Potential of Bamboo Wall Techniques Learning from VernacularArchitecture for Post-Disaster Housing in Indonesia
インドネシアにおける災害復興住宅のためのヴァナキュラー建築に学ぶ竹壁技術の可能性

FY 2022
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies
Kyoto University
Master’s Program in Environmental Management

I Made Nuradi KERTA

I

Potential of Bamboo Wall Techniques Learning from Vernacular Architecture
for Post-Disaster Housing in Indonesia
I Made Nuradi Kerta
Key Words: Indonesia, Humanitarian Shelter, Bamboo Architecture

BackgroundOne role of bamboo as construction material is in provision of humanitarian shelter, especially in bamboo
growing regions, most of which are also world’s most disaster prone regions. Including in Indonesia, resiliency
are becoming more urgent, as increasing frequency of disasters is among the consequences of global climatechange.
Most common use of bamboo which is temporary construction, easily applicable to temporary sheltering.
However, such reconstruction strategy has drawn criticism. Durability has been the primary concern in expanding
use of bamboo material beyond temporary use. Bamboo has been frequently used for construction of wall,particularly the non-structural kind. Although it is crucial for even inhabitant of simplest dwelling and used
extensively in post-disaster housing, the architectural element of bamboo wall has not been much researched.
Under such urgency, this study starts by identifying the factors for using bamboo material in post-disaster housingfrom literature and case of transitional shelter. The term imply transition beyond temporary into durable solution,
intended to address the insufficiency of temporary housing. Among the factors are the possibility to utilize selfbuild and available local resources, both contribute to ease of localization as one value which is also found invernacular use of bamboo material.
In this thesis, vernacular architecture and its bamboo wall techniques are seen to embody valuable principles,
potentially expanding the possibilities of bamboo use in post-disaster housing. As an exploratory type, this study
aim to provide new perspectives on such potentials, gathered from vernacular cases of bamboo wall in Indonesia
and Japan, which are considered less researched but relevant for post-disaster housing in the region and beyond.

Methodology

The study is based on literature review, field study and interview in Indonesia, Japan and supplemented byquestionnaire with other experts and shelter practitioner to gain lesson on cases of bamboo use in Brazil and
Bangladesh, similar in Japan in ways of using bamboo grid for wall. The field study includes field observation in
Japan and Indonesia, internship work in Indonesian bamboo designer and participation on informal workshop on
Japanese bamboo wall construction.
Case studies are presented on two shelter phases, seen from the requirements, challenges and room for
improvement in using bamboo wall techniques. For bamboo wall techniques, case studies are presented fromvernacular architecture of Indonesia and Japan, where main use of bamboo has been within dry and wet-wall
technique (wattle and daub) respectively.
The potential points of each wall types are based on observation on vernacular wall types linked to theory on
vernacular architecture as well as multiple values of bamboo use in post-disaster housing. Afterwards qualitativedescription on bamboo wall types are summarized aiming to provide practical recommendation for implementing
bamboo wall for post-disaster context in Indonesia.

Results and Conclusion

It is found in selected vernacular architecture cases that bamboo has been practiced in five types of walltechniques: rounded, flattened, grid, woven wicker-work and plait-work.
The cases supported that bamboo use within the five types has different potential beyond temporary, withoutcomplete reliance on single bamboo species or skilled worker, to be considered for post-disaster housing use.
Extending life-span of wall element seen to expands the role of post-disaster housing, transitioning from
temporary into permanent house.

Iインドネシアにおける災害復興住宅のためのヴァナキュラー建築に学ぶ竹壁技術の可能性
イ・マデ ・ヌラディ・ケータ
キーワード インドネシア、仮設住宅、竹建築

背景
竹の建築資材としての１つの大きな役割は、竹の生産地が世界で最も災害の多い地域に分布することから、災害時の仮設住宅を提供することである。インドネシアを含め、地球規模の気候変動の影響により、災害の頻度が増加していることから、災害レジリエンス機能の向上が急務となっている。
竹の用途としては、仮設建築物が最も一般的であり、一時的な避難場所として利用しやすい。しかし、このような復興戦略は批判を浴びることがあります。竹の用途を仮設住宅以外に広げるには、耐久性が重要な課題となっています。竹は壁、特に非構造部材の建築によく使われてますが、竹壁の建築的な要素についてはあまり研究が進んでいない。
そこで、本研究では、災害後の住宅に竹材を使用するための要因を、文献とトランジショナルシェル
ターの事例から明らかにすることから始める。トランジショナルシェルターは、仮設住宅の不足を解消するために、仮設から耐久性のある住宅への移行を意味する。その要因の中には、セルフビルドの可能性と利用可能な地域資源があり、これらは竹壁の風土的な使用にも見られる価値として、地域化の容易さに寄与している。
本論文では、風土的建築とその竹壁技術が、災害後の住宅における竹利用の可能性を広げる貴重な原則を示唆していると考えている。インドネシアと日本における竹壁の風土建築の事例を収集し、その可能性について新たな視点を提供することを目的とする。
研究方法
本研究は、日本やインドネシアでの現地調査、インタビューに加え、日本と類似しているブラジルや
バングラデシュの竹利用事例からの文献調査、を基にしている。現地調査では、日本とインドネシア
での現地視察、インドネシアの竹工芸職人へのインターンシップ、日本の竹壁構造に関するワークシ
ョップへの参加などを行った。
また、2 つのシェルターフェーズについて、竹壁の技術的な要求、課題、改善の余地からケーススタデ
ィを行った。竹の壁技術については、インドネシアと日本の風土的建築の事例を紹介し、それぞれ乾式と湿式の壁技術中で竹を主に使用していることを紹介する。
また、災害後の住宅における竹の利用価値について、風土建築の理論と関連した風土建築の壁面部の観察、実測に基づき、それぞれの壁の潜在的な利用可能性を指摘した。その後、インドネシアの災害後の状況における竹の壁の実装に関する実践的な提案を行うため、竹壁に関する定性的な説明をまとめた。
結果および結論
風土的建築の事例から、竹は１、丸型：２、平型：３、グリッド型：４、籐編み型：５、編組細工型、
以上 5 つのタイプの壁技法で使用されていることがわかった
災害後の住宅利用を考慮するため、この 5 つのタイプの竹の利用は、単一の竹の種類や熟練工に依存することなく、一時的利用ではない利用の可能性を持っていることを裏付けている。壁体の長寿命化
は、仮設住宅から恒久住宅への移行という、災害後の住宅の役割を拡大するものと考えられる。

II

Acknowledgments

First, I would thank the Gods for the guidance throughout the entire process. I also give thank my family forgiving me a lifetime of understanding, encouragement, and freedom to follow my passions, especially for myparents, because this achievement reflects all of their efforts and support.
I am really grateful to my supervisor, Prof. Hirohide Kobayashi for his numerous recommendations, always
sharing with me his critical thinking through innumerable academic exchanges that shaped the foundation of myentire research training as well as his light-hearted humor. To Dr. Chiho Ochiai, my second supervisor, for her
academic guidance during my studies and her wide contribution to the study of Yogyakarta reconstruction, makethe thesis possible indirectly and directly. To Assistant professor and especially all current doctoral student in the
GEA laboratory for their kind recommendation and advice, particularly Srijon for his time, unorthodox insightand fellowship. For fellow master student, Augusto and Xiao Lan also has given a very significant lead for case in
Brazil and Japan, while Keika and Morikawa assisting in explaining various terminology on Japanese architecture
and translation.
The study's author expresses gratitude to the businesses that were contacted, the village guide in charge during thevisit, researchers and craftsman who gave me opportunity and kindly shared their insight, particularly Inoue sensei,
Hijioka sensei, Ino sensei and Shibata sensei.
Preparing me on a path that ultimately led to this thesis, I appreciate the chance from my former internship place
under Mr. Okazaki and Ryan, to carry on working with the humble but magnificent material of Bamboo , also
possible thanks to the nurturing Nature in Bali, Lombok, Java, and Japan.
Finally, this work would not have been possible without the scholarship from The Asian Development Bank Japan Scholarship Program.

III

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................................................... III
Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................................................... IV
List of Figures ...........................................................................................................................................................VI
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................................................... VIII
Chapter 1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background .....................................................................................................................................................1
1.2 The Objective and Research Questions .........................................................................................................3
1.3 Structure of the Research Thesis .................................................................................................................... 4
Chapter 2 Literature Review .................................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Bamboo as Construction Material .................................................................................................................. 6
2.1.2 Beneficial Values of Bamboo as Construction Material ..................................................................... 6
2.2 Temporary and Permanent Life-span of Bamboo Construction .................................................................... 8
2.2.1 Temporary Bamboo Construction ....................................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Permanent Bamboo Construction ........................................................................................................ 9
2.2.3 Case Study 1: Permanent Bamboo Development in Indonesia: Bali and Lombok Island ................10
2.2.4 Lesson From Permanent Bamboo Construction on Durability ......................................................... 122.2.5 Permanent Bamboo Wall Construction in Indonesia ........................................................................ 13
2.3 The Wall: Bamboo Use for The Vernacular Architecture Element .............................................................142.3.1 Dry and Wet (Wattle and Daub) Wall Technique of Bamboo Construction .................................... 15
2.4 Bamboo Material in Post-disaster Housing ..................................................................................................18
2.3 Lesson on Bamboo Use for Post--Disaster Housing ....................................................................................20
2.4 Research methodology ................................................................................................................................. 22
2.4.1 Research Design .................................................................................................................................222.4.2 Method to Classify Bamboo Wall ..................................................................................................... 24
2.5 Research Limitation ......................................................................................................................................26
Chapter 3 Bamboo Use in Post-Disaster Housing .................................................................................................27
3.1 Post-disaster Housing: Phases and Need for Transition .............................................................................. 27
3.1.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................27
3.1.2. Post-disaster Housing Phases and Transition from Temporary into Permanent ..............................28
3.1.3 Requirements of Transitional Shelter ................................................................................................ 28
3.2 Bamboo Use for Post-disaster Housing ........................................................................................................30
3.2.1 Worldwide case of Bamboo Use for Post-disaster Housing ............................................................. 30
3.2.2 Bamboo and Other Material for Post-disaster Housing in Indonesia ...............................................31
3.2.3 Lesson from Literature on Post-disaster housing .............................................................................. 34
3.2.3 Case Study of Bamboo Use In Post Disaster Housing ..............................................................................35
3.2.4 Case Study 1: Bamboo Temporary Post Disaster Housing (Cox’s Bazaar, Bangladesh) ................ 36
3.2.5 Case Study 2: Bamboo Transitional Shelter (Yogyakarta, Indonesia) ............................................. 38
3.3 Lesson from Post-disaster Housing Cases .................................................................................................. 46
Chapter 4 Bamboo Wall Technique in Vernacular Architecture: Cases and Types Study .............................49
4.1 Bamboo in Vernacular Architecture .............................................................................................................49
4.1.1 Bamboo Dry Wall Technique in Indonesian and Japanese Vernacular Architecture ......................50
4.1.2 Bamboo Wet Wall Technique in Japanese Vernacular Architecture ................................................51
4.2 Introduction to Case Studies of Bamboo Wall in Vernacular Architecture ................................................ 53
4.2.1 Case Study 1 : Bamboo Dry Wall (Desa Sade, Lombok Island) ...................................................... 53
4.2.2 Case Study 2 : Bamboo Dry Wall (Naga Traditional Village, West Java) ....................................... 55
4.2.3 Case Study 3 : Bamboo Dry Wall and Wet Wall (Kyoto Bamboo Craftsman and Plasterer School)57
4.2.4 Case Study 4: Adapted Wet Wall Technique (Renovation and Artist’s Mudwall Works) .............. 60
4.2.5 Case Study 5: Brazilian Tsuchikabe .................................................................................................. 64
4.3 Wall Types Observation ............................................................................................................................... 66
4.3.1 Rounded Bamboo Wall - Type 1 ....................................................................................................... 66
4.3.2 Flattened - Type 2 .............................................................................................................................. 68
4.3.3 Woven Wicker-work - Type 3A ........................................................................................................ 69
4.3.4 Woven Plait-work - Type 3B .............................................................................................................72IV

4.3.5 Bamboo Grid - Type 4 ....................................................................................................................... 73
4.4 Discussion .....................................................................................................................................................76
Chapter 5 Finding and Conclusion .........................................................................................................................78
5.1 Past Cases and Considering Bamboo Wall for Post-Disaster Housing ....................................................... 78
5.1.1 Past Cases of Bamboo Wall for Post-Disaster Housing ....................................................................78
5.1.2 Discussion on Bamboo wall type ..................................................................................................... 79
5.1.3 Discussion: Considering Bamboo Wall for Post-Disaster Housing ..................................................85
5.2 General Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................85
Reference ................................................................................................................................................................... 87
Appendix ................................................................................................................................................................... 97
Appendix 1: Notable Case of Original Bamboo Shelter Use in 2015 ............................................................... 98
Appendix 2: Vernacular Bamboo Use Workshop ............................................................................................100
Appendix 3: reviewed benefits of bamboo use ................................................................................................ 101
Appendix 4: Photos of Main Interviewee .........................................................................................................102
Appendix 5: Questionnaire ...............................................................................................................................104
Online Questionnaire 1 ............................................................................................................................. 104
Online Questionnaire 2 ............................................................................................................................. 108
Questionnaire 3 ......................................................................................................................................... 111
Appendix 6: Memo of Discussion ....................................................................................................................113
Appendix 7: Scoring Table for Wall Type Potentials ......................................................................................117
Appendix 8: Thesis Defence Presentation ........................................................................................................118

VList of Figures

Figure 1. 1 Exposure to Natural Hazard and Natural Distribution of Bamboo ........................................................... 1
Figure 1. 2 Recent reconstruction after disaster in West Java, 2022 ........................................................................... 4
Figure 1. 3 Structure of This Master’s Thesis ..............................................................................................................5
Figure 2. 1 Terminology for Parts of Bamboo Culm ...................................................................................................8
Figure 2. 2 Temporary Bamboo Shelter in Ecuador, designed by Shigeru Ban using flattened bamboo withdiagonal arrangement for wall and structural bracing (Ban, 2021) ......................................................... 9
Figure 2. 3 Bali Island, Indonesia .............................................................................................................................. 10
Figure 2. 4 House in Panglipuran Village, Bali. Bamboo is used for wall and roof ................................................. 10
Figure 2. 5 Large bamboo roof structure built by workers from Belega village, Bali. ..............................................11
Figure 2. 6 Protective roof protecting large structure mainly consist of Dendrocalamus Asper ...............................11
Figure 2. 7 Workers from Belega village, Bali .......................................................................................................... 11
Figure 2. 8 Preservation through soaking .................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 2. 9 Himeji Castle with white plastered Ohkabe with bamboo grid ...............................................................12
Figure 2. 10 House in Gempol, during demolition (source: Tan Tik Lam) ...............................................................13
Figure 2. 11 Drawing of panel which was used for house wall in Gempol. showing vertical bamboo lath casted
inside concrete (modified from Widyowijatnoko, 2006) .......................................................................13
Figure 2. 12 Light weight Indonesian woven bamboo ‘kepang for dry-wall (source:Stulz & Mukerji,1993) .......... 15
Figure 2. 13 Light weight Indonesian woven bamboo ‘bilik’ for dry-wall carried by back peddler(source:tribunnews.com) ........................................................................................................................15
Figure 2. 14 ‘Pol-polan’ mud wall in Bali ................................................................................................................. 16
Figure 2. 15 Earth wall plastered with cement plaster to cover damage in Lombok. The damage occurred despite
covered by large bamboo roof ............................................................................................................... 16
Figure 2. 16 Wet type of Bamboo Wall with Japanese wattle and daub ‘tsuchikabe’ technique (Source: Yao) ... 18
Figure 2. 17 Use of bamboo grid for plaster in India Jayanetti & Follett, 2008 .....................................................18
Figure 2. 18 Prefabricated shelter by IKEA, UNHCR, 2016 .....................................................................................19
Figure 2. 19 temporary bamboo shelter in Afghanistan (source: Shelter Project 2009-2010) .................................. 20
Figure 2. 20 Transitional bamboo shelter in the Philippines (source: Shelter Project 2011-2012) ........................... 20
Figure 2. 21 Flow diagram of research methodology ................................................................................................ 23
Figure 2. 22 Photographic series on five types of bamboo wall in Indonesia (above) and Japan (below) ................25
Figure 3. 1 Overlapping definition of shelter phases (source: UNHCR, 2016; modified from SPHERE, 2018) ..... 27
Figure 3. 2 Cases of countries with bamboo used for Post-disaster housing (Data source: Shelter Projects 20082021) ...................................................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 3. 3 Bamboo wall with timber frame for post-disaster housing in West Sumatra, 2009 ................................32
Figure 3. 4 Timber and Bamboo house of RIKA , Lombok ...................................................................................... 32
Figure 3. 5 Amakan sheets (source: Shelter Project, 2016) ....................................................................................... 32
Figure 3. 6 Timber structure construction, 2006 (Source: Armand et al., 2015) .......................................................33
Figure 3. 7 House with timber structure and timber wall in 2015 (Source: Armand et al., 2015) ............................ 33
Figure 3. 8 Location of Cox’s Bazaar in Bangladesh (Shelter Projects, 2019) ......................................................... 36
Figure 3. 9 Use of bamboo for pier, wall and roof (source: Kaminski, 2018) ...........................................................37
Figure 3. 10 Use of bamboo grid and cladding of bamboo column .......................................................................... 37
Figure 3. 11 Mud as recommended solution improving bamboo durability when preservation not viable. ............. 38
Figure 3. 12 Yogyakarta Earthquake, 2006( source: http://news.bbc.co.uk) .............................................................38
Figure 3. 13 Early model of the T-Shelter ................................................................................................................. 40
Figure 3. 14 Evaluation Drawing of the T-Shelter .................................................................................................... 40
Figure 3. 15 Bamboo Wall Use in Surveyed House, 2015 ........................................................................................ 42
Figure 3. 16 Reuse of Pre-cut Panel assumed from printed PMI logo (Source: Ochiai) ........................................... 43
Figure 3. 17 plait-work bamboo wall for kitchen and shower area. The right one assumed new in 2015 fromdifference in floor-plan with the 2006 RSU(Source: Ochiai) ................................................................ 43
Figure 3. 18 Number of Self-build Practice and Plan to Change Material among 15 Houses .................................. 44
Figure 4. 1 Vernacular Sustainable (VerSus) highlights broad principles of vernacular architecture including
similiar requirements with post-disaster housing: 14 (To Extend Building’s Lifetime) and 11 (toSupport Autonomy or Self-build) (source: modified from Guillaud et al., 2014) ................................. 49

VI

Figure 4. 2 Bamboo infill walls in vernacular architecture in West Java, Bali and Lombok (L to R) ...................... 50
Figure 4. 3 Minka in Shikoku .................................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 4. 4 Traditional town-house (Machi-ya) in Kurashiki (Source: Perez-rodriguez) ......................................... 52
Figure 4. 5 Sade, Lombok Island, Indonesia ............................................................................................................. 53
Figure 4. 6 Native bamboo near Sade village area .................................................................................................... 53
Figure 4. 7 Exterior and Interior view of the woven-plait work bamboo wall .......................................................... 54
Figure 4. 8 Naga VIllage, Tasikmalaya, Indonesia ....................................................................................................55
Figure 4. 9 Large open space in center of area with white lime plastered plait-work wall in the backgound ...........55
Figure 4. 10 Use of woven wicker-work (kitchen-left) and plait-work type ............................................................. 56
Figure 4. 11 Larger use of wicker-work type on older house type ............................................................................ 56
Figure 4. 12 Interior view of the house with plait-work type, also visible are the lime plaster and pores between thetight weave ............................................................................................................................................. 56
Figure 4. 13 Drawing of wicker-work used for kitchen and ventilation panel .......................................................... 56
Figure 4. 14 Photographic series: Bamboo wall and fence made by bamboo craftsman and plasterer in Kyoto ......58
Figure 4. 15 Different methods and tools in splitting and flattening Madake bamboo. ............................................ 59
Figure 4. 16 Bamboo craftsman tool for splitting single bamboo pole into different number of pieces possible
ranging from three to nine ......................................................................................................................60
Figure 4. 17 Diverse tools used for Sakan plastering technique ................................................................................60
Figure 4. 18 Photographic Series: Mud-wall damage on two location exterior and interior sides ............................61
Figure 4. 19 Photographic series: Steps on replacing bamboo grid (take-komai) within adapte technique ..............62
Figure 4. 20 Steps on plastering damaged wall ......................................................................................................... 62
Figure 4. 21 New construction method of Mud-wall with adapted technique for ‘Tsuchi-no-Ie’ (Source: Inoue,2021) ...................................................................................................................................................... 63
Figure 4. 22 Use of Moso Bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) in Tsuchi-ukian ............................................................. 64
Figure 4. 23 Jucara plant seen from window of Japanese Immigrant house (source: Hijioka) ................................. 65
Figure 4. 24 Brazilian worker with takewariki. Split bamboo used for wall grid in the background. ...................... 65
Figure 4. 25 Formerly one house of Japanese Immigrant in Brazil, now moved to open air museum in Nagoya ....65
Figure 4. 26 Japanese professional plasterer invited for workshop in Brazil (Source: Hijioka) ............................... 65
Figure 4. 27 Tokusa type Wall ................................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 4. 28 Use of rounded bamboo for cladding the mud-wall of tea-house ......................................................... 67
Figure 4. 29 Rounded type often use full-culm Bamboo ...........................................................................................67
Figure 4. 30 Simpler processing of flattened wall type in Lombok Island ................................................................68
Figure 4. 31 Wall sample using flattened bamboo .................................................................................................... 68
Figure 4. 32 Roof of small pavilion project using flattened bamboo ........................................................................ 68
Figure 4. 33 Flattened bamboo wall within dry method, suggested more prevalent in Sikka, Flores, Indonesia after
the 1992 earthquake (source: cendananews.com) ..................................................................................69
Figure 4. 34 Ohtsu-gaki fence in Kyoto .....................................................................................................................70
Figure 4. 35 Wicker work for floor of Granary (Takakura) in Osaka ....................................................................... 70
Figure 4. 36 Woven wicker work drawing based on wall and ventilation panel in Naga Village .............................70
Figure 4. 37 Wicker work used for wattle and daub in Sumatra (source: seismico.org) ...........................................71
Figure 4. 38 Wicker work wall protected by roof eaves in Naga village older building ...........................................71
Figure 4. 39 Plaitwork in Japan, resembling Indonesian pattern of mata-wali ..........................................................72
Figure 4. 40 Thin characteristic of the woven plait-work, drawn based on kepang pattern ...................................... 72
Figure 4. 41 Schematic drawing of bamboo grid use as substrate of Japanese Tsuchikabe technique ......................73
Figure 4. 42 Tsuchikabe Plastering within Sakan Technique (Partially modified from Hijoka, 2013) .....................74
Figure 4. 43 Artist I applying thin layer of white lime (Shikkui) ...............................................................................75
Figure 4. 44 use of grid for alternative curved wall shapes ....................................................................................... 76
Figure 5. 1 Summary of Wall Potentials: Type 1 ...................................................................................................... 81
Figure 5. 2 Summary of Wall Potentials: Type 2 ..................................................................................................... 81
Figure 5. 3 Summary of Wall Potentials: Type 3A .................................................................................................. 82
Figure 5. 4 Summary of Wall Potentials: Type 3B ...................................................................................................83
Figure 5. 5 Summary of Wall Potentials: Type 4 and 4B (adapted grid) .................................................................. 84VIIList of Tables

Table 2. 1 Value of Bamboo Use for Shelter in Yogyakarta Reconstruction 2006 ...................................................21
Table 2. 2 Past research and Proposed classification of Bamboo Wall ..................................................................... 24
Table 3. 1 Summary on Transitional Shelter Requirements ...................................................................................... 30
Table 3. 2 Bamboo Use in House Samples in Serut Hamlet, Yogyakarta, 2015 .......................................................41
Table 3. 3 Summary of post-disaster housing case study 1 and 2 ............................................................................. 45
Table 5. 1 Summary of Bamboo Wall Types Potential ............................................................................................. 80

VIII

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background
Among the extensive role of bamboo as construction material has been for provision of humanitarian shelter,
especially in bamboo growing regions, most of which are also world’s most disaster prone regions (Figure 1.1)
where resiliency are becoming more urgent, to address threatening increase in the number of extreme events
which are among the consequences of global climate change. The vast majority of these disasters take place intropical areas (Hebel & Heisel, 2017) and global south, also considered most vulnerable historically.

Figure 1. 1 Exposure to Natural Hazard and Natural Distribution of Bamboo
Source: Modified from World Risk Report (IFHV, 2021; El Bassam & Jakob, 1996)

While expensive and emblematic projects are often represent the bamboo material and has reintroduce it into the
spotlight, use bamboo for mass housing might be considered as an exceptional case. It has been mainly throughthe top-down implementation of post-disaster reconstruction that bamboo material spread and contributed to the
housing sector (Witte, 2018) on a wider scale.
This helped by the fact that many bamboo species potentially has faster growing rate than other plants which arecultivated for timber, thus despite reputation as 'poor man's timber' it often became an alternative helping toalleviate timber over-demand. Like timber, bamboo material has merit such as renewable and seismically very1

suitable. However, the use is of timber has been declining on account of forests conditions (UNIDSR, 2004) and it
is only recently that new engineered timber architecture gaining momentum, but still mostly in developed
countries. Various vernacular architecture often saw bamboo and wood used integrally. With the most extensive
use of bamboo in construction is for walls and partitions (Jayanetti & Follett, 2008).
Both material have been used to provide lighter dwelling often desired by disaster victims, after traumatic failureof heavier construction, often made of modern material of 'prosperous city-dweller'. For this type of construction,
it is often without intervention by qualified architects and engineers, thus considered as ‘non-engineered’. Suchmodern but heavier construction has unforgiving side due to its reliance on "complex scientific processes andtheoretical analysis with differential equations "(Langenbach, 2016). Failure of such non-engineered buildings has
been considered as largest threat during earthquake (UNISDR, 2004).

In various regions where bamboo grows, despite long history of use in construction and is frequently inabundant supply, it has not been extensively used in post-disaster rebuilding efforts, despite high risk often
presents in such regions (Hebel & Heisel, 2017). Even where it is used extensively, it has been consideredmainly for temporary shelter. Reconstruction strategy which rely on temporary shelter has continued to draw
critics of using up resource needed for permanent reconstruction, especially if it has no connection to thelater. For achieving permanent post-disaster housing, houses made of bamboo have not always ends up asalternative to heavier construction, despite the need for such alternative due to frequent failure of mainly
heavier non-engineered buildings.
Factors hindering widespread use bamboo material could be explained common barriers (Shen et. al, 2019),
including for permanent purpose. First barrier are durability and perception to it. Still related with perception,
the second barrier is aesthetic bias. The other barrier to be considered in this study which is equallychallenging is policy related. Seen from past studies, the barrier of durability has saw various technicalsolutions addressing it, while the other barriers required to be addressed beyond technical aspects.
While temporary phase after disaster easily compatible with most common use of bamboo construction, totransition toward permanent is among the most suggested key based on approaches and requirements of postdisaster shelter. While there is no shortage of design proposal utilize bamboo for structure or selects few for
wall element, if the various barrier not addressed, there is a chance that the bamboo shelter will face
limitation such as brief post-disaster usage, at barely three months, seen for instance in Yogyakarta after the2006 earthquake (Maly, 2013).

2

1.2 The Objective and Research Questions
The above mentioned examples suggest the challenge in post-disaster housing as well as opportunity to
expand the possibilities of local vernacular knowledge and local resource of bamboo material. Seen on a newlight as emerging construction material hailed for it sustainability, bamboo seen to has potential to be used
more on less emblematic but much needed housing and its basic element of wall. With sustainable manner,
its role is not only to provide temporary shelter but also a sustaining ‘home’. The research objective is toclarify the potentials of bamboo material for post-disaster housing in Indonesia, aiming to provide practical
recommendation for implementing bamboo wall in Indonesian post-disaster context. To do this researchdraws from extensive use of bamboo for wall in vernacular architecture.

Research Question
1.

How bamboo material has been used for wall construction?
a)What are the variety and examples of bamboo wall technique in vernacular architecture ofIndonesia and Japan?

b)2.

What are the factors and ways bamboo material has been used in past cases of post-disaster housing?

What are the potential of bamboo wall technique from vernacular architecture for use post-disasterhousing?
a)What are the relevance of vernacular technique and its principle for the requirements of postdisaster housing?

b)

What are the potential of specific bamboo wall technique for use in post-disaster housing ?

Reflecting back to recent post-disaster housing in Indonesia, the aftermath of an earthquake near the end of2022 in West Java Indonesia (Figure 1.2) saw another implementation of one-step policy. Among someorganization involved aimed to house the beneficiary in permanent housing within less than six months.
Involving alternative construction with prefabricated modular concrete structure of ‘RISHA’ employed, with
its light characteristic and decentralized production allowed a degree of self-build. While comparing suchmodern concrete structure with structure from renewable bamboo material is beyond the scope of thisresearch, further study should taken into account the structural system. When seen as non-structural element,
the bamboo wall as main object of this research might be compatible with both structure. While it might be acontrasting system if used with the modern RISHA, it is one possibilities, considering the prevalence ofbamboo material in hybrid construction system traditionally. To some extent, it might provide balance byimproving the incorporation of local skill and resource, much suggested in post-disaster setting.

3

Figure 1. 2 Recent reconstruction after disaster in West Java, 2022

1.3 Structure of the Research Thesis
This thesis is divided into five chapters (Figure 1.3).
The Chapter 1 presents the research background, objective, question and thesis structure.
The Chapter 2 presents findings from relevant literature on the extent of bamboo use for construction particularly
seen from use of wall techniques in vernacular architecture and its equally extensive use for purpose of postdisaster housing. After establishing link between the two, this chapter also define the methodology in examining
vernacular architecture and post-disaster housing case studies, as the following chapters sought to extract lesson
from the former towards the latter.
The Chapter 3 introduces phase and requirements of post-disaster housing and establish the emphasis of transition
toward permanence. For temporary and transitional phase, the chapter examines case studies of bamboo housing
in Bangladesh and Indonesia, in order to find limitation and potential of bamboo wall in post-disaster housing.
The Chapter 4 examine bamboo use and wall technique in selected cases of vernacular architecture in Indonesia
and Japan. It describes lessons from five case studies followed by discussion on five wall types.
The Chapter 5 presents the discussion on use of bamboo wall for post-disaster housing, first by summarizing useof each wall type in past cases, followed by discussion on potential of each wall type for post-disaster housing inIndonesia.

4Figure 1. 3 Structure of The Master’s Thesis

5Chapter 2

Literature Review

This chapter present findings from relevant literature on the extent of bamboo use for construction
worldwide, its beneficial value and limiting characters of the material, then general development andtechnical definition regarding its use for wall construction.This chapter reviewed that some limit of bamboo
material are potentially solved in vernacular architecture, particularly through use of wall technique. The
aspect of life-span is seen as related with prevalent use of bamboo for temporary as well as for morepermanent. As the characters factoring to utilization of bamboo material for wall in context of vernaculararchitecture, it then will be examined for the other extensive use of material for purpose of post-disasterhousing. Considering widespread and diversity of available techniques, among the method established in thisstudy is through reviewing past classifications of bamboo wall and proposing one. Using the classification to
examine vernacular architecture and post-disaster housing case studies, it sought to extract potentials fromthe former towards the latter particularly concerning the life-span and other aspects identified from review on
post-disaster case of Yogyakarta.
2.1 Bamboo as Construction Material
2.1.1 Introduction
Use of bamboo for construction material is extensive, with its use for simple housing still continuously
prevalent. In more than 50 countries, bamboo has been used as building material traditionally. It wassuggested that around the world, billions of people reside in bamboo homes (Liu et al, 2019). First example,
in Bangladesh more than 70% of the homes temporarily construct their walls and roofs out of unprocessedbamboo culms (Zea Escamilla et al., 2019). The Indian Census data of 2012 found that 9% of the population
live in home with wall of grass, thatch or bamboo (Dash & Gupta, 2014).
For Indonesia, of the 1250 species of bamboo in the world, 11% are native to the country. As a result,bamboo is an ubiquitous material as well as because it grows fast and in quantity, making it affordable andinterchangeable for common usage by low-income populations (Larasati, 1999).
For Japan, the houses have traditionally been made from a mixture of wood, mud, bamboo, grass and paperwith bamboo use in Kyoto dates far back to the Heian period around 8th-12th centuries (Tanaka et al., 1996).
Long-standing practices include the usage of bamboo-reinforced structures most commonly for earthen wallbase or substrate materials in form of bamboo grid, called takekomai for traditional wooden buildings. In
addition, bamboo grid was also common used for reinforcing bars of bamboo-reinforced concrete during
World War II due to a scarcity of steel, often only recently rediscovered in old buildings during demolition,
works according numerous research (Terai, 2022).

2.1.2 Beneficial Values of Bamboo as Construction Material
Some more general characteristic of bamboo for instance are the short cycle time needed to sustainably growbamboo and its strength compared to its weight (Vengala et al., 2008). The strength suggested to come frombamboo cell structures and technical properties which resembles wood, although it belong to the grass family

6

of Gramineae (Dwinita, 1999).
Other notable characteristic of bamboo is it lightness as the result of its hollow form (figure 2.1) which also
make it easy to handle, process, and transport with minimum effort. Coupled with its malleable character, it
is simple to strip them into long horizontal strips (Dash & Gupta, 2014). Such lightly modified bamboo often
only require low skill and low technology thus allows easy localization (Opoku et al., 2016; SanchezMorales, 2011). General benefit of bamboo material has been summarized in five perspective of large-scale(fast growth), lightweight and high strength, low-cost, environmentally friendly, and social benefits (Shen et.
al, 2019). Such potentials of bamboo allow reliance on local resources not only the natural resource but also
intellectual and social resource, supporting the potential of In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU).
While most pole of bamboo species which are used for timber is long and often not straight, it is portable andeasy to transport due to its light weight and ease of processing. Like other cultivated building material suchas wood, bamboo could be cut into shorter length while also comparably easier to divide or split. The split
form is arguably one most important processed type in order to use bamboo for wall. Result of further
processing from such splits include woven bamboo and modern laminated board. After processing thebamboo culm, it becomes easier to store and transport effectively.
Due to multiple benefits, various bamboo species has been used in Asian countries. Bamboo was once thematerial most commonly used to build entire dwellings in China (Shen, 2019; Stamatis, 2021). It was before
bamboo was substituted, for instance with ceramic tile for roof, still in similar semi-cylindrical forms.
Among the bamboo species suggested to be used for construction in China are Phyllostachys edulis, locallycalled “Moso” or “Mao Zhu” and Bambusa Oldhamii.
In Bangladesh, Bambusa balcooa (Borak) and Melocanna bambusoides (Muli) are among the various local
species used for post-disaster housing in Cox’s Bazaar, further examined in chapter 3. Other local species
also used, such as Nali, Ora, Khag and Talla. For other examples in the Philippines, among bamboo species
which are used for construction are Bambusa blumeana, Bambusa vulgaris and dendrocalamus asper,(Salzer et al., 2018).
Past research on bamboo use for construction and post-disaster housing often left out the type of bamboo
species used, even though many characteristic of bamboo material are specific to its species. Among bamboo
species used in Indonesia, the most commonly used for construction are the sympodial or ‘clumping’ typesuch as Dendrocalamus Asper and Gigantochloa Apus. Both has thick culm wall, with the former has
among the largest culm diameter, sometimes more than 20 cm.
For species common in Japan, Moso bamboo could also reach large culm diameter, while having different
rhizome structure which is monopodial or ‘running’ type that spread more easily. Other notable and much7

used species in Japan is the Phyllostachys bambusoides or Madake. Like other running type, it has
characteristically straight culm which often lend it ornamental value for its use in gardens as well as
construction. Compared to Moso, the culm wall of Madake is thinner and arguably used more often for craft
and construction, while Moso often cultivated for its edible shoots.
Despite different character particularly the thickness of the culm wall, splitting the bamboo culm has beencommon for all species mentioned above.

Figure 2. 1 Terminology for Parts of Bamboo Culm
(source: Humanitarian Bamboo Project (modified)

2.2 Temporary and Permanent Life-span of Bamboo Construction
While various benefits are factoring to extensive use of bamboo for construction, particularly for temporary
construction, material limitations has hindered wider adoption of bamboo, there is always inherent
limitations of the material related with its natural properties and biological imperfections (Hebel & Heisel,2017), as well as variability in its geometric and mechanical properties (Ramage et.al, 2015).
Various past research also concern with durability as one main limitation of bamboo material, (Kaminski,
2013; Kewei et al., 2022) and prime obstacle preventing bamboo from being used in the constructionindustry (Shen et al., 2019). This need to be addressed if bamboo is to be used not only for temporary
purpose. Seen from sustainability and as vernacular principle, the material durability also connected with thematter of life-span of building and building elements (Guillaud et.al, 2014).

2.2.1 Temporary Bamboo Construction
Many housing experts viewed bamboo as material with limited life-span best suited only for temporary8

construction (Sattar, 1996). Due to its typically thin walls and absence of natural toxins, bamboo has
virtually no natural resistance, with even a tiny quantity of decay can result in a considerable loss of strength
capacity (Jansen, 2000). Due to their low natural durability, difficulty in jointing, lack of structural design
information, and absence from building codes, bamboo has been seen to be primarily used for temporary
constructions and lower-grade buildings (D.L. Jayanetti & Follet, 2008). In case of building code inIndonesia, construction with natural material such as bamboo and timber often considered lesser thanpermanent (Pribadi et al., 2014). Even in various large bamboo structures in Lombok Indonesia (figure 2.3),
what has been usually assessed for building code is the concrete parts, not the bamboo structure (R. Hartono,
personal communication, 2021).
Temporary construction has been more widely accepted as common use for bamboo material. Such shortterm use is possible where durability is not required, and has been the associated where bamboo is ubiquitous,
and it is used within low added value and non-processed (Zea Escamilla et al., 2019). Extensive use ofbamboo for post-disaster housing has been predominantly for temporary or transitional shelter, among which
are the post-disaster housing in Ecuador (Figure 2.2), Cox’s bazaar, Bangladesh and Yogyakarta, Indonesia,
last two cases will be examined on Chapter 3.

Figure 2. 2 Temporary Bamboo Shelter in Ecuador, designed by Shigeru Ban using flattened bamboo withdiagonal arrangement for wall and structural bracing (Ban, 2021)

2.2.2 Permanent Bamboo Construction
Among the aspect of durability, it has been suggested that bamboo use has enabled a workable lifespan ofmore than 20 years (Shen et al., 2019). One example of 50-year design life for bamboo has also beensuggested, achieved in engineered bahareque housing, making it a permanent type of housing (Kaminski etal., 2016).
Significant development of bamboo material for permanent purpose often linked to its structural role. Whilestill considered a hybrid construction, it has fewer degree of other material mostly helping the structural role,9

such as concrete for foundation or steel connections. Such use for permanent structure are relatively new
possibility owing to ever expanding research on engineered bamboo structure and advent of scientificpreservation method. This new modern use of bamboo will be better explained through case study
introducing existing practice with information form literature as well as author’s experience in such projects
mainly in Lombok Island Indonesia, in addition to neighboring island of Bali where many of the techniqueand skilled workers came from.
2.2.3 Case Study 1: Permanent Bamboo Development in Indonesia: Bali and Lombok Island

Figure 2. 3 Bali Island, Indonesia

Figure 2. 4 House in Panglipuran Village,
Bali. Bamboo is used for wall and roof

Before the tourism boom, Balinese was considered an agricultural society benefited much from natural
resource including cultivated materials. Cultivated in secondary production forest, including people’s
backyard or ‘teba’, bamboo material has been used in vernacular Balinese architecture in addition for daily
necessities. Particularly in houses of Bali-aga ethnicity such as in Panglipuran village, bamboo still used
intensively for wall, roof structure and roof shingle.
In autonomous village (banjar) which is still a prevalent social organization today, bamboo is still used
extensively for temporary use, especially for village scale socio-religious ceremonies. Many of which has
became opportunity for villagers to learn construction skills using bamboo. Among the village is Belega
village in Gianyar Regency, well know for the skilled bamboo construction workers, not only for traditional
temporary structure but also long-lasting and emblematic designs of contemporary bamboo architecture,including projects in neighboring island of Lombok.
Benefited from tourism development of Bali and subsequently Lombok, many of such project provide
learning opportunity for local worker as well as became a test-bed for modern bamboo developments. Design10

of various innovative form has resulted in emblematic architecture but the basic is still related with durabilityof material.
Among the development are durability by design and incorporation of chemically preserved bamboo, withformula which often considered as company’s secret. Both developments have allowed to extend the lifespan of bamboo structure to more than twenty years, such as the case for Heart of Green School building. For
durability by design, among the lesson is the role of protective roof eaves. Ranging from 80 cm at minimum
to 150 cm, it reduces sunlight and rain exposure. Learning from many past cases in Bali, the damage on
bamboo elements might indicate inadequate protection by the roof, particularly from windward direction
during heavier rains.

Figure 2. 5 Large bamboo roof structure built by

Figure 2. 6 Protective roof protecting large

workers from Belega village, Bali.

structure mainly consist of Dendrocalamus
Asper

Figure 2. 7 Workers from Belega village, Bali

Figure 2. 8 Preservation through soaking

11

The use of advanced engineered structure allows innovative design and has contributed to bamboo drawing
attention on a global scale (Sattar, 1996) (Martens, 2019). Otherwise, full-culm bamboo architecture is notvery common world-wide (Ramage et al., 2015) particularly in documented vernacular cases. However, as it
has been experienced in Lombok, it often translates to high construction cost. Thus such structure might beobserved more often among two of five kinds of bamboo architecture (Trujillo et al., 2013) which is luxury
housing and long-span building (many also caters to luxury lifestyle). Often part of the design brief, anotherperceived luxury of such projects can afford is to employ architectural open plan which often eliminate theneeds for wall.
2.2.4 Lesson From Permanent Bamboo Construction on Durability
Separating the temporary and permanent bamboo construction is the extents of its durability. To many
contemporary bamboo architecture shown by the examples in Bali and Lombok Island, durability by design
is one basic principle ofbamboo construction, particularly owing to various principles vernacularconstruction.
For using bamboo beyond temporary, one important rule of thumb is ‘good hats and good boots’, which isstill considered relevant and often used in conjunction to various preservation method. Basically, even theuse of such improved element not common in vernacular setting still require a protection from the sun andrain provided by ‘hat’ namely a roof eaves. It is highly advised for bamboo elements not to contact the
ground directly, again avoiding water as well as insects from the ground such as termite and powder post
beetle (Lyctinae sp) as main cause of bamboo deterioration.
Beyond structural use, such principles also important for use of non-structural bamboo such as for wall.
Various wall technique has been practiced for long time in vernacular setting, most of which could not rely
on chemical use for extending its durability. Many record shows surprising durability of untreated bamboo
for wall construction. For instance the strips inside wall using vernacular Indian technique were still in fine
shape after forty years and had not been attacked by termites (Dash & Gupta, 2014).

Figure 2. 9 Himeji Castle with white plastered Ohkabe with bamboo grid12Wall technique with bamboo has been used in Japan for various buildings, particularly castles such as Himeji
or Nagoya castle. Round bamboo (full-culm) substrate has been used for its plastered Ohkabe (big wall)technique. Dating from before Edo period, such buildings arguably symbolize the feudal era, comparable tostone fortress in Western countries, both invoke image of stability and power. Most cases in the following
Chapter 4 also display use of bamboo material beyond temporary purpose.

2.2.5 Permanent Bamboo Wall Construction in Indonesia
Despite its temporary status in Indonesian building code, use of bamboo in permanent construction has been
seen for its potential, based on past development and implementation. While plaster on woven or flattened
bamboo is common in Latin American case, Indonesia examples exhibited a potential alternative which usedother techniques which also resulted in long life span.

Figure 2. 10 House in Gempol, during demolition

Figure 2. 11 Drawing of panel which was used for(source: Tan Tik Lam)house wall in Gempol. showing vertical bamboo lathcasted inside concrete (modified from
Widyowijatnoko, 2006)

During the Dutch colonial era, most commonly used indigenous technique of woven bamboo wall has been
the target of replacement (Ignasia, 2008; Armand et al., 2015) especially during improvement program of
kampung kota (Indonesian type of urban settlements). Nevertheless alternative use of bamboo has beenpromoted to some extent by the Dutch administration, in form of bamboo-reinforced concrete for infill panelin timber framed structure (Figure 2.5). Located near proposed government center of the Dutch East-Indies
and built before the Second World-War, the housing project of Kleinwoningbouw Gempol or Gempol in the

13City of Bandung is still inhabited by 2023. Some houses has retained its original structure including thebamboo reinforced panel. Initially reserved to marginalized native workers, it is in much humble scale thanthick walled brick houses inhabited by the Dutch ruling class. Nevertheless, the house provide an alternative
case of bamboo use in early modern architecture. Although never adapted to larger extent, such type of wallusing bamboo for wall of permanent house has seen recent development (Widyowijatnoko, 2008).
Different use of bamboo for permanent house in Indonesia has also been tried in 1982, using bamboo gridtype which was plastered with cement mortar. Compared to the Gempol case above, the wall of trial house in
the village of Panglipuran, Bali is mostly constructed in-situ. The thin wall of seven centimeters, suggested
to use common plastering method possible to do by non-professionals. Combining bamboo with cement
plaster, the wall construction required form-work of wood board, dismantled after plastering process. Amongof its benefit is long life-span, as a study assessed that the building has stood for more than thirty years(Muliawan, 2014).

2.3 The Wall: Bamboo Use for The Vernacular Architecture Element
While traditional bamboo structure utilizing full-culm was was not as durable compared to new structure
treated with new preservation method, traditional bamboo use for structure include wall such as the quincha
or taipa which can act as bearing wall. Particularly, in type called bahareque encementado on which therigidity of the structural structure is provided by the cladding or plaster, such as that made of mud or loam
(Trujillo et al., 2013).
Despite considered as interrupted tradition considering its pre-colonial origin (Stamatis, 2021), many
research has studied the Latin American bamboo walls. Such hybrid bamboo wall types go so far as being
adopted in national building code. Such technology also has been proposed for transfer into Asian countries(Vries, 2002; Tanuwidjaja et al., 2014; Auman et al., 2018). The Latin American bamboo wall might bemore well known than its hybrid counter-part in Asia, where it was once a mainstream technique for nonstructural role in Japan or India for instance and considered as uninterpreted tradition of construction.
One common but overlooked role of bamboo for construction is for non-structural role. In various vernacularcases, bamboo used through hybrid technique supported by timber for structure or covered by mud plaster,
both are examples of relatively long-lasting material before modern material becoming available, even moreso compared to bamboo. Such techniques are common in vernacular architecture around the world, among
past research has studied the hybrid technique of bamboo with plaster in vernacular setting (Jayanetti &Follett, 2008; Escamilla et al., 2019; Dash & Gupta, 2014; Lisboa & Librelotto, 2018).

14

Non-structural use of bamboo has been observed in Indonesia and Japan, in addition to India (Dash & Gupta,
2014). Use of non-structural bamboo wall can be found in Asian countries for comparatively different role
than the Latin American case mentioned earlier. For wall which use bamboo for non-structural role, twomain parts of the wall are the structural frames and so called infill between framing member, which functions
are to protect against elements, for privacy, structural function, as well as related to comfort allowing lightand ventilation (Jayanetti & Follett, 2008).
Luxury projects such as the case in Lombok often could afford to use open plan without any walls. However,wall function for environmental filter can be seen as more fundamental in simple shelters and most extensiverole of bamboo as construction material is for building elements of wall and partition (Jayanetti & Follett(2008). Arguably such non-structural role has been brought from past tradition and still being used.

2.3.1 Dry and Wet (Wattle and Daub) Wall Technique of Bamboo Construction
Drawing from long continuous tradition of bamboo use for wall elements, there have been various research,
proposal and implementation of wall system. One example was used in post-disaster context of Yogyakarta
examined in next chapter, other examples derived from traditional bamboo wall are prefabricated mud wall
(Komatsu et al, 2008) or new mud-wall ‘tsuchikabe’ design (Uno, 2019) inspired by Japan tradition.
Following two basic type of bamboo wall, the former is dry wall type while the latter considered as wet wall.

Figure 2. 12 Light weight Indonesian woven

Figure 2. 13 Light weight Indonesian woven

bamboo ‘kepang for dry-wall (source:Stulz &bamboo ‘bilik’ for dry-wall carried by backMukerji,1993)

peddler (source:tribunnews.com)

For homogeneous wall where bamboo is used with few other material, it has been considered as 'Dry' wall
(Jagadeesh & Ganapathy, 1996). In addition to dry wall of bamboo, significant number of research also15

develop and support hybrid use for structural as well as non-structural use which is the focus of this research.
Some proposal use bamboo with plaster of other material within wet wall technique, often called 'wattle anddaub' technique, which is considered as part of “thrown loam techniques”. Such technique are suggested tobe older than rammed earth and earth block techniques, have been utilized in every tropical, subtropical, andtemperate climate in the world (Minke, 2006).
The daub is one terminology of earth when it is utilized as a building material. It is a mixture of clay, silt
(extremely fine sand), sand, and sporadic bigger particles like gravel or stones, and is referred with scientificterms of loam (Minke, 2006). Meanwhile, wattle describe woven structure could be timber as well asbamboo, with split bamboo or lath interlaced with each other. Applied on this substrate element of wattle, isthe element of 'daub' which produce less permeable wall. Otherwise when done without the daub, theinterlaced element allow permeable wall, often desired in the tropics.
Covering bamboo mesh with mud has been a very popular practice from almost every part of the world(Vengala & Rao, 2020) particularly in Japan (Yokobayashi & Sato, 2015; Uno, 2019; Hijioka et al, 2013).
While the practice might not be common in case of Indonesia, some case of traditional bamboo wall usedplaster from lime mix or cow dung (Auman et al., 2018). Additionally, Indonesian use of mud can beobserved, for instance as pol-polan wall in Bali (Figure 2.14).

Figure 2. 14 ‘Pol-polan’ mud wall in Bali

Figure 2. 15 Earth wall plastered with cement
plaster to cover damage in Lombok. The damage
occurred despite covered by large bamboo roof

Widyowijatnoko, one Indonesian bamboo expert also argue that such wet wall type where bamboo isplastered could achieve image of permanent house in Indonesia. He also published several proposal such as
pre-fabricated concrete panel with bamboo reinforcement (Widyowijatnoko, 2008) as well as proposal

16reusing temporary shelter into more permanent bamboo wall (by plastering).
Some of the proposal concerned with improving the durability of bamboo. For instance, through engineered
bahareque wall used in durable form of housing, it was suggested to achieve a 50-year design life throughgood design and protection from fire (Kaminski et al., 2016). Easy to paint mud & cement bamboo wall also
was used as respond to Haitian communities input who wanted solid looking wall for security (Architectural
Association, 2016). Other proposal successfully carried technology transfer of durable bamboo wall solution
from India to Ghana with life span before renovation reaching thirteen years (Paudel, 2016).
Another development on wet wall during the last century saw that mud plaster was sometime abandoned infavor of cement mortar plaster, along the preference of plastering of bamboo to make them look like concrete(Jansen, 2000). In engineered bahareque technique, a mixture of mud and horse dung or cagajón also
replaced by portland cement (Vengala & Rao, 2020). Nevertheless, such engineered bahareque still
potentially emit only half of the embodied carbon when compared with masonry wall (INBAR, 2016). Useof concrete plaster on bamboo (bamcrete) in contemporary concrete-framed structures was also suggested forsustainability and benefit for local economy (Dash & Gupta, 2014). Introducing wet wall type in Bali
Indonesia, bamboo grid similar with Japanese wattle (Takekomai) were plastered with cement mortar(Muliawan, 2014). Alternatively, mix of cement and mud plaster also used, such as the ‘Geo-beton’ in Ivory
Coast (Jamin, 2019) and also observed in Lombok (Figure 2.15).
While the use of more modern concrete plaster is often understood as more practical and durable, the use ofloam or mud in architecture has various merits. Loam balances heat and air humidity, saves energy andreduces environmental pollution (especially compared to burnt brick), saves material and transportation costs,
it embedded and preserves timber, bamboo and other organic materials (wattle and daub), as adobes loam do
not become wet or lose their stability and loam is always reusable (Minke, 2006).
The last point includes the wall within hybrid bamboo technique, where loam use with bamboo has observed
to allow high degree of recycling. Examined further in the chapter 4, it has been common practice in Japan touse mud from old wall, easily recycled through re-hydration. As comparison, the use of cement plaster has
disadvantage as it is harder to recycle as it is not a common practice for reuse cement or concrete from olddemolished project.
Alternative technique of wet wall also benefit from protection of “good hat” from roof eaves or in some case,cladding which is often made by replaceable bamboo element. The cladding protected the mud-wall and inturns, the mud protect the bamboo wattle and elongating lifespan of such substrate element which isfundamental in supporting the integrity of whole wall system.

17

Figure 2. 16 Wet type of Bamboo Wall withJapanese wattle and daub ‘tsuchikabe’ technique(Source: Yao)

Figure 2. 17 Use of bamboo grid for plaster inIndia Jayanetti & Follett, 2008

Vernacular solution to Bamboo Material limitation
By guaranteeing more predictable and controllable properties —eliminating the round cross-section to create
standard shape and size, while maintaining the strength of bamboo's longitudinal fiber— various techniques
used traditionally for bamboo wall have addressed some natural limitation of round bamboo mentioned
above, such as biological imperfections, geometric variability, mechanical properties and durability.
Such solution addressing material limitation particularly done through light modification (Ramage et.al,2015), which explain why it has been achievable with vernacular technology. Examples of light modification
are done by processing round bamboo (full culm) into sheets or lath with roughly same dimension. Amongthe methods are through splitting, flattening , weaving, lashing, etc. Among the product of such various
methods are bamboo poles (preserved and dried), flattened bamboo (esterilla), woven bamboo mats andstrips, all of which might fall under moderately industrialized materials (Zea Escamilla et al., 2019). Suchslightly transformed components has been extensively use across different region in the world and often
consists the main component for bamboo wall.
2.4 Bamboo Material in Post-disaster Housing
Two Approaches Related with The Design of Post-disaster Housing
Post-disaster condition attracts attention from researcher and designers, with various designs have been
proposed, one main approach is utilizing pre-fabricated shelter kits, often rely on industrial material (Figure2.16). It could be delivered as ready made kits, providing benefits of speed and efficiency. However, it has
drawn criticism because it narrows down shelter requirement to mainly protection aspect or literal function18

‘to shelter’. While the former dubbed as commercial solution, the other alternative approach is ‘livelihood
option’ which in principle, recognizes local skill and resource (Davis, 2006).

Figure 2. 18 Prefabricated shelter by IKEA, UNHCR, 2016
Natural Material for Post-disaster Housing
The alternative approach for post-disaster housing often utilizes local building material, more often fromnatural material (Zea Escamilla, 2018). The latter approach found supports (Pribadi et.al, 2020; Ahmed &O’Brien, 2009) as local materials had a higher potential for low environmental impact and costs (Zea
Escamilla, 2018). Natural material use for post disaster housing for various countries has also been suggested(Ahmed & O'brien. 2009; Kaminski et al.,2015) including Japan’s ‘localized housing recovery’ (Maly &Iwata, 2019).
Exceptional Bamboo Use for Post Disaster Housing
It has been through the top-down implementation of post-disaster reconstruction, that bamboo material
spread and contributed to the housing sector (Witte, 2018). Modified bamboo wall has also been used often
for shelter (Kaminski et al, 2015). Extensive modern use of this non-standard building material has been
confirmed when it is backed by building regulation like in Latin American countries. However, globally it
can be considered as somewhat an exceptional case. Arguably there is more hesitance outside of disaster
context as regulation is among barrier to use bamboo material (Shen, 2019). It has been continued to beconsidered as temporary material, including on Indonesian building codes (Pribadi et al., 2014).
Proposal of Post-disaster housing Using Bamboo
Among various development, proposing bamboo use for post-disaster housing in Indonesia, some are using
bamboo for structural frame with infill wall of plait work type of woven bamboo (type 3A) (Suriansyah,
2014; Utomo et al.,2020; Dawydzik, 2021; Indrianeu, 2017; Fajrin et al.,2021). Example of nature based

19solution, bamboo material seen to have excellent potential as a housing system for mass housing, disasterprone areas, and earthquake resistance (Vengala et al., 2008). Bamboo-reinforced concrete, has been
proposed to contribute to earthquake-resistant buildings in Indonesia (Ditjen Cipta-karya, 2006) as well as
wider Southeast Asia (Terai, 2011).
Different ways of using bamboo for post-disaster can bee seen in example from Afghanistan and Philippines.
The shelter in Afghanistan (Figure 2.17) was built using bamboo culm structure as frames which areconnected using plywood gusset plates and bolts. Sections of the structures were prefabricated by local
carpenters in a warehouse tent within the camp. They were then passed to beneficiary assembly teams. Its
use for temporary shelter was possible through fast-construction with semi-skilled labour. The design is also
notable as it allowed upgraded protection for winter. It was further adopted for Pakistan after flooding in2010. In the Philippines (Figure 2.18), the use of bamboo with timber frame for housing after cyclone Washi
allowed a low-cost and light-weight shelter. It can be carried by 20 persons or easily dismantled. In addition,
the design also intended to be flexibly adjusted by its inhabitant and upgraded to permanent house.

Figure 2. 19 temporary bamboo shelter inFigure 2. 20 Transitional bamboo shelter in the

Afghanistan (source: Shelter Project 2009-2010)

Philippines (source: Shelter Project 2011-2012)

2.3 Lesson on Bamboo Use for Post--Disaster Housing
Benefits of using bamboo in post-disaster context has been reviewed from literature focusing on case of 2006
earthquake in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, to explore how bamboo material has several value in post-disaster
context.
The values of bamboo reviewed in the Yogyakarta could be seen as example of its characteristic of easy
localization. Particularly the use of locally abundant and available material utilized using simple construction
technique, able to involve beneficiary through self-build. Related with local character and cultural reasons,various stake-holders favored the material and saw it with affinity. Arguably, such localization and the aspect
20

of availability also result in evidently low-cost of the housing and positive evaluation on its environmental
impact (Table 2.1).
Table 2. 1 Value of Bamboo Use for Shelter in Yogyakarta Reconstruction 2006
Values of
BambooConsideration
Reference
Material
Availability Availability of bamboo allow large scale use of Java Reconstruction
bamboo material for construction with 180,000 Fund, 2011. Ikaputra,
2006
units house.
Self-build
Around 60.000 locals had been trained in building
bamboo shelter and 12.500 families had built it.
Shelter Projects. 2009.
Such participatory construction said to be effective
in mass-housing
Low-cost
 Yogyakarta bamboo has been evaluated and
Zea Escamilla, 2018
found to be low-cost.
Macrae & Hodgkin, The average T-Shelter in Jogjakarta cost USD
2011
200–250
Low
environmen
tal impact
Life-span

Affinity

inclusion of locally sourced local material,
Yogyakarta bamboo shelter has shelter has been Zea Escamilla, 2018
evaluated and found to be low impact
Around 12.500 families had built such houses, and Indonesian Red Cross
inhabit them from around 5 to 7 years.
(PMI, 2011)Widespread use of bamboo also for culturaland environmental reasons , advocated by aid
workers, local engineers architects and even the
Sultan (region’s monarch).
Psychologically the structures provided afeeling of a safer structure than houses
constructed out of concrete.

Macrae & Hodgkin,
2011
Java Reconstruction
Fund, 2011

Knowledge on traditional building has been advised for post-disaster housing (UNDRO, 1982) taking into
account the local skill and resource (Davis, 2006). It might be explained by one practical merits of vernaculartechniques which contribute to better shelter: the techniques are more easily understood by local owners andbuilders, as it is based on empirical process founded on observation and experience, as opposed to complex
scientific processes and theoretical analysis such as is modern materials (eg. reinforced concrete)(Langenbach, 2016). For the reinforced concrete, safe use would require communities to implement suitableseismic technology and efficient ways to distribute technical knowledge (Narafu, 2010), something which
has been most challenging.
Such easier dissemination contribute to potential of owner driven construction, onward termed as ‘self-build’.
Together with use of cultivated material sourced locally such as bamboo it allow easy localization as one
main character or vernacular architecture. Secondly, case studies on the fourth chapter illustrate the extended

21

life-span of bamboo building elements within vernaculars technique.
Examples above illustrate potential of vernacular technique, on the aspect of self-build and extended lifetime, also found on from literature review on bamboo and its use in post-disaster housing. Both aspects aresuggested to be among the main principles of vernacular architecture (Guillaud et al., 2014) and both are alsoneed to be considered for post-disaster shelter based on literature review and cases in the chapter 3.

2.4 Research methodology
During part of the research, the author experienced a three months internship on bamboo design company inLombok Island, Indonesia, providing opportunity to saw the use of bamboo material within hybrid of modern
and traditional technique. In addition, the use of mud material using rammed earth technique was also
observed, often used in same project with bamboo. Experience in Lombok and other part of Indonesia also
provided chance to examine use of bamboo in four traditional villages, in Island of Lombok, Bali, and Java
with semi-structured interview in two villages in Lombok and West Java, used in chapter 4 for main case ofbasic type of dry bamboo wall.
In choosing the cases of bamboo wall in Japan, main consideration is the extensive but often overlooked useof the other basic type of wet bamboo wall, within hybrid method with mud plaster but different with the one
observed in Lombok. In addition, the Japanese wall technique has also been found to be adapted in
Yogyakarta and was more extensively adapted in Brazil, whose practice examined through interview.
The main reason of choosing post-disaster case study in Yogyakarta and Bangladesh, is the uncommonlylarge scale of bamboo implementation. Quantitative analysis has been possible using data on 2015 survey in
Yogyakarta. The analysis provide important insight on use of bamboo beyond temporary. To analyze the useof bamboo wall in Bangladesh, literature review and online questionnaire with shelter practitioner have also
been done.
Seen from literature review, post-disaster housing requirement and factors of bamboo use in post-disaster has
been gathered, encompassing the bamboo material values of availability, self-build, life-span, cost,environmental-impact and affinity. Literature on bamboo material and vernacular architecture provides main
method on classifying the types of bamboo wall, which then will be analyzed seen from the bamboo materialvalues.
2.4.1 Research Design
To clarify the potentials of bamboo material for post-disaster housing in Indonesia, it is hypothesized that theextensive use of the resource in vernacular architecture provides practical lessons, considering similar22requirements of the two:1.

Need for extended life-span

2.

Easy localization through self-build and available material

Both are considered principle of vernacular architecture and suggested for post-disaster housing.
Firstly, literature review are carried out regarding bamboo use in construction and within the material
extensive use, the study established focus non-structural use of bamboo for wall and proposing aclassification. Then it is followed by potential of bamboo material and its potential in post-disaster housing(PDH). As literature mostly saw short-term potential after the disaster from main case in Yogyakarta, it thencompared with secondary data from survey and case study in the third chapter, including limitation.
Considering finding from PDH and how bamboo has been used for walls with lesson from each classified
types, the potential of bamboo will be drawn from case studies of vernacular architecture in Indonesia andJapan.

Figure 2. 21 Flow diagram of research methodology

232.4.2 Method to Classify Bamboo WallIn this research, bamboo wall is acknowledged as extensive and diverse solution with a variety of species has
been used for equally diverse wall types. Limited species common for construction in Japan for instance, still
result in numerous bamboo wall and fence techniques. Such diversity of species and constructive traditions
with complex technique, might explain why there is still limited studies on bamboo wall if compared tostructural use of bamboo. Despite this, general reading of bamboo walls had been attempted, based on paststudies (table 2.1). For instance, by categorizing of infill as separate from main structural frame (Jagadeesh& Ganapathy, 1996), by categorizing moderately industrialization bamboo materials form which wasdeemed most used for walls (Escamilla et al., 2019) or according to the processed form of the bamboo culm.
(D.L. Jayanetti & P.R. Follett, 2008). Following the definition of the processed form, this study will consider
bamboo wall into initial four types: rounded, flattened, woven and grid.
In architecture, the term weaving has been used by Gotfried Semper for every building works above thefoundation. For bamboo, most common use of bamboo for daily life is through weaving it into various
shapes and purposes. Considering this extensive use also applicable for wall, either through direct use(homogeneous) or as a base for plaster, the woven type (type 3) will be divided into two type of woven
wicker-work (type 3A) and woven-plait work (type 3B). The former is loose type of wall achieved byweaving split bamboo often not thinned such as used in Ohtsu fence in Japan, Sasag wall in Indonesia and in
Bahareque wall of Latin America. ,the latter type of plait-work has tighter weave, as it often use thinner or
thinned split bamboo. This type is widely used in South East Asia including in Indonesia, with patterns suchas kepang or mata-wali.

Table 2. 2 Past research and Proposed classification of Bamboo Wall
Past research
Jagadeesh &Ganapathy,
1996

D.L. Jayanetti& P.R. Follett,2008

Categories
 whole culms

 flattened andinterwoven

 half round split and interwoven into mats

 Whole orhalvedvertical or
horizontal
bambooculms, with orwithoutbamboo mats Split orflattenedbamboo,with mats
and/orplaster Bahareque Wovenbamboo, or
bamboogrids, with orwithout
plaster24

 Bamboopanels wattle anddaub, lathand plaster,quinchaEscamilla etal., 2019

Yoshikawa,
2001

Proposed
Bamboo WallClassificationNotes

 preserved anddried bamboopoles flattened
bamboo (e.g.
esterilla) strips

 wovenbamboo mats

 Based on
fence
elements

 Based onmaterial

 Other classification based on
association with other things(e.g place or people)

Type 1

Type 2RoundedFlattenedbambooA) Woven
wicker-workB) Woven
plait-work

Bamboo grid

Whole culm or
halved forvertical or
horizontal
arrangement

Also known asriven, used inparalel or
woven

Split andwoven withinbasket type

Split andwoven into
thinner bamboo
mat

Main use for
wet type of
wattle anddaub

ModernRoundedbamboo wall,
Lombok

Woven plaitBamboo culm Woven
wicker work- work wall,
for roof andwall, Lombok cladding, Bali Lombok

Bamboo gridwith cement
plaster, Bali

Roundedbamboo wall,(Tokusa),
Kyoto

Rounded
Woven wicker Woven plaitbamboo wall, work-(Ohtsu- work (for(Hishigigaki), Kyoto ceiliong use)gaki), Kyoto
Kyoto

Bamboo gridfor mudplaster oftsuchikabe,
Kyoto

Type 3

Type 4

Notes:
Considering basic type, the above wall type will also seen from two basic type of wall
(section 2.1.4): Regarding the use of main component and how common its use
compositely with other material through wet wall techniques.

Figure 2. 22 Photographic series on five types of bamboo wall in Indonesia (above) and Japan (below)(Source: Author. Muliawan, 2014 (top right))

25

2.5 Research Limitation
The study design is an exploratory and descriptive type, with focus on wall techniques and the potential for postdisaster housing. Most techniques are from selected case of vernacular architecture in Indonesia and Japan. The
quality of the research could be improved by larger sample, considering bamboo wall use around the world.
However, the constraint of case selection is due to time limits (within Master’s program and extra-ordinary
circumstances of the Pandemic). Considering the exploratory type, the result and recommendation of this study
should be considered as preliminary. Nevertheless, the awareness of this limitation should not invalidate theevaluations but instead it emphasizes the need to expand the methodological approach.
For the bamboo wall technique in Indonesia, only the design product can be observed, not the work process nor
the use of tools, which can not be documented directly beyond secondary sources. For the post-disaster use ofbamboo in Yogyakarta case study, it has been challenging to find bamboo use in post-disaster housing long after
disaster, thus data need to be supplemented by from secondary data of past survey not by author.

26

Chapter 3

Bamboo Use in Post-Disaster Housing

This chapter clarifies the past role of bamboo for post disaster housing (PDH). It starts by introducing phaseand common requirements of post-disaster housing while building upon reviewed approaches and potentials
of bamboo construction from previous chapter. For temporary shelter phase, case study of bamboo shelter in
Cox's Bazaar is examined while another case of Yogyakarta represent transitional use. Not only various
limitations, various potentials are also found from past practices and recommendations, to further examines
bamboo wall techniques.

3.1 Post-disaster Housing: Phases and Need for Transition

3.1.1. Introduction
High difficulties of shelter provision (Opdyke et al., 2020) might be explained by already multiple
requirements of suitable housing, with variety of functions. Recognizing all of the function of housing
beyond physical protection together with participation of community for opportunity to use vernacular skill
and knowledge has been advised in order to reconstruct built environment which is meaningful and rooted in
tradition and place (Davis, 2006).
However, adding to the complexity in emergency circumstances are specific requirements of each shelter
phase, often with overlapping definitions and need (Figure 3.1) particularly for temporary and transitional
shelter. Between temporary and durable housing is the transitional shelter (Sphere, 2018) which is often
complex in the way it refers sheltering process which restores normal way of living.

Figure 3. 1 Overlapping definition of shelter phases (source: UNHCR, 2016; modified from SPHERE, 2018)27

There are various phases of shelter provision after disaster and differing view regarding it. Commonly it has
been distinguished by duration of occupancy and permanence or stability of the structure. It consists ofemergency shelters, temporary shelters, temporary housing, and permanent housing (Cole, 2003; Quarantelli,1995). Starting from temporary housing, the difference between housing and shelter is that the former ismore long term and may also become permanent it is decided by the disaster victims to continue to occupy
the unit.

3.1.2. Post-disaster Housing Phases and Transition from Temporary into Permanent
As part of the post-disaster rehabilitation effort, temporary housing is a term used to describe structures
which is used to house people in the aftermath of a disaster until they could be relocated to permanent
housing. Such temporal limitation generally criticized for using up resource needed for permanent
reconstruction (Johnson, 2007). Its cost effectiveness depend on its lifespan (UNDRO, 1982) which also
relate to its environmental impact, as temporary use tend to produce increased emission (Seike et.al, 2019).
Temporary dwelling found to be not preferred especially if located far from the original house (Davis, 2006).
On the other hand it is often times necessary and end up permanent (Askar et.el, 2019) with instances ofvictims used temporary housing for extended period of time (Seike et.al, 2019; Kaminski, 2018).
Improvement to limitations and concern against purely temporary solutions is the Transitional Shelters (TShelter). The concept of Transitional Shelter Approach (TSA) has been introduced by The Shelter Centre to
the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR) following the Indian Ocean tsunami in
December 2004 (Shelter Centre, 2012). T-shelter breaches the division between emergency, temporary, andpermanent shelter, and it is suggested to link relief, rehabilitation and development (UNHCR 2022). It has
also been defined by considering materials and its possibility for upgrade, re-used or relocated. Whendefined by its role, it bridge the interim period between being forced to leave home and achieving a durable
shelter solution (Sphere, 2018) particularly through facilitating transition process (IFRC, 2011).

3.1.3 Requirements of Transitional Shelter
When seen as a construction (building) and a construction process, transitional shelter possess somerequirements which are advocated by guidelines from UNHCR, IFRC, SPHERE, in addition to various past
research. Focusing on the role of construction material for addressing the transitional shelter requirements, itwill be analyzed how several value afforded by bamboo material construction could correspond torequirements of transitional shelter has been summarized for this study (table 3.1).
Availability & Cost
Reality in the field often saw reduced cost (project and material) for post-disaster housing, thus it requires

28

wise use of locally available material which often more available and affordable. More than cost, availability
also take into account local skill and resource, in a way corresponding to ‘livelihood’ approach of sheltering(Davis, 2006).
Life-Span
Beyond temporary solution, sheltering process should also take long term perspective, considering the lifespan of the shelter as possible permanent house or the better, a home. With this requirement of transitioning
it to be more durable, toward permanent structures and also community (Kennedy et. Al, 2008; Barakat,2003) with also need for better connecting path toward durable solution (Kennedy et. Al, 2008). Temporary
solution often used longer than intended, thus durability is advised even in temporary shelter (Kaminski,
2018; Ban et.al, 2009). Considering this, transition should aim for improved dwelling which is more durable,
sustainable, and likable (Sanderson et al, 2012). Among useful strategies for transitioning are by improving
durability, adaptability (Sanderson et al., 2012; Kennedy et. al, 2008) and flexibility (Ashmore et al., 2003;
Davis, Thompson, Krimgold & IFRC, 2015). Other path to transition are by being reusable, resell-able,
recyclable (Félix et al, 2013). If a construction also easy to upgrade and/or reused in more permanent
structure it can be considered as potential in facilitating transition
Self-build
Given that up to 80% of people who require shelter after a disaster do so without outside aid (Flinn, 2013), it
is important to consider measures like self-building or auto construction as families and communities drive
their own recovery (Clinton, 2006). Self-building especially supported with adequate training also supports
building back better (Maynard & Batchelor, 2011), especially though improvement of safety and possibility
to link this issues with livelihood (Kennedy et al, 2008).
As in any other major post-disaster situation, challenge on the logistic often relats to appropriate construction
material and availability of skilled worker will always be an issue to be solved, considering the very highspike in demand of materials and skilled labour for rebuilding need. The way self building address this canalso be seen through the concept of in-situ resource Utilization (ISRU). Beyond building material, theurgently needed social and intellectual resource particularly labor might be provided from inside theircommunity. Considering local construction skill, post-disaster reconstruction has suggested to involve labor
intensive construction, recognizing local potential before looking for outside reliance, beside providing
marketable skill as result of self-build training (Davis, 2006). It also allow personalization by people whobuild and will inhabit the house.
Environmental Impacts
Environmental consideration is crucial considering often massive scale of post-disaster housing provision,
which might cause adverse consequences locally such as depletion of resource or globally, with high carbon
29

emission. Use of construction material for shelter with extended life-span optimizes resource use.
Affinity
Under affinity, the house suppose to contributes in providing safety for inhabitants, their belongings,
property rights, privacy and emotional security etc. It will also better received if it is appropriate with its
inhabitants normal pattern of life, cultural context and reflect their identity. In addition, lighter shelter often
desired in post disaster settings, after collapse of conventional non-engineered, often made of heavier
confined masonry house (Pribadi et.al, 2020; JRF, 2011).
Table 3. 1 Summary on Transitional Shelter Requirements
Requirement of Transitional Shelter
IFRC
SPHERE(Transitional
supporting literature
Shelter)

Relevant values ofbamboo use(Summary from
Table 2.1)

Affordable,
Local

Material
availability

Availability &low-cost

Life-span-

Life-span,maintenance andupgradeDurability (Kennedy et. Al,
2008; Barakat, 2003;
Sanderson et al,2012);
Permanence (Dev & Das,
2020)

Life-span

Labor intensive(preferred tomaximize
employment)-

construction
skillspersonalization & complexity(Dev & Das, 2020; Clinton,
2006; Flinn, 2013)

Self-build

Environmental
consideration--(Sanderson et al,2012; Pribadi
et.al, 2020; Ahmed &O’Brien, 2009)Low
environmental
impactculturalappropriateness,hazard risk,
privacy

culture,safety,privacy-

Identity (Dev & Das, 2020).
Likeability (Sanderson etal,2012)Affinity

UNHCR
Cost

3.2 Bamboo Use for Post-disaster Housing

3.2.1 Worldwide case of Bamboo Use for Post-disaster Housing
Last chapter has reviewed literature for factors in considering bamboo material use for post-disaster housing(Table 2.1), this is considered as one overlooked role of this material in world’s most disaster prone regions.
The vast scale and tight time-frame often uncommon outside of emergency circumstances resulted in
exceptional use of bamboo construction. While not all instance of post-disaster housing built with bamboo
has been recorded, even among notable cases recorded by the UNHABITAT’s Shelter-Project publication,30

shows bamboo use in more than thirty projects. Among which, in only two cases of disaster in Indonesia &Bangladesh, hundred of thousand house has been built using bamboo. The case in Cox’s bazaar, Bangladesh
and Yogyakarta, Indonesia, will be examined later in this chapter.

Figure 3. 2 Cases of countries with bamboo used for Post-disaster housing (Data source: Shelter Projects 2008-2021)

3.2.2 Bamboo and Other Material for Post-disaster Housing in Indonesia
Indonesian case in Yogyakarta saw use of bamboo for construction of transitional shelter, predominantly inform of Roof Structure Unit (RSU). Seen from the material use and type of bamboo wall according to31

classification defined in chapter 2, the RSU use woven-plait-work wall directly, in a manner of dry walltechnique without plaster. Subsequent post-disaster housing in Indonesia, continue to use similar type of wallafterward such as in West-Java (2009), West Sumatra (Figure 3.4) and Lombok (2018). While both usedsimilar wall, the later also saw cases which used different structure of timber. The wall and structure of
RIKA house in Lombok (Figure 3.4), bear some similarity type with vernacular dwelling of Sasak ethnicity,such as in Sade village, further examined in Chapter 4.
Use of bamboo wall restricted to dry technique such as plait-work type, might allow some extent of reuse,
extended use and transition. However, the case of RSU in Yogyakarta, has been suggested to be extremely
temporary, as short as three month until the inhabitants moving out (Maly, 2013), despite its design intention
for transitional shelter. Based on the case of similar woven wall (amakan) in Philippines, there was concernthat the woven-bamboo wall panels do not offer sufficient protection against water during heavy rains andsuch concern suggested to results in less usage of some shelter (Shelter project, 2016).

Figure 3. 3 Bamboo wall with timber frame for

Figure 3. 4 Timber and Bamboo house of

post-disaster housing in West Sumatra, 2009

RIKA , Lombok

Source: Ochiai

Source: www.suarantb.com

Figure 3. 5 Amakan sheets (source: Shelter Project, 2016)32

Alternative to Bamboo in Yogyakarta Post-disaster Housing
While lighter dwelling was desired after earthquake, moving away from the initial use of bamboo
reconstructed house is still a tendency. For example, in Flores island Indonesia, the change post-disaster was
associated with many social factor (Edwards & Doing, 1996).
Alternatively, one possible reconstruction path toward permanent house for many victim has been reverting
to construction method of its previous house, most often involve conventional material such as confined
masonry or reinforced concrete. Such house often have insufficient quality and safety before disaster (Ohno& Rachma, 2006; Boen, 2006) and even on some houses reconstructed post-disaster (Pribadi et al., 2014).
Ideally, use of such conventional construction should follow strict technical standard such as the case ofcore-house (Ikaputra, 2008). Otherwise, it is remain risky and difficult to ensure safety for heavy
construction of brick and concrete. This especially difficult if it is mostly self-build by the owner, with
absence of expertise and structural design. Even when done by building contractor, as past research in
Yogyakarta found, low-quality materials were often chosen, risking safety for profit (Pribadi et al., 2014).
Timber Alternative to Bamboo
Other possibility which has been documented is the use of localized reconstruction using natural material.
The architect Eko Prawoto designed timber houses in Yogyakarta which is built by local craftsman, many ofwhom also lost their houses because of the earthquake. The use of timber structure (Figure 3.6) is done withvarious non-structural wall particularly timber plank and plastered brick (Figure 3.7). Both material still saw
use in main houses by 2015 and more or less could be considered permanent. On such relatively limited case,the use of timber construction in Yogyakarta after disaster fulfilled the role of emergency housing as well as
able to transition to permanent, despite being considered a semi-permanent construction, like bamboo inIndonesia.

Figure 3. 6 Timber structure construction, 2006 (Source:

Figure 3. 7 House with timber structure and timber

Armand et al., 2015)

wall in 2015 (Source: Armand et al., 2015)33

Addressing The Issue of Affinity
Use of brick, concrete and timber material could be assumed to be generally liked, accommodating
permanent use or allows change from temporary into permanent. The same cannot be said for the usage ofparticular bamboo wall in Yogyakarta case. Past research has linked the aspect of affinity with aesthetic ofbamboo material. Aesthetic is among the limitation for the material use and at worst, bamboo frequently
dubbed as ‘poor man’s timber’.
Past study suggest that after disaster, western-style concrete structures were sometimes requested as being
representative of ‘development’ and ‘progress’ (Kennedy et. Al, 2008). Including in Yogyakarta
reconstruction, individual beneficiary prefers more cement, sand and reinforcing steel compared to woven
bamboo (Macrae & Hodgkin, 2011).
As compromise for such beneficiary expectation, use of plastered bamboo wall proposed to aestheticallyprovide permanent looking and impervious wall, not unlike many Indonesia houses, including in Yogyakarta.
Among such plastered bamboo wall which was proposed for Indonesia (Tanuwidjaja, 2014; Auman,
Widyowijatnoko & Wonorahardjo, 2018) were derived from Latin American technique of bahareque, also
used in the Philippines.
In addition to extensive use of woven bamboo for transtitional shelter, one proposed building was also
completed in Kasongan, Yogyakarta which used hybrid technique. With wet wall type, it followed trial in
Japan (Fujiwara et al., 2009). Its research and development concerned with shoddy image or perception ofbamboo material, affecting its use limited to annexes and temporary buildings. One aim of the technology isto provide durability while resulting in an image of modern architecture. While not adopted widely, thebuilding end up with fitting function (considering earthen material) as a ceramics visitor center.

3.2.3 Lesson from Literature on Post-disaster housing
The issue of choosing primarily temporary option for post-disaster housing has been considereddisadvantageous if seen from resource, cost and sustainability. While Temporary shelter often consideredneither cost-effective nor sustainable due to its limited durability, often times it might end up used longer andresult in insufficient way of living.
Suggestions to use beyond temporary particularly through transition into durable solution, encompassed
under the term of transitional shelter. It intends to address the insufficiency of temporary housing while also
followed the ‘build back- better’ approach to reconstruction. This is considered to be a key point forclarifying the potential and to expand the possibilities of bamboo use for post-disaster housing. To this end,
34

past suggestion are seen to mainly address life-span and affinity, notably using Latin American wet wall ofbahareque.

3.2.3 Case Study of Bamboo Use In Post Disaster Housing
Considering overwhelming support for usingg post-disaster housing beyond temporary, it is seen asnecessary to examine the past case of bamboo for transitional housing and even in temporary housing, where
durability is also suggested to be relevant.
To better illustrate the phases, issues and challenges of post-disaster housing, case studies are presented onfollowing section to covers temporary and transitional phase which use bamboo material on a large scale,sheltering tens of thousands beneficiaries.
The case study 1 examine the temporary shelter in the area of Cox’s Bazaar Bangladesh. It follows
temporary designation and faced various limitations, among which have been gathered from design
practitioners, whose effort in the same area have been acknowledged, particularly by the Aga Kahn Award
for Architecture in 2022. Many of self-build shelter also exhibited effort towards more durable dwelling.
The case study 2 in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, examines use of bamboo beyond temporary designation,
precisely employing transitional approach. To do so, data on reconstruction in 2006, are first gathered fromliterature. Factors which supported the choice of bamboo material has been summarized in last chapter(Table 2.1), seen from its initial implementation in 2006.
While change toward permanent is the nature of any transitional design, it is still not much researched if thebamboo shelter in Yogyakarta could accommodate permanent use or fill the gap by transitioning from
temporary into permanent. To clarify this, the condition of the bamboo temporary shelter in 2015 has also
been examined from secondary data from survey by Dr. Chiho Ochiai.
Limitation must be admitted, as initial purpose of the survey was to examine housing change. While somechange also affect the bamboo use beyond floor plan drawings, photographs are not available on majority ofbamboo use and modification. Regardless, the finding from the data deemed to be representative on originaluse of the bamboo shelter by 2015, seen from the floor plan and dimension. While not exhaustive, it also
provide examples of bamboo use after reconstruction as well as the prevalence of self-building.

35

3.2.4 Case Study 1: Bamboo Temporary Post Disaster Housing (Cox’s Bazaar, Bangladesh)

Figure 3. 8 Location of Cox’s Bazaar in Bangladesh (Shelter Projects, 2019)

Introduction and Background of Shelter Provision
The Government of Bangladesh (GoB) has outlawed the construction of permanent and semi-permanent
structures in both temporary camps and refugee camps (Martin, 2017). Emergency response are mainly
temporary shelter, among which is the emergency shelter kits (ESK). However, most agencies were initiallyonly able to answer with an acute version of these items that excluded bamboo.
Despite the delayed progress toward achieving ESK targets, the bamboo demand was finally met since many
refugees themselves brought back bamboo from surrounding forests or bought in marketplaces, which the
refugee families self-purchased. One of the used species, bamboo Mulli (Melocanna bambusoides) has been
considered less costly than timber for families to build their house, at only one-third of timber cost.
Availability also supported with most vendor sold bamboo, instead of timber (Martin, 2017).
Design of The House
For the emergency response, emergency shelter kits (ESK) made of rope, bamboo, and tarpaulin are createdby the shelter industry. For the follow up, shelter upgrade kit (USK) as part of second phase aims to improveliving conditions, with the design included bamboo, tarps, repairs, tools, and technical support. Without
guideline for typical design, the commonly used material are the full culm bamboo structure supporting
bamboo split with grid arrangement for wall, covered with shelter-grade tarpaulin sheets.

36Construction worker
There have been many builders involved in the sheltering process. Coming from Rohingya community as
well as Bangladesh nationals, main contribution came from non-skilled and semi-skilled worker. It mainly
utilized simple tools, occasionally supported with only light machinery. Among construction process which
was stated more difficult is in making woven bamboo. To address this, alternative bamboo grid arrangement
has been used for wall (Figure 3.10).
Life-span and Consideration for Transition
While the Bangladesh government did not allowed the shelters to be permanent, durability has been also
considered an important aspect. It was one aspect criticized for the bamboo shelter in case of Cox’s bazar, as
life-span has been predicted as little as 3 months - 4 year, due to concern on bamboo structure's treatment &connection with the ground (Kaminski, 2018).
While extending life-span of bamboo through preservation process has been considered difficult (Kaminski,2018), architect R suggested that treatment has been don for extending life span in some case some caseusing chemical process. In addition, durability by design also contributed mainly through roof overhang forshading and protection from rain.
Possible technique has also been proposed to improve life-span and design in general, such as hybrid use
with material such as wood and metal. Also use of easy to replace bamboo covering, protecting lessdisposable structural column (Figure 3.10). Also other possible solution is use of mud plaster also considered(Kaminski, 2018).

Figure 3. 9 Use of bamboo for pier, wall androof (source: Kaminski, 2018)37

Figure 3. 10 Use of bamboo gridand cladding of bamboo column(source: Kaminski, 2018)

Figure 3. 11 Mud as recommended
solution improving bamboo durability
when preservation not viable.
(Source: Kaminski, 2018)

3.2.5 Case Study 2: Bamboo Transitional Shelter (Yogyakarta, Indonesia)

Figure 3. 12 Yogyakarta Earthquake, 2006( source: http://news.bbc.co.uk)

Introduction and Background of Shelter Provision
Indonesia is one of the most disaster prone country, but many houses are not built to resist earthquake despite
its frequency. As the consequence, vulnerability quite high among other developing countries (Okazaki,2018). Such vulnerability surfaced after 2006 earthquake in Yogyakarta, with around 7.4% of housing stock
destroyed (BAPPENAS, 2018).
The 6.3 Richter scale earthquake struck Yogyakarta and surrounding areas on 27 May 2006. The fatalities
are 5,700 people dead and more than 20,000 injured. Material damage consisted of more than 600,000, witharound half of the number were destroyed.

38

Learning from many critique on Aceh Tsunami case in 2004, defensive stance of Government of Indonesia(GoI) are by prioritizing one step policy. It opted to went directly from tents and tarpaulins into permanent
housing (Macrae & Hodgkin, 2011). Within a year of the earthquake, the GoI Permanent Housing Program
was able to provide the earthquake-affected people with 150,000 permanent houses (Worldbank, 2008), withthe term almost exclusively translated as building with confined masonry.
In addition to the government, among the largest response was from within the country, with diversity ofprivate actors and organization. They are also backed up by international response, with improved
preparedness due to anticipation of the eruption of nearby Mount Merapi (JRF,2011). Many organization
responded in phases: initial distribution of emergency items, followed by a transitional shelter which was
implemented by the organization using cash grants, either to individuals or to local organization.
Many non government organizations (NGOs) considered emergency shelter still necessary, thus some ofthem such as the Java Reconstruction fund (JRF), IRFC and PMI decided to integrate transitional shelter,
despite initial reluctance and differing policy of the GoI. Its adoption increasingly urgent with the closing ofrainy season as a sheltering roof become quintessential, especially addressed through the ‘roof-first’ strategy.
Potential disadvantages arise as those who would accept transitional shelter would not get subsidy from thegovernment for reconstruction. Artificial distinction had been done in order to avoid this, by dubbing the
shelter as roof structure unit (RSU). It was done for sake of beneficiary’s eligibility, in the eye of thegovernment. Receipt of the RSU or the transitional shelter kits in the end did not impact the eligibility of
beneficiaries to qualify for permanent housing assistance. The provision of the RSU was racing with theprovision of the permanent houses by government (Worldbank, 2008) and during its development, the needfor RSU depleted as a result of rapid permanent house reconstruction, by the government.
Design of The House
The initial design of bamboo transitional shelter (RSU) follow common guidelines based on traditional
bamboo frame construction, considered as engineered versions of the simple buildings (Macrae & Hodgkin,2011). It follows the ‘roof-first’ strategy and also dubbed as roof structure unit (RSU), which typicallyconsisted of a wind and weatherproof bamboo structure. The 6-by-4-meter rectangular bamboo framebuilding features a hipped roof, a door at the front, and two windows on each side. The wall made use of
woven bamboo. Various patterns were proposed, but main use is woven plait-work, with ‘kepang’ pattern.
The bamboo wall was usually non-rendered. but with some instance of paint. Also to note are pre-cutting ofwall panels, with woven bamboo and split bamboo frame components which were manufactured on locallyset manufacturing facilities.

39

Construction Worker
Considering effectiveness of participatory construction in mass-housing. the program saw around 60.000
locals trained in building earthquake resistant bamboo shelter, as a result around 12.500 families had built it(Shelter projects, 2017).
Life-span and Consideration for Transition
By separating the frame from the foundations, the structure may be transported and re-used. While thecomponents can be recycled for use in long-term home construction. Upgrading the shelter walls withmasonry or other very heavy materials to a high level is not recommended. According to technical review bystructural consultant (ARUP, 2010), such upgrade might attracts even greater seismic loads causing theframe of the structure to perform poorly in an earthquake. To this end, durability is important consideration
which depends on the quality of the bamboo material, its treatment, and the condition of the matting. Some
recommendation on durability suggested that bamboo should be treated before casting into concrete and theframe members should also be treated to prevent rot and insect attack.

Figure 3. 13 Early model of the T-Shelter(Source: BAPPENAS, 2018)

Figure 3. 14 Evaluation Drawing of the T-Shelter(Source: ARUP, 2010)

Revisiting Bamboo Use in Post Disaster Housing of Yogyakarta
In this study, the use of bamboo in Yogyakarta reconstruction as roof structure unit (RSU) in 2006 has beengathered from literature. As change toward permanent is the nature of any transitional design, and it being
the initial intention of the organization, the condition of the BTS in 2015 has also been examined fromsecondary data on two series of field surveys by Dr. Chiho Ochiai. Data of the first survey contains

40information on all surveyed house owner's and general house modification which are observed from 97
house in September - October 2015.
The use of the bamboo wall is identified mainly from floor plans, with some detailed measurement on houses
had been gathered on the second survey, including the position of wall and room function. The use oforiginal BTS also indicated in floor plan or could be predicted based on wall material and original space areaof the BTS. The owner involvement is also examined, particularly the plan to change bamboo material aswell as their participation in self-build construction.

Table 3. 2 Bamboo Use in House Samples in Serut Hamlet, Yogyakarta, 2015
(Source: Survey data by Chiho Ochiai)
Survey 1
Location

Serut Hamlet

Surveyed house

97 units

House with Bamboo Wall (Total in 2015 (A+B+C) 31 units
Function of room with bamboo wall
A - Other use

17 units

B - (kitchen, storage)

9

C - Use of Bamboo shelter from 2006 (RSU)

5 Units

Survey 2
Total house surveyed

15

Bamboo Wall Usage in 2015

6

Plan to change bamboo part4

Use of self-build in construction

14

41

The use of bamboo for transitional was advocated by various NGOs, aimed towards permanent solution.
However, it seems that there is no need for beneficiary to connect the transitional shelter using bamboo(RSU) to directly transitions toward permanent solution. Due to government support for more permanent
type, construction of permanent housing with non-bamboo material has happened regardless of initialbamboo structure.

Figure 3. 15 Bamboo Wall Use in Surveyed House, 2015

In small percentage of cases, inhabitants turn the bamboo structure into annexes which has been used forservice room function such as kitchen and storage. This living combination of temporary shelters andpermanently restored homes saw the former has only been used for kitchen or bathroom, where comparably
used briefly by inhabitants. Similar situation of such living combination has also been reported in othervillage (Hayashi et al., 2006).
To some extents, the RSU provided alternative to heavy non-engineered structure prevalent before thedisaster. It did mainly for essential but less frequented space in a house. Further question arise whether this isalso due to less preferences and affinity, to inhabit room made of bamboo.

42

Figure 3. 16 Reuse of Pre-cut Panel assumed from printed PMI logo (Source: Ochiai)

Figure 3. 17 plait-work bamboo wall for kitchen and shower area. The right one assumed new in2015 from difference in floor-plan with the 2006 RSU(Source: Ochiai)

Summary of Case Study 2: Yogyakarta
The use of bamboo transitional shelter in Yogyakarta within the roof first strategy which was initiallypromoted by various NGOs might be intended to offers better alternative than temporary shelter. It tried toaddress the need for transitioning, which considers the inevitability of extended use towards permanent
housing. At the same time, it could be seen to contribute towards 'building back better', with lighter
construction and mainly with renewable material from nature, as alternative to heavy non-engineered
structures which were prevalent before the disaster. Initially it promised many potential through bamboo use
for post-disaster housing (table 2.2). As comparison, previous literature exhibits construction for permanentliving area more oftern used reinforced concrete. Also to note is the use of timber for the transitional purpose,
outside of case study (figure 3.7). With longer time elapsed after disaster in Yogyakarta, self-build has been43

found to be involved in majority of house modification. However, instead of lighter bamboo material, mostof the surveyed self-building samples, used heavier concrete and brick material. The use of such material
through self-build could be considered risky, considering them as heavy and non-engineered.

Figure 3. 18 Number of Self-build Practice and Plan to Change Material among 15 Houses

By concluding the case study with the situation in 2015, it was found that the bamboo shelter build first as
RSU has been unable to achieve its aim to transition and end up being temporarily used for living, withbamboo as wall material used nominally. While it is not possible to observe change of material when seen on
the floor plan, many case still using bamboo exhibited living combination of temporary shelters andpermanently restored homes. The former mostly used as annexes containing kitchen and bathroom, where
inhabitant only uses briefly and considered as a service function.
Despite its transitional intention, upgrading shelter walls with masonry or other very heavy materials to ahigh level is not recommended (ARUP, 2012). On the other hand, alternative for upgrade the wall of bamboo
structure to become more permanent has not been disseminated.
Summary of The Two Case Study
The two presented cases study provides examples on the use of bamboo for post-disaster housing, both for
temporary and transitional purpose, albeit initially. Used within the dry wall technique, the type of bamboo
wall used is woven plait-work bamboo in Case 2, while the case 1 also adopted similar one, examined more
for this study is the type of bamboo with grid arrangement.

44

Comparing to literature review on potential of bamboo for post-disaster housing (table 2.2) both case study
support that among bamboo potentials are its environmental impact and easy localization, based on the
aspect of cost, availability and self-build.
For the aspect of extended life-span, bamboo construction can not end up as permanent in both cases and it
was different with initial intention of transitional shelter in case 1 (Yogyakarta). What has been seen instead
was living combination of temporary shelters and permanently restored homes, with the former use issomewhat extended.
When seen for the affinity towards the bamboo wall type, woven plait-work wall which was used in
Yogyakarta has often been considered as suitable for the tropical climate. However, its lack of use forpermanent living function might signal the function of shelter not only for sheltering against climate, but also
to contributes in providing safety for inhabitants, their belongings, property rights, privacy and emotional
security. It might be better received if appropriate with its inhabitants normal pattern of life, not only thepresumed cultural context. Past proposals on bamboo wall —often aim to extend the life-span in addition toaddressing the issue of affinity— should also considered this perspective on shelter function.

Table 3. 3 Summary of post-disaster housing case study 1 and 2
Basic Information
Country

Indonesia

Bangladesh

Disaster type

Natural disaster (earthquake)

Human induced disaster anddisplacement

Housing need

up to 600,000 houses (half of which werecollapsed)

180,000 households

LocaleBantul, Yogyakarta

Cox's Bazaar

Shelter phaseexamined

Transitional Shelter

Temporary Shelter

Shelter strategy
Involving bamboo
material

Roof Structure Units (RSU)

Emergency sheltering kits (ESK)and
upgraded sheltering kits (USK)

DamageMaterial cost (per-unit) 260CHF/ 205 USD (2006 value)

155 USD (for USK)

Project cost (per-unit)

330CHF/ 260 USD

208 USD (for USK)

Support on durable
housing

Government

prohibited by government, yet durability
recommended by practitioner-not possible to rely on treated bamboo (thus-not possible to rely on treated bamboo

Bamboo Construction
Hindering durability

45

less durable)-wall type not common to plaster(thus less durable)

Bamboo species

Dendroclamus Asper and Gigantochloa Apus

(Borak) Bambusa balcooa, (Muli)
Melocanna bambusoides, and others (intotal of six species)

Structure and wallconstruction

Full culm structure with woven plait-work
wall

Full culm structure and grid wall of split
bambooUse of bamboo wall

Woven plait-work (Type 3B)
Other than main type, various patterns areproposed

Bamboo Grid (Type 4)
with no plaster (dry method)notable as it provide easier alternative to
weavingFunction
accommodated using
bamboo construction

 transitional dwelling was no longer
utilized for permanent living area
 Services functions → Kitchen, Life-stock,
and Storage-temporary dwelling

Self-build forconstruction

 Construction of RSU in 2006 mainly
owner driven, benefit from training anduse of pre-cut wall panel From data on second survey in 2015 ,most building modification is owner
driven, although bamboo is much lessusedmain contribution came from non-skilled
and semi-skilled worker.

Construction potential -use of woven bamboo pre-cut infabrication facilities which then supportedby owner-driven
 -although limited in number and function,bamboo use has been extended up to
2015: reused, use in combination withbrick

 Durability improvement on structure
through cladding of structuralmember Use of bamboo grid wall for
temporary require cover of tarpaulinsheeting, however it should bepossible to upgrade it for wet walltechnique of plastered bamboo

Issue

By 2015 bamboo was less used than
predominant type before disaster, which is
non-engineered confined masonry

Durability improvement deemednecessary, even for temporary shelter but
difficult to find bamboo with good gradeand preservation

3.3 Lesson from Post-disaster Housing Cases
The selected case of post-disaster housing in Bantul, Yogyakarta Indonesia and Cox's Bazaar, Bangladesh,considered the large need of housing which has been exceptionally addressed by extensive adoption ofbamboo material. Lesson and issue will be seen on the aspects of extended life-span, compatibility with selfbuilding, availability of material, low-environmental impacts and affinity.
a)Extended Life SpanIn Cox’s bazaar, it can be learned that selectivity of the bamboo quality and reliance on its treatment were
often not possible, considering the large scale and tight time-frame of post-disaster housing. Shown throughboth cases study, the most commonly used is local-species of bamboo without preservation.

46

Transition from temporary into permanent extends the material life-span, has not been observed in building
element of wall in both cases. It has been suggested even in case 1, despite intended use for temporary
housing. Not only technical advisors, beneficiaries also offered valuable solutions towards improvement
durability to allow extended period of use, without changing the main material. Hybrid technique has also
been practiced, for instance is bamboo column clad split bamboo or tarpaulin, which are easy to replace.
Alternatively, use of mud plaster has also been suggested for Cox’s Bazaar (Kaminski, 2018) and practiced
in Yogyakarta (Fujiwara et al., 2014), all of which aim to protect bamboo elements from water action (figure3.6), through the use of more resistant elements of wet wall technique. This is especially considering thatgrid bamboo wall used as infills in Cox's bazaar is more commonly wet wall technique, where it is plastered
to allow semi-permeable and more permanent wall.
b)

Self-build:

Implementation of the emergency sheltering kits (ESK) and upgraded sheltering kits (USK) in Cox’s Bazaar
as well as Roof Structure Units (RSU) in Yogyakarta, has relied on owner-driven construction. To someextent it has been possible because the simple construction technique and choice of slightly transformed
bamboo material. Grid wall is chosen in Cox’s bazaar as it is less challenging to process and to weave thanwoven wall, while in Yogyakarta, the woven plait-work wall panel involved remote fabrication. The gridwall type could use split bamboo directly while the plait-work often required skill for shaving and thinning
the softer inside skin to make the split more flexible before it is woven, which then again, require specificskills.
c)

Low- cost and Availability

Possibility of self-build construction and choice of slightly transformed material might also seen to address
the budgetary constraint. Despite emergency context in two different location, the material and project cost isequally low (table 3.3). In the case of Cox's bazaar, the low-cost allow families to purchase or source thebamboo using their own resource, with the shelter practitioner R consider that bamboo is pretty much grows
in their ‘backyard’ thus widely available. Such reduced cost might also the result of reduced material use.
Bamboo grid wall type displayed potential to reduced material use with its gaps and spacing, compared tobamboo wall with continuous surface such as in woven wall.
d)Environmental impacts

Seen favorable, the environmental impact of bamboo construction is related with the above mentioned
potential of extended life-span, local availability, reduced cost and material use. Use of bamboo also has
potential in avoiding deforestation in both cases, compared to using slower growing timber species.

47

e)

Affinity

While bamboo construction shows extended use from 2006 to 2015 in case 2, it had been used as part ofliving combination of temporary shelters and permanently restored homes. Self-build has been found to be
involved in majority of case of house modification. Such modification mostly use concrete and brickmaterial, instead of bamboo material whose skill reportedly trained after disaster. Compared to continued useof such modern material or timber (Armand et al., 2015), the limited utilization of bamboo could be seen to
imply problem of affinity. In past proposals, such problem often tackled by together problem of life-span.

48

Chapter 4

Bamboo Wall Technique in Vernacular Architecture: Cases and Types Study

This chapter will clarify the use of bamboo material under the context of vernacular architecture, focusing on
the scope of building elements of wall. Indonesian and Japanese cases are selected to represents two basic
type of dry and wet bamboo wall technique. The vernacular cases exhibited use of bamboo with extended
period not seen in post-disaster housing case in previous chapter. Following five specific types of bamboo
wall suggested on chapter 2, the use of bamboo material in each case provide examples of all types. Six main
potentials of availability, life-span, self-build, cost, environmental impact and affinity, are seen on each wall
type provides links to previous case of use of bamboo in context of post-disaster housing.

4.1 Bamboo in Vernacular Architecture
Vernacular Architecture seen From Framework of Sustainable Principle

Prior to examining bamboo material under the context of vernaculnar architecture, the term vernacular willrefer to Bernard Rudofsky (1964), Paul Oliver (1997) and Eric Mercer (1975) which mainly related tonotion of popular or people architecture, architecture without architects (Oliver, 2003) and especially refer totraditional construction.

Figure 4. 1 Vernacular Sustainable (VerSus) highlights broad principles of vernacular architecture including similiar
requirements with post-disaster housing: 14 (To Extend Building’s Lifetime) and 11 (to Support Autonomy or Selfbuild) (source: modified from Guillaud et al., 2014)49

Following the set definitions of vernacular architecture, principles of vernacular has been formulated(Guillaud et al., 2014) particularly through relation with its merit of sustainability and termed as Vernacular
Sustainable principles (VerSus) published in 2015. As part of Culture 2007-2013 programme of The
European Union, the publication visualized the wheel method which considered the environmental, sociocultural and socio-economic sustainable principles of vernacular architecture not only in Europe. This wheel
method (Figure 4.1) provides an operative approach and a clear framework to examine practices used invernacular architecture, many of which utilize bamboo construction.

4.1.1 Bamboo Dry Wall Technique in Indonesian and Japanese Vernacular Architecture
Among the 1250 species of bamboo in the world, 11% are native to Indonesia. Because it grows fast and inquantity, bamboo is an ubiquitous material which is affordable and interchangeable for common usage by
low-income populations (Larasati, 1999). Most widely utilization bamboo for Indonesia is for infill wall,
found in vernacular architecture such as in West Java, Bali and Lombok Island. In such examples, timber
frame structure allows the use of light and non-structural bamboo wall, mostly made of woven split bamboo,
with countless of patterns (Frick, 2004). Among the woven, plait work type wall can be considered morecommon in Indonesia, followed by looser wicker work type.
Considering the climate context, it is considered difficult to construct bamboo walls that are airtight andleak-proof. On the other hand, it made cross ventilation comes naturally. Coupled with low thermal storageof the material, incorporating ventilation has been considered the definitive use of the material in warm andhumid regions, particularly where bamboo is growing (Lara & Espinosa, 2019). However, with increasingtime indoor more widespread use of window for fenestration, ventilating function of the 'breathable' wall stillneed more research.

Figure 4. 2 Bamboo infill walls in vernacular architecture in West Java, Bali and Lombok (L to R)(Source:
author)50

Alternative to direct use of bamboo through the dry wall technique, some case of traditional bamboo wall inIndonesia also plastered with lime mix or cow dung (Auman et al., 2018). Despite different climate inIndonesia, 'wet' wall construction has also been advocated for transitional shelter, allowing incremental
plastering of bamboo wall as substrate which has been practiced to extend building life. For this practice
however, woven plait-work bamboo seldom used in Indonesia with limited research experimented withplastering it (Idris & Lovian, 1996).
Despite various benefits, wide adoption of bamboo material in Indonesia has faced barriers, among them are
related with government policy related such as ineffective action, no incentive or even direct targeting,particularly the widely used plait-work wall has been the target of replacement since Dutch era (Ignasia,
2008)(Armand et al., 2015) and New Order era (Djajadiningrat, 1995).
Even traditionally, such wall not always used prominently. As example In important building such palace, inWest Sumatra’s, Pagaruyung, bamboo walls is (mostly) the back of the palace. (Sabtelasari & Valentinovich,2022).

4.1.2 Bamboo Wet Wall Technique in Japanese Vernacular Architecture
In Japan, homogeneous way of using bamboo as primary material has been limited to temporary building
type or use in secondary element of fences or Take gaki (竹垣 ).With rich variation of intricate fences they
were hardly ever constructed outside Japan and has closer relationship with Zen and the tea ceremony,
originally built around and named after Zen temples (Yoshikawa, 2001) such as Kinkaku-ji or Kennin-ji.
Hybrid use of bamboo saw more use for architecture and primary elements of wall. Japanese houses havetraditionally been made from a mixture of wood, mud, bamboo, grass and paper with bamboo use in Kyoto
dates far back to the Heian period (8th-12th centuries) (Tanaka et al., 1996). Long-standing practices include
the usage of bamboo-reinforced structures most commonly for earthen wall base or substrate materials inform of bamboo grid or takekomai for traditional wooden buildings. Since roughly 800 A.D., such earthen
wall technique of tsuchikabe has been passed down from one generation to the next, considered establishedaround the year 1600 and has subsequently supported the construction of homes (Yokobayashi & Sato, 2015).
Tsuchikabe -土壁 which literally means earthen wall is considered as part of traditional skills, techniques
and knowledge for the conservation and transmission of wooden architecture in Japan according to
UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (2020). Tsuchikabe has also considered as part ofpromotion of Japanese housing by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (Uno, 2019).

51

In case in Japan, the technique also often inseparable with bamboo as it main component, in form of Wattleof bamboo grid lashed by rope. While initial form of tsuchikabe has been suggested to use basketry type of
woven bamboo, the tying with rope become preferred to weaving because better grab or bonding of the mud
as daub and the wattle (Reynolds, 2009).
The second and more visible main element is trowel finishing of soil mixed with straw over it to maintain athin soil layer within the sakan (左官) plaster technique. While very high technique often reserved to tea
houses, it also widely found on ordinary houses such as minka, dozo, machi-ya (Figure 4.3 & 4.4) etc.
Considering Japan's moderate to cold climates, 90% of people time is spent in enclosed environments,
making indoor climate a critical component of wellbeing. A recently discovered is that other building
material can balance indoor humidity like the earth or loam and in a climatic chamber at 95% humidity,
standing for six months, such loam do not become wet or lose their stability (Minke, 2006). Suchcharacteristics, also applicable to hybrid bamboo wall method, where bamboo used compositely with earth
including in Japan (Mizunuma et al., 2008).
Considering affinity, while Tsuchikabe in Japan are associated with practicality, health and sophistication(Hijioka et al, 2013), there also considered some negative views. For instance clay-walling was despised as it
took time and money (Mizunuma, 2003) (Yokobayashi & Sato, 2015) including for its maintenance(Reynolds, 2009). Some of the concern seem understandable, considering commonly high techniqueinvolving highly skilled Sakan-ya or plasterer. While positive affinity might contribute to better reception ofuse of bamboo and mud for wall, including for Post-disaster housing, the time and cost might render it
unsuitable.

Figure 4. 3 Minka in Shikoku

Figure 4. 4 Traditional town-house (Machiya) in Kurashiki (Source: Perez-rodriguez)524.2 Introduction to Case Studies of Bamboo Wall in Vernacular Architecture
Last chapter presents two case studies on use of bamboo for post-disaster housing, specifically use thematerial for wall, as focus of this study. The wall element in cases of Yogyakarta and Bangladesh seen as
mainly direct use of bamboo within dry wall method. Considering its transitional designation, the case of
Yogyakarta has been found to have problem concerning the aspect of life-span and presumably, affinity. Thisurge the need to reexamine dry wall type with predominant woven plait-work wall type used in Indonesia, by
taking two case as example of bamboo use in vernacular architecture, in West Java and Lombok island (casestudy 1 and 2) as well as in Japan (Case 3, Kyoto bamboo craftsman).
With the potential of wet wall as common suggestion found in both post-disaster case in last chapter, theJapanese case studies taken for this chapter considers wet wall as predominant wall type in Japan, with its
bamboo element called takekomai bears some resemblance with grid bamboo used in post-disaster case of
Cox’s Bazaar. Such bamboo within wet technique or wattle and daub based on Asian bamboo wall provide
alternative technique which is arguably more obscure than Latin American technique.

4.2.1 Case Study 1 : Bamboo Dry Wall (Desa Sade, Lombok Island)
The Sade Traditional Village (Desa Sade), is located in Rembitan, Pujut district, on the southern flat but hilly
area of Lombok Island, Indonesia, between 120 and 126 meters above sea level. Desa Sade was inhabited ina circular shape because it was perched on a hill (Subiyantoro, 2018). In Sade, just 20% of the village area issuggested to be built up, the remainder is open space. The 150 homes, two mosques, a meeting room, five
public restrooms, and a rice barn make up the developed area (Wulandari, 2002).

Figure 4. 5 Sade, Lombok Island, Indonesia

Figure 4. 6 Native bamboo near Sadevillage area

Inhabited by Sasak ethnic group, Desa Sade is led by village head elected by the people. The kinship system
in Dusun Sade is patrilineal and followed by patrilocal settlement system (Yusuf & Sukandi, 1987). When a53male child is married, he will usually build a new house around his parents house, with the village customary
law restricted the number of houses up to 150, as seen during survey in 2021.
Regarded as cultural heritage area (cagar budaya) the number of the village houses have been kept at 150
units. Around 700 inhabitants are currently living in similar type of dwelling, called Bale Tani. For suchhouse, bamboo material is used for wall and roof structure. Other use of bamboo is for the public open
pavilion of Berugak, which floor are constructed of bamboo split and currently lashed with nylon strings.
Various types of bamboo on the production forest near the village are used, with some with uniquecharacteristic such as thick culm wall or spotted pattern etc. For wall, the woven plait-work bamboo act as
infill to post and beam which has been made using timber such as teak, coconut wood. or mahogany. The
bamboo wall is only thinly plastered with lime render and could be considered as dry type. Together withshading of the low thatch roof they protect the wall, thus it is not replaced as often as the roof, which is 7 or
10 years.
The preservation of bamboo has relied on natural elements of water and fire. As a result, the bamboo roof
rafter can last up to 20 year and some houses has lasted up to seventy years. The cultivated bamboo poles are
soaked for several months in a river and the ones with best condition are selected. In addition, the installedbamboo rafter especially in the kitchen, will be benefited from the exposure to smoke from cooking activities.
The appearance of the bamboo rafter get darker and according to the villager, it gained improved bug andtermite resistance to the point of extending the material life time several decades.
The average villager has good knowledge on building materials. Beyond weekly maintenance of clay andrice husk with cow dung, the know-how has been also possessed to construct their own house withincommunity work, including the village wide renovation.

Figure 4. 7 Exterior and Interior view of the woven-plait work bamboo wall54

4.2.2 Case Study 2 : Bamboo Dry Wall (Naga Traditional Village, West Java)
The Naga Traditional Village (Kampung Naga) is well known nationally as an example of self-sufficient
community. Located in Salawu district of Tasikmalaya Regency, West Java, Indonesia, the topography of
Kampung Naga Village area is a combination of hill and foothills with the west part is higher than the east
where the Ciwulan river flows. Because it may be used for both residential and agricultural purposes, theland is regarded as being in an ideal location. Its forested areas can be divided into two groups: sacred forests(leuweung karamat) and protected forests (leuweung tutupan), both of them are covered by the customary
law.

Figure 4. 8 Naga VIllage, Tasikmalaya,

Figure 4. 9 Large open space in center ofIndonesia

area with white lime plastered plait-workwall in the backgound

Sundanese ethnic group composed the residents of Kampung Naga. Two groups make up the community:
one group resides inside the community and the other group resides outside, in the Sanaga settlement(Gunara, 2017). Ki Kuncen, who serves as both an administrator and a traditional manager, is the highest
ranking leader, whose position is passed down from generation to generation (Gunara et al., 2019). The
community is organized within cluster, with a large open area in the middle (Figure 4.9). Customary
regulations dictate that structures as restrooms and livestock pens, must be located outside of an area of 1.5
hectare and only wood or bamboo may be used for construction, that palm fiber may only be used for roofs(Retnowati & Kurniasih, 2019).
Home construction is always guided by the teachings of the locals' ancestors. Utilizing contemporary
construction tools is considered to bring misfortunes are main requirements of the house are as protection
from the elements, including rain, wind, sunlight, and wild animals instead of against enemy (Hermawan,2014). While the custom preserve building tradition, it is not static. Adaptation has been allowed to newer
technique, such as case of adopting modern glass for window and skylight.

55

It is also suggested that bamboo technique extensively used for wall also has changed. In older houses,
bamboo wall use woven wicker-work type of bamboo (sasag) (figure 4.4). Newer houses still use such loose
woven wall, mainly for kitchen wall to prevents fire being left out in the kitchen without other people
noticing. Otherwise, other kind of woven plait-work wall (kepang) has been used in most of the house wall.
Beside kitchen wall, bamboo material has been used for house floor, also contributing to permeability andairflow. Main use of bamboo for infill wall is supported with structure of abasia timber for the frame.
Initially timber has also been used for foundation, but replaced with stone in current condition.

Figure 4. 10 Use of woven wicker-work(kitchen-left) and plait-work typeFigure 4. 11 Larger use of wicker-work typeon older house typeFigure 4. 12 Interior view of the house withplait-work type, also visible are the lime
plaster and pores between the tight weave

Figure 4. 13 Drawing of wicker-work used
for kitchen and ventilation panel

56

Preservation of bamboo material done with submersion technique, with cultivated bamboo poles are soaked
for several months in a river, then the ones with best condition are selected. The wall are mostly fromwoven
bamboo (kepang) with lime render without using paint.

4.2.3 Case Study 3 : Bamboo Dry Wall and Wet Wall (Kyoto Bamboo Craftsman and Plasterer School)
The main information for this case study is gathered from two interview. The interview with bamboo
Craftsman N provide perspective on dry type of bamboo which consist of four types established in second
chapter (Type 1 to 4; Figure 4.14).
Second interview with Mud-wall plasterer S, fill the gap, as not only professional plasterer now commonly
make the bamboo grid, their institution also transmit such knowledge to aspiring plasterer. From two
different expertise and also two kinds of basic bamboo wall type it can be inferred key lessons: potential on
aspect of extended life-span and affinity with issues on the aspect of self-build and availability.
Potential of Extended Life-span
Even tough it has decent life-span around ten years, the use of bamboo technique for fence is considered not
permanent. The technique used for fence, also found other valuable role as it had been used for cladding(Shitami-itabari- 下見板張). Similar in appearance with fence such as Tokusa (figure 4.26) & Hishigigaki(4.28) the protective element is a special technique for reducing exposure to elements by covering mud-wall.
The Mud-wall with bamboo grid has been suggested to lasts 110 years or more. In addition the bamboo
substrate could continuously reused if it is kept protected by the mud plaster, not left exposed. However if it
does exposed, it can indicate a repair is needed. For such extended life-span, among important factors is inselecting suitable species for durability, especially to consider its water contents. This is among the factor for
Madake (Phyllostachys bambusoides) becoming the most sought after bamboo species for some companies.
Otherwise, the mud-wall also constructied wiht other species of bamboo or other plants e.g. yoshi or reed ,depending on region of Japan.
If bamboo is used for take-komai, it seldom subjected to preservation (interview, mud-plasterer S) as
chemically treated bamboo has been seen to crack & deteriorate easily (Reynolds, 2009). On the other hand,
dry wall technique and fences making in Japan has involved various traditional technique for preservation ofbamboo such as technique of abura-nuki, hi-aburi etc.

57

Rounded: Tokusa-gaki

Flattened: hishigigaki

Plait-work: interior ceiling use

Bamboo grid: take-komai as substrate
for mud-wallFigure 4. 14 Photographic series: Bamboo wall and fence made by bamboo craftsman and plasterer in Kyoto

Affinity and Issue of Availability
For making fence, Madake bamboo has the most desired look, especially the surface. On the opposite, Moso
bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) which has significant forest area in Japan has an appearance which is not as
desired, considered rough and too thick. Madake is also considered most suitable for use in Kyoto style wall
(Kyo-kabe) as it is a relatively thin type of mud-wall or Shin-kabe with 55mm - 60mm of total wall
thickness.
High aesthetic value of both bamboo fence and mud-wall has been to to large extent decided by the use of
one species of Madake. However on the issue of availability, sourcing Madake bamboo is currently difficult,often requiring supply from other region, particularly Kyushu.
58

Figure 4. 15 Different methods and tools in splitting and flattening Madake bamboo.

Issue of Self-build
While expression of mastery is one principle of vernacular architecture (Guillaud, 2014) on the otherspectrum is the more transferable technique utilizing self-build. The bamboo fence, such as Tokusa andHishigigaki (figure 4.4) is a good example of mastery, when it is well crafted. Starting with transforming thebamboo culm, there are various technique for splitting with traditional tools (figure 4.1 & 4.4). Despite
simple tools, such technique suggested to require specialized skill to split thin walled Madake bamboo.
Moreover the arrangement process require even higher skill.
Traditional mud-wall most often done by professional. Up to around 30 years ago, the wattle part using
bamboo for take-komai was made by take-ya (bamboo craftsman). Afterward, due to decline in demand, thenumber of take-ya also declined. Now for the Mud-wall technique, the plasterer is also expected to make thebamboo wattle. They gained the ability, despite many trial and error during the learning of the new technique.
Compared to intricate technique and specification of the mud part, the bamboo wattle part might beconsidered more simple and shown to be possible for transfer of technique to other profession.
Different with the substrate part, traditional but specialized tools are used for the mud-plastering work
(figure 4.17) namely the plasterer trowel (kotte) which comes in various size, specification and price tag,further confirming the intricacies of the plastering work.

59

Figure 4. 16 Bamboo craftsman tool for splitting
single bamboo pole into different number ofpieces possible ranging from three to nine

Figure 4. 17 Diverse tools used for Sakan
plastering technique4.2.4 Case Study 4: Adapted Wet Wall Technique (Renovation and Artist’s Mudwall Works)
From workshop participation and visit to works by Artist I in Kyoto, Japan, unique approach in making mudwall derived from traditional Tsuchikabe technique has been examined. Potential of such approach areobserved during activities of mud wall repair workshop and visits to projects which involve reuse of resourcein various ways.
The mud-wall repair considers various damage to the wall of Y dormitory. Formerly suggested to be a highschool building, the building was originally build using timber construction including the clap-board
cladding. Beneath the cladding is wall made with traditional mud-wall technique with the interior side isplastered with lime (Shikkui). Most of the damage occur on location which the cladding are cracked,
exposing the mud wall to the elements (figure 4.18).
The two days workshop main activity was repairing and reapplying the wall plaster, with the Artist I
supervising as well as making a exemplary work. The work involved repair at outdoor and indoor side, withat least three and five location respectively. Not only the plaster, some location also require repair of the wall
substrate built using bamboo grid (take-komai - 竹小舞; Figure 4.11).

60

Occurrence of water exposure(outdoor-left) with damage ofwall infill

Hole in the wall to be filled

Other instance of damaged
clapboard corresponding to holeon the mud wall interior side

Hole below window partiallyfilled with ara-nuri (rough wall
mud)

Figure 4. 18 Photographic Series: Mud-wall damage on two location exterior and interior sides

For take-komai (Figure 4.19) the step 1 is to split the round culm of Moso bamboo found near the site, using
hammer. In the step 2, the split bamboo is tried to be arranged first. The step 3 is using the originaltechnique of lashing the bamboo grid with rope of natural fiber, considering also old part of the mud-walland remaining takekomai. Before plaster can be done, step 4 requires the fixing of bamboo grid with drilland bolt in addition to the rope.

61Step 1

Splitting the the culm of
Moso bamboo

Step 2

Preparing the gridarrangement

Step 3

Step 4

Lashing the Bamboo
grid

Adapted method using
drill for fixing

Figure 4. 19 Photographic series: Steps on replacing bamboo grid (take-komai) within adapte techniqueFigure 4. 20 Steps on plastering damaged wall
The workshop activities are followed with visit to artist’s works in a campus of art university, west of Kyoto.
Two buildings made of timber structure and bamboo mud-wall are notable for the improvisation of techniqueand material. The ‘Tsuchi no Ie’ is a circular building in plan, which was built by teams of artist and mostly
art students. It used newly developed mud-wall technique that use double layer of curved bamboo grid(figure 4.21), with gap or cavity. The main intention is to make thick wall, suggested to be resembling mud
wall used in traditional Ookabe style-wall of kura store-house, but with fewer mud used, thus lighter as well.

62

The other nearby building is ‘Tsuchi-ukian’, using mud-wall more resembles more wall which is built using
shin-kabe variant of tsuchi-kabe technique, particularly in its thickness. Like in the first building, the wall isshaded by roof eaves. Different from the Tsuchi no Ie, which roof is thatched from reed (kaya), the latterroof was built using halved bamboo culms of Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) (Figure 4.22). Finised by
2018, the bamboo for the roof were treated with oil in traditional technique of Abura-nuki. By 2022, it has
weathered but serious deteroriation has not really visible, and both the roof and wall have been suggested tosurvive past typhoon, which is trong enough to uprooted some mature trees nearby.

Figure 4. 21 New construction method of Mud-wall with adapted technique for ‘Tsuchi-no-Ie’ (Source:
Inoue, 2021)
Adapted Tsuchikabe Technique
The case study above will be considered as variation of original technique, as an adapted tsuchikabe
technique. The repair work as well as two mud-wall buildings visited have adapted to its immediate area,
using abundant species Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis), different from main species of Madake used in
traditional Japanese buildings.
Continuing the original tsuchikabe technique, the grid is arranged mainly using slightly modified split
bamboo. The split could be considered a simplest type of bamboo arrangement for wattle, possible to bedone by semi-skilled worker. Considered integral part of traditional tsuchikabe technique is the daub part,
utilizing the reversible state of the clay matrix. This allows for seemingly infinite reuse via hydration & mix
of new and old mud material from dormitory building or rammed earth wall found near the campus, fromwhich the earth was saved from being discarded after demolition of the old wall.
One of most work intensive part is in preparing the wall-mud and plastering the wall, originally require highlevel of skill. As an adapted technique, the case study attempted to simplify the preparation and theapplication of the mud plaster, taking into account of participatory nature of the building workshop.
Further adaptation is in applying diverse solutions. While the original tsuchikabe is flat, thin and specialized
work, the result of the works in this case study is wall which is curved, thick (double-layered) and a general63work, undertaken by non-specialist.
The wall repair workshop in Y dormitory exhibited a lesson for a durable and resistant wall. While it is notclear how many past repair, most damage is linked to insufficient protective element (cladding) to the mudwall and the bamboo grid, otherwise protected section show a much better condition. The life-span ofadapted technique in case of ‘Tsuchi no Ie’ also reach around thirteen years, seems with minimal
deterioration after past typhoon, despite such simple technique.

Figure 4. 22 Use of Moso Bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) in Tsuchi-ukian
4.2.5 Case Study 5: Brazilian Tsuchikabe
The case study regards thetechnique transfer of Japanese tsuchikabe after the immigration of many

Japanese families to Brazil. The technique saw use for the construction of their houses. The carried out
interview discussed three cases: research on original Japanese immigrant house, heritage house renovation,
and a Tsuchikabe workshop in 2013.
The Japanese immigrant houses in Ribeira valley, near São Paulo, Brazil utilized Japanese timber
construction and mud-wall tsuchikabe technique for the non-structural infill. Adapting to different context,
the use of material are changed from original Japanese technique by using alternative plant species of jucara(figure 4.24), as it is easier to find than bamboo. As currently it has been considered a protected species,
following case of renovation and workshop had been done with alternative bamboo species, including ones
uncommonly used in Japan, such as Phyllostachys edulis and Bambusa Vulgaris. The latter is not very
compatible for the construction and the workshop at the university of São Paulo. For the plastering material,different with the case of original house which mainly different with used un-fermented soil, the heritage
house renovation used rough wall mix has been prepared 4 months in advance. As a result, it has beensuggested to form a natural polymer, which is impervious thus more durable and similar with originaltechnique in Japan.

64Figure 4. 23 Jucara plant seen from
window of Japanese Immigrant house(source: Hijioka)

Figure 4. 24 Brazilian worker
with takewariki. Split bamboo
used for wall grid in the
background.(source: Hijioka)

The workshop was based and supported by resulting research on the immigrant cases as well as by inviting
professional plasterer (sakan) from Japan. (Figure 4.26). In case of construction by Japanese immigrants a
century ago, the work done with limited supervision, by member of society who has some experience with
mud-wall. Due to limited budget, works done by professional carpenter for timber framing followed byconstruction works by the families themselves, including the helping hands of the children. The preparedness
suggested to made this possible, for instance was the mainly agricultural livelihood provide skill and time forsuch self-building. In addition, it is common for each family to bring complete toolboxes. Furthermore,learning opportunities also gained by exchange with native community, particularly in choosing good species
for building material. It was suggested that using a remotely similar species found in Japan did not went wellin term of durability, while in using different one such as Jucara allowed the mud-wall to last up to a century.

Figure 4. 25 Formerly one house of Japanese Figure 4. 26 Japanese professional
Immigrant in Brazil, now moved to an open plasterer invited for workshop in
air museum in Nagoya
Brazil (Source: Hijioka)

65

There is still uncertainty regarding the aspect of aesthetic and resulting affinity potential. It is suggested that
there has been a new appreciation of the Tsuchikabe in Brazil and it also seen more favorable than native
mud-wall of Pau a pique or Taipa de mão, of which well made examples getting harder to found due todisplacement and security of the owner, often marginalized people. However, it was suggested that in thepast Japanese immigrant living in rural area also saw tsuchikabe less favorable than concrete and brickhouses found in cities.
Based on observation of Kubota house which has been moved from São Paulo and reconstructed in Nagoya,
the refined quality could be seen from the appearance, particularly the white lime-plasterred (Shikkui) wall.
At first glance it difficult to distinguish with any masonry plaster. It could be seen as aesthetic possibility
even from such adapted technique of Tsuchikabe (Figure 4.25). Among the the repertoire of almost 500
houses in in Ribeira valley, they are considered as high quality houses, despite adversities and different
nature from the origin of Tsuchikabe technique. As testament to durability of the wall in such context, arecase of houses have been built more than hundred years ago and still standing. Achieved by appropriation of
three resources of nature, intellect and social. This case is uniqueness allow to asses the use of mud-wall ofJapanese tsuchikabe technique used in tropical context of Brazil.

4.3 Wall Types Observation
4.3.1 Rounded Bamboo Wall - Type 1
The first classification for bamboo wall is the rounded type which is named in the way the main component
still retain cylindrical character of the bamboo culm if seen in its cross section (figure 4.16). This include,
whole (full-culm), halved culms or split culms. Seen from the state of its main component, this type use leasttransformed bamboo compared to subsequent wall types.
Arranged without weaving, some technique use nails instead such as Japanes Tokusa (Figure 4.27) typewhich use unique type of Japanese nail (wa-kugi). Alternatively, new modern tools such as nail gun also
used to drive the nails, in cases found in Lombok and Kyoto. While such new tools improve the ease of
construction, in both case high skill is required to select and arrange well shaped culms, in order to make asolid looking wall with less gaps.
Among various design of this type found in Japan, one type is Kennin-ji fence, named after the famous zen
temple in Kyoto. While considered one of the basic type (Yoshikawa, 2001) it is also sophisticated and often
done with high quality (Kawashima, 1976). While Kennin-ji fence emphasize the horizontal support poles,
the Tokusa type visually dominated by verticality but similarly use a single row of vertical frets, verticalpoles (tateko). With skilled work, well crafted and straight wall can be achieved.

66

Figure 4. 27 Tokusa type Wall

Figure 4. 28 Use of roundedbamboo for cladding the mudwall of tea-house

Figure 4. 29 Rounded type often use full-culm Bamboo

While not really common for main wall in Indonesia, the use of rounded type wall has been observed. In
addition, use of bamboo wall with halved culm has been advised for post-disaster housing proposal(Suriansyah, 2009). In the proposal, the rounded type used for exterior side while the plait work for interiorside, as the former is more weather resistant. Similar with Japanese where it protect mud-wall as a cladding.
It shows the potential of this type as protective element, often easier to replace than the main wall it protects.
The use of vertically arranged and tight rounded bamboo wall like tokusa within dry technique, less common
to be plastered thus often exposed to weather.

67

4.3.2 Flattened - Type 2
The flattened bamboo, also called riven are produced modifying it from culm into flat sheets, possible using
various bamboo species. One of the method is by longitudinally cutting, flattening and removing the softer
interior of the bamboo culms (Vengala & Rao, 2020). Different tool and process also observed in Japan forflattening the primarily used species of Phyllostachys bambusoides (Madake). While it can be done onlywith one tools and without removing softer interior of thinner bamboo it suggested to need higher skill
especially to make a intact sheets from one culm, as seen in case study 3 (figure 4.9).
Depending on the species, skill and tools, the process might be easier. In Indonesian case withDendrocalamus Asper, the job does not require high skill. Such thicker bamboo need additional process ofthinning the thick culm wall, which process discarded most inner part of the bamboo thick culm.

Figure 4. 30 Simpler
processing of flattened wall
type in Lombok Island

Figure 4. 31 Wall sample
using flattened bamboo

Figure 4. 32 Roof of small
pavilion project using flattened
bambooFigure 4. 33 Use of flattened bamboo for cladding (Shitami-itabari) in traditional Japanese house68

Figure 4. 34 Drawing of flattened bamboo wall, based on Japanese hishigigaki.
In case of Latin America, example of flattened bamboo use is called esterilla. It often preferred as alternative
to woven wicker-work type, due to no requirement of weaving process and skill, thus easier. The esterillaalso possible to use as substrate for wet wall technique, plastered with mud or cement if using engineered
bahareque method.
Similar with the type 1 (figure 4.27), flattened bamboo elements often used to clad and protect Japanese
mud-wall (Figure 4.33). This is one potential of this type as protective element which is easy to replace thanthe main wall. Other than use for wall in Indonesia, the flattened bamboo also increasingly used for roof of
bamboo project, often benefit from chemical preservation, such as in Lombok (Figure 4.32) and Bali,
oftentimes the roof reach the ground vertically almost like a wall.

Figure 4. 33 Flattened bamboo wall within dry method, suggested more prevalent in Sikka, Flores, Indonesia after the
1992 earthquake (source: cendananews.com)

4.3.3 Woven Wicker-work - Type 3A
Using dry wall method, various usage of wicker-work bamboo could be observed in Japan and in Indonesiancase of Naga village. From the case of Naga Village, it was used for most wall of the older houses, but for
newer house, it is only for the kitchen wall, less used than plait-work type of woven wall.
69

Figure 4. 34 Ohtsu-gaki fence inFigure 4. 35 Wicker work for floor

Kyoto

of Granary (Takakura) in Osaka

The first sub-type of woven bamboo wall is wicker work (type 3A). Among its characteristic is the use of
thick split bamboo both for vertical and horizontal member, which is interwoven. In Indonesia, it iscommonly known as Sasag or gedeg pattern, while in Japan one type of fence using this pattern is the Ohtsu
fence. From both country it has been found diverse use of species, with mainly Gigantochloa Apus for theformer and Phyllostachys bambusoides (Madake) for the latter.

Figure 4. 36 Woven wicker work drawing based on wall and ventilation panel in Naga Village
Its use in Latin American countries, is considered common using dry technique as well as wet technique forwall such as traditional as well as engineered bahareque. On the other hand, its use within wet method of70mud-wall is less common in Japan. It has suggested to be used for tsuchikabe in the past, before mostly
substituted into the bamboo grid type of Takekomai (Reynolds, 2009). As comparison, the use of wet wallwith woven wicker work as well as bamboo grid derived from Japanese tsuchikabe has been suggested in
Taiwan (Chang & Hsu, 2010). Use of plastered wicker work also suggested in Sumatra, Indonesia (Figure
4.24)
The wide use of this type in various countries might be contributed by its ease to weave, compared to more
complicated weaving technique of type such as the plait-work. It is also suggested that the easiest and lesscostly of Japanese bamboo fences is using this type (Ohtsu-gaki). Ohtsu-gaki has been suggested to be lessprone to deforming or disintegrating and considered to have good performance. In Indonesia, it might not befound much in studied area, but such direct use of split bamboo without thinning might lessen its difficulties
compared to the woven plait work.

Figure 4. 37 Wicker work used for wattle

Figure 4. 38 Wicker work wall protected byand daub in Sumatra (source: seismico.org)

roof eaves in Naga village older building

In case of Japan, the wicker-work type is now mainly used without plaster. Its life-span for exterior fence isdecent but limited to around one decade before needing replacement. In Naga village case, although its use is
becoming less prominent than plait-work, it has longer life-span if protected by roof eaves, such as amongolder building in the village (Figure 4.40).
Compared to plait-work, this type uses thicker split bamboo which irregular characteristic results in wider
gap. While it might provide less privacy, it is actually encouraged to use as kitchen wall in Naga village toallow ventilation and disaster prevention, by making visible any left out stove fire.

714.3.4 Woven Plait-work - Type 3B
This study distinguish woven plait-work type from the previous wicker-work. The former has tighter weave
as it often use thinner (or thinned) split bamboo. This type is widely used in Indonesia within the patterns
called as kepang or mata-wali (Figure 4.41 & 4.42).
Extensive use of plait-work bamboo as the main wall type found in village of Sade and Naga. Similar type of
woven bamboo and weaving pattern also found in Japan (Figure 4.4.1). In both Indonesian case, its use amatrix of white lime on the exterior. It was applied on outer face of the split bamboo culm, with its cortex
unshaven in case of Sade, as it is considered more weather resistant. Lower elevation of roof eaves also
allow more protection from water action. The technique of using lime render and roof protection can be seen
as vernacular solution to the vulnerability of bamboo material when used as thin exterior wall.
The use of this wall type in two village which are thousand miles apart exhibits the widespread of thismaterial in Indonesian archipelago, but it becoming less common. One explanation is that bamboo mat wall
has been the target of replacement through government policy, since Dutch era (Ignasia, 2008; Armand et al.,2015) and New Order era (Djajadiningrat, 1995).
The two cases saw that village custom restrict the house number, type, and housing material. However bothcases has a growing population, partially only able to settles outside the customary area of jurisdiction. Suchoutside area, displays less affinity to using bamboo material, with mainly plastered brick masonry replacing
bamboo for wall. Beside for perceived status and convenient, replacing the thin bamboo plait-work wall was
suggested due to safety concern as the periphery area easier to access and often less tightly-knit socially thanthe core village area.

Figure 4. 39 Plaitwork in Japan, resemblingIndonesian pattern of mata-wali

Figure 4. 40 Thin characteristic of the woven
plait-work, drawn based on kepang pattern72

4.3.5 Bamboo Grid - Type 4
Observed in cases of vernacular architecture in Japan, the much practiced mud-wall technique of tsuchikabeshows that bamboo was used in a widespread manner in Japan.
While wattle and daub technique has been used in many regions, the Japan case exhibits a strong integration
with mainly timber architecture. It might be possible on account of unique use of bamboo in a gridarrangement within a mainly rectangular timber frame system. Grid can basically be seen as giving anordered arrangement even for characteristically irregular bamboo.
The main bamboo component in Shin-kabe technique used in Kyoto is usually split bamboo, it is relatively
less transformed wit less processing requirements. In Kyoto, professional plasterer ends up learning to also
made the grid arrangement of Take-komai. Supporting its potential of self-build bamboo grid assembly issuggested to be possible without weaving skill and it is considered simple and convenient way of arranging
bamboo (Mud-wall artist I). For adapted tsuchikabe technique in case 4 and 5, saw the grid assembled bysemi-skilled worker.
Tsuchi-kabe with adapted techniques also constructed with alternative species of bamboo, substituting
Madake in original technique. This is supported by the fact that most different species could be split into
more or less straight lath. In addition, bamboo grid with its spacing reduce use of material compared to theplastering whole surface of woven bamboo for instance.

Figure 4. 41 Schematic drawing of bamboo grid use as substrate of Japanese Tsuchikabe technique
For lashing process of grid wall, one material considered important is the natural rope (nawa) which is used
to tie the bamboo grid with bamboo main support (mawashitake) and with timber tie beam (nuki)(Figure73

4.43). Important consideration for choosing the rope is the thickness, because if it is too thick it will become
too hard to handle meanwhile if it is too thin, the rope could decompose more easily, considering the fact of
it being organic material embedded in mud-wall.
Use of bamboo wattle and daub can be seen as hybrid material use in multiple scales from larger bamboo
grid, rope, vegetal fibre mixed in the daub, finer fibre embedded in lime plaster (Shikkui) down to the loam
particle of the daub. The nature of hybrid technique such wattle and daub means that component other thanbamboo which is also important is the daub. Grid may act as net through which the daub mixture can notpass, but instead 'clawed' and bond with the grid which get stronger as the mud shrink along with drying
period after moisture activates its binding strength and achieve workability (Minke, 2006).
In Japanese tsuchikabe technique, the mud plastering is done by the Sakan plasterer. With the complex
technique seen in original technique in Kyoto, often requiring years to master. Alternatively, the case studies
demonstrate the adapted technique of tsuchikabe made by children, family members, dormitory inhabitant,art students. In addition, mud material also sometimes substituted with cement for plastering the bamboo
grid (Muliawan 2014; Vengala & Rao, 2020). While the quality might not be comparable, it is seen that
adapted technique provide alternative and simplified version, more compatible with self-build.

Figure 4. 42 Tsuchikabe Plastering within Sakan Technique (Partially modified from Hijoka, 2013)74

Protective Elements of Bamboo and Mud Wall
Extended life-span of the wall was found in Kyoto cases as well as on transferred technique in Brazilian
cases, with some of the house wall can survive up to 100 years. Even the Tsuchi-no-ie (Case Study 4) builtwith simplified method has stand for thirteen years in Kyoto.
In addition to the bamboo grid being protected from rain and ultra-violet by mud-plaster, use of cladding
suggested to also improve the mud-wall protection, preventing water exposure and damage to the mud-wall.
The cladding element has been made using similar bamboo with one used for fence such as flattenedhishigigaki or rounded Tokusa. In Y dormitory, various damage to the mud-wall seen in places which
clapboard for cladding is not intact. Alternative use of grid-wall with cladding also seen in cox's bazaar
shelter case, with its use as dry wall clad with shelter grade tarpaulin sheeting.
Aesthetic Possibilities
In addition to protective role, interviewed experts also suggested that the use of cladding has been done foraesthetic reasons. In addition to this, tsuchikabe also has other aesthetic possibilities from use of various
finishing from exposed rough mud of Arakabe to smooth white lime finnish of Shikkui (Figure 4.45).

Figure 4. 43 Artist I applying thin layer of white lime (Shikkui)
Based on brief workshop experience working with the grid (Case 4), straight angle of timber frame and theflatness of bamboo grid might help in achieving flat plastered surface, not unlike plaster on masonry wall.
This might provide affinity points in terms of aesthetic, in adapted cases and even more so in originaltechnique by Sakan plasterer in Kyoto. In such wall, the grid became base to a refined plastered wall, tosome extents that the bamboo use is often overlooked. In addition, adapted technique by the artist I also

75

produce thicker and curved mud-wall, with main structure using full-culm bamboo. Arguably this extends
the possibilities of the use of bamboo grid.
There are many complexity in the technique contribute to refined quality shown in original case of mud-wallin Japan, particularly Kyoto. In comparison, on the adapted case it show the potential of the flexible grid tobe well adjusted with different variables of material (the frame, wattle and daub), shape (flat or curved) as
well as self-build or high craftsmanship methods.
Use for curved wall in Lombok

Use for curved wall in
Shikoku

Figure 4. 44 use of grid for alternative curved wall shapes

4.4 Discussion
Bamboo has been use for wall in extensive area and diversely, within dry and wet methods. There are five
types established for this study, able to be observed from cases in Indonesia, Japan, and Brazil. Amongwhich some commonalities have been observed, the first is related with one principle of vernaculararchitecture which is slightly transformed material. The least transformed form of bamboo is full culm, usedin Rounded Wall (type 1) followed by split bamboo, used in Grid wall (type 4) and woven-wicker work (type3b). Secondly, all of the case study exhibit an extended life-span, with bamboo elements commonly
protected by other elements such as roof eaves, cladding, as well as other material used within hybrid
technique such as mud or lime, which act as a more resistant screen against exposure to elements.
When linked to use of in post-disaster housing, the first common principle of slightly modified material
potentially fulfill the aspects of availability, cost, environmental impact and self-build. The second common
principle of extended life-span is considered a mutual aspect required in both vernacular architecture andpost-disaster housing. The potential of such life-span can be seen contributing to the aspect of environmental
impact and affinity.

76

The challenges of post-disaster housing exhibited on chapter 3 are aspect life-span and affinity. In addition,other aspect which are considered for post-disaster use of bamboo wall techniques includes availability, cost,environmental impact and self-build. The vernacular techniques in this chapter shown potential of extended
life-span, including in woven plait-work (Type 3b). As comparison, similar use in post-disaster housing case
2 in Yogyakarta saw limited use for semi-permanent functions. Considering affinity, there is still
uncertainties especially on use of durable dry wall technique (Case 1 & 2) as the use is tied to customary law,
and when new family moved out of the village, many suggested to discontinue the use of bamboo for wall.
On the other hand, the use of wet wall technique in Japan show aesthetic possibilities as it can be finishedsmoothly as well as promote involvement. In Brazil, such adapted tsuchikabe case also suggested to gain
more positive association compared to native wattle and daub technique.

77

Chapter 5

Finding and Conclusion

Through the wall classification method proposed in Chapter 2, various bamboo wall types has been
identified from cases studies of vernacular architecture. With consideration of case study of bamboo wall use
for post-disaster housing in Chapter 3, the chapter will propose practical recommendation on each generictypes of bamboo wall with emphasis on self-build and extended life-span, both among the value ofvernacular and bamboo architecture which are also relevant with need of transitional shelter.

5.1 Past Cases and Considering Bamboo Wall for Post-Disaster Housing
5.1.1 Past Cases of Bamboo Wall for Post-Disaster Housing
Seen from the use in past case of post-disaster housing, some bamboo wall types has not seen much
utilization due to some factors identified in chapter 3 and 4. Later summarized in this chapter will be thepositive and negative factor affecting the potential use of each wall type.
The rounded bamboo wall (Type 1) is considered an intricate type, needing skills to make a well craftedarrangement, as observed in Tokusa type in Kyoto. While it can be simple to construct a make-shift version,
it might not provide much protection as a wall. The wall type was partially suggested in proposal(Suriansyah, 2014) but it saw limited use in post-disaster housing.
For other wall type particularly flattened bamboo (Type 2) and bamboo grid (Type 4), the use for postdisaster housing has been recorded, with potential when seen in the aspect of self-build and extended life
span. The former saw many use with examples in Ecuador and Nepal, while the latter used in case of Cox's
bazaar examined in the Chapter 3, in addition to other examples in Ethiopia. Both wall type has been
considered easy to process.
The woven bamboo of Type 3A and 3B, could be considered as the most commonly used type of bamboo,
although the requirement of weaving skill need to be addressed, for instance thorugh pre-fabrication of wall
panel like in Yogyakarta, alternatively the woven wall saw substitution with easier type, such as the grid(type 4) used in Cox’s Bazaar case. The woven wicker work bamboo wall (Type 3A) suggested to be used in
post-disaster in Latin American country, particularly the locally familiar type of plastered bahareque. Thissuggests its potential to transition into more durable wall through the compatibility of this type with wet wall
method.

78

one drawback for using the woven wall of Type 3a is that its looser weaving has more gaps. In vernacularsetting such as kampung Naga, it has been used mainly for ventilation and less for main wall compared totighter weaved plait-work. Before it can be plastered, transitioning it from dry into wet wall, the wicker work
type advised to use additional element e.g screen to provide more protection especially from disease vector
e.g. mosquitoes.
Lastly, the woven plait-work type has seen extensive use for post-disaster housing, for instance in Myanmar,
Philippines and Indonesia. Learning from Indonesia’s Yogyakarta case in chapter 3, its use might be
prolonged (2006-2015). However the wall type seems not preferred for main houses, but instead for annexes.
As comparison, the use this type is more preferred in Indonesian vernacular cases in Chapter 4, in twovillage in different island.

5.1.2 Discussion on Bamboo wall typeThe first part of this section is the summary of qualitative description so far on bamboo wall types (Table
5.1). It will be followed by the summary of wall potentials which qualitative scoring will be explained
further in the appendix 7. Lastly, there will be discussion of each wall types.
Seen from the aspects of low-cost and low environmental impact, all wall types have decent potential. The
potential of bamboo as a material which is easy to be localized, has been achieved by utilizing its availability
and possibility of self-build. Utilizing the potential of availability is exhibited through less reliance on single
bamboo species for weaving or wattle for grid type. For wet wall technique, this potential also possible
through adapted method for the wall plaster (daub).
The types of woven-wicker work (type 3a), adapted grid (type 4b) and flattened (type 2) mostly utilized
slightly modified forms of bamboo which allow involvement of self-building, thus valuable for post-disasterhousing use.
For the aspect of life-span and affinity, some wall types addressed the limited durability and provide
aesthetic possibilities, mainly due to its compatibility for hybrid use with wet wall technique (plaster). Such
potentials are exhibited by the type of woven-wicker work (type 3a), grid and adapted grid (type 4b) andflattened (type 2) .

79

Table 5. 1 Summary of Bamboo Wall Types Potential

1.

d. Low-environmental impact
c.Low- costa.Availability (e=1.67)

e. Life-span (e=1.67)

On the first row, the description and scoring from chapter 4
identify how each wall type has potential on six values of:b. Self-build (e=1.67)



Availability (e=1.67)

Low-cost

Self-build (e=1.67)



Low-cost



Low-environmental impactLife-span (e=1.67)

Affinity (e=1.25)

f. Affinity (e=1.25)

In addition, equalizer (e) has been applied for adjustment as somevalues supported by more number of observation items (forinstance, low-cost relate to more observation items than affinity)
2. For assessing bamboo wall types, the observation items arederived from the principles of vernacular architecture (Guillaud,2014). Their availability are based on field study and interview.
Primarily for visualizing, three grade of qualitative scoring isgiven for each observation items, on five wall types (left-mostcolumn)The score as follows:80

Fair: 1



Good/Fair: 2

Good: 3

Type 1 - Rounded Bamboo

Figure 5. 1 Summary of Wall Potentials: Type 1

Use of the rounded bamboo wall (Type 1) for post-disaster context might be challenging in the aspect of selfbuild, cost and life-span. This type is often difficult to construct with requiring skilled labour to construct awell functioned wall.
The wall type has limited option to be used with other resistant material, such as mud plaster in wet-wall
technique. However, it could offer alternative potential to extend its life-span learning from Japanese casewhere it saw various use for cladding elements. It might be used to protect main part of the wall from highprecipitation in Indonesia, benefited by its minimal and slightly transformed form as it use most of bamboo
part, reducing waste and impact to environment.
Type 2 - Flattened Bamboo

Figure 5. 2 Summary of Wall Potentials: Type 2

81

The type 2 saw various use for cladding elements in Japan. Its potential in Indonesia allow the type to becommonly used for roof of contemporary bamboo projects, a testimony to its good durability especiallywhen properly preserved.
While the processing is not difficult with thick walled species e.g. Dendrocalamus Asper or Guadua
angustifolia 'Kunth', the process is still not short and it also discarded the inner part of culm wall, thus lessfavorable when seen from environmental impact.
Regardless, the processing ease and durability make the type 2 as an potential alternative to woven bamboo
wall of type 3, with further possibility of improving the life-span by applying plaster to this wall through wetwall technique.
Type 3A - Woven Wicker-workFigure 5. 3 Summary of Wall Potentials: Type 3A

The woven wall type of wicker work, might be less used for post-disaster housing in Indonesia, one
drawback for using this kind of wall is the looser weaving has more gaps. In vernacular setting such as Nagavillage, it is used mainly for ventilation and less for main wall, if compared to tighter weaved plait-work.
Before it can be plastered, transitioning it from dry into wet wall, the wicker work type advised to use
additional element such as screen to fill the gaps and provide more protection especially against disease
vector e.g. mosquitoes.
For it potential, it has good compatibility with wet wall method, increasing its life-span and potentially the
aspect of affinity with such aesthetic possibilities. The looser weaving compared to plait work also
considered easier to make involving self-build while it able to use a less transformed type of split bamboo
which is also thicker and sturdier.

82

Type 3B - Woven Plait-workFigure 5. 4 Summary of Wall Potentials: Type 3B

Woven wall type within the so-called plait-work type has been found in all Indonesian case studies. Different
with vernacular setting, the self-build aspect for using in it in post-disaster might be challenge due torequirement of weaving skill.
Improvement on the aspect of life-span and affinity for this type of wall might be limited. Different withType 3A of woven wicker-work , this wall mainly used for dry method with no benefit or protection fromplaster. Issue of its life-span was also seen on its use in Japan, which is only recommended for interior use.
High aesthetic valuation can be seen in vernacular case where this wall is rendered beautifully and well
protected using lime plaster. However, the affinity which motivate the use of this wall type for permanentliving function was less observed in place without customary law. The positive affinity of this wall linked
with its role for ventilation in the tropic need further study, which also should consider the more prevalentuse of window for role of ventilation, which has been an introduced element in vernacular architecture e.g.
Kampung Naga. It is assumed that the thin characteristic (less than one centimeter) feels less safe outside of
traditional community and also appear much different in thickness and surface than more familiar masonry
wall.

83

Type 4 - Grid and Adapted Bamboo Grid

Figure 5. 5 Summary of Wall Potentials: Type 4 and 4B (adapted grid)Bamboo grid wall could be seen as alternative to woven wall, especially for construction within wet walltechnique or wattle and daub.
The issue on the aspects of availability and self-build has been found as original tsuchi-kabe often rely on
use of one bamboo species of Madake and sakan technique which high skill is required for the crucial plasterlayer. Regardless, the two aspect seen to be addressed in adapted technique in Brazil and Japan where the useof substitute bamboo material has seen to possible and hybrid material of loam for the plaster has been madesimpler. While cement plaster has been used in Indonesia as one alternative material for this wall type, one
merit was learned from Japan case using mud plaster. The use of non-industrial material of mud allow highdegree of local resource usage which also suggested to be infinitely recycle-able and widely available.
The grid often made by utilizing culm from local bamboo species, directly usable after slightly transform it
into bamboo lath. The grid spacing allow it to reduce the amount of bamboo raw material required andsubsequently the cost. The grid arrangement is also considered simpler without weaving. It allow highinvolvement of non-skilled worker and workshop, seen on adapted case in Japan and Brazil which exhibit
potential of self-build. The use of flat mud plaster and lime render with bamboo grid, contribute to its
aesthetic, potentially improving affinity.
Protected by the use plaster, extended life-span has been seen in original tsuchikabe in Japan as well as in
adapted cases of Brazil and Japan. Commonly durable in its original and adapted technique, the wallwithstand the humidity in Japan. Alternatively, one possible substitute material for protection in emergency
setting is tarpaulin, seen to be utilized in Bangladesh case. For its life-span in Indonesia, the use of cladding84

(shitami-itabari) is a potential lesson from Japan, to protect the mud wall from rain thus improving its lifespan in tropical climate, through durability by design.
The use of bamboo grid wall with dry as well as wet technique is potential for post-diaster housing inIndonesia, for use beyond temporary housing. This is concluded by taking into account the balanced
potential of availability, self-build, environmental impact, affinity and past case of use in Indonesia after
disaster. Learning from post-disaster case study, its use within dry method could make use of tarpaulincladding and bamboo culm structure, afterward it could transition by using wet technique of plastered wall,
allowing protection for bamboo durability and aesthetic possibility of plaster.

5.1.3 Discussion: Considering Bamboo Wall for Post-Disaster Housing
Considering change is often inevitable when seeing post-disaster housing as process. It is suggested for thiscontext to use bamboo material within the wet wall technique of wattle and daub, with plaster of mud or
cement plaster as alternative. The technique considered beneficial in aspect of availability, environmental
impact, cost, self-build, extended life-span and affinity by providing aesthetic possibilities.
If homogeneous or dry type of bamboo wall is used, it is advised to choose one which could be plastered forthe later such as Flattened bamboo culm (type 2), woven wicker-work (type 3A) or Bamboo grid wall (type4). Use of wall type which is compatible with both technique potentially extends the life-span of wall
element, which in turns, expands the role of bamboo material for post-disaster housing by allowing
transitioning from temporary into permanent house.

5.2 General Conclusion
In the context of post-disaster housing, extensive use of bamboo has been identified. In the context ofvernacular architecture, extended life-span of bamboo wall element has been exhibited by its use beyond
temporary. It is possible as limited durability of bamboo has been addressed in various vernacular cases ofbamboo wall. Learning from the cases, the use of bamboo wall beyond temporary should also be possible forpost-disaster housing, allowing transition and use for permanent housing.
Various bamboo wall techniques exhibit easy localization of the material, possible using local material andlocal skill without complete reliance on single bamboo species or skilled worker. It shows the potential on
the aspect of availability and self-build, which are beneficial for post-disaster housing requirements.

85

A material from grass family, bamboo has potential as widely available material which could support theneed for post-disaster housing with extended life-span and allow people to drive their own recovery,
particularly in constructing their own dwelling, in other word through a ‘grass root’ motivation.

86

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Appendix

I. Appendix 1 - Notable Case of Original Bamboo Shelter Use in 2015
II. Appendix 2 - Vernacular Bamboo Use Workshop
III. Appendix 3 - reviewed benefits of bamboo use
IV. Appendix 4 - Photos of Main Interviewee
V. Appendix 5 - Questionnaire
VI. Appendix 6 -Memo of Discussion
VII. Appendix 7 -Scoring Table for Wall Type Potentials
VIII.Appendix 8 - Thesis Defence Presentation

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