Proceedings
from theResearch Session
at the6th Asia Oceania Camping Congress

October 28 – November 1, 2016
Youth Education National Olympics Memorial Youth Center, Tokyo, Japan

Proceedings
from theResearch Session
at the6th Asia Oceania Camping CongressSchedule of Research Sessions
Sun.Oct.30 Break up 2
10:45～11:35
Room

510

No.

Title

Presenter

R-1

Group journal writing: A tool for enhancing sense of

Page

Morten Asfeldt

3

Shinji MURAI

5

community on wilderness educational expeditions
R-2

The Positive Impact for College Student through the
Outdoor Adventure Program in Canada

Chairperson : Kozo TOMIYAMA

11:45～12:35
R-3

Stressor and stress coping in a university camp

Hiroto TAKAHASHI

7

Daisuke NISHIJIMA

9training
510

R-4

A Survey on the Effect of Outdoor Activities for
Women’s University Students in the Teacher orChildcare Worker Training Programs

Chairperson : Shinichi KOMORI

11:45～12:35
R-5

Impact of camp experience on children’s

Ryuhei HISATA

11

Nao YOSHIZAWA

13

assertiveness –Focusing on the Inventory of

511

Organized Camp Experience–
R-6

The Thinking Process in the Solo Experience.

Chairperson : Hiroshi HAMATANISun.Oct.30 Break up 3
15:15～16:05
Room

510

No.

Title

Presenter

R-7

Relationship between task value and self-concept inPage

Hikaru IIDA

17

Masahiko TOKUDA

19

the camp training.
R-8

The Effect of Educational Camps on “Fundamental
Competencies for Working Persons”

Chairperson : Hitoshi WATANABE

15:15～16:05
Room

No.
R-9

Title

Presenter

Meanings of cultural aspects of educational

Page

Takako TAKANO

21

Toshiharu YANAGI

23

expeditions - a Canada-Japan joint university
program -

511
R-10

Making “Life Education” a Part of the School
Curriculum

Chairperson: Masahiro OKADA

1

Mon.Oct.31

Break up 4

9:00～9:50
Room

No.
R-11

Title

Presenter

How “the life-long effectiveness” can be given by aPage

Tetsu OMA

25

Fuyuka SATO

26

camp -From the life-story interviews of people who
307

were camp-leadersR-12

Autobiographical Memories of an Outdoor Education
Program for Associates Training :Exploring Narrative and Memory Characteristics

Chairperson: Kozo TOMIYAMA

2

R-1

Group journal writing: A tool for enhancing sense of community
on wilderness educational expeditions
Morten Asfeldt (University of Alberta), Dr. Rebecca Purc-Stephenson(University of Alberta), Dr. Glen Hvenegaard (University of Alberta)
Keywords: sense of community; journaling; educational expeditions; outdoor education.
Introduction
Personal journal writing is a common practice in many educational settings and is regarded
as an important tool for promoting reflection and facilitating learning (Moon, 2006;
O’Connell & Dyment, 2013). In addition, fostering a sense of kinship among students has
also been shown to enhance learning (Baturay, 2011; Jacobs, Hurley & Unite, 2008; Schaber,
McGee & Jones, 2015; Top, 2012). Outdoor education programs have a long tradition of
encouraging personal journal writing (O’Connell & Dyment, 2013; Knapp, 1992) andfrequently claim to foster group development (Ewert & McAvoy, 2000; Hattie, Marsh, Neill& Richards, 1997; Mitten, 1999). Since first experiencing group journaling on a personalcanoe expedition in 1990, we began the practice of the group journal activity on wilderness
educational expeditions (WEE) in 1993. Since 1993, we have included the group journal
activity on over 20 WEEs. During these WEEs, we sensed that the group journal enhanced
learning and sense of community (SOC) within the expedition group, which lead to thisresearch. Furthermore, there have been repeated calls for research examining the impact of
outdoor education on SOC and to identify program elements that may contribute todeveloping SOC (e.g., Breunig, O'Connell, Todd, Young, Anderson, & Anderson, 2008;
Breunig, O’Connell, Todd, Anderson and Young, 2010; Sharpe, 2005). Therefore, the goal ofthis research is to investigate the role and efficacy of the group journal activity as a tool forenhancing SOC.
Methodology
This study used a prospective longitudinal mixed-methods approach, involving a quantitative
survey with Likert-type and open-ended questions. A mixed-methods approach was deemed
appropriate in this study to ensure accurate measurement of specific constructs of interest as
well as allowing us to compare groups over time without detaching this information from its
original ‘real-world’ context. In order to measure SOC, we used Chavis, Lee, and Acosta’s(2008) Sense of Community Index version 2. The study group was composed of all students

3

from a 2013 and 2015 wilderness canoe expedition in the Canadian north. These expeditions
were a part of for-credit courses at a western Canadian university (see Asfeldt & Hvenegaard,2014). Of the 22 potential research participants, all agreed to participant in the study. The
responses rates were: pre-expedition 22/22 (100%), post-expedition 20/22 (90.1%), and twomonth follow-up questionnaire 18/22 (81.8%). In total, 16/22 (72.7%) participants completed
all three questionnaires and all participants completed at least two questionnaires. At the timeof the expeditions, the mean (SD) age of respondents was 21.2(1.3) years (range=19-24). The
gender split was 59% female and 41% male. Sixty-eight percent of the respondents had
participated in a previous expedition that included the group journal activity at the university.
Once all three sets of questionnaires were completed, the data from the 2013 and 2015
expeditions were merged. Based on Chavis et al. (2008), we calculated an overall SOC score(mean of all 24 variables) and subscales labelled membership, influence, reinforcement ofneeds and shared emotional connection, which were averages of six variables each. Becauseof the small sample size, we used the Related Samples Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test (Zar,
1999) to test for differences among time periods and reported the standardized Z or Wilcoxon
value and p-value. We used a Cohen’s d effect size to test for the strength of thosedifferences. Cohen (1988) suggests that an effect size of 0.2-0.3 is “small”, around 0.5 is“medium”, and 0.8 and higher is “high”. To analyze the open-ended responses from thequestionnaires, we used an interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) framework(Larkin, Watts, & Clifton, 2006).
Results
While the total SOC scale did not increase significantly, the two subscales, membership andshared emotional connection, increased as a result of participation in the WEE and remained
stable over time. In addition, students perceived the group journal activity as contributing to
the enhancement of SOC. The reported benefits of the group journal activity aligned
particularly well with two of the four subscales of the SOC index–membership and sharedemotional connection. In addition, the findings of this research present two primary
implications for outdoor education. First, for programs with goals that include promoting
reflection and developing SOC, implementing the group journal activity may contribute toachieving these program goals. Second, the results of this research provide an alternativemodel for journaling, which can be an effective tool for enhancing SOC in addition to thecommon practice of reflective personal journaling aimed at enhancing personal learning (e.g.,
Hiemstra, 2001; Moon, 2006; O’Con

4

R-2

The Positive Impact for College Students throughthe Outdoor Adventure Program in Canada

Shinji Murai, Tamagawa University, Tamagawa Adventure Program

Key-words: Backpacking, Outdoor education, Environmental education, Outdoor adventure
programIntroduction
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether or not the university outdoor adventure
program in Canada positively influenced the students who major education participant.
Specifically, did the outdoor adventure experience affect both their skill of self-reflection andtheir understanding of interpersonal and intrapersonal skills? The motivation of this study was
manifested by looking at the students did not accustom to their self-reflection to deal with
inexperience during the college life. Moreover, this study had never been identified before.
The outdoor adventure program as it is conducted in Tamagawa Nanaimo Campus, Canada(Figure. 1), has been offered to students enrolled in the department of education for the past
10 years. This two-week major program consists of backpacking such as outdoor living skills,
outdoor leadership, team building, environmental concern, and intercultural studies. Thus, thevalue of the outdoor adventure program would be a solution to compensating for the
inexperience problem of the students. In this article, the author focused on the 3 nights and 4days backpacking (Figure. 2) to measure the effects on positive interpersonal andintrapersonal skills of the college students. The author also inferred that the outdoor adventure
program led the students to discover themselves and gave a new, different perspective on theirlife.

Figure1. Tamagawa Nanaimo Campus, Canada

Figure 2. The seene of the backpacking trip

5

Methodology
The backpacking was held in Forbidden Plateau area, Strathcona Provincial Park on
Vancouver Island (Figure. 3). Strathcona Provincial Park was designated in 1911 andcomprising 250,000 hectares, Strathcona was the first provincial park in B.C. (British
Columbia, Ministry of Environment). The 11 college students voluntarily participated as acredit class. The backpacking consisted of getting to the base camp, hiking to the 2093 m
summit of Mt. Albert Edward (It’s the 6th highest mountain on Vancouver Island), and having
trekking to a mountain lake and a vast canyon (Table. 1). The survey was administeredfollowing the completion of the backpacking experience and consisted of a self-report andqualitative questionnaire. All qualitative data and comments regarding reflection upon thequestionnaire were later analyzed.

Table. 1 The schedule of the backpacking trip
Figure. 3 The map of Strathcona Provincial Park (British
Columbia, Ministry of Environment)

Results
The self-reports showed that all students learned the importance of the backpacking
experience to explore the wilderness of Canadian alpine mountain area. All the students
described “stepped out of my comfort zone” from the backpacking experience. This phrase
indicated that the students tried to contemplate themselves during engaging in the wilderness
setting and learned the meaning of teamwork through the condition of the outdoor living.
Furthermore, their phrases suggested that the backpacking experience provided theeducational and positive impact on the students. The backpacking gave them both a newperspective on their life’s hurdles during the exploring and it encouraged the students toembrace future challenges to be an educator. Overall, the experience of backpacking in thewilderness for multiple days led to influence positive changes in personal beliefs and apositive shift of perspective to interpersonal and intrapersonal skills. The author will discuss
to continue the backpacking experience and to develop the methodology for the future study.

6

R-3

Stressors and stress coping in a university camp
Hiroto TAKAHASHI, Ryuhei HISATA (Graduate School of Osaka University
of Health and Sport Sciences)
Kumiko IHARA (Osaka University of Health and Sport Sciences)
Keywords: Stressor, Coping behavior, Natural environmental factors
PurposeThe purpose of this study is to clarify the kinds of stressors recognized by university camp
participants and how they cope with such stressors. Previous researchers have analyzed stressin Japanese outdoor education. Imura (1989) described adventure education as “educationthat creates a stress situation intentionally or that is carried out in the wilderness environment.”
Thus, adventure education includes stress. Moreover, in university camps located at a
campsite, stress is caused by a variety of factors such as the natural environment andmountaineering. Therefore, these camps include teaching that utilizes stress in some form.
With this, it can be said that it is important to study related stress in university camps.
Iida (1988) researched the transformation of anxiety and self-concept of children who attend
adventure camps and noted that “participants need to cope actively with stress, and there is anurgent need to establish a teaching method to support their success.” In order to achieve this,to grasp whether camp participants are aware of the kind of stress present in the camp and tounderstand how they cope with their stress, it is necessary to suggest appropriate teaching
methods. However, not many studies of this type have been carried out in the context ofJapanese outdoor education. Therefore, we conducted a study about stressors and coping
behavior, targeting university camp training participants.
Methodology
The subjects comrpised 17 university camp participants at Togakushi camp training. The
participants camped out and ate 3 self-catered meals each day. Surveys were conducted at theend of each day of the program, 4 times in total. We used the Coping Scale (Questionnaire C)
in the Stress Self-Rating Scale for University Students created by Ozeki (1993). This scale
asked for responses related to Stress Coping, which included 3 factors consisting of 14 items
rated on a six-point scale. Stressors were identified from the participants’ free descriptions.
After the answers were aggregated, the stressors were classified into 5 categories. A one-way
analysis of variance was used to examine answers regarding coping, and the average score foreach factor was calculated.

7

Results
1) Stressors
The stressors most recognized over the
four-dayperiodinvolved

naturalenvironmental factors, such as exposure to
heavy rain under the influence of a strong low-pressure system.

Figure1 Stressor ofparticipants at five days
2) Stress coping behavior
The Coping Scale comprises the three factors given below.
Problem-focused coping (PF)-Aims to resolve the stressor itself
Emotion-focused coping (EF)-Aims to calm one’s feelings
Escape-avoidance coping (EA)-Negatively captures the stressor, such as by avoiding it
The participants were grouped by each classified stressor, and an analysis of variance wascarried out for the coping type for each group. A significant difference was observed in the
coping strategies used for Program content, Natural environment, and Physical factors. All
three categories showed that the participants did not engage actively in coping behavior.

*** p < .001** p < .01* p < .05
† p < .10

Figure 2 Program content

Figure 3 Natural environment

F(1,8) = 50.307

Figure 4 Physical factors

F(1,39) = 43.843

F(1,7) = .736

Conclusions
In particular, PF coping was observed less in relation to Program content and Naturalenvironmental stressors. The camp participants did not cope actively with stressors. Perhaps
they did not feel stressed by activities such as mountain climbing, as they were university
students of physical education. On the other hand, as the participants showed limited coping
behaviors in relation to stressors related to natural environmental factors, it is conceivablethat it was difficult for them to engage in active coping behavior.
Implications
In this study, it became clear that the participants had difficulty with PF coping, especiallywhen there was a stressor related to the natural environment. Leaders, in order to help
participants to cope actively with stressors, must understand the stressors and work toward
reducing the stress, such as by providing information and resources for the participants tocope with the environment.
8

R-4

A Survey on the Effect of Outdoor Activities
for Women’s University Students
in the teacher or childcare worker training programs
Daisuke Nishijima (Kamamura Women’s University Junior College),
Shuhei Hayaishi (Kamamura Women’s University),
Mari Nishimaki (Kamamura Women’s University),
Sachiyo Ogawa (Kamamura Women’s University Junior College)
Keyword: Bouldering, Climbing, Women’s Characteristics

PurposeGenerally, women’s university students in Japan don’t have much opportunity forexperiential learning by outdoor education in their teacher or childcare worker programs. The
object of this study is to analyze the physical consciousness of women focused on physicalactivities within climbing programs.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the personality characteristics of Japanese
university students in the teacher or childcare worker programs who had climbing activities
based on outdoor programs. This survey has an opportunity to understand the characteristics
of women’s university students for outdoor education.

Methodology
The subjects of this survey are women’s university students in teacher or childcare
worker training programs. The measures used in this study include Nursery Trait Inventory(NTI) (Fujimura, 2012). NTI is the inventory for nursery workers or future nursery workers.
Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) and some questionnaires about personality characteristics
was also used in this survey for students who had climbing activities. 43 subjects (mean age=19.8 ± 0.9) took part in bouldering programs and participant NTI, RPE, and somequestionnaires. The method of this survey by the NTI is both of students who have thephysical exercises more than one day a week (30 students) and the not have the physicalexercise habits (13 students).
This study is a part of the grant research from Kamakura Women’s University ResearchCenter, and this study passed a moral investigation by Kamakura Women’s University.

9

Result
Table 1 shows the result of 7 scales by NTI. The scales are shown by altruistic scale,
empathy scale, logical thinking scale, responsiveness scale, sociability scale, power of action
scale, and nurturing scale. The logical thinking scale appeared to be statistically significant.
Mean value of the RPE is almost the same as previous studies (Watanabe, 2006). The
subjects which are experienced can be classified into the following categories: “pleasure”,“next challenge”, “sense of accomplishment”, “fatigue”, “hard”, and “difficult”.

Table 1: Result of analyze of NTI
logicalaltruistic

power ofempathy

responsivenesssociability

thinking

nurturingactionNot have the Physical

M

3.50

3.10

2.77

3.17

3.07

3.13

3.30

Exercise (N=30)

SD

0.97

0.88

0.94

0.95

1.05

0.90

0.79

Have the Physical

M

3.54

3.31

3.31

3.15

3.00

3.31

3.46

Exercise (N=13)

SD

0.52

0.75

0.95

0.80

1.00

1.03

0.52

*p<.05*

Discussion
The students who have the personality trait of high logical thinking tend to have thephysical exercises more than one day a week. The experiences for climbing activities tend tobring about the motivation for physical exercise.
This study suggests a necessity of the opportunities for outdoor activities and theimprovement of educational facility situation for women’s university students.

References
Fujimura, K., (2012). The Standardizing of the Nursery Trait Inventory, Osaka Shoin
Women’s College, 2, 23-33
Watanabe, H., Imura, H., Sakamoto, A., & Higashiyama, M. (2006). Physiological andPsychological Effects of the Indoor Rock Climbing as an Adventure Based Program,
Japan Journal of Sport Coaching, 5(1), 1-12

10

R-5

Impact of camp experience on children’s assertiveness-Focusing on the Inventory of Organized Camp Experience Ryuhei Hisata, Hikaru Iida, Hiroto Takahashi, Hiromasa Tabuchi(graduate students, Osaka University of Health and Sport Science),
Kumiko Ihara(Osaka University of Health and Sport Science)
Keyword: Organized camp, Leadership training,

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to reveal the impact of camp experience on assertiontransformation in children. In a modern society there are problems of bullied; thus they lackthe ability of understanding interpersonal relationships. Therefore, it is important that schools
teach children to have consideration for others and value other’s opinion, status, and his/herability of self-expression (Cabinet office, 2013). Camping improves children’s assertive
ability, but the many factor doesn’t closely connected.
In such circumstances, camp experience has shown to improve children’s self-expression
ability, however the causes for the same have not been clarified. Assertion is self-explanatory
and has three types. 1) Assertiveness: giving expression including self and other-esteem. 2)
Aggressive: looking offensive explain and 3) Non-assertiveness: giving expression excluding
self-esteem. In this study, improving assertiveness means increasing assertiveness ordecreasing aggression and non-assertiveness.
Methodology
The target group consisted of 76 children aged between 12and 15, There were 42 boys and35 girls participating in an organized camp in August 2016. The camp had 9groups, each with
8 to 9 members of different ages and gender.
The questionnaire used was in the form of: an assertiveness scale for children, (Handa,2007)
consisting of 15 items, including 3 subscales: “assertiveness,” “aggression” and“non-assertiveness” and an Inventory of Organized Camp Experience for Children (IOCE-C,
Nishida, 2002) consisting of 20 items, including 5 subscales: “Experience of contact withnature” “Experience of challenge/mastery,” “Experience of cooperation with others,”“Experience of self-disclosure,” and “Experience of self-focus.”
Date were collected before as well as after the camp.

11

These questionnaires were administered to the target group. The completed sets of answers
to be analyzed were 76 (100%) in number.
The first statistical analysis was a t-test for change and improvement in assertiveness. The
second statistical analysis was a multiple regression analysis (stepwise regression) that wasused because a clearly articulated camp experience implies change and improvement in
assertiveness. The quantitative date was analyzed using the SPSS software.
Result
The analysis found that children’s assertiveness improved through the camp. Results
showed that organized camp experiences developed assertiveness as Tutzuki et al. (2015).
Next, including the ability of assertion camp experience influenced “Experience ofcooperation with others” and “Experience of self-disclosure.” As assertiveness means giving
expression including self and other-esteem, two of these experiences became associated withassertion. Participants of this camp did outdoor cooking and group orientation and, as aconsequence, obtained much “experience of cooperation with others.” Moreover, they always
exchanged thoughts with themselves during as well as each program, which made themobtain much experience of self-disclosure.” This kind of program helps children in improving
assertiveness. Qualitative data related to the camp was collected by open-ended
questionnaires and was divided into five categories similar the Inventory of Organized Camp
Experience for Children scale. There were observed descriptions such as “helped others andhis friends a lot for the first time of the camp” and “it was fun to meet and talk to people forthe first time.” Even though participants of the program witnessed “experience of cooperation
with others” and “experience of self-disclosure,” they particularly thought that theirimpression of human relationships was the camp’s main outcome.
Conclusions
1) There were significantly high levels of assertiveness among the children.
2) There was a significant relation between the “experience Experience of cooperation withothers” and the “experience of self-disclosure” for developing assertiveness.
Implications
The director provides an organized camp with the purpose of developing assertiveness inchildren. He/she should choose an appropriate experience for children. Deciding anappropriate program that would provide a natural experience is a topic that would requiredetailed investigation.

12

R-6

The Thinking Process in the Solo Experience
Nao Yoshizawa, Hitoshi Watanabe (University of Tsukuba)
Keyword: solo, adventure education, modified grounded theory approach
PurposeMost research in adventure education has focused on its benefits to participants. Thus,
analysis of the components of adventure programs is critical for determining the outcomes ofthese programs and exactly how they actually benefit participants (Ewert & McAvoy,2000).
Therefore, it is crucial to understand what happens in each program elements.
Solo experience is a program element in which participants are intentionally separated
from each other and from the instractor and left alone in nature for a specified time. Soloexperience is considered among the most influential components in outdoors education
programs (Bobilia,2005).
However, no study has examined exactly what happens during the solo experience,
although it is thought to provide opportunities for introspection during adventure education
programs (McIntosh,1989; Outward Bound USA,2007). The purpose of this study is to
explore the thinking process during the solo experience.
Methodology
We carried out an adventure education program consisting of 18 hours of solo experience(15:00PM–09:00AM) for five male college students(age:19±1). A week later, semi-structured
interviews and free discriptions were conducted with the participants on about their thinking
during the solo experience.
The modified grounded theory approach (M-GTA) developed by Kinoshita was used inthis qualitative functional study. The M-GTA is based on several basic characteristics
including intentionality in theory generation, the principle of grounded-on-data, empiricalevidence, meaningful interpretation, and application for validation. These characteristics wereadopted from the original grounded theory approach (GTA). In the M-GTA, the data coding
method was further modified to facilitate application. The method of analysis was also
modified to facilitate understanding by others and to emphasize the views of researchers. A
fundamental element of the M-GTA is research on social interaction, a focus that is clearly
appropriate for studies in human services. Furthermore, it is appropriate for research
examining the features of process of phenonema.

13

In the M-GTA framework, the subjects of the analysis were participants in the solo
experience and the theme of the analysis was the thinking process during the solo experience.
While compiling the obtained data and the theme of analysis, we looked at certain points, andgenerated concepts by means of interpreting why we looked at them and what were theimplications for the subjects. Constant comparative analysis and theoretical sampling wererepeated, and analysis and data collection were continued until theoretical saturation wasreached.
Relationships between the concepts generated were investigated and classified into
categories, and a diagram was created to explain the phenomena to be analyzed.
Results
Figure 1 outlines the thinking process in the solo experience. The concepts and categories
identified in the study are shown in the oval and square boxes, respectively.

Figure.1 The thinking process in the solo experience

Storyline
In the storyline below, concepts are given in square brackets ([ ]) and categories in angled
brackets (< >).

14

This reaserch provides a view of the thinking process during the solo experience.
<Envirommental framework of the solo experience> was a trigger for the thinking processduring the solo experience as well as <introspection> caused by the experience of <difficultyof the solo experience> and changes in <feeling>.
Participants were influenced by various factors that changed <feeling> and awareness by<environmental framework of the solo experience>. The surrounding environment, including
animals, insects, wind, and forests, often influenced participants in many ways. Furthermore,participants who were caught in the rain experienced the additional difficulty of the solo
experience. We consider these to be <natural environment influences>. Because of their<being alone> in the natural environment, pirticipants’ experiences led to changes in<feeling> and awareness. We thus consider the <natural environment influences> and <beingalone> as the <environmental framework of the solo experience>.
The <environment framework of the solo experience> influenced pirticipants’ <feeling>.
First, participants in solo situations had <negative feelings, [anxiety, discomfort solitude,boredom]>. But these feelings later shifted to <positive feelings [relax, favorability towards
nature]>. This shift could have been caused by the [concentration] needed to make fire andstay sheltered in a natural environment. [Changing feelings from negative to positive] seems
related to <introspection> in the solo experience.
An important point in the answer to the reseach question “what causes the thoughts
during the solo experience” is the <difficulity of the solo experience> and [recalling
comfortable daily life]. Participants considered <negative feelings> and <experience
enduring difficulty> in the solo experience as the <difficulity of the solo experience>.
Participants recalled comfortable daily life, in which experience difficulity of solo.
Comparing [the difficulity of the solo experience] while [recalling comfortable daily life],
naturally led to <introspection>. Participants’ <introspection> was labeled the <realizaitionof the solo experience>. For example, participants became conscious of the [convenience of
civilized life] that guided their daily lives. Moreover, the participants came to realize they areusually separated from the natural emviroment. In addition, they come to be aware of how
small they felt when immersed in nature.
In addition to comparing the <difficulity of the solo experience> and [recalling
comfortable daily life], participants experienced other thoughts. They tended to [remenber
past events]. They would also [think of other people] who weren’t with them. They would
also [think about themseleves]. The reasons for their thinking may be they had nothing to do
at times and they were in a natural environment. This research cannot determine this15

conclusively.
Conclusions
This reaserch provides a view of the thinking process during the solo experience. 1) In theframework of the solo experience, participants’ feelings shifted from negative to positive. 2)
Comparing the difficulity of the solo experience with their comfortable daily lives led
participants to become introspective.
Implications
This model of the thinking process during the solo experience has room for improvement.
According to Kinoshita, the theoretical model constructed by the M-GTA is subject toimprovement in practice.
The solo experience in this study is different from actual solo experience which is a
program element in adventure education program because we carried out only solo
experience. For improved understanding of solo experience, it is needed to investigate thesolo in actual adventure education program.
Most research in adventure education has focused on its benefits. However, very few
studies have been done on how learning takes place in adventure education. In the future, thisissue should be clarified in qualitative approach. Moreover, other program elements should
be researched using this study’s approach to enhance the understanding of each of these areas
and thus provide a better understanding of adventure education.
References1). Ewert & McAvoy (2000). The Effects of Wilderness Settings on Organaized Groups:A
State-of-Knowledge Paper. Wilderness Science in a time of Change Conference, Vol.3
Wilderness as a place for scientific inquiry：13-25
2). Bobilia & Kalisch & McAvoy (2005). An Investigation of the role of the Instructor in
the Solo Experience. Journal of Experiential Education, 27(3)：318-321
3). McIntosh,H (1989). Re-Thinking the solo Experience. Journal of Experiential Education,
12(3)：28-32
4). Outward Bound USA (2007). Going solo. Chapter9 ,LEADERSHIP THE OUTWARD
BOUND WAY , The Mountaineer Books：197-213
5). Kinoshita, Y. (2003). Practice of Grounded Theory Approach. Koubundou Publishers,
Tokyo.
6). Kinoshita, Y. (2007). Live lesson of M-GTA. Koubundou Publishers, Tokyo.

16

R-7

Relationship between task value and self-concept
in the camp training
Hikaru Iida1）, Kumiko Ihara2）, Yoshinori Fukuda2）, Hiroto Takahashi1）,
Ryuhei Hisata1）, Masahiko Tokuda3）
1）Osaka University of Health and Sport Sciences graduate student2）Osaka University of Health and Sport Sciences
3）Hokusho University
Keyword: task value, self-concept, learning motivation,

Purpose(12pt, Bold)
In previous studies of outdoor education, many effective assessment tools have been foundas implemented before and after camps. However, there have been few studies on motivation
before and after camps. Ida (2001) has studied “task value,” including motivation. Task value
here means what value is felt to exist in the learned contents. The purpose of this study was toclarify the relation between task value and self-concept in camp training.
Methodology
The subjects of the study were 59 nursing students who participated in a 3-night, 4-day
camp training. Self-concepts were measured using the Self-Enhancement Scale created by
Kajita (1980); task value was measured using the Academic Task Value Evaluation Scalecreated by Ida (2003) that is composed of 30 items classified into 5 subscales (interest value,
private attainment value, public attainment value, utility value for employment, and utility
value for occupational practice). These scales were administered before and after the camp.
The purpose of this camp training was to enhance the subjects’ qualities of nursing care in a
non-everyday environment that was inconvenient and difficult. As a central feature of the
training, all preparation and management was carried out by the participants.
Result
The transformation of self-concepts was analyzed using a t-test to determine whether asignificant difference existed between the scores before and after the camp. However, nosignificant difference was observed.
Of the five subscales, the before-camp scores for task value, interest value, and private
attainment value were higher. The scores of interest value and unity value for the employment
were higher after the camp(figure1).

17

In the results of correlation analysis between the five subscales before the camp and thetransformation of self-concept, there was a significant weakly negative correlation for interest
value and a significant negative correlation for private attainment value(figure2). In the
results of the correlation analysis between the five subscales after the camp and thetransformation of self-concept, there was a significant weakly positive correlation for interest
value, public attainment value, and unity value for occupational practice. There was asignificant positive correlation for unity value for employment(figure3). These results did notsupport previous research. According to the research of Ida (2005) on task value and ego
identity, there were correlations to ego identity only in the post-task results. Ida showed arelation between task value and ego identity for college students who aspired to be teachers
and attended teaching courses for two months. This is consistent with the content that those
who attended the teaching course and gale that being teacher. On the other hand, this camptraining is inconsistent with the goal of becoming a nurse. Before the camp, participants had
trouble feeling the camp’s value. From these results, we consider that having a strong effecton the transformation of the self-concept is the task value for the period after the camp.
Figure.2

Figure.1

Figure.3

Conclusions
1) There was no significantly difference to the self-concept through the camp training.
2) There were significant difference to the 5 subscales through the camp training.
3) Interest value and public attainment value before camp training were inversely proportional

to the transformation of self-concept.
4) Interest value and public attainment value, unulity value for the occupational practice,unulity value for the employment after camp training were proportional to the transformationof self-concept.

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R-8

The Effect of Educational Camps on “Fundamental
Competencies for Working Persons”－A longitudinal approach focusing on Contenued participation－
Masahiko Tokuda (Hokusho University), Yoshinori Fukuda (Osaka University
of Health and Sport Sciencies)
Keywords: Fundamental competencies for working persons, Educational camp, Contenued
participation
Introduction
Changes occurring in the environments surrounding businesses and young people as theygrow require today’s working people to have basic abilities that are commonly required in all
types of jobs, such as the “ability to find problems for the creation of new value,” “ability toeffectively work toward solutions to problems,” and “ability to use teamwork to unite different
cultures.” The Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) defines such abilities as“fundamental competencies for working persons” and aims to develop and propagate theseabilities. Three fundamental competencies for working persons have been identified: 1) Ability
to step forward (Action), with “action” meaning the ability to step forward and act persistently
even if it involves failure; 2) Ability to think through (Thinking), with “thinking” meaning theability to question and think through a situation or problem; and 3) Ability to work on a team(Teamwork), with “teamwork” meaning the ability to collaborate with various people toachieve goals.
PurposeThe purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of educational camps on thefundamental competencies for working persons outlined above.
Methodology
Study participants were 61 students in 2011, 62 students in 2012, and 70 students in 2013—
all enrolled in a three-night/four-day educational camp. Participants spent the nights in tents
and cooked their own meals. The evaluation scale used was the “Fundamental Competencies
for Working Persons Questionnaire” developed by METI (2006). There were three scales:
Ability to step forward (Action), Ability to think through (Thinking), and Ability to work on ateam (Teamwork). Evaluations using the scales were performed before and after participationin the educational camp. We received a report of free-form scenes and impressions of changes
from camp participants. We also investigated the factors underlying the transformation in19

participants’ levels of fundamental competencies for working persons.
For data gathered for participants of the educational camps, the following statistical analyses
were conducted. First, data of 22 people continued to be obtained for three years (continuousdata) and were subjected to a two-way ANOVA (grade × camp period). Second, datacollected over time were used to integrate the score for each grade (integrated data), with datafrom the one-year group (n = 69), two-year group (n = 70), and three-year group (n = 54).
Statistical analyses were performed on data with a two-way ANOVA (grade × camp period).
Results
Regarding continuous data, the analysis indicated the main effect of the camp period
according to the value of probability (Action: F [1, 21] = 19.66, p < .001; Thinking: F [1, 21]= 13.11, p < .01; Teamwork: F [1, 21] = 12.64, p < .01). It can be concluded that the educational
camp had a significant impact on participants in terms of the fundamental competencies forworking persons.
Regarding integrated data, analysis of the data indicated the primary effect of teamwork, agrade × camp period interaction (Teamwork: F [2, 190] = 5.31, p < .01). Furthermore, theAction and Thinking scales showed the main effects of grade and camp period by the value of
probability (Grade—Action: F [2, 190] = 3.23, p < .05, Thinking: F [2, 190] = 6.16, p < .01;
Camp period—Action: F [2,190] = 88.38, p < .001, Thinking: F [2, 190] = 74.63, p < .001).
A free-form report showed different descriptions by grade. First-year participants often wroteof their anxieties and expectations associated with the first camp experience. Second-year
participants wrote about the role of camp.Third-year participants often wrote to help to otherparticipants.
Conclusions
The main findings were as follows:
1. Participants showed significant development in all aspects of fundamental competencies forworking persons (i.e., action, thinking, and teamwork).
2. After repeated participation, teamwork improved noticeably for senior participants.
3. Factors such as the camp experience and the role of camp influenced the transformation in
the fundamental competencies for working persons in different ways depending on theirgrade.

20

R-9

Meanings of cultural aspects of educational expeditions- a Canada-Japan joint university program TAKANO Takako (Waseda University), Morten Asfeldt (University of Alberta)
Keyword: Expedition, cross-culture, tertiary education, place-based learning

Purpose
Educational expeditions and journeys have been widely practiced in both formal and informal
educational settings for many decades. In recent years, increasing attention has been paid toactive learning as well as international learning environment in tertiary education. However,apart from some studies such as Beames (2004), Sheldon (2009) and Takano (2010), cultural
impacts and aspects of educational expeditions have received little examination. This
research is based on a cross-cultural educational expedition designed and taught by two
faculty members of Canadian and Japanese universities in 2015 as their respective credited
courses, and seeks to contribute to the investigation of learning outcomes and criticalelements of educational expeditions. Particularly, this study aims to identify unique outcomesof cross-cultural educational expeditions.

Methodology
The participants of the study were from two universities in Canada and Japan, with threedifferent nationalities. Eight students (2 male, 6 female) from Canadian university were all
Canadians, whereas 7 students (4 male, 3 female) from Japanse university were Japanese andChinese nationalities. Each university had different schedules as their academic courses. In
preparation the students engaged in separate tasks in each country, but shared some readingmaterials. A group from Japan stayed in Canada from Feb 11 to 26, 2015, and the snow-shoe
expedition was held between Feb 15 – 21.
The data for the study were gathered from the participants as written questionnaires prior to,
immediately after, and one year afer the expedition. The Japanese students chose a language
to fill in the questionnaires either in English or Japanese. The analysis is mixed of qualitativeand quantitative, and two researchers worked together as coders to check the agreement incase of English-written data.

Result
The analysis is still on-going, and this is a midterm findings.

21

As perceived learning outcome, the questionnaires right after the expedition as well as 1 year
after show that the most comments are linked to personal growth. Right after the expedition,other learning outcomes also fall into the categories of human-nature relationships, cultural
perspectices, and philosophy and way of life. Asked to evaluate the experience after one year,
the answers are categorised as “affect values and life choices”, “precious and helpful”, “goodmemories”, “friendship” and “international aspects”. By “helpful”, Alberta students tend tolink with skills, whereas Waseda students a state of mind. After a year, the learning has not
faded but got deepened. Their perceived learning linked to cultural aspects seems to change
from learing ‘about’ differences and similarities into deeper appreciation and respect to theothers. A sense of friendship seems to have remained strong. Waseda students seem to have
deepened their learning to affect their life choices and values. Alberta students consider theexperience as precious memories, which help them build international friendship andunderstanding.
Regarding the cross-cultural nature of the program, the most students view the combination
as indispensable or a critical element. For Alberta students, interacting with people fromoutside of their familiarities helped them see things with new eyes, which brought them new
perspectives about Canada and their way of being. Some Waseda students commented on
difficulties in communication, and efforts to overcome it brought them to a different level ofrelationship with others and understanding about human beings.

Conclusions
1) Corss cultural nature of groups adds a new lens for learning.
2) Developed bond beyond cultures; cultural differences melted away over-time.

Implications
Cross cultural educational expediton can be designed to contribute to sustainability inparticularly from socio-cultural perspectives.

Limitations
There are many variables in analysis other than cultural such as participants’ outdoor and life
experiences, how the course is framed for them, and using their 2nd or 3rd languages.

22

R-10

Making “Life Education” a Part of the School Curriculum
Toshiharu Yanagi (Kobe Tokiwa University)
Keyword: Life Education, Outdoor Education, Disaster Education, School Curriculum
PurposeThe purpose of this study is to develop the concept of “life education” throughoutdoor education and disaster education and make life education a part of the school
curriculum. Disasters can occur anytime, anywhere, and to anybody. Japan is one of the
top disaster-prone countries in the world. For example, our university exists Nagata-ku,
Kobe, an area that was badly affected by the Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake in 1995. People
can experience many disasters in life. Therefore, it is important that they be given
disaster education.
Methodology
This study consists of a literature review. Few studies exsit on “life education”;
hence, it is important to distinguish between “life education,” outdoor education, anddisaster education. The review studies are “Interdisciplinary Teaching Through Outdoor
Education” (Camille Bunting), “Outdoor Education Methods and Strategies” (KenGilbertson, Timothy Bates, Terry McLaughlin and Alan Ewert), “Disaster Education”(Rajib Shaw, Koichi Shiwaku and Yukiko Takeuchi), and “The Wonder Power ofDisaster Education - Changing Children, Schools and Community -” (Seiji Suwa), and“Theory and Practice of Life Education” (Taku Kondou et al.,).
Results
Many educators throughout history have emphasized the importance offirsthand experience in the natural environment. Jean-Jacques Rosseau, andJohann Heinrich Pestalozzi were learning from direct experience rather thanindirectly from books. John Dewey advocated learning problem-solving skills,
which requires direct experience.
L.B. Shrap and Hammerman and Hammerman stated that camping
education could be used to teach students more effectively than classroom
education. Outdoor adventures give young students the opportunity to
discover that they can accomplish much more and withstand more hardships
than they had imagined.
The following seven needs are from the classic book, Teaching in the23

Outdoors, by Donald Hammerman: (1) the need for effective learning, (2) theneed for basic concepts, (3) the need for realism in education, (4) the need forawareness, (5) the need for appreciation of the natural environment, (6) theneed for environmental literacy, and (7) the need for recreative experiences.
Camille Bunting added the following to the original list, as this need is ofsignificant concern to every leader today: (8) the need to relate well withothers.
From the following chart, we can learn more about disasters, emergent
reaction, recovery, preparedness and disaster reduction. An important lesson
for ordinary citizens is that “Citizens’ lives should be protected by the
citizens themselves.” We need to build a disaster education community withthe help of citizens, experts, and local/national governments. In addition tothis, everyone should understand the importance of human life and of theconcepts of self-support, support of others, and official support. Finally, every
human should possess fundamental knowledge of disasters, fundamental
skills to overcome disasters, and a strong will to survive disasters.
Life consists of the whole of human existence, and so life education has a deep andbroad meaning. Rosenberg tells us that self-esteem ranges from “very good”to “goodenough.” There is a sense of one’s superiority to others in “very good” that called social
self-esteem and consent good by one’s self called basic self-esteem. Life education iscomposed of common experience and feeling.
Conclusions
Life education is a type of interdisciplinary education similar to outdoor
education and disaster education, as the next figure shows. Life education
should this be made a part of the school curriculum.

24

R-11

How “the life-long effectiveness” can be given by a camp
-From the life-story interviews of people who were camp-leadersTetsu Oma(Career Design Institute of Hosei University Graduate School)
Keyword: Camp leaders, Whole-person education, Lifelong effectiveness, Diversity,

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to find how the experience of camp leaders affected their life
long career, and what those effects were.
Because of the current difficulty of finding jobs, many young people are encouraged to gain
employable skills and certifications (“emplyabilities”), learn basic business skills (“basic
skills as citizens”), or even to have their own dreams for their future.

However, the mostimportant thing for those young people is not just skills but a well-educated whole being.
The basic purpose of this study was to find out how various aged ex-camp leaders thought
about their career design. Almost all other studies for camping use a quantitative approach
using questionnaires before and after camp, but this study used a qualitative approach.
As suggested by Yataro Kobayashi and Tatsuo Misumi, my research indicates that thebenefits of organized camping are not only short term, but extend to the long term goal ofwhole person education.

Methodology
The subjects were interviewed using a qualitative approach.

Life-story interviews were

held with around ten people at various ages (e.g. university students, a fifty year old who isthe facilitator of volunteers’ who visits victims of the Earthquake in East Japan, a forty nine
years old editor of a magazine for terminal-care, a sixty year old retired man, etc.) who werecamp leaders in their student age.

The interview data were analyzed using a narrative

approach and KJ-method

Results
The analysis found that all ex-camp leaders mentioned the importance of diversity.

25

Duringthe first phase of this study, some terms like “beauty of nature”, “zest for living”, or “aperson’s various values” were expected to be found in the interviews, especially because oneof the important aims of whole person education is to develop young people’s zest of living.
On the contrary, the most commonly used phrase was “get together with various people.”
This phrase was different from “to accept various values,” or even from accepting diversity.
The common expression of “diversity” is usually used in the scenes like employment of men
and women, LGBT or “people who have various nationalities”, but ex-camp leaders used theterm “various people” meaning “diverse people getting together.” It means nobody can bekicked out from their community.

Conclusions
We, as a “camp people” might feel that this result is common sense.

It is natural.

However, even though we tried to show the effectiveness of organized camping withquantitative and short-term approach (e.g. with questionnaire sheets which took just before
and after a camp), we could not quantify the lifelong meaning of the camp. The only thing

we could say about educational effectiveness of camping was developing individual
personality.
Now we can say with this research, the educational effectiveness of the camps is not only todevelop individual diverse values but to create (or re-create) a society which values diverse
values. Organized camp helps society move from exclusion to acceptance.

26

R-12

Autobiographical Memories of anOutdoor Education Programfor Associates Training:
Exploring Narratives and Memory Characteristics
Fuyuka SATO, Hitoshi WATANABE, Hitoshi IMURA (University of Tsukuba)
Tomoya OZAKI (TS TECH Co.,Ltd.)
Keywords: Autobiographical memories, IPA, Semi-structured interviews, ASE,
PurposeMemories recollected from an individual’s life are referred to as
autobiographical memories (Conway&Pleydell, 2000). When people recall suchmemories, they undergo the process of autobiographical reasoning in which they
establish relations between their past, present, and future, and their personalityand development (Habermas, 2011). It is generally agreed that the educational
effects of an outdoor program may decrease as time passes. However, it is certainthat outdoor programs have a long-term impact on participants. In particular,
individuals who have reached adulthood are possibly influenced by the memoriesof their experiences, even after a lapse of time. The reason being that they havedeveloped a cognitive capacity that allows them to look inward and make causal
inferences. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to elucidate the long-term
effects of outdoor education program experiences by examining the participants’autobiographical memories, autobiographical reasoning, and memory
characteristics.
Methodology

Camp ProgramThis study selected a camp that was part of an associates training program
implemented by a manufacturing company in 2012. The two-day camp began inAugust 2013 and included 22 individuals (aged 35-47) who were divided into 4groups. Activities at the camp included the initiative game, outdoor cooking, tents
setup, and a debriefing session.

Data Source
Data for this study were acquired in June 2016. Three participants were asked27

to complete a Memory Characteristics Questionnaire and participate in asemi-structured interview, the latter of which included questions about memory
characteristics of the camp and open-ended questions about the effect of theoutdoor program experience. The interviews, ranging from 50 to 80 minutes inlength were recorded and transcribed verbatim.
The Memory Characteristics Questionnaire, an original creation based on theJapanese Memory Characteristics Questionnaire (Takahashi & Shimizu,2007),and the Autobiographical Memory Questionnaire (Sato,2007), included 20
questionnaire items based on a seven-point scale. These items were grouped into
the following nine factors: Rehearsal frequency, Clarity, Consistency, Sense ofreliving, Sensory experiences, Overall impression, Uniqueness, Self, andImportance.

Analysis
The data were analyzed using the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis(IPA) method in order to create a comprehensive account of the significant themes
and subthemes in the original text. The data from the Memory Characteristics
Questionnaire revealed the relationships with the narratives.
ResultSubject A (42-year-old male/Development
and Testing Department)

Autobiographical Memories
When his team attempted to solve the“trolley,”* it was the most memorable
event for him as he was frustrated by

Figure1. Memory Characteristics of Subject A

his own inability to communicate with his teammates, owing to a blindfold andthe rule prohibiting verbal exchanges. He was impressed that his teamaggressively dealt with this challenge.

Memory Characteristics
Figure 1 shows that he had frequently recalled the memory of the “trolley”
with a high degree of “sense of reliving.” He also recalled that he felt frustrated
due to the lack of communication with his subordinates.

Narrative about Autobiographical Reasoning“I was generally shy with people, but I attempted a variety of approaches,28

including being aggressive with my subordinates.”

Subject B (39-year-old male/New Product Development Department)
Autobiographical Memories
The “ice-breaker” game was the mostmemorable for him as he had beeninterested in methods that help close themental distance between others.

Memory Characteristics
Figure 2 shows that he recognized
the camp experience as important,Figure2. Memory Characteristics of Subject B

and that it left an impact on him. However, this was true of his entire life
experience.

Narrative about Autobiographical Reasoning“I learned from camp experience the importance of shared experiences andtherefore, I became conscious of it.”“Spending time together creates experiences that only those who participate insuch experiences understand. I cannot express in words what makes it
precious.”

Subject C (38-year-old male/Human Resourse Department)
Autobiographical Memories
Although he was impressed by theoverall experience at the camp,he did
not have a special memorable momentfrom the same. If he had to choose one
activity, it would be the “trust fall*”acitivity.

Memory Characteristics

Figure3. Memory Characteristics of Subject C

The feature of his memory characteristics was that he regarded the overall
experience as unique.

Narrative about Autobiographical Reasoning“I suppose the experience of falling into a teammate’s arms before developinga trust relationship with them was unnerving for me. I knew that it was out of mycontrol. Therefore, I was eventually able to trust without hesitation.”* “trolley” and “trust fall” were team-building activities

29Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis“Uniqueness” and “Relationship” are important themes that were identified
through the IPA. Three subjects recognized their camp experiences to be "unique"because of the outdoor location, involvement of physical contact, and participationin special activities. Associates, who experienced the outdoor education program,discovered new "relationships” or a sense of camaraderie. Furthermore, thiscamaraderie transcended generations. This bond was formed not only amongassociates who spent camping together, but also among associates who
participated in same program held during different times.
Conclusions
The impact of the camping experiences on the three participants differedindividually. However, because of the new environment featured by the camp, all
the participants engaged in new ways of communicating with one another,resulting in personal growth and irreplaceable experience.

In addition, thecamping activities built a sense of camaraderie among participants regardless of
their physical participation.
Implications
This study confirms that outdoor programs are effective for building
camaraderie among associates. The impacts of such experiences appear to last
well after the program’s conclusion. Therefore, these findings are significant forcompanies looking to strengthen the bonds among their associates.
References
Conway,MA&Pleydell,CW. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the
self-memory system. Psychological Review. 107(2). 261-288.
Darren, Langdridge & S.Tanaka & T.Watanabe & K.Ueda. (2016). PHENOMENOLOGICALPSYCHOLOGY;Theory,Reserch,and Method(現象学的心理学への招待: 理論から具体的技法まで). Shinyosha(新曜社).
Habermas, T. (2011). Autobiographical reasoning: arguing and narrating from a biographicalperspective. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development.2011(131).1-17
K.Sato. (2007). Functions and phenomental characteristics of autobiographical memory
remembering. Research Bulletin of the Faculty of Education, Gunma University,

Volume of Humanities and Social Sciences(群馬大学教育学部紀要 人文･社会科学編) .
56. 333-357

M.Takahashi & H.Shimizu. (2007). Do you remember the day of your graduation ceremony
from junior high school?: A factor structure of memory characteristics questionnaire.
Japanese Psychological Research.49(4). 275-281

30

Proceedings from the Research Session at the 6th Asia Oceania Camping Congress
October 29, 2016
Edited by Research Working Group of AOCC 2016
Published by National Camping Association of Japan