POLICY BRIEF

THE DIGITAL GENDER GAPTOPIC LEADER
Reiko Kuroda
TOPIC PARTNERS

Introduction
The digital gender divide has been recognized as a challenge to achieve gender equality for
women, particularly as the 4th Industrial Revolution continues to increase the pace of change
of information and communication technologies (ICTs). By 2022, 60% of global GDP will be
digitized.i The extent of this impact on our education needs, our societal structures, our legal
frameworks and economic strategies, is still unknown, but urgent action is needed to ensure
the benefits of these transformations are distributed equally. As societies become increasingly
dependent on digital technology, women, their broader communities and national economies
are at risk of losing out on the positive promise of full participation in digital economies. If thedigital gender gap is not addressed, digital technologies may exacerbate gender inequalities
rather than help to reduce them. Thus, ICTs are a “double-edged sword”. Digital technologies
form a vital part of the 2030 Agenda’s call for the full development and active participation of
women in today’s world. One of the targets in the fifth Sustainable Development Goal (SDG5)
calls on the international community ‘to enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular
information and communication technologies (ICTs), to promote women’s empowerment.’
The digital gender divide has three components: (1) access and use of digital technologies
and the internet; (2) development of the skills needed to use digital technologies and toparticipate in their design and production; and (3) advancement of women to visible leadershipand decision making roles in the digital sector. This overview is aligned with previous
discussions led under W20 Argentina and W20 Germany, as well as efforts from multi-nationalorganizations and global partnerships, such as EQUALS and the Coalition for Digital
Intelligence.
Access is a key foundation to achieve digital inclusion, however, in many countries, including
G20 economies, structural inequalities such as those in income, education and employment
opportunities increase barriers to access and use, which women are likely to experience more
severely. Women have less access to digital technologies and the internet than men, they
make less use of them, and gain less benefit from them than men do; especially certain groups
of women, for example, elderly women, women who live in rural areas, those who live withdisabilities, those who are refugees. The significant access gap across generations poses therisk of expanding as countries continue to experiencing growth in the share of older persons
in their population. Latest (2017) estimates from the ITU suggest that women globally are 12%less likely than men to use the Internet. Women are also less likely than men to own or use amobile phone, the most common means of personal communications and Internet access indeveloping countries. A 2018 GSMA found that women in low- and middle-income countries
are on average 10% less likely to own a mobile than men and 26% less likely to use mobileinternet. ii This gap is context specific and is wider in certain regions and countries. To bebeneficial to women, access to and use of digital technologies must be universal, affordable,
unconditional, meaningful and equal,iii and must meet women’s varying circumstances, needs
and priorities.
Access and use are not the only ways in which women interact, or should interact, with digitaltechnologies. Women should also be as much involved as men in the design, development
and production of digital technologies. However, their participation in this context is also limited
and unequal. Girls in the G20 countries still lag behind boys in the number of years of formal
education completed, and there is a substantial gender gap in skills, jobs and careers involving
science, technology, engineering and mathematics (known as STEM subjects).iv There aremany reasons for these discrepancies, starting with the fact that technology is not integrated2

effectively into primary and secondary education programs to increase awareness and build
basic digital literacy for both boys and girls. Moreover, there is a lack of capacity building
programmes and a life-long learning approach towards digital skills. In addition to the lack ofskills undermining women’s opportunities to access STEM careers, stereotypes andassumptions about the types of work that are appropriate for men and women continue to be
widespread. Paying attention to these contextual and cultural dimensions and promoting acurricula that integrates STEM and Liberal Arts/Humanities subjects, is essential to ensure thenext generation has the skills needed to participate fully in the digital future.
Finally, in the technology sector, men outnumber women at every level, with the starkest
differences at the top of the industry, where women make up just 21% of technology
executives. v Women’s under-representation in visible leadership in this sector reflects andreinforces their under-representation in senior decision making roles in government and otherareas of business. More participation by women as entrepreneurs, inventors and businessleaders would help to redress the wider deficit in female leadership and provide much neededrole models for girls in education and early careers.

How can communities harness the potential of technology to benefit all membersof the society?
Recommendation: Work with other global stakeholders to develop an ethical standards
framework to eliminate inherent gender biases in the development of digital technologies, andto develop holistic and cross-sectoral policies that support women’s inclusion in the
production, design and governance of digital technologies.
Income inequality has risen over the last three decades in advanced economies, with a broad
pattern of rapidly rising incomes at the very top and stagnation at the bottom. One aspect
driving this inequality is the uneven access to ICTs. Digital technologies have the potential tocontribute positively to protecting women’s rights and to their economic, social and politicalempowerment and development, by lowering information costs, expanding information bases
and boosting financial independence and productivity. Particularly for women who are time
constrained due to care responsibilities or who might face restrictions on their mobility and on
the social and cultural environments available to them.
Some example of the positive impact of digital technologies on women’s lives include:Female subsistence or small-hold farmers may independently use information on
weather, crops, and developments of market prices, to schedule their production andtheir sales.
Online learning programs can offer gender-neutral opportunities for attaining education.
Online banking and mobile money allow individuals to transfer money and access loans
safely and anonymously.

Understanding how technology could benefit women, in the different countries and different
contexts in which they live their lives and earn their livelihoods must be prioritized when3

developing new applications and content.1 This means more women must be consulted andinvolved in the development process, as users and consumers and as researchers anddevelopers.
In G20 economies, women account for 27% of all researchers, which is slightly below theworld average of 28.8% in 2015. Argentina and South Africa are the only G20 economies
which have achieved gender parity, with 45% to 55% of female researchers. However, forabout one-half of the countries for which sex-disaggregated data is available, just over onethird of researchers are women. The lowest levels of representation can be seen in the
Republic of Korea, Japan and India where women make up, on average, 19%, 15% and 14%
of researchers respectively. vi This disparity should be addressed to improve the quality ofdigital research and increase the extent to which digital applications and services meet
women’s needs and priorities.
Moreover, governments must review and append labour laws and employment regulations inorder to support flexible work arrangements, gig work or other non-traditional employment
structures. One recent study examined earnings data from over 1.8 million drivers in the socalled ‘gig economy’, 27% of whom were women. Its findings suggested that men surveyedearned more than women did per hour and worked shorter hours, which researchersconcluded could lead to gender earnings gaps.vii Thus, this intersection of labour inclusion anddigital inclusion is critical. Of the G20 nations, eleven do not mandate equal pay for equalvalue of work, and while nearly all nations have mandated non-discrimination in employment,
there are insufficient provisions to protect women from being hired, promoted and dismissed
because of their gender. Furthermore, only nine have legal statutes in place to support flexible
work arrangements (see Appendix 1).
Lastly, there are multiple efforts underway led by various stakeholders to address the ethicaland society concerns of digital technologies. The Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers (IEEE), EQUALS, AI4ALL, Partnership for AI, and The World Economic Forum area few organizations involved or leading these initiatives. G20 countries need to collaborate
with these organizations to develop a united approach and holistic policies that eliminate
inherent gender bias in digital technologies.

How can we ensure that all women and girls have access to digital technologies?
Recommendation: Abolish the barriers to women's access and use of digital technologies,
with a focus on affordability, safety and security of digital technologies and services,
broadband and connectivity offerings, and the availability of relevant content and services.
The following are the main barriers to women’s digital access and use, all of which areinterrelated and often deeply rooted in social and economic structures:a. The availability of relevant infrastructureThis refers to the physical unavailability or inadequacy of infrastructure, including network
coverage and the electricity required to power devices. Women who live in poor and remoteareas often find the Internet particularly difficult to access because of limited connectivity.
Public access facilities can offer an alternative solution; however, such facilities may only be
1“The effects of Digitalization in Gender Equality in the G20 Economies,” OECD, May 20174

available in locations that women find unsafe or inaccessible, or where social norms and safetyconcerns curtail freedom of movement. In some societies, women also experience difficulties
in obtaining proof of identification which is required to open accounts or register SIM cards.viii
b. Cost and affordability
Cost remains the greatest barrier to mobile phone ownership for many men and women.ix Thisbarrier refers to both the cost of devices and the cost of usage. Cost typically affects women
more because women’s income is generally lower than men’s.x In addition, women often haveless financial independence and find it more difficult to access capital than men.xi Women are
therefore more sensitive to price than men when buying devices, and often choose those withpoorer quality and connectivity which enable lesser access to the Internet and other services.
c. Usability and skills
Women also lack the skills and confidence to engage with digital technologies effectively at
every level, starting from basic usage. In many countries, girls have poorer access to
education than boys and, as a result, more are illiterate.xii Limited literacy leads on to lack ofdigital skills and lack of confidence, reducing women’s ability to take advantage of online
resources.xiii As a result of this lack of confidence, women are less likely than men to use
transformational services (like mobile internet), and more likely than men to restrict their use
to a limited number of services and applications.xiv
d. Safety and security
Digital technologies can both empower women and foster abuse that disempowers them.xv
Online harassment, abuse and violence can represent significant barriers to access for many
women.xvi In many countries, women have experienced online abuse – from petty harassment
and trolling to stalking and sexual intimidation. Nevertheless, studies also show that women
can use mobile and digital-related services to protect and enhance their personal security;xvii
for example, anonymous top-up services where women do not have to disclose their mobile
phone number to the agents, panic button apps, emergency credit, helplines, and harassment
mapping apps.xviii
e. Awareness and relevant content
In developing countries, many women are unsure or unaware of the potential ofcommunications services to benefit their lives. Recent research by LIRNEasia shows thatawareness of the Internet is very low, particularly amongst women. Many Internet users,
particularly in developing countries, equate the Internet with social media services like
Facebook, rather than the more diverse services it offers. xix Women with little disposable
income, time, literacy or awareness of the Internet have little incentive to spend time andmoney to gain access. The lack of relevant content also exacerbates this problem. ICT
services and applications are sometimes criticised for focusing mostly on men’s priorities orpaying too little attention to women’s needs – for example, private access to information on
reproductive health.
When looking at the barriers mention above it is also important to consider the social norms
that shape women’s lives to different degrees in different countries. Cultural factors which act
as barriers to digital technologies are difficult to address, deeply entrenched, and often so
subtle that it is hard to recognize their impact. Examples of such barriers are for example, theprioritization of boys’ education over that of girls’ or women’s fear of the Internet because they
believe content may be inappropriate, offensive or harmful to them.xx
To have a tangible effect on advancing digital inclusion, G20 members should focus theirattention on concrete actions to implement policies, drawing on existing recommendations andworking with initiatives that have already been developed. The Broadband Commission’s
5Working Group on the Digital Gender Divide has recommended four specific action areas forclosing the digital gender gap which provide a framework for action:xxi
1. Promoting a better understanding of relevant contexts by supporting the collection,
tracking and analysis of sex-disaggregated data on Internet access and use
2. Integrating gender perspectives in relevant strategies, policies, plans, and budgets
3. Addressing barriers related to affordability, threats that hamper access and use, digital
literacy and confidence, and the availability of relevant content, applications and services
4. Supporting stakeholders to collaborate more effectively in addressing digital gender gapsby sharing good practices and lessons learned

How can we ensure that women and girls have opportunities and access toongoing education and training to keep their knowledge and skills up to date?
Recommendation: Develop and guarantee inclusive educational programs through thepromotion and investment in initiatives that boost equal participation of women and girls in
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) studies combined with the
Liberal Arts to support women’s digital rights and citizenship. As well as increasing investment
and promote training and upskilling programs for life-long learning specifically for women.
Globally, governments spend on average 3-4% of GDP on education (primary, secondary,tertiary). However, the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) estimates 287 million children in
G20 countries are not meeting literacy and numeracy proficiency levels. This means thatapproximately 47% of the total school-aged children are not meeting proficiency levels, due tonot being in school or being in school but not retaining and building skills. In 13 of 22 countries
where sex-disaggregated data is available, females represent the greater proportion of the
youth not in school or other training programs, especially in Argentina, Brazil, Mexico andSouth Africa.xxii
Important skills, such as literacy, numeracy, and content knowledge in academic subjects
need to remain part of the curricula, but information literacy, digital skills, critical thinking andcomplex problem solving also need to be prioritized. Individuals need to be able to analyseand create meaning from the vast amounts of information available. Moreover, as economies
continue to digitize, digital skills are becoming essential.xxiii Recent analysis shows that, atleast within developed economies, 90% of jobs require some level of digital skills.xxiv
Furthermore, according to the Future of Jobs Report 2018, by 2022, no less than 54% of all
employees will require significant re- and upskilling. Nevertheless, the European Commission
noted that only 4.4% of the 66 million adults with lower secondary education participated in
adult learning programmes in 2015. Results from a Pew study on adult learning in the US
showed a similar trend, as only 57% of adults with secondary schooling or less identified
themselves as lifelong learners, compared to 81% who had completed tertiary education.
Furthermore, 61% of adults surveyed had little or no awareness of the concept of distancelearning, and 80% reported little or no awareness of massive open online courses (MOOCs).xxv
In addition, when it comes to training, there is a significant drop in the participation ofindividuals that are 54-and-older, compared to younger working cohorts.xxvi
It is also important to consider that while small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) employ
60-70% of workers in OECD countries and are an important driver of job creation, their sizeand limited resources can prevent their scope for training. In OECD countries, workers in
6

SMEs engage in half of the training activities as those workers employed by larger firms. The
emergence of platform businesses and the new opportunities this pose will also enhance theneed to upskill the current workforce.
G20 governments and private sector organizations must invest in education and capacity
building initiatives that increase women and girls' digital skills through a life-long learning
approach. In addition, more evidence needs to be gathered on the experience of women andmen working in new types of employment in order to understand how enhanced digital skills
can mitigate the impact these can have on earnings, experience and employment rights.
Lastly, collaboration must be promoted with SMEs to identify and meet the training needs forthe jobs of the future.

7

Appendix 1.

EconomyDoes thelaw
mandateequal
remunerati
on for workof equalvalue?

Does the law
mandatenondiscriminatio
n based on
gender in
employment?

Does thelaw mandate
nondiscriminati
on based on
gender in
hiring?

Does the law
mandate nondiscriminatio
n based on
gender inpromotions?

Does thelaw mandate
nondiscriminati
on based on
gender indismissal?

Canparentswork
flexibly?

Argentina

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Australia

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Brazil

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Canada

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

No

China

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

France

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Germany

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

India

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Indonesia

No

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

Italy

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

Japan

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Korea, Rep.

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Mexico

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

Netherlands

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Russian Fed.

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

Saudi Arabia

No

No

No

No

No

No

South Africa

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Turkey

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

UnitedKingdom

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

United States

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

Source: EY. Data from World Bank’s Women Business and the Law 2018 report.

8Appendix 2. Good practice examples
WeLearn online portal (Indonesia)
In collaboration with EQUALS partners willing to share digital learning content (e.g. Unilever),
WeLearn is a portal that facilitates partner organizations and companies to work together toprovide skills development opportunities for women and men, unlimited in age. This portal isa venue for developing skills virtually in order to facilitate women's access to lifelong learning,
giving women the opportunity to gain relevant knowledge, abilities and attitudes needed tonavigate life and work in the 21st century labor market (such as business development, literacy
finance, procurement (procurement)), strengthen the capacity of women to compete in sectors
with higher added value. The portal also seeks to help transform prevailing norms in society,attitudes and practices that hinder women's empowerment and encourage NGOs,
communities, traditional leaders, teachers and families to promote the development of girls,
employment, and entrepreneurship.
Women in Technology Role Model database (South Africa)
AfChix, an Africa based women in technology group, is creating and promoting a publicly
available database of female experts, role models, professionals, entrepreneurs andinnovators on its website to ensure more women are recognized for their achievements andto break down social norms about women and girls in STEM.
e-Training Caravan Learning Initiatives (Saudi Arabia)
Designed to enable the segments of society to deal with telecommunications and informationsociety effective, bridging the digital divide and raising awareness of the important of ICT for
all people, these caravans focus on populations in rural areas and low-income locations.
Trainers and a driver traveled between cities and villages providing training for 5 days in eachlocation, for up to 40 hours of training.

9iWorld Economic Forum (2018, December). Our Shared Digital Future: Building an Inclusive Trustworthy and Sustainable Digital Society.

ii GSMA (2018). The Mobile Gender Gap Report. London: GSMA.
iii Gurumurthy, A. & Chami, N. (2017). A Feminist Action Framework on Development and Digital Technologies. Johannesburg: APC; Thas,

A.M.K. (2005). Paddling in circles while the waters rise: Gender issues in ICTs and poverty reduction. Johannesburg: APC.
iv
UN Broadband Commission (2016). The State of Broadband 2016: Broadband Catalyzing Sustainable Development. Geneva: ITU.
UNDESA, 2015:30; APC (2015). How technology issues impact women’s rights: 10 points on Section J. Johannesburg: APC.
v ISACA (2017). The Future Tech Workforce: Breaking Gender Barriers.
vi
UNESCO. 2018. Skills and Innovation in G20 Countries: Information Paper.
vii Cook, C.; Diamond, R.; Hall, J.; List, J.A. & Oyer, P (2018, January). The Gender Earnings Gap in the Gig Economy: Evidence from over a
Million Rideshare Drivers. Stanford.
viii GSMA (2015). Accelerating digital literacy: empowering women to use the mobile Internet. London: GSMA.
ix
GSMA (2018). The Mobile Gender Gap Report. London: GSMA.
x Web Foundation (2015). Women’s Rights Online: Report cards.
xi
e.g. GSMA (2015). Bridging the gender gap: mobile access and usage in low- and middle-income countries. London: GSMA; UNCTAD & ILO(2014). Empowering Women Entrepreneurs through ICT: A practical guide:4-5.
xii e.g. UNESCO (2015). Mobile Phones & Literacy: Empowerment in Women’s Hands – A Cross-Case Analysis of Nine Experiences:20;
Galperin, H.; Mariscal, J. & Barrantes, R. (2014, July). The Internet and Poverty: Opening the Black Box. DIRSi; Thas, 2005; UN Commission
on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD), Gender Working Group (1995). Gender Missing Links: Equity in Science andTechnology for Development.
xiii Ya'u, Y.Z. & Aliyu, M.A. (2017). Internet for Men? Overcoming Gender-based Digital Exclusion in Northern Nigeria: A Strategy Document.
Kano State: Centre for Information Technology and Development:24; Rajapakse, C., Zainudeen, A., Galpaya, H. & Suthaharan, P. (2016)
Factors influencing use of mobile data services among women in Myanmar. Conference paper presented at CPRsouth 2017: Connecting
the Next Billion, Yangon, Myanmar; Web Foundation, 2015; A4AI, 2015:14; Galperin et al., 2015; Deen-Swarray, M. Gillwald, A. & Morrell,
A. (2012). Lifting the veil on ICT gender indicators in Africa. Evidence for ICT policy Action: Policy paper 13:1; de Silva, H., Ratnadiwakara,D., & Zainudeen, A. (2011). Social Influence in Mobile Phone Adoption: Evidence from the Bottom of the Pyramid in Emerging Asia.
Information Technologies & International Development, vol. 7(3):1-18; Hilbert, M. (2011). Digital gender divide or technologicallyempowered women in developing countries? A typical case of lies, damned lies and statistics. Women's studies International forum, 6:
479-489; Zainudeen, A. & Ratnadiwakara, D. (2011). Are the Poor Stuck in Voice? Conditions for Adoption of More-Than-Voice Mobile
Services. Information Technologies International Development, vol. 7(3): 45–59.
xiv
GSMA (2015). Bridging the gender gap: mobile access and usage in low- and middle-income countries.
xv Gomberts, R. (2016). Apps, Drones, and iTunes: Opportunities and Challenges in Using New Technologies
for Safe Medical Abortion Services. (Spotlight chapter). In: Arrow for Change (2016). Sexuality, Sexual andReproductive Health and Rights, and the Internet. Asian-Pacific Resource & Research Centre for Women.
xvi
e.g. Scott, S., Balasubramanian, S. & Ehrke, A. (2017). Ending the Gender Digital Divide in Myanmar: A Problem-Driven Political Economy
Assessment. IREX; Broadband Commission Working Group on Broadband and Gender (2017). Recommendations for action: bridging thegender gap in Internet and broadband access and use; GSMA (2015). Bridging the gender gap: mobile access and usage in low- and middleincome countries; Dhatta, B. (2015). “Porn. Panic. Ban.” In: Global Information Society Watch: Sexual Rights and the Internet.
Johannesburg; APC & Hivos, 2013:35.
xvii GSMA (2018). The Mobile Gender Gap Report.
xviii For more exmaples of these type of initiatives and others that address mobile-related safety concerns, please refer to GSMA, 2018.
xix
Research ICT Africa, 2017; Chair, C. & Deen-Swarray, M. (2016). “Determining user capabilities to ensure the achievement of ESCRs
through Internet use.” In: Global Information Society Watch, 10th Edition; GSMA/LIRNEasia. (2015). Mobile phones, internet, and gender
in Myanmar. London: GSMA; Mirani, L. (2015). Millions of Facebook users have no idea they’re using the Internet.
xx GSMA (2017). Triggering mobile internet use among men and women in South Asia.
xxi UN Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development, Working Group on the Digital Gender Divide (2017, March).
Recommendations for Action: bridging the gender gap in Internet and broadband access anduse. Geneva: ITU.
xxii UNESCO (June, 2018). Skills and Innovation in G20 Countries: Information Paper No. 50.
xxiii Brookings Institute (May 2016). Skills for a Changing World: Advancing Quality Learning, Vibrant Societies.
xxiv UNESCO (2018). Global Education Monitoring Report.
xxv World Economic Forum (2017, July). Accelerating Workforce Reskilling for the Fourth Industrial Revolution.
xxvi World Economic Forum (2017, July). Accelerating Workforce Reskilling for the Fourth Industrial Revolution.

10