Message from the editors,
We proudly present to you the proceedings from the 2010 Pan-SIG
Conference held at Osaka Gakuin University under the auspices of the Special Interest
Groups (SIGs) of the Japan Association of Language Teaching (JALT). Thousands ofhours of hard work by the organizing committee, the SIGs, and of course those who
presented went into preparing for this endeavor and as a result the conference was agreat success. For those who chose to publish in these proceedings however, the end of
the conference marked the beginning of another journey: the journey of the writing
process.
We, the editors, were honored to be of assistance in this journey of reflection
and sharing and are very proud of the quality of the texts produced.
For a very few of the authors, works were almost complete when they entered
the editing stage. However for most, revising meant drastic changes. We know this tookcourage and have faith that everyone grew as a result of this process. At times it was
stunning to witness. This can’t be emphasized enough.
We used a two-tier feedback processes, one “read” from a peer -a fellow
writer in the proceedings- and then another round or two with one of the three editors,
Kim, Eric, or Matthew.
“More eyes” on each text is certainly desirable but with the record number ofsubmissions we had this year, it was difficult to manage and meant losing time that we
did not have. We apologize for any delay this caused and thank the authors for making
the extra effort of taking part in the peer-review feedback.
Finally, by way of dedication, it cannot go unmentioned that this work is
being published in the wake of the tragic events surrounding the 2011 Tohoku
earthquake and tsunami. We send our compassion to those whose lives it touched. We
commend the spirit of charity and volunteerism that has spread not only throughout
JALT but throughout our entire society here in Japan. We thank all those who have, will,or are taking action because they represent the best of human sentiments in all of us.
We sincerely hope you enjoy these proceedings. See you at the next Pan-SIG!
Kim Bradford-Watts
Eric M. Skier
Matthew Walsh
1

Table of Contents
1. Ebay feedback: An analysis and suggestions for classroom use
Kim Bradford-Watts

4

2. Using online student data to assess graded readers: Preliminary results
Mark Brierley, Yoshihiro Kubota, and Sayuri Uchikawa

12

3. University library book borrowing by English majors: Problem, causes,
consequences, and possible remedy
Kenneth K. P. Chan

31

4. Learning English through international volunteer work in Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia
Warren Decker

43

5. Increasing Multicultural Awareness through Understanding Japan's Diverse
Populations
Makiko Deguchi and Margaret Kim
51
6. An examination of the EFL textbooks at one Japanese university from a World
Englishes perspective
Hadija Drummond and Myles Grogan
66
7. Empowering teachers’ professional development: Video supported reflections
Sean H. Toland and B. Greg Dunne

78

8. Adding Content and Language Targets to Web 2.0 Projects
Bjorn Fuisting and Michael Riffle

92

9. Analysis of an essay writing placement test for a study-abroad preparatory
writing course
Zane Ritchie and Michael Parrish

111

2

10. Information Literacy: A Skill for Lifelong Learning
Susan Gilfert

127

11. Is autonomy an effective theory for all levels of students?

Bruce Lander134

12. How global issues can make even reluctant learners keen
Thomas Lockley

156

13. Manageable Multimedia Projects: Voicethread and Xtranormal
Douglas Meyer

168

14. The use of computer mediated communication to reduce anxiety and increase
willingness to communicate
Daniel J. Mills179
15. How to transform second language learners into interactive corrective
feedback providers
Masatoshi Sato and Bill Perry188
16. The ability of a deaf Japanese university student to learn spoken English andtake listening tests through lip-reading
Jeremy White206

17. Implementing authentic materials in the student-centered interactive EFL
classroom
Mark Wright218

18. Languaging as an extensive reading strategy
Jennifer Yphantides and Andrew Schouten

232

3

Ebay feedback: An analysis and suggestions for classroom use
Kim Bradford-Watts
Kyoto Women’s University, Kyoto University
Reference: data:
Bradford-Watts, K. (2010) Ebay feedback: An analysis and suggestions for classroomuse. In K. Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier & M. Walsh (Eds), Pan-SIG 2010 Conference
Proceedings. Kyoto: JALT
Abstract:
This paper a) describes an analysis of a randomly selected sample of 300 E-bay buyer
feedback messages, b) reports on how buyers “do things with words” via these “little
texts” (Halliday, 1994), and c) suggests how such texts can be introduced into thelanguage classroom as a basis for reading, writing, and related communicative activities.
The Ebay feedback message is a genre that has developed in response to interactions
occurring via the Internet that can be used effectively for instruction in the EFL context.
本稿は a)eBayの落札者によるフィードバック・コメントをランダムに３００サンプル選択して、その分析を行い、b)落札者がこれらの「リトル・テキスト」
を通して、どのように言葉をつかって行動するかをレポートし、c)そのような「リトル・テキスト」を、読む・書く等の情報伝達行動のひとつの基準として、語学の授業にどのように導入できるかを提起する。本稿は、インターネットを通して起こる相互交流によって発展しつつあるひとつのジャンルと、それをEFLの文脈の中でどのように活用できるかを論じている。
Keywords:
Text analysis, “little texts,” online auctions, CALL, reading, writing
テキスト分析、「リトル・テキスト」、オンライン・オークション、CALL、
リーディング（読む）、ライティング（書く）
Many of my students love to shop, and online auctions sites offer a vast array of goods
and services at what may seem to students to be cheap prices. Students in CALL classes
will happily trawl through pages of description to find just the right item for themselves,
even though they are not really buying anything. When teaching about using online
4auction sites, it is important for students to understand a) how online auctions work, b)
the advantages and disadvantages of using online auction sites, and c) the actual costs ofauctions. It is also important to introduce the format of auction description pages and todirect them to read the feedback left by other shoppers regarding their experiences.
E-bay was established in 1995 and now has over 90 million users around theglobe. According to its website, in 2009, 60 billion dollars worth of goods were sold via
E-bay <http://www.ebayinc.com/who>. Moreover, a host of other auction sites are
based on the E-bay model. E-bay allows sellers to list items for sale in 35 maincategories. Sellers upload photographs of items and enter descriptions. They also
indicate regions to which they sell as well as relevant shipping costs. Buyers can ask theseller a question, which will be answered within the E-bay environment. Buyers enter
bids, and the winning bidder pays via Paypal. After receiving the item, the buyer may
leave feedback for the seller, and the seller may leave feedback for the buyer.
Feedback is an important element of the Ebay shopping experience. Sellers
who are slow to send an item, package items in a shoddy manner, do not describe items
correctly, or do not respond to buyer questions or complaints in a timely manner may
earn negative feedback, signalling to other buyers that it may be better to avoid dealing
with the particular seller. Likewise, buyers who do not pay for an item in a timely
manner or those who complain without good reason may earn negative feedback fromsellers. Some sellers will not honour bids from buyers with only a few feedback ratings.
This paper has evolved from one unit of a CALL course taught at Kyoto
Women’s University and Junior College in which students are introduced to ways ofusing the Internet to enhance their life experiences through, for example, shopping,budgeting, investing and banking online, and working via the Internet, while also
improving typing, word processing, presentation, and English language skills. The
introductory units focus on shopping, since it is an area of high student interest. One ofthese units requires students to search E-bay for items that they would like to “buy”,
collect details regarding the items, present about the items to their peers, and in thefollowing week, check if the prices that they were willing to pay were greater than thereal winning bids. If so, they have “won” their items in the auctions for the purposes of
the class.
In order to assist students in choosing items from a “reputable” seller, in addition to
explaining the format of the page and how to find useful information on it, students are5directed to check seller feedback pages and to read comments left by previous
customers. Feedback messages about transactions completed via E-bay are limited to 80
characters, and thus represent very short and understandable texts.
Halliday (1994) explains that “little texts” are those “which the context ofsituation determines have to be short … and since they have to achieve quite a lot in thatvery limited space, they tend to have their own grammar for doing so” (p. 392),
including such text types as newspaper headlines, road signs, and signboards. E-Bay
feedback can also be considered as a type of “little text”.
Introducing the genre of such texts in the classroom allows students to notice
important generic features of the feedback and to understand when feedback does not fit
the pattern. It may also help to prepare them for encountering other kinds of “little
texts” in the future.
This paper describes an analysis of a sample of 300 randomly selected E-bay
buyer feedback messages, reports about how buyers “do things with words” via these
little texts (Halliday, 1994), and suggests how such texts can be introduced into thelanguage classroom as a basis for reading, writing, and related communicative activities.
It is an attempt to describe the details of, and suggest the means of teaching, a new
genre that has been developing in response to interactions occurring via the Internet.

A preliminary survey of characteristics of E-bay feedback
A sample of 300 randomly selected feedback comments in English was collected for 20
sellers across the 35 categories of listings. These were analysed according to role ofmessage, focus of message (what is important to buyers), and other features including
length of feedback, use of symbols, tone of feedback (positive/negative/ neutral), andfeatures of style and grammar).
Characteristics of Ebay feedback
Role of feedback
E-bay feedback is written for 2 different audiences: the seller and other buyers. Table 1
shows the types of feedback that occurred in this sample and examples. Most people use
E-bay feedback to summarize their shopping experiences to other buyers.
Approximately 60% of feedback in the sample was of this type. Other people use E-Bay
6

feedback as confirmation of delivery of their items and to offer thanks to the seller. In
this sample, approximately 10% of feedback was of this type. However, some peoplechoose to mix their messages, addressing both seller and other buyers. In this sample,
approximately 30% of feedback was of this type.
Table 1. Different feedback types
Type of

Percent offeedback

sampleSummarizing

60%

shopping

Audience
Other E-bay

Examplesbuyers

Delivery is always really quickbought from this person a few times

experience

nowExcellent eBayer, excellent Service,
Great Communications



Initial problem with shipping but
after an email it was sorted very
quickly

Confirmation

10%

E-bay sellerof delivery ofThanks for these cartridges



Thank

considering christmas. Excellent!

order

Both summary

you for quick delivery

30%

Both otherof shopping

E-bay buyers

experience andand theconfirmation

E-bay sellerof delivery



Items received. Thanks.

No problems, good transaction &reasonably priced. Thanks!

no problem-first class service-thankyou

Item arrived as described and ingood time!

Focus of message
Messages convey information about a range of factors. Table 2 shows these factors andthe percent of messages in which they were mentioned. Some messages referred tomore than one factor.

7

Factor

Percent of sample

Item quality

40%

Price

Packaging
Delivery time

Communications

7%

1%
28%

4%

with seller
Seller quality

33%

Examples

Excellent productItem as describedBrand new item

Reasonably pricedVery good value

Fantastic valueWell packaged

Good packing



Quick



Very fastA tad slow

A+ communication

Great commsSuper serviceTrustworthy seller

Honest

Great seller

All of these factors appeared in messages directed towards other E-bay buyers, but only
the first four appeared in messages directed specifically towards the seller. It is apparent
that item quality and delivery times are important to those who buy goods on E-bay.
That only 33% percent of the feedback in this sample referred directly to seller quality,
such as honesty or efficiency, suggests that buyers communicate about seller quality
indirectly by indicating instead information regarding item quality, price, packaging,and delivery time.
Other features
Analysis of the texts revealed that:
1. Approximately 75% of feedback messages in this sample consisted of text only. Of
8the 25% which included symbols, the vast majority used only the “*” or “+” symbols.
These symbols were used in approximately equal proportion, but tended to appear
more often in messages confirming delivery of the item(s).
2. Slightly over half of feedback messages were five words or less.
3. Although all feedback messages were represented on the site as being positive, three(1%) were actually negative. This is perhaps due to the difficulty of posting anegative feedback on E-bay without a great deal of negotiating with the seller. In
addition, three other messages (1%) mentioned problems that had been resolved,
while 17 (6%) referred to some issue of concern that occurred with the sale (mostly
length of delivery time). Thus 8% of the sample was actually negative or neutral intone.
4. None of the negative or neutral comments used symbols.
5. In terms of style, it was found that feedback messages may be written as all lower
case, all upper case, sentence caps, or an irregular mix of both cases. Additionally, there
may be no punctuation used at all.
6. “A+”, or a five-star rating system (“*****”) is common to indicate happiness withthe transaction.
7. Emoticons are occasionally used to indicate satisfaction with the transaction.
8. The subject is generally understood from the context, while the verb is often
understood to be the “be” form.
9. Occasionally words, such as “probs” and “rcd,” are abbreviated within feedback
messages due to constraints on message length.
Using Ebay feedback in the classroom for communicative activities
The following is a suggested unit plan for using Ebay feedback in the classroom. Using
E-bay in the classroom introduces real-world English and situations to students.
Explaining the location of important information on the page prior to student searchingallows students to skim web pages for important information in order to complete thetask within class time. Introducing seller feedback using a genre approach allows
students to read the feedback quickly to ensure that it is, in fact, positive, and may assist
them in justifying their choice of one item over another.

9Day 1
Step 1: Introduce the students to E-bay. Show categories and a few sample items.
Explain important parts of the page, including item description, item location, shipping
costs, bidding history, and seller feedback.
Step 2: Explain that students will choose two items they would like to “buy,” record the
URLs and their closing bids & shipping costs, make a poster, and tell their group about
their choices.
Step 3: Assist where necessary.
Step 4: Students print their posters and explain about the items they have chosen, why
they have chosen them, and the closing price that they would offer for each of the items.
Step 5: Collect the posters and save until the next class.
Day 2
Step 1: Return the posters and ask students to check the closing prices of the auctions.
For the purposes of the class, if the closing bid is lower than the offer that the student
would have made for the item, the student is deemed to have won the item.
Step 2: Teacher “delivers” items to students via one positive and one negative note, forexample “Congratulations! You won the auction. Your item was delivered this morning.
You are very happy with it” and “You won the auction. Your item was delivered thismorning, but it is broken.”
Step 3: Students write feedback for items with which they are satisfied and letters ofcomplaint for those with which they have experienced a problem.
Step 4: Students swap their messages with a partner either via email or by printing out
the typed letter. The partner responds to both the positive seller feedback and to theletter of complaint.
Step 5: Collect the feedback/letters of complaint and responses from each pair forevaluation.
Conclusion
Students enjoy looking for items on Ebay and learning about how they may use online
auctions in the future. This unit not only prepares them to use real life auction sites, butalso encourages skimming web pages for information in English, the reading of little
texts for understanding, and the composition of both little and longer texts. The analysis
10

of the sample of little texts described in this paper indicates features of the texts that canbe easily explained to students using a genre approach to make the text more accessible
to them.
Biodata
Kim Bradford-Watts has been living and teaching in the Kansai region for more than 20
years. She has authored or co-authored three textbooks and an extensive list of articles,
held a range of offices within JALT, and presents at JALT and other conferences
regularly. Her research interests include pragmatics, pedagogy, and CALL.
<Kim@kyoto-wu.ac.jp>
Reference
Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar (Second Edition).
Edward Arnold: London, UK.

11

Using online student data to assess graded readers: Preliminary results
Mark Brierley, Yoshihiro Kubota, and Sayuri Uchikawa
Shinshu University
Reference data:
Brierly, M., Kubota, Y. & Uchikawa, S. (2010) Using online student data to assess
graded readers: Preliminary results. In K. Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier & M. Walsh(Eds), Pan-SIG 2010 Conference Proceedings. Kyoto: JALT
Abstract
The Extensive Reading System (ERS) has been collecting information on graded
readers read by thousands of students in a university Extensive Reading programme
since 2007. As well as reactions to how interesting and how easy each book was,whether students completed the whole book and how long it took to read, students havebeen able to write reviews or comments. This paper discusses how comments werecategorised and how comments relate to student ratings, and lists the highest ranked
books, based on this data.
オンラインシステム ERS により、2007 年から、何千人もの学生を対象として行われている多読プログラムに関する情報が集められてきた。ERS において学生は、その本のどんなところが興味深かったか、難易度はどの程度であったか、最後まで読み通せたかどうか、読むのにどのくらいの時間がかかったか等の質問に回答し、更に自由に感想を述べられる仕組みになっている。感想のカテゴ
リー化や感想と評判の関係について述べ、そして集められたデータから、最も評判の良い本を挙げている。
Keywords: Extensive Reading, assessing graded readers, curriculum development,
libraries, categorization of student comments
The importance of books in an Extensive Reading programme is obvious, highlighted,
for example, by Krashen’s call for a super library (2004). Practitioners and participantsin ER programmes are acutely aware of the quality of graded readers. This paper
investigates data gathered on an online system from April 2008 to January 2010 and
explores how this can shed light on students’ reactions to books.
12More information on students’ reactions to books should be useful for
curriculum developers and librarians when stocking libraries for students’ extensive
reading, since they indicate which books require multiple copies or which should be left
off the shelf. ER practitioners may also find which books can be recommended to
students in general, for example if we wish to choose a class reader that will be widely
popular, or to suggest a book to a student who has read very little. The data may also be
useful for recommending specific books to particular students. It is hoped this research
may improve ER practice, and inform publishers and writers as they produce newvolumes and series of reading materials.
Ratings of graded readers have been published, for example by EPER (theEdinburgh Project on Extensive Reading; see appendix in Day & Bamford, 1998) and inJapan by SSS (Start with Simple Stories; Furukawa, Kanda, Komatsu, Hatanaka &Nishizawa, 2010). By their nature, book ratings are subjective; nobody can objectively
decide how good a book is (Whittaker, 1982). We can hope to gain some objectivity bycollecting a large number of subjective ratings, and hope for some relevance as we arecollecting ratings from Japanese university students, and we wish to use the ratings forthe same group.
Both EPER and SSS have scales to indicate the level of difficulty of books. The
EPER scale uses letters, where A is closest to native-targeted texts, and H is the lowest
level, while SSS uses YL (Yomiyasusa level), a numerical scale from zero to 10, where
10 is a difficult native-targeted text. Each publisher uses its own levels and grades, anda comparison between these, EPER levels, YLs and also the Extensive Reading
Foundation (ERF) scales can be seen in appendix 1.
This paper begins by looking at the educational context of this study, next weinvestigate the nature of student ratings, and then we show how we analysed student
reviews. Next, trends among the data are presented and finally there is a brief discussion
and conclusion. The highest rated books, at various levels, are shown in Appendix 2.
BackgroundThe context of this research is a Japanese national university where an ER programme
has been in place since 2005, becoming part of a standardised curriculum in 2006 andinvolving over 1000 students for their first- and second-year compulsory English
classes. Students are not English majors. Performance on the EPER test indicates most13

students can read no higher than EPER levels D or E (corresponding roughly to Oxford
stages 1 or 2).
For the first four years, books were taken to and from class on book trucks. In
April 2010, most books were moved to the library, except for a few hundred low-levelbooks for in-class reading.
In 2007, an online system, ERS (for Extensive Reading System), was developed
to help students and their teachers keep track of what was being read (see Brierley,
Wakasugi & Sato, 2009). The system holds the following data on each book:
•

Title

•

Publisher

•

Level

•

YL

•

Word count

•

Genre

A photograph of the cover is automatically harvested from the internet, and displayed
within the online system.
The system records the date students register that they have started reading eachbook, and records the date and the following student-input data when students indicate
they have finished reading a book:•

How much did you read? (one page, a few pages, the whole book)•

How long did it take? (5, 10, 20, 30, 45 minutes; 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5 or more hours)•

How good was it? (1: very boring to 5: very good. Referred to hereafter as“Rating”.)•

How easy was it? (1: very difficult to 5: very easy. Referred to hereafter as “Ease”.)•

Review (an optional space for students to respond to a book)The data considered in this paper consist of 14,770 reviews, collected between April,2008 and February, 2010. Over the same period, ERS recorded around 30,000 student
responses to books, although we have only considered those where they opted to write areview. There are many doubts over the validity of this data, one of which is thepossibility that students are clicking at random to get through the page. We make theassumption that students who have written something in the review field are more likely
to have given meaningful responses in the other fields. The data set was further reduced
14

by ignoring any students who had commented on fewer than 5 books, and then ignoring
any books that had fewer than 5 reviews. This left 12,575 reviews, from 937 students on
624 books. As well as considering the reviews, this paper takes particular notice ofstudents’ ratings.
What is a good book?
Before rushing to judgements about which is the best or the worst book, we must
consider exactly what those terms mean. The commercial world of books has both
bestsellers, based on the number of books sold, and book awards such as the Booker
prize, based on the opinions of panels of experts. Individuals may have their own
favourite books that are neither bestsellers, nor recipients of book awards or criticalacclaim.
In Brierley and Ruzicka (2006) four different criteria were used to assess thebest books. In Table 1 (below) we show the correlations between each of these for the
top 40 books in the study.
•

number of students who read the book (“reports”)•

average student rating of the book•number of orders placed for the book at the beginning of the second semester (thebook trucks were stocked by student purchases so various efforts were made toensure a range of books were purchased)•

number of students who said that book was the best book in a questionnaire at theend of the year.

15

Table 1. Correlations between criteria for best book (From data in Brierley & Ruzicka,
2006)
Average

Reports

Orders (Oct 05)

Best book

60%

49%

-13%

Ratings

-44%

-16%

100%

Orders43%

100%

Reports

100%

ratingBest book
100%

There is a strong correlation (60%) between the number of times a book was read andthe number of students who thought that it was the best book; however, the more a book
is read, the more chances it has of being somebody’s best book. The average ratings
students gave to the books correlate negatively with the other three criteria. There is ahigh correlation between the number of orders and number of times a book was read(49%) although the direction of causality is unclear; rather than concluding that students
are ordering the best books, it is likely that they are reading the books that are mostabundant on the book trucks. According to borrowing data for ER books from theuniversity library for April to June, 2010, there is a 93% correlation between thenumber of copies of a particular book that the library holds, and the number of times
that book is borrowed. In other words, the number of people who read a book is largelya function of the number of books available, either in libraries or on book trucks.
We can already see that much of the data is contradictory and ambiguous. It
does seem clear that student will often chose a book simply because it is there, so if we
can draw any conclusions about which books are best, it is essential for us to make suchbooks prominent or abundant in our libraries. Practitioners should also invest timeengaging with students about their book choices. Brierley and Ruzicka (2006) inquired
into student motivation for choosing books, finding that students most often chose on
the basis of recommendations, the cover or having seen the movie or read the story inJapanese.

16

Student ratings
We consider student ratings on books as our best estimate of how good each book is,with several reservations:•

The sample size may be too small to give a reliable average. We have considered
only books with at least five ratings. The choice of five books is somewhat
arbitrary: a larger sample would give a more accurate average; however, this would
also exclude several books that were highly rated and should probably be better
represented in the library.

•

An average rating may give us the least bad books, and ignore books that somepeople feel are really good and others feel are really bad. This could be called the
Napoleon Dynamite effect after the 2004 movie, which splits viewers into those thatlove it and those that hate it (Thompson, 2008).

•

Students may not have rated the book seriously. We have already mitigated thisproblem by choosing only reports where a review has been written.

•

There are harsh and lenient raters. One person’s “very good” maybe anotherperson’s “average”.

The last problem can be illustrated by three students who had each read 30 books,
shown in figure 1. For student A, the best out of all the books scores 4, while almost all
get a 3. Student C, on the other hand, gave a 5 to over half of the books and 4 is arelatively poor score.

17

Figure 1. Three students with different rating tendencies
To compensate for this difference, an average rating was calculated for each student,
this was then subtracted from the rating for each book, and 3 added to give a normalized
rating. Considering the data for books, there was an 88% correlation between averageratings of books and average normalised ratings, and a 77% correlation between ease ofreading and normalised ease of reading, calculated in a similar way. Figure 2 shows thesum of student ratings for three books, both original raw ratings, and those normalised
as described above. The normalised ratings are clearly more precise, and we hope they
are also more accurate.

18

Figure 2. Raw and normalised ratings for three books
Reviews
Having completed numerical analysis, we were faced with the challenge of analysing
several thousand student comments. This entailed reading each comment andconsidering whether it could be categorised together with previously read comments.
Where a comment did not fit any previous category, a new category was made. This
procedure was informed by the experience of categorising student comments on ER(Brierley, Ruzicka, Sato & Wakasugi, 2010) and by Martin and White’s work on
appraisal (2005).
This study considered reviews of seven books that were widely read, at EPER
levels D to F.
•

Pirates of the Caribbean (Penguin level 2)•

Men in Black (Penguin level 2)•

A Little Princess (Oxford stage 1)•

Taxi of Terror (Oxford starter)•

Blue Fins (Macmillan starters)
19

•The Magic Barber (Macmillan starters)•

The Umbrella (Macmillan starters)

For these 7 books, 523 reviews were analysed with 1,037 categorisations.
We must also consider a philosophical question: Why did the students write thereviews? We can postulate that they did so because the teacher told them to, because
they really liked the book or because they always write a review on every book. Amongteachers there is a variety of policies: students must write a review on every book;
students must write a review on one or two books per semester; or students may write
reviews or not entirely at their discretion. We found absolutely no correlation (0%)
between the ratio of the number of reviews each book received and the number of times
it was read in total, with how highly students rated the books. Therefore, there is noevidence that these reviews were only written for books the students liked.
ERS allows students to write reviews either in English or Japanese, and while a
few teachers insisted students write in English, many left this to the students’ discretion.
Even so, 60% of all reviews were written in English, and 47% of reviewers wrote all
their reviews in English. Eighteen percent of reviewers wrote only in Japanese leaving
about one third writing in both languages, usually switching from Japanese to English.
The language of reviews had no significant correlation with ratings, ease, length ofreview or YL.
Analysis of reviews
Reviews can be categorised in a cognitive dimension or an affective dimension. In
addition, we can surmise whether comments were negative or positive (Martin & White,2005). We can also distinguish comments by their depth, whether superficial, forexample commenting on the pictures and the length of the book, or commenting on thelanguage, story, characters or themes. Examples of comments, with students’ original
spelling and grammar, and a discussion of their categorisation are shown below.
1a. “It has many pictures.”1b. “It's pictures are colorful.”
1c. “I like the pictures in this book!”
1d. “It's very interesting and easy because there are some pictures.”
Examples 1a-1d all comment on pictures in the book. The first simply tells us about
their existence, superficially telling us no more than that the student has indeed looked20

at the book and observed that it contains pictures, and giving us no evidence that thestudent read any of the words the book. We may of course read a lot more into thiscomment, as we would if it came from a native speaker, and surmise that nothing else in
the book was of note, and the story, characters, themes and writing style were lacking.
The next three comments indicate a positive reaction to the pictures, although in 1b it is
implicit rather than explicit and in 1d the student has identified the role the pictures playin the work as a whole, and the effect the work had on him or her.
2a. “This book is very exciting. I want to read again.”2b. “I found the book very moving and well-written and I think Tim Vicary is areally great. I would certainly recommend it to anyone who likes moving
stories.”
2c. “I like this story.”
2d. “This book is very interesting. But a little suspense. I am afraid of America.”
2e. “It was not so interesting.”
2f. “I hate duck umbrella.”
2g. “I like K! He is so cool. Especialy, it is his gestures and action. But, he leave J
and forget his memory in the last. It is very sad.I think that K and J very got
along perfectly. I hope that they meet again. Finally, cockroach's alien is
unpleasant.”
Examples 2a to 2g all indicate emotional responses of various strength. Comments 2a to
2d, and 2g are positive, and we may consider 2a and 2b to be more strongly positive
than 2c. Further investigation of the same student’s responses to other books shows that
2b is a stock phrase and the student has simply substituted the name of the author into
the last line of each of his reviews (including the missing noun or spurious article in “isa really great”). Whether this is a good thing, indicating skill in cutting and pasting andsynthesising language, or a bad thing, indicating some kind of plagiarism, is better
discussed elsewhere. Fear is expressed in 2d along with a positive response to the book.
A negative emotional response to the book appears in 2e, and a strong negative response
to a character in the book appears in 2f. While the response in 2e suggests a bad book or
bad book choice, we may welcome a negative response such as 2f, as the book has
clearly had an effect on the student, and the student has engaged with the book. There isanother comment on a character, this time strongly positive, in 2g.

21

3. 「結末を簡単に予想できたのであまり面白くはなかった。 」(The ending
was easy to predict, so it was not very interesting.)
The comment in 3 is also referring to the story and shows some analysis.
4. “I had the image that pirates are wicked person, but this book changed my bad
image. they regard friendship or affection as important. they are so kind person.
I watched this movie too, but this book is more interesting than the movie. I
am looking forward to read the next book.”
The comment in 4 suggests the book has led to a change in the way the student thinks.
5a. “This book is very useful when you start business.”
5b. “This book expressed social structure for facility”
5c. “I thought that if alien really exists, very serious problems would happen.”
Comments 5a to 5c all indicate that the student felt the book had some relevance to thereal world, again showing a high level of engagement with the book. Not all comments
are clear:
6a. “I saw this story in a movie, enjoyed it even more this movie.”
6b. 「二回読みました。」(I read it twice)
Presumably 6a is missing “than” and the student found the book better than the movie.
The simple comment in 6b does not tell us whether the student read the book twice
because it was really good, because it was difficult to understand, or because he could
not be bothered to go and get another book. These underline the ambiguity in the datathat we have already mentioned.
7. “Especially, there was not a big word and either it was able to be read as[rasura]. A lot of pictures can be read colorfully and happily. I thought that it
was a book on [naiyou] for no substantial child ..not difficult... The person
who doesn't exist in English thinks that it wants you to read by all means.”
Comment 7 is clearly machine-translated, evidenced by the nonsensical syntax andfragments of un-translated Japanese that the software has left in square brackets. In
addition to machine translation, there were a handful of cases of plagiarism, where
reviews were copied from internet sites such as amazon.com. As with machinetranslation, many teachers can instantly recognise plagiarism, though for its fluency andaccuracy rather than its awkwardness and incomprehensibility. Such comments were
mercifully few.

22

Results
The numerical data suggested some connections:•

There was a mild correlation (19%) between ease and rating, suggesting a slight
trend for students to find easier books better.

•

The correlation between YL and word counts was strong (84%). Those familiar
with graded readers will not be surprised that shorter books are easier, although wewould like to see longer lower level books and see no reason why books must be
shortened as well as simplified when adapted.

•

There was a strong negative correlation (-78%) between ease and YL. At first sight
this may also be unsurprising: students find more difficult books more difficult.
However, it indicates that students are either not aware of their own reading level,
or of the level of the books, and are consistently choosing and reviewing books thatare too difficult for them (see Brierley, 2006).

Appendix 2 lists the books that received the highest ratings, at or below various YLs.
For each review comment, we observed whether the book had been among the 25%
highest normalised ratings, or among the 25% lowest ratings to ascertain whether
particular categorisations corresponded to books that had high or low ratings. For eachcomment, we also looked at the number of absolute ratings of 5, and the number
absolute ratings of 3 or below, which showed similar trends to the upper and lower
quartiles. We should note that comments were only fully analysed for seven books andin no way represent a full picture of students’ attitudes towards all books.
•

76% of these 523 reviews were in the affective domain, 90% of these positive.
Books with positive emotional responses had two to three times more ratings in the
top quartile than the bottom quartile. This trend is predictable; we must, however,note that comments appearing to be positive did not always correspond to students
rating the books highly.

•

63% of all reviews were about the story and 30% about characters. Negative
responses were more likely to be about the story (89%).

•

Almost eight times more negative responses were found in reviews of books rated
in the lowest quartile than in the highest quartile. In other words, students areclearer in rating books they do not like, or we are better at interpreting theircomments on books they do not like.

23•

36% referred to students’ own experience and two to three times as many of thesewere in the top quartile as in the bottom quartile. Cause and effect is unclear so we
do not know whether students liked books that they could relate to themselves orrelated books to themselves because they liked them.

•

35% were analytical.

•

27% referred to the level of difficulty and almost three times as many of these werein the bottom quartile.

•

9% were summaries or descriptions.

•

9% were superficial, commenting on pictures or the length of the book. Three times
as many of these were in the bottom quartile as the top quartile.

Discussion and conclusion
In this paper we have discussed how data from an online system can be used. The
appendix presents the highest ranked books, although we should note that theserankings are inherently unreliable as books with high numerical ratings do not always
have positive reviews. Nonetheless this data may help inform ER practitioners aboutbooks with wide appeal than may be chosen as class readers, or recommended to
students as they begin ER programmes.
Deeper analysis of reviews for seven books broadly validates students ratings,
although the connection between positive reviews and high ratings is less than crystal
clear. Analysis also suggests that if students like a book, they are more likely to respondin emotional terms to characters, and to relate the book to their own lives. If they do not
like a book, they are more likely to comment on superficial features like the pictures,the lexical difficulty or the length.
There is a lot of work ahead in the processing of this data. Further work can bedone from a theoretical perspective to validate the criteria we used to categorise reviews,
and the techniques and strategies for categorisation can be optimised, perhaps evenleading to automatic evaluation of students’ reviews. This paper has mainly considered
student ratings of how good the books are. Further research is underway on how easy
students find each book, and what this tells us about the level of difficulty of books andany changes in reading proficiency of students over time. Another exciting possibility is
the use of this data to recommend specific books to specific students, so the ERS may
fulfil that vital role of a librarian in guiding students through the maze of books to the24right one.
BiodataMark Brierley teaches English, Dialects and English as a global language at
Shinshu University.
Yoshihiro Kubota studies Engineering at Shinshu University, and has beendeveloping and managing the Extensive Reading System since 2009.
Sayuri Uchikawa studies English Linguistics at Shinshu University.

References
Brierley, M. (2007). Extensive reading levels. JABAET Journal, 11, 135-144.
Brierley, M., & Ruzicka, D. (2006). Extensive reading in Shinshu University: Rationale,
management and motivation. Journal of Educational Research, Shinshu University, 2,
3-26.
Brierley, M., Ruzicka, D., Sato, H., & Wakasugi, T. (2010). The measurement problem
in Extensive Reading: Students’ attitudes. In A. M. Stoke (Ed.), JALT2009 Conference
Proceedings. Tokyo: JALT. 641-650
Brierley, M., Wakasugi, T. & Sato, H. (2009). An online system for assessing extensive
reading. In A. Stoke (Ed.), JALT2008 Conference Proceedings. Tokyo: JALT.
1047-1057.
Day, R., & Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive reading in the second language classroom.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Furukawa, A., Kanda, M., Komatsu, K., Hatanaka, T., & Nishizawa, H., (2010). Eigo
tadoku kanzen bukkugaido (The complete book guide for extensive reading) third
edition. Tokyo: Cosmopier Publishing.
Krashen, S. D. (2004). Applying the comprehension hypothesis: some suggestions.
Share: An Electronic Magazine by Omar Villarreal and Marina Kirac, 81. [Online].
Available: <shareeducation.com.ar/pastissues3/181.htm>.
Martin, J., & White, P. (2005). Language of evaluation: Appraisal in English. London:
Palgrave.
25

Thompson, C. (2008, November 21). If you liked this, you’re sure to love that. New
York Times. [Online]. Available:<www.nytimes.com/2008/11/23/magazine/23Netflix-t.html>.
Whittaker, K., (1982). Systematic evaluation: Methods and sources for assessing books.
London: Bingley.
Appendix 1. Comparison between YL, EPER level and publisher levels

Appendix 2. Book ratings from ERS data with five or more reviewers
Best books
Rank

Title

YL Reviews Readings

Pirates of the Caribbean at World's End (Penguin Readers1

Level 3)

3.2

10

35

Pirates of the Caribbean, Book 2 (Penguin Readers Level
2

3)

3.2

38

37

3

The Wizard of Oz (Macmillan Readers Pre-intermediate) 3.4

44

20

4

Mr. Bean (Penguin Readers Level 2)

2.2

5

68

5

Pirates of the Caribbean Curse of the black pearl 2.4

13

232
26

(Penguin Readers)
6

Gladiator (Penguin Readers Level 4)

4

19

12

Information Technology (Oxford Bookworms Factfiles
7

Stage 3)

3.2

19

12

8

Michael Jordan (Penguin Readers Level 1)

1

14

91

9

X-Men 1 (Scholastic ELT Readers)

2.2

14

15

Around the World in 80 Days (Macmillan Readers10

Beginner)

0.8

19

13

11

Sporting Heroes (Thomas Nelson Australia)

2

34

21

12

Spiderman 2 (Scholastic ELT Readers)

2.8

6

38

13

The Devil Wears Prada (Scholastic ELT Readers)

2.8

13

28

14

A Morbid Taste for Bones (Cadfael Chronicles)

3.8

6

6

15

Spiderman 3 (Scholastic ELT Readers)

3.2

8

16

16

Little Women (Macmillan Readers)

1.6

8

42

17

Mr Bean in Town (Penguin Readers Level 2)

2.2

15

80

18

Romeo and Juliet (Macmillan Readers Pre-intermediate)

3.4

51

32

19

Spiderman 1 (Scholastic ELT Readers)

2.2

9

51

20

Touching the Void (Scholastic ELT Readers)

3.2

52

17

21

Muhammad Ali, Level 1 (Penguin Reader Level 1)

1.0

33

14

22

Tinker's Farm (Penguin Readers)

0.8

72

13

23

Matilda (Penguin Joint Venture Readers)

3.2

51

40

2.8

115

25

The Canterville Ghost and Other Stories (Macmillan
24

Readers)
The Return of Sherlock Holmes (Penguin Readers Level

25

3)

3.4

77

28

26

The Wizard of Oz (Oxford Bookworms)

2

13

85

27

Pele (Penguin Readers Level 1)

1

19

12

The

Princess

Diaries3(Macmillan

Readers28

Pre-intermediate)

3.4

58

16

29

Mr Bean's Holiday (Scholastic ELT Readers)

2.2

11

45

30

Babe - the Sheep Pig (Penguin Readers Level 2)

2.4

5

137

27

Best books YL 2.5 or under
Rank
1

Title
Mr. Bean (Penguin Readers Level 2)

YL Reviews Readings
2.2

5

68

Pirates of the Caribbean Curse of the black pearl
2(Penguin Readers)

2.4

13

232

3

Michael Jordan (Penguin Readers Level 1)

1

14

91

4

X-Men 1 (Scholastic ELT Readers)

2.2

14

15

Around the World in 80 Days (Macmillan Readers5

Beginner)

0.8

19

13

6

Sporting Heroes (Thomas Nelson Australia)

2

34

21

7

Little Women (Macmillan Readers)

1.6

8

42

8

Mr Bean in Town (Penguin Readers Level 2)

2.2

15

80

9

Spiderman 1 (Scholastic ELT Readers)

2.2

9

51

10

Muhammad Ali, Level 1 (Penguin Reader Level 1)

1.0

33

14

11

Tinker's Farm (Penguin Readers)

0.8

72

13

12

The Wizard of Oz (Oxford Bookworms)

2

13

85

13

Pele (Penguin Readers Level 1)

1

19

12

14

Mr Bean's Holiday (Scholastic ELT Readers)

2.2

11

45

15

Babe - the Sheep Pig (Penguin Readers Level 2)

2.4

5

137

16

Five Famous Fairy Tales (Penguin Readers Level 2)

2.4

39

52

17

Men in Black (Penguin Readers Level 2)

2.4

14

230

18

Babe - a Pig in the City (Penguin Readers Level 2)

2.4

13

176

19

Jumanji (Penguin Readers Level 2)

2.4

15

92

20

Animals in Danger (Oxford Bookworms Factfiles)

1.8

7

64

21

Fly Away Home (Penguin Readers Level 2)

2.4

30

52

22

David Beckham (Penguin Readers)

1

5

106

Aladdin and the Enchanted Lamp (Oxford Bookworms
23

Stage 1)

2.0

9

8

24

Marcel Goes to Hollywood (Penguin Readers Level 1)

1

10

11

25

Heidi (Penguin Readers Level 2)

2.4

6

58

28

Best books YL 2 or under
Rank
1

Title
Michael Jordan (Penguin Readers Level 1)

YL Reviews Readings
1

14

91

Around the World in 80 Days (Macmillan Readers2

Beginner)

0.8

19

13

3

Sporting Heroes (Thomas Nelson Australia)

2

34

21

4

Little Women (Macmillan Readers)

1.6

8

42

5

Muhammad Ali, Level 1 (Penguin Reader Level 1)

1.0

33

14

6

Tinker's Farm (Penguin Readers)

0.8

72

13

7

The Wizard of Oz (Oxford Bookworms)

2

13

85

8

Pele (Penguin Readers Level 1)

1

19

12

9

Mr Bean's Holiday (Scholastic ELT Readers)

1.8

11

45

10

Animals in Danger (Oxford Bookworms Factfiles)

1.8

7

64

11

David Beckham (Penguin Readers)

1

5

106

12

Marcel Goes to Hollywood (Penguin Readers Level 1)

1

10

11

13

Red Roses (Oxford Bookworms Starters)

1

7

27

A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (Oxford
14

Bookworms Starter)

0.8

18

30

15

Simon and the Spy (Penguin Joint Venture Readers)

0.8

5

34

2

7

223

Aladdin and the Enchanted Lamp (Oxford Bookworms
16

Stage 1)The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Macmillan

17

Readers)

1.6

11

74

18

Give Us the Money (Oxford Bookworms)

0.8

16

16

19

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (Macmillan Readers)

1.6

18

50

20

Girl on a Motorcycle (Oxford Bookworms Starters)

0.9

8

89

21

Tom Cruise (Penguin Readers, Easystarts)

0.8

12

39

22

Vampire Killer (Oxford Bookworms Starters)

0.8

9

40

23

King Arthur (Oxford Bookworms Starters)

0.9

8

63

Marcel and the Mona Lisa (Penguin Joint Venture
24

Readers)

0.8

22

33

25

Marcel and the Shakespeare Letters (Penguin Readers)

1

13

64

29

Best book YL 0.8 or under
Rank

Title

YL Reviews Readings

Around the World in 80 Days (Macmillan Readers1

Beginner)

0.8

19

13

2

Tinker's Farm (Penguin Readers)

0.8

72

13

A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (Oxford
3

Bookworms Starter)

0.8

18

30

4

Simon and the Spy (Penguin Joint Venture Readers)

0.8

5

34

5

Give Us the Money (Oxford Bookworms)

0.8

16

16

6

Tom Cruise (Penguin Readers, Easystarts)

0.8

12

39

7

Vampire Killer (Oxford Bookworms Starters)

0.8

9

40

Marcel and the Mona Lisa (Penguin Joint Venture
8

Readers)

0.8

22

33

9

Shooting Stars (Macmillan Readers)

0.8

33

47

10

The Long Road (Penguin Young Reader Easystarts)

0.8

7

35

11

Dino's Day in London (Penguin Joint Venture Readers)

0.8

25

26

12

L.A. Detective (Macmillan Readers)

0.8

9

39

13

The Well (Macmillan Readers)

0.8

56

50

14

The Song (Easystart Penguin Reader Level 2)

0.8

5

36

15

Sara Says No! (Macmillan Readers)

0.8

30

64

16

The Leopard and the Lighthouse (Penguin Readers)

0.8

29

26

17

Robin Hood (Oxford Reading Tree)

0.6

5

15

18

Billy and the Queen (Penguin Joint Venture Readers)

0.8

9

40

30

University library book borrowing by English majors: Problem, causes,
consequences, and possible remedy
Kenneth K. P. Chan
Doshisha University
Reference Data:
Chan, K. K. P. (2010). University library book borrowing by English majors: Problem,
causes, consequences, and possible remedy. . In K. Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier & M.
Walsh (Eds), Pan-SIG 2010 Conference Proceedings. Kyoto: JALT..
Abstract
Traditionally, English majors read books. However, statistics collected by a women’scollege in the Kansai region of Japan, and subsequent data from a follow-up study by
the writer show that a disconcertingly low number of library books are being borrowedby the college’s English majors. Interviews with senior professors in conjunction with aquestionnaire administered to English majors at the college indicate that appropriate
action could be beneficial. To help remedy the situation, this paper argues that the
English department should consider refocusing its curriculum on the reading andteaching of English literature books themselves.
Keywords: English majors, English literature, English departments, low library usage,
library books borrowing, intrinsic value
伝統的に、英語英文学専攻の大学生は、本をよく読む。しかし、関西のある女子大学の学内資料と本研究からのデータによると、英語英文学専攻学生の図書
館での本の貸出率は、愕然とさせられるほど低いことが分かる。当該大学で長年教鞭をとる教授たちとの面接、および同大学英語英文学専攻学生へのアンケートを同時期に行い、これに対しての改善策が有用であると示された。現状打破の一助として、本論は、英語英文学科はそのカリキュラムにおいて、英文学
作品そのものの購読およびその教授に焦点を再び合わせるべきである、と主張する。
キーワード：英語英文学専攻大学生、英文学、英語英文学科、図書館利用頻度の低さ、図書貸出率、本来の価値
The initial motivation for this study stemmed from statistical data presented at ateachers’ meeting at a women’s university in the Kansai region that showed a very low
31usage of the library by the university’s English majors. At the time, several questions
arose concerning the data, including:
1. Is this a cause for concern?
2. What might be the reasons for this?
3. Could it affect the perceived decline of the English level of students?
4. What action is being taken to address the issue?
To answer these questions, interviews were carried out with three seniorprofessors of the college. A questionnaire was also administered to a sample of the
English major students to collect more information. The aforementioned statistics, theinterview results with the senior lecturers, and the data from the questionnaires will bepresented and discussed in this paper.
To the writer’s knowledge, hitherto, no other study has been conducted in Japan,
although data on library use (Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts Library, 2010),
research on library use among Japanese college students and learning outcomes (Nagata
et. al., 2007), and ways to integrate library instruction into college English classes(Nagano, 1999) have been reported.
Low library usage by English majors
The English Department at this college conducts an annual survey of all students toobtain general information on various aspects of their college life. These questions
range from the level of students’ satisfaction regarding their courses to part time jobs
that students may have. The questionnaire is written in Japanese. One of the questions
asks the students, Do you go to the library? The data (Wakamoto, 2009) from thisquestion shows that, for freshmen, almost a quarter (23%) of the students do not go to
the library at all, 37% visit once or twice a month, while 28% visit once a week. The
remaining 12% go to the library 2 to 3 times a week. The situation for sophomores andjuniors improves somewhat with 18% and 24% visiting the library 2 to 3 times a week
respectively. However, the number of sophomores and juniors not going to the library at
all or going once or twice a month remains significantly high at 21% and 34%, and 18%
and 31% respectively.
Taking the average for the three years (freshmen, sophomores and juniors), 21%of the students do not visit the library at all, 34% visit 1 to 2 times a month, 27% once aweek, and 19% visit 1 to 2 times a week (Table 1).
32

Table 1. Library usage of English majors
Do not visit library

1 – 2 times a month

Once a week1 – 2 times a week

21%

34%

27%

19%

The data shows a rather low library usage rate by the English majors. However,from the data alone, we cannot draw the conclusion that the students are not borrowing
books, as the question asked was, How often do you go to the library? not, How often
do you borrow books? Nonetheless, the fact that the students visit the library so
infrequently does indicate that this may be the case, since borrowing books can only bedone by visiting the library in person.
In order to ascertain the students’ book borrowing habits, it would be necessary
to ask the students directly, rather than rely only on the data from this single question.
But before doing so, it was deemed advantageous to first solicit the views of otherprofessors, preferably senior members of the faculty. After all, if the situation is notconsidered to be a problem or serious enough to warrant attention, then perhaps it would
be unwise to proceed further.
Interviews with senior professors
Would the above data be a cause for concern? What would be the reaction of English
professors at the college? If it is considered to be a problem, should something be done
to address the situation? To answer these and other pertinent questions, three senior
English professors were interviewed individually on separate occasions to elicit theirreactions to the data. The professors who took part in the interviews had all beenteaching at the college for over ten years. The investigator had approached theprofessors with a summary of the above figures and asked them whether they would be
willing to express their opinions on them in a private interview. These senior professors
were asked because of their long experience of teaching at the college, their familiarity
with the students and their knowledge of the courses. Two of the professors were in the
English Department, while the third professor (Professor C) was teaching in the
Department of International Studies at the time of interview. Separate interviews werearranged and conducted with each professor. The interviews were conducted in English
and lasted approximately forty minutes. During the interviews, after first briefly
33

reviewing the background and purpose of the study, the same questions were asked tothe three professors. Their responses were noted down in writing by the investigator. A
summary of the main points expressed by the three professors is given below.
What is your reaction to the data?
To this question, the professors expressed disappointment as they thought that thecollege libraries had a good collection of books and journals. “The library is a place forserendipity and discovery, which we can’t experience unless we go there!” exclaimed
Professor C. On the other hand, none of the professors were overly surprised by the low
usage as they commented that the majority of courses do not require the reading ofbooks. According to Professor C, the students are not required to consult journals evenfor writing graduation essays. Although the professors thought that there was a
possibility that the students could be reading books or journals outside the library via
the internet, they were not inclined to believe that this was the case.
Do you think the data shows cause for concern?
The overwhelming reply to this question was “Yes.” Their consensus was that thestudents should read more because they are English majors, but acknowledged that they
were not reading much. They believed that “established literature is the basis forliterature and linguistics study” (Professor A), so reading is essential for English majors.
Moreover, Professor C commented that even though many abstracts and books could beviewed remotely via the internet, many complete articles and books were still only
available in print form from the library.
What do you think may be the reasons for this?
When asked this question, a number of reasons were offered by the three professors.
The first reason was that if the courses did not require reading, it could be expected thatthe students would not read, unless they were intrinsically motivated to do so (Professor
B). Another reason suggested was that in some cases the students are not required tocomplete a final year thesis or that it is optional, so the students do not have the
incentive to read. According to Professors B and C, the traditional method of teachingin Japan is the lecture – exam approach, rather than reading books or articles andwriting essays or reports on them. In addition, Professors B and C said that students
34

have to take too many courses, which allows little time for reading. Professor C addedthat although officially classified as a literature department, the students actually haveto take many skills based courses. Professor A commented that, “generational
differences and society changes” were other factors – young people today do not havethe same habits as their peers from the past, who were brought up reading more andwatching visual media less, as it is only relatively recently that possession of mobile
phones and personal computers, and the use of the internet have been widespread.
Is anything being done?
When asked, Is anything being done to address this problem? the answer from all threeprofessors was “No.” Professor C added that the situation was probably the same atother universities in Japan.
Should action be taken? If so, what?
All the professors felt that something should be done to address the problem. Professor
A quoted St. Francis of Assisi, “God … grant me the courage to change the things I
can.” Perhaps this professor realized such a change would be a challenge that would
require courage. Professor C suggested that the subject professors could require students
to read, for example, by giving assignments that involve research and reading, but thiswould require major considerations and the revamping of curricula. The professors alsosuggested that the number of courses could be reduced so that more time could be given
to reading.
Questionnaire on book borrowing habits by English majors
After conducting the interviews with the three professors, a questionnaire was designed
to collect data from the English majors’ on their book borrowing and reading habits.
This was done to gather additional as well as more precise information from thestudents, so that a more detailed picture of the situation could be obtained.
The questionnaire
The main aims of the questionnaire were to find out how frequently the students
borrowed books from the library, what kind of books they borrowed, and their reasonsfor doing so. The questionnaire was in English and consisted of eight questions with35

multiple choice answers, which included an open-ended option where appropriate. The
questionnaire was phrased in clear, simple English, which would pose no difficulties for
the English major students. The questionnaires were administered with the kindarrangement of Professor A in May 2010 at the college campus. A copy of thequestionnaire can be found in the Appendix.
The respondents
A total of 32 English major students completed the questionnaire. Eighteen were juniors
and 14 were seniors. Because of the time elapsed between the date that the generalquestionnaire was administered by the English Department (in November 2008) and thequestionnaire used in this study, only junior and senior students were asked to take partin this survey, to ensure that the sample group in this study would be part of the original
group of students who had completed the general questionnaire.
Results of questionnaire
How often do the students borrow books? (Q1) The data from this first question showsthat 16 % of the students almost never borrow books, while 12 % borrow one book in ayear. Forty four percent borrow one book in a semester, 16% borrow one book a month,and 9% one a week. In other words, the vast majority (72%) borrow one book or lessper semester.
What is the students’ purpose for borrowing books? (Q2) The answer to thisquestion shows that the majority of the students (73%) borrow books for the purpose ofcompleting an assignment or that it was a course requirement, while the remaining(23%) borrow for their own enjoyment.
What kind of books do the students borrow? (Q3) Thirty eight percent borrow
English literature books (in English), 32% borrow linguistics related books (roughly
half in Japanese and half in English), while the remaining 30% borrow books that are
unrelated to both of the aforementioned categories (21% in Japanese, 9% in English).
Do the students borrow more or less through their college years? (Q4)Nearly
one third borrow the same number (32%), 26% borrow more than in previous years,
while 42% borrow less than in previous years.
Why do the students not borrow more books? (Q5) Sixty two percent cite timeas the reason, that is, they have no time and that they only read what is required. Twenty
36

nine percent say the library did not have the books they like, while 9% say they have nointerest.
Would the students like to read more books if they had more time? (Q6) The
overwhelming majority (94%) answered, ‘Yes’ to this question.
What kind of books would they like to read, if the students had more time? (Q7)
Fifty eight percent would like to read famous English literature, 14% prefer history,
while another 14% prefer linguistics.
Do the students prefer to read in English or Japanese? (Q8) An overwhelming
81% prefer to read in Japanese while the remaining 19% prefer to read in English.
Comments and Suggestions
The above questionnaire results support the data from the general questionnaire
conducted earlier by the college’s English Department. Both results indicate a
disconcertingly low rate of books are being borrowed by English majors. The main
reason for this is that the respondents do not have time to read, and they borrow fromthe library only what is required for their studies. However, 29% of the students did
respond by saying that the library does not have the books they like as another reason
for not borrowing. As the two libraries at this college carry a large combined collectionof books, it would be interesting to find out what types of books the students prefer toread.
If they had more time, most of the respondents (58%) say that they would like toborrow books on famous English literature from the library. The college librarycollection of English literature in the original English is a very fine one with hundredsof titles ranging from the complete works of William Shakespeare to more modern
works in their original or abridged forms as simplified readers, but it is also one that is
not well used by students. Although it is encouraging to see that these English major
students indicate they would like to read more English literature if they had more time,question 8 does show that 81% of the respondents prefer to read in Japanese. It would
seem, then, the students are interested in their major subject of English literature, butthey would rather read in Japanese. Perhaps it is because of the generally high level ofEnglish required for the reading of English literature that most find it much easier toread the Japanese translations of the same. Many of the well-known English classics
have already been translated into Japanese and are readily available in libraries and37

bookstores, so having access to these is normally not a problem. Unless faculty
professors and courses incorporate these works as required reading and allocate
appropriate time for private reading and classroom teaching, it would not be realistic to
expect the English level of the students to rise sufficiently enough to the challenge ofhandling them. Rather, the students need to be gradually nurtured and encouraged toread English literature in their original language so that they may be able to find theirown feet in due course.
All three professors who were interviewed acknowledged that the situation was
a problem. They also all agreed that something should be done to address the problem.
It is unlikely that the data would be a cause for concern if the students were majors ofother disciplines, but for those whose trade is to do with reading it should be part andparcel of their studies at college. The professors’ suggestions of making books required
reading and reducing the number of courses to allow more time for intensive reading
may go some way in alleviating the situation, but would this be enough as it would
seem that only the symptoms would be treated rather than the disease?
Chace (2009) writing on the decline of English departments across the UnitedStates over the past four decades, argues that,… at the root (of the decline of English departments) is the failureof departments of English across the country to champion, with
passion, the books they teach and to make a strong case toundergraduates that the knowledge of those books and the traditionin which they exist is a human good in and of itself. (p. 33)
It is the writer’s opinion, that similarly in Japan, it would require English
departments to believe that there is intrinsic value in the books of English literature andthat their students should read them. If the English professors themselves show astronger conviction, love and a commanding knowledge for the books, then we can
expect a corresponding rise in the enthusiasm of their students. Classroom teaching ofthese books should be given greater priority in Japan, and interaction with students besuch that they would be captivated by the content of the books themselves. Private
reading for pleasure should also be encouraged. Not only is there intrinsic value in thesebooks themselves, but much can also be gained in their study. In-depth reading would
encourage the students to grapple with the writers’ thoughts in English, to interact withthe words, sentences, and ideas expressed by those masterful writers. Regular exposure38

to the original texts, the great books of English literature, with guidance from professors,
would also help the students to think in and write better English. Such improvements ingeneral English proficiency would not only be much welcomed and a source of pridefor the English departments, but also be very useful for schools and respected by
employers who prize graduates with a high competency in English (Chace, 2009).
It may require strong conviction by those who believe that reform is necessary to
persuade their colleagues and to get the respective administrative machinery moving in
the right direction, but in the long term the future of the English Departments may be atstake. Again, Chace (2009) in his assessment of the decline of English departments in
the US, believes that it is probably irreversible, but on the other hand he says thatsomething can and must be done, for the sake of the books themselves, for the future of
the English departments, and for the literary tradition that still has much to offer toEnglish majors today. If the overwhelming number of respondents in this study (94%)
who say that they would like to read more (mostly English literature) is a ray of hope,then we must try to accommodate it.
One strategy for a remedy would be to attack the problem on two fronts. It
would be necessary to work at the tertiary level to revamp and realign the existing
curriculum, to make the reading of English literature exciting, enjoyable, and useful.
This would allow the graduates to leave college with a kinder, stronger appreciation andlove for the materials of their art, and may stir them to influence others in the future. A
solid reading program could also be introduced from the early years, preferably at theelementary level, by the introduction of story based materials, including classic
children’s stories. Such a reading program is not new. Attractively illustrated, story
based textbooks used in government schools across the nation have been part of thenational language (Japanese) curriculum for many years.
It would be profitable to know the parallel statistics of the number of English
majors in Japan over the past four decades or so, to compare with that of the US, where
English major undergraduates have dropped by about half (Chace, 2009). If this ishappening in Japan also, then English departments may need to investigate the situation
and, if necessary, take appropriate remedial action.
English departments must return to their roots, to the rich texts themselves, towhat they should be good at doing, and not be sidetracked by an “array of secondary
considerations (identity studies, abstruse theory, sexuality, film and popular culture)”39

(Chace, 2009, p. 33). The views of the three senior professors interviewed in thisinvestigation are clear: there is a problem and something should be done about it. The
voice from the English majors who took part in this study is also clear: they would liketo read more, and most would like to read English literature. But the task would
certainly be a challenging one. Perhaps the professor who quoted St. Francis of Assisi isright – a kind of supernatural effort may be required to affect the change needed. But it
is within the power of the professors and departments to act. Can they afford not to?
Bio data
Kenneth K. P. Chan teaches at Doshisha University and Doshisha Women’s Collegeof Liberal Arts. He is interested in teaching reading, the use of classical literature inteaching reading, early English language learning, and technical communication.
References
Chace, W. M. (2009). The decline of the English department. The American Scholar,
78(4), 32-42.
Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts Library, (2010). Library usage at Doshisha
Women’s College of Liberal Arts compared with national and other private universities
in Japan (in Japanese). Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts: Kyoto.
Nagano, R. (1999). Incorporating library instruction into English classes. Nagaoka
University of Technology Bulletin of language science and humanities, 12, 1-10.
Nagata, H., Toda, A., & Kytömäki, P. (2007). Students’ patterns of library use and theirlearning outcomes. Evidence-Based Library & Information Practice 4th International
Conference. [Online]. Available:<www.kc.tsukuba.ac.jp/div-comm/pdf/report0704.pdf>.
Wakamoto, N. (2009, January 24). Report on annual survey of English majors.
Presentation delivered at Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Arts.

40

Appendix
Questionnaire for English majors on library book borrowing
1. How often do you borrow books from the library? (Please circle one):a. Once a weekb. Once a monthc. Once a semester
d. Once a year
e. Almost nevere. Other (please write it) ______________________________________
2. When you borrow books, it is usually because: (Please circle one)a. You need to read it as part of the course requirement.
b. You need it for an assignment (for example a report or project or dissertation).
c. You want to read it for your own enjoyment.
d. Other (please write it) ______________________________
3. What kind of books do you usually borrow? (Please circle one or more)a. Linguistics related books in Japaneseb. Linguistics related books in English
c. Literature books in English
d. Books in Japanese not related to your major studies
e. Books in English not related to your major studies
f. Other (please write it) __________________________________________
4. During your time of studying at Doshisha Womens’ College, would you say: (Pleasecircle one)a. You are borrowing more books now than in your freshmen or sophomore years.
b. You are borrowing less books now than in your freshmen or sophomore years.
c. You are borrowing the same number of books as in your freshmen or sophomore
years.
5. What are the reasons for you not borrowing more books from the library? (Pleasecircle one or more)41

a. I have no time to read.
b. I am not interested in reading.
c. The library does not have the books I like.
e. I only read what is required by the course and don’t have time for anything else.
d. Other (please write it) ___________________________________________
6. If you have more time, would you like to read more books? (Please circle one)a. Yesb. No
7. If your answer is ‘Yes,’ to the above, what kind of books would you like to read?
(Please circle one or more)a. Famous English literature of various kinds
b. Linguistics booksc. History books
d. Others (please write it) _____________________________________________
8. Do you prefer to read books in English or Japanese? (Please circle one)a. English
b. JapaneseThank you for your help!

42

Learning English through international volunteer work in
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Warren Decker
Momoyama Gakuin University
Reference data:
Decker, W. (2010). Learning English through international volunteer work in
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. . In K. Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier & M. Walsh (Eds),
Pan-SIG 2010 Conference Proceedings. Kyoto: JALT..
Abstract
In February 2010, I went to Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia to participate in an international
volunteer work-camp as the leader of five Japanese university students. For two weeks
we shared an apartment with other volunteers from Taiwan and Mongolia, working
together to teach English at a child-care facility. I conducted interviews with theJapanese students about their use of English at the work-camp and found that theirexperiences were varied but consistently positive. I was able to confirm thatinternational volunteer work can be an excellent opportunity for learning and practicing
English.
Keywords: international communication, Mongolia, practical applications of English,
world and non-standard Englishes, volunteer work, university education
2010年2月に、5人の日本人大学生の引率者として、モンゴルのウランバートルでの国際ボランティア・ワークキャンプに参加した。二週間の間、日本人、台湾人、モンゴ
ル人のボランティアが一緒にアパートで暮らし、養護施設で子供たちに英語を教えた。
滞在中、日本の大学生に、ワークキャンプでの英語実践について尋ねた。それぞれ５
人の経験の違いが見受けられたが、国際ボランティア活動が素晴らしい英語勉強の機会となる可能性を確認した。
キーワード：国際コミュニケーション、モンゴル、英語実践, ボランティア活動、国際・
非標準英語、大学教育

43

English Language at an International Volunteer Work-camp
In February of 2010 I went to Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia to participate in an international
volunteer work program as the leader of five Japanese university students. For two
weeks we shared a two room apartment with volunteers from Taiwan and Mongolia andtaught English and culture at the Child Care Center of Mongolia. This volunteer
work-camp was organized by three different non-profit organizations, NICE
(Never-Ending International Work-camp Exchange) in Japan, VYA (Vision Youth
Action) in Taiwan, and MCE (Mongolian Work-camp Exchange) based in Ulaanbaatar
Mongolia.
In terms of English language practice, one of the best things about thevolunteer work-camp was that we never ran out of topics to discuss. We talked about
the smell of lamb and the coal fumes which permeated the air of Ulaanbaatar. We talked
about how it was so cold that after a short walk to the store, our scarves, hats, eyelashes,and eyebrows would be covered with a delicate layer of ice crystals. We talked about
Mongolian hip-hop videos, Buddhist temples, snarling traffic jams, and sacred rockpiles on desolate mountains covered in blue flags. With volunteers from Mongolia,
Taiwan, and Japan, English was the only language we could all use to communicate
about all that we were experiencing.
Volunteers were also motivated to communicate for very concrete and specificpurposes. When the cooking group was a three person team with one member from eachcountry, cultural cooking styles and tastes had to be navigated in English. Specificquestions needed to be answered: How much rice do we need for 12 people? What’s thefastest way to thaw out this enormous block of lamb in the freezer? Should we makemiso soup tonight? Do you want to try this Mongolian fermented horse milk?
While three people were cooking, the other nine were usually discussing thelesson plan for the following day. Of course English was the language of the discussion,and furthermore English language was also the subject of the discussion. Using English,
we needed to set our objectives for the lessons at the child-care center. What English
should we teach? What activities should we use? Who wants to be the lead teacher? Do
we have enough Taiwanese candies to give to every student? What can we do when
Anhkbileg and Jiguur start throwing markers at the girls?
The Japanese Volunteers
44

The Japanese students and I were almost always together through the duration of thework-camp, and I was able to closely observe what actually happened externally with
their English skills, confidence, and motivation. By conducting periodic interviews withthem in Japanese and English, I was also able to learn their internal thoughts about theirexperiences of using English as international volunteers. The results were varied, butinvariably positive.
During the work-camp I recorded several hours of interviews with them on thesubject of English language learning. At the start of the work-camp, I asked somespecific questions about their feelings and motivation and had them express theiranswers in percentages or ratios.
Before coming to Mongolia how did you feel about speaking English as an international
volunteer?
Answers expressed as a ratio of positive excitement to negative nervousness
White = excitement Black = nervousness
Hiroaki

Haruka

Naoko

Rieko

Atsushi“I wasn’t nervous
at all. I wascompletely
excited.”“…I was 90%
nervous and 10%
excited...”Before coming I
was 90% nervous
and 10% excited.

“I was 30%
nervous and 70%
excited. I wasreally excited!”“Before coming I
was 70% excitedand 30% nervous.”

How important of an objective was English language learning when you decided toparticipate in this international volunteer work?
English language learning expressed as a percentage of total objectives
White = English language learning Black = other objectives
Hiroaki

Haruka

Naoko

Rieko

Atsushi45

I want to speak
English with afriend that I madein France...so I felt
like I had to study.
I’d say English
learning is 70% of
my motivation, theother 30% is
education.

Maybe about 30%
I guess.

I studied English
so that I could
participate in this
NICE international
volunteerwork-camp...I
didn’t come here to
study English.

80%

20%

AtsushiAtsushi joined the work-camp to learn about Mongolia and international non-profit
volunteer organizations. He was fairly comfortable speaking English, and English
learning was not a large motivating factor in his decision to join the program.
Nevertheless, as he told me during an interview, he learned that with grammatically
imprecise English, he was able to understand others, and make himself understood.
During one of the meetings a Taiwanese volunteer said “Yesterday we teachcolors.” Atsushi recognized that this sentence was not grammatically precise, but also
saw that the speaker of the sentence had the confidence to use English, even if
imprecise, and make herself understood.
By the end of the volunteer work-camp, Atsushi had heightened motivation to
study a variety of world Englishes, non-native Englishes, and non-standard English
forms.
HarukaHaruka hadn’t come to Mongolia with a specific intent to study English, and yet she
increased her English communicative ability. Like Atsushi, she gained confidence innegotiating non-standard English grammar and pronunciation. One of the Mongolian
volunteers named Amra, often said “I t’ink so,” when answering a yes or no question
noncommittally. Haruka picked up on this and began using the same phrase with thesame pronunciation. By the end of the two weeks, all of us were all also saying “I t’ink
so,” and we all understood the meaning clearly.
46

It is an invaluable lesson to genuinely recognize that non-standard English
pronunciation and usage can still be used to communicate effectively. While in
Mongolia, Haruka was able to grasp this idea through direct first-hand experience.
HiroakiAt the time of his departure from Japan, Hiroaki was very confident about using English,
but our first meeting upon his arrival in Mongolia was a shock for him. We all sat in acircle on the floor of the apartment, and our Mongolian leader Baatar introduced me:“This is Warren. He’s an American, but he’s had some trouble with the FBI and CIA in
the United States, so he’s hiding out in Mongolia.”
As an American raised on ironic humor I continued glibly, “Well, first I went
to Japan, but they started to catch up on me so I had to make a break for Mongolia.”
None of Hiroaki’s English classes had prepared him for this style of ironic English
usage, and he took our jokes to be the simple truth.
All of us, myself included, had trouble knowing when Bataar was serious. For
Hiroaki and the others it was an important test of their English ability to be able toextract the factual statements from the barrage of Baatar’s relentless jokes. By the endof the program, everyone had made progress in their ability to discern facts from irony.
The subject of humor was especially important for Hiroaki, because he loved
telling jokes in Japanese. Unfortunately, he was having a hard time translating hishumor into English. He said he could not find the right words, context or timing.
Hiroaki confided in me that while on cooking duty with a Taiwanese volunteer, hefound his mind racing, trying to think of how he could employ his English to make herlaugh. With this excellent source of motivation, he worked to develop his English
humor techniques.
By the end of the two weeks Hiroaki knew when Bataar was joking, but stillwasn’t happy with his own comic abilities in English. Hiroaki came away from theprogram feeling reasonably confident in his English ability, but also with renewed
determination to study more and to study more effectively after returning to Japan.
Naoko
Naoko did not come to Mongolia to study English. She studied English so she could
come to Mongolia. She had just finished her fourth year of university and would begin
47

work as a full-time teacher in April. She didn’t expect to need to use English very much,and participating in this work-camp was a grand-finale for her English language
learning career. I tried to encourage her to see the experience as a huge step forward in aroad that would continue indefinitely, but she was adamant on this point.
Even though she thought it was to be the culminating experience of her life as a
student of English, it didn’t seem that she had done any specific preparations forspeaking English in the specific context of this work-camp. She was a trained educatorwith lots of ideas about teaching, but she didn’t seem comfortable articulating theseideas in English during our planning meetings. It also seemed that she hadn’t exposed
herself to any variations of English pronunciation other than standard North-American.
Initially she was frustrated because she often couldn’t understand the Englishof the Taiwanese volunteers. She had studied abroad in America and felt that she wasable to understand much of what she heard and also make herself understood at thattime. The setting of the work-camp in Mongolia was much more challenging.
Fortunately, after an initial loss in confidence, by the end of two weeks her confidence
had returned, and as with Atsushi and Haruka, her experience raised her awareness ofthe need to study non-standard English pronunciation.
Rieko
Rieko only participated for one week of the program, (volunteers could join for one or
two weeks) and yet she experienced the most dramatic improvement in English by far.
She arrived earlier than any of the other volunteers, and for the first day she, Amra (avolunteer from Mongolia), and I were the only ones in the apartment. While Amra, wasintently watching Korean dramas dubbed in Mongolian on the small TV, , Rieko and I
spoke with each other entirely in English. I told her that I had lived in Japan for ten
years and could speak Japanese, but she was not interested in speaking in any language
other than English. Clearly, English was a very important factor in her decision toparticipate in the program, and she was determined to seize the opportunity to use it asmuch as possible.
In speaking with her I could see a familiar type of student that many teachers
have probably encountered. It was obvious that she enjoyed English for its own sake,and as a result she had been able to find the motivation within herself to spend lots oftime with books and tests and engaging enthusiastically in classes to build her
48

knowledge and skills. With her pauses to formulate correct sentences with precise
words, I could also clearly see that she had not had many chances to put her English
into practical meaningful use outside of her classrooms. Now she was in Mongolia andready to make the most of it.
Because of her strong foundation in English and her intense motivation, her
experience was nothing short of a transformation. She went from a shy cautious English
student to a confident, accomplished English speaker, all in a matter of days. She wascontributing her ideas at meetings, sharing stories with the Taiwanese volunteers andeven making sarcastic comments to Baatar.
At the child-care center Rieko took on the challenge to be the lead teacher forthe second lesson of our teaching program. Even in Mongolian, Baatar had difficulties
keeping the attention of the twenty or so Mongolian children, yet Rieko managed to use
English, not only to teach English, but to manage the class. Hesitant soft-spoken
English would not help her in this situation, and she quickly adjusted for the demands
that she was faced with. A very different speaker of English emerged as she stood infront of the students and other teachers. She was determined, confident, and very
effective.
Conclusion
The five Japanese volunteers had very different, but uniformly positive experiences ofEnglish language learning in Mongolia. For Japanese students of English, aninternational volunteer work-camp abroad will be an incredible experience for language
learning and much more. For students of both Japanese and English, an international
work-camp in Japan is an excellent opportunity. Organizations such as NICE havenumerous work-camps each year. There might be a great opportunity for you or yourstudents.
Bio data
Warren Decker is a lecturer at Momoyama Gakuin University. He enjoys baking bread,gardening, and exploring the mountains of Japan.
Links to the non-profit organizations
NICE: <www.nice1.gr.jp/>.
49

VYA: <www.vya.org.tw/>.
Please refer to the NICE homepage for more information about MCE.
Notes:
1. Some of the material in this article appeared in The Language Teachers' Newsletter at
Momoyama Gakuin University in June 2010 and the Global Issues in Language
Education Newsletter in October 2010.
2. The volunteers’ names have been changed out of respect for their privacy.

50Increasing Multicultural Awareness through Understanding Japan's Diverse
Populations
Makiko Deguchi
Kobe College
Margaret Kim
Doshisha Women’s College
Reference data:
Kim, M., & Deguchi, M. (2010). Increasing Multicultural Awareness throughUnderstanding Japan's Diverse Populations. . In K. Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier & M.
Walsh (Eds), Pan-SIG 2010 Conference Proceedings. Kyoto: JALT.

Abstract
It is easy for Japanese people to remain ignorant of the experiences of diverse
populations in Japan’s homogenous society, but it is imperative that we increase
multicultural awareness and competency among Japanese university students so thatthey are prepared to deal with people with diverse cultural backgrounds. Using a
Japanese educational manga textbook based on the experiences of prejudice anddiscrimination of diverse residents, we devised a group project that incorporated a groupskit and PowerPoint presentation in English. A survey of the students indicated that theybroadened their awareness, learned about different ethnic groups, and found the projectboth enjoyable and useful.
Keywords: Multiculturalism, diversity, prejudice, discrimination, foreign residents inJapan, college student project (lesson plan)
日本人は国内ではマジョリティ集団に属している為、マイノリティ体験をする機会が限られている。国内外を問わず多様化する社会の中で、日本の大学生がより多様な人種・エスニシティを持った人と接し、コミュニケーションができることが求められている。
異なったバックグラウンドを持った相手に対して理解とエンパシー（共感）をもって接するようになるためにはまず自分自身の特権やマイノリティに属しているコミュニテ
ィの歴史的背景や差別・偏見の体験について知っておく必要がある。当論文では「クラスメイトは外国人：多文化共生２０の物語」（2009）という教育用マンガ本を教材に、２大学の英語コミュニケーションの講義で使用したレッスンプランを紹介する。クラス
を小グループにわけ、各グループは日本における外国人コミュニティについて調べ、英語による短い劇（スキット）を演じ、英語によるパワーポイント・プレゼンテーションを行うことがもとめられた。学生のアンケート回答によると、「日本に住んでいる自分が身近なコミュニティのことを知らないことに気付かされた」「最近、幼馴染みが在日韓国人であることを打ち明けられたので、大変参考になった」など、このプロジェクトが学生にとって有意義なものであることが伺えた。
キーワード：多文化共生、多様性、偏見、差別、在日外国人

As educators, we often notice the lack of awareness of our students of the history andbackgrounds of non-Japanese residents in Japan. Are they unaware that diverse
communities exist in Japan, or do they choose not to know about the people in close
51

proximity to them? The answer to these questions is that it is probably both. In ahomogeneous country such as Japan, the Japanese are part of the dominant group, andmembers of dominant groups often lack awareness that they belong to a group that isawarded invisible privileges and unearned advantages (McIntosh, 1989). People fromprivileged groups also lack awareness that they are privileged, think of themselves as“the norm” which then leads to a mentality in which they consider themselves superior(Goodman, 2002). In addition, those who are most powerful in society are strongly
motivated not to know a lot about the people they dominate and not to develop asensitive understanding of the structures that preserve their power (Harstock, 1983).
There are, of course, other reasons for the lack of awareness which includes theJapanese educational system that emphasizes similarities rather than differences,discomfort on the part of adults to teach about Japan’s history of colonization in Asia,and the cultural tendency to put a lid on “unpleasant” subjects such as prejudice anddiscrimination. Those who are of a different ethnic/multiracial background often choose
to hide their true identity by assimilation (i.e. carrying Japanese names or not revealing
their background) to avoid the effects of discrimination.
Stereotypes are beliefs and opinions about the characteristics, attributes, andbehaviors of members of various groups (Hilton & von Hippel, 1996). Individuals andgroups are sometimes defined by others in terms of stereotypes, which can be both
positive and negative, but are more often than not, negative. Stereotypes may haveoriginally contained some small grain of truth, but that element has since been
exaggerated, distorted, or some way taken out of context. When stereotyping occurs,
people tend to overlook all characteristics of the group. Sometimes people use
stereotypes to justify the actions taken against members of that group (Blumenfeld &Raymond, 1988).
We felt that to teach about diversity is to expose students to readings about
stereotypes and the negative consequences of those stereotypes. Stereotypes lead toprejudice, and when prejudiced feelings or beliefs move into the realm of behavior, theresult is discrimination, which denies individuals or groups of people equality oftreatment (Whitley & Kite, 2006). This project was thus introduced as a means to raiseawareness among our university students about the prejudice and discrimination facedby residents of diverse racial heritage in Japan.
MethodPurposeThe purpose of this class group project is to increase student awareness and empathy
about diverse populations that live in Japan (i.e., zainichi Koreans or permanent ethnic
Korean residents in Japan, people with multiracial backgrounds, etc.), and to learn thevarious groups’ history and experiences of prejudice and discrimination, while learning
to conduct research and present their findings in English.
ParticipantsParticipants were 40 female university students from Doshisha Women’s College andKobe College, both private women’s colleges in the Kansai area of Japan. The students
from Doshisha Women’s College (n=16) were first-year Contemporary Social Studies
majors enrolled in a year-long general English course called English Communication.
Kobe College students were English majors (n=24) and were also first-year students
52enrolled in a year-long Global Communications course.
Procedure
The group project was implemented as the final assignment for the course and spanned
four to five weeks. Students were divided into groups of four or five members and were
given instructions for the project (see Appendix I). Each group was given one or two
chapters (6-10 pages) from a Japanese educational manga textbook called Kurasumeito
wa Gaikokujin: Tabunkakyosei 20 no Monogatari [My Classmate is a Foreigner: 20
Stories of Multicultural Co-existence] (Akashi Shoten, 2009). Each of these chapters
had stories of non-Japanese students’ experience of prejudice and discrimination in
Japan. At the end of each chapter was a section called “Motto Shirou” (“Learn More”),
which provides statistics as well as historical and factual information to supplement thereading, served as the foundational information piece for the project. The sections
chosen were Sunja’s Story (fingerprinting due to Korean heritage); Miri’s Story (a girlchooses to use her real Korean name); Alex’s Story (a boy with a foreign name faces
employment discrimination); Ali’s Story (foreign crime and racial profiling); Yu-hei’s
Story (history of zainichi Koreans in Japan); Brian’s Story (growing up Filipino),
Ricardo’s Story (South American Japanese immigrant to Japan), and Phon’s Story (aVietnamese refugee family).
There were two requirements for this project. The first was that each group had
to perform a 5-10 minute skit in English that introduces the issues. Before the skit, eachgroup was instructed to ask three questions to the audience so that the audience could
focus their attention on the issues while watching the skits (example of questions
included “What happened in the skit?” “How is this issue related to you?” “Have youwitnessed or experienced something similar before?”). After the skit, a brief classdiscussion followed.
The second requirement for the project was for each group to do a 15-minute
PowerPoint presentation in English. The presentation had to contain a minimum of 10
slides, and the students were to use the Learn More section of the manga chapter as themain resource, but were encouraged to look outside of the assigned chapter for further
information. For example, students were required to discuss the history of their assigned
ethnic group, describe the stereotypes and prejudice that exists for that group, andexplain how these prejudices hurt them. For both requirements, it was made explicit thatall students had to participate actively and equally, and that students will receive agroup grade (not individual grades) for this project.
After the presentations, we left time for questions and answers from theaudience. The students were given points for participating actively during this time
period as an incentive for them to voice their opinions.
Students had four weeks, including class-time, to complete the project. At least
one class was held in the computer room so that students could conduct online research
as well as work on their PowerPoint slides. A deadline for the slides was given before
their presentation so the instructor could help edit and go over the slides with eachgroup. To ensure good presentation skills, 3x5 index cards were given to each student
for use during their presentation, and the importance of eye contact was emphasized.
The teacher’s grading criteria to assess each group’s work included categories
such as: preparation; content/message effective; understandable speech; nonverbal
skills; creativity; PowerPoint presentation; equal and active participation of team53

members; evidence of rehearsal (see Appendix II).
Results
On the day of the assignment, students presented their skit and PowerPoint presentation.
Each group was given 15 minutes for the presentation and 5 minutes for Q&A. At theend of class, students were asked to fill out a survey that included 16 questions inEnglish about the group project (See Appendix III). We went over each question
together in class to ensure that students understood what the questions were asking.
Questions included items with Likert scale responses ranging from 1 (Strongly
Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree) as well as several open-ended items. Students (n=40) ingeneral reported very positive experiences from doing this project (see Table 1). For
example, the average score for “1. I enjoyed doing this project” was 3.86 (out of a
possible 5). The average score for “2. I learned a lot about my assigned ethnic group
topic” and “5. The manga material given to us was a good introduction to begin our
project” were both 4.2 (out of a possible 5). We were also pleased to find that the
majority of students went beyond the assigned chapter to do further research on theirown; approximately 75 percent of students reported using the Internet in addition to themanga resource. We were also encouraged that for the item “I would recommend thatyou use this assignment again for your future classes,” the average score was 3.93 (outof a possible 5), suggesting that it was a worthwhile project for them that they would
wish other students would experience in the future.
Table 1.
Questionnaire Item

Average(out of 5)

1.

I enjoyed doing this project.

3.86

2.

I learned a lot about my assigned ethnic group topic.

4.2

3.

This project took a lot of time to prepare.

3.7

4.

I felt that I was fully prepared for the final presentation.

3.37

5.

The manga material given to us was a good introduction to begin

4.2

our project.
6.

I did research in addition to the manga material for the project.
Majority response (75%): Internet
Other responses: Library books, textbooks, newspaper andjournal

3.79

8.

I felt that my group worked well together.

3.76
54

9.

How many times did you meet outside of the class to prepare forthe project?

1.96

10.

I would recommend that you use this assignment again for your

3.93

future classes.
We felt that this project was an effective way to introduce social issues because
it gave students the opportunity to teach about their designated ethnic group. Some ofthe students’ original comments in the open-ended part of the survey included: “Ilearned about Filipino overseas workers. By learning them, I could know a lot of facts I
didn’t know fully. And I could face the problem that Japan will have in future.” “I could
learn about ‘boat people.’ They are not accepted peoples to live in Japan or othercountries.” “I now know Korean in Japan well, for example, fingerprints. Fingerprints
registration is unjust system. And we have to think this problem.” “In Japan, the foreign
people treat terrible.” “[I learned] how to relate with foreigner.”
Some students talked about what they learned during class discussions. One
student said, “After learning about the zainichi Koreans in Japan, I decided to volunteer
at a Korean school in Japan.” Other student comments during class inlcuded “I wanted
the audience to realize that there are many zainichi Koreans who hide their true identity
by using Japanese names,” “I understood more about the feelings of people of foreign
backgrounds and the hardships they faced,” “I learned for the first time, how Japanese
have treated foreign people, even though I am Japanese myself and should have known
this,” and “I learned that many foreigners are restricted from certain occupations inJapan.” The student’s comments appeared to indicate concern, empathy, and a stancetowards social justice.
For our first-year English Communication classes, this project was the students’first content-based lesson outside of their textbook and so we were particularly
concerned as to how this lesson would work out. As for knowledge acquisition, thetopics introduced to them appeared to have increased their awareness of and empathy on
issues in their own country much of which were unfamiliar to them. Furthermore, it
forced them to question their history as well as think critically about the status quo. In
terms of skill acquisition, students learned how to give a presentation in English,
incorporating nonverbal, verbal, and visual aid skills. By using PowerPoint as a visual
aid, they focused on presenting in a clear and understandable way to the class.
Moreover, they learned to read and recreate graphs for their PowerPoint slides. The
students were able to actively research information for their topic on the Internet.
Conclusion
We realize that there is always room for improvement, especially in lesson plans thatwere tried for the first time. The following are some of our reflections on how we might
do things differently next time.
We felt we should have given more preparation time inside and outside of theclass as the preparations appeared somewhat rushed and also because the project
coincided with the students’ busiest time of the year as the presentations took place
during the last weeks of class. We should have placed more emphasis on their55

presentation skills and emphasized rehearsing. A lot of groups based their skits entirelyon the manga and so we felt that the skits could have been more creative and done in a
way that was easier to understand to the audience. Next time, we may suggest students
to come up with original skits, instead of letting them base their skit entirely on the
manga script. We also should have required the students to introduce more preliminary
information about the skit to the audience. A suggestion that would add a great deal to
the student experience would be to invite speakers from different ethnic groups who canshare their first-hand experiences with the class.
There are pros and cons of using a Japanese text in an English communications
course. Some may feel that the text itself should also be in English. An argument can bemade, however, that the important thing is that the students first have a deeper
understanding of the issues precisely because the information is given to them in theirnative language. The students are still expected to translate the information into English,
and present the material using English, and therefore, we feel that it still serves as an
English communication class. Sometimes when materials are first given in English,
students may just copy the English into their presentation without truly understanding
the full meaning.
In hindsight, we wished we had implemented some kind of preliminary
questionnaire to assess their basic knowledge and understanding of diverse populationsin Japan as well as measure their attitudes, so that we could possibly have recorded achange. Especially because this was a one-year course, such pre- and post-attitudinalsurveys may serve to at least have one type of measure to assess student learning andgrowth.
Alternative project ideas:
Other ways to further develop the project would be to use it as a writing assignment.
The students would write an essay about one of the topics in the manga material. This
could be an argumentative essay that gives their opinion in a direct way. Another idea
would be for this to be a translation project. The students would read the mangamaterial and translate one of the stories from Japanese to English.
Bio data
Makiko Deguchi
Makiko Deguchi received her Ph.D. in cultural psychology from Boston College. She iscurrently teaching in the English Department at Kobe
College. <makiko@mail.kobe-c.ac.jp>
Margaret Kim
Margaret Kim has a BA from the University of Michigan in Asian Studies/Japanese
language and an MA from the School for International Training in Teaching English asa Second Language. She is currently teaching at Doshisha Women’s College.
<mkim@dwc.doshisha.ac.jp>
References
Blumenfeld, W. J., & Raymond, D. (1988). Prejudice and discrimination. In W. J.
Blumenfeld and D. Raymond (Eds.), Looking at gay and lesbian life. Boston: Beacon
Press.
56

Gaikoku ni Tsunagaru Kodomotachi no Monogatari Henshu Iinkai [Editorial committee
on the stories of children and adolescents that are linked to a foreign country]. (2009).
Kurasumeito wa gaikokujin: Tabunka kyosei 20 no monogatari [My classmate is aforeigner: Twenty stories of multicultural coexistence]. Tokyo: Akashi Shoten.
Goodman, D. J. (2001). Promoting diversity and social justice: Educating people fromprivileged groups. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Harstock, N.C.M. (1983). The feminist standpoint: Developing the ground forspecifically feminist historical materialism. In S. Harding, & M. B. Hintikka. (Eds.).
Discovering reality. Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel Publishing.
Hilton, J. L., & von Hippel, W. (1996). Stereotypes. Annual review of psychology, 47,
237-271.
McIntosh, P. (1989). White privilege: Unpacking the invisible knapsack. Peace andFreedom, July/Aug. 10-12.
Whitley, B. E., & Kite, M. E. (2006). The psychology of prejudice and discrimination.
Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadworth.

57

Appendix I
Name__________________English Communication
Final Project Fall 2009
Understanding the Experiences of Diverse Residents in Japan
Overview and Objectives:
The goal of this assignment is to research and present on the experiences of diverse
populations that live in Japan.
Requirements
Each group will be handed a 10-page manga in Japanese from 「クラスメイトは外国
人:多文化共生 20 の物語」. Read this manga carefully. Try to understand the topic anddo additional research as necessary.
* this will be the only thing in Japanese that will be used during this project.
Skit
Each group must do a skit (five minutes) to introduce the topic to the audience in aneasy to understand manner. First do an introduction of the topic. It has to be in English.
Every member must participate equally in the skit. You will receive a group grade.
Question & Discussion
Before the skit, present THREE questions on the board for the audience to think about
while watching the skit. (Examples: Q. What happened in the skit? Q. How is this issue
related to you? Q. Have you witnessed or experienced something similar before?)
Visual presentation
Each group must do a PowerPoint presentation using at least 10 Slides.
The presentation must be done entirely in English. The length of the presentation must
be between 10 and 15 minutes. All presenters must speak for equal number of minutes.
I advise each group to practice the presentation at least several times before presenting58

in class.
*PowerPoint slides must be emailed to Margaret by January XX, 2010*
Content on the Slides
1) Content should cover information in the 「もっと知ろう」section of reading.
Discuss the characteristics and history of your topic.
For example, what kind of discriminatory history does each topic have?
2) Describe the various stereotypes that exist for your group.
Explain each stereotype in detail. For each stereotype, answer the question, “Where did
the stereotype come from? What is the origin?”3) Describe how the stereotypes hurt the group targeted by the stereotype. What
negative impact do these stereotypes have on the group? Be specific in your examples.
Assignment Expectations•

Organize so that all members of the team are participating equally.

59

Appendix II
Understanding the Experiences of Diverse Residents in Japan
Final Project: Fall 2009-10
TEACHER’S EVALUATION OF EACH GROUP
Presentation Topic __________________________________________Name of Group Members ____________________________________
Group Grade______________
1. The presentation was well prepared and organized
1

2

3

4

5

2. The content/message sent to audience was effective
1

2

3

4

5

3. Understandable: vocabulary, loud enough, intonation stress, comprehensible, spoke atmoderate speed
1

2

3

4

5

4. Nonverbal skills: eye contact/gestures/posture
1

2

3

4

5

4

5

5. Creativity: original idea, interesting1

2

3

6. PowerPoint presentation was understandable and clear
1

2

3

4

5

7. Members of group participated actively and equally
1

2

3

4

5

8. PowerPoint files meets 10 slide minimum
1

2

3

4

5

60

9. PowerPoint slides contains stats or tables/graphs
1

2

3

4

5

3

4

5

3

4

5

3

4

5

3

4

5

10. Content of PowerPoint
1

2

11. Content of the skit
1

2

12. The way the skit was performed
1

2

13. Evidence of rehearsal
1

2

COMMENTS:

61

Appendix III
Student Survey on Diversity Project
Instructions: Please circle the best answer.
1. I enjoyed doing this project.
Strongly

Disagreedisagree
1

Neither agree

Agree

Strongly agree

4

5

Agree

Strongly agree

3

4

5

Neither agree

Agree

Strongly agree

4

5

Agree

Strongly agree

45

nor disagree
23

2. I learned a lot about my assigned ethnic group topic.
Strongly

Disagreedisagree
1

Neither agree
nor disagree

2

3. This project took a lot of time to prepare.
Strongly

Disagreedisagree1

nor disagree
23

4. I felt that I was fully prepared for the final presentation.
Strongly

Disagreedisagree
1

Neither agree
nor disagree

23

5. The manga material given to us was a good introduction to begin our project.

62

Strongly

Disagreedisagree
1

Neither agree

Agree

Strongly agree

45

nor disagree
23

6. I did research in addition to the manga material for the project.
Strongly

Disagreedisagree
1

Neither agree

Agree

Strongly agree

45

nor disagree
23

7. If you answered yes to Q. 6, what additional sources did you use? (circle one ormore).
1. Internet
2. Library books
3. Textbooks
4. Newspaper/Journal
5. Other ________________________________________
8. I felt that my group worked well together.
Strongly

Disagreedisagree
1

Neither agree

Agree

Strongly agree

45

nor disagree
23

9. How many times did you meet outside of the class to prepare for the project?
1. Once
2. Twice
3. Three times
4. Four times
5. Five or more63

10. I would recommend that you use this assignment again for your future classes.
Strongly

Disagree

Neither agree

disagree1

AgreeStrongly agree

45

nor disagree
2

3

11. What message did you want to give to your audience?

12. What useful information did you learn about your topic? What did you learn thatyou did not know before? Be specific.

13. If you had to do your project again, what would you do differently?
(e.g. practice more, meet more often with my group, start preparing earlier, etc.)

14. Rank how you did on your project:
1=poorly, 5=excellent
Creativity

1

2

3

4

5

Effort

1

2

3

4

5

Preparation

1

2

3

4

5

Clear and effective message

1

2

3

4

5

Group work

1

2

3

4

5

Speech

1

2

3

4

5

Eye contact

1

2

3

4

5

PowerPoint slides

1

2

3

4

5

15. How could this project be improved for future classes? Be specific.

6416. Comments:

Thank you! 65An examination of the EFL textbooks at one Japanese university from a World
Englishes perspective
Hadija Drummond and Myles Grogan, Momoyama Gakuin Daigaku

Reference data:
Drummond, H. & Grogan, M. (2010) An examination of the EFL textbooks at
one Japanese university from a World Englishes perpective. In K.
Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier & M. Walsh (Eds), Pan-SIG 2010 Conference

Proceedings. Kyoto: JALT.

Abstract
Matsuda (2002) and Yamanaka (2006) have both published findings showing that the
Ministry of Japanese Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology(MEXT)-approved textbooks tend to focus on inner circle speakers of English or
Japanese speakers. This study looks at the three most commonly used EFL texts in 143
compulsory classes taught by Native English Teachers at a private Japanese university.
Conversations and communication acts from the audio in each textbook were analyzed
in terms of inner, outer, or expanding circle participants. The results were used to try tocreate a snapshot of the characters in some of the textbooks used at our institution witha view to portrayal of who uses English, where it is used, and what kind of interactions
are shown in terms of inner, outer, or expanding circle speakers.
Keywords: EFL textbooks, textbook analysis, world Englishes, internationalism,
university foreign language education, English use, English as an International
Language
松田（２００２年）と山中（２００６年）の両名が発表した研究によると、文部科学省の認可した教科書は、英語のインナーサークル話者と日本語話者に焦点をおく傾向が見られる、との事であった。この研究では、日本の私立大学で66ネイティブ英語話者の教員が担当する１４３の必修英語クラスのうち、最も利用されている３冊の EFL テキストに着目した。教科書中の会話とコミュニケー
ションが、インナー、アウター、エキスパンディングの各サークルのどの話者達が行っているのか、の観点から分析した。「誰が英語を使っているのか」「どこで英語が使われているのか」「どのようなイン ターアクションが行われているのか」を探し出し、分析の結果は、我々の大学で利用されている教科書中の登場人物達のイメージを作成する試みに使われた。
キーワード：教科書、テキスト分析、 世界英語、国際的、大学外国語教育、
英語使用、国際語としての英語

The expanding role of English in the world is an important topic for language educators.
English is the most widely used and studied language in the world, with more than twobillion people routinely exposed to English (Crystal, 2003) and more than 1.5 billion
people learning English (Graddol, 2007).
As English has spread throughout the world it has been adapted and mixed withlocal languages and cultures to create new varieties of English. One way of looking atthese World Englishes within the field is to categorize these varieties into three
concentric circles. The inner-circle varieties include countries such as the UK and theUSA, where English is the first and primary language. The outer-circle varieties are
made up of countries such as India and Nigeria, where English has a history of official
use, such as educational or governmental. Finally, expanding-circle varieties arecomprised of countries such as Japan or France, which recognize the importance ofEnglish and teach it widely, but rarely use it (Kachru, 1985).
As English use has increased, the most common international interactions inEnglish have come to take place between ‘non-native’ speakers, rather than between
speakers of varieties of English such as American or British. It is beneficial, therefore,
for students to gain exposure to the different varieties of English, including users ofEnglish as a second language. However, in Japan, despite wide promotion of the
English language for international communication (Kubota, 1998; Matsuda, 2002;
Nunan, 2003), the native inner-circle speaker (usually of American English) has beenused as the target language model in most MEXT-approved textbooks.
67

To illustrate, the great majority of job advertisements for short-term contract
English teachers in universities in Japan state “Native English speaker” as aqualification. Additionally, the Japan Exchange and Teaching program primarily
recruits young native speakers for nation-wide jobs in public schools, probably shaping
students’ pre-university experience (Official Homepage of the Japan Exchange andTeaching Programme, 2008). Any resulting lack of awareness of the many varieties ofEnglish used around the world and in Japan may lead not only to difficulties inunderstanding the varieties, but also to dismissive attitudes toward them. A growing
number of educators and researchers in Japan therefore advocate that English language
classes in Japan prepare students for interaction with users of non-standard varieties(Hanamoto, 2009; Honna & Takeshita, 1998; Kubota, 1998; Morrow, 2004). As such,
while American or British varieties might be chosen as a target for language teaching,
students should know that these are only a few of many varieties which they may
encounter in the future.
English language teaching material can play a large role in introducing students
to English language varieties. However, previous research suggests that language
materials in use in Japan are not adequately preparing students for the reality of English
use in the present global climate. Matsuda (2002), for example, examined therepresentation of users of English in Japanese public school textbooks. The selected
texts were approved by the former Ministry of Education for the first year of junior highschool and were in use from 1997 to 2002. Matsuda examined both the nationalities of
the characters and the types of English included in those textbooks. She found thatJapanese and inner-circle characters were the most represented, with only 7 out of 74
characters from outer- or expanding-circle countries. She also found that theoverwhelming majority of exchanges showing “international English” use took place
between Japanese speakers and inner-circle speakers (66/75), for example a Japanese
student talking to native speakers when visiting the United States. Matsuda argues thatthese textbooks can give learners the false impression that Japanese and other EFL
learners study English to speak with those from the inner circle.
In a more recent study, Yamanaka (2006) analyzed the MEXT-approved
secondary school EFL textbooks from the viewpoint of culture teaching, examining thefrequency of cultural items and references. She found a strong emphasis on inner circle
cultural elements (primarily the U.S.), particularly at the junior high school level (inner68

38% / expanding 20% / outer 6%). Importantly, she found a significant increase in the
coverage of expanding circle cultural items in senior high school. In fact, they exceeded
inner circle cultural references.
Cottle (2009) looked at how English users were represented in two EFL
textbook series (English Firsthand and Touchstone) used at a Japanese university interms of character background, ethnicity, and accent. Similar to Matsuda, Cottle’s
analysis revealed a dominance of characters from inner-circle countries in all selected
textbooks. Of the 203 characters in both textbook series, none were deemed to be fromouter-circle countries, and only 8 were from expanding-circle countries. Cottle
concludes that these textbook series have the potential to reinforce the notion that
English belongs to inner-circle countries.
These studies are valuable, but have important limitations. Firstly, Matsuda’s
study focused on junior high school texts, which tend to be less complex than university
texts. Secondly, the textbooks used by Matsuda were published more than a decade ago.
They therefore do not reflect the changing views toward international English use thathave taken place since then. Horibe (2008) suggests the focus of language teaching inJapan has changed, with less of a tendency to connect English language learning with
Americans or Britons. He writes:
high school textbooks today include many different societies and cultures in theworld alongwith Japanese society and culture . . . university-level textbooks,

which used to center around British and American literature, now covers [sic] diverse
cultural topics and contents including global issues and current affairs around theworld. (p. 246)
It is necessary therefore to examine textbooks currently in use. Cottle’s 2008
study, which is up to date, looks at only textbook series without detailing how thesetextbooks were determined to be “commonly used in English classes at universities
throughout Japan” (p. 4). It is unclear to us whether the textbooks he examined wereused at our institution.
Therefore, the overall aim of the project is to investigate how English users are
represented in verbal exchanges in textbooks at our university. Specifically, we focus on
the three texts used for the largest number of compulsory courses for non-English
majors. For each textbook, we will examine the following research questions:
1) Who is portrayed as an English user?
692) Where is English use depicted?
3) What interactions are shown?
Examining these questions will provide a better idea of how English users anduses are being portrayed in the classroom materials selected by teachers for compulsory
credits at our institution.
Methodology
Textbook Selection
To identify the most commonly used textbooks at our institution, we examined the
textbook selections of compulsory credit-bearing English communication courses
offered in the 2010 spring semester. These courses are all single credit courses for
non-English majors, and the text list was obtained from the school administration.
We examined a total of 143 individual classes from the course catalog, taught by 30
teachers. We judged three textbooks to be most popular by looking at the number ofcredits the text was used for, as displayed in Table 1. As we were studying spoken
language models, only texts with audio were suitable, and thus graded readers and texts
with no audio (such as Let’s Talk About It, or Scraps) were eliminated from the study.
EFL Textbooks Used in 5 or More Courses in 2010 at one Japanese University
SeriesText

Credits

English Here and Now at Momoyama Book1

12

Graded Readers

7

No textbook

27

Scraps6

Interchange Third Edition Intro Student's Book

5Interchange Third Editon Student's Book 1

2credits

7

6

70

Interchange Third Editon Student's Book 2

1

8

Talk a Lot - Book One

8

10

Let's Talk About It

7

7

Smart Choice 1

4

Smart Choice 2

7

Smart Choice 3

2

13

For the purposes of this study, we have treated different levels of the sametextbook as separate textbooks, (although we have included series data in Table 1 forthe sake of completeness). This differs from the approach used by Cottle (2009). As
most students would not use more than one text in a series, this approach better suitedthe purpose of our inquiry. The varieties of English may vary from level to level withina series, but we focused on the Englishes experienced through each individual class text.
We selected Smart Choice 2, Interchange Intro, and Talk A Lot. Smart Choice 2
is a 12-unit text, with an additional classroom English-style unit and four review units.
Each unit contains a conversation recording and a listening section, the latter usuallybroken into sections. Each unit in Talk A Lot revolves round a series of questions.
Interchange Intro has 16 units with additional Progress Check sections. Units have twoconversations, a main listening activity and a self-study listening activity.

Data Analysis
Using an alternative textbook, we analyzed conversations and listenings toclarify categories and identification criteria, and check that our ability to rate constructs
was similar. Both audio files and scripts were used to identify these features. Because
each item analyzed was regarded as a communicative act, vocabulary, recordings ofreading sections, or isolated pronunciation models were excluded from the selection.
71Based on this initial analysis, we finalized a list of 10 categories for the textbook
analysis. These included: apparent dialect, speaker's nationality or region of nationality,
circle that each speaker belonged to, ethnicity (if known), location or region of use, andcircle of use. The circle the speaker belonged to and the location of the exchanges were
determined using a combination of textual clues, accent, and pictures. Any context notes
helpful to the study were recorded.
In addition, we also noted place-marking data (page and CD track), details suchas gender and name of characters portrayed (the latter allowing tracking of input over
several instances in some instances), and performed a word count. In the absence ofelectronic copies of the tape script, this count was done by hand. Although some errors
will have occurred as a result, the data gathered should still give a good picture of thedifferences in contribution between categories.
It may have been possible to discuss the ethnicity of characters within the books
as a significant part of the study, but the sparse information in the texts made thisdifficult. Although undoubtedly an important issue, it was decided that this was beyond
the scope of the study.
Results and discussion
Let us now discuss the results in terms of each of the three research questions.
1) Who is portrayed as an English user?
As shown in Table 2, the speakers of English in all books belong mostly to the inner
circle, with all speakers belonging to the inner circle in Talk A Lot. In Smart Choice 2,
the word total is 7% greater than the number of speakers for inner circle speakers,
showing a dominant role for those speakers in most exchanges. While the opposite istrue for Interchange Intro, the percentage of expanding circle speakers is much lower(5% of speakers and 6% of words uttered). The number of words per speaker in bothcases for expanding-circle speakers is just over 50 words.
Evidence of outer circle speakers was missing from every text, although thesecharacters may be difficult to identify given the information available for analysis. As aconsequence, however, students may be unaware of these English speakers as
stakeholders in the English language. This is disappointing from the perspective ofpromoting English as an international medium.
Finally, in Smart Choice 2 all identifiable Asian characters were female.
72

Table 2. The Varieties of English used in the Dialogs and Listening Sections ofThree EFL University Texts
Smart Choice 2
Speakers# ofspeakers*

As %
of
total

# of

Interchange Intro
% of

# of

words total speakers

As %
of
total

# of

Talk a Lot
% of

# of

words total speakers

As %
of
total

# of

% of

words total

IC

67

79.1

4677

86.1

156

95

4028

94

37

100

5659

100

OC

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

EC

14

20.9

755

13.9

8

5

252

6

0

0

0

0

* After discussion, one character, speaking 116 words, was excluded from the data for
Smart Choice 2, as being too complex to categorize from text. All other characters wereplaced.
2) Where is English use depicted?
There is an absence of discrete information on specific and concrete location in all texts.
The texts are artful in their lack of identifying features, allowing a genericNorth-American feel to almost all interactions. Again, the analysis reveals an apparent
near absence of non-inner-circle settings. It is have to imagine how learners living inJapan could perceive such settings as a part of their own life, and may even be outside
the realm of reality for learners. A summary of the data is shown in Table 3.

73

Table 3. Locations of Communicative Exchanges Depicted in 3 EFL Texts
Smart Choice 2

Interchange IntroTalk a Lot

Location

Exchanges % of total Exchanges % of total Exchanges % of total

IC

48

100

83

94

18

100

OC

0

0

0

0

0

0

EC

0

0

0

0

0

0

Unknown

0

0

4

5

0

0

Other

0

0

1

1

0

0

48

100

88

100

18

100

(International
Phone Call)
Total3) What interactions are shown?
The textbooks overwhelmingly show IC-IC interactions. To a large extent, many of theEC agents are “stars” (such as athletes), or are reduced to some kind of cultural
informant for IC speakers. Other EC characters are "cameo" characters, with only 4 or 5
words. These latter generally serve to facilitate an IC speaker's role (e.g. a TV host). A
summary is shown in Table 4.
The five EC-EC interactions in Smart Choice 2 all took place within "Unit 0”,
which demonstrated classroom English. No other EC-EC interactions were seen.
Table 4. Types of Communicative Exchanges Depicted in 3 EFL Texts

Type
ExchangeofSmart Choice 2

Interchange Intro

# of

# of

exchanges% of total

exchanges% of total

Talk a Lot# ofexchanges% of total

IC-IC

33

68.75

67

88

18

100

EC-EC

5

10.4

2

4

0

0

OC-OC

0

0

0

0

0

0

IC-EC

9

18.75

7

9

0

0

IC-OC

0

0

0

0

0

0

EC-OC

0

0

0

0

0

0

Total

47

97.9

76

101

18

100
74

Limitations
It is important to note the limitations of this study. Firstly, the three textbooks analyzed
made up only a small sample (less than 14%?) of the main texts used in our programs.
Within the 143 credits this survey covered, this study has covered the audio componentof 19 credits. This is less than one seventh of all credits. Twenty seven credits used no
textbook, and we are unable to say what - if any - listening materials were provided inclasses with no textbook, nor can we perform the same analysis we have done here.
Furthermore, books such as Let’s Talk About It have no audio component and were
excluded from the study. Finally, even where teachers are using a commercial text withaudio, it is not known whether or how teachers are supplementing those class textbookswith additional materials.
This was a small-scale study, which looked at only three books, to provide anindication of how English use is represented in them. More comprehensive analyses
would provide valuable information required to inform program choices.
Conclusion
The results show a marked preference for General American English (GAE) in theselected textbooks. Though exposure to a diversity of American accents would arguably
be preferable, GAE may represent a reasonable choice as a language model for students
studying in, or intending to study in America. However, when used as the sole model
for EFL students preparing for international language use in a variety of potential
settings, GAE is insufficient and unrealistic. Standardized tests, such as TOEIC® and
IELTS™ also now include, at a minimum, a range of native-speaker accents (Powers,
2008; IELTS, 2007). Perhaps GAE should be a key component of English classes, but it
is highly unlikely that this is the only form of English needed in students’ lives.
Kirkpatrick (2007) comments, “the specific teaching and learning contexts and thespecific needs of the learners in those contexts should determine the variety to betaught” (p.2).
The above does not necessarily mean that these textbooks are a poor choice forJapanese university classrooms. While representation of English use is an importantfactor to consider in selecting textbooks, we recognize that this is one of several factorsthat need to be considered. As these textbooks are popular selections at our institution75

and perhaps across Japan, they clearly have been judged positively by teachers on otherregards. However, upon evaluating their students' language needs, teachers may choose
to make up for the lack of linguistic and cultural diversity in their coursebooks, using
strategies such as re-recording passages or bringing in supplemental texts (bothauthentic and constructed). Teachers may also choose to revise their selections toinclude a textbook from the growing list that provide more accurate representations ofEnglish use. There are many advantages to doing so, including raising students'
awareness of the diversity of English language varieties in use in the world andpreparing students for the reality of global communication. Most importantly, bringing
different kinds of English to life in the classroom can add interest and excitement to the
EFL classroom.
Biodata
Hailing from the UK, Myles Grogan did his MA in the United States,
where he first developed an interest in World Englishes. Besides Japan, he has taught in
China, Italy, and Costa Rica. Other research interests include Extensive Reading, theuse of technology in the classroom, and pronunciation.
Hadija Drummond is a former EFL instructor at Momoyama Gakuin
Univeristy, Osaka Japan.
References
Crystal, D. (2003). Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Cottle, B.K. (2009). Representation of English users and uses in university EFL
textbooks. The Language Teacher, 33(1), 3-8.
Graddol, D. (2007). English Next. [Online]. Available:<www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-english-next.pdf>.
Hanamoto, H. (2009, 20th September). Nihonjin daigakusei ga motsu Eigo henshu e nosutereotaipu bunseki – Gengo taido kenkyuu kara no kousatsu. [An analysis ofstereotypes of English varieties among Japanese university students – Perspectives on
language attitude research]. Paper presented at the 25th Annual Convention of the Japan
Association for Asian Englishes. Kumamoto, Japan.
Honna N., & Takeshita Y. (1998). On Japan’s propensity for native speaker English: A76

change in sight. Asian Englishes, 1(1), 1-19.
Horibe, H. (2008). The place of culture in teaching English as an International
Language (EIL), JALT Journal, 30(2), 241-253.
International English Language Testing System. (2007). IELTS Handbook. [Online].
Available: <ielts.org/pdf/IELTS_Handbook_2007.pdf>.
Kachru, B.B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English
language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk & H.G. Widdowson (Eds.), English in theWorld (pp.11-30). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kubota, R. (1998). Ideologies of English in Japan. World Englishes, 17, 295-306.
Martin, D. (2003). Talk a Lot. Saitama, Japan: EFL Press.
Matsuda, A. (2002). Representation of users and uses of English in beginning Japanese
EFL textbooks. JALT Journal, 24(2), 182-200.
Morrow, P. (2004). English in Japan: The World Englishes perspective. JALT Journal,
26(1), 79-100. [Online]. Available <jalt-publications.org/jj/articles/2004/>.
Nunan, D. (2003). The impact of English as a Global Language on educational policies
and practices in the Asia-Pacific Region. TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 589-613.
Nunan, D. (2004). Interchange Intro. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Japan Exchange and Teaching Program. (2008). JET programme participant numbers.
[Online]. Available: <jetprogramme.org/e/introduction/statistics.html>.
Powers, D. E., Kim, H.J., & Weng, V.J. (2008). TOEIC can-do guide executive
summary. Princeton, NJ: ETS. [Online]. Available:<www.ets.org/Media/Tests/Test_of_English_for_International_Communication/TOEIC_Can_Do.pdf>.
Wilson, K. (2007). Smart Choice 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Yamanaka, N. (2006). An evaluation of English textbooks in Japan from the viewpointof nations in the inner, outer, and expanding circles. JALT Journal, 28(1), 57-76.

77

Empowering teachers’ professional development: Video supported reflections
Sean H. Toland and B. Greg Dunne
Osaka Shoin Women’s University
Reference data:
Toland, S.H., & Dunne, B.G. (2010). Empowering teachers’ professional development:
Video supported reflections. . In K. Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier & M. Walsh (Eds),
Pan-SIG 2010 Conference Proceedings. Kyoto: JALT.

Abstract
This paper highlights the preliminary findings from an ongoing teacher development
project that promotes professional growth via critical reflective teaching. The projectrequired the participants to videotape their university English classes before engaging in
critical self-reflection, peer viewing and collegial consultation. The paper describes fivepositive elements that emerged from videotaping the teachers’ lessons. Finally, thepaper attempts to alleviate some of the discomfort and apprehension that educators havewith utilising a video camera as a professional development tool.
Keywords: videotape, video record, professional development, teacher development,
self-reflection, peer collaboration.
本論は、ビデオ使用を英語授業の指導改善に役立てる実践事例報告である。勤務校では、教育開発プロジェクトの一環として、英語教員同士による授業参観を実施しているが、アンケート調査から、教室へのビデオ撮影の導入は、授業
担当者自身に批評的視点を提供するばかりでなく、反省会での該当授業の検討に役立つことが判明した。本論は、先行研究を踏まえ、ビデオ撮影に関する 5
つの要点を、各種アンケート調査と照らし合わせて指摘する。さらに、教室へのビデオ持ち込みに伴う問題に対して、解決策を例示している。
キーワード：ビデオ撮影、教育開発、授業改善、自己省察、協同態勢
Spectators at sporting events are usually amazed at the high level of proficiency, power,
and grace that professional athletes bring to the playing field. We have come to expectthat learning to perform at an elite level in the world of sports is an extremely difficult
78

and time consuming endeavour. A case in point concerns professional baseball players
who, in addition to hitting thousands of balls in a batting cage, typically dedicate
themselves to hours upon hours in the gym working on their strength, flexibility, andspeed. In addition to such physical conditioning, elite baseball players will spend asignificant amount of time in front of a television screen carefully examining videotapeof their swing in order to observe any flaws and look for areas that need to be improved.
In fact, the majority of Major League Baseball sluggers would appear to view
videotaping as not only an extremely valuable part of their professional development
but indeed an essential one.
This sentiment stands in sharp contrast to the feelings about videotaping thatexist in the EFL/ESL educational arena. Most English teachers will find themselves in a
discomforting ‘fight or flight’ mode when the words “videotape” and “your lesson” arementioned in the same sentence. In all probability, this negative feeling stems from thefact that video recording is often used as an evaluative tool, especially during thepreservice teaching practicum, and not as an effective professional improvement
resource. Over the last four decades, numerous researchers (e.g., Kong et al., 2009;
Richards & Farrell, 2005; Richardson, 2007; Wu et al., 2008) have provided accounts
whereby educators have utilised a video camera in their EFL classrooms under the
auspices of teacher development. However, Bailey et al. (2001) astutely note thatvideotaping has been predominately used to train new teachers and is rarely deployed in“self-initiated professional development contexts” (pp.117-118).
This paper will argue that video recording one’s EFL/ESL classes in a“self-initiated” framework is an extremely powerful professional development(henceforth PD) approach, especially if it is used in conjunction with criticalself-reflection and peer feedback. The paper will draw on the preliminary findings froma synergised teacher improvement project that promotes professional growth via criticalreflective teaching. The research undertaking required the participants to videotape twoof their university English classes at predetermined points throughout the school term.
Once the lessons were recorded, the instructors analysed their own classroom
performance and then exposed themselves to the critical scrutiny of their colleagues. In
essence, this teacher development project is constructed on a foundation that consists ofthe following six pillars: (a) self reflection (immediate & intuitive), (b) self reflection(video-aided), (c) peer feedback (video-aided), (d) student feedback (questionnaire), (e)79collegial feedback (video-aided) and (f) collaborative consultation.
The boundaries of teacher development
Before examining the aforementioned teacher development project in greater depth, it isnecessary to pause for a moment in order to discuss the parameters of EFL/ESL
professional development. L2 teacher development has traditionally been perceived tobe ‘front loaded’ and ‘top-down’ in nature. According to Freeman (1994), “frontloading” is a dominant force in the world of EFL/ESL PD. Freeman, as noted byGebhard (1998), defines “front loading” as the knowledge that educators acquire during
the early part of their careers and this information is thought to be enough to sustain
them over the course of their professional journey (p.501). Items that fall under theumbrella of “front loading” include theories about learning taught in university
education programs, practicum experience, as well as the coaching and mentoring of
new teachers (p.501).
The second traditional approach to teacher development is described by
Johnson (2006) as the “top-down professional development model” (p.243). In essence,
this model can be described as one whereby the administrative overseers of a program
impose initiatives and innovations in classrooms without much input from front-line
educators (p.243). In a similar vein, So et al. (2009) remind us that pre-packaged
training courses and seminars, which are usually quite popular with school
administrators, are often developed and conducted by external organizations.
Furthermore, this traditional PD instrument assumes that the knowledge that teachers
gather from short-term instructional courses is relevant and can be directly applied intheir classrooms (p.441). However, Borko (2004) argues that such workshops andseminars are not an effective tool for professional growth as they are often superficial
and fragmented (So et al., 2009, p.441). Similarly, Tienken and Stonaker (2007) claimthat educators best learn outside the confines of large group workshops and conferences(Zepeda, 2008, p.3). To paraphrase Tienken and Stonaker, teachers are likely toexperience greater professional growth by participating in small in-house groups thatfacilitate communication.
Even though the traditional sites of teacher development such as seminars,
workshops, and conferences can be problematic, they remain highly popular. A case inpoint is highlighted in the responses to a teacher development survey conducted in the80current project. The survey consisted of a questionnaire responded to by 45 university
instructors teaching in the Osaka area (see Figure 1). Of the respondents, 91% (n=41)
reported that they had attended EFL workshops and conferences within the previous
twelve months. Of even greater significance, 78 % (n=35) of these individuals claimed
that EFL conferences and workshops were a useful way to enhance their teachingabilities. Ultimately, these numbers are not surprising, especially when one considers
the fact that the previously mentioned professional growth activities fit neatly into mostteachers’ comfort zones.

Figure 1. Perceived value vs. actual usage of PD activities
Johnson (2006) challenges educators to expand their personal boundaries
beyond the typical sites of teacher development and seek out “alternative professional
development models” (p.243). Johnson argues that the alternative paradigm must allow
educators to engage in “self-directed, collaborative, inquiry-based learning that is
directly relevant to teachers’ classroom lives” (p.243). Furthermore, she encourages
educators to explore their teaching practices in a manner that is in-depth, reflective, andon-going throughout their journey along the road of PD (p.244).

81

Alternative professional development activities
Fortunately, there are numerous PD opportunities that provide teachers with a means to
examine their classroom practices in a reflective and analytical manner. Richards andFarrell (2005) highlight several individual and group activities that will help educators
enhance their professional skills. These include self-monitoring, journal writing, criticalincident reports, action research, peer coaching, peer observation, team teaching, criticalfriendships, case studies, and teacher support groups (p.14). This paper will argue that
one of the most powerful as well as effective ways that teachers can explore theirclassroom performance is to step in front of a camera and record their lessons. So how
do educators feel about videotaping their English classes? The survey questionnaire
conducted in this project posed this question and discovered that 53% (n=24) of theuniversity instructors believed that video recording their lessons would be a useful PD
endeavour. However, only 18% (n=8) of the respondents had utilised this technique
within the preceding year. Clearly, these results indicate that even though videotaping
one’s English classes is considered by many teachers to be a worthwhile undertaking, it
is an under-utilised PD tool.
Why don’t more EFL/ESL instructors bring a video camera into theirclassrooms? The answer to this question is more complicated than it might initiallyappear. Undoubtedly, it is possible that some individuals might feel constricted byconsensual concerns, technical considerations, time constraints, and bureaucratic staticfrom school administrators. In addition to these logistical concerns, a number of English
teachers may avoid recording their lessons because they would feel self-conscious andembarrassed watching their actions on a video monitor. Without question, theparticipants in the current teacher development project concur with Bailey et al. (2001)
that watching a videotape of their classroom performance was a humbling and slightly
uncomfortable experience. However, once educators are able to circumvent the pitfallsof self consciousness and embarrassment they are more likely to appreciate the fact thatvideotaping their lessons is a powerful means to cultivate their professional abilities. As
reiterated throughout this paper, the current PD literature highlights numerous benefits
associated with the use of video technology in an educational context. This teacher
development project discovered five significant benefits that emerged from videotaping
the participants’ lessons.

82

“Lights, camera, action” – The value of video
The first positive element relates to the teacher’s awareness of his or her oral andphysical propensities. Both the participants in our project reported that watchingthemselves on a video monitor fostered an enhanced self awareness. As one teacher inthe current project reflected;“The first time I watched myself in front of a camera, it became painfully clearthat I was overly fond of words such as: ‘good,’ ‘ok,’ and ‘that’s right.’ Inaddition to overusing these words, I noticed that my whiteboard usage was anarea that needed to be drastically improved. Simply put, my writing was
atrocious and it was difficult for the students to read. On top of this alarming
reality, the board was a rainbow of colors from different markers and many
words were poorly spaced.”
These comments are found in larger studies as well. For example, Richards and Farrell(2005) tell us that teachers are often shocked by their irritating speech mannerisms andthe overreliance on certain words (p.36). On a similar note, Rosenstein (2002) reminds
us that videotape also captures nonverbal items such as body language (e.g.
self-grooming, clothing adjustments) and the physical movements of people within therange of the camera (p.4).
The second advantage that surfaced from the current teacher development
project was that it created time for the participants to adequately respond to theirteaching performance. When educators are deeply engaged in the lesson, it is
impossible for them to observe the actions of every student, especially when they write
something on a whiteboard. Sherin (2000) reminds us that a myriad of things occur
simultaneously during a typical lesson and a teacher must be constantly attentive tohis/her next classroom manoeuvre (p.36). The value of a videotape, as Sherin notes, isthat it negates the real time reality and provides educators with the opportunity toclosely examine a specific aspect of their class an infinite number of times. In addition,
Sherin states that “…you don’t have to be attentive to a hundred things; you can focus
on two or three. It’s a rare luxury” (p.37). On a similar wavelength, Batey & Westgate(1994) report that their “critical faculties seemed to have been sharpened” fromwatching their own videotapes as well as the recorded classroom performances of theircolleagues (p.40). The instructors in the current teacher development project strongly
agree with the sentiments of the aforementioned researchers. The third valuable insight83

that emerged was that the repeated viewings cultivated the teachers’ analyticalcompetencies. By utilizing the stop and rewind buttons on their remote control devices,the participants could carefully dissect specific facets of their lessons (e.g. student
participation levels, ratio of teacher to student talk, speech complexity, task-basedlearning techniques, nonverbal behaviours and teacher performance). Whereas thepreviously discussed advantages are individualistic in nature, the fourth benefit relates
to peer collaboration.
The collaborative components of this project, namely peer viewing and collegial
feedback, enabled the instructors to make more of an in-depth analysis of the classroom
videos. Is it worthwhile to have a colleague watch and critique your EFL lesson? The
project teacher development survey investigated this question and discovered that 56%(n=25) of the respondents believe that peer observation can improve an instructor’sclassroom performance. However, only 49% (n=22) of the teachers reported that they
had engaged in peer observation within the previous twelve months. Jim Stigler, a
UCLA psychology professor, highlights the importance of peer viewing in thefollowing manner: “Even after you start looking at yourself, you can still have blind
spots if you don’t have colleagues sitting there with you while you’re viewing thevideotape and critiquing your teaching” (Richardson, 2007, p.2). Batey and Westgate(1994) believe that collegial trust is an essential ingredient before teachers caneffectively analyze the classroom performance of their peers (p.38). In the current
project, both of the participants reported that they also had an increased feeling of trustand collegial support. Without question, these are highly important features, especiallywhen one considers the individualistic nature of traditional EFL teaching. Lortie (1975),
as highlighted by Bailey et al. (1998), described teaching as the “egg carton profession”(p.554). In essence, this analogy highlights the fact that educators working in the sameschool are often segregated from each other in their individual classrooms. On a similarnote, Bowman et al. (2000) describe teacher isolation in the following words: “In aprofession that is often as isolating as it is public, turning to colleagues to share teaching
challenges and rewards provides fertile ground for professional development andsupport” (p.18). Clearly, isolation and ‘burnout’ are problematic barriers that educators
must overcome. According to Sherin (2000), teachers must discover new ways that willkeep them inspired and “intellectually engaged” (p.36). Sherin contends that collegial
video viewing is an exciting technique to improve an educator’s professional abilities
84and one that will keep the motivational fires burning brightly (p.38).
In addition to generating excitement in the workplace, watching a colleague’sclassroom performance is an excellent vehicle to spark a teacher’s self-reflections. The
fifth and final element that was noticeable in the teacher development project was thatthe participants’ critical reflective competencies were enhanced by the video recordings.
Before venturing on, it is probably wise to ask the following two questions: ‘what is
self-reflection?’ and ‘why is it a valuable PD device?’ The answer to these questions
can be found in the words of Richards and Farrell (2005). This research duo describes
reflection as the “process of critical examination of experiences, a process that can leadto a better understanding of one’s teaching practices and routines” (p.7). Generally
speaking, many people perceive self-reflection to be a practical and useful practice intheir personal as well as professional lives. The project questionnaire examined thisissue and discovered that 76% (n=34) of the respondents reported that they considered
critical self-reflection to be a worthwhile PD undertaking.
It would be erroneous to assume that self-reflection alone will automatically
improve an individual’s teaching abilities. In an earlier study, Hunt et al. (1994) warn usthat “… reflective practices undertaken at individual basis may merely reinforce habits
and prejudices” (Kaliban, 2007, p.685). Kaliban (2007) believes that educators cancircumvent this potential hazard by sharing their reflections in an environment that is
positive and socially supportive, as discussed in the fourth positive element (p.684).
Furthermore, Kaliban claims that reflective dialogues create space whereby teachers can
examine “…new lines of thought, creating possibilities for constructing new knowledge
and reconstructing existing knowledge” (p.685). The participants in the teacher
development project certainly concur with these words. Throughout the project, thevideos inspired the teachers’ self-reflections and these ideas resurfaced during
subsequent collegial reflective conversations. Ultimately, they were able to walk awayfrom the peer feedback sessions with new and unique insights into their teachingpractices.
In essence, the videos enabled the teachers to self-reflect and adequately critiquetheir trusted peers because they had visual evidence that could support their claims.
Schratz (1992) contends that video recordings are “powerful instruments in thedevelopment of a lecturer’s self-reflective competence” as they confront an individualwith a “mirror-like objective view of what goes on in class” (Richards & Lochart, 1996,85

p.11). On a similar note, Bailey et al. (2001) believe that videos are a valuable
self-reflective device because they are objective and the recording process removes
teachers from their classrooms thereby allowing them to watch their performancethrough dispassionate eyes (p.118). Clearly, the objective nature of video recordings canmake them highly beneficial tools in a wide array of research undertakings. In theteacher development project, videotapes were utilised in conjunction with self-reflection,peer feedback, collegial consultation, and student questionnaires. In essence, thismulti-dimensional approach was taken in order to ‘triangulate’ the project. In brief, thetriangulation technique uses two or more sources of information in a study to validate
the data and make it more credible (Rosenstein, 2002, & Farrell, 2006). Bailey et al.
(1996) tell us that using videotapes with field notes and peer observation allowed theirresearch team an opportunity to “establish a highly collaborative form of triangulation”(p.552).
Videotaping: logistics
Thus far, this paper has highlighted the reasons for using a video camera in a classroom
and the five positive elements that materialised from the teacher development project.
Before an educator can bring a camera into his/her lesson, there are a number of items
that need to be carefully considered. After all the consensual issues have been addressed,
a teacher must decide how the video recording will proceed. It is important, as Bailey etal. (2001) point out, to be conscious of the “tunnel-vision effect” that is associated withmost video cameras (p.126). Therefore, the position of the camera is important so thatthe recording can capture the teacher’s activity zones, the whiteboard, and a sample ofthe students. Although deploying a “cameraman” (read: fellow colleague or student)
will greatly reduce the “tunnel-vision effect” it can create a number of other problems(p.127). The instructors in the teacher development project believe that it is vital for avideo camera to be as unobtrusive as possible so that the everyday environment of theclass remains unchanged. In addition to camera position, educators must also take into
account the classroom’s facilities, layout, and lighting (DuFon, 2002). The teacher
development project educators taught their lessons in classrooms with totally different
designs. Even so, they were able to strategically position two video cameras ininconspicuous locations without upsetting the normal everyday atmosphere of theirlessons. The project participants elected to use an auxiliary or back-up camera to86

capture more students and act as a safeguard in the event that the primary camera failed
to operate. On another technical wavelength, Bailey et al. (2001) tell us that the mostfrequent complaint they hear about watching teaching videos is the horrendous soundquality. The project instructors were conscious of this reality and thus carried an IC
recorder in their shirt pocket as a means to overcome this potential problem. As it
turned out, the devices were not needed as the sound quality was a non-issue.
Perhaps the greatest concern that teachers have with using a video camera in aclassroom is that it could change the natural behaviours of their students. Accordingly,
upon completion of each lesson in the current project, each participating student
responded to a questionnaire (see Appendix 1). The findings of the questionnaire reportthat 89% (n=46) of the learners “were not nervous” in the presence of two video
cameras at the beginning of the lesson. By the middle of the lesson, this increased to100%.
Without question, a video camera, if properly utilised can be an extremely
valuable device in a teacher’s PD toolkit. However, it is crucial that educators carefully
consider a number of issues (e.g. logistical, technological, consensual) before they erecta camera tripod in their classrooms. Even though recording one’s English class can be achallenging and an uncomfortable undertaking, the experience of the project
participants confirms the fact that the tremendous benefits that can be reaped by far
outweigh any negative elements. Educators must challenge themselves to go beyond thetypical sites of PD knowledge and find new spaces to learn and grow. In conclusion,
videotaping one’s English lessons in conjunction with critical self-reflection and peer
feedback is an extremely powerful PD approach. Finally, we will leave the reader withthe following inspirational thought: “Professional development is never the end but
rather the beginning of the journey toward learning” (Zepeda, 2008, p.61).
Bio data
Sean H. Toland is an EFL instructor at Osaka Shoin Women’s University. He has spent
7 years teaching English in Japan and Korea at every level from elementary touniversity. In addition to his EFL experience, Sean taught for three years at an Inuit
high school in Canada’s far north. He is presently interested in professional
development, reflective practice, and critical pedagogy.
B. Greg Dunne began his teaching career as a high school English teacher in Australia87and has been teaching in Japanese universities over the past 12 years. Currently, he is atenured instructor at Osaka Shoin Women’s University where he is an associate
coordinator of the EFL program. His research interests include teacher development,
CALL, task-based learning and world Englishes.
References
Bailey, K.M., Curtis, A., & Nunan, D. (2001). Pursuing professional development: The
self as source. Boston: Heinle Cengage Learning.
Bailey, K.M., Curtis, A., & Nunan, D. (1998). Undeniable insights: The collaborativeuse of three professional three professional development practices. TESOL Quarterly,
32(3), 546-556.
Batey, J., & Westgate, D. (1994). Video action replay. In A. Peck & D. Westgate (Eds.).
Language teaching in the mirror: Reflections on practice, (pp. 37-41). London: Centre
for Information on Language Teaching and Research.
Bowman, I., Boyle, B.A., Doherty, L., Greenstone, K.A., & Valente, A. (2000).
Connecting teachers across continents through on-line reflection and sharing. TESOLJournal 93(3), 15-18.
DuFon, M.A. (2002). Video recording in ethnographic SLA research: Some issues ofvalidity in data collection. Language Learning & Technology, 6(1), 40-59.
Farrell, T.S.C. (2006). Reflective practice in action: A case study of a writing teacher’sreflection on practice. TESOL Canada Journal, 23(2), 77-90.
Gebhard, M. (1998). A case for professional development schools. TESOL Quarterly,
32(3), 501-510.
Johnson, K.E. (2006). The sociocultural turn and its challenges for second language
teacher education. TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 235-257.
Kabilan, M. K. (2007). English language teachers reflecting on reflections: A Malaysian
experience. TESOL Quarterly, 41(4), 681-705.
Kong, S.C., Shroff, R.H., & Hung, H.K. (2009). A web enabled video system for selfreflection by student teachers using a guiding framework. Australasian Journal of
Educational Technology 25(4), 544-558.
Richards, J.C., & Farrell, T. (2005). Professional development for language teachers:
Strategies for teacher learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J.C., & Lochart, C. (1996). Reflective teaching in second language88

classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Richardson, J. (2007). Learning through a lens: Classroom videos of teachers andstudents prove to be a powerful professional learning tool. Tools for schools, 10(4), 1-3.
Rosenstein, B. (2002). Video use in social science research and program evaluation.
International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 1(3), 1-38.
Sherin, M. G. (2000). Viewing teaching on videotape. Educational leadership, 57(8),36-38.
So, H., Lossman, H., Lim W., & Jacobson, M.J. (2009). Designing an online video
based platform for teacher learning in Singapore. Australasian Journal of Educational
Technology 25(3), 440-457.
Wu, C., & Kao, H. (2008). Streaming videos in peer assessment to support training
pre-service teachers. Educational Technology & Society, 11(1), 45-55.
Zepeda, S.J. (2008). Professional development: What works. Larchmont: Eye On
Education.
Appendix 1
アンケート – What’s Cooking lesson （4 月 26 日） Greg
このアンケート用紙に名前は記入しないでください。これは テストでは ありません！
1.

「マッ シュ ル ームリゾット」のレッスンを受け てみ て、どの程度マッ シュ ルーム
リゾットの作り方を説明でき るようになりましたか？
(日本語で説明した場合) ＿全くできない ＿ほんの少し ＿ある程度できる ＿よくできる ＿大変よくできる(英語で説明した場合)＿全くできない ＿ほんの少し ＿ある程度できる ＿よくできる ＿大変よくできる2.

普段の グレ ッ グの授 業と比べて、「マッ シ ュ ル ームリゾット」のレッスンは 難しかったですか？

＿普段よりもずっと簡単 ＿普段より少し簡単 ＿普段と同じくらい ＿普段より少し難しい ＿普段よりもずっと難しい
3.

普段の グレ ッ グの授 業と比べて、「マッ シ ュ ル ームリゾット」のレッスンは 楽しかったですか？

＿普段に比べて全く楽しくなかった ＿普段より余り楽しくなかった ＿普段と同じくら89

い ＿普段より少し楽しかった ＿普段よりもずっと楽しかった4.

「 マ ッ シ ュ ル ームリゾ ット 」のレ ッ スン中、下の各項目に おい てどの程度の機会（時間）をもてましたか？

* 会話（スピーキング）＿全くなかった ＿十分ではなかった ＿ある程度もてた ＿たくさんもてた ＿十分すぎる程もてた* 聴 き とり（リ スニング） ＿全くなかった ＿十分ではなかった ＿ある程度もてた＿たくさんもてた ＿十分すぎる程もてた* 読 解（リ ーデ ィング） ＿全くなかった ＿十分ではなかった ＿ある程度もてた＿たくさんもてた ＿十分すぎる程もてた* 書 き 取 り（ライ ティ ング）＿全くなかった ＿十分ではなかった ＿ある程度もてた ＿たくさんもてた ＿十分すぎる程もてた* 文法習得＿全くなかった ＿十分ではなかった ＿ある程度もてた ＿たく

さんもてた ＿十分すぎる程もてた
5.

「 マ ッ シ ュ ル ームリゾ ット 」のレ ッ ス ンの中で一番 楽しかっ たところは どんなところですか？

6.

「 マ ッ シ ュ ル ームリゾ ット 」のレ ッ ス ンの中で一番 楽し くなかっ たところは どんなところですか？

7.

今 回の グレ ッ グの 「マ ッ シ ュ ルームリゾ ット 」のレ ッ スンの中で、変更・改善したほうが良いと思われるところがあれば書いてください。

8.

今 回 の グレ ッ グの 「 マ ッ シ ュ ル ームリゾ ッ ト 」のレ ッ ス ンで使 っ た単語で覚えているものは ありますか？あれば下記に書いてください。
料理の動詞 (cooking verbs): e.g. cook, make, …
食材 (ingredients): e.g. rice, …
料理の設備 (cooking utensils): e.g. spoon, sauce pan…

9.

今回の「マッ シ ュ ルームリゾット」のレッ スンは ビデオカメラで撮影さ れまし た。
教 室に カ メ ラが あ り 、 撮影さ れ てい る ことに 対し て授業 開始直後 は どう 思いましたか？

＿とても緊張した ＿少し緊張した ＿全く緊張しなかった
10. 撮影さ れてい ることに対して授業が始まってしばらく経ってからはどのように90思いましたか？
＿とても緊張した ＿少し緊張した ＿全く緊張しなかった
アンケートにご理解・ご協力いただき、ありがとうございました。

91

Adding Content and Language Targets to Web 2.0 Projects
Michael Riffle
Ryukoku University, Kyoto, Japan
Bjorn Fuisting
Doshisha International Junior and Senior High School, Kyoto, Japan
Reference data:
Riffle, M., & Fuisting, B. (2011). Adding Content and Language targets to Web 2.0
projects In E. M. Skier & M. Walsh (Eds), Pan-SIG 2010 Conference Proceedings.
Kyoto: JALT.
Abstract
Web 2.0 software can be used to create and store animated movies, multimedia slide
shows, and comic strips online. A teacher planning to do web 2.0 projects in thecomputer classroom has many decisions to make, and much to be aware of whenplanning lessons. A description of how we used VoiceThread, Pixton and Xtranormal
will be covered in this report. This software will be described and discussed in terms ofteacher and student perceived advantages and disadvantages. Detailed lesson plans andresources are also presented.
Keywords: Web 2.0, VoiceThread, Pixton, Xtranormal, Reflective Thinking,Multimedia Projects
ウェブ 2.0 ソフトウェアを活用すると、アニメーションを使った映画やマルチメ
ディアのスライドショー、コマ割り漫画などをオンライン上で作成したり、保存することができます。ウェブ 2.0 を授業に取り入れるにあたっては、多くの決定が伴うほか、教員は多くのことを知っておく必要があります。このレポート
は、私たちがどのようにボイススレッドやピクストン、エクストラノーマルを使用したかについて記述しています。また、私たちが使用したソフトウェアの説明や、教員及び生徒/学生が感じた長所・短所に関する考察や詳細な授業計画、資料についても記述しています。

92キーワードウェブ 2.0、ボイススレッド、ピクストン、エクストラノーマル、反省的思考、
マルチメディア プロジェクト
In this teaching application report we will briefly discuss web 2.0 per se, and thendiscuss three online web 2.0 applications used in language classes from both teacher
and student perspectives. We will share our lesson plans for VoiceThread, Pixton, andXtranormal that were used with returnee 3rd year junior high school students, anduniversity 2nd year English major, lower intermediate and intermediate students in Japan.
After an introduction to the software, and a discussion of their perceived advantages anddisadvantages, we will offer appendices with detailed lesson plans as well as web
resources we found to be useful.
Web 2.0 has enabled end user interactions and collaborations with features
such as "interactive information sharing, interoperability, user centered design, andcollaboration on the World Wide Web" (Kennedy, 2007). Development from web 1.0 to
web 2.0 has enabled software to load directly into a computer browser and has resulted
in a boom of Internet related teaching activities and websites devoted to educational
activities (Mollman, 2009). EFL classroom activities with web 2.0 have included
creating personalized web pages to upload and share information and interests; making
and uploading digital audio files; amending Wikipedia entries; and using Skype to text
chat, telephone, or videoconference anywhere on the World Wide Web. Software
applications such as VoiceThread, Pixton, and Xtranormal have been used inclassrooms to create and share digital slideshows, animations, and comics (Kaechele,2009).
VoiceThread, Pixton, and Xtranormal
VoiceThread
VoiceThread is a software tool that allows students to create multimedia slideshows. In
our classes the goal was to have students share a life experience such as a vacation
abroad, a hobby, or a best friend, with other students. Students initially upload images
to their computers. They then loaded images into the VoiceThread software. Images
came from their SD cards on their cell phones. Students then created narratives byadding text or voice to the images. Students were encouraged to make thoughtful93comments on each other’s VoiceThread pages. The ultimate goal was to encourage
students think reflectively.
PixtonPixton Comics illustrator allows students to illustrate comic panels by choosing from afixed set of characters. Students can then change the characters’ body positions,clothing, and facial features such as hair and eye color. They can crop the scenes byzooming in on any aspect of the panel. They can create dialogues and develop stories
through multiple illustrated panels. Students ultimately convey a message to one
another through their panel illustration and storytelling ability. Students’ favorite
Japanese manga are a rich source of content for discussions about character, storyline,
and comic themes. Story telling technique such as choice of word, choice of movement,
choice of frame, or choice of scene are other aspects for students to think about and canbe introduced through “Making Comics” by Scott McCloud (2006).
Xtranormal
Xtranormal is a text-to-image, animation, movie-making software application1. Whileusing free Xtranormal software students can select two avatars and place them into
preset scenes. Students can then type text for the characters to speak. The students canmake the characters interact by choosing facial expressions, gestures, accents, andintonations. They can also add sound and music to affect their scenes. University
students studied a brief unit on culture, and then portrayed critical incidents with clear
conflicts and conflict resolutions. Junior high students imagined how things would be
different in the year 2020 and made animated movies depicting what they perceived thefuture to be.
Interoperability
Interoperability refers to end users being allowed to make changes to "interact andfunction with other systems without limitations" (Wikipedia, 2010). Thus, whereas web
1.0 users "were passive receivers of information", Web 2.0 "allows users to change the
All three applications covered in this report are browser loading software. For the
purpose of this article we use the terms “software” and “application” interchangeably todescribe them.
1

94

content of a website" (Wikipedia, 2010). To illustrate, if the teacher has created aslideshow with VoiceThread on the teacher’s computer to show the students, then thestudents will be able to comment directly on the teacher’s slideshow web pages with
their computers. In other words, students can be linked to each other through a classwebsite, for example VoiceThread, and share a web page holding all class titles. Then
students can embark on a journey to visit any page of any slideshow and leavecomments for the slideshow creator, and also make remarks about other students'
comments. With proper instruction students can then analyze the quality of theirclassmates work in terms of perceived strengths and weaknesses.
Advantages and disadvantages of web 2.0 software
In our experience we found that web 2.0 software can be both advantageous anddisadvantageous for teachers and students. This section is a discussion of what we
found the advantages and disadvantages to be. Advantages will be discussed first, andarranged as advantages concerning online resource, the noticing triggering function,
classroom community and reflective thinking, and advantages from student perceptions.
Disadvantages will be discussed in terms of teacher burdens, and student perceptions oflearning disadvantages.

Advantages of web 2.0
Resources
A major advantage for teachers planning a web 2.0 project is the easily accessible plansfound online. There are a number of website featuring plans for web 2.0 projects. These
plans comprise instructions, target language goals, assessment criteria, and graphicorganizers, etc. Two examples of very good examples of online resource access are
Digitally Speaking VoiceThread and Blog of Proximal Development (Glogowski, 2008).
These websites portray the reflective thinking process, and ways of fostering aclassroom community with web 2.0 software. Other websites, such as e-moderation
station cover and archive a gamut of web uses such as podcasts, wikis, blogs, poster
making, animated cartoon making, etc. Ways of using VoiceThread to teach classes inEnglish/Language arts, information technology, foreign language, mathematics,
professional development, etc. are all archived in the VoiceThread library (VoiceThread95

Library, 2010). Similarly, from Pixton’s project bank archive you can import projects
that have been used in world languages, art & design, business & economics, science,social studies, etc. (Pixton, 2008-2010:1).
Noticing triggering functions
Describing known things with known language was a part of many of our web 2.0
classes. Allowing students to use what was already familiar may have operated as a
powerful learning tool. While speaking and writing from their own personal experiences,or while listening to or reading easily comprehensible experiences of others, students
likely gained knowledge of gaps in their own English ability. This was because thetasks intrinsically were of a low cognitive load. Working primarily in the realm of the
known may have enable students to notice gaps in their understanding of language
features they hadn’t previously noticed (Nation, 2009). According to Nation, thenoticing triggering function is activated when students have low cognitive loads.
Furthermore, students tend to try to solve the problems they have encountered once they
become aware of them through the noticing triggering function. Strategies employed by
students to understand gaps in their knowledge could be as simple as consultingclassmates, the dictionary, or the instructor.
Reflective thinking and classroom communities
Sharing web 2.0 files contributed to a sense of classroom community in our classes.
Students were able to share their work with one another simply by exchanging files
within the web 2.0 mediums. With coaching students were able to make thoughtfulcomments, and advise one another how to improve their work. As students becameaware of how other students perceived their work, they also seemed to take more pridein their own work. Students engaged in giving advice or encouragement, whileassessing the overall impact of their own, and classmates’ contributions to the learning,
seemed to help them understand the importance and maintenance of a classroom
community. The concept and importance of a classroom community is explained at The
Web of Proximal Development website (Glogowski, 2008).
Student perceived advantages
According to students there using web 2.0 software offered several advantages. Students
96commented that they appreciated the opportunities to engage their creativity, and to use
their latent English knowledge to produce new language constructions. Students often
commented on the value of making their own original sentences, using conversational
phrases, and creating original stories. Students appreciated the storage and retrieval
functions that the web 2.0 software provided. They commented on the utility of
replaying or repeated viewings of classmates work. Students said software that enabled
repeated listening to words or phrases was helpful in comprehending difficult content.
Students also said that having opportunities to recycle new language in concurrent web
projects was useful.
Disadvantages of web 2.0
Teacher burdens
There are costs that need to be weighed against benefits when doing a web 2.0 project.
Setting up web 2.0 projects can be burdensome for teachers inexperienced with software
applications. Once a teacher understands how to use the software, they must also find or
prepare web 2.0 examples for the students. Teachers must then consider the ways ofusing the software to teach content and language features. Teachers must plan additional
interactive tasks that support student comprehension and use of language targets.
Teachers must also prepare assessment criteria, and endeavor to direct students towards
these criteria throughout all stages of a web 2.0 project.
Student perceived disadvantages
There were student perceived disadvantages to web 2.0 projects. The time to complete
web 2.0 projects may require much of the class time, as many students do not havecomputers at home. Thus, the production of web 2.0 projects can require many classperiods. Students might not comprehend the benefits of doing web 2.0 software projects
when the improvements to their language ability happen subtly over time. Students may
also want class time for direct face-to-face interaction with classmates, as this seems tobe something they value.
Placating students’ needs for face-to-face interactions will further slow down
the production time for projects. It may also be critical to allow time for the students tothink reflectively to uncover their language progress in a web 2.0 learning environment.

97

Conclusion
Web 2.0 software is readily accessible and provides a medium for students to produce
target language output, and to be exposed to many inputs. It also seems to be a way toallow students to channel their creativity. Thus, the software may be intrinsicallyinteresting to use. However, teachers considering implementing web 2.0 software in
their language classrooms should consider the classroom advantages and disadvantagesof the software. Advantages of web 2.0 software include the number of readily
accessible web 2.0 resources, a likely activation of a students noticing triggeringfunction, a heightened sense of classroom community via the ease of sharing student
work, group reflective thinking, and other student perceived advantages such as using
language creatively. Disadvantages of web 2.0 were teacher preparation burdens, theamount of time given over to production of web 2.0 files, and student desires for moreface-to-face time. Students may not immediately understand the value of web 2.0
projects in relation to their English development, as their improvements are subtle, andstudents may be required to think reflectively about what they have learnt once a projectis finished to uncover their own progress.
In our experiences the advantages outweighed the disadvantages in engaging
students, unlocking their creativity and facilitating a community that shared, discussed
and reflected on their learning.
Bio data
Michael Riffle is currently working for Ryukoku University. His interests include
professional development, developing curriculum for Computer Aided Language
Learning, Extensive Reading.
Bjorn Fuisting is currently working for Ryukoku University and Ritsumeikan
University but was employed by Doshisha International Junior & Senior High School
during these projects. His interests include professional development, Extensive
Reading and Computer Aided Language Learning.
References
Baird, D. (2009). Pixton 101: Learning with Comics. [Online] Available:<learnhub.com/lesson/5754-pixton-101-learning-with-comics>.
Digitally Speaking VoiceThread (2009). Using VoiceThread for Digital Conversations.
98

[Online] Available: <digitallyspeaking.pbworks.com/Voicethread>.
Glogowski, K. (2008). Blog of proximal development, Towards Reflective Blog Talk.
[Online] Available: <teachandlearn.ca/blog/2008/02/04/towards-reflective-blogtalk/>.
Jorgensen, M. (n.d.). The Digital Narrative. [Online] Available:<thedigitalnarrative.com/teachign%20method%20lessons/xtranormal.htm>.
Kaechele, M. (2009). What are the best tools? [Online] Available:<concretekaz.blogspot.com/2009/what-are-the-best-tools.html>.
Kennedy, G., Dalgarno, B., Gray, K., Judd, T., Waycott, J., Bennett, S., Maton, K.,
Krause, K.L., Bishop, A., Chang, R., & Churchward, A. (2007). The net generation are
not big users of Web 2.0 technologies: Preliminary findings. In R.J. Atkinson, C.
McBeath, S. K. A. Soong, & C. Cheers (Eds.). ICT: Providing choices for learners andlearning. Proceedings ascilite Singapore 2007. [Online] Available:<ascilite.org.au/conferences/singapore07/procs/kennedy.pdf>.
McCloud, S. (2006). Making Comics. New York: Harper.
Mollman, S. (2009). Web 2.0-savvy teachers testing old assumptions. [Online]
Available: <edition.cnn.com/2009/TECH/01/14/difitalbiz.techteachers/>.
Nation, I.S.P., & Newton, J. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking, NewYork and London: Routledge.
Oliver, B., Tucker, B., Gupta, R., & Yeo, S. (2008). eVALUate: An Evaluation
Instrument for Measuring Students' Perceptions of Their Engagement and Learning
Outcomes. Philadelphia: Routledge.
O'Neill, E. (2010). How to Use Xtranormal Animation Video in Teaching English-Part
1, [Online] Available:<enjoyteachingenglish.com/how-to-use-xtranormal-animation-video-in-teaching-englis
h-part-1/>.
Pixton (2008-2010:1). Pixton for Schools overview. [Online] Available:<pixton.com/uk/schools/overview>.
Pixton (2008-2010:2). Pixton for Schools Sign-Up. [Online] Available:<pixton.com/uk/schools/license/purchase>.
VoiceThread FAQ (2007-2010). VoiceThread FAQ, [Online] Available:<voicethread.com/support/faq/>.
VoiceThread Library (2007-2010). VoiceThread Library. [Online] Available:<voicethread.com/library/>.
99

Wikipedia (2010, Feb 24). Web 2.0, [Online] Available:<en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0>.
Xtranormal (2006-2010:1). Xtranormal Term of Service. [Online] Available:<xtranormal.com/toc/>.
Appendix
In the following three appendices we list how VoiceThread, Pixton, and Xtranormal canbe used in the classroom, what the technical requirements are, example projects, withteacher preparation and tasks. Finally, there is a resource list for each application.
Appendix 1: Using VoiceThread in the classroom
It is a good idea for an entire class to use one account for VoiceThread. Each classmember can create a slideshow with text or voiced comments. Other class members canthen navigate pages, and leave comments, while receiving comments on their own
VoiceThread pages.
Table 2. Requirements for using VoiceThread (VoiceThread FAQ, 2010)
Computers

Normal internet connection access and speed is sufficient but aminimum of flash player 7.0 is required to use the VoiceThread
software.

Student

Not required: However, it is important to sign up as an educator. Freee-maileducator accounts are sufficient for the project described. Go the‘about’ link at the bottom of the VoiceThread homepage. Click on
K-12 under solutions/Purchase Options/Single K-12 Educator/and
Apply (under VT Educator) to get started. Optionally, if you have abudget, a one-year class subscription costs $60 and will have a domain

Techto manage 100 students.
It is easy to set up VoiceThread projects. The microphones can bedifficulty

tricky and the software sometimes freezes. These problems can beovercome with some easy fixes, such as turning of the main projector.
Experiment with the microphone/speaker settings and/or check with

Teacher prepyour institution’s computer support department.
A minimum of 3-5 hours.
100Ways of using VoiceThread in classroom projects:
There are many different ways to do various VoiceThread projects. A good idea when
getting started is to go to the VoiceThread resources link at the end of the VoiceThread
appendix to research the various ways VoiceThread has been used by educators.
Student tasks in VoiceThread projects
It is common for a teacher to ask students to prepare a report on an area of self-interest
such as a memorable experience, a routine such as a club activity, or a topic of interest.
Students are also tasked with gathering digital images from their digital cameras, their
Facebook or Mixi accounts, or to gather images from the Internet. Students are thenasked to transfer their images into a folder created on their computers. Once images areon their computers they must upload the images into a VoiceThread and begin acommenting process.
Teacher preparation
1. Create an email account.
2. Set up you own Educator’s account (up to 50 VoiceThreads free).
3. Download and install the latest flash player if needed (a minimum of flash player
7.0).
4. Learn to set up the microphone, learn the controls, learn how to manage glitches,
freezes, bad microphones, etc.
5. Develop a context, themes, and teaching plans.
6. Create a folder for images that you upload or download onto your computer.
7. Create a VoiceThread by uploading your pictures onto the web page, write the text toaccompany your slide show, and finally add this text or voiced text to your
VoiceThread.
Student tasks (Digitally Speaking VoiceThread, 2009)
1. Small group discussions are used to derive themes such as a desired area of inquiry,
an interesting routine activity, an exciting life-changing experience such as a home stayabroad.
2. Develop an experiential narrative or area of interest theme.
101

3. Gather images from digital cameras or the Internet and put these into an ‘Image
Folder’ on their desktops.
4. Type and proof all text written to support the pictures in MS Word or equivalent.
5. Upload images into the VoiceThread software, add a title to each image and give thewhole VoiceThread a title and description.
6. Add text and/or voice to the VoiceThread images.
7. Have students view class mates’ VoiceThreads.
8. Use ‘Sentence Starter’ target language when commenting on classmates’
VoiceThreads (see resources).
9. Use ‘agreeing and disagreeing’ target language when agreeing or disagreeing withothers (see resources).
10. Use a set of criteria to evaluate the utility of classmates’ comments on a range from‘not useful’ to ‘inspiring’ or ‘thought provoking’.
11. Use critical thinking when applying these criteria to ‘score’ classmates’ comments.
Desired outcomes for our students
Our learning outcome and experiences were developed in accordance with theeVALUate survey that was developed for quality control assurance at Curtain
University. The construct learning outcomes are used to refer to what students are
expected to know, understand, or be able to do. Learning experiences refer to what
helped the students achieve the learning outcomes. These may refer to face-to-facelectures, tutorials, laboratories, clinical practicums, etc. (Oliver & Tucker & Gupta &Yeo, 2008). These terms will be used throughout the appendix to describe our desired
outcome and experiences.


To be able to use the VoiceThread online software to make a picture essay withtext and voice

To be able to use the various kinds of target language for making commentsTo be able to evaluate comments as good or bad according to a set of criteria

To be able to have an intelligent digital discussion

Learning Experiences for our students

Downloading pictures102

Uploading pictures



Making a VoiceThread

Making text comments



Making microphone comments



Making comments about comments



Evaluating comments

VoiceThread resources
Our Web 2.0 site with links and extra information<https://sites.google.com/site/web20presentation2010/>.
VoiceThread Wiki: Join the conversation<https://jointheconversation.wikispaces.com/file/view/VThandout.pdf>.
VoiceThread examples in education<slideshare.net/suziea/Voicethread-examples-in-education-presentation?from=share_email>.
VoiceThread library<ed.VoiceThread.com/library/>.
Digitally Speaking (commenting etc)
<digitallyspeaking.pbworks.com/Voicethread>.
Appendix 2: Using Pixton in the classroom
Pixton is an online comic creator that was started in 2008. It is a great way to capture
students’ attention, use their imagination and use as a pathway to literacy (Baird, 2009).
Membership
You can either join Pixton for Fun (public and free), Pixton for Schools (about US$1/per month/student) or Pixton for Business. The Pixton for Schools account gives youaccess to a large range of projects and tools for managing your class but you can doprojects having students use individual accounts (Pixton, 2008-2010:1).

103

Table 3. Requirements for using Pixton:
Computers

Normal internet connection access and speed is sufficient but aminimum of flash player 7.0 is required to use the Pixton software.

Student

On an educators account students don’t need their own email accounte-mailbut they do for the normal free version.

Tech

It is completely “click and drag” with good “How to videos”. Projects

difficulty

can be imported from the project bank (for School accounts only) andedited for your circumstance and goals.

TeacherA minimum of 2-4 hours, more if you create elaborate comics.

prep
Cost

For a Pixton for Schools account, you pay per student, per month. 30
students cost 2,657 yen per month, less for longer periods. You can try
an account with 30 students for 14 days free of charge (Pixton
2008-2010:2).
The educator account has help with setting up student list and projects but freeaccounts can still be used. Here are some recommended steps for doing your own
student project.
Teacher preparation
1) Set up your own free account (you can upgrade to an educator account later if youwish).
2) Watch all “How to videos”.
3) Do a few comics, start with “Quickies”.
4) Browse for other tutorial comics and inspirational material.
5) Decide on theme/topic/goal for student project.
Optional
1) Show students some normal comics to set the scene.
2) Teach about choice of word, choice of movement, choice of frame, choice of sceneetc (McCloud, 2006).
Student tasks
1041) Create an account.
Can be part of teacher’s educator account or own free account.
2) Create an avatar/Pixture.
This helps in learn in the controls in a structured setting and personalizes their work.
3) Remix a set comic or do a Quickie comic.
Specific tasks can be set for what the students should do. It is easier to set up with an
educator account but can be done without it. Help students with control problems andask quicker students to help their friends.
Once all students have created/remixed one comic, teach the students how tocomment on each other’s comics. The comments are an essential part of learning fromeach other and can bringing in more language learning in the project. Set a criterion forwhat and how you want them to comment (Digitally Speaking VoiceThread, 2009).
4) Have students email 3-5 class mates + the teacher their comic.
On an educators account there are other options for sharing the comics within the classand settings for how the commenting can be done but emailing works well.
5) Comment on about 3-5 classmates comics.
The initial comments will be mostly unhelpful ones like “I really liked your comic”,“LOL”.
6) Evaluate the comments received; which ones were most helpful to you?
By evaluating the comments they received from their classmates they can learn about
how to improve their own commenting for the next round.
7) Do a “Super Long Comic” on a set theme/topic.
It helps the students get started and you evaluating them if you have a theme for the
longer comic. It can be topic- or task-based.
8) Share your comic and comment on about 3-5 classmates’ comics.
Emphasize that the comments should be more specific, highlighting good parts andparts that could be improved, or any criteria you set for you class.
9) Respond to the comments received and edit your comic if necessary.
Before the final vote/evaluation give students a chance to edit spelling mistakes and/or
comprehension problems.
10) Vote on the comics, for example “Most creative”, “Best looking”, “Funniest”, “Bestdialog”.
Students want to see all their friends’ comics so either print them (requires credits or,105for example, ‘screen shots’ that are then edited for size and put together), email to all or
display on the screens and do a walk around in the classroom.
Desired skills/outcomes for our students

To be able to create a Pixton account

To know how to create and edit Pixton comics



To know how to publish Pixton comics



To send comics to classmates, friends, and teacher for assessment or commentsTo be able to express humor or seriousness within a fixed 3-panel comic andfree-sized comic

To develop your creativity for characters, themes, narratives, storytelling, anddialogues etc.



To use: choice of word, choice of movement, choice of frame, choice of scene, etc.
to create feeling within your comics



To be able comment on classmates’ comics



To be able to evaluate comments as helpful

Student examples: Pixton
Disappointing Valentine by Fuyumi<pixton.com/from/comic/swtgxlj9>.
HW by Yuta
<pixton.com/from/comic/v6o93ux7>.
Time slip by Momoka<pixton.com/from/comic/qtmy6g8p>.
Sunset in the fish world by Tsuyoushi<pixton.com/comic/7i9wc4k1>.
Merry Christmas by Yuko
<pixton.com/from/comic/vg1tslek>.
The traveling umbrella by Aya<pixton.com/jp/from/comic/i3o1kcwo>.
Lonely Xmas by Aya<pixton.com/jp/comic/1k9yk4m6>.
The boy & the giant man by Ryousuke106

<pixton.com/from/comic/1j7hlr2l>.
Kumi Zero by Mike (teacher)<pixton.com/from/comic/6ve4t4hx>.
First day with Pixton by Bjorn (teacher)<pixton.com/uk/comic/h1r2arno>.
Appendix 3: Using Xtranormal in the classroom
Xtranormal is on online movie creator that converts text to movies. It can be run online(recommended) or in a down-loadable version. Currently it is in beta format. The freeversion is limited to 1 or 2 actors and fewer backgrounds but, “Showpacks” can bepurchased and premium accounts are forthcoming (Jorgensen).
Table 3. Requirements for using Xtranormal:
Computers

Fast internet access and computer speed is necessary as well as aminimum of flash player 7.0 to use the Xtranormal software. Pleasecheck that your school server supports updating several videos
simultaneously. If not, don't attempt this project with larger classes.

Student

Having students work in pairs can help the situation.
Students need their own email account.

e-mailTech

It is very simple to use with simple typing or click and drag. There are

difficulty

very good “How to” slides shows available on-line.

Teacher prep

A minimum of 1-2 hours, more if you created elaborate videos.

Age

Users need to be at least 13 years of age (Xtranormal 2006-2010:1).

Why use Xtranormal in EFL teaching?
1. Motivation
Great for motivation. Students of various ages get excited by the prospect of actually
producing something they could show or send to family and friends.
2. Flexible
Xtranormal can be incorporated in any part of your lesson plan. It can be used withindividual students or with groups.
3. Grammar & spelling
107

Good review of spelling, sentence construction, question word order, reported speech
and reported questions, natural conversational language, i.e., phrasal verbs and idioms,
turn taking, dialogue development, etc.
4. Functional language
Practice functional language for presentations, testimonials, giving the news, giving a
promotional plug for products or services (1 actor).
Introductions, interviews, meetings, hosting a talk show, a sitcom (2 actors).
5. Body language
Helps students become aware of the role body language and sounds play in ourconversations. The students need to choose appropriate ambient noise, backgroundmusic, expressions for their actors and camera movements or angles to match thedialogue (O'Neill, 2010).
Teacher preparation
1) Watch two very good presentations about Xtranormal.
How to use Xtranormal (the basics)<slideshare.net/digitalmaverick/how-to-use-xtranormal>.
A Tutorial for Xtranormal, (very detailed)<slideshare.net/Andreatej/xtranormal-tutorial>.
2) Set up your own free account.
3) Do a test video or remix an existing video.
4) Browse for other tutorial videos and inspirational material.
5) Decide on theme/topic/goal for student project.
Student tasks
1) Set the theme/topic for the project.
2) Explain limitations in backgrounds, number of actors and props (unless usingpurchased show-packs).
3) Create a dialog/monolog in a word document (in pairs, if possible).
4) Create an account.
5) Enter text, play and edit for mispronunciations.
6) Add camera angles, voice, music, body moments, facial expressions, etc.
7) Share with classmates and comment.
1088) Respond to comments and edit.
9) Vote on the movie, for example like your own Oscar awards.
Desired skills/outcomes for our students

To be able to create a Xtranormal account

To know how to create Xtranormal video

To know how to add facial expressions, gestures, accents, and intonations

To know how to add music and sounds to the scenes

To be able to portray the studied theme in the video

To develop your creativity for themes, narratives, storytelling, and dialogues etc.



To know how to publish Xtranormal video

To be able to send video to classmates, friends, and teacher for assessment orcommentsTo be able comment on classmates’ videosTo be able to evaluate comments as helpful

Xtranormal resources
Our Web 2.0 site with links and extra information<https://sites.google.com/site/web20presentation2010/>.
How to use Xtranormal (the basics)<slideshare.net/digitalmaverick/how-to-use-xtranormal>.
A step-by-step guide to how to use Xtranormal (very detailed)<slideshare.net/Andreatej/xtranormal-tutorial>.
Testimonial of a Language Teacher. It’s not just for English learners.
<boxoftricks.net/?p=1381>.
Tips for making the sound better and what project to use Xtranormal for<isteconnects.org/2010/01/04/it’s-xtranormal-to-blabberize-goanimate-part-3/>.
Student examples: Xtranormal
Welcome to Manhattan by Miyabi & Rio<xtranormal.com/watch/6141509/>.
Life in 2020 by Miwa & Rina
<xtranormal.com/watch/6141413/>.
109

2020 Global Warming by Yui & Sayuri<xtranormal.com/watch/6141367/>.
The Hamburger by Kengo & Tatsuya<xtranormal.com/watch/6141513/>.
Windows I ® Professional – copyright Windows Inc 2020 by Yamato & Yuta
<xtranormal.com/watch/6141347/>.
Cars in 2020 by Natsuki, Yu & Ken<xtranormal.com/watch/6141389/>.
2020 by Nozomi & Yurika<xtranormal.com/watch/6179665/>.
Evolution of Science at 2020 by Utako & Yurina<xtranormal.com/watch/6141387/>.
Monday Haircut Blues by Yoshie<xtranormal.com/watch/6130453/>.
In the movies (remixed by Bjorn (teacher)<xtranormal.com/watch/6621321/>.

110

Analysis of an essay writing placement test for a study-abroad preparatory writing
courseZane Ritchie
Aichi University
Michael Parrish
Kwansei Gakuin University
Reference data:
Ritchie, Z. A., & Parrish, M. M. (2011). Analysis of an essay writing placement test fora study-abroad preparatory writing course. . In K. Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier & M.
Walsh (Eds), Pan-SIG 2010 Conference Proceedings. Kyoto: JALT.

Abstract
This paper outlines the design and implementation of a writing placement test to replace
TOEFL Institutional Testing Program (TOEFL-ITP) scores as a means of placing
students into appropriate levels for a writing course that serves a preparatory component
for a study abroad program. The course aims to prepare students for the rigors ofacademic writing in North America. Formerly, students were streamed by TOEFL-ITP
scores; however, in 2007 instructors chose to implement a short, timed essay as a newplacement method to better sort students by writing ability and to reflect overall
program aims. Key challenges that cropped up during the first process were choosing
the topic and training the raters for consistency. As a result, revisions were made to thetest in 2009. The new test was administered to the 2010 cohort and the results wereanalyzed here. The scores between raters were quite reliable, and there was little
correlation between TOEFL-ITP and writing test scores. The low correlation between
the tests indicated that two-thirds of students would have been placed differently byusing a writing-based assessment. Finally, discussion of overall satisfaction withplacement and suggestions for future improvements or research are discussed.
Keywords: placement testing, writing tests, rater reliability, TOEFL-ITP, study abroad
本論文は、海外留学プログラムの一環として実施されている TOEFL-ITP（TOEFL
学内テスト）のスコアに代わるものとして、学生のライティング能力のレベル
111

分けを目的とするライティング・プレースメントテストの概要と実施方法について論じる。ライティングコースは、北米のアカデミックライティングの厳しさに学生が耐えうるような指導を目指している。これまで、学力のレベル分け
は、TOEFL-ITP のスコアによって行われてきたが、2007 年に TOEFL のインスト
ラクターが、ライティング能力によるより有効なレベル分けを行うために、そしてプログラム全体の目標を強化するためにも、制限時間内にエッセーを書かせる新しいプレースメントテストを採り入れることにした。しかし、このプロセスの初期段階で、トピックの選択と評価の一貫性の問題が生じた。そのため、2009 年に改訂が行われ、新しいテストが 2010 年度の学生を対象に実施された。
その結果の分析についても考察する。ライティングテストの採点スコアは、かなり信頼性が高く、このテストと TOEFL-ITP のスコアには、相関関係はほとん
ど認められなかった。このことは、ライティングによる評価であれば、学生の 3
分の 2 は恐らく違ったレベルのクラスに配置されていたであろうことを示している。最後に、このライティング・プレースメントテストの全般的な満足度や改善点、および今後の研究についても論じる。
キーワード :

プレースメントテスト、ライティングテスト、採点の信頼性、

TOEFL-ITP、海外留学

This paper will outline the rationale for implementing a writing placement test insteadof TOEFL Institutional Testing Program (TOEFL-ITP) scores for placing students into
appropriate levels for the preparatory writing course component of the Ritsumeikan
University-University of British Columbia Joint Programme (UBC-JP). First, a brief
history of the UBC-JP will be outlined, followed by the rationale for petitioning
administration to change the placement testing method. Finally an explanation of the
new test design, grader reliability and an analysis of the results of the test will take place,along with comments on future possibilities for refinement and research.
Design and implementation of writing placement test
Overview of the Programme
The UBC-JP is a one calendar year programme at Ritsumeikan University in Kyoto,
Japan. It has two components, a one semester class which meets three hours per weekcourse in Japan as a preparation (April-July) and an academic year course
112

(August-May) at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada. Each year
up to 100 students from Ritsumeikan University's two main campuses are accepted into
the programme. Participants of the programme are second-year students enrolled invarious majors, and are generally highly motivated to study English. In the December
before the program begins, they undergo a rigorous application process which includes
an examination of their academic performance, an essay in English explaining theirreasons for joining the programme, and a minimum score of 450 on the TOEFL-ITP.
The TOEFL-ITP is a limited version of the test, based on the old paper-based test,
focusing on listening, reading and grammar (no productive skills are tested). The test is
used routinely at Ritsumeikan University for placement in regular courses as well as
until recently, the UBC-JP preparatory academic writing course. Typically, there are
100 students on the programme: 70% of are from the Kinugasa campus and 30% fromthe Biwako-Kusatsu Campus (BKC). There are five course instructors, four at the
Kinugasa campus and one at the BKC campus, who are in charge of streaming the
Kinugasa students into four classes for the preparatory academic writing course. Due totheir small number, it is not deemed practical to stream the BKC students.
Rationale for the changing placement method
Although first-year students at Ritsumeikan University have ostensibly received at leastsix years of English language instruction and satisfactorily passed the English portion of
the general university entrance exam including reading, listening, grammar, vocabulary,and optional writing sections. Nevertheless there is a wide range of English abilities
among the students. The use of the TOEFL-ITP score to stream students is a common
practice for regular English courses across most faculties in the university. Its use issupposed to compensate for these differences. Similarly, when second-year students
apply to join the UBC-JP programme, they come from different faculties which havedifferent English study requirements, so UBC-JP students' English ability, particularly
in writing, varies widely depending on their particular faculties and majors, so the
TOEFL-ITP was seen as a convenient way of quantifying students’ overall English
ability, including writing. However, in the classroom there was a mismatch between thestudents’ purported abilities and their actual abilities and needs which led to frustrationon the part of both the faculty and students in the programme. Often the expectations forthe highest group led to choosing a textbook and reading materials that were too
113difficult in practice. Furthermore, some good communicators relegated to low-levelclasses by poor test scores were not challenged enough. Based on student course
evaluations and informal feedback from staff members, the instructors felt the
programme needed a more effective way to stream the students in order to better suit
their needs and increase student and instructor satisfaction with the preparatory course
and the study abroad programme.
As an established programme of over 20 years, the UBC-JP was quite
regimented; it even had its own custom-made textbook. By 2005, teachers had become
frustrated with using ungraded, pre-prepared materials, so they petitioned theadministration to use mass-market textbooks, graded to the various
TOEFL-ITP-determined levels. While this solved some of the problems, it was
discovered that the underlying problem was that there were still disparities in writing
abilities within classes. In other words, the TOEFL-ITP test was not discriminating
good writers, just good test takers.
First attempt at writing placement test
In 2007, instructors petitioned to design a placement test suited to the goals of the classand the programme. Since the goals of the preparatory course are focused on preparing
the students for the rigors of academic reading and writing at a North American
university, a timed writing sample was thought to provide the best means of assessment
for categorizing students. (Use of the application essay was rejected because students
may have received outside help in preparation.). Crusan (2002) also shares this view ofappropriate testing, and recommends that an institution’s placement tests be alignedwith the course content, and that writing assignments be linked with the curricula.
Students should be tested according to what they will do in the course, and for a writing
course the means of placement should therefore include writing. She also mentions thata number of researchers have argued that teachers should be involved in testing(Bachman & Palmer, 1996; Hamp-Lyons, 1996). Kroll and Ried (1994) contend thattest developers should be those who teach the students who will be tested, since theseteachers would be better equipped to know what their students can do, how well they
can do it, and what they need; and therefore can better assess their students’ writing.
The first attempt at implementing a writing test, in 2007, for the 2008 UBC-JP
cohort, was loosely based on previously published prompts from the TOEFL Test of114

Written English (TWE). Responses were assessed with a rubric for evaluation veryloosely based on a combination of the standards for the TWE and writing proficiency
guidelines published by the American Council of Teachers of Foreign Languages(ACTFL), which employ holistic approaches to grading. For the first year, theevaluation procedure was fairly loose in that the raters assigned a score of 1-4 (highest
to lowest) to the essays. Explanatory guidelines and ideals for determining the levels
were discussed for about 30 minutes and included only a few specifics (using
line-by-line writing is a sign of a 4; use of cohesive discourse markers, a sign of a 1).
Each essay was blindly graded twice. If the scores were consistent, then the evaluation
was accepted. If the scores differed, then the sample was graded by a third rater. This
resulted in about 30% of papers being easily divided into clearly high (1) or clearly low(4) groups, while the rest needed to be re-graded. Even after the ratings had been
consolidated, there was little consensus on the middle two groups, so they werere-graded ad hoc – simply higher or lower. During the second year of this system ofgrading (2008), things went a little smoother, but there were still some inconsistencies
and problems with ratings, e.g. one student had to be moved from the lowest to thehighest class. While the placement test was an improvement over just using the
TOEFL-ITP test, a more systematized, consistent, repeatable and manageable system
was clearly needed – particularly considering the turn-over in instructors (due tocontract limitations and variations in class schedules from year to year) which resulted
in a limited institutional memory – hence the re-design of the placement test presented
here.
Re-designing the writing placement test
In 2009, the authors, in consultation with colleagues currently or previously involved
with teaching the preparatory writing course, worked on revising and testing the writing
placement test, first introduced in 2007 and 2008 to replace the TOEFL-ITP test as ameans for placement. It was agreed that the new test would follow the format of theprevious years’ writing placement tests, consisting of one argumentative essay question
prompt, designed to measure writing ability and elicit an opinion that drew on thestudents’ experiences.
Choosing appropriate prompts
Miyazaki (2008) emphasizes that test prompts should be carefully designed to give115

learners a starting point and direction for writing and the chance to generate ideas.
However, some topics penalize students without specific knowledge or experiences, so
the issue of making prompts as bias-free as possible is very important to ensure that thetest is accurate and reliable (Alderson, Clapham & Wall, 1995; Fulcher and Davidson,2007). Therefore, in considering prompts for the UBC placement, we tried to minimize
bias in order to ensure the test was construct-relevant by choosing topics that did not
require specific cultural content, e.g. familiarity with Anglo-British norms, and were
within the realm of experience of an average Japanese 19-year-old. In addition, it was
important to make the context and purpose of the prompt clear and easy to follow, withno ambiguous instructions, to avoid potential confusion over the language thecandidates were expected to produce.
This year the administration and some of the faculty voiced objections to the previous
year’s topic as being “non-academic.”2 So, it was necessary to develop a prompt thatwould satisfy all stakeholders. As mentioned, the prompt had to be familiar to students
and free from bias, to allow students to produce, within the allotted 30-minutetimeframe, meaningful samples of their writing and give them a chance to display theiractual writing ability rather than knowledge of a particular topic. A further reason the
topic had to be broadly familiar to the students was to eliminate the time bias, which as
Leki (1991) points out, puts non-native speakers at a disadvantage because they tend towrite more slowly than native speakers and produce fewer words over a longer periodof time. After much deliberation the final prompt that was agreed upon was:Write an essay (Introduction, Body, Conclusion) on the following topic:
Japanese students study English to prepare for university entrance examinations;however some universities don't require it. Should English be used for entrance
examinations? Use specific examples for support.
Piloting the writing placement test
2

The prompts for the academic year 2007-8 and 2008-9 tests were based upon the prompt from

Miyazaki (2008, p. 7) which read: “Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? ‘People
behave differently when they wear different clothes.’ Do you agree that different clothes influence theway people behave? Use specific examples to support your opinion.” This just goes to show how difficult
it really is to construct a prompt that will satisfy all stakeholders.

116Alderson, et al. (2005) outline two methods of piloting an examination before
administering it. The first is to test the items on a few friends or colleagues. The second
is to give a revised test to a group of students who are familiar in background level tothose who will take the final examination. In the case of the UBC-JP writing placement
test, due to time limitations (we have just finished the teaching semester here and had
examination marking and end-of-term tests) the authors decided that while far from
ideal there would only be time to employ the former method when devising the topic,
paying particular attention to making sure the instructions were clear, the language ofthe items were acceptable and the answer key accurate (following the key points
outlined in McNamara, 2000). To accomplish this, a two-hour meeting was held to goover the language of the prompt and to eliminate, where possible, the various biases that
could influence the results of the test. As mentioned above, due to time constraints we
did not pre-test the test, although in the future this is strongly recommended in order togive the test greater validity.
Developing the grading rubric
Once the format of the test was decided, particular attention was paid to thedevelopment of the grading rubric since this was a bone of contention in the previous
two years. We would need a clear and logical rubric that was easy to follow and would
establish clear marking guidelines. After much deliberation, a multiple trait scoring
system was decided upon, based on the principal of scoring an essay on more than one
facet or trait exhibited by the text, as can be seen in our grading rubric (Figure 1). The
advantages of the multi-trait scale3 developed by Hamp-Lyons over a holistic scoring
approach are that it measures salience (the writing qualities are appropriate in thecontext in which the assessment is taking place); and it makes compromise among raters
easier (Fulcher & Davidson, 2007; Hamp-Lyons, 1991). The main disadvantage of thissystem is that is takes longer to score a test than holistic scoring (Weigle, 2002). The
rubric itself was developed from ACTFL guidelines for grading written tests, which are
more holistic in their grading approach. First, the ACTFL guidelines were used as a3
Some commentators such as Weigle (2002) do not distinguish between an analytic scale
and a multiple-trait scale, saying that characteristics ascribed to multiple-trait scales have more to
do with the procedures for developing and using the scales rather than with the description of thescales. Regardless of the debate, for the purpose of this paper, multiple-trait scales will include theterm analytic scales.

117base to draw up a framework of what an ideal essay would be for each of the four levels.
Then the graders discussed these guidelines with discussion carried out among thegraders, before giving each of the samples a grade according to the grading rubric.
Paragraph structure,
topic sentences &support/5

Grammar andsyntax/5

Argument
Overall scoreorganisation topic orthesis statement

/20

/5

Fluency/clarity/5

Figure 1. Grading Rubric (Adapted from Hamp-Lyons (1991))

Four criteria were used for evaluation: grammar and syntax, paragraph structure,argument organization (including existence of a topic/thesis statement), andfluency/clarity. Each category was assigned a score on a scale of 1-5, with the sum of
the four scores (a maximum of 20) written in the middle square. This method of scoring
follows the recommendation of Weir (2005) that it is important to provide a detailed
scoring key that clearly anticipates the responses the candidates will make while
reducing as much as possible the subjective judgment on the part of markers. Finally, allscores were worth equal marks for ease of grading and to minimize errors in scoring as
recommended by Hamp-Lyons (1991).

118

Testing procedure
Administration of the placement test
The writing test for the 2010 UBC-JP cohort was conducted at the end of January 2010.
The students were given the following prompt printed at the top of an otherwise blank
sheet of A4 paper:
Write an essay (Introduction, Body, Conclusion) on the following topic:
Japanese students study English to prepare for university entrance
examinations; however some universities don't require it. Should English be
used for entrance examinations? Use specific examples for support.
Students were then given 30 minutes to write their essay (handwritten), they were
not allowed to use dictionaries, and were under strict examination conditions with two
invigilators keeping a watchful eye. None of the students were late, and so this did not
influence the amount of writing time for any of the responses.
Calibration of raters
According to Weir (2005), to increase test validity, scorers should be trained,
and agree upon acceptable responses at the outset of scoring. Thus, before
marking the tests, our five graders (the UBC-JP instructors) were trained(calibrated) by giving each of them a sample response to the identical prompt
from actual students for each of the four levels (A-D) as agreed upon theauthors. To eliminate bias, the responses used were from the pool of 35
papers by the BKC students who were not being streamed, so none of thesample papers used for calibration were taken from the 65 papers that were
to be graded. Graders graded each of the four sample papers and a discussion
was held in which each grader justified his marks. The graders all agreed
that the calibration process was clear and fruitful. There were no
disagreements among raters regarding the overall grades (A-D) for any of
the four sample papers and the raw scores awarded in the rubric differed by
not more than three points. Thus it was decided that when marking the final
papers, if a paper differed in score by more than three points it would be
re-graded. This was also reasonable, since a differential score of three points
was 15%. It was agreed that a difference greater than this would compromise
119the reliability of the test.
Grading the placement test
The tests were marked on Feb 1st, 2010, by five graders, over about fourhours in a controlled reading4 after 30 minutes of calibration (as outlined
above). Papers were marked blindly, with each rater giving a paper a score
out of 20 based on the grading rubric. Papers did not have names written onthem, but were indentified and sorted by student number. Once a paper wasmarked it was returned to the pile (the first mark was obscured), andanother grader re-graded that paper. After each paper was read twice, thetwo scores were compared. There were 21 of the 65 papers with a differenceof more than three points, so they were graded a third time (also blindly
graded). At the end of the process, the average of the two closest scores wasawarded as the final score.
Results
Inter-reliability of Graders
To test the reliability of the raters, a reliability coefficient, which expresses inter-rater
reliability was employed, which allows us to study the impact of rater training, toimprove rater reliability and identify individual raters whose ratings are not consistent
with those of others (McNamara, 2000).
Among our five raters there were extremes in the correlation between certain
markers, and they ranged from a low of 0.103 to a high of 1.000. However, whilst a
0.103 might seem rather low (in this case, Graders 1 and 5 graded 13 papers, and ofthese, two papers had score differences of six, and eight respectively, which highly
distorted the correlation), it must also be noted that inter-rater correlations forevaluating writing tends to be poor as compared to reading or listening (Alderson,
Clapham, & Wall, 1994). In their study, they found the correlation scores were 0.60
between two markers. The reason for this might be that writing tests tend to be graded
4
White (2004) outlines several procedures that are important for maintaining highreliability in assessments. Apart from the rubric, he also mentions how each script should be gradedindependently for at least two raters, scoring should be done in a controlled setting, which we did.
However, due to the scale of the test, checking on reading in progress by group leaders andevaluation of reliable readers were not thought to be practical and were not implemented.

120

more holistically and arbitrarily (even after calibration of graders). Even though the
rubric we chose tried to eliminate this, results indicate that if the raters were notsufficiently calibrated, their scores might differ by a large margin. Another factor that
may have influenced the results was that graders did not mark an equal number of
papers – instead working at their own pace, so it might be prudent to consider
introducing a more regimented system next year where each marker marks a very
similar number of papers. Finally, regarding the structure of the grading rubric (based
upon the multiple-trait scale), as Weigle (2002) pointed out, since the scores on the
different scales have to be combined to make a final composite score, some of theinformation provided by the scale is lost, and thus raters who are used to rating using aholistic approach might subconsciously target their ratings on what they expect the finalscore to be, and revise their analytic scores for each category accordingly (Weigle,
2002). This helps explain discrepancies in the correlations between certain scorers suchas between Graders 1 and 5. The extent of and reasons for these differences is a subject
worth investigating further.

Table 1. Correlation between Individual Graders
Grader
1
2
3
4
1
X
0.72
0.88730.27582
0.72
X0.74440.736930.88730.7444X
1
40.27580.7369
1
X
5
0.103
.4394
0.909
0.859

5
0.103
0.4394
0.909
0.859
X

Writing placement test compared to placement by TOEFL-ITP scores
We were very surprised that the results of the placement test and the TOEFL-ITP scores
were so different (Figure 2). There was no correlation between the TOEFL-ITP scoresor the writing scores at all, which shows that the students’ TOEFL-ITP scores were noteffective in predicting the writing ability of this group of students. This reflects the
UBC-JP instructors' intuition that the TOEFL-ITP test streaming used in the past was
not working for our students.
The correlation between the class levels to which students were assigned
according to their TOEFL-ITP scores and their writing placement scores was .387,
121which demonstrates that while results between the two placement tests had someoverlap, the ranking of the students was significantly different. Specifically, under the
new system, 24 students (37%) remained in the same level under both methods ofplacement, 26 (40%) changed one level (up or down); 13 (20%) changed two levels,and interestingly, two students (3%) changed three levels, both of them moving fromthe lowest to the highest class. These results demonstrate that having an in-house
writing placement test for the UBC-JP was more effective than just using TOEFL-ITP
scores, as TOEFL-ITP has been shown here to be a poor proxy for measuring writing
ability for this group of students. An extreme case that illustrates the point is that thestudent with the lowest TOEFL-ITP score (450), when assessed using the writing
placement test, was placed in the highest class.
25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

.0
440

Test scores

Test Scores

5.0

460

480

500

520

540

560

580

TOEFL-ITP scores

Figure 2. Correlation of UBC-JP Placement test scores to TOEFL-ITP scores
Conclusion and Limitations
The instructors of the Ritsumeikan University-University of British Columbia Joint
Programme (UBC-JP) sought to create a placement test to reliably place students into a
preparatory writing class according to their writing ability, due to the result of instructor
and student dissatisfaction with placement based on TOEFL-IBT scores in previous
years. A new writing test was implemented in 2008 and revised in 2009 and the122improved writing placement test was administered to the 2010 UBC-JP cohort. The
results were analyzed and the scores between raters were found to be quite reliable.
There was no correlation found between TOEFL-ITP and writing test scores, whichindicates that the two tests likely measure different skills. In terms of placement, thelow correlation between the tests indicated that two-thirds of students would have beenplaced differently by using TOEFL-ITP instead of the writing-based assessment.
Key challenges found during the first process were choosing the topic andtraining the raters for consistency while some improvements were made to the test in
2009, inter-rater reliability still remains a concern for reliability. It would be desirable toimprove grader reliability by ensuring that instructors are fully calibrated and that all
raters grade the same or a similar number of papers to grade to ensure that scoring is
consistent. In order to keep the prompt as bias free as possible, it should be pre-tested
by students similar to the UBC-JP applicants. In future research, it would helpful tosurvey student and teacher satisfaction with the actual placement results. Furthermore,seeking instructor and administration input regarding the entire process would also be ofvalue.
Bio data
Zane A. Ritchie is a lecturer at Aichi University. His research interests include
content-based language instruction, task-based & project-based instruction,
globalization issues, the geopolitics of petroleum, computer-mediated learning, andpragmatics of internet communication.
< zane@vega.aichi-u.ac.jp >Michael M. Parrish is an Instructor of English as a Foreign Language (IEFL) in the
Language Center at Kwansei Gakuin University. His research interests include
second-language acquisition, English for professional purposes, and literacy education.
<mparrish@kwansei.ac.jp>
References
Alderson, J. C., Clapham, C., & Wall, D. (1994). Evaluating a placement test. Language
Testing, 11(3), 321-44.
Alderson, J.C., Clapham, C., & Wall, D. (1995). Language test construction andevaluation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
123

Bachman, L.F., & Palmer, A.S. (1996). Language Testing in Practice. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Bachman, L.F. (2005). Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Crusan, D. (2002). An Assessment of ESL Writing Placement Assessment. Assessing
Writing, 8(1), 17-30.
Fulcher, G., & Davidson, F. (2007). Language Testing and Assessment: An Advanced
Resource Book. Abington: Routledge.
Hamp-Lyons, L. (1991). Scoring procedures for ESL contexts. In L. Hamp-Lyons (Ed.),
Assessing second language writing in academic contexts. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Hamp-Lyons, L. (1996). Ethical test preparation practice: The case of the TOEFL.
Paper presented at the 18th Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Tampere,
Finland.
Kroll, B., & Reid, J. (1994). Guidelines for designing writing prompts: Clarifications,caveats, and cautions. Journal of Second Language Writing, 3(3), 231–255.
Leki, I. (1991). Building expertise through sequenced writing assignments. TESOLJournal, 1(2), 19-23.
McNamara, T.F. (2000). Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Miyazaki, K. (2008). Construct Validity of Analytic Rating Scales Used in EFL Essay
Writing Assessment: Reconsidering Components in Rhetorical Features. Journal of
Foreign Language Education, 5,1-20.
Weigle, S.C. (2002). Assessing Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Weir, C. (2005). Language Testing and Validation: An Evidence-based Approach. New
York: Palgrave/Macmillan.
White, E.M. (1984). Holisticism. College Composition and Communication, 35,
400-409.
Appendix 1
Framework for Evaluation of UBC Placement Test Writing Essay, 2010
Class UA: Advanced- Quite fluent with ease of expression; although style is sometimes foreign, but easily
understood by native speakers.
124

- Ideas and opinions are clearly stated and well supported.
- A variety of vocabulary used appropriately.
-Few, if any, grammatical errors; errors not systematic.
- A good variety of transitions between sentences and paragraphs.
- Many complex sentences.
- Displays good knowledge of workings of essay writing, including a clear thesis
statement
Class UB: Intermediate-High- Some parts of essay flow well, others are stilted- Style is foreign, yet easily understood by native speakers; however some parts areunclear.
- Ideas are clearly, but simply, stated, But not all opinions are fully supported- Uses a limited number of difficult vocabulary words; Sometimes vocabulary misused.
- Uses simple transitions between paragraphs (e.g., first, second,…)- Uses a few complex sentences.
- Familiar with the format of essay writing, although often lacking clear thesis statement
Class UC: Intermediate-Mid- Some limited precision is displayed, but accuracy is limited- A few ideas are expressed clearly, although most are simple statements lacking deep
support- Very limited use of sophisticated vocabulary or complex sentences.
- Consistent forms, although often inaccurate- Quite unfamiliar with essay writing, no thesis statement, introduction/conclusion
flawed.
Class UD: Intermediate-Low- Quite unclear, difficult to follow, little control.
- Tends to be loose collection of sentences and fragments, choppy and uneven.
- Writing more often than not has quality of being translated literally- Ideas expressed, but not necessarily supported- Extremely limited or no use of transitions
125

- None or very few complex sentences- Vocabulary is basic, lots of spelling mistakes/ katakana English(Source: Based on ACTEFL Proficiency Guidelines in Teaching Language in Context(revised, 2001))

126

Information Literacy: A Skill for Lifelong Learning
Susan Gilfert
Kwansei Gakuin University

Reference Data:
Gilfert, S. (2010). Information literacy: A skill for lifelong learning. In K.
Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier & M. Walsh (Eds), Pan-SIG 2010 Conference Proceedings.
Kyoto: JALT.

Abstract
This paper discusses the importance of teaching EFL students how to find and evaluate
information for use in academic writing. Such information literacy is an increasingly
valuable skill in a world where unreliable or biased sources are found all too easily on
the Internet. This paper further describes an assignment for EFL writing students
designed to raise their ability to find reliable sources and to evaluate them critically
before incorporating them into an academic paper.
Keywords: library skills, researching, university students, internet, resource evaluation
本稿では、検索方法、学術的な書法で使用する情報の評価を EFL の学生に教える事の重要性について説明します。余りにも簡単にインターネット上で見られる信頼出来ない偏った情報の世界では、この様な情報知識能力は益々重要なスキルなのです。
本稿ではさらに、学術論文を具体化する前に確実な情報源の発見やそれらを注意深く評価する能力の向上をめざす生徒たちの為に研究課題を記述しています。

キーワード: ライブラリのスキル, 調査, 大学生, インターネット, 資源評価
Students today have a staggering number of sources for information. Books, television,
radio, interviews with experts, webpages, audiofiles and other sources move in and outof their attention span. How can students determine which sources are useful, reliable,
and academically sound? Critical thinking skills are needed by all students. College anduniversity students of all ages seek to select, gather and use information in the pursuit of
their studies—not just for getting the credit for the immediate class, but also for the
future. Thus, building lifelong information literacy strategies and skills should be one
127focus for a university professor.
What is information literacy?
An academic librarian’s definition of information literacy is: “Information literacy is aset of abilities requiring individuals to ‘recognize when information is needed and havethe ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information’ ”(Association of College and Reference Libraries (ACRL), 2000, p. 2). ACRL further
notes that it is incumbent upon universities to develop lifelong learners through the useof high instructional standards. Native speakers often benefit from information literacy
training, becoming more effective and efficient information consumers. Knowing how
to search for and evaluate information becomes a tool for university assignments, andlater, for all other information needs.
I use a librarian’s definition here because my philosophical approach to
information literacy is from the perspective of library science. Another definition of
information literacy incorporates knowledge of computer operations and usage, e.g. “anew liberal art that extends from knowing how to use computers and access information
to critical reflection on the nature of information itself, its technical infrastructure, andits social, cultural and even philosophical context and impact.” (Shapiro and Hughes,
1996, 13th para.). Any information literacy training prepares the learner to access anduse the enormous amount of information available to her or him.
If native speakers benefit from information literacy training, how much greater abenefit would accrue to non-native speakers of English? How can students who are
studying in a foreign language determine the veracity and reliability of information,
when they do not have the assurance and experience of the native speaker? ESL
students have as strong a need to master information literacy as any native speaker.
My experience leads me to believe that ESL students tend to accept too much ofwhat they see in English on the computer screen. Asking students to reflect on whether
they would believe this information if it were in their native language occasionally helps
ESL students to realize that not all information from the Internet is reliable or useful. In
ESL classes, students are taught language skills, not necessarily research skills. Whereor from whom can ESL students learn how to research?
Information literacy and ESL
128

Information, as noted previously, comes from a variety of sources. The computer andthe Internet are huge boons to researchers and students everywhere. Most students today
consider themselves skilled in using a computer, and in finding information on theInternet. How is this skill demonstrated?
At Ohio University in the U.S., Bagnole and Miller (2003) report on a course
taught specifically for ESL students, which is modeled on a course taught to native
speakers at Ohio University. Bagnole and Miller’s course is separate from the native
speakers’ course; Bagnole and Miller use an ESL classroom to teach research skills.
The course is specifically structured with ESL students learning about both print andelectronic sources; how to search effectively in databases; and how to create andeffectively use a bibliography, among other research skills.
Lesson plan
Elements of Bagnole and Miller’s course were folded into the author’s course of
Advanced English B, a writing course for high-level students in the Intensive English
Program of the Language Center at Kwansei Gakuin University (KGU). This Writing
course met twice a week in a computer lab. Many of the students in the class are
returnees, who have spent several years overseas in an English-immersion environment.
Over half of the class of first- and second-year students graduated from high schools in
the US or Australia. These students have near-native command of English, and the class
was taught as to native English-speaking high-school students.
In the first month (or first 8-9 classes), students are assigned “personal” writing:personal essays or reflective essays based on reading a newspaper or magazine article In
the next month (or next 7-8 classes), students are given more objective writing
assignments: interviews, journalistic writing (both hard news and feature writing),
curriculum vitae, business letters and a white paper (a research article for businesspurposes). The assignment of a research paper was the final module of the course,
covering the next ten classes. The timing for writing each assignment is over the
weekend (usually 3-4 days) for the first draft and before the next class (usually 2-3days) for the revised draft. The first draft is not graded; the revised draft is gradedagainst the first draft.

129

Class 1: Lecture notes: Finding Sources
I queried students on where they get information. Their answers included:•

Personal knowledge•

Internet (including email, social networking sites, websites, and weblogs)•

Books and printed material•

Surveys•Interviews•

GossipStudents at KGU are given a basic information literacy course in a first-year

orientation, learning how to use the Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC) to findbooks. Therefore, I determined from previous classroom work that these students wereable to find books from the library, and could find information of varying reliability on
the Internet. But they did not seem to know about using library databases. The library at
KGU includes databases from major subscription providers, such as ProQuest and
EBSCO. These databases provide articles in electronic format which were either
originally printed in reliable journals or were born digitally but in reliable and verifiablee-journals. In my Advanced B class, an additional library orientation was devoted to
exploiting library databases, particularly for journal articles. This library orientation canbe done either in this class or in the next class [Class 2].
Class 2: Evaluating information
Most students are unfamiliar with research writing. Providing students with examples ofresearch writing is a necessary step. As a class, we read a short research paper together
to get a better idea of the final product. Students should be advised of concepts such as
objective tone (no “I” or “we”) and complete citation of sources, both in-text and in areference list or bibliography at the end of the paper. Non-verifiable sources from
Google, and Wikipedia, are not permitted as cited sources. If the student cannot identify
an author, the source is not allowed for the research paper assignment.
Because students often get their information from the Internet, it is important toshow that websites can have bias, and equally important to show students how toevaluate websites. We looked at hate websites such as<martinlutherking.org/>.

<creativitymovement.net/index1.html>.
130

<stormfront.org/forum/>.

<godhatesfags.com/>.

<aryannations.org/>.

to discuss the bias. An interesting homework assignment [which was not done in thisclass for lack of time] might be to ask students to find biased websites in Japanese also.
Further ideas are available from many academic libraries’ websites; the Purdue
University Libraries’ website is particularly useful for its large number of examples.
(See References for the URL.)
Classes 3 to 10: Writing the research paper
After learning about library databases and reading through example research papers, thestudents chose research topics and wrote research papers. Each section of the paper(introduction, literature review, application, conclusion) was submitted twice (first-draft
and final-draft). While students were using class time to find information sources and/or
compose the paper, I consulted individually with each student as to how he or she wasfeeling about his/her progress in the research process. The reference list was a work inprogress; as students wrote their papers, they found new information every week, which
was cyclically folded into the research paper. Students were required to have at least
three sources from the library databases, and no references to Wikipedia, Google or any
other general search engine.
What did students choose to write about? Remember that most of thesestudents are returnees. Some of them had recently graduated from foreign high schools.
These foreign high schools ranged from urban to rural settings in various
English-speaking countries. Other returnee students had just returned from a summer
abroad. Students’ research topics were mostly social issues: teenage pregnancy, global
warming, climate crisis, refugees’ plight in Japan, Japanese ageing society, childsoldiers, and poverty in Brazil, among others. A couple of students took topics from thenews: deflation in Japan and the Japan Air Lines fiscal crisis. One student loves her job
at Starbucks, and wrote of the spectacular rise and market presence of that corporation.
Another student is intensely interested in social entrepreneurship, and wrote a research
paper on his internship experience in China with such an enterprise.

131

Conclusion
The results of folding information literacy into my writing course have been satisfactory.
My high-level ESL students wrote reasonably coherent papers, using sources whichwere mostly well documented. I feel that the practice obtained in this classroom
experience will serve the students well as they go forward in their academic career.
As further ESL research, it would be interesting to see what happens with thisassignment with a lower-level class; a class whose English skills are not as high as thesestudents’. Furthermore, the research paper assignment for this class was unrelated toany other class that these students were taking in this semester. It would be interesting
to have a Research Writing course with students who are preparing to write their own
graduating theses (undergraduate or graduate level).
From a librarian’s perspective, it would be interesting to conduct a survey on
how students were finding their information. Were they using Google primarily? Or did
the requirement of having at least 3 digital or print sources influence the students to
explore the database more? Google will find freely available articles, but nothing frominside a proprietary database. There have been such studies using native speakers but
none using ESL students that I am aware of at this moment.
Bio Data
Susan Gilfert currently teaches in the Kwansei Gakuin University Language Center. She
has previously taught in the Chubu area and Kanazawa in Japan, and was a Fulbrightteacher trainer in Malaysia. <sgilfert@kwansei.ac.jp>
References
Association of College and Research Libraries (2000). Information Literacy
Competency Standards for Higher Education. [Online]. Available:<ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/acrl/standards/standards.pdf>.
Bagnole, J., & Miller, J. (2003). An interactive information literacy course forinternational students: A practical blueprint for ESL learners. TESL-EJ 6(4), Section A,
1-17.
Purdue University Libraries (2009). Research guides: Evaluation. [Online]. Available:<lib.purdue.edu/rguides/studentinstruction/evaluation/>.
Shapiro, J., & Hughes, S. (1996). Information Literacy as a Liberal Art: Enlightenment
132

proposals for a new curriculum. Educom Review, 31(2), 31. [Online]. Available:<educause.edu/pub/er/review/reviewarticles/31231.html>.

133

Is autonomy an effective theory for all levels of students?
Bruce Lander
Matsuyama University
Reference data:
Lander, B. (2010) Is autonomy an effective theory for all levels of students? In K.
Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier & M. Walsh (Eds), Pan-SIG 2010 Conference Proceedings.
Kyoto: JALT.
Abstract
A recent study suggested that those who study a language because they must are not as
autonomy-conscious as those who do it of their own free will (Noels, Clement, &Pelletier, 2002). This indicates a gap in the research of autonomy, suggesting that only
students who have initial interests in English can become autonomous learners. This
gives rise to the question; can traditionally unmotivated students become autonomous
learners with the correct support and guidance? Rather than focusing on the attributes
that autonomy has on the motivated learner, this paper will attempt to prove autonomy
is a valid theory in students of all abilities.
Keywords: Learner autonomy, motivated vs. unmotivated learners, self-assessment,
project-based learning, teacher as facilitator
現在の言語学論では、必修科目としての言語学習を、自らの意思とはいえず自主的な学習とは言えないと提唱している(Noels, Clement and Pelletier, 2002)。 このことは自主的学習論においての研究で相違が指摘されている。初期段階での興味を持った学習者のみが自主的学習者になりうるということである。問題点が挙げられる。学習意欲にかかわらず、正確な指導とサポートで自主的学習者にすることは可能か？自主的学習者は意欲のある学習者であるという特性に焦点を充てるのではなく、自主的学習は様々なレベルの学習者において効果的な学理であるということを証明しようとしたものである。
キーワード：自主的な学習、効果的な学理、自己評価、プロジェクト学問 (PBL）
オートノミーPeople learn and are taught in many different ways. Innovations in how we learn and134how we are taught are paramount to provide for the ever-changing world around us.
There is a continuous search in the English as a foreign language (EFL) trade to find thebest way to learn. Traditionally, it is the teacher’s responsibility to initiate interest in
their students to learn, but research is now suggesting that there must be a shift in
traditions in order to compensate for the increased levels of unmotivated students inrecent years (Little, 1995).
For many years, the teacher, particularly in the Asian context, has been thecentre of the class and the director of knowledge who educates students with facts he orshe, and the curriculum planners, deem fit. No matter how disguised, traditional
teaching is based essentially on “the mug and jug theory”, (Rogers, 1983, in Benson,
2001) where the flow of knowledge is one-way, from the teacher as the jug to thestudent as the mug. Autonomy does not adopt this strategy and instead suggests that theteacher should act as a facilitator of learning. Knowledge should not flow from one
source to another for authentic learning to take place and knowledge cannot be taught,
but must be constructed by the learner (Candy, 1991). The facilitator must create a
psychological climate by making the learner curious, creating enthusiasm, encouraging
where possible, and producing the correct environment in which to learn (Benson,
2001).
Once the correct environment has been demonstrated, and the transition ofteacher roles established, the question is not how teachers can motivate learners but howteachers can help learners to motivate themselves, (Ushioda, 1996). A prerequisite ofcreating autonomous students in the foreign language classroom requires students firstto be motivated.
This study aims to measure levels of motivation before and after a
project-based syllabus, with the intention of promoting learner autonomy in twocontrastive classes. A project-based syllabus was designed and adapted from theauthor’s previous experience in the field and used in an English major writing class andin a business major communication class at Matsuyama University, Ehime prefecture.
Levels of motivation and interest in English will be obtained through a detailed
questionnaire before and after the commencement of two projects.
The objective of this study is to reduce the anxiety, to increase motivation andperformance in students of all levels after the introduction of authentic materials. Afterthe successful completion of an identical project-based syllabus used in two sets of135

classes, this study showed that autonomous behaviour towards learning a foreign
language was evident in all level of learners.
Literature Review
People live to learn. We learn through necessity. The necessity to learn comes from our
motivation and our attitude to learn. Without motivation and a suitable attitude,
meaningful learning will not take place. Consciously or subconsciously, as people, weare continuously and effortlessly learning every moment of our lives, whether it islearning to dislike something or that we lack the ability or aptitude to learn something(Smith, 1998).
The official and classic theories of learning
Smith (1998) illustrates that there are two theories of learning, the official theory andthe classical theory. The official theory is the more universally understood concept that
we learn in educational institutions from kindergarten to university in environments that
promote “learning” where effort is the key. We have to learn something first in such anenvironment before it can be understood. The classical theory alternatively is the viewthat we are constantly and effortlessly learning from the people around us with whom
we identify, “We learn from the company we keep, we can’t help learning from themand we learn without knowing that we are learning.” (Smith, 1998, p.35). This view
was classic in the sense that it was the way in which lords would teach their apprentices,
fathers their sons and the elderly the young in the days before schools, tests, andteachers existed.
Smith (1998) declares that each theory is contradictory to the other in that theofficial theory is learning that leads to forgetting whereas the classical theory is learningthat is never forgotten. Smith continues by declaring that if we have to make sense ofsomething before we can learn from it, then the official learning theory is bogus andmost of what we learn in the traditional sense of learning in a classroom underappropriate circumstances will most certainly be forgotten. Remarks such as these arecompelling as Smith (1998) suggests that the majority of learning as we know it ismeaningless.
Holt (1985) suggests that we should abolish the school altogether, as children
don’t need to be coerced into learning; they would do so naturally if given the freedom136to follow their own interests (Holt 1985a, 1985b). Holt was fundamental in introducing
the principles of “home-schooling” in the 1970’s and 80’s. Dörnyei (2001a, 2001b)
believes that motivation is a key element in learning and without it all learning ismeaningless. Ushioda (2008), Wenden (1991), and Cotterall (1995, 1999) amongst
others, believe that learning comes from the powers within, that all goals must be set by
the learner themselves with the teacher taking the role of facilitator, guide, or tutor.
Meanwhile, Gladwell (2002) acknowledges that people do not learn if they are confused,
and that comprehension is key. Most of the authors here run on the philosophy that thethree key elements to learning are comprehension, motivation, and confidence (Smith,1998).
Motivation
Motivation is an essential ingredient in the success of anything we do. Without
motivation for what we do, effort will be low, and without effort success will beminimal. Motivation provides the primary impetus to initiate learning and later thedriving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process (Dörnyei, 2001a).
Teachers must be motivated to teach while learners must be motivated to learn. Simply
put, even individuals with remarkable ability may not accomplish long-term goals
without sufficient motivation. With motivation being such an imperative factor inlearning new languages, it is no wonder there is a long list of authors who base theirresearch around the topic.
Another vital element to learning is confidence. Without confidence in your learning
ability you cannot progress, Smith (1998) points out that, “Lack of confidence raises
anxiety, induces inappropriate approaches to learning and makes confusing what wemight otherwise understand” (Smith, 1998, p.35).
Gaining trust and respect from the students is one way to ease the process of learning
for them. Holt (1995ab), a pioneer in the field of education, wrote two very successful
books, How Children Learn and How Children Fail, both of which were first publishedin 1963. Holt is explicit in viewing his opinions on the way people learn, stating:
The most important thing any teacher has to learn, not to be learned in any
school of education I ever heard of, can be expressed in seven words: Learning
is not the product of teaching. Learning is the product of the activity of learners.
(Holt, 1995, p.125).
137

Many researchers assert that second language development is governed primarily by
the student’s internal mechanisms and cannot be controlled by teaching (Hato, 2005).
Both Holt (1995) and Hato (2005) suggest that learning must originate from within thestudent if it is to be meaningful. This can be done by letting the students work at theirown pace, or in other words, to give students responsibility for their learning, the basics
of learner autonomy.
Autonomy
Autonomous learning is increasingly becoming a modern approach to English language
education in which many teachers, usually of European or North American origin, strive
to develop in their learners. Learner autonomy gives more responsibility to the student
and their own learning, and if successful, has the potential to aid learners in their futurelearning careers.
Defining autonomy can be a difficult task as meanings may be interpreted indifferent ways by different people. Autonomy in learning is about people taking more
control over their learning in and out of their classrooms. Autonomy in language
learning conversely is the notion of people taking more control over the purposes forwhich they learn languages and the ways in which they learn them (Benson, 2006). One
important component behind “learner autonomy” is that “language learning is alifelong endeavour” (Lee, 1998, p.282) and that students learn more outside of classthan they do in class. The process however, of making students “autonomous” is alengthy and complicated one. In order to promote the idea that more learning is done
outside the classroom in student’s own time than during classes, students must be
directed in how to learn by themselves.
The control that each student has over their learning differs, and the methods
each person uses to learn are unique. Benson (2001) explains that autonomy is amultidimensional capacity that will take different forms for different individuals. The
autonomous learner is recognised by specific behaviour, but this behaviour can takemany different forms depending on the student’s age, their progress so far and what
they perceive learning to be (Little, 1991). One thing is clear, that the autonomous
learner must be interested and motivated in what they are doing enabling them tobecome responsible for their own learning. It is the teacher’s job to initiate the initial
step to learning independence.
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Constructs of motivating the unmotivated
By obtaining information on learner beliefs, O’Donnell (2003) found that the problems
with methodology lie within instructor-student relationships and a gap between goals
and needs. The relationship between the teacher and the student is an important issue
and cannot be overlooked. O’Donnell suggests that if a teacher is skilled in the language,
attuned to student’s feelings, and offers an interesting and informative methodology
they can help bring about positive attitudes in the student (O’Donnell, 2003).
Knowledge of what students expect can help form trust and respect between the teacher
and student. When the time comes to establish a new approach, teachers can make thetransition smoother by acknowledging their student’s beliefs.
The role of any teacher in education should be to motivate their students andto influence them in a way that creates enthusiasm in the subject they are trying to teach.
This can be difficult in language education, particularly in Japan where collectively, allstudents are required to learn English for six years up to high school and a further two
years or more in tertiary education. English education in high schools in Japan is
primarily taught in preparation for rigorous university entrances examinations, and has
an emphasis on grammar and translation. The situation that this paper focuses on
involves combating this predicament by creating enthusiasm towards English, byencouraging students in every way and by introducing comprehensible and meaningfulmaterials that promote self-motivation in all levels of learners.
Applying autonomy to language learning
The justifications for the application of autonomy in language learning and general
education are plentiful. Dickinson provides evidence that “autonomous learners become
more highly motivated and that autonomy leads to better, more effective work”(Dickinson, 1995, p.165). People who take the initiative in learning, whether learning
languages or just learning in general, learn more effectively than do people who sit at
the feet of teachers, passively waiting to be taught. If motivation is the output ofautonomy, then autonomous learners will keep learning, aiding them in their futureendeavours to further successes. There is an important link between autonomy andmotivation. Dickinson (1995) investigated just that link, to prove the claim that
“autonomous learners become more motivated learners".
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Every teacher in a classroom has the opportunity to positively influence theminds of many young individuals. It is the job of a teacher to unleash the potential fromwithin every student and encourage them in every way. Students in Japan have thereputation of being passive, dependent, and lacking in initiative. This makes the processnecessary to succeed in autonomy more difficult. However, if the teacher is willing toalter his or her teaching style to fit the culture of his/her students, the innovation ofchange may become clearer (Sarwar, 2001). In order to promote learning autonomy to agroup where it may be a foreign idea, the teacher must first acquire relevant backgroundknowledge of their students and the institution they will be working for.
Implications for teaching
The research in second language acquisition (SLA), learner motivation, and pedagogy
shows there is a cyclic process of motivation affecting effort, which in turn affects
ability, which motivates more. This motivation must come internally. Internalmotivation comes from competence, relatedness, and most importantly autonomy.
Students must be allowed to explicitly do what they want, when they want with regards
to their learning, and not only limit their learning to the confinements of a classroom.
Students must be trained and guided before they are told to just “learn by themselves”.
A student cannot just become autonomous without any guidance, they must be taught
how to learn, and this initial step requires a lot of encouragement and guidance from theteacher.
There are a huge variety of ways that people learn, several of which have been
mentioned here. This study states that learner beliefs must be respected in order for
students to learn autonomously. This study applies the use of two projects which allow
students to learn at a pace and way that suits them.
Research Methods
The study
The aim of this study is to compare the autonomy levels of two sets of students, a groupof English major students and a group of non-English major students using two
identical projects to determine if learner autonomy is enhanced. The objectives are toincrease student motivation, lower anxiety, and improve student attitude towards
English through the introduction of a project-based syllabus in both groups and prove140

that learner autonomy is a valid theory for all types of learners.
Participants
Permission to conduct research on learner autonomy was granted by the participants of
two classes for this study. The first group were first-year undergraduate students while
the other were second-year full time students at Matsuyama University. The first-year
group were non-English major students, with an average age of 18, while thesecond-year group were English major students, with an average age of 19. For practicalreasons, the English major students are referred to as “Group A” and the non-English
majors as “Group B”. Group A comprised of 23 students while Group B comprised of
27, meaning a total of 50 students participated in the study.
The major difference between the two groups of students was that Group A
had chosen to study English out of choice while Group B had not. The study was
carried out from April 2008 to January 2009. Before starting the study it was predictedthat motivation levels would be high with Group A and low with Group B.
Table 1. Major differences between the two groups
Group AGroup B

English majors (23)Business/economics majors (25)nd

2 year students

1st year students

19-20 year olds

18-19 year olds

7 years of study

6 years of study

405-700 TOEIC (PBT)

195-635 TOEIC (PBT)

3 hours a week

3 hours a week

MOTIVATION – HIGH

MOTIVATION – LOW

Materials
The majority of data was gathered through the use of questionnaires given before andafter the completion of a project-based syllabus. Questionnaires were first developed in
English but translated into the native language of the students by the author with peer
help. There were two projects that made up a part of the syllabus, the first of which is a
project which was developed solely by the author, and has been used and improved141

upon in other classes for the past three years called “The Picture Book Project”. The
other project was used in conjunction with the text “Travel Abroad Project” publishedby Nan’un-do and written by Richard McMahon (2005). Both projects are evaluatedthrough self- and peer- assessment, with testing absent from the curriculum to enable
students to become intrinsically motivated.
The Picture Book Project
The picture book project involves a picture story book with characters, a scenario, a
suitable ending and a message. The goal for this project is to produce a picture bookfrom scratch using individual effort, original ideas and initiative, and then present theirbook to groups in class. Evaluation for the books comes from peer-assessment,
self-assessment and comments from their instructor. Students were guided and advised
through a series of scaffolding procedures over an 8-10 week period before they had toconstruct their own picture books and present them to the class in the final class of term.
Travel ProjectThis project is based on the text “Travel Abroad Project”, written by Richard McMahon(2005) and published by Nan`un-do. The main objective of the Travel Project is topresent a travel itinerary to a country of your choice in class. Prior to this, each student
in the Travel Project must research on different topics such as art, history, wildlife, andculture then present their findings in class. The project incorporates reading, writing,listening and presenting skills as students collate data by themselves outside of class,and then presenting their findings. The project culminates with all students presenting a
two week travel itinerary to their class using Power Point.
The reason these projects are being utilized is to introduce the concept oflearner autonomy to the subjects. Both projects give almost complete responsibility to
the student, with class time alone kept solely for teacher-student guidance, facilitationand lessons in how to obtain the information from the resources available. With thePicture Book project students are provided with an outline, or ideas for their story but
ultimately the length, detail, and message of their story is completely up to them.
Projects provide ample opportunity to increase self-confidence, to sustain curiosity, toencourage students to set their own goals to introduce tasks students may never havedone before, (Dörnyei, 2001a) and most of all to increase motivation. All are elements
142

crucial to the process of becoming an autonomous learner.
Results
Results in this section were obtained from two identical questionnaires given to allstudents before and after the completion of both projects in the two classes (Appendix 1).
Results were collated and graphed using Microsoft Excel and percentage ofimprovements were stated from each section. A total of four constructs will be analysedin this paper, they state the overall attitude towards English, anxiety, the satisfaction oflearning and motivation towards learning English in both groups. Although thequestionnaire was available to the students in both languages, the English version only
will be used herein.
Attitude
When asked to comment on the construct,“I am interested in learning English,” theresults were as follows.
Table 2. Attitude towards English
BeforeAfter

Change

A

B

A

B

A

B

3.43

3.08

3.38

3.38

-0.06

0.30

1.75%↓

9.7%↑

1 = strongly disagree 4 = strongly agree

These results confirm the previous expectations of each group. The English major
students showed a positive attitude both before and after the course, indicated byminimal changes after the course, contrast to group B. Group B showed a positive shift
towards learning English when comparing their attitude results before and after thecourse.
Anxiety
When asked to comment on the construct, “I’m not confident when speaking English,”
responses were as follow.

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Table 3. Anxiety
BeforeAfter

Change

A

B

A

B

A

B

2.81

2.81

3.19

2.58

+0.38

-0.23

13%↓

8.2%↑

1 = strongly disagree 4 = strongly agree

Group A, the English majors, the higher motivated group showed an increasein anxiety towards English from this study. Group B, the less motivated group however
showed the opposite. Possible reasons for this could be that the A group showedelements of anxiety and confusion to an alternative style to teaching than the regularteacher-centred approach they may have been used to. See graph 1 for overall
percentage of change.
Satisfaction
Table 4 shows responses when students were asked to comment on the construct, “I feel
my English skills have improved.”
Table 4. Satisfaction
Before
After
A
B
A
B
3.15
2.52
3.67
3.25
1 = strongly disagree 4 = strongly agree

Change
A
+0.52

B
+0.73

16.5%↑

29%↑

These results suggest the most significant results of this research. These figures indicatethat students have not only enjoyed completing the courses but have also felt an
improvement in their English ability.
Motivation
Table 5 shows responses when students were asked to comment on the construct, “I’mstudying English because it will make me successful.”

144

Table 5. Motivation
Before
After
A
B
A
B
2.71
2.12
3.27
2.65
1 = strongly disagree 4 = strongly agree

Change
A
+0.56

B
+0.53

21%↑

25%↑

Results here show a similar trend to those in table 4. Vast increases of 21% in group A
and 25% in Group B represent convincing data to suggest that projects of this manner
can help to motivate all levels of learners.
Overall improvements
This graph below shows the overall improvements of the four constructs in both groupsof students after the completion of a project-based syllabus designed to create autonomy
in all levels of learners. Group A is represented by the green bar (left side) and group B
is represented by the blue bar (right side).

Graph 1.
The absence of any positive percentage of change for group A in the attitude andanxiety section suggests two outcomes. Attitude towards learning English in group A
145

was already high therefore no improvements were recorded, while the same group of
students actually showed a slight negative shift in anxiety, hence no sign of a positivechange in group A. See table 3 above for details.
Conclusions
Results of this type signify the value that a project-based syllabus, like the one used
here, has for all levels of English learners. If the goals of educational institutions are tofoster the autonomous individual, a project-based syllabus like this one, is berecommended. Teachers, instructors, and educators should trust their students byadopting an autonomy-centred methodology. If project work like this is utilised, it canmotivate the students, confidence will rise, and perceived gains in ability will follow.
Teachers need to accept the heterogeneity of learners and worry less about
their capabilities., When Smith (1998) is asked how to cope with students who areunmotivated and uninterested in subjects they are forced to take at school, replies:
It may be better to regard your job not as the instructor who organizes thelearning, that students are supposed to do but as the guide who makes what wewould like students to learn interesting, comprehensible and accessible. (Smith,
1998, p. 80).
If instructors of English can develop authentic materials that enhance the concept ofautonomy by building rapport with their students, creating a positive atmosphere tolearn in, and by providing constant support where possible, motivation levels should
increase.
Some students may not be used to the changes they encounter in anautonomy-centred class, and some may even react negatively to it. To avoid confusion
and aid in the transition to becoming a complete autonomous learner, students should begiven time to adjust to the new learning strategies involved. Autonomy should start inlarger groups, then lead to smaller groups and eventually individuals. The transition isfrom interdependence to independence. Autonomy is not teacher independence, butteacher-learner interdependence (Iida, 2009; Little, 1995). As teachers we have tofacilitate and motivate our students in a way so that our students become autonomous
someday, not just say, “OK, starting today you are autonomous.” With time and146

guidance from teachers, students should gradually learn the benefits of autonomy andthe potential for the future endeavours that it can offer.
This research shows that a wide range of learner ability types can be motivatedand show signs of becoming autonomous learners if suitable procedures are applied.
Teachers and institutions have the optimal opportunity to aid their students for life andlet authentic learning take place in this way. This leads to the question, how will
becoming autonomous help the world? Business and the workforce, today, are looking
for creative thinkers that can adapt to their status quo, possessing skills that require thefoundations of motivation, curiosity and the capability to learn in our rapidly changing
information society. Supporting the learner with project-work of this stature, as shownin this study, will not only help them to improve their English by becoming autonomous,
but will also give them a valuable skill for later life ventures.
References
Benson, P. (2006). Autonomy website: Hong Kong University. <ec.hku.hk/autonomy/>.
Benson, P. (2001). Teaching and Researching Autonomy in Language Learning.
London: Longman Pearson.
Candy, P.C. (1991). Self-direction for Lifelong Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Cotterall, S. (1995). Developing a course strategy for learner autonomy. ELT Journal,
49(3), 219-227.
Cotterall, S. (1999). Key variables in language learning: what do learners believe about
them? System, 27(4), 493-513.
Dickinson, L. (1995). Autonomy and Motivation a Literature Review. System 23(2),165-174.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001a). Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. Cambridge
University Press.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001b). Teaching and Researching Motivation. Longman and Pearson:
London .
Gladwell, M. (2001). The tipping point. Back Bay Books: San Francisco.
Hato, Y. (2005). Problems in Top-Down Goal Setting in Second Language
Education: A case study of the “Action Plan to Cultivate Japanese withEnglish Abilities”. JALT Journal, 27(1), 33-52.
Holt, J. (1995a). How Children Learn. Da Capo Press.
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Holt, J. (1995b). How Children Fail. Da Capo Press.
Iida, A. (2009). Research in weblog pedagogy: Blogging and developing
leaner autonomy in a JFL context. The Language Teacher, 33(2), 3-7. Lee, I.
(1998). Supporting greater autonomy in language learning. ELT Journal,

52(4), 282-290.
Little, D. (1995). Learning as Dialogue: the dependence of learner autonomy on teacher
autonomy. System 23(2) 175-181
McMahon, R. (2005). The Travel Project. Tokyo: Nan`un-do Publishing.
Noels, K., Clement, R., & Pelletier, L. (2002). Perceptions of Teachers' Communicative
Style and Students' Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. Modern Language Journal, 83(1),23-34.
O’Donnell, K. (2003). Uncovering First Year Students Language Learning Experiences,
Attitudes, and Motivations in a Context of Change at the Tertiary Level of Education.
JALT Journal, 25(1), 31-64.
Sarwar, Z. (2001). Adapting individualization techniques for large classes. In D. Hall &A. Hewings (Eds.). Innovation in English Language Teaching: A Reader. Routledge:
London.
Smith, F. (1998). The book of learning and forgetting. New York: Teachers College
Press.
Ushioda, E. (1996). Learner Autonomy 5: The role of Motivation. Dublin: Authentik.
Ushioda, E. (2008) Motivation and good language learners. In C. Griffiths (Ed) Lessons
from Good Language Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wenden, A. (1991). Learner Strategies for Learner Autonomy. London: PrenticeHall-International.

148

Appendix 1
Questionnaire on Learning English (learning styles and learner beliefs)（英語学習に関するアンケート）
This is a questionnaire to measure how you feel about the English language and yourpresent feeling towards learning it. Please answer as truthfully as possible.
（このアンケートは皆さんが英語学習に対してどのような考えを持っているのかを調査することをねらいとしたものです。 以下の質問に正直に答えて下さい。）
Circle one of the following:（次の問いの答えに丸をつけて下さい。）
1. What is your major? （専攻）science and technology major / language and arts major（理系） （文系）
2 What is you gender? male / female（性別） （男性） （女性）
3. How did you enter this university? （本学への入学方法は次のどちらですか）
Recommendation / Regular entrance examination（推薦入試）（一般入試）

4. When did you start studying English? （いつ頃から英語を勉強していましたか。）
before elementary / early elementary / middle elementary / late elementary / jr. high（小学校前） （小学校低学年）（小学校中学年）（小学校高学年）（中学校）The following questions are to measure how much you feel about each item. Read
each sentence and indicate how much it is like you by circling the number that best
describes you. There are no right or wrong answers. Remember to circle a number foreach sentence.
（以下の項目では、提示された内容についてどう考えるかを判断してもらいます。自分の気持ちに一番近いものに丸で囲んで下さい。答えに関して正解・不正解はございません。必ずすべての問いに答えて下さい。）
1-Strongly Disagree 2-Disagree 3-Agree 4-Strongly Agree（全くそうは思わない）（そう思わない） （そう思う） （大いにそう思う）

149

Attitude towards English
1. I like learning English.（英語を学ぶのが好きである。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
2. I am interested in learning English.（英語に興味がある。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
3. I have the willingness to learn English. （英語を勉強するやる気がある。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
4. I have the right attitude for learning English （英語を勉強する態度や姿勢はある。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
Anxiety when using English
5. I am not confident to speak in English.（英語で話す自信がない。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
6. I don’t perform well on English tests and examinations.（英語の試験で点数が取れない。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
7. I will never be able to do well in English.（英語の勉強はかどれない。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
8. I feel ashamed when I can’t use English correctly.（正しい英語を使えないとき恥ずかしくなる。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
Achievement in English classes up to now
9. I feel my English skills have improved in my senior high school classes.（高校で英語力がついたと思う。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
10. I feel more confident in using English now. （高校の授業で英語を使うことに自信がついたと思う。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
11. I remember most of what I have learned in my classes.（高校で学んだことはほと
んど覚えている。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4150

12. I feel I can accomplish any task given to me in English. （英語の授業でどんな英語活動もやりこなせる自信がついた。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
Satisfaction of Lessons
13. I got out of the class as much effort as I put in. （高校の授業は努力した分戻ってきたと思う。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
14. The class was useful for my future goals.（ 高校の授業は将来のために役に立ったと思う。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
15. The class has met my expectations of being fun.（高校の授業は期待通りに面白かったと思う。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
16. The classes met my expectations of being informative.（高校の授業は多くの知識を与えてくれたと思う。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
Instrumental Motivation
17. I want to learn English because it is useful when traveling in many countries.（旅行のために便利だから、英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
18. I am studying English to gain knowledge for advancement in society. （立身出世のために英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
19. I am studying English to make friends with people from other countries.（外国人と交流するために英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
20. I am studying English to gain respect from other in the public.（他人に尊敬されるために英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4151

Performance Goal Orientations
21. I am studying English to get respect from my teachers and classmates.
（先生や級友に尊敬されるために英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
22. I am studying English only to get good grades. （よい成績を取るために英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
23. I am studying English because it will make me superior to others around me.
（他人より優秀になるために勉強をしている。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
24. I am learning English because English is a must for Japanese in the global society.
（国際化のために英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
Extrinsic motivation
25. I am learning English because everybody in Japan should be able to understandEnglish nowadays.
（今日、すべての日本人が英語を勉強すべきであると思う。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
26. I am studying English to get a special license. （資格のために英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
27. I am studying English to please my teachers or parents.
（先生や親を喜ばせるために英語を勉強している）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
28. I am studying English to get a good job. （良い仕事に就くために英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
Japanese Imperative
29. The main reason I need to learn English is to pass examinations to get a job inJapan.

152

（就職試験のために英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
30. The main reason I need to learn English is to pass examinations to further mystudies.
（進学のために英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
31. I am studying English only because English is a compulsory subject.
（英語が必修科目だから勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
32. I am studying English because it is expected of me from society.
（社会で期待されているから英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
Integrative motivation
33. I am studying English to broaden my views.（視野を広げるために英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
34. I am studying English because I like the challenge.（物事に挑戦するのが好きだか
ら英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
35. I am studying English to touch upon the cultures of other countries.（外国の文化に触れられるから英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
36. I am studying English because I am interested in other cultures. （外国の文化に興味を持っているから英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
Master Goal Orientation
37. I am studying English because it will make me a better individual.
（よりよい人間になれるから英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
38. I am studying English because it will make me successful.（将来成功できるように153

英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
39. I am studying English I want to be bilingual.（２ヶ国語を話せるようになりたい
から英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
40. I am studying English because I like studying.（勉強するのが好きだから英語も勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
Intrinsic Orientations
41. I feel satisfaction when I am learning English.（英語を学ぶことにはやりがいがある。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
42. I want to continue studying English for the rest of my life.（できれば一生英語を勉強して続けたい。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
43. I am studying English to be a more knowledgeable person（知性のある人になりたいから英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
44. I am studying English because it will make me smarter. （頭がよくなるから英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
Personal Orientations
45. I am studying English to keep up with information in English. （情報収集のために英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
46. I am studying English to get information from the Internet.（インターネットのために英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
47. I am studying English because I like to listen to English songs.（英語の歌が好きであるから英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4
154

48. I am studying English because I like to watch English movies.（英語の映画を見るために英語を勉強している。）
1---------------------------2---------------------------3-------------------------4

155

How global issues can make even reluctant learners keen
Thomas Lockley
Kanda University of International Studies
Reference data:
Lockley, T. (2011). How Global Issues can make even reluctant learners keen. In K.
Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier & M. Walsh (Eds), Pan-SIG 2010 Conference Proceedings.
Kyoto: JALT
Abstract
This paper discusses a series of global issues themed resources developed by a teacher
of French and German for students undertaking compulsory secondary language
education in the UK. It shows how these resources became popular, increased
motivation, and overall learning, in addition to increasing students’ awareness of theworld around them.
Current issues in language teaching and learning in the UK and Japan are
discussed with reference to government reports and initiatives. The paper suggests thatthese resources could improve language learning and motivation in schools and fit inwith government guidelines and aspirations.
Keywords: UK education, Japan education, global issues, language curricula
本稿では、フランス語とドイツ語の教師が、イギリスの言語義務教育における学習者のために、地球規模の問題をテーマとして開発された一連の教材について述べている。これらの教材がどのようにして、学習者の学習意欲を高め、自分たちの周りの世界への意識を高めていくのに貢献したかを表わしている。
イギリスと日本の言語教育における現在の課題は、政府の報告書やイニシアテ
ィブに基づいて議論されている。本稿では、どのようにこれらの教材が学校における言語学習の向上に貢献し、政府の規制や目標に沿ったものになりえたか
を示すように努める。
キーワード：英国の教育、日本の教育、地球規模でかかえてい る問題、言語カリキュラム

156

This paper discusses a series of resources developed by a teacher of languages in an
English comprehensive (non-selective ages 11-16) school for French and German in
2007/8. It proposes that these resources increased motivation and overall learning in
addition to increasing students’ awareness of global issues. It will suggest that this kindof resource could be applicable in the Japanese context and will interest educators at alllevels interested in broadening curriculum appeal and learner motivation as well as
those who support a more global outlook in language education.
The state of language learning in the UK
In 2004 the English and Welsh National Curriculum, which had long specified amodern foreign language as a central part of secondary education (to age 16), dropped
that stipulation. Language tuition became statutory to age 14 only, but was to be
expanded in primary schools from 2010 to compensate. Many felt that this was abackward move in the field of language teaching and learning.
In 2006 the UK Department for Education and Skills (DfES) published thefindings of a report by Lord Dearing called the Languages Review Consultation Report.
The Review had been commissioned to investigate how to reverse the decline oflanguage learning in English and Welsh schools. Languages normally offered in UK
schools include one or two from French, Spanish and German, and many students also
have the option of Japanese, Russian, and increasingly Mandarin Chinese.
Lord Dearing’s conclusions were damning, cutting to the very foundations oflanguage learning in English and Welsh schools. The Review found that the curriculum
was lacking in age appropriateness, relation to real life, cognitive challenge for higher
achievers, and any draw for less-motivated learners. The pace of the curriculum wasalso considered too slow for more motivated learners. The Review recommended that to“improve the experience of learning a language for pupils, to increase the motivation tolearn, and to enhance pedagogy”, schools should offer not only “more varied languages… with a range of appropriate [assessments]”, but also seek “to recognise and celebrateachievement in small steps and engaging curricular content (including links with thereal world in which the language is spoken)” (DfES, 2006, p. 11).

157

The state of language learning in Japan
In common with the UK, Japan’s foreign language (mainly English) curricula have been
“been routinely criticized since the turn of the [19th/20th] century” (Kikuchi & Browne,
2009, p. 173). One of the main problems is often seen to be a lack of communication
opportunities in the classroom coupled with an overly heavy reliance on the traditional
yakudoku (grammar/translation) methodology (Lamie, 1998). The Japanese ministry ofeducation (now part of a ministerial portfolio called MEXT) has made two changes to
the Course of Study Guidelines (the government guidelines followed by Japanese
schools) for English over the last 20 years, in 1989 and 2003. These both sought toimprove teaching and learning in general and specifically introduce morecommunicative and student-centred teaching methods.
Recognizing that the first attempt had not yielded the desired results, partly due
to a lack of teacher training and funds (Lamie, 1998; Sato & Kleinsasser, 2004), thesecond initiative also included concrete steps to realisation and a substantial budget tosupport its aims. These included more study abroad placements for staff, compulsory
inservice training for all 60000 language teachers, and the foundation of 100 Super
English High Schools (Kikuchi & Browne, 2009). Aspinall (2006) points out that thefact MEXT was able to obtain funding at a time of general financial belt-tighteningshows the importance accorded English language education in Japan.
The main objectives of the 2003 Course of Study Guidelines modifications were
the development of “practical communication abilities” and “fostering a positive
attitude towards communication through foreign languages” (MEXT, 2003, p. 7).
Similarly to the Languages Review Consultation Report it stated that teachers should
use “material that gives sufficient consideration to actual language-use” and cover
topics that relate to students’ “interests and concerns” and enhance their ability to“make impartial judgments” (MEXT, 2003, p. 14). It goes on to say that innovative
teaching methods should be used “incorporating team-teaching, pair work, group work,[…] utilizing audio visual teaching materials, [language labs], computers,
communication networks etc”.
Comparing the issues in England and Wales and Japan
Aspinall (2006) writes that “among the vast majority of academics, policy-makers,
teachers, parents and business groups [in Japan] it is hard to find anything other that158

wholehearted approval of efforts to improve international education in general andEnglish language education in particular” (p.257). However in England and Wales, if a
student wants to pursue an academic route through school, they will often decideagainst subjects which are perceived as having less practical application. Language
education commonly falls into this category as many students can see little practicalapplication outside the classroom. This is partly due to the pervasiveness of English as
the ‘international language’, but also due to the lack of motivation given for learning
languages in schools (DfES, 2006).
Both England and Wales and Japan have major exams in the mid-late teenage
years which play a key role in deciding an individual’s future. At the age of 16, English
and Welsh students take the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). Japan
has both the high school and university entrance exams which are taken at 15 and 18
respectively. In both countries these exams are perceived to be a negative influence on
language curricula (DfES, 2006; Sato & Kleinsasser, 2004), resulting in teachers
teaching for exam success rather than practical language skills.
Neither Japan nor the UK generally enacts selective education in the early
teenage years, though there are exceptions to this in both countries. UK students have alittle more say in what subjects they study after 14 and post-16 education ischaracterized by learner choice and in comparison with many other countries including
Japan. British students follow a very specialised (some would say limited) post-16
curriculum, normally between two and four subjects. Japanese schools follow a morerigid but wide ranging curriculum, later in the teenage years students have more say inwhat they study, often being allowed to choose what type of senior high school they
aspire to and what course they take within that school. Whether students can actuallyfollow their desired outcomes in both countries is dependent on performance in theexams at 15 in Japan and 16 in the UK.
The implications of this slightly larger freedom of choice in the UK is that if a
student is not academically inclined, they will normally try to take more practicalsubjects, not languages, which are commonly perceived as more difficult than othersubjects (DfES, 2006). In Japan, students are obliged to study English to age 18 in all
schools including vocational senior high schools.
Both Japanese and British schools are free to choose their own text books fromthose approved and, if they so desire, to make up their own course of study within159

government guidelines. Informal surveys of student opinion, conducted before thepreparation of the resources this paper treats, revealed almost all students considered thetext books as childish, boring, uninspiring, and disconnected from their daily lives.
These text books are often full of cartoons, which attract eleven year olds, but by
the age of thirteen seem very childish. As Tomlinson (2003) points out, “a textbook
selected mainly because of its attractive appearance could turn out to be very boring forthe learners to use” (p. 22). Japan also experiences difficulties with text books, which
traditionally have concentrated on grammar/translation, and have been seen as
uninspiring by students (Sato & Kleinsasser, 2004).
The system in many English and Welsh schools follows this pattern: Vocabulary
and grammar are taught by topic/text book chapter, and vocabulary is often notthoroughly re-enforced in subsequent units. The students have often forgotten it by thetime they do a similar topic again the next year. Grammar is often taught in an explicit
way rather than being embedded, and is sometimes shied away from altogether by
individual teachers. The emphasis is often on vocabulary and single words, rather thanon building understanding and fluency throughout the course. There is a general failure
to give any extrinsic motivation (DfES, 2006).
There are some positive signs of change in Japan. While researchers in the late1990’s found that there was little attempt to develop activities to suit learner interests
and needs, more recent studies (Lockley, 2011; Nishino, 2008) have found that aroundhalf of all teachers and schools are now engaging with more student centred
methodology. Up to 38% of students surveyed experienced at least one teacher who
taught entirely in English without any recourse to Japanese and over 50% had dedicatedoral communication classes (Lockley, 2011). Aspinall (2006) praised the Super English
High School Programme. He believed that this teacher led action research is a way toprove to other schools and the public in general that communicative methods can workin Japan. Yamada (2005), in her study of the post-2003 compulsorily inservice training
found a positive change in teacher attitudes towards the new 2003 Course of Study
Guidelines.
Wedell, in his book Planning for Educational Change (2009), writes that it
normally takes between five to 10 years for any major reforms to take root and be fully
realised. This would mean that no real assessment of the success or otherwise of the2003 reforms could be enacted until 10 years after the end of the re-training of all
160

English teachers which started in 2003 and finished in 2008. Following this model, it isentirely appropriate that research shows that progress is being made, but not universal
as yet. It is to be hoped that any progressive changes brought in by a UK government
will start to follow similar, though no-doubt equally slow and windy paths.
How the global issues resources were developed
These alternative language teaching resources, developed in a Yorkshire secondary
school, were inspired by two initiatives: the work of the Leeds Development Education
Centre (an educational charity promoting global citizenship) and the storyline approachto language teaching where stories rather than unconnected topics form the basis of
curricula.
The resources involve stories (in the L2) based on characters in various
countries around the world talking about issues in their everyday lives. They are issues
that the reader can relate to and in areas where students can use, expand on, andre-enforce the necessary vocabulary demanded by the normal curriculum. They pertain
to deal with ‘real’ characters and try to empathise with some of the aspirations held by
the readers. When they do not, they have particular socio-economic reasons for not
being able to, such as lack of access to education, or poverty. The characters are mademore “real” in that photos are used and maps detail where they live. Colourful,culturally interesting photos expand on and support the text. Where possible age
appropriate cultural insights are included, like the eating of guinea pig for Christmas inSouth America; these stories prove particularly popular among students.
Each story (see Table 1) is linked to a chapter from a conventional text book.
The chapter on house and home changes focus to talk about poor housing and lack ofmaterial possessions in Paraguay; the chapter about animals and family becomes thestory of a girl called Isabella living on a farm in Chile; food connects to Japan and
Nigeria; transport connects to China and India; body parts connect to the civil war in
Sierra Leone where thousands of victims had limbs cut off by rebel militia during the1990’s. It is important to note that the countries involved are a mixture of developed
and developing, so as to give the students a balanced view of the world outside.
Table 1. Characters, countries, and issues.

161

Character

Country

1 Isabella

Chile

2 ShaliniIndia

3 Shivute

Namibia

4 JuanParaguay

5 Yu LanChina

6 Moussa

Senegal

7 WoleNigeria/France

8 -Sierra Leone

9 Hendrika

Namibia

10 Jose

Mexico11 Lucille
12 Miyuki

CanadaJapan

Global Issue treated
Families, animals
Cultural differences
School, clothingChild labour
Property, old age
School, clothing
Food, immigration
Child soldiers
Race in Africa
Income differences
Sports, diversity
Food, schooling

The story continues over the course of several lessons and resources normally
include elements of reading comprehension, sometimes in English, and sometimes inthe target language. Extension work often comprises a “find the …. in the text” exercise
which picks out conjugation of verbs and parts of speech. As far as possible theresources cater to different learning styles and promote thinking skills. Some questions
ask students to draw pictures illustrating what they have read; others allow students tochoose their own activities based on the text. Finally, for high achievers or quick
workers there is a translation challenge which they can complete while the teacher
concentrates on weaker students.
The new words introduced in the resources are calculated so as not to appear too
onerous, and to use the maximum amount of cognates. The vocabulary level therefore
appears to be higher and more sophisticated than words students are used to studying.
Most of the new words are included in a glossary on the page, but not all, especially the
cognates which students are encouraged to work out for themselves; if necessary they
use a dictionary. At all stages students are encouraged to work things out for themselves
or by discussing with another student, thereby increasing autonomy, teamwork,
motivation, and confidence in the language studied.
The results of this study
162

These resources were not developed with the aim of carrying out an academic study.
Their value has yet to be fully assessed using a conventional academic methodology or
survey group. Furthermore, if these resources were to be introduced in to a different
educational context, for example Japan, a pilot study would need to be held andassessed properly before they could be distributed more widely.
However, in existing practice, from limited class-room surveys, and suchalternative evidence as the comparative grades recorded in the teacher’s mark book, theappeal and success of these resources in the UK comprehensive context is strongly
suggested (at the time of writing, they had been downloaded 4000 times from the Times
Educational Supplement website and attracted positive reviews from fellow teachers aswell). These showed students taking part in lessons based on the global issues resources
performed consistently well in the normal tests, often the majority of the class obtaining
the higher levels attainable at their stage. Teachers found that the same classes also
seemed to demonstrate better motivation and an improved atmosphere than when notusing the resources.
The surveys indicated that the storylines drew the students in, and theirmentally-challenging nature (for example; remembering previous vocabulary, finding
new words, and working out the conjugation of a verb to answer a question correctly)
maintained interest. In the area of verb conjugation, students appeared to show a marked
improvement in their overall performance and understanding of its use and importance.
Vocabulary retention also appeared to improve as the resources were designed to utilise
words learnt in previous months and years as well as the target vocabulary for thatparticular text book chapter.
The highest and the lowest achievers in particular displayed significant
improvements in their motivation when using the resources. When questioned, thehigher achievers found more difficult activities, in particular the translation, verysatisfying. They responded by showing a real sense of achievement at the amount of
output writing (as much as two or three pages in an exercise book when a normal
language lesson might comprise less than a page), this increased “academic” feelingappeared to give the lessons a new seriousness.
Lower achievers indicated that they liked the self-differentiating and multiple
learning style aspects, being able to choose the level and type of exercise they wanted tocarry out; because the teacher encouraged discussion, they could also work with and163

share opinions with colleagues. The potential problem of copying and cheating rarely
appeared, it appeared that students were interested enough in the stories to want to findout for themselves, and they thought the learning more useful.
The resources were not universally popular. Initially almost all students werevery interested, but some classes and students lost interest after doing two or morestories, what might be termed “poverty fatigue.” This manifested itself in comments like“not another one of these”, and “I don’t want to learn about poor people anymore”. How
to deal with these issues is unclear, although it suggests that should a curriculum beentirely composed of such resources, it may have a negative effect on student empathy
and be counter productive. Clearly these resources should be fitted in to a balanced
curriculum which also includes themes other than global issues.
Despite this minority of negative responses, the global issues aspects of theseresources in general proved the most popular. Students felt that to learn about the world
in a foreign language lesson was appropriate and the fact that they were studying
German, for instance, didn’t necessarily mean they had to study about aGerman-speaking country. The issues raised gave the students food for thought, which
was dealt with in a plenary at the end of the lesson (normally in L1), where students
shared their reaction to and opinions of the topics covered. They often madeconnections with what they had learned in other subjects in the curriculum, especiallygeography, citizenship, history, and science.
In conversation with colleagues the author has often found a common perception
in both Japan and the UK, that communicative language teaching requires lots of energy
and input from the teacher. The author contests this and suggests that it is often younger
teachers who are keenest to introduce communicative methodology and, withoutwishing to sound ageist, they often have more reserves of energy than more senior
members of staff; of course those same senior staff make the connection that
communicative equals energetic and lots of teacher input. What the author believes isthat there is a strong need for students to be motivated and willing to use theirintelligence and initiative autonomously, and for the language studied to “give sufficientconsideration to actual language-use situations” (MEXT, 2003, p. 14). There is no
absolute need for jokey antics at the front of the class unless the teacher concerned iswilling and chooses to undertake them. Evidence suggests (Lockley, 2011) that in actual
fact what Japanese students find most inspiring is Japanese teachers who teach in164

English, whatever methods they use.
The author believes that these resources could, in the right circumstances andafter the enactment of a successful pilot study, help towards the fulfilment of a morecommunicative and student-centred language learning experience for Japanese students.
It is suggested that these types of resources could fit relatively easily into existing
Japanese curricula without classroom presence, and practice needing to change radically.
They meet the MEXT course of study aspirations to increase “understanding of theways of life and cultures of Japan and the rest of the world” (MEXT, 2003, p. 14). They
also encourage students to have “a positive attitude toward understanding and using aforeign language on their own” (MEXT, 2003, p. 14).
Furthermore, long term observers of the Japanese educational scene believe that
EFL text books, especially at the junior high school level, have become progressively
more globally focused over the last 30 years (Cates, personal communication). There
are already several global issues themed text books specifically aimed at the Japanesemarket that the author is aware of, including Global Issues by Tim Grose and You, Me
and the World: A Course in English for Global Citizenship by David Peaty. The stories
and exercises that these global issues resources use would not look wildly out of placein the Japanese context.
Conclusion
For the author of this paper, these materials concentrating on global issues made the jobof teaching compulsory languages to often unwilling students more interesting, more
fulfilling, and much easier. The lessons became more involved, autonomous, andcompelling for the majority of students and the available evidence points to attainment
levels for the students involved improving. As students were more motivated andinvolved in the learning, less time and energy had to be given to behaviour management,
thereby allowing the teacher more time to work with individual students.
Given Dearing’s findings in The Languages Review Consultation Report and theattempts made by MEXT to improve English language education in Japan, thisapproach to language teaching and learning could prove crucial to the future oflanguage education in both countries. At the very least it deserves deeper scrutiny as
one possible way to revive the flagging fortunes of language education in English andWelsh and Japanese schools.
165

A similar themed, but significantly different, paper was originally published in the JALT
Materials Writers SIG newsletter, Between the Keys.
If you would like to view, use or translate these resources for use in your classes,
please follow the web addresses in Table 2. I would be grateful to receive copies of any
translations made and hear any comments.
Table 2. Where to find the worksheets.
Type http://www.tes.co.uk/teaching-resource/ and follow it with the specific link
below:
Global-schools-interactive-worksheets-transport-6042269/
Global-schools-interactive-school-personalities-6042267/
Global-schools-interactive-school-clothes-6042265/
Global-schools-interactive-food-illnesses-6042268/
Global-Schools-Interactive-Colourful-Worksheets-6023275/
Global-Schools-Interactive-Colourful-Worksheets-6023277/
Global-Schools-Interactive-Colourful-Worksheets-6023276/

Bio data
Thomas Lockley lectures in International Communication at Kanda University ofInternational Studies in Chiba, Japan. He has worked in Japanese education for four
years and UK education for seven and holds a Post Graduate Certificate in Education(PGCE) from Sheffield University in the UK. His research and teaching interests
include secondary education and student self-perception. <thomas-l@kanda.kuis.ac.jp>.
References
Aspinall, R. (2006). Using the paradigm of ‘small cultures’ to explain policy failure in
the case of foreign language education in Japan. Japan Forum, 18(2), 255-274.
166

DfES (2006). The Languages Review Consultation Report. [Online]. Available:<teachernet.gov.uk/.../subjects/languages/languagesreview>.
Kikuchi, K., & Browne, C. (2009). English Educational Policy for High Schools inJapan: Ideal vs. Reality. RELC Journal, 40(2), 172-191.
Lamie, J. (1998). Teacher Education and Training in Japan. Journal of In-service
Education, 24(3), 515-534.
Lockley, T. (2011, March). Sea Change in Japan. High school English lessons. Paper
presented at the 2nd International Conference on Foreign Language Learning andTeaching, Bangkok, Thailand.
MEXT (2003). The Course of Study for Foreign Languages. [Online]. Available:<mext.go.jp/english/shotou/030301.htm>.
Nishino, T. (2008). Japanese Secondary School Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices
Regarding Communicative Language Teaching: An Exploratory Survey. JALT Journal,30(1), 27-51.
Sato, K., & Kleinsasser, R. (2004). Beliefs, practices, and interactions of teachers in a
Japanese high school English department. Teacher and Teacher Education, 20,
797-816.
Tomlinson, B. (2003). Developing Materials for Language Teaching. London:
Continuum.
Wedell, M. (2009). Planning for Educational Change. Putting people and their contexts
first. New York: Continuum.
Yamada, H. (2005). A Case Study of an In-service Teacher Training Programme. Jinai
University Research Journal, 4, 75-87.

167

Manageable Multimedia Projects: Voicethread and Xtranormal
Douglas Meyer
Momoyama Gakuin University
Reference data:
Meyer, D. (2010). Manageable multimedia projects: Voicethread and Xtranormal. In K.
Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier & M. Walsh (Eds), Pan-SIG 2010 Conference Proceedings.
Kyoto: JALT
Abstract
This article will explain the benefits and drawbacks of two online projects: Xtranormal
and Voicethread. Seventy-two second year students completed these assignments over a
six-week period in the fall of 2009. Upon completion, a survey was given to assess the
successes and drawbacks of the short multimedia program, and how the learners felt
about using English in such a unique way.
この論文はエクストラノーマルとボイススレッドというオンラインプロジェク
トの利点と欠点を説明しています。２００９年の秋に７２人の２年生の生徒達
が、６週間以上かけてこれらのプロジェクトを終えました。終了の際、短期間のマルチメディアプログラムで成功した点と失敗した点、また生徒達がこのようなユニークな方法で英語を使うことをどう感じたかを評価するために調査をしました。
Keywords: multimedia, Voicethread, Xtranormal, learner’s voice, online projects,
slideshow, avatar.
The concept of using technology in the language classroom is far from new, dating backall the way to WWII and the audio-lingual method used by the U.S. Army (Brown,2007). Since then, the understanding of both second language acquisition theory andcomputer technology has grown rapidly. In the modern educational environment,
cyberspace affords us a plethora of educational opportunities in all the subjects ofhumankind.
This paper will be focusing on the use of technology in the language
classroom, specifically two online programs which are both free and manageable from168

an instructor’s point of view. But first, let’s take a look at what others have to say about
education and technology. And in doing so, we must understand the concept of “digital
natives”.
This term refers to the younger generation (born in the 1990’s) who havegrown up with modern technology, such as DVD players, computers, cell phones, iPods,
the Internet, and video cameras. Today, many young adults have spent about 10,000
hours playing video games, another 10,000 hours on cell phones, download millions ofring tones and songs every year, and exchange countless e-mail messages (Prensky,2006). Our learners today have nearly instant access to volumes of information in theirpocket, can communicate with another digital native around the world, all while
multitasking. Even children in the developing world are increasingly becoming familiar
with wireless technology, cell phones, and computers (Wilkins, 2010). These are thelearners of the 21st century.
The teachers, however, are “digital immigrants”, who might still be printing
out our e-mails, doing editing on paper, and reading manuals for programs rather thanusing the program itself to teach us (Prensky, 2006). Teachers must decide whether tobe swept away by the rapid pace of technology, or embrace it and use it as a tool toassist with instruction.
Technology use in language classrooms is slowly making headway into the
public junior and high schools of Japan. The Yawata Board of Education (Kitazawa,
2007) has posted noteworthy gains in vocabulary acquisition by a Nintendo
DS-equipped class of middle school English students. A similar program
launched last year (Dillow, 2009) saw the Wi-Fi game console used in class ina wide spectrum of subjects, allowing students multiple opportunities forquizzing, practice, and drills in an engaging way.
Of course, on the Internet there are several educational sites, providing avirtual treasure trove of materials for teachers of all subjects. In my case, I have found
two simple sites to use in my language classroom, despite the fact that these are notspecifically language-learning programs. The language of instruction was English, aswell as the programs themselves. Further examination of some other essential elementsin this program becomes necessary at this point.

169

The learners, school, and facilities
The following multimedia programs were initiated at an academically-oriented private
Catholic school in Osaka. The learners were second-year high school students in theinternational (kokusai) course, meaning that during the summer of their second year,
they spend one month in Vancouver, Canada. There, students experienced life abroad,study English at a sister school, and take part in the regular summer activities of their
host family. More specifically, there were two classes of learners (N=72), aged fifteen
or sixteen.
There were a very small handful of students (four) who did not have access to
the Internet at home, and thus had to make good use of the time allotted in class.
Otherwise, they were encouraged to use the computer lab after school or at a friend’s
house. In the case where students were late completing assignments on time, deadlines
were extended to allow every opportunity to finish.
This was the first time any multimedia approach has been applied to theEnglish program at our school. It was necessary to procure simple headsets (earphone
and microphone) from an electronics store. Budget was made available to purchase one
headset for every two students, which did not prove to be problematic.
However, the neglected state of the school computer lab did create problems.
The computer web browsers at the time were over six years out-of-date, creating long
delays for processing and saving multimedia projects. This created a lot of visible
frustration, as students experienced difficulty saving work done in class. This may haveaffected the survey results afterwards. However, students who completed their projecton their home computer reported that they were much more successful saving theirwork and by avoiding using the school system.
Project 1: Xtranormal
The first project assigned to students was essentially an avatar-style program thatallowed users to type in an English dialog. The script was prepared beforehand (ashomework) by students, and checked for errors by the teacher. Also, a handout(appendix 1) was carefully prepared for the students, explaining the purpose of thisproject and the procedure outlined below.
In addition, autonomy was a big part of this project, which attempted toaccess learner creativity and tie it in with language usage. Although many students were170

unfamiliar with such an approach, they quickly caught on and appreciated theopportunity for free expression in English. Xtranormal is a free online program, whichworks as follows:
1. Students sign up (and not sign in) for their new account at the website<xtranormal.com/>. First-time users are encouraged to browse sample videos to get an
idea of what is possible to create with this program.
2. Upon selecting the option make movies, the learner has the freedom to choose one or
two actor scripts, scene selection, and avatar characters. It is worth noting that since theauthor was first introduced to Xtranormal, the range of choice has increased
considerably.
3. Students next typed their dialog into the script boxes for each avatar. The layout isvery easy to understand, and despite the absence of L1 instructions, students got started
with relative ease. The instructor guidelines demanded only that dialogs be at least one
minute long, on a topic entirely of the student’s choosing.
4. Advanced functions were quickly discovered and used by many learners. These
include camera angles, sound effects, avatar expressions, and body gestures. The icons
located under direct the action were simply dragged to the desired point in the script.
5. When class time ran out, students were able to save their project by clicking the takefive button. The next class, upon logging in, the project could be continued from thepoint of saving.
6. Likewise, it was often necessary to preview the script for any errors or unusual timingof special effects. The action button did this, although the processing and loading ofeach story took up to four minutes. Students were encouraged to save their progressoften.
7. When satisfied with the final version (a one-minute story), students needed to click
the it’s a wrap button to save the final version of their project to the system.
8.Finally, students were asked to e-mail their completed project to the teacher forgrading, which accounted for 30% of their semester mid-term. I simply opened theirmail, clicked on their project, and watched the fruit of their labor. Grading was based oneffort, creativity, and language use. The vast majority produced exceptional work that
was a pleasure to watch.

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Project 2: Voicethread
Students were next tasked with their second multimedia project, Voicethread. This is
another free online program, which is essentially a photo slideshow. However, theadvantages are that students can narrate their own personal slideshow (in English), as
well as comment on other student’s projects. This assignment did a good job ofmatching the theme of the PAN-SIG 2010 conference, learner perspectives.
Again, there were a number of tasks that needed to be completed prior toaccessing the school computer lab. As you will recall, these learners have spent a monthin Vancouver as part of a study abroad program. Approximately 10 - 20 digital
photographs from their trip were required to be used as part of their Voicethread
assignment. Only in one case were print photographs the only option. However, simply
scanning each photo (and burning all of them onto a CD-R for downloading) solved thisproblem.
Next, students were asked to prepare a two or three sentence English narrationfor each picture in their project. The guidelines asked them to use pictures from their
Vancouver trip to create a two-minute long presentation. Each assignment was gradedprivately by two instructors, and an average score was given.
Again, a handout was carefully prepared to walk the learners through the steps
for this project. The teacher also guided them as a class through the following steps:
1. Students brought to the computer lab their narration script, and their photographs indigital form. Usually, they used their SD chip (used to store digital pictures in thecamera) and a multi-card reader. A few students brought in their camera to connect
directly to the school computer. And only one or two students used a CD-R containing
photos.
2. Students accessed the free online program <voicethread.com/> and created an
account for their project. By browsing through other posted Voicethreads, the students
saw several examples of Voicethread, and could get a better understanding of what toexpect in the classes ahead.
3. When ready to proceed, students clicked on the create button to begin their project.
They were then prompted to upload the photos they wished to use. Sources for
uploading included my computer, media sources, URL, or my webcam.
4. Next, their selected photos were dragged around the Voicethread desktop to arrange
them in any order. More photos could be added in the future, or removed from the172so-called thread as desired by the student.
5. By selecting a specific photo and clicking on comment, students were able to add
their English narration for each photo. At this stage, they needed to use the recently
acquired headsets purchased specifically for this project.
6. Students then read and recorded their narrated script for each slide, using the
microphone headsets. Of course, multiple attempts were permitted for speaking, andmistakes were quickly deleted. After replaying the comment as often as necessary, asatisfied learner saved their Voicethread and moved onto the next slide from their trip.
7. Completed projects were shared with the instructor by e-mail. Again, simply clicking
on the student’s link took me directly to their project for viewing and grading.
Survey Results
With the intent of improving this short multimedia program for use in the future, asurvey was created (online) in order to gather ideas, opinions, and qualitative data fromthe learners. In general, I wanted to know if they liked using English for this kind ofclass project. More specifically, I was interested in learning ways to improve the course
for future use.
Fifty-six students (or 80%) of the 72 students completed the anonymous
online survey, which asked the following questions in both English and Japanese. The
survey was bilingual in order to ensure a thorough understanding of the questions asked,
and also to ensure a high rate of completed survey items. The questions were as follows:
1. How did you feel about these online assignments?
2. Did the teacher explain these projects well?
3. These projects were online. Did you enjoy this kind of English use?
4. Would you like to do this kind of multimedia course again next year?
5. Which project did you enjoy making, Xtranormal or Voicethread?
6. We had problems with the school computers. Did you think that it was big trouble?
7. Please comment on what you liked or didn’t like about this program.
Question one allowed students more than one response. They found the assignment bothdifficult and fun, as you can see from the chart below. It is quite likely that the novelty
factor accounted for the interest level, and I suspect the technical problems caused many
students to feel the assignment was too hard.
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Figure 1. Student feelings about online assignments

Question two served as feedback on my instruction, asking whether the instructions
were clear. 59.6% agreed, while 29.8% thought the instructions were a little clear. Only
10.5% of respondents thought the instructions were not explained very well.
Question three was designed to determine the appeal of online English homework. 79%
enjoyed this type of assignment to some extent, as opposed to about 21% who did not.
In the student comments section below, various reasons are provided for either liking or
disliking the assignments.
Figure 2. Did you enjoy this kind of English homework?
35.1%
43.9%

21.1%

Question four asked the students if they would like to do multimedia assigments in thenext school year. Only 52.6% were interested (47.4% not), creating a topic for
discussion.
The majority of the seventy-two students (63%) preferred the Voicethread174

project, according to survey question five. Also, there were fewer problems using thedated school web browsers and saving work at various stages. However, the students
were quite shy about having their English Voicethread shown to the class, regardless of
their project quality and their considerable efforts.
Question six addressed the technical problems we had using the schools’
outdated web browser, and the degree to which it bothered the students. When asked“Do you think these problems were big trouble?”, 54.4% replied that it was a little
trouble, but they didn’t mind. 22.8% responded that they had no problems, and an equal
number reported big problems.
Question seven sought qualitative data about what the students liked anddidn’t like about the multimedia assignments. Listed below is a small sample ofthrity-nine direct student perspectives (quotes) on the multimedia program. Some of thelearner comments can be seen below:• “It was difficult for me to make project 1. But I enjoyed making it. Thankyou!”• “We must always present programs before taking a test. Please give us an
extension”.
• “I don't want to show an audience my programs”.
• “It was a fun program, and I enjoyed attempting to make a Voicethread, even
if I didn't complete it”.
• “パソコンのトラブルが少し面倒でも自分で文章を考えたりするのが勉強になるし楽しい” (The PC problems were troublesome, but it’s fun tothink of sentences by myself).
• “英語を話したり聞き取ることで楽しむことができた” (I enjoyedspeaking and listening to English).
• “I don't like computer so I don't want to do such a English class”.
• “日本語じゃないぶん難しいこともあったけどよかった” (It was difficult
to do in English, but it was fun).
• “I could enjoy studying English. So I want to study English with computers”.
• “自分で物語を作ったりするのがすごく楽しかった” (Making a story bymyself was very fun).
• “少し大変だったけれどたまにはこんな授業もいいなあと思いました”(It was a little hard, but it is nice to have this kind of class once in a while).
175• “It was little difficult for me, but it was nice”.
• “パソコンが壊れていたりセーブができなかったり結構困りました。でも最終的には成功出来てよかったです” (It was hard saving the projects
on the computers, but it was good that I finally did it ).
Discussion
This survey was intended to elicit both practical feedback as well as uncover the
feelings of my learners about doing these assignments. Of course, technical problems
with the dated school web browsers led to a lot of wasted time and frayed nerves, andthat was to be expected. However, it appears that despite such shortcomings, theprojects were well received. It was my intention to give the students a break from theregular course book and introduce them to something new, interesting, and hopefully
attractive in their English lives. With any luck, some of them went back to the
Xtranormal and Voicethread websites to experiment and create their own private
projects, operating in English all the while.
These two assignments were my first attempt to introduce website technology
into a large classroom environment, and as with many first attempts, success waslimited. More preparation on my part might have eliminated or reduced the outdated
web browser issue, which was probably the number one headache for students.
Also, the learners should have been made more aware of the purpose of suchassignments, as part in parcel of the Ministry of Education’s goal of creating more
multimedia savvy students in the future (Kaihara, 1996). Some did regard the work as
fun, which in itself is not a bad thing. Many found the work quite challenging, as theyneeded to overcome both a language and a technical barrier. However, with plenty of
support and extra time, all projects were completed to the satisfaction of the instructors.
Conclusion
Was this multimedia project a success? Was it manageable for both the teacher and thelearners? Could more have been done to make the process smoother? The answer to all
three questions is yes. The students generally enjoyed the break from the textbook andthe format of the multimedia projects, despite the technical difficulties and theunavoidable student distain of homework. The time involved was much greater than
preparing for regular classes, but the result was all the more rewarding.
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The intent was to make this project a trail run for future opportunities to use
multimedia in the language classroom, a chance for the students as well as the teacher tolearn about the ups and downs, challenges and rewards of using internet technology tofacilitate learning. In that regard, it was a success, as this instructor will be repeating theabove two projects with future classes, using the experience and knowledge gained to
introduce even more multimedia projects to English language students in the years to
come.
References
Brown, H.D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language
pedagogy (third edition). New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
Dillow, C. (June 2009). Nintendo Goes to School: DS Classroom Turns Handheld
ConsoleInto

Teaching

Tool.

Fast

Company.com.

[Online].

Available:<fastcompany.com/blog/clay-dillow/culture-buffet/nintendo-goes-school-ds-classroomturns-handheld-console-teaching-to>.
Gee, J. P. (2007). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New
York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Kaihara, S. (1996). Basic requirement for higher education using multimedia resourcesin the 21st century. (A report from conference regarding higher education utilizing
multimedia resources in the 21st century). [Online]. Available:<mext.go.jp/english/news/1996/07/960701.htm>.
Kitazawa, S. (2007). Yawata City Board of Education Research Report :ＤＳを利用した語彙力向上のためのモジュール学習 (Module study for the vocabularyacquisition using the Nintendo DS) 八幡市教育委員会、学校教育課、指導主事

北澤。
Prensky, M. (2006). Don’t bother me mom-I’m learning! How computer and video
games are preparing your kids for 21st century success and yow you can help! St. Paul:Paragon House.
Wilkins, N. (2010). Mobile phone subscribers: Two-thirds of developing world use
mobiles. Ezine articles, 2(38). [Online]. Available:<EzineArticles.com/?expert=Nick_Wilkins>.

177

Appendix 1
国際２年生へ Sharing (E メール)your Xtranormal Project 1 Homework
Because of the problems with the school computers, we could not see your hard work inclass. However, Mr. Hagan and I will still see your project by E-mail. Do not use a
Momoyama school computer. Please follow the steps below. If you have any problems,
you must tell/ask me today. 5F EP の職員室
Step 1. SIGN IN to Xtranormal as usual.

Xtranormal.com

2. Click on My Movies. Select the project that you made.
3. Watch your movie again. Is it more that one minute?
4. Under the play button

you will see Share. Click on Share.

5. In the Share window, click on Email this Movie.
6. Your PC E-mail program should open and begin. Please E-mail your project to me
dougmeyer32@hotmail.com before 11 pm, Tuesday, September 29th.
7. In the E-mail Subject window, tell me your full name, class, student number andproject title.
Subject: Ichitaro Tanaka 2-14-34. At the Restaurant.

例:
Note:

If these steps do not work, let’s try this way too. （もし上記の方法でうまくいかない場合は下記の方法をしてみて下さい）
1. Sign in to Xtranormal. Click My Movies. Watch your movie.
2.

Copy

the

web

link.

The

web

link

will

look

like

this:

http://www.xtranormal.com/watch?e=2009092…
3. Open your E-mail (Yahoo, Google, etc.).
4. Paste the web link ( その WEB アドレスを添付して下さい ) on your message.
Include your full name, class, number, and project title.
5. E-mail this web link to me dougmeyer32@hotmail.com and I will be able to see yourproject.

178

The use of computer mediated communication to reduce anxiety and increase
willingness to communicate
Daniel J. Mills
E English House
Reference data:
Mills, D.J. (2010). The use of computer mediated communication to reduce anxiety andincrease willingness to communicate. In E.M. Skier & M. Walsh (Eds), Pan-SIG 2010
Conference Proceedings. Kyoto: JALT.
Abstract
The proposed case study, which will attempt to examine the long term effects ofcomputer mediated communication (CMC) in relation to affective factors, will be
conducted over a 15-week period with an intact class of Japanese university students.
Students will alternate between task-based conversation activities in both face-to-face(f2f) and CMC environments. Data collection pertaining to foreign language anxiety
and willingness to communicate will be collected using the Foreign Language
Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) as well as coding discussions for length of utterance
and turns taken. CMC activities will be conducted using the Language Education Chat
System developed by Kanto Gakuin University.
Keywords: computer mediated communication (CMC), face-to-face (f2f), foreign
language anxiety, willingness to communicate, Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety
Scale (FLCAS), socio-cultural factors
このケーススタディーでは、長期にわたる電子コミュニケーション「Computer
Mediated Communication (CMC)」が情意要因が関わる環境の中でどのような効果をもたらすかを調査する。調査は日本の大学生を対象に実際の大学の授業で 15週間、対面「face-to-face (f2f)」と電子コミュケーション環境を交互に行ったタスクに基づく会話アクティビティーによって行う。データは、外国語不安については「外国語教室不安尺度（Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale）」、コミュ
ニケーション意欲については発言の長さ、発言回数によって収集する。CMC ア
クティビティーは、関東学院大学で開発された Language Education Chat System
を使用する。
キーワード：電子コミュニケーション、対面対話、外国語不安、コミュニケー
ション意欲、外国語教室不安尺度、社会・文化的要因

Despite being the leading spender on English language education in the world (Dolan,
2001), the goal of establishing English as a national second language seems to haveeluded the Japanese. In one measure of English language competence, the TOEFL iBT,
Japan placed third lowest among Asian countries (ETS, 2008). In fact, the only
countries that placed lower were Laos and Cambodia—some of the poorest nations in
Asia. The inability of the Japanese to acquire adequate English communication abilities,
despite years of formal schooling in the subject, has been blamed on a number of factors.
Linguistic distance between Japanese and English language as well as the shortcomingsof the Japanese education system seem to play important roles (Takanashi, 2001), but
179

Japanese cultural factors might also have an effect. In particular, cultural traits such as
power distance (the degree to which of a society accepts inequality among individuals),
uncertainty avoidance and fear of making mistakes due to loss of face may have aneffect on anxiety associated with language learning and a student’s willingness tocommunicate (WTC) in the target language (TL).
In recent years, research in the field of computer assisted language learning has shownthat computer mediated communication can be used to increase students’ WTC(Freiermuth & Jarrell, 2006) and decrease foreign language anxiety (Arnold, 2007). Yet,
little research has been conducted on how these positive results to language learningtransfer when students are returned to f2f conversation environments. The following
paper will attempt to examine current research in support of the following researchquestion:
Will a reduction in state anxiety observed in first-year, intermediate level,
Japanese university students due to the replacement of face-to-face conversation withcomputer mediated synchronous chat during task-based discussion activities, lead to an
overall reduction in English language anxiety and an increase in theirwillingness tocommunicate in face-to-face discussion over the course of a scholastic semester?
Literature Review
Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA)
Horowitz, Horowitz, and Cope (1986) were the first to study anxiety specifically as it
relates to foreign language learning. They differentiated FLA from general anxiety withthe following definition, “a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings andbehaviors related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of thelanguage learning process” (p. 128). They also hypothesized that FLA is related toperformance anxiety in three areas: communicative apprehension, fear of negativeevaluation and text anxiety (in Ganschow & Sparks, 1996). For the purpose of thiscritical review, communicative apprehension, especially as it relates to WTC, and fearof evaluation, exasperated by Japanese socio-cultural aspects of collectivist culture, areof a particular interest.
Communicative apprehension has been shown to manifest in the following ways: 1)
difficulties speaking with a partner or in a group, 2) stage fright 3) receiveranxiety—fear of understanding what is being said (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986).
The presence of communication apprehension may result in learners simply avoiding
high-anxiety activities. Unfortunately, by avoiding communication one also avoids the
positive effects associated with output in language learning (Swain, 1995).
Fear of evaluation also seems to play a significant part in increasing anxiety in FL
students. This might be especially important in students that come from collectivist
cultures where individual performance also reflects on the various in-groups of which
the person is a member (Gudykhunst & Kim, 2003). The affects of this aspect of culture
on language learning might be detrimental. Murphey (1998), quoting Beebe andSelinger in his commentary on teaching English in Japan, states, “When students
hesitate to speak for fear of making mistakes, they interact less with others, and thus
have fewer opportunities for learning.” (p. 21). One aspect of collectivist culture that
can increase fear of evaluation is the concept of face, which is particularly important in
Asian cultures (Gudykhunst & Kim, 2003). Lebra states that Japanese protect face by
avoiding behavior that might cause shame (in Gudykhunst & Kim, 2003). This could be180

demonstrated in Japanese students’ reluctance to participate in L2 communication
activities or in answering questions in the L2 class when the certainty of a correct
response is not assured.
Measuring Foreign Language Anxiety
In 1986, Horwitz stated that “research on the relationship of anxiety to achievement in asecond language has been hampered by the absence of a validated measure of anxiety
specific to language learning” (p. 559). Furthermore, she theorized that it was lack of areliable measure of anxiety in the context of foreign language learning that prevented
researchers from making definitive claims despite colloquial evidence of therelationship. In response to this need, Horwitz developed the Foreign Language Anxiety
Scale. The assessment, which is self-reported, uses a 33 question forced choice format
and attempts to measure FLA through the observation of avoidance behaviors andphysical actions and symptoms (Horwitz, 1986). In addition, self-effacement andself-criticism, hostility, and monosyllabic responses are also monitored (Arnold, 1999).
A follow-up study by Horwitz (in Horwitz & Young, 1991) validated the test by
showing a negative correlation between foreign language class grades and anxiety.
These results were then verified by MacIntyre and Gardner showing that as anxiety
increases, foreign language performance decreases (in Ganschow & Sparks, 1996). Now,
armed with a seemingly accurate, scientific method to measure FLA, teachers andresearchers are better able to identify anxiety in the FL classroom and help students getpast this debilitating issue.
Willingness to Communicate
The question as to why some students with high linguistic competence decide not tocommunicate in an L2 while other students, frequently with lower linguisticcompetence, utilize every opportunity to use their L2 knowledge has probably
confounded teachers of foreign language since the advent of formal instruction.
MacIntyre, Baker, Clement, and Conrod have defined WTC as “an underlying
continuum representing the predisposition toward or away from communication given
the choice” (in Brown 2007, p. 157). Like anxiety, the possible causes of WTC seem tobe dependent on a complex interconnection of factors. In an effort to conceptualize thefactors that influence WTC, MacIntyre et al. constructed this Heuristic model:

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Figure 1. Heuristic Model of Factors Affecting WTC(MacIntyre et al., 1998, p 547)

MacIntyre et al. (1998) state that the factors seen in Layers I-III in the
diagram are situational factors which are constantly in-flux. Alternatively, Layers IV-VI
represents enduring influences that are not readily changed by the situation.
Commenting on two of the enduring factors found in the diagram, MacIntyre has saidintergroup climate and personality, exist even before the individual is born because
they capture enduring intergroup and genetic influences handed down from one
generation to the next. The individual has little influence over these factors, andgenerally he or she plays a somewhat indirect role in language behavior (MacIntyre,2007, p. 567).
Considering the affect these factors might have on the individual learner, it might beimportant to understand the various cultures that produce them. For example, a study ofChinese ESL learners by Wen and Clement (2003) showed that low WTC in this group
was heavily influenced by Chinese cultural views of learning; many of which are deeply
rooted in Confucian philosophy.
In contrast, situational factors seem to be related to the psychological conceptof volition. According to MacIntyre (2007), “The concept of volition has the potential
to organize multiple, competing motivational, cognitive, and affective influences on
specific observable actions by the learner” (p. 569). In regards to the changing nature ofsituational factors, one qualitative study conducted by Kang (2004) showed that WTC
182

can fluctuate dramatically even during a single conversational situation. Thesefluctuations were influenced by the psychological conditions of excitement,
responsibility and security and were further influenced by situation variables such as
topic, interlocutors and conversational context.
Socio-Cultural Factors
Wen and Clement (2003) have stated that socio-cultural factors are an important
determiner of levels of WTC especially in Asian students. In addition, factors such ascollectivism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance and loss of face and the relationshipof these factors to Asian culture might also play a role in explaining high levels of FLA.
This seems to be especially true of Japanese students because of the meticulously
structured and rule-oriented society from which they come. Commenting on Japanesesociety before the Second World War and the lasting effects of this cultural heritage, De
Mente (1997) stated the following:
One of the best ways to imagine what life was like in Japan’s upper classes before theintroduction of democracy into the country by American-led Occupation forces in1945/46 is to think what it would be like to live on a stage that covered your wholeworld, playing a role in which everything you said and did was precisely scripted. If
you did not follow your script exactly, in behavior as well as dialogue, you would becriticized for even the smallest lapse and punished for more conspicuous departuresfrom your role. Keep in mind also that you could not walk off the stage or change
roles (De Mente, 1997, p.106).
Considering the above it may becomes easier to understand the profoundeffect that culture might have on the individual language learner and, the importance ofunderstanding these cultural factors in dealing with affect in the foreign language
classroom.
Computer Mediated Communication
CMC has been seen by many researchers to be the cause of a paradigm shift in foreign
language learning and teaching (Salaberry, 2000). Though Salaberry asserts that there isa lot of research that needs to be conducted and questions that must be answered before
this statement can be proven he does agree that CMC has many benefits to both learners
and teachers. The proposed benefits of CMC over more traditional communication is anincreased access to information through online databases, increased opportunities forcommunicative exchange with native and near-native speakers and increased functional
demands on language exchange. Jamieson and Chapelle (2008) add to this list,
including the fact that CMC takes place predominantly in text, which has some
additional advantages in regards to language learning. Also, because of the ubiquitous
nature of CMC found in most students’ personal lives—e-mail, text messaging,blogs—it is easy to convince students that practicing English through electronic
communication is important to the development of practical English skills (Chapelle &Jamieson, 2008).
The benefits of using text-based chat over oral CMC over f2f interaction may
be found in the fact that written conversations allow students to process language at a
slower pace with more time for reflection and revision (Chapelle & Jamieson, 2008). In
addition, text-based communication provides learners and teachers with a record ofconversations that can be used for further evaluation of a student’s linguistic ability.
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Several studies cited by Chapelle and Jamieson reinforce the benefits of written chatover other forms of CMC or f2f communication. For example, De la Fuente, who
compared oral f2f communication with written synchronous CMC, found that students
using written communication were better able to learn the vocabulary associated with
their learning tasks (in Chapelle & Jamieson, 2008). In addition, one surprising study bySkykes (in Chapelle & Jamieson, 2008) showed that students who participated in
written synchronous chat as opposed to oral CMC or f2f communication increased oral
communication ability to a greater degree.
By far, it seems the greatest benefit achieved through CMC is in reduced
anxiety and increased WTC. Freiermuth and Jarrell (2006) have said that CMC “gavestudents an opportunity to express themselves without being inhibited by the teacher,other students or a plethora of other elements that might minimize the effect of theexperience” (p. 191). In their study, they found that students overwhelmingly preferredcomputer mediated synchronous chat as opposed to f2f communication foraccomplishing task-based discussion activities. The majority of the students seemed toprefer this mode of communication because of the seeming distance between
interlocutors and decreased feelings of immediacy in communication. Freiermuth andJarrell hypothesized that this form of communication was particularly helpful for
Japanese students in that it reduced anxiety and increased WTC due to reducing theeffects of certain socio-cultural factors unique to Japanese learners that seem to hinder
language learning.
In support of Freiermuth and Jarrell’s (2006) finding, several researchers(Arnold 2007; Roeds, 2003; Warschauer, 1996) have found that both synchronous andasynchronous CMC produces a low stress learning environment. Arnold has proposedthat CMC is perceived by students as a low-stress learning environment for two reasons.
The first reason can be found in the anonymous nature the environment. Secondly,
learners are able to participate in the conversation with less urgency. In fact, theurgency to which students are exposed can easily be manipulated in a CMC
environment by using synchronous (more urgent) or asynchronous (less urgent)communication. In addition, CMC technologies allow for communication using text orvoice or even a combination of the two as well as the ability to augment voice or text
communication with visual support such as video or pictures. Visual support might behelpful in that it provides paralinguistic—body language, facial expressions, intonationand pausing—and extralinguistic—cues of setting and number ofparticipants—information that can be lacking in voice or text only communication(Mandelson & Ur, in Chapelle & Jamieson, 2008). All of these factors demonstrate theability of CMC to provide students with a means of affective and instructional
scaffolding (Roeds, 2003) that can easily be implemented by teachers with the varied
technologies that have become available.
The “Carry-Over Effect”
Arnold’s (2007) study was the first to look at what he termed the “carry-overeffect”—will a reduction in state anxiety that is usually observed in CMC “carry-over”
to f2f communication activities? His study showed that repeated exposure tocommunication both in f2f or using CMC would not only reduce temporary anxiety
levels but would have the desired carry-over effect of reducing “students’ generalpredisposition to anxiety in oral communication situations” (2007, p.482).
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Unfortunately, Arnold’s study seems to be limited in that it only studied individuals
with low to moderate anxiety levels. In addition, findings of this study are difficult to
extrapolate to the study proposed in this critical review of literature because theparticipants for Arnold’s research were US students in a German language class.
Considering, the unique socio-cultural factors present in Japanese university students
and linguistic and social distance factors between Japanese and English and the cultureof English speaking countries, it seems possible that different conclusions might bereached.
Methodology of Proposed Research Study
ParticipantsFirst-year, intermediate level, native Japanese speaking university students.
Approximate size of sample is n=30.
DesignCase Study - Qualitative & Statistical Analysis
Duration
15 weeks - the length of a typical university semester
Materials
Access to computer lab with an Internet connection
Methodology
The semester will be divided into three sessions for the purpose of this study. During
the initial four weeks of the semester, students will take part in f2f task-based
discussion activities. The second session, which will be seven weeks in length, willallow students to participate in similar discussion activities using the Language
Education Chat System (L.E.C.S.). During the final four weeks of the semester students
will return to discussion activities using f2f communication.
Data Collection
At the beginning of the term, students will be administered the Foreign Language
Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) - excluding questions irrelevant to this study
concerning test anxiety - to determine students baseline FLA. The test will be
re-administered following each session - weeks 4, 11 an 15—in order to assess theeffects of the communication medium on anxiety and, in week 15 to observe whether
these affects carry-over when students return to f2f discussions. WTC will be assessedby recording the discussion sessions between students in both the f2f and CMC
environment while coding for length of utterance and turns taken (this information is
automatically done for the CMC sessions using L.E.C.S.). Finally, an open-ended
questionnaire will be completed by students, in Japanese, to gauge experience with themediums of f2f and CMC during the course of this academic term. Survey information
will be used by the researcher for qualitative analysis.
Data Analysis
The Likert-scale used by the FLCAS will be used to give an overall anxiety score.
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Using these scores, mean and mode will be calculated in order to provide an accurate
picture of the participants in relation to FLA. Most importantly, gain will be calculated
to show how FLA is affected during the course of the study. Information concerning
length of utterance and numbers of turns taken will also be assessed using statisticalanalysis in relation to the mode of communication. Once again, gain will be importantin analyzing if the communication environment will affect WTC during the term and inassessing the validity of the carry-over effect. Finally, answers to the open-ended survey
will give additional information and validation to the statistical data. This might be seen,for example, in a positive experience associated with a particular medium, which
Freiermuth and Jarrell (2006) contended enhanced WTC in that particular environment
during their qualitative survey analysis.
Conclusion
The above proposal for research will attempt to shed some light on little researched yet
important aspect of the relationship between computer mediated communication in
Japan. Still, it is important to understand that this research proposal is a case study, and
it is not expected to be extrapolated to Japanese EFL students as a whole, but rather toprovide preliminary data about the use of CMC in reducing FLA, and increasing WTC
and the carry-over of these factors to the f2f environment. The hope would be that thesedata would serve as a starting point for further studies on this subject and contribute in asmall way to the teaching of English as a foreign language in Japan.
BiodataDaniel J. Mills is the director of adult studies at E English House as well as business
English, TOEIC instructor at several large corporations in Shiga, Japan.
References
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Dolan, D. (April 25, 2001) Rethinking English language education for professionals inJapan. [Online]. Available:<glocom.org/special_topics/colloquium/200104_dan_re_thinking/>.
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Gudykunst, W.B., & Kim, Y.Y. (2003). Communicating with strangers: An approach tointercultural communication 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Takanashi, Y. (2004). TEFL and communication styles in Japanese culture. Language,
Culture and Curriculum, 17(1), 1-14.
Warschauer, M., (1996). Comparing face-to-face and electronic discussion in thesecond language classroom. CALICO Journal 13(2), 7?26.
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187

How to transform second language learners into interactive corrective feedback
providers
Masatoshi Sato
McGill University
Bill Perry
Kobe University
Reference data:Sato, M., & Perry, B. (2011). How to transform second language learners into
interactive corrective feedback providers. In K. Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier & M.
Walsh (Eds), Pan-SIG 2010 Conference Proceedings. Kyoto: JALT.
Abstract
This paper reports on classroom activities designed for an experimental study in which
the effectiveness of peer interaction and corrective feedback was investigated. In the
study, Japanese university-level learners of English (N = 87, in two required classes)
were taught how to provide corrective feedback to each other during meaning-focused
dyadic activities in an effort to help them develop accurate and fluent speaking skills. In
addition to describing the lesson plans, we report on how we managed the classes in theway that allowed students to engage in communicative interaction.
Keywords: foreign language learning, Second Language Acquisition, peer interaction,corrective feedback, fluency development, classroom management
本稿は第二言語学習者に修正フィードバックの出し方を教えるという実験的研究に用いられたタスクの詳細をレポートする。実験においては、大学生の英語
学習者 87 人（2 クラス）が参加した。学習者はコミュニケーション重視の二者間で行うアクティビティを与えられると同時に、お互いの文法的誤りを指摘し合う方法を教えられた。事前事後テスト比較の結果、発話における流暢さ・正確さ共に発達が見られた。本稿はこれらのアクティビティが実際どのように行われたかに加え、我々が 40 人以上の典型的なスピーキングのクラスを、どのよ
うにコミュニカティブな環境に設定したかを報告する。

188キーワード: 外国語学習、第二言語習得、生徒間インタラクション、修正フィードバック、流暢さの発達、クラスルーム・マネージメント
Over the past four decades, many foreign language classes have started to implement
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). However, in many classrooms, teachersand students still focus predominantly on developing grammatical or translation skills
following the grammar-translation methods. Although CLT entails some problems (e.g.,
exclusive focus on communication and thus abandonment of grammatical developmentin the case of extreme CLT), it is certain that communicative classes are necessary
given that input, interaction, and output are required elements to acquire communicativecompetence that is required in the real world context outside the classroom. In thepresent study we used activities among students, as opposed to teacher-student
interaction, as an alternative communicative context. Peer interaction has potential boththeoretically and pedagogically: Psycholinguistic, psychological, and socioculturalresearch has shown its effectiveness for second language (L2) development.
Considering that there are more than 40 students in many foreign language classes, peerinteraction has the potential for students to facilitate speaking practice. However, peerinteraction should be appropriately guided by the teacher because it has certain
weaknesses, one of which is lack of focus on form. That is, unless learners are taught
how to interact with each other, they may lose important learning opportunities.
This study was motivated to reconcile the above weaknesses of peer interaction
in foreign language classrooms; the classroom intervention was designed to (a) help
learners focus on communication primarily, but also, (b) encourage them to shift theirattention to linguistic forms at the same time. This was done by giving themfluency-focused communicative activities and by explicitly teaching them how toprovide corrective feedback to each other. In this project, various outcomes of suchintervention were examined including (a) pre- and posttests to measure accuracy(overall accuracy) and fluency (unpruned and pruned speech rates) development, (b)pre-, midpoint, and posttests to examine learners’ changes in their interactional patterns,(c) pre- and post questionnaires to investigate their perceptions about communicativeclasses and peer interaction, and (d) selected interviews to conduct in-depth analyses on
their attitudinal changes over one semester. In this paper, instead of reporting the resultsfrom these measurements, we focus on the classroom activities we designed to189transform learners into corrective feedback providers to give practitioners a detailed
guide to replicate the activities.
Review of literature
Communicative language teaching and foreign language learning
The cardinal problem in many foreign language classrooms is the difficulty to makeclassrooms communicative. In the 1970s, L2 teaching practice experienced a dramatic
shift when the idea of CLT first emerged (Richards & Rodgers, 2001; Savignon, 1991;
Stern, 1992), and today, CLT with an exclusive focus on communication is still
believed by many to be the ideal teaching method (Chowdhury & Ha, 2008). However,
CLT and its implementation have encountered many problems related to sociopoliticalenvironments entailing the idealization of Anglo-centric language and culture (Miyagi,
Sato, & Crump, 2009), educational cultures (Nolasco & Arthur, 1990), and teachers’
inability to conduct communicative classes (Butler, 2004).
Students also face problems with CLT. In a culture where teachers and students haveclear hierarchical relationships, students often prefer to sit passively listening to what
the teacher says. For those students, classrooms are expected to be teacher-centered, andthey think their active participation in class is inappropriate or not valued (Li, 1998).
Related to this is high foreign language learning anxiety which hinders communicativeinteraction between students and the teacher (Horwitzs, Horwitzs, & Cope, 1986; Korst,1997). In these contexts, therefore, teachers and learners have to make the best use ofwhatever they have around them to create a meaningful practice environment.
Research on peer interaction
Since the late 1980s, second language acquisition (SLA) researchers have investigated
how L2 learners interact with each other. In this line of research, many studies havefound that peer interaction has certain advantages. For instance, learners feel more
comfortable in peer interaction, and in their comfort zone they tend to engage incommunication and work on communication breakdowns more (i.e., negotiation formeaning). Varonis and Gass (1985) attributed this result to learners’ perception of“shared incompetence.” Sato and Lyster (2007) confirmed that learners’ comfort level isa key deciding factor in their psycholinguistic interactional moves. By conducting
in-depth interviews after dyadic activities, they found that, on the one hand, learners
190were under pressure when interacting with native speakers (NSs) because they believedthat their English was “broken” English and NSs’ English was “perfect” English. On theother hand, while working with their peers, they thought they had more time to decide
what to say and felt much more comfortable to test their linguistic hypotheses (seeSwain, 1985).
Learners can be good feedback providers, too; that is, they can signal when
they do not understand something that their partner said. In Sato and Lyster’s (2007)
study, learners provided a better type of feedback significantly more often than NSs did.
It was also found that a modification of the initial erroneous utterance (i.e., modified
output) occurred significantly more often in peer interaction than in learner-NS
interaction. Soler’s (2002) comparison between learner-learner and learner-teacher
interaction revealed that learners employed more requesting strategies with each otherthan when they interacted with the teacher. Hence, it can be said that if production
practice is viewed as essential for language acquisition, peer interaction indeed has
strength providing vast learning opportunities.
Finally, it has been reported that learners sometimes self-correct their erroneousutterances without being given any feedback, and research has found that this move canlead to L2 development. Kormos (2006) argued that self-corrections represent noticingof the gap between what a learner wants to say and what he or she actually can say, aprocess which contributes to L2 development (Schmidt, 1994). Also, producing
self-corrections is equivalent to producing comprehensible output which facilitatesinterlanguage development further (Swain, 1985). Shehadeh (2001) found that 93% of
self-initiation led to modified output; that is, learners frequently noticed errors in theirutterances on their own and also corrected many of them. Considering that this movecan be observed more in peer interaction than in learner-NS (Sato, 2007) or
learner-teacher interactions (Buckwalter, 2001), learners tend to monitor their own
speech more when interacting with each other. It can be said, therefore, that
self-initiated modified output is an interactional move made frequently by learners inclassrooms, and peer interaction accelerates this beneficial move.
Peer interaction does have weaknesses. For example, learners are usually notcomparable to NSs in terms of the provision of input quantitatively and qualitatively;
moreover, these learners can provide incorrect input to each other. That is, there is apossibility that peer interaction can facilitate fossilization, meaning that they could learn
191inaccurate grammatical knowledge from each other. However, research to date has notsupported this concern. Bruton and Samuda (1980) observed that the directionality oflearners’ error treatment sequences during peer interaction was from incorrect to correct,
but not vice-versa. Another belief regarding peer interaction is the limited flow ofcommunication: non-native interaction is generally thought to be slow with frequentpauses. However, research has shown an imbalanced number of utterances whenlearners interact with NSs in contrast to collaborative interaction in peer interaction.
That is, during interaction with NSs, NSs may speak dominantly, initiate negotiation
sequences by asking questions, and answer their own questions before learners do. Sato
(under review) revealed that L2 learners’ utterances contained greater density (i.e.,
longer Mean Length of Utterances and more verb types) and more grammaticalcomplexity when interacting with each other than when interacting with NSs.
A somewhat more convincing argument regarding the weaknesses of peerinteraction is the learners’ attention to form. While learners are able to engage innegotiation for meaning and to provide interactional feedback to each other, the extent
to which they deliberately point out each others’ grammatical errors seems to be low.
That is, without a teacher’s assistance or “push,” learners tend to focus on completing agiven task using any kind of communication strategy, including simplified language
only with words and body language which then can be followed by simple
acknowledgements such as “yes” or “no” (Færch & Kasper, 1983). Foster’s (1998)
classroom observation data also revealed that to save face, many students were
unwilling to indicate language problems as it would make them feel or lookincompetent. She claimed that “uncoached negotiation for meaning is not ‘alive andwell’ in the classroom” (p. 19).
The quality of peer feedback may be viewed as another weakness.
Notwithstanding the finding that learners actually can provide constructive feedback,their feedback tends to be simple segmentation of erroneous utterances. That is, when
they encounter a communication problem, they simply repeat part of the problematic
sentence to show that they did not understand (Pica, Lincoln-Porter, Paninos, & Linnell,
1996). This type of feedback is less effective than teachers’ feedback because it does
not provide information regarding what the feedback is for and thus lacks the force topush learners to correct a particular linguistic form (Toth, 2008). Where the goal is
successful communication, learners tend to direct their attention toward meaning rather
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than form.
Finally, learners’ perception of their classmates or peer interaction itself can be
detrimental to the effective interaction needed for L2 development. Nunan (1989)
discussed the impact of students’ orientations on L2 learning (e.g., their attention andeffort), in what he called a “hidden” agenda as opposed to “official” agendas of thelanguage program or teacher. For instance, for peer interaction activities to work, thosewhich teachers hoped would generate productive and cooperative interaction between
learners, the hidden agenda needs to correspond to the official agenda. Unfortunately,
studies indicate that learners often do not consider peer activities to be useful because
they do not believe in their partners’ linguistic abilities (Anderson, 1993). Therefore,
even if peer feedback is effective for language development, it is unlikely that learners
will autonomously employ the technique.
In sum, perhaps the most prominent disadvantage of peer interaction is thefrequency and quality of feedback. If learners become capable of providing feedback
indicating not only a comprehensibility problem (negotiation for meaning), but also agrammatical problem (negotiation of form), peer interaction could provide a moreconstructive context for language development. Although some studies have identified
negotiation for form in peer interaction (Mackey, Oliver, & Leeman, 2003; Ohta, 2001;
Sato & Lyster, 2007), the claim that students can autonomously work on linguistic
problems is unwarranted by the results because of the low frequencies of such instances.
In the present study, students were taught how to provide corrective feedback to eachother to overcome these weaknesses and the effectiveness and feasibility of theintervention in the classroom context were examined.
Present study
Context
The current research focuses on the Japanese university foreign language learning
context. English is a compulsory subject through junior-high and high school (Grade 5
and 6 students will be required to study English from 2011), and traditional
grammar-translation methods are still mainstream in the schools. However,university-level English education can help students learn to develop spontaneous
production skills using this existing grammatical knowledge. The present study focuses
on students who have already acquired adequate grammatical knowledge for two
193

reasons: first, these students are fairly representative of foreign language learners inJapan, and second, these students are most suitable for testing skill acquisition theories
which explain the gradual shift of knowledge types from declarative to procedural. Thatis, they are ideal for investigating the effects of peer interaction and corrective feedbackon the development of spontaneous production skills requiring automatized knowledge(Anderson, 2005; DeKeyser, 2007).
Two classes, each of which with more than 40 students, were involved in the study.
Throughout one academic semester (13 weeks), the classes were taught by two
instructors (the authors) and were conducted strictly in English. Each class was 1.5
hours in length, held once a week with approximately 50 minutes devoted to theactivities described in the following sections.
Corrective feedback
In this study, learners were taught a strategy to bring their attention to form duringcommunicative activities, namely, how to provide corrective feedback (CF) to eachother. CF is a teacher’s interactional move that follows inaccurate production bylearners. This technique falls into the framework of form-focused instruction. It was
originally developed to support Canadian immersion students to help them develop
accuracy in their L2 (Lightbown & Spada, 1990; Lyster, 2004). CF has been shown tobe effective, and currently there is agreement that it is a powerful teaching technique (Li,2010; Lyster & Saito, 2010; Spada & Tomita, 2010). CF can take various forms, but it
is basically categorized into two types: (a) providing the correct form by reformulating
the error (i.e., recasts) and (b) withholding correct forms while offering learners an
opportunity to self-correct (i.e., prompts). The two types of CF are illustrated below.
Example 1 – Recasts
Student: Well. Cinderella was such an, such a simply girl that she never knew
what is waiting for her.
Teacher: What was waiting for her. Next picture.
(from Yang & Lyster, 2010)
Example 2 – Prompts
Student: She goed to the arena but the game was over.
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Teacher: She goed to the arena?
(from Lightbown & Spada, 2006)
The students in the two classes in the present study were taught, practiced, andused either recasts or prompts. More specifically, students in one class were instructed
to give the correct forms whenever their partner made a grammatical error, whilestudents in the other class were trained to ask for clarification (e.g., Pardon?) or to givemetalinguistic feedback (e.g., You need past tense.) when they heard errors (Lyster &Ranta, 1997).
Instruction
No studies, to our knowledge, have examined whether it is possible and effective for
language acquisition to transform learners into CF providers. As giving CF to otherlearners is new and possibly psychologically difficult for learners, it was important tofollow a well-established sequence in order to successfully transform them into CF
providers. This study adapted a framework from the strategy training literature to teachCF as a learning strategy. Chamot, Barnhardt, El-Dinary, and Robbins (1999) proposed
the CALLA Instructional Framework consisting of Preparation, Presentation, Practice,
Evaluation, and Expansion which we have operationalized as Modelling, Practice, andUse-in-Context. Peer interaction instruction serves as the “preparation” stage.
Peer interaction instruction
This activity was conducted at the beginning of the semester to provide a foundation forthe subsequent activities. The goal of this phase was to raise students’ awareness of peerinteraction and to help them understand its potential for language development. First,
students were given a Learning Styles Checklist (adapted from Brown, 2001, see
Appendix 1) in which they described their own learning styles. Each question presents alearning behaviour: The behaviours are linked to psychological and psycholinguistic
theories that explain active participation in communication that helps develop
spontaneous production skills. These behaviours include taking a risk when speaking,becoming more confident in L2 skills, and having a positive attitude toward others.
After students individually completed the checklist, they formed small groups
and discussed the feelings underlying their responses. In our classes, the learners were195

divided into groups of four. During the discussion time, we let them speak in Japanese
to ensure that they could express their feelings accurately. After sharing their feelings ingroups, we elicited some sample responses from the students.
Finally, the instructor explained why certain behaviours (i.e., A or B categories
in the list) are beneficial for developing speaking skills. Examples of good learners foreach category were presented so the learners could understand why engaging in practiceleads to L2 development. It was important to draw their attention to the final item (i.e.,
When my classmate makes an error, I feel like helping him/her.) in the list related to CF
behaviour, that is, providing CF to each other in order to collaboratively improve
speaking skills.
Corrective feedback instruction
The CF instruction was divided into three phases: Modelling, Practice, andUse-in-Context. In our classes, modelling was done for the first three weeks. Practiceand use-in-context activities were done every week during the semester.
Modelling
In the first phase, students learned what CF is and how to provide it. In our classes,
modelling was done through teacher role plays. We explained that CF is effective for
improving language skills. More importantly, we stressed the collaborative nature of CF
in tandem with the other positive learning behaviours; that is, they should take risks andbe confident when they speak without worrying about grammatical errors because theirclassmates will help them. Some important notes here are (a) the acting should be done
slowly to let students follow the content, and (b) the role-play should be stopped after
CF is provided to review the CF and to have them understand its purpose.
The role-play was the same as the one that the students did in the following
activity (i.e., Practice: see Appendix 2). Therefore, it served as a model for both CF andthe following activity. After the role-play, the teachers made errors in front of the classand asked them to provide CF. This activity took less than 10 minutes and was done
until students grasped the idea and were able to provide CF to each other.
Practice
In the Practice stage, students were given opportunities to exclusively practice CF. The
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class was divided into groups of three students, and they engaged in a role-play. They
were given a scenario and a list of errors (see Appendix 2 for a sample scenario). Eachscenario focused on one linguistic feature (e.g., past tense, future, modals, subject-verb
agreement, and pronouns). Ten scenarios and error lists were prepared for the semester.
First, students were given a few minutes of individual planning time to create their
original stories that incorporated the given error sentences.
Each member was either (a) Speaker, (b) Feedback Provider, or (c) Observer.
According to the scenario, the Speaker and Feedback Provider were to speak while theObserver monitored to give a report to the group on the errors detected and missed after
the role-play was completed. We emphasized in the class that they needed to make theirstories original by adding grammatically correct sentences, and that they should not stop
and wait for CF after an error sentence so that the Feedback Provider would not know
when to give CF. Ideally, at the end of each lesson, students reflected on and discussed
both how the Speaker could improve (e.g., details of content, speed of speech) and how
the Feedback Provider could improve (e.g., timing of feedback, accuracy of feedback).
Use-in-Context
The final segment of the CF instruction is called Use-in-Context in which students
provided CF during a dyadic information exchange activity. While the Practice segment
was rather decontextualized and focused on practice, often shifting attention exclusively
to linguistic forms, this segment provided more authentic and communicative contexts
to utilize CF. That is, their attention was focused primarily on meaning by providingthem with authentic visual materials and by embedding an information-exchangeelement. This activity was designed to promote fluency development in which students
were encouraged to provide as much CF as possible. The important elements for thisactivity were (a) using materials that could be divided into three segments; (b) dividing
the class into three groups, each of which is in charge of one of the three segments; and(c) working in pairs.
In this activity, students worked in pairs and changed their partners multiple
times. What was important in the activity was that when they talked to new partners
they needed to tell them what their previous partners had said, all in the same amount oftime. This meant that although the delivery time did not change, the amount of
information they needed to communicate to their partners kept increasing. Therefore,
197

they had to first understand what their partner said to prepare for the next interaction
with a new partner, and second, they needed to speak faster as the activity developed toinclude all of this information. The classroom was set up as shown in the diagram
below.

Figure 1. Classroom format
We will illustrate how this classroom format was used for the Use-in-Context
stage (a movie unit). A 6-minute scene from a movie was divided into three parts(approximately 2 minutes for each part). For the first two 3-minute rounds, students
practiced retelling what they had seen with students who were responsible for the same
part. For the third and fourth rounds, students in the left rows of each group moved two
rows to the left. In the third round, they exchanged information with students whose198

parts were different from theirs. At this point, they had exchanged the ideas of eightpeople. Therefore, by the end of the final round, they had talked about all three parts ofthe scene with different descriptions done by 12 people. In this activity, (a) learners
focused on meaning rather than form because they had different partners each time andhad to convey the message first; (b) learners developed confidence as they repeated thesame talk multiple times by adding new information each round; and finally, (c)learners engaged in repetitions which facilitated an automatization process (seeDeKeyser, 2001; Nation, 1989). The students’ attention was brought to linguistic form
during this meaning-oriented activity on their own, rather than by the teacher. We
observed a clear increase in the volume of speech each time they changed their partners
and also saw them deepen their understanding of the materials. In addition, thefrequency of CF increased as the students improved the skill throughout the semester(see Sato & Ballinger, under review).
Conclusion
This research was motivated by the consistently low speaking proficiency of Japaneselearners of English. Bax (2003) has argued that language instruction in the world tends
to follow what North American countries have chosen: Currently, CLT is the dominant
pedagogy. Focusing on the Japanese context, Miyagi, Sato, and Crump (2009) havediscussed the importance of considering context when importing pedagogy from adifferent setting. Holliday (1994) also has called for pedagogy that meets the needs oflearners in a given context. In other words, there is no single instructional strategy thatworks for all contexts. All of these claims lead to a call for radical changes in foreign
language programs, including re-designing curricula and developing more effective
teachers who are attuned to each context. As a viable alternative to these long-term
radical changes in education, we have endeavoured to maximize the potential of peerinteraction to make the classroom more communicative. The results are clearly positive:
students improved both accuracy and fluency in their oral production (see Sato & Lyster,under review). Teaching learners strategies that have been shown to contribute tolanguage development in tandem with teachers’ systematic guidance seems to be areliable alternative while we await the major systemic changes that would provide
foreign language learners with authentic communicative learning contexts inclassrooms.
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Bio data
Masatoshi Sato is a PhD candidate of the Department of Integrated Studies in
Education at McGill University. His research interests include second language
acquisition, corrective feedback, peer interaction, and proceduralization, especially withadult EFL learners. <masatoshi.sato@mail.mcgill.ca>
Bill Perry, professor in the School of Languages and Communication at Kobe
University, has been involved in English language teaching for over 20 years. He hastaught in the US, the former Yugoslavia, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Romania and Japan. He
has worked extensively in the areas of teacher education and materials development
during his career, and has always had a keen interest in the effective use of technology
in language learning. <perry@port.kobe-u.ac.jp>
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203

Appendix 1
Learning Styles Checklist
Check one box in each item that best describes you. Boxes A and E would indicate thatthe sentence is very much like you. Boxes B and D would indicate that the sentence issomewhat descriptive of you. Box C would indicate that you have no inclination one
way or another.

204

Appendix 2
Role-play scenario and error list

205

The ability of a deaf Japanese university student to learn spoken English and takelistening tests through lip-reading
Jeremy White
Ritsumeikan University
Reference data:
White, J.S. (2010) The Ability of a Deaf Japanese University Student to Learn Spoken
English and take Listening Tests through Lip-reading. In K. Bradford-Watts, E. M.
Skier & M. Walsh (Eds), Pan-SIG 2010 Conference Proceedings. Kyoto: JALT
Abstract
The ability to learn English as an L2 in Japan is usually reserved for the able bodied
with an above average motivation level. One deaf Japanese freshman student and her
lecturers challenged this norm to allow the student to become part of the inclusive
society. This was achieved through weekly lip-reading sessions, that improved not only
the student’s communicative competence, but also allowed her to sit TOEIC and
TOEFL tests and participate in a foreign exchange program.
Key Words: deaf ESL students, inclusive society, lip-reading, needs analysis
日本で第二言語として英語を学ぶ能力は通常、身体的に健康であると共に学習
意欲がより高い者が持っていると考えられる。ある耳の不自由な日本人大学一回生と彼女の英語講師達は、彼女が一般社会の一員に溶け込めるよう、この標準的な考えを覆そうと挑んだ。この試みは、読唇術を使った授業を通して毎週行われ、彼女のコミュニケーション能力を向上させただけでなく、TOEIC と TOEFL
テストの受験や留学プログラムへの参加も可能にした。
キーワード：耳の不自由な ESL 学生、読唇術、一般社会、
Learning English as an L2 in Japan is a challenge face by all Japanese at some point intheir education. One deaf Japanese university student, who previously had beenstereotyped as unable to learn spoken English, has worked to become part of the
inclusive society (Kellet Bidoli, Ochse, & Bern, 2008). This student after entering
university worked closely with lecturers to learn how to lip-read in English andcommunicative effectively in spoken English. Through lip-reading, and a desire to learn
206this student was able to become a “normal” member of university English classes,
improve her TOEIC score, and participate in an American university foreign exchange
program for several months. This article will focus on how the student was able toimprove her spoken English, and learn to lip-read and improve her TOEIC score.
Current LiteratureWith the number of foreign residents in Japan ever increasing (Ministry of Justice,2000) and the Japanese government forging a policy to move from the expanding circleof English influence into the outer ring (McKay, 1996) through the introduction ofEnglish at the critical age (Fromkin, 1991), it is easy to imagine Japan having one of themost proactive English as a foreign language (EFL) systems in the world. However,even as English is considered the “foreign language” (Oishi, 1990) of Japan, theeducation system pays greater attention to the grammar translation method (Richards,
2001) of language learning, as the goal of students at the primary and secondary level is
to pass tests rather than improve communicative competence.
The focus of literature with regards to deaf students in education (Marschark &Spencer, 2003) has been how deaf students can learn an L2 through the use of sign
language, or how they can improve their writing skills in L2. Essays written by deaf
learners have been said to be “indistinguishable”(Gerald & Clymer, 2007) from hearing
students, which fits well with the previously mentioned grammar translation method ofdelivery. Yet Doughty and Long (2003) suggest the neurobiological, cognitive,
developmental, sociolinguistic, and motivational factors in relation to hearing are
understandably different and thus the spoken discourse of hearing and deaf students will
inevitably differ.
Development of assessment material for deaf ESL students (Foster & Walter,
1992; Goldberg & Broadman, 1974) has focused on the visual channel rather than the
acoustic (Tweney, Hoemann, & Andrews, 1974) in relation to delivery method. Whilst
this is understandable when limited time and resources are considered, it does leavethose who wish to be part of the inclusive society in isolation. These restrictions,coupled with the importance of learning English in Asian countries for the sake offuture employment, has left those students with hearing impairments participating
alongside their hearing counterparts with little or no assistance.
The Nippon Foundation of Japan (The Nippon Foundation) has helped fund the207Post Education Network in the United States of America (The Post Secondary
Education Network, 2009) which is working to develop and provide state-of-the-art
instruction to deaf students wishing to be in the inclusive society, yet these methods arestill in their infancy and are yet to reach Japan.
Background and Method
The subject of this study was a Japanese university freshman in 2007 who is 95% deaf,
meaning she has no ability to receive oral communication through her acoustic channel.
She began her formal English L2 education on entering junior high school and at highschool for a further three years. The subject was not born deaf, but lost her hearing
before an age where her linguistic ability in L1 had developed and is the only memberof her five-person family to have any hearing related difficulties.
Teachers of this student were informed in advance of her attendance in English
classes for the first semester in 2007. The English department initially had concerns at
this student’s ability to participate and thus decided to conduct a needs analysis (Ferris,
1998). Once the faculty had met with the subject face-to-face, a brainstorming session
was held where teachers expressed ideas on how best to teach English as an L2 to thestudent. Various methods of teaching were put forward including weekly lip-reading
sessions. As no members of the faculty had any experience in this area, it was agreed
that a reevaluation of teaching methods was to be administered at a later, unspecified
date.
The lip-reading sessions consisted of a one-hour session per week where theteacher would practice reading passages from the students textbook with the student at
first watching the teachers lips, reading the text, and finally speaking the text. During
the speaking section the teacher could focus on the pronunciation of words, correcting
any errors as they occurred. This would be repeated one or two sentences at a time.
Lip-reading sessions also consisted of some phonetic training to help improve
pronunciation and word practice.
Before TOEIC tests these sessions changed focus and were solely used topractice TOEIC questions. To make the practice sessions as real as possible the speakerattempted to read the questions at the same speed as they are in the test. For institutional
TOEIC tests, the student again took them via lip-reading. The student was moved to a
separate class for the listening section of the test and then asked to join other students
208once the listening time had been completed. For mid-semester and end-of-semester tests,
the listening section was administered via lip-reading. Again, the tests were conductedat the same speed as the listening test for the other students. No extra lip-reading
sessions were held for this as it may have been seen as being bias towards the student.
Results and Discussion
The subject was originally placed in the second lowest level English class, as she wasunable to take the placement test, there were concerns from members of the English
Faculty about the student’s ability to fit into higher-level classes. However, after
mid-semester testing, the subject’s scores in all four fields were in the top three of herclass. From mid-semester of her freshman year the subject was promoted to a
pre-intermediate level class even though her results suggested she should have been
moved into an intermediate class. The subject again took tests at the end of the firstsemester and was once more moved to a higher-level class when her results topped theclass in three out of the four disciplines, listening being the one class where the subject
had a score just above the class average. This time she was moved to an intermediateclass, which was the top class at the time.
During her freshman year this student took an institutional TOEIC test on two
occasions, both the listening and reading sections. Her first score in June of 2007 was
190 points, and the second 270 points in October of 200, an improvement of 70 points
in four months. The student did not make the exact breakdown between reading andlistening available. Whilst on a foreign exchange program in Felician College, New
Jersey the subject was required to take TOEFL tests. On her arrival in August 2008 shescored 350 points, and at the end of her nine months of study she gained a score of 480
points. It should be noted that on both occasions she was not permitted to take thelistening section of the TOEFL test.
The subject began her formal English L2 learning in the first grade of public
junior high school. Here, no special arrangements to take her condition into
consideration were made; she sat through the English grammar lessons and could
complete them as required, because they were taught in her L1. Japanese English
education places bias on the grammar-translation method, thus it is of little surprise that
she could actively take part in this area. She also was required to sit through thelistening parts of lessons but was not expected to take part in them, as obviously she
209couldn’t hear the CD. She got the answers for the questions of listening questions
through copying down answers as they were given to the class on the blackboard orfrom answer sheets given to her. However, when it came to learning it is debatable
whether she actually learnt anything from this process of just copying down answers.
She did participate in class speaking drills, although because she was in a public juniorhigh school class of 40 with only one teacher and no assistant, she was not and could
not be awarded any special attention. During tests she was required to take the reading
and writing sections of English tests but not the listening. Her High School life followed
much the same pattern, except she transferred from a public to a private school during
her first year for undisclosed reasons. The focus of the Japanese education at junior highschool and high school level is to pass tests. Thus, as long as the subject was able topass her English grammar tests and sit quickly through the listening ones, she would not
be considered a disturbance to other students and could continue without causing ripple
within the school community.
In 2007 when the subject entered university she was fortunate that the university
opened in the same year, thus at the time there were on 204 freshman students at theuniversity. This meant teachers had extra time to spend with the student, as the
responsibilities that come with an established university were not yet entrenched. If thestudent had entered a more established university then she may have not been given the
chance to learn English. Due to this extra time teachers, whilst having no previous
experience or knowledge of teaching students with hearing impairments, were able todiscuss how to teach English to the subject, perform a need analysis, and design specificactivities to improve her L2.
Whilst conducting individual needs analysis with all students would be ideal, in
reality it is not practical. However, due to the needs analysis conducted on this occasionteachers discovered that the subject could lip-read and speak English at a beginners
level. Teachers were also somewhat surprised to see the subject only used lip-reading tocommunicate in Japanese. The subject has knowledge of sign language but has nodesire to use it as to be seen using sign language is an outward sign of her not being partof in the “inclusive society.”
Although teachers had no objections to teaching a student with hearing
impairments, some expressed concern that other students might complain that too muchtime was being used to give special attention to her in class, thus effecting their learning210

experience, whilst further faculty members believed the subject would lag behind otherstudents in her ability, or she would be bullied by other students. The teachers decided
to, on top of her four weekly English classes, to meet with her for one hour a week topractice lip-reading and pronunciation in English, the youngest teacher on the faculty
was volunteered to undertake this responsibility.
The original fears of faculty members were quickly relieved. The subject sat at
the front of class and watched, and participated actively during lessons. The subject
quickly showed herself as the most diligent student in class, volunteering answers andopinions before her classmates, although proportionally the subject made more mistakes
in her answers than those without hearing impairments, she demonstrated what
dedication was needed to improve L2 communication competence. As the results
previously discussed, this student quickly moved up through the class levels based onher desire to learn and test scores.
As with many universities, institutional based TOEIC tests were administered on
regular occasions. When the subject indicated she wished to participate this brought
about the problem of how to administer the listening section of the test to her. It was
decided that reading the TOEIC script to the subject at test, or as close to test speed as
possible was the best solution. Thus for three weeks prior to the TOEIC test the weekly
lip reading practice sessions were used solely to practice TOEIC questions. This wasbeneficial to both the subject and instructor, as the student needed practice with TOEIC
questions, and the instructor discovered via trial and error, which was the best was toadminister the various parts of the TOEIC listening test.
Part one of the TOEIC test was the easiest to administer, as there is a picture
followed by 3 short statements of which one is correct. This visual aid was beneficial
for the subject as even if she was unable to receive information via lip-reading thepicture enable her to make an educated guess. Part two (Appendix 1) of the TOEIC test
was also relatively easy for both the instructor and subject as a short question orstatement is followed by three short answers or replies. Each question in parts one andtwo could be administered in less than 20 seconds.
Parts three (Appendix 2) and four (Appendix 3) of the TOEIC test were moredifficult to administer. Part three involves a series of conversations between two people
and then three questions about each conversation. The subject found it difficult tocomprehend the end of one persons utterance and the start of the other. This was due to211there being a single instructor administering the test and an over exaggerated pause
between parts was unnatural. Teachers originally believed they could solve this issue by
introducing a second instructor to read one of the parts, however it was decided thiswould not be fair to other test takers as being able to watch the conversation mightallow the subject to see visual cues that are not available on the CD. A simple solution
to this problem was to use (0) (X) cards (Diagram 1) that are usually used to indicate
yes (0) and no (X) in quizzes. By converting the (0) to (A) and (X) to (B) the instructor
could proceed with the conversation at natural speed and flip the cards when necessary.
エラー! 参照元が見つかりません。

Part four of the TOEIC test had a separate set of challenges from part three. In
this section a short monologue is read out followed by three separate questions. For the
instructor the main issue was keeping pace with the normal TOEIC speed, about 45
seconds to 1 minute per monologue. For the subject the difficulties were exacerbated.
Students with no hearing impairments are able to read the questions whilst listening to
the monologue. In contrast, the subject had to lip-read for 45 seconds to a minute, takein all the information, and then answer three questions in the allocated time.
In August 2008 the subject took part in a foreign exchange program at Felician
College, New Jersey, an opportunity that only came fruition because of the work of the
instructors in Japan to improve the subject’s communicative competence. The subject’s
instructors in Japan shared information with their counterparts in the US on the best
ways to teach the subject, and although no needs analysis or weekly lip-reading session
were conducted the student continued to excel with a 130 point improvement on her
TOEFL score. The subject was not allowed to undertake the listening portion of the
TOEFL test.

212

Issues
The company that provides the institutional TOEIC tests does not provide a listening
script of the test for commercial reasons. This meant the instructor administering thetest had to transcribe the entire listening section of the test. This is an issue as it is notpractical for instructors to do this frequently, and may see instructors unwilling to help
students with disabilities. The instructor when reading the questions and answers will
obviously know what the answer is. It is very important that the instructor keeps thesame facial expressions for all answers and does not give the answer to the subject.
Both the official TOEFL and TOEIC test do not currently have provisions for
those with hearing impairments, meaning the subject will never have the chance to get
an official score that will reflect her true L2 ability, thus limiting her opportunities for
future employment in Japan where a high score in TOEIC is sought by many employers.
Although the subject has expressed a desire to use English in future employment, herlack of an official score and decision not to use sign language will count against her
when it comes to any English speaking position.
Conclusion
Whilst many would believe that having a disability such as being deaf would make it
impossible to learn how to speak English as an L2, this article has demonstrated how
one Japanese freshman was, with some fortunate circumstances and dedicatedinstructors, able to increase her communicative competence. Although able to takeinstitutional tests, and participate in a 9 month foreign exchange program in New Jersey,
this student, under the current policy of test makers will be unable to gain an official
TOEIC or TOEFL score that takes into account her full ability to communicate inEnglish. This article has demonstrated that with some dedication on the part of the
instructors and creativity with regards to delivering tests, this student was capable ofcompeting with her peers with no hearing impairments. Unfortunately, as this market it
small, the companies who make these tests may feel it is not economically worthwhile
for them to invest in developing such tests and thus students such as the subject of thisarticle may find themselves excluded from the “inclusive society.”
Bio data
Jeremy White is teaching Business Administration and Economics at Ritsumeikan
University BKC campus, Shiga, Japan. His research area is related to CALL and he is213currently a Doctor of Education student at Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia. His
field of research is the use of handheld gaming systems in public Japanese elementary
schools to improve speaking communicative competence <whitejeremy@gmail.com>
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Teaching English for Academic Purposes to Deaf Students of English as a Foreign
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Dotter, F. (2008). English for Deaf Sign Language Users: Still a Challenge. In: Kellet
Bidoli, C., Ochse, E., & Bern, P. (Eds) English in International Deaf Communication,
97‐121.
Doughty, C., & Long, M. (2003). The handbook of second language aquistion. Malden:
Blackwell Publishing.
Ferris, D. (1998). Students Views of Academic Aural/Oral Skills: A Comparative Needs
Analysis. TESOL Quarterly, 32(2), 289-318.
Foster, S., & Walter, G. (1992). Deaf Students in Post Secondary Education. London:
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College Publishers.
Goldberg, J., & Broadman, M. (1974). English language instruction for the hearing
impaired: An adaptation of ESL methodology. TESOL Quarterly, 8, 263-270.
Marschark, M., & Spencer, E. (2003). Deaf Studies, Language and Education. Oxford:
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214

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Appendix 1
Part 2 TOEIC Test example questions(Adapted from Shin TOEIC TEST Speed Master, Vicki Glass)11) Has the manager arrived yet?
a) I have no ideab) I managed to go yesterdayc) No, it hasn’t12) Where should I put these files?
a) There are on the filing cabinetb) I put them awayc) On the desk
Appendix 2
Part 3 TOEIC Test
(Taken from Shin TOEIC TEST Speed Master, Vicki Glass)
Dialogue
M: How are your plans for the trip coming along? Are you all packed and ready to go?
W: Not quite yet. I just found out that my passport will expire the day after tomorrow,so I will have to run to the passport office this afternoon to get it renewed. Not tomention I have a thousand other things to do today and tomorrow.
M: Is there anything I can help you with? I can’t go to the passport office, but I cancertainly help you around here.
W: That would be great, thanks. I have to input a load of data. Maybe you could do that215

for me.
41) What are the speakers discussing?
a) The woman’s test preparationsb) Their passportsc) Their vacationsd) The woman’s data
42) What will the man most likely do for the woman?
a) Go to the passport office for herb) Help her packc) Give her some inputd) Do one of her duties at work43) What can be inferred about the woman?
a) She has packed for her tripb) She is in a rushc) She doesn’t like to traveld) She is busy inputting data
Appendix 3
Part 4 TOEIC Test
(Taken from Shin TOEIC TEST Speed Master, Vicki Glass)
Questions 71 through 73 refer to the following advertisement.
Come on down to Menotti’s Restaurant and please your palate with some of the
in-house specials we are offering this week only! On Monday, our chicken and rib
plates are 30 percent off the regular price. On Tuesday our sirloin steak is only $12.99
and includes all the trimmings. On Wednesday, you can save $2.00 on any dish in therestaurant during lunch or dinner. And if seafood is what you’re craving this week,
come down on Thursday and take advantage of our special prices on lobster bisque andour popular perch with lemon butter sauce. Friday, Saturday and Sunday all our Italiandishes will be half-price, including our best selling prosciutto pasta.
21671) What is the main purpose of this advertisement?
a) To introduce in-house specials at a new restaurant.
b) To attract customers to a one-week salec) To get customers for a pasta speciald) To announce new dishes that are discounted.
72) When will the Italian dishes be half-price?
a) On Mondayb) On Tuesdayc) On Wednesdayd) On Friday, Saturday and Sunday73) What dish is the most popular at Menotti’s?
a) Sirloin steakb) Lobster bisquec) Prosciutto pastad) Perch with lemon butter sauce

Implementing authentic materials in the student-centered interactive EFL
classroom
217Mark Wright
Doshisha University
Reference data:
Wright,M. (2010) Implementing authentic materials in the student-centered interactive
EFL classroom. In K. Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier & M. Walsh (Eds), Pan-SIG 2010
Conference Proceedings. Kyoto: JALT
Abstract
This paper, in three parts, will look at the role that authentic materials can playalongside commercial textbooks in developing student interest, reading and discussion
skills. First, it will briefly discuss some of the thought processes involved when learners
are faced with a reading or discussion task. Second, some of the advantages of using
authentic materials in the classroom will be highlighted. Finally, it will also provide an
example of a lesson plan currently used in my English communication classes at
Doshisha University, which requires learners to research and lead discussion tasks using
the authentic texts they have chosen.
本論は、第二言語学習環境において学習用教材と併用するオーセンティック教
材が、学習者の関心、読解力、およびディスカッション・スキルの向上にどのような役割を果たしうるかを考察する。全三部構成の論考では、まず学習者がリーディングやディスカッションのタスクで直面する思考プロセスにいくつか
触れ、教室内でのオーセンティック教材の使用に際する長所と短所とを詳述した後、筆者が現在同志社大学の英語コミュニケーションの授業で使用している教案を一例として紹介する。教案は、学習者がリサーチを経て自ら選定した読解用の生のテクストを素材として、ディスカッションをリードすることを求めるものである。
Keywords: authentic materials, schema, bottom-up processing, top-down processing,collaborative learning, scripted materials
オーセンティック教材、スキーマ、ボトム・アップ処理、トップ・ダウン処理、協調学習、学習用教材

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For some time now in the field of second language study, there has been some debate
regarding the types of class materials that are more appropriate for reading anddiscussion activities. The choices seem to be between authentic materials that are takenfrom authentic sources, such as newspapers, magazines, brochures, and, more recently,
downloaded from the Internet, and those that are scripted either by the teacher or
prepared especially from a textbook. On one hand, the argument is that the use ofauthentic materials can present students with opportunities to study English in a more
realistic environment. In other words, authentic materials assist in the creation ofsituations and scenarios that learners may face in their every day life when using
English. However, the other side of the argument is that these materials may perhaps
introduce students to ideas and situations beyond their current level of language ability.
In this case, materials that are scripted or prepared with some sort of focus or language
target in mind may be considered more suitable.
Selecting the right resource, whether authentic or scripted, is by no means aneasy task. Teachers need to consider many variables, including:• How students process information from the selected resource• The initial purpose or motivation for students to enrol in the class• Other factors, such as sociological or cultural differences, that could influence
the relevance of the selected resource for students.
Despite the current status of the authentic materials debate and these variables,
this writer believes that it is important to include some examples of authentic materials
as classroom resources in order to motivate students.
Literature Review
The Reading Process – Schema Theory
Teachers cannot select effective materials without considering what actually happens in
the reading process. Until the 1960’s, it was thought that reading is a “skill in which thereader passively absorbs what the writer has produced” (Kitao, 1989, p.1). The reader
was thought to simply decode groups of letters into words, which were then joined tomake phrases, and clauses, then eventually linking them together to make sentences andtexts. This process was referred to as bottom-up processing.
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However, in the 1960’s researchers began to theorize that perhaps attention
should be paid more to the person who was reading the text, not just on the grammatical
relationships residing in the text itself. Goodman (1971), for example, rejects the notionof reading being a passive skill with a “precise process of perception and identification”(Sequera, 1995, p.1) suggesting that it is more like a “psycholinguistic guessing game”(Carrell & Eisterhold, 1987, p. 219), in which the reader is able to re-construct meaning
using parts of the text as clues to fill in any missing gaps using a top-down processing
approach. Goodman (1971) explains, the “reader reconstructs, as best as he can, amessage which has been encoded by a writer as a graphic display” (In Carrell &Eisterhold, 1987, p. 219). Reading is now regarded as being an interactive process,involving “the reader, the text, and the interaction between the reader and the text”(Rumelhart, 1977, in Singhal, 1998, p.1), in which both bottom-up and top-down
processing, compliment each other.
One theory developed to help explain this interaction is schema theory,
according to which, the text acts only in providing directions for the reader, so they can“construct meaning from their own cognitive structure” (Hadley, 2001, p. 147). In otherwords, the reader relies on his or her schemata or “preexisting concepts about the world
and about the text to be read” (Barnett, 1988, p.2), to make sense of these directions.
There are two main types of schemata: formal and content. Formal schemata, isthe background knowledge that the reader has in relating to the different type or genreof the text (Singhal, 1998). This includes knowing how the pieces of the textual
information fit together by taking into account such factors as the structuralconfiguration, vocabulary, level of grammar, and the order that these details are likely
to appear: Rules often learnt through schooling (Carrell & Eisterhold, 1987; Singhal,1998). Content schemata on the other hand, is the background knowledge a person may
have about the content or subject matter of the text, including, for example, such things
as knowledge of the era and cultural-settings (Barnett, 1988, p.2).
For teachers of second languages, understanding how schema theory works inrelation to the selection of reading texts is crucial. As Carrell (1984) explains, “An ESL
reader’s failure to activate an appropriate schema during reading may result in various
degrees of non-comprehension” (p. 333).
Authentic Materials
In recent years, it has become common for authentic materials to be used in second
220language classrooms. In addition to providing opportunities for students to enhanceschemata, there are a number of other advantages to using authentic materials in theclassroom, including:• Students are exposed to “real life” situations• Students and teachers can keep up to date with current trends in the target
language, such as slang, sayings, and idioms• Students may gain confidence by experiencing language in a practical way• Students gain cultural awareness of the target language, and, in some cases,
also have the opportunity to understand how their own culture is viewed byothers• Students practice micro skills such as “skimming” and “scanning”, by looking
for key words, and ideas• Authentic materials offer variety and are available everywhere• Authentic materials help to add life to the class, as well as to stimulate andmotivate students (Karpova, 1999; Martinez, 2002).
Contrary to this is the argument, which suggests that students may tend topanic or be afraid they will encounter some level of difficulty when faced with anauthentic text. This could have the opposite desired effect of leading to a decrease inmotivation for learning especially in the case of beginners.
Despite this, the case for introducing authentic texts early in language
instruction is quite strong. As Dublin and Olshtain (1986) state, “As soon as possible,
however, the use of authentic materials should become the objective, even if some
adapting or abridging is necessary” (p. 151). Spelleri (2002) concurs, “Exposure toauthentic language means that prediction skills will be honed and that learners will
improve their strategies for dealing with uncertainty” (p. 17).
Example Lesson
Although authentic materials can play an important role in the foreign language
classroom, it is possible to also incorporate scripted materials. The following lessonplan illustrates how this can be achieved.
Objectives
This lesson was taught in two 2nd year English elective courses at Doshisha University
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over 4 weeks as one assessment item as part of a 15-week semester. In both classes,
there were 25 students whose English abilities varied from low to intermediate. The
main objectives of these courses were:
1. To focus on global issues
2. To discuss and work through problems concerning the global community
3. For students to research and present about their own topics or interests
relating to the above
Materials
One of the main attractions of this approach is the activity should only take 45 minutes
which is half the time of a regular University lesson of 90 minutes. This allows time forthe teacher to work conjunctly either with another text, or implement their own
materials. For these particular classes the following textbook was used:
Peaty, D., (2010), You, Me and the World: A Course in Communicative English for Global
Citizenship, Tokyo: Kinseido

In this case, the theme for each week is taken from the text and from thestudents’ own interpretation or area of interest relating to the theme. Themes included
such topics as:• Waste and Recycling• Endangered Species• Rain Forests• Global Warming• Energy• Human Rights• Peace and Conflict• Refugees• Developing Countries• Gender Issues
Procedure before Class
Step 1.
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Students are placed into groups of four people the previous week. One leader from eachgroup is assigned and instructed to research and to find a short article from the Internet
relating to the coming week’s theme and then be prepared to present their findings insmall groups in class the following week. The article should be around 300 words(Figure 1) and should be no longer than 12 months old. This is to ensure that the article
is current and that enough time is allowed for the students to fully digest the article.

http://www.peachygreen.com/wildlife/stop-elephant-poaching-ban-ivory-trade

Figure 1. Internet Article relating to the week’s theme.

Step 2.
After finding a suitable article, the students then need to convert the text onto an A4
page (Figure 2). This can be easily achieved by pasting the article into a word
document.

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Figure 2. Text from the Internet article

Step 3.
Students are then required to attach this article to the “Communication Article
Worksheet” A4 template (Figure 3). On this worksheet, the leaders need to list a
number of things in advance. These include listing the article’s title, URL, date andname of the author. In addition, they need to provide 6 keywords including the part ofspeech and meaning, 2 key points from the article and 3 discussion questions. The result
is an A3 sheet of which copies are made for each member of the group plus Instructor.

224

Figure 3. Communication Article Worksheet – this is attached to the text article(Figure 2) to make an A3 print.

225

Completion of these tasks before class will help ensure a flowing andinformative activity. For the students’ worksheets, the selection of keywords and key
points are the group leader’s own opinion of words and phrases that they feel are
important in the understanding of the article. The discussion questions are those that theleaders think may help stimulate discussion and to later ask in their collaborative groups.
Parts of the worksheet are intentionally left blank as these are for the other groupmembers to fill in during the class activity.
Classroom Flow
Step 1.
In class, group leaders distribute their A3 article print to all the members of the group.
Students are then allocated 20 minutes to read the article and should attempt in this time
to make notes on any key words or points that they may not understand. Group leaders
should be using this time to prepare for the up and coming discussion. At this time I
also usually get them to hand in a copy of their print and have them verbally summarize
it for me.
Step 2.
After this reading period is completed, the next 20 minutes of the lesson is dedicated to
the group leader guiding the students through the print. This includes covering the key
words, key points and discussion questions, as well as rating the source for reliability,and bias. To help with this process I have enclosed a “leader’s guide” (Figure 4) which
outlays some simple steps to assist the group leader in organizing a guided discussion.

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Figure 4. Leader’s guideStarting the Discussion
It is best to mix the groups up every week. As a result, a short amount of time should
be set aside for introductions as well as warm-up talk. This allows all the groupmembers to feel relaxed as well as to get them ready to use their English for the moredetailed discussions relating to the article.

227Checking for Keywords
The group leader guides the group through the six keywords to check forunderstanding. The next stage involves eliciting student responses for the two original
keywords. These keywords should be words the students feel are necessary tounderstand the article’s meaning. Students work collaboratively, discussing andnegotiating these words in groups.
Identifying Key Points
In this section, students are to identify key points from the reading that they feel arenecessary in order to understand the reading. In their collaborative groups, students
discuss and compare key points, talking about the key points and the reason they feelthe key points are vital in the readings understanding.
Discussing the Questions
In their collaborative groups the leader discusses and asks answers to the three prepared
questions. It is during this part of the lesson, that the students have the opportunity topose an original question of their own. By having students ask questions in theircollaborative groups, students will further acquaint themselves with the topic of thematerial and think more about the theme of the week.
Rating the Source
Although this is primarily a discussion activity, it is important that the students areaware that just because the source is in English that it does not necessarily mean it isaccurate or balanced. This can be quite problematic with the large volume of English
reading texts available on the Internet. It is hoped that the students discussing thearticles in their groups may be made aware of issues concerning reliability and bias.
Assessment
Each student presents once during the four-week cycle. For this activity I allocate ascore based on the quality of the article and the questions posed. While the discussions
are in progress, I also walk around monitoring the different groups allocating individualtask scores based on how well they are interacting in the group.

228

Discussion
Although this paper describes only one type of the number of the wide variety ofauthentic materials available to second language teachers, the advantages in using thistechnique are plenty. First, it allows students to practice their research skills. With theplethora of articles available on the Internet, it helps to train them in accessing thearticle selected for its reliability, bias and validity. In other words, to help sort out what
is not relevant or current. Second, end of course surveys show that the students tend tofind it motivating. Rather than just having the materials handed to the students eachweek by the teacher, students have some input or choice over what they would like to
study. Thus allowing the students to feel more stimulated to share what they have found(Martinez, 2002). Finally, it helps to improve the student’s reading and discussion skills
in a sharing and collaborative environment. The leader presents his or her material andis then subject to peer review within the group. This can provide the learners with theenergy to feel positive about their own learning as well as a sense of success when atask, which has been challenging is achieved in English (Ebata, 2008).
Conclusion
Apart from providing variety and motivation for students to read and discuss, this lessonplan highlights the three layers of learning, which Spelleri (2002) believes are imbeddedin all authentic materials. These are:
• Language learning – through reinforcement of such things as structure andvocabulary• Cultural insights• Practical application
All three of these are important if effective language learning is to take place. The
implementation of authentic materials either used on their own, or together with scripted
or commercial materials, such as textbooks, allow the opportunity for teachers to always
create an indefinite number of language teaching activities. They also offer an excellent
opportunity for students to practice both bottom-up and top-down processing by
allowing them to draw on their relevant schemata – formal and/or content. However,more importantly, I have found that the students really enjoy doing the activities andtasks that are based on authentic materials.

229

Bio data:
Mark Wright lectures at both Doshisha University and Ritsumeikan Univerisity. His
research interests include second language acquisition, bilingual education and learnerautonomy.
References
Barnett, M. A. (1988). Teaching reading in a foreign language. (ERIC Document
reproduction service no. ED305829). [Online]. Available:<www.cal.org/resources/archive/digest/1988teachread.html>.
Carrell, P. L. (1984). Schema theory and ESL reading: Classroom implications andapplications. The Modern Language Journal, 68(4), 332-34.
Carrell, P. L., & Eisterhold, J. C. (1987). Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy. In
M. H. Long & J. C. Richards (Eds.), Methodology in TESOL: A book of readings (pp.
218-232). Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Dubin, F. & Olshtain, E. (1986). Course design: Developing programs and materials forlanguage learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hadley, A. O. (3rd ed.) (2001). Teaching language in context. Boston, MA: Heinle &Heinle Publishers.
Karpova, L. V. (1999). Consider the following when selecting and using authentic
materials. TESOL Matters 9(2). [Online]. Available:<www.tesol.org/s_tesol/sec_document.asp?CID=196&DID=558>.
Kitao, K. (1989). Reading schema theory and second language learners. [Online].
Available: <ilc2.doshisha.ac.jp/users/kkitao/publish/schema.htm>.
Peaty, D. (2010), You, Me and the World: A Course in Communicative English for
Global Citizenship. Tokyo: Kinseido.
Martinez, A.G. (2002). Authentic Materials: An Overview. Karen’s Linguistic Issues,
February, 2002. [Online]. Available:<www3.telus.net/linguisticissues/authenticmaterials.html>.
Sequera, W. (1995). Construct validity in reading tests. English Teaching Forum 33(1),49. [Online]. Available: <eca.state.gov/forum/vols/vol33/no1/P49.htm>.
Singhal, M. (1998). A comparison of L1 and L2 Reading: Cultural differences andschema. The Internet TESL Journal, 4 (10). [Online]. Available:<iteslj.org/Articles/Singhal-ReadingL1L2.html>.
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Spelleri, M. (2002). From lessons to life: Authentic materials bridge the gap. ESLMagazine Online 5(2), 16-18. [Online]. Available: <eslmag.com/marapr02art.html>.

231

Languaging as an Extensive Reading Strategy
Jennifer Yphantides
Kanda University of International Studies
Andrew Schouten
Kanda University of International Studies
Reference data:
Yphantides, J. & Schouten, A. (2010) Languaging as an extensive reading strategy. In
K. Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier & M. Walsh (Eds), Pan-SIG 2010 Conference
Proceedings. Kyoto: JALT.
Abstract
Swain (2006) defines languaging as a verbal process which can be used tomediate a variety of difficulties students face when learning their L2. This paper reportson the results of a research project which combines languaging with extensive reading.
It was carried out at a Japanese university in two first-year reading classes. A brief
review of the literature is provided, followed by a description of the design of the study.
The findings highlight the effect that languaging had on reading comprehension,
students’ perceived enjoyment of their reading, and their ability to respond in writing to
the text.
Keywords: extensive reading, languaging, reading strategies
Japanese Abstract
スウェイン(2006)はラングイッジングを,第二言語(L2)を習得する際に直面する
困難を克服するために必要なスピーキングプロセスと定義している。この論文
は,日本の大学の二つの一年生のエクステンシブ・リーディング授業で実行された研究プロジェクトの結果に基づいている。まずは概要を説明し，その後この研究の詳細を述べることにする。この研究結果はラングイッジングが読解力、学生の読解に対する満足度と読解で得た理解をどれだけライティングに反映出来るかに焦点を当てている。
232

Introduction“I found a problem reading in English. When I read a textbook, I can findmain ideas because structure is clear. But, when I read a story, even if words are easy,
sometimes it’s hard to understand meaning because structure is different and style isdifferent. I don’t know how to solve this problem. In that point, I feel I don’t want toread.”The quote above was written by a first-year student enrolled in a reading classduring the 2009-2010 academic year. It was in response to an end-of-course
questionnaire which attempted to gauge students’ perceptions of the benefits anddifficulties of extensive reading. This student was not alone in her confusion. Manyothers voiced similar concerns. One way of explaining the difficulty she reports is to
assume that not all graded readers are well-written and that when editors are expected torender simplified versions of very complicated texts, much valuable information can belost. Another explanation could be that students lack the cultural background necessary
to comprehend and interpret stories set hundreds of years ago in distant countries.
While these two explanations could partially account for the difficulty students
expressed about their extensive reading, there is one other element that could beconsidered. In our program, we constantly remind students that the books they choose
should be easy for them to read and that they should be able to complete their reading
quickly. As a result, students are not likely to spend any time reflecting upon what they
are reading between chapters or monitoring their comprehension as they read.
The above issues may have arisen due to the perception teachers have of ER
based on some of the classic “how to” manuals. Many guidelines have been provided toextensive reading teachers, including “Reading is individual and silent” and “Reading is
its own reward. There are few or no follow-up exercises.” (Bamford and Day, 1998).
While useful, some of these guidelines could cause teachers to become dogmatic in
their approach to teaching extensive reading. As Waring (personal communication,
December, 2009) reminds us, “there is no ‘ideal’ way to do ER” and teachers should be
open to experimenting to find out what works best for their students in their particularteaching context. Brierley further emphasized this point during his presentation at the233

ER SIG forum at the national JALT conference in 2009 when he reported that what isrecommended “from above” is not always feasible “on the ground”, particularly interms of follow-up activities and assessment.
It is encouraging to hear from experts in our field that experimentation is not
only possible but desirable. It is also motivating to see other practitioners bending the“rules” to better address student needs and improve pedagogical practice in their context.
The current study aims at further experimentation by looking at languaging as a strategy
for approaching extensive reading. In her plenary address at the 2009 JALT conference,
Swain defined languaging as a process by which an individual works out a cognitive
problem. Swain (2006) maintains that language is not only a conveyer of meaning but
also an agent of meaning making. She explains that in the process of verbally working
through our thoughts, we come to a new insights. (Swain, 2006). While Swain’s (2002,2009) research studies on languaging focus primarily on students working out
grammatical explanations, the notion of languaging could also be applied to reading. In
fact, the source of Swain’s work on languaging is found in the self-explanation principle,
a reading strategy used by students when tackling difficult texts in their L1.
Self-Explanation, The Root of Languaging
Starting with Chi et al.’s (1989) study investigating the ability of physics
students to comprehend a text explaining Newton mechanics (in their L1), a link was
established between a learner’s ability solve a complex physics problem and the skill
with which he or she was able to explain the worked-out solution to him or herself.
Simply put, learners who produced lengthy and detailed self-explanations weresignificantly more successful in solving these problems on post-tests than learners who
were unable to extensively explain the material to themselves. A second study
confirmed this link between self-explanation and comprehension in other scientificfields such as biology (Chi et al., 1994) using similar intensive texts.
With the establishment of the self-explanation principle, researchers soughtways to improve a learner’s comprehension of a text by improving his or her ability tosuccessfully self-explain. Ainsworth and Th Loizou (2003) found that the addition ofdiagrams to a reading passage about the human circulatory system greatly improved the234ability of a learner to self-explain and had a significant positive effect oncomprehension. Hausmann et al. (2009), concerned that self-explanation might fail tofacilitate the deep processing necessary for learners to grasp complex concepts,
developed “step-focused prompts”—prompts that asked learners to reflect upon andsummarize each step in a problem solving sequence—which resulted in better
understanding and less reliance upon assistance in the application of a detailed scientifictheory.
While these studies focused on supplementing the text to facilitate robust
self-explanations, McNamara (2004) instead focused on reader training as a means ofimproving a learner’s ability to self-explain. Self-explanation Reading Training (SERT)
tested the effectiveness of training readers in six different strategy areas (comprehension
monitoring, paraphrasing, making inferences, elaboration, using logic, and prediction)
so as to improve their self-explanation acumen. Although SERT was not able to bringabout comprehension gains in all of the participants tested, the effects of SERT were
evident among those with low prior-domain knowledge. McNamara (2004) contends
that while the benefits of SERT may not be equal among all learners, training in
self-explanation provided readers who would normally encounter difficulty whenconfronted with such a demanding text with the means to successfully construct a
detailed explanation and representation of its content.
While the above studies establish a link between the process of self-explanationand gains in reading comprehension, their context is removed from an EFL/ESL
classroom setting. None of the research deals with text in the subjects’ L2. Furthermore,
the texts used in testing the self-explanation principle were exclusively scientific. Swain
and Lapkin (2002) and Swain et al. (2009) bridge this gap between self-explanation
research and the field of foreign/second language learning by examining what they term
languaging, or using verbalization of one’s thoughts as a means of solving a complex
task.
In their 2002 study, Swain and Lapkin tested the effectiveness of languaging ona language learners’ ability resolve a variety of language-related problems. Two native
English-speaking learners of French were tasked with collaboratively writing a story
based on a series of pictures. The story which the learners produced was then rewritten
by a native speaker of French, preserving the ideas of the original authors, but
eliminating errors and other non-native-like structures. The learners then engaged in a235

languaging session in which they compared their original story with the revised version
prepared by the native speaker of French, highlighted the differences that they noticed,and discussed the potential justifications for the changes that were made. In the post-test,
the positive effects of the languaging were apparent.
As similar study conducted by Swain et al (2009) showed that students who
were “high languagers” learn about the grammatical concept of voice in French ingreater depth than those students who are “low languagers”. This study demonstrated,as confirmed by immediate and delayed post-tests, that there is a link between thequality and quantity of languaging produced by students and students’ understanding of
this grammar point.
The Current Study
Taking into account the benefits of self-explanation on students’comprehension of intensive texts in L1 and the benefits of languaging on students’grasp of grammatical concepts in the L2, the following study attempts to provide apreliminary investigation into the effects of languaging on students’ extensive reading.
ParticipantsTwo freshman class groups took part in the study. The first group, belonging to
the International Communications (IC) Department, contained 25 students and thesecond group, belonging to the International Business Department, contained 30
students. Neither department streams students based on entrance examination scores andtherefore the students’ levels of English range widely from low intermediate toadvanced.

Each group meets for a reading class twice weekly for 90 minutes; the firstclass is for intensive reading and the second for extensive reading. In addition to thereading classes, students also have another nine contact hours of English per week.
Research Questions and Procedures
The research questions are as follows:
1.

Does languaging improve students’ comprehension of a text?

2.

Does languaging improve students’ perceived enjoyment of reading?
236

3.

Does languaging improve students’ ability to respond to a text as measured by the

number of words they produce in a response?
The study took place over three 90 minute sessions. The reading material used
for the study comprised the first three chapters of a simplified version of Shakespeare’s
Othello from the Black Cat series. The level listed by the publisher is“pre-intermediate”. This text was selected because none of the students participating inthe study had ever read Othello nor did they report being familiar with the storyline.
During each session, the students read one chapter of the text and were then requested
to answer three types of questions: 1. Ten multiple-choice comprehension questions.

2.

A question about their level of enjoyment while reading, i.e. Did you enjoy reading thischapter?

Yes/No/Not Sure. After answering the enjoyment question, students wereasked to write a one-sentence statement qualifying their answer.

3. A response to thereading, i.e. What is your personal response to the chapter which you have read?
During the first session, students were given 30 minutes to read the first chapter
and answer the questions. During the second session, students were given 60 minutes toread the second chapter of Othello. As they read, they stopped to answer eight questionsin writing which were interspersed throughout the text. The questions were prompts,
loosely based on McNamara’s (2004) self-explanation prompts that encouraged thestudents to language, or to mentally work through certain parts of the text. The prompts
focused on getting the students to review their prior knowledge, make predictions,paraphrase sections of the text, make inferences, elaborate on their impressions of thecharacters, imagine the scenes, critically question the behavior of the characters, andcomment on their perceptions of what they had read. These types of prompts werecreated because it was thought that they reflected not only the strategies employed by“good” readers but they also encourage students to mentally work through the text andmonitor not only the surface level of the comprehension but also deeper levels of
understanding. It would have been possible to ask students to simply think about thequestions as they went through the text but the researchers required students to write
down their answers so that the depth and quality of their languaging could be looked at
to a certain degree. During the last session, students were given 90 minutes to read thethird chapter of Othello and to discuss languaging prompts in groups of four. The
237

prompts were similar to those used for chapter two.

As students went through thetext, they experienced some silent periods during which they read several paragraphs at
a time. When all group members had read that portion of the text, students discussed theprompt and wrote down their group answers. They then continued reading the next partof the text until they arrived at the next prompt, discussed it, wrote down their groupanswers and repeated the process until they had covered all the text in the third chapter.
After they had gone through the third chapter together, students separated to answer themultiple choice questions, the enjoyment question, and the response question bythemselves.
The students were given 30, 60, and 90 minutes respectively at each session toread the text and go through the questions because the researchers thought that, forsession two an additional 30 minutes would be required to respond in writing to thelanguaging prompts. Another extra 30 minutes was given in session three because
students had to discuss the languaging prompts and also record them in writing.
Results

As is shown in Table 1, students started off with a fairly good rate ofcomprehension (74% overall).

However, their reported level of enjoyment was

relatively low, only 22%. Their ability to respond as measured by word count was 18
words. The results after reading the second chapter are quite interesting. The rate ofcomprehension went down but this result needs to be qualified. The researchers noticed
that instead of answering the comprehension questions first, students went directly tothe response question, which was actually the last question on the paper. This may havebeen because students had been better prepared to write a response as a result of having
gone through the languaging prompts. In addition, they spent a longer time writing
qualifying statements for the question on their perceived level of reading enjoyment.
238

This left them with less time to answer the multiple-choice comprehension questions.
During the third session, the students were asked to do the questions in order. They
were reminded of the time at regular intervals as they worked their way through thelanguaging questions in groups.

The results of the third session are also quite

interesting. Although students’ comprehension rates rose somewhat, their reported levelof enjoyment more than tripled and their ability to respond doubled when comparedwith the first session.
Discussion
The voices of the students themselves are required to best interpret the datacollected in this study.

A brief survey of some of the statements which appeared

regularly in the data help to shed light on what some of the students reported theyexperienced while reading. It is these experiences which likely influence student
comprehension, enjoyment, and ability to respond.

To begin with, when the majorityof students (78%) reported that they did not enjoy (or were not sure about enjoying)reading chapter one, many of the qualifying statements pointed to the fact that students
felt sleepy while reading or that they were focusing on unknown words in the text.
This may be because students knew that they had to read alone and answer the
post-reading questions alone. There may not have been that much motivation because of
the lack of interaction and the lack of support. The qualifying comments that followed
the reading of chapter two reinforce that students need support while reading to help
them focus, to prompt them to monitor their level of comprehension and to think moredeeply about what they are reading. Rather than seeing the prompts as a nuisance whichinterrupts their flow of reading, students’ answers demonstrate that they were engaged
more deeply with the text as a result of the languaging questions. One student wrote, “In
the first chapter I can’t get all the story but in the second chapter, I can imagine thestory.” Another wrote, “ I can think more about background and characters so I canunderstand and enjoy more.” One final point is that student comments written during
the last session broadly indicate that discussion is the root of much of the perceived
enjoyment students have in reading and seems to improve their ability to respond to atext. One student wrote, “I liked talking with my friends about this story. We can seethat Othello is honest and sincere man. But we can also sympathize with Brabanzio
239because his daughter married Othello without father’s permission.” Another student
wrote, “We talked about racial discrimination. This is interesting for us.”
In summary, the findings of this study indicate that students in this context
feel sleepy when reading alone and tend to focus more on what they don’t know than onwhat they do know. The findings also show that languaging prompts aid students infostering deeper comprehension of the text and more profound consideration of thethemes of the story. Finally, the study seems to indicate that much of the enjoyment ofreading appears to come from the discussions which develop as a result of reading andthat students’ viewpoints were expanded as a result of discussion with peers.
There are a couple of important issues that have been raised by these results.
First, reading “silently and alone” with “reading as its own reward” may not necessarily
be realistic guidelines to apply to the extensive reading program in this context since it
seems as if students respond well to the support of the prompts and find part of the
reward of reading to be the shared experience of discussion with peers. Second, thenotion that students need to enjoy reading a different book a week may not be asustainable way of running our extensive reading program.

If our students seem tobenefit significantly from working things out in their own minds as they read and tofind a lot of the enjoyment of reading in discussion. It may be then that students should
spend a greater amount of time in discussion about their books, before, during and after
reading.
The following pedagogical recommendations may be put into practice as a resultof conducting this study. First, it may be worthwhile to complete an ER training period
in the class during which time students read the same book and are introduced tovarious types of strategies, including languaging strategies.

Second, it may be useful

to have students recommend books to each other on a regular basis. The student who
has read the book can benefit from introducing it to another person and that person
would have a chance to build up their background knowledge before reading. There
could also be mid-week checks about how the reading is going so students could havethe opportunity to talk about their books while they are in the process of going throughthem. Third, it would be interesting to suggest to publishers that they produce longer

240

books at various levels. Very low level books are often short and the length of readers
progressively increases with the level of difficulty. It would be helpful for students toread a longer book which they could cover over a period of weeks. This way, students
may develop more of a connection with the material they are reading and find somemeasure of satisfaction as a result.
Conclusions
While we can consider ourselves to have been successful extensive readingteachers if we manage to get our students to read one book a week, the question of what
our students do after our course still remains. Although it is beyond the scope of thisstudy to answer this question, it may be reasonable to assume that most of our students
do not continue reading at such a pace. If the teacher is meant to be an example of anavid extensive reader, why do we not look more at our own reading habits and try to
impart some of those to our students? We would likely find it difficult to find a shortbook we liked each week and read it. Even if we were able to do so, sustaining
motivation to continue reading at this pace would be difficult unless we had otherpeople to share our ideas with. ER is vital to helping our students recognize words andlearn and review new expressions. But would we ourselves continue reading if all we
gained were word recognition skills and new expressions? It is probably safe to say that
if we hope for our ER courses to make a deeper impact on the students, they need towork through the text on a deeper level. They need to have private-speech conversations
with the author as they read. They need to publicly discuss their ideas and be enrichedby the thoughts of their peers. Without these key elements, extensive reading probably
has less of a chance of developing into a life-long habit. Languaging with the self andwith others may be one of the keys that bridges the gap between the L2 acquisition
benefits of ER and the more profound benefits of reading in general.

241

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