulus congestus at 3, which is dissipating.
The flow pattern was weak south-westerly at 500 hPa, with a weak short-wave trough approaching from the west. These
clouds were in moist, unstable air ahead of a dry line located about 100 km to the west. Later in the afternoon, a major severe
thunderstorm developed just ahead of the quasi-stationary dry line.
CL = 2,

CM = 8,CH = I

79

1

3

t

2

t

t

3-*

1-*
+-2

P. Stahl, Greenland (690 41' N, 48 0 15' W), altitude 1595 rn, 11 June 1951, 0630 hours (towards W)

Altocumulus castellanus with virga

The principal mass (1-2) belongs to the genus Altocumulus; its upper part has a flocculent appearance (species castellanus).
From this mass, notably from the parts having rounded tops, fall snowy virga of remarkable whiteness, which, curved by thewind, suggest Cirrus uncinus. Above the mass of Altocumulus, Cirrus fibratus (3) can be seen. The station was on the western
margin of a strong anticyclone centred over Greenland, in a flow of maritime polar air from south to south-east.
CL = 0,80

CM = 8,CH = I

I

2

t

t

~l

~2

C. A. Doswell (Central Oklahoma, U.S.A.), 27 April 1974 (towards NW)

Altocumulus castellanus
An extensive patch of Altocumulus castellanus is seen at 1, with a smaller, more distant patch at 2. These clouds are in thewarm sector of developing extratropical convection, seen in the early afternoon.
Later in the day, a line of thunderstorms developed farther west and moved through the area.
CL = 0,CM = 8,CH = 0

81

I

t

4

3

t

5

t

t

2

t

-<-4

-<-2

3~

I~

-<-5

P. SUlhl, Greenland (690 41' N, 48° 15' W), allilude 1595 rn, 11 June 1951,0505 hours (lOwards NW)

Altocumulus stratiformis and Altocumulus floccus with virga
The Altocumulus is at two levels. The clouds (1-2) at the higher level are in a sheet (species stratjformis), consisting of rather
small rounded elements arrang~d in files, so that towards the horizon there is a resemblance to undulatus. Below this sheet
there is Altocumulus f1occus, consisting of large tufts (3, 4), denser and distinctly whiter than the blue grey of the higher layer;from the tufts fall virga of snow, which evaporates before reaching the ground. Note at 5 the whiteness of an element which
contrasts strongly with the rest of the sky. The presence of Altocumulus f10ccus calls for the coding CM = 8.
The station was on the western margin of a strong anticyclone centred over Greenland, in a flow of maritime polar air frombetween south and south-east.

CL = 0,82

CM = 8,

CH =

°

~-4

3->

I

~

2

~

5

r

dfA. . . . . .
C. ./. P. Cave. Pe/el'.\jield (Hampshire. U.K.). 5 Augu.\'/ 1923. 1530 hours (/(}\vards NE)

Altocumulus tloccus
Thc cloud clcmcnts havc thc form of small tufts and clcarly show a cumuliform appcarancc. Somc of thcm (I. 2) rcscmblc
Cumulus fractus in thcir compactncss and in thc abscncc of a horizontal basc. Most of thc clcmcnts arc raggcd and scattcrcd(3); a fcw (4) look likc whitc balls without shading. Ncar lhc horizon thc clcmcnts arc in staggcrcd lincs (5).
A small thundcry trough of low prcssurc was situatcd ovcr wcstcrn England and Brittany with a now of maritimc polar air fromthc south-wcst ovcr southcrn England.

Cl. = O.

CM = 8.

C II = 0

83

-<-2

1->

D. J. O'Connell, New York (U.S.A.). 28 November 1943. 1300 hours

Altocumulus noccus
Although most of the cloud elements have ragged margins and resemble roughly spherical masses of cotton-woo!. theircumuliform appearanee is still pronounced with sharp outlines here and there (1.2) in the upper parts. This circumstance. andthe fact that definite shading is visible. places the clouds in the genus Altocumulus and not Cirrus. although the latter may
finally evolve from it. The hazy whiteness in the centre of the picture is probably due to virga. The station was on the southern
margin of a depression centred over the Gulf of St. Lawrence in a very unstable continental polar air mass. with westerly winds
up to the level of the Altocumulus.

CL = O.

84

CM = 8.

C II = 0

4t

French Meleor%gica/ Service. Paris (France). 13 Ju/v /950. 1005 hours

Altocumulus floccus, castcllanus and lenticularis
The major part of the picture is occupied by isolated small tufts (I) of eumuliform appearance which arc Altoeumulus floceus:
there arc also some clouds of the spccies castellanus, their common base being distinguishable for instanec at 2. Altocumulus
lenticularis is present at various places (3, 4).
It is not unlikely that the initial condensation took place in the form of lenticularis, then eumuliform sproutings may havedeveloped from the lenticular base, thus forming castellanus, and finally the floecus formed as a result of the disappcarance ofthc basc.
A small anticyclone was breaking down simultaneously with the entry of a weak maritime flow over the continent.
Thunderstorms. first observed in the south-western part of France. spread over the whole country.

Cl. = 0,CM = 8,C II = 0

85

1

3

4

2

6

7

5

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

2~

4~

<-5

3~

1~

6,7--'

R. K. Pilsbury, BrackneLL (Berks., U.K.), 24 June 1971,2]]5 hours (towards NW)

Chaotic sky
Clouds at many levels are present. Cumulus fractus at low levels lies diagonally across the sky at 1-2 and 3-4. There is anextensive Altocumulus floccus cloud at 5, becoming dense at 6, and signs of castellanus at 7. Above all these cloud types canbe seen an extensive layer of Cirrostratus.
Pressure had been very slack over the British Isles and France on the previous day, with an ill-defined frontal system overFrance. A depression moved to the west of Scotland on this day, its warm front over eastern Ireland inducing an unstablesoutherly flow over southern England.
CL = I,86

CM = 9,CH = 8

I

.),

5

.),

2

.),

4
.),

3

.),

<-3

4

A. Viaur, La Tranche-sur-Mer (France), /3 August /952, /802 hours (towards SE)

Chaotic sky
Clouds of different shapcs at various levels and rather irregularly scattered make this a chaotic sky. The Altocumulus clouds at
I and 2 are turreted and rise from a common base (species castellanus); the Altocumulus at 3 arc more or less isolated tufts(species f1occus). In the upper part of the picture there are patches (4, 5) of Altocumulus stratiformis translucidus.
A shallow depression was approaching from Spain, causing a wcak easterly flow with widespread thunderstorm activity oversouthern France.

CL = 0,CM = 9,

CH =

°

87

2

t

4

t

3

t

6

I

t

t

5

t

+-1
3->

<-5

4->

B. C. Haynes. Bay of Whales (Lillle America. Anlarctica). 11 February /947. 0/00 hours (towards E)

Chaotic sky
The picture shows a chaotic sky with clouds of significant vertical development. At (I) there is a high. dense. fibrous veil. withshadings. apparently a large patch of Cirrus spissatus. Altocumulus, in patches of irregularly shaped elements with differcnt
opacities and at various levels, covers the greater part of the picture area (2.3). A line (4-5) of Cumulus and Cumulonimbus isvisible under the Altocumulus; these convective clouds. illuminated from behind. are strongly shaded. At 6 a patch ofStratocumulus cumulogenitus is visible.
A cold front had passed the plaee of observation a few hours earlier.

CL = 3,88

CM = 9,C II = 2

2

I

3

i

i

i

4

i
+-2
+-3

+-1
+-4

R. A. Keen, Boulder (Colorado, U.S.A.), 11 July 1983, 1000 hours (towards SW)

Cirrus fibratus and Cirrus uncinus

Some nearly straight Cirrus fibratus elements are present at I and 2. Most of the Cirrus filaments, however, are topped withsmall tufts (3, 4) and are therefore uncinus.
A cold front had passed on the previous day; surface winds were light on this day. Winds were SWat 20 m S-1 at 250 hPa, as
the area was under a weak SW jet associated with a stationary trough 600 km to the west.
CL = 0,CM = 0,

CH = 1

89

3

I

2

t

t

t

l~

+-2

3~
~

~

R. K. Pilsbury, Cowes (Isle of Wight, U.K.), 17 July 1982, 1500 hours (towards N)

Cirrus uocious aod Cirrus fibratus

The Cirrus hooks prominent at I and 2 are of the variety uncinus, while the thread-like patch of cloud at 3 is Cirrus fibratus.
Below 4 are patches of high Stratocumulus.
An extensive anticyclone to the south-west of the British Isles had a ridge extending to Denmark. A weak and diffuse front was
drifting south-eastwards towards southern England, and the only effect it gave was patches of Cirrus and the highStratocumulus to the north.
CL = 5,90

CM = 0,

CH = 1

5

3

t

t

2

I

4

t

t

t

Cirrus uncinus andCirrus fibratus

The sky is nearly filled with Cirrus
uncinus (l, 2, 3) and Cirrus fibratus (4) elements. A patch ofmore distinct, almost cumuliform,
Cirrus is seen at 5, which appears
to be at a slightly lower level thanthe other clouds.
Central Oklahoma was on thenorthern side of an elongated ridgeof high pressure aloft.
CL = 0,CM = 0,5-

CH = 1

~l

~2

~

~3

C. A. Doswell, Norman (Oklahoma, U.S.A.), December 1973, 1700 hours(towards W)

91

3-+
(->

5-+

P. Ta/i. Albuquerque (New Mexico, U.S.A.), 11 Seplember 1950, 1253 hours

Cirrus libratus vertebratus
The principal cloud (1-2) suggests the form of a fish skeleton of which the flocculent masses (3, 4) form the spinal column andthe filaments, arranged on either side, constitute the ribs. There is an isolated patch of Cirrus fibratus at 5.
The place of observation was in tropical air, south of a precipitating warm front on the western edge of a mass of polar air.

CL = 0,92

CM = 0,

CH = 1

3

I

2

t

t

t

+-2

l~

3~

R. K. Pilsbury, Christchurch (Hampshire, U.K.), 25 October 1978, 1100 hours (towards W)

Cirrus spissatus with virga
These patches of Cirrus are very dense, and are therefore of the species spissatus. From below the patches at land 2, there is alittle virga trailing back in the lighter winds below the Cirrus level. The top of a Cumulus congestus, unrelated to the Cirrus, isvisible at 3.
A stationary front was lying NW-SE about 300 km to the north-east, with an anticyclone building to the south-west.
CL = 2,

CM = 0,

CH = 2

93

5

1

3

4

2

t

t

t

t

t

~I

~3
~2

~

~5

R. A. Keen, Ajo (Arizona, U.S.A.), 20 October 1981, 1700 hours (towards SE)

Cirrus floccus
The Cirrus has the appearance of cumuliforrn tufts (I, 2) that are trailing streamers of falling ice crystals (3, 4), and therefore
the Cirrus is classified as floccus. More distant floccus at 5 is mostly in the shadow of the foreground clouds.
Winds aloft were SW due to a stationary trough about 200 km to the west. Winds increased from 10 m S-I at 500 hPa to 25 ms-I
at 250 hPa, all from the south-west. Thus, there was SW vertical shear, and the ice-crystal fallout trailed from the Cirrus tufts.
Surface winds were light.
CL = 0,94

CM = 0,

CH = 2

1 3
~ ~

2
~

Cirrus floccus

Flocculent elements with soft, fibrous outlines are seen at 1. The
elements at 2 are characterized byhard outlines, but appear to be at
the same level as the more fibrouselements at 1. A patch of banded
Altostratus (3) is seen low in thesky.
Central Oklahoma was on thenorthern side of a quasi-stationary
ridge of high pressure aloft.
CL = 0,CM = 1,+-2

CH = 2l~

3~

C. A. Doswell, Norman (Oklahoma, U.S.A.), January 1974, 1700 hours(towards SW)

95

I

3

2

4

t

t

t

t

2~

l~

3~

~

A. Viaut, La Tranche-sur-Mer (France), 25 August 1952, 1418 hours (towards E)

Cirrus floccus with virga and Cirrocumulus floccus
Rounded tufts without shading and some of them very white (1, 2) are producing "showers" of ice crystals (3, 4) which thewind deforms into irregular filaments. Several of the elements appear to have a breadth of more than one degree and therefore
cannot be called Cirrocumulus floccus but must be called Cirrus floccus.
The photograph was taken in a maritime polar air mass, north of a small depression in the Bay of Biscay.
CL = 0,96

CM = 0,

CH = 2

4

I

2

3

t

t

t

t

4~
~l

~2

~3

C. A. Doswell, Paio Duro Canyon (Texas, U.s.A.), 28 June 1975 (towards SW)

Cirrus spissatus cumulonimbogenitus with Cumulus congestus
A dissipating Cumulonimbus (1) has left a small patch of Cirrus and is showing some remnant precipitation at 2. Other
Cumulus (3) and Cumulus congestus (4) are forming along a N-S escarpment across the Texas Panhandle.
The area was in a south-easterly low-level flow ahead of a dry line. Later in the day, a much stronger Cumulonimbus
develoPed just ahead of the eastward-moving dry line near this location.
CL = 2,

CM = 0,

CH = 3

97

3,4

1,2

5

t

t

t
Formation and dissipationof Cirrus spissatus
cumulonimbogenitus

+-1

3~

+-2,5
~

~

(a) 1052 hours (towards WNW)
R. L. Holle, Pahokee (Florida, U.S.A.), 15 August 1973
7

8

t

t

The four photographs on pages 98
and 99 show the formation of
Cirrus spissatus by several Cumulonimbus along the east shore of
the large inland Lake Okeechobee
under easterly low-level flow.
When the updraughts moved fromthe heated land to cooler water,
they weakened and the upper portions persisted until.only Cirrus remained.
In (a) the upper cirriform remainsof a small Cumulonimbus have persisted in the ice form (1), while thewater-droplet cloud beneath it has
nearly disappeared at 2. On the left
at 3, the top of the Cumulus updraught is beginning to become
fibrous, indicating the formation ofa new Cumulonimbus. Rain is
falling at 4 from this cloud body.
Another small Cumulus congestus
has become detached from its lower cloud body at 5. Cumulus
mediocris are seen across the horizon at 6.
CL =9,

7~

+-8

98

C H =3In (b), five minutes later, theclouds have continued to matureand dissipate. The Cumulonimbus
on the left (7) has become more
fibrous at the top, and the smaller
congestus on the right (8) has
started to dissipate.
CL = 9,(b) 1057 hours (towards WNW)
R. L. Holle, Pahokee (Florida, U.S.A.), 15 August 1973 .

CM=O,

CM = 0,

CH = 3

2~

Further formationand dissipationof Cirrus spissatus
cumulonimbogenitusl~

In (e), six minutes later, theCumulonimbus on the left has begun to turn entirely to ice on top at
I with virga at 2. The congestus on
the right has almost completely disappeared with very little cirriform
structure remaining (3), indicatingthat it was composed mainly ofwater.
CL = 9,CM = 0,

3
~

I

~

2~
~3

CH = 3(e) 1103 hours (towards WNW)
R. L. Holle, Pahokee (Florida, U.S.A.), 15 August 1973
4~Photo (d) was taken after anotherfive minutes, or 16 minutes after
the first photo (a). The Cumulonimbus on the left (4) has now
assumed an appearance similar tothat of the older Cirrus cloud at (5)in the first photograph. A new congestus tower is beginning to growat 6, but it will also dissipate rather
quickly as did these nearby clouds
in this sequence.
CL = 9,CM = 0,

5,6
~

~

~5

CH = 3~(d) 1108 hours (towards WNW)
R. L. Holle, Pahokee (Florida, U.S.A.), /5 August /973

99

3

I

2

t

t

t

3~

+-1

+-2

C. A. Doswell, Boulder (Colorado, U.S.A.), 29 June 1984 (towards NNW)

Cirrus spissatus cumulonimbogenitus with virga

The patch of Cirrus at 1 had its origins in weak showers from Cumulonimbus that developed early in the afternoon over the
Front Range of the Rocky Mountains to the left (W). This shower is in the process of dissipation, and some light precipitation
continues to fall as virga at 2. Other Cumulus congestus are located over the mountains at 3.
A weak ridge of high pressure was present aloft, with relatively low moisture content but a high lapse rate, typical of summer
convection in Colorado. Another cycle of convection developed later in the afternoon.
CL = 2,100

CM = 0,

CH = 3

I

3

t

t

2

4

t

t

2,3~
I~

+-4

M. A. LeMone, near Deception Pass (Washington, U.S.A.), ApriL 1970, 1500 hours (towards W)

Cirrus spissatus from Cumulonimbus
Several Cumulonimbus are in different stages of development in the photograph, the younger clouds (I) having a smaller anvil
than the more widespread one (2) of the older clouds. The anvil at 3 is Cirrus spissatus cumulonimbogenitus, since it isdetached from visible convection, but is clearly derived from convection, as are the other clouds visible at this time. Small
Cumuli are seen at 4.
The Cumulonimbus were probably developing over the Olympic Peninsula and Vancouver Island to the west, supported byinstability created by cold advection aloft.
C L =9,

CM=O,

CH =3

IQI

3

2

I

t

t

t

~l

~2
3~

S. M. HoUe, Des Moines (New Mexico, U.S.A.), 30 July 1977, 1130 hours (towards NE)

Cirrus spissatus cumulogenitus with virga

This Cumulonimbus cloud has been almost completely converted from its earlier water-droplet form to an ice cloud. The
fibrous upper part at I extends nearly to the base of the visible cloud, where a small area of updraught is visible at 2. Virga isnearly reaching the ground at 3 in this dry atmosphere.
The region was under the influence of dry lower levels and strong diurnal heating in the afternoon.
CL = 9,102

CM = 0,

CH = 3

3
~

2
~

2-'>

~I

1-'>

~3

+--4

4-'>

R. K. Pilsbury, South Cambridgeshire (U.K.), 3 November 1978

Cirrus uncinus with Cirrostratus

Tufts of Cirrus, above I, are moving rapidly from lower right to upper left in a strong NW current aloft. Some tufts have hooks(2), and all have long trails below. As is often the case, the Cirrus in the distance above the setting sun appears to merge into
Cirrostratus (3) and has thickened and lowered to Altostratus opacus near the horizon (4).
The increasing Cirrus heralded the approach of a fast-moving warm front to a depression 1500 km to the west.
CL = 0,CM = 2,

CH = 4

103

2
~

I
~

3
~

~2

~l

~3

H. B. Bluestein, Norman (Oklahoma, U.S.A.), 9 October 1977, early afternoon (towards N)

Cirrus uncinus radiatus
The Cirrus elements have a variety of shapes in this view. Cirrus uncinus at 1 shows the filaments terminating in hooks andtufts. Other portions of the cloud field have small patches (2) and streaks (3) which appear to converge toward the horizon in
the lower left of the picture. The Cirrus is progressively invading the sky; no Cirrostratus is apparent, however; thus thecoding is CH = 4.
The location was under a strong (70 m S-I) westerly jet. At low levels, a ridge axis was nearby, with cool NW winds to the east
and a dry, southerly return flow to the west.
CL = 0,104

CM = 0,

CH = 4

5
.j,

1

.j,

3

.j,

4
.j,

2

.j,

-(-4

1. H. Conover, Milton (Ma.l'sachusells, U.S.A.), 24 July 1948, 1850 hours (towards SW)

Cirrus uncinus
The characteristic appearance of uncinus is clearly visible. Some elements have the shape of a hook (I, 2); others are
surmounted by a fairly dense tuft, elongated obliquely into a morc or less tenuous fibrous trail (3,4). On the whole, all trails
are fairly parallel, but at some places (5) isolated trails are superposed in a more or less tangled network. Disturbances had
been passing the station from the west along the northern border of the Bermuda anticyclone. The warm front of a new
approaching depression was at a distance of 500 km.
CL = 0,CM = 0,

CH = 4

105

2

I

t

t

+-2

A. Viaut, Paris (France), /5 February /95/, /6/0 hours (towards W)

Cirrus undnus radiatus
The cloud elements have a fibrous structure as a whole, visible particularly at 1; as at 2, each major element is hooked at its
upper (left) end, indicating that the Cirrus belongs to the species uncinus. In addition, the elements are fairly well aligned inbands (radiatus), which converge to a radiant point on the right, beyond the field of the picture. Owing to perspective, theclouds are close together near the horizon, but the filament structure is still clearly recognizable and it would not be correct tocode the cloud system, which is invading the sky from west-south-west, as CH = 5.The station was in maritime polar air, far inadvance of an occlusion moving from the west-north-west. Up to the level of the Cirrus the winds were west-south-west.
CL = 0,106

CM = 0,

CH = 4

5

t

1 3

7

t t

4

t

t

~2

3->-

4
1->

6
5->

A. J. Aa/ders, Bussum (Nether/ands) , 30 December /948, /555 hours (towards SW)

Cirrus fibratus duplicatus

Cirrus fibres, white, more or less delicate, almost straight and silky in appearance, stretch in two main directions (1-2,3-4) andare apparently arranged in two superposed layers (Cirrus fibratus duplicatus). Near the horizon the Cirrus clouds seem toagglomerate owing to the effect of perspective, but the filament structure is still discernible and even at 5-6 the sheet cannot yet
be considered as Cirrostratus. The cloud system was progressively invading the sky and thickening as a whole. There is a flat
patch of very low clouds in the distance near the horizon (mainly on the right-hand side of the photograph) and fragments (7)presumably related to it are seen in the foreground. It is very likely that these clouds are Stratus fractus of bad weather (surface
wind 13 m s"),From a depression north of Scotland, a cold front extended via the North Sea and England towards the south-west, with a wave
forming south of Ireland. Pressure was falling rapidly over the Netherlands.
CL = 7,

CM = 0,

CH = 4

107

I
.j,

5
.j,

3

4

!

!

2

.j,

6
.j,

3->-

+-4

+-2

1->-

5->-

<-6

A. H. Boujon and R. Pommier, PorI-Marlin (Ade/ie Land. Al1larclica) , 25 December /950. 0830 hours (Iowards NW)

Cirrus uncinus and Cirrostratus
The clouds are at two levels. The Cirrus, at the higher level, has a very thin filament structure (1,2) with hooks (3, 4), so thatthe species is uncinus rather than fibratus. The cloud element at 4 verges on the variety intortus. The lower level is represented
by patches of Cirrostratus (5, 6), The cloud system was invading the sky progressively. The station was at the border of adepression, the active part of which was to the north-west over the Antarctic Ocean,
CL = 0,108

CM = 0,

CH = 5

2

I

t

t

3

t

~-I

~-3

A. J. Aalders, Oud Loosdrecht (Netherlands), /6 September /950, /8// hours (towards W)

Cirrus and Cirrostratus thickening into Altostratus (with Altocumulus)
At the top of the picture (I), thin and somewhat fibrous Cirrus clouds merge with the thin, partly white sheet of Cirrostratus
which occupies most of the photograph. This Cirrostratus merges at the bottom of the picture with a dark grey sheet of
Altostratus which is partly striated and partly uniform. Projected against the Cirrostratus are some small- to medium-sizcd
Altocumulus elements (2-3), dense enough to look dark.
A ridge of high pressure had dominated the weather, but at the time the picture was taken the pressure was falling, the windbacking and the cloudiness increasing with the approach of a very active disturbance (originally a tropical cyclone) over the
British Isles (compare with pages 77 and J 11).
CL = 0,CM = 7,

CH = 5

109

2,4
~

1,3
~

3~

l~

~2,4

C. A. DosweLL, Norman (Oklahoma, U.S.A.), September 1976, 1500 hours

Cirrostratus
A sharply defined Cirrostratus edge extends from 1 to 2, with a pronounced band of optical thickening extending from 3 to 4.
The Cirrostratus has passed overhead, and is moving into clear air. The sky therefore has a continuous veil ofCirrostratus morethan 45 degrees above the horizon without being entirely covered, hence the coding CH = 6.
A strong short-wave trough was approaching Oklahoma from the west.
CL = 0,110

CM = 0,

CH = 6

3

5

1

2,4,6

!

!

!

!

5-4

~

+-4

3-4

~2

1-4

A. J. Aalders, Bussum (Netherlands), 17 September /950, 0629 hours (towards ESE)

Cirrus fibratus and Cirrostratus
Clouds of the higher etage are invading the sky very slowly from the west. The cloud sheet now photographed in an easterly
direction has advanced only slightly since the previous evening (compare with pages 77 and 109). The leading edge (1-2) has
almost reached the eastern horizon. From there, Cirrus clouds, consisting of fibrous elements (fibratus), extend upwards in the
picture, approximately to 3-4, where a continuous veil of Cirrostratus begins; this veil extends through the zenith to thewestern horizon. Thin, medium-sized, non-fibrous elements of Altocumulus are observed at the top of the picture (5-6).
A ridge of high pressure had dominated the weather, but since the previous evening pressure had been falling owing to theapproach of a very active disturbance (originally a tropical cyclone) from the direction of the British Isles.
CL = 0,CM = 3,

CH = 6

111

I

~

2~

+-1

H. B. Bluestein, Boulder (Colorado, U.S.A.), 10 January 1985, murning (towards SE)

Cirrostratus nebulosus
The sky is covered with a thin layer of Cirrostratus. The only indication of this thin but widespread layer is provided by theparhelion at 1 that is being produced by the sun, located just off the left side of the photograph at 2.
The location was in the lee of the Rocky Mountains in an undisturbed, moderate NW flow.
CL = 0,112

CM = 0,

CH = 7

1

2

1

1

2---->

1---->

R. L. Holle, Dakar (Senegal), 8 August 1974, 1000 hours

Cirrostratus translucidus fibratus

A uniformly thin veil of Cirrostratus covers the sky. It is sufficiently thin to show the sun's position, but illustrates its existence
distinctly by the 22° halo surrounding the sun. Around I, the fibrous nature of the cloud layer is shown faintly by an irregularpattern of curved filaments. The light of the sun is strong enough to cause shading variations in the Cumulus fractus at 2.
The photo was taken in an area of extensive cloudiness to the east of a low-level vortex that had passed to the west-north-west·across Dakar during the previous night.
CL = I,

CM = 0,

CII = 7

113

1

t

<-I

3--'>

<-2

H. B. Bluestein, Dillon (Colorado, U.S.A.), 5 January 1978, afternoon (towards W)

Cirrostratus fibratus
A thin veil of Cirrostratus covers the sky. Some striations in the Cirrostratus are visible as fibratus across the sky, as forexample at 1. Darker, thicker striations are apparent from 2 to 3.
The clouds are located near the southern edge of a short-wave trough moving through the north-west of the U.S .A. The flow ismoderately strong from the west, north of the main jet.
CL = 0,114

CM = 0,

CH = 7

I

2

t

t

5

t

6

t

4

3

.(

!

,-~

1__.:..

-

1->

;ie

oolI}.

:;::!.,.

\:.~:...'MltJ\,,-2''i~'-~ I, ""'-, ;"",,, *- 3

..-4

-

A. VielU/, Bruges (Belgium), 26 August 1951. /6/6 hours (towards NW)

Cirrostratus fibratus with Altocumulus castellanus undulatus
After the passage of an occlusion the Cirrostratus fibratus, which covers the greater part of the sky, is decreasing, which calls
for the coding CH = 8. Under the main cloud layer, there are patches of Altocumulus (1,2,3,4) of elongatcd form and broadly
parallel to one another. The bulges at 5 and 6 indicate a convcctive character and presumably (note the shading) more suchbulges are arranged on the common, slightly ragged bases, so that the clouds are properly called castellanus,
The occlusion was to the east of the point of observation, and had given rise to an intensive thunderstorm one hour before thephotograph was taken.

CL = 0,CM = 8,

CII = 8

115

1.3

t

5

6
,),

t

2,4

,),

<-2
1->
<-4

<-6

C. A. Clarke, Aberdeen (Aberdeenshire, U.K.), I April /9/7, 1230 hours (lOwards W)

Cirrostratus nebulosus
A sheet of Cirrostratus (1-2) showing no structural details extends from the sharply outlined border (3-4) to the opposite
horizon. The clear sector remains almost constant, which means that direction of motion of the sheet is parallel to the border.
Some seattered Cumulus with moderate vertical extent have formed in the clear seetor; they are seen in profile projectedagainst the sky (5. 6)
The station was on the northern edge of a perturbation of the polar front, which, moving from the west, crossed Wales andEngland.
Cl. = 2.

116

CM = O.

ell = 8

3

.j,

I

5

J

J
~-4

1--->

~-2

3->-

D. S. Hancod.. BORflOr Regis (Sussex. U.K.). 9 June /935. /358 hours (towards S)

Cirrocumulus stratiformis undulatus

The plate shows a typical example of Cirrocumulus, forming a nearly continuous extended layer (stratiformis). It has fine orvery fine ripples (I and 2), rounded elements more or less aligned in files (3), a lacunosus aspect (4) and also some fairly
uniform areas (5).
The station was in the forepart of a thundery disturbance advancing from the south-west.
CL = O.

CM = o.

CII = 9

117

4

t

I

.j,

6
.j,

5

t

7

t

23

H

Cirrocumulus stratiformis
lacunosus

+-5
1-->-

~3

6--->
~2

CL = 0,~~7

A. J. Aalders, Amsterdam (Netherlands), 19 May 1952, 1220 hours (towards SW)

118

This extensive cloud sheet belongs,
on account of its fineness andwhiteness,
to
the
genus
Cirrocumulus. Small rounded elements without shading (I, 2) andripples (3, 4) are visible almost
everywhere. The lacunosus structure is evident from the numerous
holes (5, 6). As often occurs in
Cirrocumulus, some Cirrus fibratus(7) is merged with the patches.
This sky was associated with an old
cold front which passed over thearea slowly from the north-east.
The front caused a temporary increase of cloudiness but no precipitation.

CM = 0,

CH = 9

4

3

t

2

t

t

1

t

-<-1

3-+

+-2

4-+

H. H. Larkin, Elma (New York, U.5.A.), 16 July /949, 0842 hours (towards E)

Cirrocumulus stratiformis undulatus lacunosus

The major part of this Cirrocumulus sheet (species stratifonnis) clearly shows (1, 2, 3) an undulated structure (variety
undulatus). More or less round holes with fringed edges are visible in the cloud patch at 4. Cloud elements and clear spaces
have a structure suggestive of a net or honeycomb.
The station was about 200 km north of an approaching warm front oriented W-E.
CL = 0,CM = 0,

CH = 9

119

I

t

2

t

+-1

<-2

3-->-

J. Mondain, Aspe Valley (France). 25 July 1938, 1030 hours (towards E)

Cirrocumulus lenticularis
The clouds are characterized as Cirrocumulus by their whiteness, the absence of shading and the presence of fine ripples (I. 2)
and small rounded elements (3). The patches have a shape which suggests more or less broadly that of a spindle or of a lensseen in profile.
Over central and southern France a low-pressure area (heat low) was developing in the maritime tropical air.
CL = 0,120

CM = 0.

C II = 9

V)

Cl

::::J

o...J

U
U
-.

J:
<t::

0...

Cl::
CJ

oCl::
o

4

I

t

t

2

t

3

t

~

~3
~2

1-*

P. de Martin de Vi vit?S, Amsterdam Island (37" 45' S, 77" 25' E), 6 February 1951, 0730 hours (towards S)

Conjoined orographic clouds
The patch of orographic Stratocumulus (1-2) has its base at 600 m and its upper surface at 1000 m. Cumuliform bulges
emerging from this patch indicate some instability. Note that on the windward side (2) the base is particularly sharp and thebulges are not present, in contrast to the leeward side (I), where the bulges are conspicuous. Fibrous patches of lenticular
Stratocumulus (3) and Altocumulus (4) are also present.
The picture was taken on the southern edge of an anticyclone centred over the 30th parallel. North-westerly surface winds
brought somewhat unstable modified cold air over the island.
CL = 5,CM = 4,

CH = 0

123

2->-

1->-

4

S. W. Visser, Wonosobo (Java, Indonesia), 25 Februarv 1924, 0615 hours (lOwards E)

Orographic cloud (cap)The cloud mass (I) around the top of the volcano Sumbing, which is about 2500 m above the surface of the tennis-court in theforeground, is composed of a pile of numerous thin sheets. Each sheet has the shape of a cap. The mass appears stationary;actually, condensation in the west monsoon on the windward side (left side of the picture) and evaporation on the leeward side
are constantly going on. AltoculTIulus lenticularis also due to forced ascent of air is seen above the top, at 2. The picture shows.
in addition, some lower Stratocumulus at 3 and some Cirrus fibratus at 4.

CL = 5.

124

CM = 4,

CII = I

1-,>
~I

J. M. Brown, Boulder (Colorado, U.S.A.), 11 May 1979, 0700 hours (towards WNW)

Cumulus fractus
Cumulus fractus at I is topping and partly obscuring the Continental Divide of North America (elevation about 4000 m above
mean sea-level). These clouds are the eastern limit of a patch or layer of Stratocumulus lying over valley areas west of the N-S
mountain range.
This Stratocumulus was at the top of cool, moist air remaining from a deep marine polar air mass which had invaded the area a
few days earlier. The air mass above was quite dry. Broad-scale airflow at mountain-top level was from the north-west at about
10 m s-'.
CL = 1,

CM = 0,

CH = 0

125

3,4

2

1

.j,

.j,

.j,

3--+

+-2

4->

+-1

C. S. Patterson, Bishop (California, U.S.A.), /6 February /952, /4/5 hours (towards S)

Fohn wall, rotor clouds and orographic AItocumulus lenticularis
The fOhn wall on the right (1-2) is on the crest of the Sierra Nevada mountains. Westerly winds with speeds of 25 m S·I were
sweeping across the range, causing a wave on the lee side, made visible by the lenticular Altocumulus (3); cumuliform rotor
clouds are present at 4.
Cl = 2,126

CM = 4,

CH = 0

1
~

2
~

2->

1-+

P. SIC/hi, Greenland (69° 45' N, 50° 16' W), 23 September 1951, 1500 hours (towards SW)

Orographic Stratocumulus and Altocumulus (wave clouds)
Except for some Cumulus fractus at I and 2 and near the horizon, all cloud patches show a lenticular form with fibrous
margins. The darker clouds, being rather heavily shaded, belong to the genus Stratocumulus; the lighter clouds are
Altocumulus. A foliated structure is visible in various places. These typical orographic clouds are often observed on the west
coast of Greenland, with wind blowing from the inland ice towards the sea.
On this particular day there was a high over east Greenland, while pressure was relatively low over Baffin Bay and the Davis
Strait. At the station, the sea-level wind was light from the south-east, the temperature relatively high (I0°e) and the relative
humidity low (30 per cent).
CL = 8,CM = 4,

CH = 0

127

2

3

t

t

3~

~2

1~

~I

J. M. Brown, Boulder (Colorado, U.S.A.), 25 January 1984, 1000 hours (towards W)

Cumulus fractus and Altocumulus lenticularis
The Continental Divide of North America, 30 km to the west, is obscured by a fOhn wall (I), which is the eastern edge of an
extensive layer of Stratocumulus over a valley west of the Continental Divide. The fOhn wall is shaded by the Altocumulus
lenticularis opacus, the western edge being at 2 to 3. This Altocumulus was associated with a vertically propagating mountainwave. Aircraft measurements indicated that the base of the Altocumulus was at 350-400 hPa, and the top near 250 hPa.
Surface winds at the time of the photo were westerly, gusting to 15-20 m S-I. Broad-scale airflow at the height of theContinental Divide (about 4 000 m) was from WNW at 12 ms-I.
CL = 1,128

CM = 2,

CH = 0

3
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5
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A. ViaL/t, Geneva (Switzerland), 25 September /952, /345 hours (towards £)Orographic Stratocumulus
Beneath a veil of Cirrostratus which had recently thickened and which covered the whole sky when the picture was taken, there
are patches of rather dark orographic clouds (I, 2). They are of elongated lenticular shape with ends either frayed, as at 3, or
irregularly saw-toothed, as at 4. The height of the lenticular clouds is between 500 and 1500 m. On account of their low heightand dark appearance they should be called Stratocumulus rather than Altocumulus. Cumulus fractus clouds are also
observed (5).
This photograph was taken in maritime tropical air about 200 km in advance of a cold front with which the Cirrostratus was
associated. The Stratocumulus were formed in the brisk westerly current (12-15 m s") blowing over the mountain ridges,
oriented SW-NE, visible in the picture.

CL = 8,CM = 0,C II = 7

129

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J. M. Brown, Boulder (Colorado, U.S.A.), 19 June 1979, 1200 hours (towards SW)

Cumulus fractus, Cumulus humulis and Altocumulus
Cumulus fractus and humilis at I and 2 are shown in an ill-defined band. These are associated with a rotor downstream of theContinental Divide of North America, which is oriented N-S 30 km to the west of the photo location. Cumuli associated with
the next downstream rotor are visible at 3 and 4. Altocumulus produced by a vertically propagating mountain wave is visible at
5 and 6. This cloud lacks a lenticular appearance, appearing rather to be turbulent.
Surface winds at the time of the photo were occasionally gusting as high as 25-30 m S-I from the west (downslope). A major
upper-tropospheric trough was centred over the area and moving eastward. The broad-scale flow at the level of the top of theContinental Divide was from WNW at 12-15 ms-I.
CL = 1,130

CM = 4,

CH = 0

4

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!

!

!

!

5-4

3-)

+-1

4-4
+-2

R. L. Ho//e, ahove north-western part of New Mexico (U.s.A.), at 9500 rn, 25 January /98/, /400 hours (towards W)

Cirrus terminating in hooks and tufts
This illustration depicts a single layer of the species uncinus. The nearly-white, delicate filaments terminate at the top in small
hooks (I, 2) or tufts (3). Long trails streak away behind the tops in parallel lines (4). The Cirrus is thin enough to allow theunderlying arid terrain to be seen through most of the clouds. Cirrus in the distance (5) appears to be more dense, but this is due
to perspective, as the cloud elements are similar to the ones in the foreground.
The photograph was taken 800 km west of a cold front which had passed through the region the previous day. Winds werestrong, westerly, at the aircraft's flight level.

133

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A. J. Aalders, above the North Sea, close to the coast o/the Netherlands, at 3000 m, 19 July 1949, 1621 hours (lOwards W)

Continuous mainly stratiform cloud layer
The layer of Altocumulus, altitude of top 2900 m, stretching from the aircraft to the horizon, is penetrated in places (I) by topsof Cumulus congestus.
There was a ridge of high pressure over the British Isles and pressure was low over southern Scandinavia. The aircraft was
flying in a north-westerly current of polar air, rather unstable in the lower layers, but with a marked inversion at flight level(-5.5°C at 2900 m, -2.0°C at 3100 m). Isolated showers were observed at the surface.

134

4
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Capt. W. Kunikawa, All Nippon Airways, over the sea north-east of Shionomisahi (Japan), at 6000 m, /4 August /978,/400 hours

Lenticular Altocumulus with Cumulus and Cirrostratus
This picture shows Altocumulus lenticularis which has formed on the leeward side of the Kii Mountains. Several individual
lens-shaped cloud elements can be seen one above the other at 1,2,3. These clouds are frequently observed over mountainousor hilly regions where they form at the crests of stationary waves in currents of moist air. They may sometimes envelop a
mountain peak. Altocumulus lenticularis may occasionally be produced by relatively small ridges over low land. Thc
illustration also shows the bulging tops of Cumulus congestus (4) and a layer of Cirrostratus nebulosus (5).
A surface ridge of high pressure extended over Shionomisaki from a large anticyclone over the North Pacific Ocean. Surface
winds were light from east-north-east, while the middle-level air flow was light southerly.

135

4
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3
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R. F. Reinking, above the Rocky Mountains (Colorado. U.S.A.), at 6000 m, 17 December 1973, about 1500 hours (towards
SE)

Orographic Altocumulus and Altostratus (standing lee waves)
Wave clouds of two types are illustrated in this photograph. Thin altostratus at flight level can be seen at I. These clouds were
stationary and their shape is indicative of the orographic forcing from the mountains. The Altocumulus lenticularis clouds(2,3) below the aircraft were produced by the mountains which lie behind the observer. Pikes Peak (4300 m) can be seen at 4.
Low pressure was located to the east (leeward) and high pressure to the west (windward), and combined to produce a steeppressure gradient and strong winds across the mountains. The mountain barrier is oriented NNW-SSE.

136

lA

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4-+

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R. SYIIlOIlS. Bishop (Calij()rnia. U.S.A.). altitude 9800 111. 5 March 1950 (towards S)

Orographic clouds
From the snow-capped Sierra Nevada mountains on the right the westerly winds (at 700 hPa SW, 15 m s ') swept into thevalley, creating a dust-storm and a dust-wall (1-2), which reached up to the rotor cloud (3) on the left. From 4 to 5 there arc
lenticular Altoeumulus. 'also formed by the wave ascent of the air in the Ice of the mountains. Cirrostratus is also present in the
distance (6).

137

1.2

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Anonymous, India (24 0 N, 76 0 E), at 12000 m, 3 September 195/, /235 hours (towards S)

Continuous stratiform cloud layer penetrated by isolated towering Cumulonimbus
A layer of Altocumulus stratifonnis undulatus is penetrated by some tops of Cumulus congestus and by towering
Cumulonimbus calvus (I). The peculiar mushroom-form of the top of the latter, which penetrated to an altitude well over
12000 m, is remarkable; it shows a constriction at 2, where the sun, almost in the zenith, casts a dark shadow on the
Altocumulus.
The aircraft (BOAC "Comet") was flying over a rain area associated with a trough of low pressure over central India, from the
Punjab to Ceylon. Thunderstorms with 180 mm of rain within 12 hours were observed over this region.

138

3

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1

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3~

E. J. Zipser, above eastern Senegal (/4° 45' N, /3°45' W), at 3200 m, 5 September 1974, 1409 hours (towards W)

Stratiform cloud above night level
This photograph illustrates a thick layer of Altostratus (I), from which snow turning to rain is falling, above the flight level ofthe aircraft. The Altostratus has originated from Cumulonimbus clouds 250 km to the south (left edge of picture) andterminates I IO km ahead. Distant Cumulus (2) can be seen even farther ahead. The precipitation is heaviest (3) in the directionof the generating Cumulonimbus, as indicated by the bright strip of sky (4) sloping downward in that direction. The base of theAltostratus is about 5000 m with the falling snow turning to rain 1000 - 1500 m above the aircraft. The satellite-inferred top of
the mother-cloud is 12000 m.
Dull, featureless skies do not lend themselves to good photographs, but Cumulonimbus, from which this Altostratus
originated, is of great importance as a rainfall producer in moist tropical areas. A squall line with anvil Cumulonimbus wasnear the trough of a wave in the easterly air flow, oriented NE-SW. Similar cloud systems are often associated with other types
of weather system.

]39

Broken, mainly stratiform layerof clouds
This Stratocumulus had its base at
I 000 m and its top at 1650 m. The
layer is rather compact, thoughwith large openings in the upper
picture, where the Stratocumulus
looks like a "sea of clouds". In thelower picture the layer appears to
be disintegrating, as indicated by
the frayed protuberances (1) andfrayed fragments between therounded elements.
The Altocumulus and Cirrus fibratus, clearly seen in the upper
picture, indicate the approach of amarked warm front from the westnorth-west (distance 600 km). The
aircraft was flying in maritime
polar air.
A. J. Aa/ders, northern part of the Netherlands, at 1750 m, 12 December 1949,

1415 hours (towards NW)

I
.j,

+-1

A. J. Aalders. northern part of the Netherlands. at 17501/1. 12 December 1949,
1420 hours (towards NW)

140

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A. 1. Aa/deT.\'. above the province of South Holland (Nether/ands). at /950 m. /7 March /950. /449 hours (towards W)

Broken layers of mainly stratiform clouds
Below the aircraft. from I to 2. there is a layer of Stratocumulus stratiformis. dark in the background. somewhat lighter in theforeground; the layer is not completely continuous and shows some thin elongated patches (3). Above the flight level dense
Altostratus opacus (4-5) is observed, with some elongated openings. The picture was taken immediately after the passage of acold front oriented SW-NE which was moving in a south-easterly direction. There was rain at the surface, but no precipitation
was observed at flight level.

141

1

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2
.j,

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A. J. Aalders, above Usse/meer (Ne/herlands) , 0/2000 m, 5 December /95/, /029 hours (towards SE)

Stratiform clouds: below flight level isolated field in distance, above aircraft broken layer
The cloud sheet below the flight level (1,2) (base 1400 Ill, top 1600 Ill), being non-fibrous and subdivided into fairly distinct
parts, is Stratocumulus. The amount of cloud is sufficiently small to justify calling it scattered.
The narrow banded cloud layer above the aircraft, being lumpy and non-fibrous, yet dense enough in parts to show shading, is
Altocumulus.
There was a strong WSW current over the area (surface winds 20 m s"), with an advancing cold front stretching SW-NE over
the North Sea and England, at a distance of about 250 km.

142Royal Australian Air Force, Port Stephens (New South Wales, Australia), 8 October /943

Stratocumulus (roll cloud) under Altostratus
This is a special type of sky, usually accompanying a "burster" or squall from south to south-south-west with an invasion ofpolar air. In the upper part of the picture the frontal Altostratus is observed; across the middle is seen the typical isolated rollcloud, belonging to the genus Stratocumulus.
The base of the roll cloud, which lay N-S parallel to the coast, was at 450 m. Rain was observed beneath the cloud. Turbulence
was light under and in the cloud.

143

I

t

3

2

t

t

+--2

+--3

1--+

Capl. W. Kunikawa, All Nippon Airways, over the Akaishi Mountains (Japan), at 9000 m, 9 December /978. /330 hours

Orographic Stratocumulus
The picture shows Stratocumulus formed on the top of the Akaishi Mountains by the wind blowing up the mountain slope fromthe left of the picture. The clouds (I, 2) have an appearance similar to snow, but their smooth shape distinguishes them fromthe snow lying on the mountain ridge at 3. The tops of these orographic clouds at 3000 m are flattened by an inversion layer
just above the top of the mountains.
A surface cold front was orientated ENE-WSW about 400 km south-east of the area. At middle levels a strong westerly flow
prevailed over Japan, with a jet core over 60 m S·I at 12000 m about 80 km north of the area seen in the photograph.

144

2

t
Dissipating Stratocumulus
The Stratocumulus in the foreground (I) has begun to dissipate.
It has started to thin, and a large rift(2) can be seen in the distance. The
top of the Stratocumulus is at about2300 m. Cumulus congestus
clouds are seen at 3, and thin Altostratus is visible at 4 above theflight level of the aircraft. An observer at the Earth's surface would
be guided by the large size of theregularly arranged elements in
identifying the main layer as
Stratocumulus stratiformis.
The area was located south of aridge of high pressure oriented
ENE-WSW over the Sea of Japan.
Winds were rather light from thesouth-south-west in the lower
levels, but became stronger withheight as they veered to westsouth-west at middle levels.

+-4

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Capt. K. Shimizu, All Nippon Airways, above the Bay of Tosa (Japan), at
6300 m, /4 October /977, /030 hours

145

4

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2

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3

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1

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5

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Orographic clouds (smoking
mountain)

4~

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J. Galimberti, Zermall Valley (Switzerland), July /95/, 0800 hours(towards SS£)146

The picture shows a fairly ragged,
stationary cloud (I) leeward of the
Matterhorn peak (4482 m), apparently adhering to it. At about thesame level clouds of a similar typecling to other high summits (2).
Cumuliform clouds of a more usual
type are on the other hand formed
over lower mountains (3). Typicalorographic Altocumulus is seen at
4-5. The wind was blowing fromthe north at an estimated speed of
15-20 m s·'.

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M. A. LeMone, above New Mexico, at about 9150 m, January 1971, 1448 hours (towards SW)

Blowing dust, smoke and Cumulus
Dust is being raised from ploughed fields by winds which are blowing towards the observer. The brown dust (I) has an abrupt
leading edge on the near side (2) and reveals a linear/cellular structure of the boundary layer. At 3 smoke can be seen
originating from a fire. Cumulus humilis cloud is present at 4. This cloud is easily distinguishable from the dust and smoke,even at the altitude of this aircraft, by the typical colour and shape of Cumulus humilis.
The region was dominated by a fair-weather regime, although winds were strong because of the effect of nearby mountains.

147

2

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Cumulus rows (streets)

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148

M. A. LeMone, over Louisiana (U.S.A.), at about 9/50 rn, June /973

In this illustration the field of viewis nearly filled with parallel rows of
Cumulus (I, 2). This pattern is called cloud streets and the rows arealigned nearly parallel to the windat that height. Their occurrence usually indicates winds over 7 m S·l.
Their spacing is generally two to
three times the height of the cloud
top. The cloud streets mark therising portion of a double helicalcirculation. The limited vertical extent of the Cumulus in the illustration indicates that the ascending
air currents have reached a stablelayer, probably an inversion. A few
Cumulus or Stratocumulus clouds
in the distance (3) are not aligned inrows. Cloud streets which form
over the tropical oceans are usuallyless continuous and have clouds ofgreater vertical extent than shownin this continental location.
When this photograph was taken,
strong winds at low levels werecaused by a tight pressure gradient
which was advancing into the region, although anticyclonic conditions prevailed aloft.

I

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Capt. H. Ishizaki, All Nippon Airways, over the Okinawa Islands (Japan), at 7000 m, 22 June 1978, 0930 hours

Comparison of Cumulus development over land and over sea during summer
The picture illustrates the marked contrast between widespread Cumulus over land (I) and scattered Cumulus over the sea (2)on a summer's day. On the day the photograph was taken the surface air temperature at coastal land stations had reached 28°C
by 0900 hours while the surrounding ocean remained much cooler. A sea breeze became established, which kept a narrowcoastal strip free of Cumulus. The tops of some of the clouds over land were made ragged by the wind (3).
A weak stationary front was located about 400 km north of Okinawa. The area was on the east side of a middle-level trough.
Winds were light southerly at lower levels and variable in direction at middle levels.

149

2
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4
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I

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Gtio Enming, above Hebei Province. China (39 0 20' N, //5 0 41' E). at 9000 m. 27 Ju/y /98/. ///0 hours (roward.\· NW)

Widespread Cumulus, isolated Cumulonimbus and Altocumulus
The Cumulus clouds in the foreground (I) have rounded, protruding tops. while less developed Cumulus clouds are seen at 2.
The characteristic anvil-shaped top of a well-developed Cumulonimbus capillatus (3) can be seen on the horizon. There arethin layers of Altocumulus at 4.
The clouds were located ahead of a trough which was situated in the northern part of Hebei Province. A surface front had
passed through the area shortly before the photograph was taken.

150

4
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I
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3
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2
~

5
~

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4~

3~

2~

I~

R. A. Keen, 200 km SW of Hurricane "Ella" centred at 3r N, 72° W, at about 7600 m, 1 September 1979, 0900 hours(towards SE)

Bands of Cumulus spiralling in towards a hurricane
Rows of Cumulus congestus, mediocris and fractus are pictured here aligned to the low-level air flow near a hurricane. The
Cumulus row at I, 2 and 3 shows the curvature of the air flow as it spirals in towards the centre (eye) of the storm, which is
200 km to the left of the photograph. The upper portion of the picture (4, 5) shows dense Altostratus and Cirrostratus in theupper-level outflow from the convection in the storm centre.
Hurricane "Ella" was at peak strength with a well-developed eye and classic circular structure visible on satellite imagery at thetime this photograph was taken.

151

I
.j,

<-4

+-2

V.S. Air Force, 54th Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron (/r N, /3/ 0 W), /300 km ENE a/Manila. Philippine Islands, at
3000 m, 20 July /949, 0800 hours

Concentric cloud masses in a tropical cyclone
The picture was taken in a tropical cyclone which formed over the Pacific and was accompanied in its north-east quadrant by
surface winds of 55 m s·'. The aircraft was not far from the eye of the storm, which was circular, well defined and about 50 km
in diameter.
Concentric masses of Cumulus clouds (1-2) are visible below the flight level; they constitute a continuous mass. These clouds
are surrounded by a circular wall of Cumulonimbus clouds (3), extending to altitudes of well over 9 km. A ring of thick Cirrus
or Cirrostratus, visible at 4, radiates from the Cumulonimbus tops and slopes inwards towards the centre, where blue sky wasobserved (left-hand upper corner). The observer reported that the eye looked like a gigantic gold-fish bowl.

152

4

3

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2

t

t

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1,3~

~

C. Warner, from near the coast of Italy (42 0 36' N, lO° 30' E), at 9500 m, 12 January 1979, 1430 hours (towards NE)

Isolated Cumulonimbus
This photograph shows an isolated Cumulonimbus (I) which has developed a long plume of Cirrus spissatus cumulonimbogenitus at 2. The Cirrus has been carried from the mother cloud by the strong winds at that level. The Cumulonimbus
is flanked by Cumulus congestus at 3 and Cumulus mediocris at 4.
A cold front had moved south-eastwards over Italy 24 hours earlier in association with a deep depression over the North Sea
and a weak depression in the Adriatic Sea.

153

2

3

5

1

1

1

4~

<-5

<-3

2~

<-1

l~

Capt. K. Hirai, All Nippon Airways, over the sea south of Kagoshirna City (Japan), at 10000 rn, 2 July 1978, 1300 hours

Scattered Cumulus over the sea, isolated Cumulonimbus
Over the oceans convective air currents are not so large as those over land masses, and the diurnal variation of Cumulus is verysmall. The oceanic Cumulus clouds in the foreground (I) are numerous and their vertical development is much greater thantheir horizontal thickness. Above the Cumulus at 2 can be seen small patches of stratiform cloud. In the upper part of thepicture, over land, are Cumulonimbus capillatus clouds (3), which are leaning to the right of the photograph due to wind shear.
Cirrostratus nebulosus can be seen above 4. Beyond 5 the sea of Cumulus and Cumulonimbus can be seen.
The Kagoshima area was north of a surface ridge of high pressure, with a mid-level high over Okinawa. Low-level winds weremoderate westerly, while the upper-level flow was very light from the south-south-east.

154

3

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1

2

5

4

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t

1--.7

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+-5

2--.7

3--.7

R. A. Keen, above southern Florida (U.S.A.), at about 6100 rn, 29 August 1978, 1300 hours (towards SE)

Isolated Cumulonimbus amidst Cumulus clouds of extensive vertical development
An isolated Cumulonimbus capillatus in the distance (I) has developed a well-defined anvil. An adjacent Cumulus congestus(2) has a bulging tower which does not show the fibrous or striated texture of Cumulonimbus. In the foreground the top of a
Cumulus congestus (3) is near the flight level of the aircraft, and another top appears at 4. The latter tower has not yet begun toundergo icing at its top; the small section of anvil (5) apparently protruding from its side belongs to a more distant
Cumulonimbus. Other Cumulus mediocris and congestus are scattered among the more prominent clouds. The sporadic
occurrence of Cumulonimbus is typical of this area of southern Florida where high moisture contents are found, and deep
clouds begin to form in the middle of the day in summer over the strongly heated land surface.
The area was beneath a subtropical ridge of high pressure in the middle and upper troposphere, with light south-easterly winds
at the surface.

155

2

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4

3

t

t

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1,2~

+-3

H

C. Warner, west of Sumatra (3° 54' N, 93° E), at 7460 m, 9 December 1978, 1421 hours (towards NW)

Scattered Cumulus, isolated Cumulonimbus
Among a scattering of Cumulus clouds of varying species an isolated Cumulonimbus (I) has developed. Cumulus congestus(2) can be seen on the western flank of the Cumulonimbus. Cumulus mediocris (3, 4) interspersed with Cumulus humilis occur
along an arc which' is convex to the west. Elsewhere Cumulus mediocris, humilis and fractus occur in a variety of small-scalefeatures separated by nearly clear air.
The monsoon flow was approximately from the east in the lower troposphere. Winds veered to south-west in the hightroposphere.

156

4

2

I

3

5

t

t

t

t

t

;;;.~=-__

I~-l4-:>~-5

2--++-3

A. Viaut, above the Mozambique Channel (about 15° S, 45° E), at 5500 m, 8 February 1953, 1118 hours (towards SW)

Isolated Cumulonimbus amidst scattered Cumulus clouds

In the middle of the picture (1) is an isolated Cumulonimbus of great vertical extent, a massive cloud with partly fibrous top.
Nearby, at 2, are detached Cumulus clouds with rounded tops and horizontal bases. Above the Cumulus, and either veilingthem (3) or obscuring them (4-5), there is a broken Stratocumulus sheet at 2500 m. Above the aircraft there is another layer,
showing numerous small openings; in view of its altitude it is to be considered as Altocumulus.
There was a low-pressure trough extending NW-SE over the Mozambique Channel and Madagascar.

157

3

t

I

2

t

t

4

t

~2

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~

3--'>

E. Szoke, near Miles City (Montana, U.S.A.), at 7050 rn, 1 August 1981, 1557 hours (towards NE)

Cumulonimbus cloud complex
The Cumulonimbus cloud complex in this photograph is located from 20 km away on the left side of the picture to 80 km awayin the distance at 1. It has developed a well-defined anvil (2) extending eastwards in the upper-level westerly air flow. Alongthe lower edges of the cloud (3) precipitation appears as whitish streaks, and probably consists of snow changing to rain.
Almost all the precipitation is evaporated before it can reach the ground. A similar storm complex is located about 100 km to
the north-east at 4.
A quasi-stationary weak cold front was positioned 400 km to the south-east while high pressure was centred about 300 km to
the east.

158

2

4

I

3

i

i

i

i

l~
4~

2~

3~

R. F. Reinking, near Miles City (Montana, U.S.A.) at 5730 rn, 13 July 1981,2137 hours (towards E)

Cumulonimbus and Cumulus on a squall line
This photograph shows Cumulonimbus capillatus incus (I), large Cumulus congestus (2) and smaller Cumulus congestus (3).
The anvil outflow of Cirrus from the Cumulonimbus can bc secn at 4. These clouds markcd a squall line which had bcgun
strong development three and a half hours before the photograph was taken. Thunderstorms occurred and considerable
lightning was seen in the area beneath the Cumulonimbus. Hail swathes were clearly seen from the aircraft. Vertical motions
up to 35 m s" were measured by another aircraft which penetrated the cloud complex about this time.
Thc squall line developed in response to surface heating and to convergence associated with a surface low-pressure area
centred a short distance to the south. The upper winds were south-westerly.

159C. Stormer, Oslo (Norway), 30 January 1944, 1605 hours (towards SW)

Nacreous cloud
The photograph, taken after sunset, shows a very brilliant nacreous cloud in the middle of the picture; its height is about
28.5 km. A transparent veil of Cirrostratus fibratus is also present. Near the horizon there are some Cumulus fractus.
The station was in the rear part of a very strong invasion of arctic air which crossed the Norwegian mountains in a deep northwesterly current.

163

J. Walden, Anchorage (Alaska). 24 January /950. /645 hours (towards WSW)

Nacreous clouds
The height of the nacreous clouds shown above was determined by triangulation (base line 250 km) and found to be 20 km at
1300 hours and 24 km at 1630 hours. They were moving slowly from north or north-north-west.
The clouds were observed all day. At 1515 hours, half an hour before sunset, they began assuming typical mother-of-pearl
colours. Between 1600 and 1700 hours, "the display was very unusual and presented a constantly changing kaleidoscopic
pattern". At the time the photograph was taken the colours were most brilliant, and diffuse shadows were cast on the snow.
This brightness however did not last long.
An intense (warm) anticyclone over the Aleutian Islands extended to a considerable elevation. The temperature at the 100 hPa
surface (16 km) was -63°C. At 1630 hours there was an indication of a tropopause at the extremely high level of 90 hPa witha temperature of -66°C.

164

1

t

3

2

t

t

+-3
1--+

+-2

E. Schroder, Holmestrand (near 0.1'/0, Norway), night of 10-// July /949, near midnight (towards N)

Noctilucent clouds
Noctiluccnt clouds are present in long parallel brilliant bands of fibrous texture. The bands seem to be interconnected by a veryfine set of waves, seen most clearly at I. The height of the clouds was not determined, but judging from numerous othermeasurements it was estimated at 82 km. Dark patches of Altocumulus lenticularis (2, 3) contrast strongly against the lighter
background.
There was a weak north-westerly current over southern Scandinavia, causing a trough leeward of the Norwegian mountains.

165

I

t

2

t

~-3

2

Royal Air Force. Farnborough (Hampshire. U.K.). 9 August 1944

Condensation trails (contrails)
Three condensation trails (I, 2, 3) can be seen. They expand with time. The two older trails (I, 2). probably made 15-30
minutes before the picture was taken, have assumed a fleecy aspect, while the most recent onc (3). which is just being
produced, merely looks like a white streak in the sky. Numerous Cirrus clouds can also be seen; they may have developed outof contrails formed earlier.
A weak trough associated with a low near Iceland was passing over southern England. Rather humid and warm air. associatedwith a weak warm front at about 700 km distance, was invading the higher layers of the troposphere from the north-west.

166

I

t

?

---'1".- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

J

-< -2

Royal Air Force, Farnborough (Hampshire, U.K.), I January 1945

Condensation trails (contrails)
The sky is erossed in every direction by contrails of different ages. As they expand progressively they form fluffy or fibrousclouds and it is impossible to say with certainty whether there are also clouds of natural origin in the sky. Note the pendantswellings, like inverted toadstools, at 1-2, typical of recently formed contrails.
From an anticyclone in the south-west a strong ridge of high pressure extended over the area. In the higher layers, advection ofwarm and rather humid air was in progress from the north-north-east. The associated warm front was at about 250 km westnorth-west of Farnborough; it caused only light precipitation when it passed.

167

Lel'll'lol1 Ltd.. Victoria Falls (Livingslone. Zambia)

Cloud produced by the Victoria Falls
Water, broken up into spray by the falls (I 600 m wide and 120 m high), adds considerably to the moisture content (vapour anddroplets) of the surrounding air. The downdraught caused by the falling water is compensated locally by ascending motion of
the air, which causes the formation of a cumuliform cloud.

168

1

i
Cloud formed by volcanic
eruption
This huge convective cloud, causedby an eruption from a small volcanic island, is composed of a mixture of dust or grains of different
sizes and of water drops thrown up
by or condensing in the coolingcolumn. The dark band at I is probably a "rain" of volcanic ash (dustor grains).

1---7

C. E. Stehn, Anak Krahatau (Strait oj'Sunda, Indonesia), / May /933

169

Fog
The amorphous grey veil of fog
shows very little detail and hardly
any variation of luminance.

A. J. Aa/ders, North At/antic Ocean (47" N. /00 W), 23 March /953, //28 hours

Fog banks
The sea horizon is clearly visible atthe extreme right of the picture, butelsewhere it is completely blotted
out by dense fog banks, the nearestof which is on the left at a distanceof 150 m.
The ship was traversing fog banksfrom 1030 until 1530 hours; winds
were ENE, 5 m s", and sea and airtemperatures differed only slightly.
The fog area was in a ridge of highpressure stretching west-southwestward from an anticyclone
centred over the Netherlands.

A. J. Aa/ders, North At/antic Ocean (47" N, /00 W), 23 March /953, /425 hours

173

I

t

l~

B. e. Haynes, Washington, D.e. (U.S.A.), 18 October 1950. from 0830 to 1030 hours (towards N)

Dissipating fog
Note the change in the appearance of the landscape during the progressive dissipation of the fog. One of the most striking
features is that the chimney standing out at I, in the lower left-hand photograph, is almost lost in the background of the lower
right-hand photograph.
The station was a little to the west of the centre of an anticyclone; at 0100 hours the wind was calm or light and the sky veryslightly cloudy or clear.

174

-~

~

-

1-

Fog and smoke (smog)
The fog and the smoke give the sky
a purplish yellow tint. The outlineof the sun is clearly visible.
A high extended from westernFrance to Poland with weak winds
and widespread fog over western
Europe.

French Meteorological Service, Paris (France), 23 December 1949, 1232 hours(towards S)

175

I

L
Ground fog
As the sun sets, leaving the pink
afterglow of a cold winter's evening, radiation fog soon begms toform in the low-lying part of aschool's playing fields. The fog is
only 60-90 cm deep, as indicatedby the people at I.
An anticyclone was situated oversouthern England, with clear skies
and calm conditions prevailing.
I~

R. K. Pilsbury, Freshwater (Isle of Wight, U.K.), February 1982, 1730 hours(towards SW)
I

L

3

4

2

L

L

L

Steaming water

~3,4
~1,2

R. A. Keen, Evanston (Illinois, U.S.A.), 29 January 1966,16/5 hours (towards
NE)

176

Steam is rising in streamers (I, 2)
as much as 20 m above Lake
Michigan. Occasionally, rotation
was seen to last several seconds insome of the larger streamers. The
flux of water vapour onto the cold,
dry air allowed Stratocumulus
clouds (3, 4) to form 20 km fromthe shore. The Stratocumulus continued to thicken farther downstream, and produced light snowlOO km away on the far shore of thelake.
The area was under a strong flow of
Arctic air at 5 to 10 m S-1 from thenorth-west; surface winds were
blowing from land onto the lake.
Air temperature was -23°e. However, the water temperature wasmeasured as ooe and the lake was
ice-free because the winter had
been relatively mild until shortly
before the photograph was taken.

2

3

)

~

~

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(-2

(-)

(-3

D. O. Blanchard, Boulder (Colorado, U.S.A.), 10 November 1982, 0800 hours (towards N)

Stratus and fog in valley
Stratus and fog are visible (I) from the top of Flagstaff Mountain (altitude 2 lOO m). Temperatures in the Stratus and fog werenear or below freezing-point, while they were well above it above the fog. The valley floor ranges from I 600 to I 650 m, andthe top of the fog (2, 3) extended to I 750 m. The fog lifted later in the day as the cold surface air was heated through the thincloud layer, and the sky was clear but hazy by mid-afternoon.
Winds were light from the north-east in the fog layer, indicating a low-level upslope condition impinging on the mountains
from right to left. Above the fog, winds were light from the south-west.

177

2.4

t

! ......

3~

4

T. Bergeron, Ann (Sweden), 5 July 1951, 1730 hours (towards SE)

Snow shower from a Cumulonimbus
The Cumulonimbus cloud (1-2) is only moderately developed, but the anvil form and the striated appearance are evident. A
snow shower (3-4) is falling from the cloud; the snow changes into rain close below the level of the O°C isotherm, a little above
the surface of the lake (535 m above m.s.!.).
The station was in a flow of maritime polar air from between north and north-west, causing unusually cold summer weather
and instability phenomena over Scandinavia.

178

Snow on the ground
This snow had fallen from showers
in maritime polar air during theprevious day and night. An elongated low extended from theNorwegian coast southward over
the Netherlands. The temperatureduring the snowfall ranged from
-3°C to 1°C; the wind was west,
4 m s".

A. J. Aa/ders, Hi/versum (Ne/her/ands) , 28 January 1952, 1021 hours

Snow cornice
Eddies, formed during a moderatesnowfall by a south-easterly wind
(10 m s") blowing from right to left
across the ditch, have caused theformation of an overhanging snow
cornice in the form of roundedmasses (I), some of which (2) haveevidently broken off. Note the contrast between the white snow of thepillows and the melting snow on
the ice of the ditch.
An occluded front had passed during the preceding night, marking
the end of a cold period.

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A. J. Aa/ders, Bussum (Ne/her/ands) , 9 February 1953, 1057 hours

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Snow pellets
Snow pellets that have fallen on to a lawn are seen in this illustration. Snow pellets are brittle and often break up on hitting hardground, but in this instance the grass has cushioned their landing.
The British Isles were covered by a cold north-westerly airflow. A small depression was just south of the Isle of Wight.

180

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R. K. Pilsbury. To/land (Isle (!!' Wig/I/. U.K.). 3 May /973. /440 hours

Hail
These hailstones collected on a lawn during a thunderstorm. A few are composed of transparent iee (1,2) but most are opaque(3,4). Some are partly clear and partly opaque (5, 6). Most of these hailstones are spherical although a few are conical (7, 8).
Their diameters can be judged from the metric rule in the foreground of the pieture. Hail falls only from Cumulonimbus.
Thunderstorms over northern France, the English Channel and the Isle of Wight occurred in an unstable south-easterly airflow.
Pressure was low to the south-west of Ireland.

181

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R. K. Pilsbury, TOlland (Isle of Wighl. U.K.). 5 June 1983. 12/5 hours

Small hailThis fall of small hail occurred during a thunderstorm. The small, spherical pellets are lying on a patch of short grass. The
12 in. (30.5 cm) ruler which has been placed on the grass affords an indication of the size of the pellets.
A depression over NW France gave rise to an easterly airflow over southern England. The air was unstable and there weremany reports of thunderstorms.

182

A. J. Aalden', North Atlantic Ocean (south of Ireland), 6 April /95/, /844 hours

Spray
The picture shows curtains of spray blown off the crests where the ship's wave meets the wind waves, the height of which isapproximately 8 m.
There was a wcst-north-westerly wind of 18 m s·, in the southern sector of a depression, the centre of which was west of
Scotland.

183

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R. K. Pilsbury. Totland (Isle of Wight. U.K.). May /973

184

Dew proper~-""'1' ''\.i~l'·'~ ':f:;- ~ /~ 1'..~.J}.,~\.
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In the upper picture deposits of dew
are shown on blades of short grass.
The globular water drops can beseen on horizontal surfaces (I) andat the tips of the blades of grass (2).
In the lower picture dew has
formed on a spider's web wovenamong spikes of short grass. There
are also small drops of dew on thesurrounding grass.
The dew formed overnight in conditions of calm air and clear skies.

"oar frost proper
In the upper photograph hoar frost
has formed on fallen leaves andother debris lying on bare soil.
The lower picture shows in closeup the crystalline appearance of theneedle formation of the ice deposits.

R. K. Pi/sbury, Bracknell (Berkshire, U.K.)

R. K. Pi/sbury, Tal/and (Is/e of Wighl, U.K.), January /976

185

R. K. Pilsbury, Bracknell (Berkshire, U.K.), 24 January 1963, 1800 hours

Advection hoar frost
This flashlight close-up of advection hoar frost was taken early on a winter's evening. It depicts hoar frost which has formed on
all surfaces of cold, 2 in. (5 cm) mesh wire. The tiny crystalline ice deposits have built up into a fern-like covering of great
beauty.
After a long spell of cold, mainly easterly winds, an anticyclone had become centred over the area.

186

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. .-. ~ ~~•F. Meyer, Mont Vel1loux (France), altitude 1900 rn, February 1934, 0900 hours (towards N)

Rime
The preeeding night was elear and moonlit, with very good visibility. The only eloud then present was a cap around the top ofMont Ventoux, presumably of orographic origin, with its base at 1800 m; very dense fog was observed at the mountain top,
The cloud cap disappeared at sunrise. The building is covered with white ice, some of which is developed outward to the rightin spike-like form to a thickness of a metre or more in places, indicating that during the deposition of the rime the wind was
blowing mainly from right to left. The ice was evidently formed by supercooled cloud droplets freezing on impact with thebuilding, producing ice composed of grains. more or less separated by trapped air, rendering it white.

187

R. K. Pilsbury, Bracknell (Berkshire. U.K.), 4 January 1971, a.m.

Soft rime

R. K. Pilsbury, Bracknell (Berkshire, U.K.), 4 January 1971, a.m.

188

In the picture on the left soft rime has covered a leafless deciduous tree. The
deposit occurred during a period of light winds and freezing fog. In the righthand picture soft rime has encircled overhead telephone wires. The fragile ice
can easily be dislodged as is evidenced by the bare stretches of telephone wirefrom which the rime has fallen.
The area was covered by a weak ridge of high pressure from an anticyclone
centred over France. SE England was affected by freezing fog.

Hard rime
This photograph shows deposits ofhard rime on a 10 m anemometer
tower at Great Dun Fell, 847 m
above mean sea-level. The deposits
on the south-western (windward)
sides of the vertical structure havebuilt up to an extrusion of about
30 cm. Most of the deposits, although rather adhesive, could be
removed by chipping. The airtemperature was _3°C.
A very weak cold front had cleared
the station, leaving clear skies in anorth-westerly airstream.

A. Robinson, Great Dun Fell (Cumbria, U.K.), 28 November /982, 0930 hours(towards NW)

189~'~tf;:,..~'-",..".,~,~ •!-~•.. ,.-;,~~""',··'!ii-, ":~,,•~~~. 'I:", ,.
'iv.Jl!t: " , " : . :.
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R. K. Pilsbury. Totland (Isle of Wight. U.K.), 25 January 1979

Glaze

In the picture on the left glaze has formed on the bare branches of a young

R. K. Pilsbury, Totland (Isle of Wight, U.K.), 25 January 1979190

tree. The smooth deposit of ice has covered all parts which have been exposed
to precipitation. The ice has developed pendulous formations on the undersideof many of the horizontal branches. The picture above shows beads of glaze
which have formed on cold wire netting.
After a period of cold easterly and northerly winds a weak cold front crossed
the area.
'

3

I 2

t

t t

3~

3

1 2

t tt

4

t

<,-2

<'-1

<,-4
~

<,-1

H. B. Bluestein, Key Biscayne (Florida, U.S.A.), 28 May 1975,
about 1700 hours (towards SE)

Strong spout (above)
A wide "bush" of water droplets (1) raised from the sea surface is seen at thebase of the inclined funnel cloud (2) in this photograph. The funnel cloud
protrudes from the non-precipitating base (3) of a Cumulonimbus. During themature stage, several funnels (not shown here) rotated about the main vortexof the spout. After the main spout dissipated, another "bush" formed near thesame spot. The total life cycle of this display was approximately 30 minutes,
during which time lightning was observed. Spouts which develop over a water
surface are sometimes referred to as waterspouts.
The spouts formed in fairly unstable conditions. At low levels there was a
weak disturbance about 200 kilometres east of Florida, with light southerly
winds. Winds veered and increased with height.
<'-2

Weak spout under a line of Cumulus congestus (right)
As is characteristic of Florida Keys spouts, the tuba as seen in this photograph(1) extends only about one-third of the way from the parent cloud base to thesea below, and exhibits a hollow core. The spout is most intense just above thewarm sea surface (28-30°C), where a "bush" of sea-water droplets rises inhelical fashion (2). A trailing wake (3) is left on the sea surface behind the"bush" as it moves to the right of the picture (westwards), largely in responseto the outflow of cooler air from the shower in the background (4).
The parent Cumulus congestus cloud line was orientated E-W in a light,
undisturbed easterly trade-wind flow.

3~

J. H. Golden, above the Marquesas Keys (Florida, U.s.A.) at 450 rn,
30 June 1969, 1725 hours (towards SE)

191

2

I 3

4

t

t t

t

2

t
Funnel cloud not reaching
the ground

~

2--+

~2

1--+

~S

5--+

D. Hoadley, Plainville (Kansas, U.S.A.), 22 May 1972, 1800 hours (towards NW)

192

A developing funnel cloud (tuba) is
located at 1, about three kilometresfrom the photographer. It protrudes
from a rain-free part (2) of theflanking line to a Cumulonimbus.
Cloud fragments (3) near the vortex(4) did not appear to be rotating.
Another flanking line at 5 was also
associated
with
the
same
Cumulonimbus. Occasional large
drops of rain reached the groundwhere the photographer was standing, and winds were blowing towards the vortex at about 15 m s·'.
A surface low was, centred 250
kilometres to the south-south-west.
It was part of an elongated NNESSW low-pressure area. The funnel
cloud became one of ten tornadoes
which occurred in a two-hour
period in west-central Kansas. The
cloud can also be seen on page 193
as it appeared two minutes later.

I

1

t

t

2

t

3

t

~3
~2

2.......

~2

3.......

~3

I.......

,.......
D. Hoadley, Plainville (Kansas, U.S.A.), 22 May
1972, 1802 hours (towards WNW)

P. J. May and C. J. Crane, Northam (Western
Australia), 21 September 1977, 1500 hours

Small tornado (left)
A small tornado (spout) is seen reaching the ground at I at a distance of about three kilometres. It is linked to a rainfree cloud base (2) of the flanking line of a Cumulonimbus. A secondary flanking line (3) belongs to the same cloud.
Concentric banding can be seen around the vortex column near its base. Occasional large raindrops were falling at thephotographer's position and winds were flowing towards the vortex at about 15 m s·'.
A surface low was centred 250 kilometres to the south-south-west. It was part of an elongated NNE-SSW lowpressure area. The tornado was one of ten which occurred in a two-hour period in west-central Kansas. The tornado
can also be seen in Plate 55 as it appeared two minutes earlier.

Large spout (right)
The spout (tornado) seen in this photograph has reached its mature stage. Dust from a newly ploughed field ofreddish-brown soil has given the funnel this striking colour (1). The "bush" of dust raised from the ground by thevortex is clearly visible nearly to ground-level. The sharply defined funnel (2) is enveloped by another much lessdistinct shell of reddish dust (3) which extends upwards to the base of the cloud. This feature is due to dust particles ofdifferent densities arranging themselves at varying radii from the vortex. Clouds present were Cumulus congestus andfractus and Cumulonimbus calvus.
This spout developed in a thunderstorm along a trough line associated with a mesoscale low-pressure system justsouth of Northam, where the surface air temperature had reached 40°C.

193

Variation in visibility (haze)
These photographs show threesuccessive aspects of the samelandscape, with different turbiditiesof the air, corresponding respectively to total visibilities of 25, 100
and 400 km. When there is a veil ofhaze (0944 hours) the distant landscape has a greyish opalescent colour. When the visibility is good
(1407 hours) the landscape takes on
a much stronger blue hue and thereal colours and details of the countryside appear.
The views were taken in an anticyclonic situation, outside the areaof any disturbance.
.

T. Bergeron, Ann (Sweden), 25 August /944 (towards £S£)

194

2

t

~2

~I
I~

R. F. Reinking, Ft. Lauderdale (Florida, U.S.A.), November 1974, 1800 hours (towards W)

Smoke layers
Smoke from sugar cane fires is spreading across the horizon (I) after sunset, so that the smoke, of relatively large particles, isdistinguished by the colours of light scattered from the general small-particle haze aloft (2) in the humid air.

195

Drifting sandA south-south-westerly wind of
11 m S·I is blowing along the beachtowards the direction in which thecamera is pointing. The fine, drysand of the beach is moved, but it israised only a small distance above
the surface. The visibility at normal
observation level is not reduced, so
the phenomenon is called drifting
sand rather than blowing sand.

A. J. Aalders, Scheveningen (Netherlands), 8 December 1951, 1226 hours
I

t

2

t

Wall of sandThe distinct forward edge of thebase of the wall of sand can be seen
at 1-2; it is dark and slightly sawtoothed. The wall itself reaches up
to 3000 m and all parts of it areformed of grey turbulent masses ofsand raised into the air, probably
without any condensation of water
vapour.
The phenomenon was caused by acold front, moving slowly towards
the south-east. The invading polar
air skirted the eastern edge of an
anticyclone.

1->

Anonymous, 120 km SSE of Damascus (32 0 24' N, 360 49' E), at 3000 m,
17 April 1951, 1400 hours

196

3
~

Dust devil

2
~

I
~

4
~

2-,>

This dust devil developed overbarren fields during the dry season,
and was moving towards the left ofthe picture. The rotating dust column is well-defined at the base (I)but gradually weakens upwards until it nearly disappears at 2. The
dust devil had formed under cloudless conditions with strong instability from intense surface heating.
The instability decreased withheight. Outside the rotating column
a mass of dust (3, 4) is raised
nearly as high as the dust devil.
The photograph was taken about
120 kilometres ahead of a cold
front which was advancing southwards from the Gulf of Mexico.

~

~l

3-+

J. de Keijzer, El Limon (Veracruz, Mexico), 25 March'J977, /525 hours(towards NW)

197

1,2,3t2

3

H. H. Larkin. Elma (New York. U.S.A.), 30 March /950, at SUllsel (lOwards W)

Halo phenomena
In this veil of Cirrostratus nebulosus, with faintly striated structure, visible at I, various halo phenomena can be seen. The haloof 22° is clearly defined, the sky inside the halo being a little darker than that outside the halo. The upper tangent arc can beseen at 2 and a luminous column at 3.
The picture was taken in the cold continental air in the rear of a withdrawing low at a considerable distance (1500 km) to thenorth-west. The weather-map shows extensive Cirrostratus but no disturbance can be located in the vicinity of the station.

198

3

t

1

t

7

t

5.6

t

8

t

2

t

4

t

3-)7-)-

1-)-

P. Stahl, Greenland (70° 54' N, 40° 42' W), altitude 2995 rn, 23 July 1951,0820 hours (towards E)

Halo phenomena
The veil of Cirrostratus nebulosus is almost invisible and probably only a small height above the ice cap. The halo phenomena
comprise two portions of a 22° halo (1 and 2) and left and right parhelia (3 and 4), presumably with arcs of Lowitz. There isalso a vague indication of a cross (5-6, 7-8).
The place of observation was in a flow of maritime polar air from the south.

199

3

2

1

!

!

!

~3
~2
~I

D. O. Blanchard, Medicine Bow Mountains (Colorado, U.S.A.), 27 September 1981, 0720 hours (towards E)

CoronaThe corona is observed around the sun as it is about to rise over the mountain ridge approximately I Y, hours after sunrise. An
extremely thin overcast of Altostratus or Cirrus cloud is present, but it is not thick enough to whiten the sky. The inside ring (I)is green to violet, while the outer ring (2) is red. A faint secondary blue ring (3) is visible outside the red ring.

200

3
~

2
~

1
~

<-I
<-3

<-2

M. A. LeMone, Boulder (Colorado, U.S.A.), 10 January 1971

Irisation
This Altocumulus cloud is the result of deflection of airflow by the nearby Rocky Mountains, although it has some appearanceof a breaking shear-gravity wave. Such clouds, which are frequently lens-shaped (lenticular), are excellent producers ofirisation, such as the yellow (I) giving way to pink (2) and light blue (3), because of their relatively uniform drop size. The
photo was taken at a small angular distance from the sun (under 30°), therefore the photograph was underexposed, resulting in
the unnaturally dark sky.

201

6

4

3

2

I

5

t

t

t

t

t

t
Glory

~

~l

~2

5~

~3

This quadruple set of anticoronal rings (i.e. glory) is found at
I, 2, 3 and 4 around the shadowof a commercial aircraft (5).
Sunlight is being diffracted
through water droplets at the
top of a winter Altocumulus
layer at 6. The glory occurs at apoint directly opposite the sun,where the (airborne) observer's
shadow falls.

~

R. F. Reinking, Northern Texas (U.S.A.), December 1977, 1300 hours(towards ENE)
2

I

t

t
The glory is centred at the antisolar
point from the observer (I), who islocated just forward of the rightwing of the jet aircraft. The coloured ring, particularly visible at 2,
is thought to be caused by thebackscatter of light by the cloud's
water droplets.

2~~l

M. A. LeMone, western United States, at about 10 000 m, October 1972

202

2
~

I
~

3
~

Rainbow
Precipitation is visible (1) beneathdeep convection (2) and a small
glaciated tower (3) in thisCumulonimbus cloud. The brightness of the precipitation in the
background suggests the presenceof ice, probably in the form of ice
pellets or small hail. The rainbow
reveals the presence of water
drops, either associated with the
spreading frozen precipitation orslightly closer to the photographer.
The indistinct top of the rainbow
and the increased brightness of thecloudy background above the rainbow may indicate the freezing
level, which at this time and location is only slightly above the cloudbase. The rainbow subtends a significant fraction of the cloud depth
because of the low sun angle, theproximity of the photographer tothe cloud and the height of thevisible precipitation column.

~3

2~

~I

M. A. LeMone, NE Colorado (U.S.A.), July 1972, 1800 hours (towards NE)

203

Crepuscular rays
The term "crepuscular rays" issometimes used, although not universally, to describe the pale blue
or whitish beams which diverge
from the sun when it is hidden
behind Cumulus or Cumulonimbus, or shafts of sunlight which
penetrate gaps in a cloud layer.
Such rays are not restricted totwilight. In this photograph anumber of wide bands of blue canbe seen with several narrowerbands between them.

K. B. Shone (U.K.)
I

~

2
~

3
~

+-3

I~

·+-2

A. J. Aalders, Bussum (Netherlands), 17 December 1949, 1402 hours (towards
SW)

204

The most striking feature in thisphotograph is the appearance of thebluish shadows cast across the sunlit sky by the dense, heavily shaded
Cumulus congestus (1-2). The lines
accentuatingtheseshadows,
though actually parallel, appear toradiate from the position of the sun(crepuscular rays). Apart from the
Cumulus, there are some dark
patches of Stratocumulus (3).
A series of disturbances was passing over western Europe, movingfrom south-west towards northeast; an occlusion had passed thestation shortly before the photograph was taken.

4
~

6
~

1
~

2
~

3
~

4--+

+-1

<-3

6--+

+-5

+-2

H. B. Bluestein, Norman (Oklahoma, U.S.A.), 4 September 1980, approximately 2100 hours (towards S)

Lightning from Cumulonimbus praecipitatio
The lightning flash in this photograph extends from the top of the Cumulonimbus (I) to the ground below (2). Branches fromthe maip discharge dissipate into clear air (3, 4). Smaller branching is evident in the lower part of the main channel (5). The
flash i~ particularly strong in appearance because the luminous channel is outside the cloud. Other lightning activity is
occurring within the cloud, as shown at 6. It is not known whether the flash outside the cloud was connected with the one
inside. Sometimes thunder, lightning or hail provides the only indication of the presence of Cumulonimbus and it is notpossible to see whether the species is calvus or capillatus. Then, by convention, the coding is CL = 9.
A stationary cold front at the surface was located several hundred kilometres to the north, and upper winds were rather light.

205

5

3 4

2

L

L L

L

l~

4~

2~

3~
5~

S. I. Akasofu, near Fairbanks (Alaska. U.s.A.). 28 January 1977

Polar aurora
The aurora is a visible manifestation of electrically charged solar particles channelled by the Earth's magnetic field acting on
the rarefied gases of the higher atmosphere. The altitude of the lower limit is approximately 100 kilometres (occasionally as
low as 60 kilometres), while the upper limit ranges between 100 and 400 kilometres (occasionally as high as 1000 kilometres).
By comparison, noctilucent clouds occur between 75 and 90 kilometres. Auroral curtains surround both the northern andsouthern magnetic poles and appear as a luminous ring when viewed from well above the polar region. Such curtains. seen in
the photograph at I, 2, 3 and 4. 5. become intermittently active. and fold, curl and break up in a phenomenon known as an"auroral substorm".

206

LIST OF PLATESCLOUDS AS SEEN FROM THE EARTH'S SURFACE

Code figure

Code figure
Page

CL

=L 3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

11
12
13
14
15

· ..

. . . .

....

s fractus
ilus fractus· . . . .
· . . . . . . . . . .

:ar. Altocumulus · .
sand fractus·
tio, with haze . .
tio .
. . .
· .
tio . . . . . . . . .

..

· ........

Cumulus congestus)ngestus to Cumulo· ..........

16
17
18
19
20
21

:cipitatio
us from

22

us

23

.us

24

p acus undulatus· .

. .......

>itatio and pannus>itatio . . . . . . . .
. . . . .

.. . . .
· ....

208

CH

from

1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3

0
0
0
0
0
7
0
6
4
0
3
4
6
3
0
0
0
0

I

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
3

. ...

· .

Cumulus· ....

· ....

· ..

28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38

4

0

0
39

Cumulus

with

25
26
27

I

3
0

Cumulus· ..........

.

CM

CL

CM

CH

5
5

/

0

/
0

5
6
6
6

0
/

0
/

/

/

/
/

7
7

2

/

/

/

7

8

2
0

0

8

0

0

8

/

/

8

0

0

9

0

I

9

6

0

9
9

0
0

3
3

Clouds of genera Stratocumul us, Stratus, Cumulus and CUI· .......

·

Cloud namePage

Cloud name

4

0

0
40

4
5

0
0

0
0

41

Stratocumulus stn
Stratocumulus stn
Stratocumulus st]
Stratocumulus len
Stratus nebulosus
Stratus nebulosus
Stratus nebulosus
Stratus fractus anc
weather below Alt
Stratus fractus andStratus fractus (patus (pannus) under
Stratocumulus stn
Stratocumulus stn
mediocris .
. .
Cumulus and Stralevels . . . . . .
Stratocumulus str
congest us .
Rows of Cumulu
vertical developml
Isolated Cumulor
congestus and met
Cumulonimbus c;capillatus . .
Cumulonimbus cap/

APPENDIX

Code figure

Code figure
Page

Page

Cloud nameCloud name
CL I CM I CH

CL I CM I CH

CL 42

43
44

Clouds of genera Stratocumulus, Stratus, Cumulus and Cumulonimbus (continued)

9
9

7
/

3
/

46

Formation of a Cumulonimbus capillatus incus.

{~

6
6

o
o

47
48

CM -

49
50
51

52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59

60
61

62
63
64
65

66
67
68

69
70

45

Cumulonimbus, Altocumulus and Altostratus of
weakly disturbed tropical conditions
Cumulonimbus capillatus praecipitatio arcus.

Further development of a Cumulonimbus capillatus
incus
Cumulonimbus capillatus incus.
Cumulonimbus mamma
Cumulonimbus capillatus with mamma in anvil

9

6

o

9

4
/

3

o

3

{:

/

Clouds of genera Altocumulus, Altostratus and Nimbostratus

Altostratus translucidus . .
Altostratus translucidus . .
Altostratus translucidus and Cumulus fractus
Nimbostratus . . .
Nimbostratus with Stratus fractus .
Nimbostratus with Altocumulus stratiformis .
Nimbostratus
Altocumulus translucidus
Altocumulus stratiformis translucidus perlucidus
Altocumulus stratiformis translucidus perlucidus
Altocumulus lenticularis....
Altocumulus lenticularis duplicatus with Cirrostratus fibratus .
. . .
Altocumulus lenticularis radiatus .
Altocumulus lenticularis undulatus radiatus andCirrostratus . . . . .
Altocumulus lenticularis
Altocumulus lenticularis undulatus radiatus
Altocumulus lenticularis . . .
....
Altocumulus lenticularis and Stratocumulus .
Altocumulus stratiformis lacunosus .
Altocumulus stratiformis perlucidus undulatus .
Altocumulus stratiforrnis translucidus undulatus .
Altocumulus stratiformis undulatus translucidus
perlucidus radiatus. .
. . . .

0
0
7
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
2

1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
4

71

/
/
/
/
/
/
/
0
0
0
I

77

I5 I4 I7

78
79

72

73
74
75

76

0

4

0

80
81

5
5
0
0
5
0
0
0

4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5

5
I
0
6
0
0
0
8

82
83
84
85
86

87
88

Altocumulus· stratiformis undulatus radiatus translucidus perlucidus .
Altocumulus cumulogenitus with Cumulus congestus .

I 2 I 5 I 0

I 2 I 6 I 0:~~~~~~~IUS cumulogenitus formed by Cumulus I 2 I 6 I 0

Altocumulus cumulogenitus....
Altocumulus stratiformis opacus
Altostratus translucidus above Altocumulus stratiformis perlucidus .
Altostratus undulatus radiatus translucidus
Altocumulus with virga....
Altocumulus castellanus with Cumulus congestus
Altocumulus castellanus with virga .
Altocumulus castellanus
Altocumulus stratiformis and Altocumulus floccus
with virga .
Altocumulus floccus.
.....
. . ..
Altocumulus floccus .
Altocumulus floccus, castellanus and lenticularis
Chaotic sky
Chaotic sky
Chaotic sky

9
4

6
7

0
0

0
0
0
2
0
0

7
7
7
8
8
8

0
/
0
I
I
0

0
0
0
0
I
0
3

8
8
8
8
9
9
9

0
0
0
0
8
0
2

I 0 I 5 I 0

209

APPENDIX
Code figure

Code figure
Page

Cloud namePage

Cloud name
CL I CM I Cl-I
CH -

CL

CM

CH

0
0
0
7
0

0
0
0
0
0

4
4
4
4
5

0
0
0
0
0

7
0
3
0
0
0

5
6
6
7
7
7

0
2
0
0
0
0

8
0
0
0
0
0

8
8

Clouds of genera Cirrus, C:irrocumulus and Cirrostratus

89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96

Cirrus fibratus and Cirrus uncinus .
Cirrus uncinus and Cirrus fibratus _Cirrus uncinus and Cirrus fibratus .
Cirrus fibratus vertebratus
Cirrus spissatus with virga
Cirrus f10ccus .
Cirrus f10ccus .
Cirrus f10ccus with virga and Cirrocumulus
f10ccus . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97 I Cirrus spissatus cumulonimbogenitus with Cumulus congestus . . . . . . .
98 I Formation and dissipation of Cirrus spissatus
cumulonimbogenitus. . . . .
99 I Further formation and dissipation of Cirrus spissatus cumulonimbogenitus.
100 Cirrus spissatus cumulonimbogenitus with virga .
101
Cirrus spissatus from Cumulonimbus . . .
102
Cirrus spissatus cumulogenitus with virga .
103
Cirrus uncinus with Cirrostratus . . . . .

0
5
0
0
2
0
0

I 0
I 2

I 9
9
2
9

9
0

o
o
o
o
o
o
I

o

1
1
1
1
2
2
2

104
105
106
107
108
109
110

2

o
o

3

o
o
o
o

3

2

4

3

3
3

3

I11

112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120

Cirrus uncinus radiatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
Cirrus uncinus. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cirrus uncinus radiatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cirrus fibratus duplicatus. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cirrus uncinus and Cirrostratus . . . . . . . . . .
Cirrus and Cirrostratus thickening into Altostratus(with Altocumulus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cirrostratus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cirrus fibratus and Cirrostratus . . . . . . . . . .
............
Cirrostratus nebulosus .
Cirrostratus translucidus fibratus . . . . . . . . .
Cirrostratus fibratus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cirrostratus fibratus with Altocumulus castellanus
undulatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cirrostratus nebulosus . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cirrocumulus stratiformis undulatus . . . . . .
Cirrocumulus stratiformis lacunosus . . . . . . .
Cirrocumulus stratiformis undulatus lacunosus. . .
Cirrocumulus lenticularis..........

.

I

9
9
9
9

OROGRAPHIC CLOUDS
Code figure

Code figure
Page

123
124
125
126
127

210

Page

Description

Conjoined orographic clouds . . . . . . . . . . .
Orographic cloud (cap) . .
...........
Cumulus fractus . . . . . . .
........
F6hn wall, rotor clouds and orographic AltocumuIus lenticularis. . . . .
............
Orographic Stratocumulus and Altocumulus (waveclouds) . . . . . . . . .
........

CL

CM

CH

5
5
1

4
4
0

0
1
0

2

4

0

8

4

0

128
129
130

Description

Cumulus fractus and Altocumulus lenticularis . . .
Orographic Stratocumulus . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cumulus fractus, Cumulus humilis and Altocumu. . . . . . . ..... . ....
Ius

CL

CM

CH

1
8

2
0

0
7

1

4

0

APPENDIX

CLOUDS AS SEEN FROM AIRCRAFT

Page

Description

Page

133
134
135
136
137
138

Cirrus terminating in hooks and tufts
Continuous mainly strati form cloud layer
Lenticular Altocumulus with Cumulus and Cirrostratus
Orographic Altocumulus and Altostratus (standing lee waves)
Orographic clouds
Continuous strati form cloud layer penetrated by isolated towering Cumulonimbus
Strati form cloud above flight level
Broken, mainly strati form layer of clouds
Broken layers of mainly stratiform clouds
Strati form clouds: below flight level isolated field in distance.
above aircraft broken layer
Stratocumulus (roll cloud) under Altostratus
Orographic Stratocumulus
Dissipating Stratocumulus
Orographic clouds (smoking mountain)

147
148
149

139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146

150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159

I

Description

I Blowing dust, smoke and Cumulus
Cumulus rows (streets)
Comparison of Cumulus development over land and over sea
during summer
I Widespread Cumulus, isolated Cumulonimbus and Altocumulus
Bands of Cumulus spiralling in towards a hurricane
Concentric cloud masses in a tropical cyclone
Isolated Cumulonimbus
Scattered Cumulus over the sea, isolated Cumulonimbus
Isolated Cumulonimbus amidst Cumulus clouds of extensive
vertical development
Scattered Cumulus, isolated Cumulonimbus
Isolated Cumulonimbus amidst scattered Cumulus clouds
Cumulonimbus cloud complex
Cumulonimbus and Cumulus on a squall line

SPECIAL CLOU OS

Page
163
164
165
166

Special cloud
Nacreous cloud
Nacreous clouds
Noctilucent clouds
Condensation trails (contrails)

Page

Special cloud

167
168
169

Condensation trails (contrails)
Cloud produced by the Victoria Falls
Cloud formed by a volcanic eruption

211

APPENDIXMETEORS

Page

173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189

Meteor
Fog; fog banks
Dissipating fog
Fog and smoke (smog)
Ground fog; steaming water
Stratus and fog in valley
Snow shower from a Cumulonimbus
Snow on the ground; snow corniceSnow pellets
Hail
Small hailSpray
Dew proper
Hoar frost proper
Advection hoar frost
Rime
Soft rime
Hard rime

Page

Meteor

190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206

Glaze
Strong spout; weak spout under a line of Cumulus congestus
Funnel cloud not reaching the ground
Small tornado; large spout
Variation in visibility (haze)
Smoke layers
Drifting sand; wall of sandDust devil
Halo phenomena
Halo phenomena
CoronaIrisation
Glory
Rainbow
Crepuscular rays
Lightning from Cumulonimbus praecipitatio
Polar aurora

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212