Journal

2017

Expand Your Interests

Edited by Anthony Brian Gallagher

PanSIG is an annual conference
held in May, and organized bymany of the Special Interest
Groups (SIGs) of the Japan
Asociation for Language
Teaching (JALT).

Message from the editor
The 16th Annual PanSIG conference was held at Akita International University, Akita, Japan from May
19th to 21st, 2017. The theme was “Expand Your Interests.” This was a collaborative effort from 26 Special
Interest Groups (SIGs) within the Japan Association for Language Teaching (JALT). The conference was
highly successful and participants were able to attend presentations on a variety of topics from a wide
spectrum in the fields of language teaching and learning.
This journal represents the third edition of the annual PanSIG Journal in its latest form–following 13
years of proceedings publications beginning with 2002-which includes a selection of articles from the 2016conference. With a blind peer review process and dedicated reviewing and editing committees, along withmotivated and professional authors, the quality of the articles submitted to the 2017 PanSIG Journal wereconsistently high. The final articles which were peer selected for inclusion in the 2017 PanSIG Journal are a
representative effort from the conference and work from a number of different SIGs on a diverse range of
topics were accepted for publication in this year’s volume. These include many different articles which focus
on a range of topics of research or teaching practice and serve to highlight the effort and creativity of theparticipants of the conference and the members of the SIGs involved.
Special thanks to Matthew Porter at Fukuoka Jo Gakuin Nursing University for so quickly allowing me
to take over journal responsibilities and to Aleda Krause and Jennie Roloff Rothman for their dedicationand support in reviewing and advising.
I would like to thank all of the contributors for submitting their atricles for this publication. We arealso very grateful for the readers of the submissions who suggested changes to the authors and contributed
to the high quality of this volume. The success of this collection is a cumulative effort from a number of
hard-working volunteers who dedicate large amounts of their precious time into putting together such a
quality journal. We hope that you will enjoy reading the articles and that you can gain some insight for yourprofessional development. Congratulations to all the contributors to this edition of the PanSIG Journal
2017.
August 3rd, 2018
Anthony Brian Gallagher,
Editor-in-Chief, PanSIG Journal 2017

The PanSIG is an annual conference held in May, and organized by many of the Special
Interest Groups (SIGs) of the Japan Association for Language Teaching ( JALT). The
conference brings together leading scholars and practitioners in language educationfrom Japan, Asia, and throughout the world. It is meant to be a smaller, more intimate
conference than the annual international JALT conference (which is held each fall), andis a place where SIG members can network with each other.

PanSIG 2017 JournaliWebsite: http://pansig.org/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/JALTpansig/
Twitter: https://twitter.com/JALT_PanSIG (Twitter handle: @JALT_PanSIG)
Selected articles from the 2017 PanSIG Conference Expand Your Interests
Akita International University, Akita Prefecture, Japan
Artwork courtesy of Jim George and James Dunn

ISBN#: 978-4-901352-57-4
PanSIG Journal 2017
Selected articles from the 2017 PanSIG Conference
Expand Your Interests
Akita, Japan
JALT Central OfficeUrban Edge Bldg 5F, 1-37-9 Taito, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-0016, Japan
http://jalt.org/
http://www.pansig.org/
All materials in this publication are copyright © (2018) by JALT and their respective authors.
PanSIG 2017 Journalii

PanSIG Journal 2017
PDF Version
PanSIG 2017 was held May 19-21 at Akita International University (AIU) in Akita City, Akita Prefecture, Japan. AIU
was a supporting institution (or cosponsor) of PanSIG 2017, and we are grateful for their support.
Thank you to everyone who helped make this conference a success!
Theme: Expand Your Interests
Venue: Akita International University (AIU), Akita City, Akita Prefecture, Japan
Dates: May 19 - 21 (Friday to Sunday), 2017.
Website: http://pansig.org/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/JALTpansig/
Twitter: https://twitter.com/JALT_PanSIG (Twitter handle: @JALT_PanSIG)

Edited by Anthony Brian Gallagher
PanSIG is the annual conference for Special Interest Groups of theJapan Association of Language Teachers.

PanSIG 2017 Journaliii

Thanks to our2017 Journal Reviewers & Editorial Advisory Board
Gavin Brooks

Mary Noguchi

Doshisha University

Kansai University

Ian Munby

Matthew Porter

Hokkai Gakuen University, Sapporo

Fukuoka Jo Gakuin Nursing University

Aleda Krause

Joanne Mynard

Seigakuin University

Kanda University of International Studies

Robert H. TafernerMichael Brown

Hiroshima University

Kanda University of International Studies

Ian Munby

Jennie Roloff Rothman

Hokkai Gakuen University, Sapporo

Kanda University of International Studies

Brian Cullen

Masaya Kanzaki

Nagoya Institute of Technology

Kanda University of International Studies

Larry Xethakis

James Emmet Owens

Kumamoto Sojo University

Kanda University of International Studies

Phil Bennet

David Ockert

University of Niigata

Toyo University

Quenby Hoffman Aoki

Raymond Stubbe

Sophia University

Kyushu Sangyo University

Michael Rupp

Tetsuya Fukuda

Tokai University

International Christian University

PanSIG 2017 Journal

iv

Table of Contents
Assessing Language Vitality and Endangerment of Pumi Language in China

4

An, Wanner, Yu & Ono
Social Emotional Learning and Mental Health Issues in Japanese Education

18

Arao
[r] Interference in Learning Spanish as a Foreign Language

26

CamposEnhancing Learner Experience Through Augmented Reality in High School

33

Frazier
Neuroscience in the Classroom: Understanding How New Information is Processed

44

Haga
Using Online Student Response Games for Vocabulary Review

54

Harrold
The Effectiveness of Team Teaching in Japanese High Schools

59

HasnainCritical Thinking Through the Study of History

67

Hutchinson“G-PACS”: Process of Development and Effects of Political Simulation Games

75

Ishikawa
Making Academic Writing Interactive

81

Jones
Parents' Interpretation of the Hafu Referent

97

Kanai
New and Old TOEIC L&R: Score Comparison and Test-Taker Views on Difficulty Level

104

Kanzaki
Extending Class Presentations beyond the Classroom With Moxtra

113

KnightDiscovering Students’ Needs for a Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) Course

119

Larking
How Do Self-Directed Learners Keep Going? The Role of Interest in Sustained Learning

128

McLoughlin & Mynard
Supervising “Sotsurons” ( Japanese Graduation Theses)

136

Noguchi & Anderson
Survey on Americans’ Understanding of Made-in-Japan English Words

144

NormanApproaching L2-Only Classrooms With Real-Time Anonymous Self-Reporting

153

RectorDeveloping Academic Lexis: An Interactive Approach

160

Reed & Owens
Developing a New Locus of Control Instrument: The Abridged Kambara Scale

166

Rupp & Isemonger
The 2017 PanSIGJournal

2

Students as Content Teachers: Peer-Taught Lessons in EFL Classes

174

TaylorUsing Modern Tabletop Games in Your EFL Classroom

181

Vaittinen
Multimodality and the Song: Exploiting Popular Song in the University Classroom

188

WalkerA Case for Metaphor and Metonymy in the Classroom

196

White
Concept Mediation by Elementary L2 Learners

203

Williams & Naganuma
Promoting EFL College Learners’ Language Learning Strategies Through Facebook Interaction

211

Yang
GILE SIG Forum: Educating for Global Citizenship218

Basio, Ibe, Matsui & Rothman
Literature in Language Teaching SIG Forum Report

228

Challenges and Issues of Publishing Second Language Poetry Writing Research

Iida
Publishing in the Journal of Literature in Language Teaching

McNabbRevisiting Literature as Authentic Content and Encouraging Reader Response in Japanese University Students

Aoki
The Literature in Language Teaching SIG's Current Position and Future Directions

McIlroy
Expanding Interests: Report on the Plenary Panel

234

McIlroy, Aoyama, Bradford, Naganuma & Ozeki

The 2017 PanSIGJournal

3

Assessing Language Vitality and Endangerment of Pumi Language in China
Jing An

Jeongsoo Yu

Tohoku University

Tohoku University

Peter John Wanner

Naoyuki Ono

Tohoku University

Tohoku University

The Pumi language, spoken in Yunnan Province, China, is one of the minority languages that are currently
in danger of going extinct. I have conducted research assessing the linguistic vitality of the language inquestion, based on six UNESCO Language Endangerment Index indicators and three of China’s new
indicators, in order to explore causes of the decline of the Pumi language and to search for appropriate
countermeasures for protecting the language. Findings from this survey show that the degrees of language
endangerment of Xiagaoping Village and Luoguqing Village are quite different. However, the Pumi
language is generally endangered, with intermarriage, ethnic distribution, and tourism and traffic
conditions as the primary reasons for language endangerment. The research also confirmed a welcome
finding that the current local people have the strong will to protect and pass on the language of their ethnic
group, which is quite different from results of previous research.
中国の雲南省で使われているプミ語は、現在絶滅の危機にある少数民族の言語の 1 つである。 本研究では、この言語の衰退原因を明らかにし、言語の保護と継承のための適切な対策を探すために、UNESCO 言語危険の 6 指標と中国の新しい 3 つの指標に基づいて、言語の持続力評価を行った。この研究結果は、2 つの村の言語危険度がかなり異なることを示している。 しかし、プミ語は近親結婚、民族分布、観光事業と交通事情で、存続が危ぶまれている。 また、先行研究とは違って、この研究を通して原住民が自分の言葉を保護し、継承する強い意志を持っていることが確認できたことは嬉しい結果である。
As a large multinational state, China is composed of 56 ethnic

there are many models for evaluating language vitality, suchgroups and the total population is 1.37 billion. Currently,

as GIDS (Fishman, 1991), EGIDS (Lewis & Simons, 2010),

about 60 million people use minority languages (Upholding,and LEI (Lee & Van Way, 2016). Among them, the2010). Recently, some minority languages that are an

UNESCO Index is considered to be the most authoritative

important part of multiculturalism are accelerating towards

method (Janhunen & Salminen, 1993; Moseley, 2010). Due

becoming endangered and extinct. The intensification of

to China's peculiarities, some of the evaluation criteria areendangerment of a language threatens the inherent balance of

not in line with China’s national conditions. For example, athe language system, which is a serious challenge to theChinese scholar, Sun Hongkai, once clearly pointed out thatpattern of language and culture, and thus it triggers a language

UNESCO's vitality indicators "are generally applicable, but

crisis in the world. Therefore, it is imperative to take actionsome do not exactly match China's situation" (Sun, 2006). In

to protect the endangered languages.

this case, based on international research, a series of newAssessing the vitality of endangered languages is a

assessment methods were proposed based on China’s facts -prerequisite for the protection of endangered languages

The Endangered Language Indicator System (Dai, 2001),(Dixon, 1997; Dorian, 1992). At the international level,

Three Indicators (Sun, 2001), and the Language EcologicalThe 2017 PanSIGJournal

4

Monitoring Grading Index System and Language Ecological

Following this, we analyzed the statistical information of each

Quality Grading Evaluation Criteria (Xiao & Fan, 2011).

indicator. Moreover, finally, we qualified the endangerment

However, two critical problems still exist: (a) the previous

degree of each indicator according to the criteria of

language methods either are not suitable for China's national

UNESCO’s

conditions or only partially focus on limited indicators,

framework for evaluating the Language Vitality of the Pumi

therefore a more systematic and comprehensive language

language. Thus, this article mainly includes three different

assessment method is necessary; and (b) previous delivered

research methods. First, the Literature Research Method byresearch only focused on several influential minority

which the researcher collects and analyzes literature tolanguages such as Tujia, Xiandao, and Buyiang minority

identify the terms was used to clarify a series of indicators that

Languages using old field survey datasets (Sun, 2001; Xu,

can be used to evaluate the vitality of the Pumi Language.

2001), however, some other minor minority languages, forexample, the Pumi language, have their particularities andthus should also be investigated to get a more comprehensive
understanding of the endangered language problem.
Language vitality is a dynamic process; its scope and activities
are constantly changing, so an updated field survey is also
important. Therefore, the contribution of this research is a
proposal for a new language assessment method to assess thestate of language vitality of the minority Pumi language byusing the latest field survey datasets.

Methodology
This research took the Pumi language as a study case. Twotypical areas, as shown in Figure 1, were selected for a field
investigation. One is the Xiagaoping Village and the otherone is Luoguqing Village. Both of these two areas are locatedin Lanping Bai and Pumi Autonomous County of Yunnan
Province. Unlike other small ethnolinguistic groups in China,
this language is rapidly being replaced by stronger languages.
Even in the main residential district where Pumi language
preservation is relatively complete, the language vitality is also
declining.

Language

Vitality

andEndangerment

Second, we used the Field Investigation andStatistical Analysis Method, which involves the researcher
visiting the minority regions in China to collect data throughsemi structured interviews and questionnaires and thenevaluate the Pumi language situation. And third, theComparative Analysis Method was used, which involves
comparing the situations in the different study areas(Xiagaoping Village and Luoguqing Village) to conclude thelanguage vitality results and further get the reasons for theendangerment.

Questionnaires and Interviews
The content of the questionnaire is shown in the Appendix.
Because of a lack of investigation partners, tough objective
conditions, and limited time, the survey finally consisted of a
total of 40 questionnaires in the two villages, 14 of whichcame from Xiagaoping Village and 26 from Luoguqing
Village. For interviews, the author visited 11 Pumi people,
including the village heads, a civil servant, a secondary school
teacher, two merchants, and some ordinary villagers. Theygave relatively detailed answers from the macro and micro
perspective about the Pumi language. Figure 2 shows the

Flowchart of Methodology

respondents’ backgrounds. The sample contained enoughFirst, we administered a questionnaire and did interviews (seevariety to judge it as a fairly representative sample of thedetails in Appendix A and B) to obtain the updated indicator

populations of the two villages.

information that is related to language vitality assessment.

The 2017 PanSIGJournal

5

Figure 1. Flowchart of methodology adopted in this study.

Figure 2. Information about the interview data: (a) the gender ratio of the respondents in the two villages,(b) the educational level of the respondents in the two villages, (c) the age ratio of the respondents in thetwo villages, and (d) the occupations of the respondents in the two villages.

The 2017 PanSIGJournal

6

Results and Discussion

Today’s children also don’t speak the Pumi language and they

Analyzing the Language Vitality Indicators

usually choose the Chinese or Bai language as their main

The proportion of speakers within the total population.

language. At the same time, the phenomenon ofintermarriage in their village is very common. However,Pumi ethnic is a multilingual ethnic group and the Pumi

Luoguqing Village interviewees said they learned the Pumi

people commonly can speak more than one language (Li,language from childhood, from generation to generation;1983). Our investigation shows that all the respondents inthus now all the children also can speak the Pumi language.

Luoguqing Village and Xiagaoping Village can speak at least
two languages, and half of them can speak three languages. In
Xiagaoping Village, the proportion of the people who canspeak the Pumi language is only 7.1% （ 1 respondent). In
Luoguqing Village, the first language of all the people is thePumi Language (26 respondents). This means all the people
can speak the Pumi language in Luoguqing Village, but very
few people of Xiagaoping Village can speak Pumi language.
The results of the respondents from Xiagaoping Village also
confirmed that there are almost no people who speak thePumi language there. Because of mixing with a large number

They

also

acceptintermarriage,

but

the

intermarriage phenomenon in their village is extremely
limited. Thus, the intergenerational difference in the use of
the Pumi language in the two villages is obviously from theirparent’s generation; and the next generations became
completely different. In Xiagaoping Village, the high rate of
ethnic intermarriage results in their children usually ending
up giving up the language of their ethnic group. This must be
one of the important reasons for the endangerment of thePumi language.

of Bai people, they need to communicate with the Bai people,
and their main language has shifted into Bai language now.

Shifts in domains of language.

While respondents of Luoguqing Village said all

Language domain of use is another very important factor in

the villagers use the Pumi language, which they learned while

the language vitality. To a certain extent, it reflects thethey were children, but when they went out for studying or

language user's attitude and value tendencies. Therefore, theworking at a job, they began to learn other languages toshift of domains of language is a good indicator whencommunicate with other ethnic people. From thisevaluating the vitality of the endangered language. A language

perspective, living scattered and mixed with other ethnics

domain of use in this survey includes the following groups:

indeed is an important factor for the use of the Pumi language.

those that communicate with parents and elders at home,
those that communicate with siblings and peers at home,

Intergenerational language transmission.

those that communicate with their child or junior at home,
and those communicate with their classmates after school as

In Xiagaoping Village, the proportion of intermarriages

well as use it in the market and in their village meetings. Thenamong the respondents’ parents is 30%, and half of them canthese domains are divided into two cases—communicating in

speak the Pumi language, but only 7.1% of the next

a single language and two languages in each scenario.

generation can speak the Pumi language. The declining trendof intergenerational language transmission is obvious.
However, in Luoguqing Village, the preceding generation
does not have intermarriage phenomenon and their skill in
the Pumi language was proficient. The Pumi language
situation among the next generation is well preserved.
Xiagaoping Village interviewees said that the number of theirfathers and grandparents who can speak Pumi language islimited, and now only a few elderly people can speak it.

When they communicate with a single language ineach scenario, the situations of Xiagaoping Village andLuoguqing Village have a significant difference. The
Xiagaoping Village groups (Figure 3) show that there are nopeople who use the Pumi language in each scenario. In
Luoguqing Village (Figure 4), the respondents often
communicate with the local people in the Pumi language andcommunicate with nonlocal people in Chinese dialects. The

The 2017 PanSIGJournal

7

Pumi language holds an absolute advantage over all the

Regarding the question “Which kind of education

languages. But when the Pumi community members

mode do you want your next generation to receive in thecommunicate with their parents, their siblings and peers, andschool?” a proportion of 78.57% and 80.77% of thethe next generation, the proportion of their heritage language

respondents, respectively, in Xiagaoping Village andusage decreased gradually. This point also proves the

Luoguqing Village strongly hope their next generation

existence of a decrease of intergenerational language

receives bilingual education in Chinese and the Pumi

transmission in place. In the case of communicating in two

language. The villagers in both places also agreed that

languages in each scenario, other minority languages and thebilingual education is necessary. They believe they cannot lose

Chinese dialect are predominant in both of the villages

their heritage language. “Now, the policy of protecting

mentioned above; the Pumi language is rarely used.

minority language has been issued, so I hope the government

The main language of the respondents in Xiagaoping

can further realize it,” one of the Pumi villagers of Luoguqing

Village has basically shifted to other minority languages; theVillage said. He also said that he had even tried to haveuse of Chinese dialects also has a gradually developing trend.

bilingual education in his private kindergarten, but his

The common language of Luoguqing Village is still the Pumi

kindergarten went bankrupt at last because of a lack of funds.

language, which is widely used for most social occasions. But
in the meantime, the proportional use of the Pumi language
has a slight intergenerational decrease.

Community members’ attitudes towards thelanguage of their ethnic group.
A proportion of 42.9% and 84.6%, respectively, of the
respondents in Xiagaoping and Luoguqing stated that thePumi language is their favorite language. Both villages agree

Availability of materials for language education andliteracy.
The Pumi language has no written form. When writing thePumi people in Lanping County, the interviewees always use
Chinese characters or the Chinese characters which arephonetically similar to the Pumi language to represent thePumi language.

that Chinese dialects are the most useful languages (Figure 5).

In fact, there is much research on the ontology of

Only 35.7% and 46.2%, respectively, of the respondents in

the Pumi language. Some practitioners also have

Xiagaoping and Luoguqing stated that the Pumi language is

implemented their own experiments. For example, Sizhi

easy to learn. Almost all the respondents in both villages

Ding, in 1995, devised a pan-dialectal orthography as abelieve that the Pumi language is cordial. Most of thematerial for literacy and bilingual education to expand the

respondents hold the opinion that the social influence of thePumi language use in Dayang Village (Ding, 2007). In 2010,

Pumi language is highly significant, the proportion in

the Ninglang County Traditional Culture Association set up

Xiagaoping and Luoguqing is 50% and 73.1%, respectively

a Pumi bilingual teaching class in their national primary(Figure 6). In terms of the respondents' expectations of theschool. They used Tibetan to spell the Pumi language andfuture of the Pumi language (Figure 7), it is obvious that mostdeveloped three different teaching materials (Ane, 2014).

of the respondents in the two villages not only want to study

However, these attempts were unsuccessful in the end, as they

the Pumi language themselves, but also hope their friends andcould not be accepted universally and hence were not reallyrelatives around them study the Pumi language. Although theimplemented. Therefore, so far, no orthography is available

local people agree that Pumi language has a poor social

to the community.

function, they strongly desire that the government shouldtake measures to protect and maintain the Pumi language.

The 2017 PanSIGJournal8

Figure 3. Proportion of people who communicate in a single language in each scenario in Xiagaoping Village.

Figure 4. Proportion of people who communicate in a single language in each scenario in Luoguqing Village.

Figure 5. Proportion of responses to “Which language is the most useful language and yourfavorite language?” in the two villages.
The 2017 PanSIGJournal

9

Figure 6. Proportion of the language attitude in the two villages when asked about the characteristics of thePumi language.

Figure 7. Proportion of the language attitude in two villages when asked about their expectations of the future of
the Pumi language.
Governmental and institutional language attitudes
and policies.

reform and development of the minority language businessIn general, the Chinese government strongly stipulated for a

Medium and Long-Term Language and Culture Reform andlong time that all ethnic groups have the freedom to use andDevelopment Plan (2012-2020) issued by the Chinese

develop the language of their ethnic group. Specifically, in

National Language Committee of the Chinese Ministry ofJuly 2012, the Chinese State Council General Office issued

Education in December 2012. Its content is as follows: (a) to"The twelfth 5-year plan for minority career." It included the

speed up the promotion and popularization of Chinese inConstruction

Language

ethnic minority areas; (b) to scientifically protect the ethnicStandardization of Information, the Rescue and Protection

minority languages; (c) to promote the construction of

Project of Minority Endangered Languages, Minorities'

minority language standardization; (d) to take the minority

Cultural Relics Protection Project, and the Minority Ancientlanguages survey; and (e) to strengthen the scientific records

Books Protection Project, aimed at strengthening theand preservation of minority languages (Xing, 2014). Thus,

protection of minorities’ cultural heritage. Meanwhile, theit indicates that in China, all languages are protected by law,

ProjectoftheMinority

also have been included in the Outline of the National

The 2017 PanSIGJournal

10

and the government encourages the maintenance of all

vulnerable, and the availability of materials for language

languages by implementing explicit policies.

education and literacy is nonexistent. It is evident that thePumi language vitality of Luoguqing Village is relatively

Ethnic distribution, geographical features, andtraffic conditions.
Both of the two villages belong to Lanping Bai and Pumi
Autonomous County. The distance between Xiagaoping
Village and Luoguqing Village is only 41 kilometers, so someof their situations are relatively similar, such as thegeographical, socioeconomic, and cultural environments. Of
course, there are some important differences between them.
Two important differences of ethnic distribution, tourism,
and traffic conditions are as follows: (a) in Xiagaoping Village,
the Pumi people are mixed with a large number of Bai people,
concentrated in the residential area, who live in flat terrain
and next to the main road, thus convenient transportation
results in the spread of the dominant Bai language and theendangerment of weaker Pumi language; and (b) although
the Pumi people account for the vast majority of the
population in Luoguqing Village, they are scattered in themountains. The inconvenient traffic results in that they havefewer chances to contact tourists and people outside, which is
conducive to the preservation of the Pumi language.

stable, but a little vulnerable. However, both villages’ degrees
of governmental policies are safe, which provide a goodexternal political environment for language protection. And
the community members’ attitudes and the educational
expectation in the two villages are very safe, hence all the
Pumi people have a strong will to inherit Pumi language. In
other words, there is a good mass basis for the protection andheritage of the Pumi language.
This is the biggest achievement of this survey. Mostof the previous related literature has shown that the Pumi
people themselves do not treasure the Pumi language, and thepeople who can’t speak the Pumi language do not have apowerful desire to learn it. But this survey had a different
result: Through the development of society and theimplementation of relevant national policies, more and morePumi people have begun to change their previous concept—
they have started to become eager to learn the language of
their ethnic group. This is great progress!
Moreover, the survey provided statistics on themultiple-choice question “What do you think is the mostimportant for protecting the Pumi language in the future?”

Conclusion

The respondents’ choices are very valuable. The government's

Based on the detailed analysis of each of the above factors, we

Xiagaoping Village, where the Pumi language has been

can conclude two results (see Table 1.). Initially, this study

basically extinct, such as policy support, capital investment,

was focused on the current status of the Pumi language. In

and teacher training. In Luoguqing village, the most

Xiagaoping Village, The degree of these factors—

important factors are the teacher training and theintergenerational transmission, proportion of speakers

preparation of teaching materials. These show that thewithin the total population, shifts in domains of language use,

implementation of the bilingual education also faces a lot ofavailability of materials for language education and literacy,difficulties.

policy support does play the most important role inethnic distribution and geographical features, and traffic

In addition, this research still has some deficiencies.

conditions are critically endangered or extinct. Therefore, theFor example, the data is insufficient, and the survey area is

Pumi language of Xiagaoping Village is critically endangered

limited. Therefore, in the future, more far-reaching

and will become extinct. However, in Luoguqing Village, theinvestigations of the Pumi language should be carried out.

degree of the following factors is safe: intergenerational

Generally, in the current difficult condition of the Pumi

transmission, proportion of speakers within the total

language, we believe that the protection and revitalization of

population, the ethnic distribution, and geographical features

the Pumi language is a long and arduous task that requires theand traffic conditions. Shifts in domains of language use are

efforts of all the Pumi people and the government.

The 2017 PanSIGJournal

11

Table 1.
The 2 Pumi Villages Included in the Survey Evaluated Using the Language Endangerment Index
Xiagaoping Village

Luoguqing Village

Factors

Description

DegreeDescription

DegreeIntergenerational

The language is used by very few

Critically

The language is used

safe

Transmission

speakers, most of the great-endangeredby all ages, from

grandparental generation.
The proportion of speakers

Very few speak the language.

within the total population
Shifts in Domains ofHighly limited domains

Language Usechildren up.
Critically

All speak theendangered

language.

safe

Criticallymultilingual parity

vulnerable

No orthography isextinct

endangered

Availability of Materials for

No orthography is available to the

Language Education andcommunity.

Extinct

available to the

Literacy

community.

Governmental andAll languages are protected.

Institutional Language

Equal support

Safe

All languages aresafe

protected.

Attitudes and Policies

Equal support.

Community Members’

Most members support language

Attitudes towards The

maintenance

Vulnerable

Most members

vulnerable

support language

Language of Their Ethnic

maintenanceGroup
The Ethnic Distribution

Pumi people mixed with a large number

Endangeredof Bai people

No other ethnics

safe

mixed with Pumi
peopleGeographical Features and

The whole village is in flat terrain andTraffic Conditions

next to the main road.

Endangered

The villagers

safe

scattered in themountains. The
traffic is notconvenient.

The Educational

Most members expect the

Expectation

bilingual education

Safe

Most members

safe

expect the bilingual
education

Note. This table slightly changes some the names of the degree of UNESCO indicators to achieve the unity of the Chinese indicators, based on
UNESCO grade division. Adapted from “Language vitality and endangerment".

The 2017 PanSIGJournal

12

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the Pumi people for their active
participation in the investigation. This work was supported
by Human Security Program of Tohoku University and theMinistry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology (MEXT).

Hong-kai, S. U. N. (2006). Ranking of the Chinese ethnic
languages in terms of their vitality. Journal of Guangxi
University for Nationalities (Philosophy and Social Sciences
Edition), 5, 003.
Hongkai, S. (2001). Research on the topic of endangered
languages. Language Teaching and Research, 1(4).
Janhunen, J., & Salminen, T. (1993). UNESCO red book

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on endangered languages: Northeast Asia. 2007-08-22[2008-09-30]. Retrieved from http://www. helsinki. ~tasalmin/nasia—index. htm1.
Moseley, C. (Ed.). (2010). Atlas of the world's languages indanger.Paris, Unesco.

Ding, P. S. (2007). Challenges in language modernization in

Qingxia, D., & Youling, D. (2001). A preliminary study on

China: The case of Prinmi. In Working together for

the qualitative positioning in endangered languages

endangered languages: Research challenges and social

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impacts (Proceedings of FEL XI), 120-126.

28(2), 120-125.

Dixon, R. M. (1997). The rise and fall of languages.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Dorian, N. C. (1992). Investigating obsolescence:
Studies in language contraction and death (No. 7).
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Lee, N. H., & Van Way, J. (2016). Assessing levelsof endangerment in the Catalogue of Endangered
Languages (ELCat) using the Language Endangerment
Index (LEI). Language in Society, 45(2), 271-292.
Lewis, M. P., & Simons, G. F. (2010). Assessing
endangerment: Expanding Fishman’s GIDS. Revueroumaine de linguistique, 55(2), 103-120.
Fishman, J. A. (1991). Reversing language shift:

Shaozun, L. (1983). Brief description of the Pumi Language.
Beijing, China: National Publishing House
Shixuan, X. (2001). Endangered languages research. Beijing,
China: Central University for Nationalities Press.
Upholding, I. V. (2010). China’s ethnic policy and common
prosperity and development of all ethnic groups. Chinese
Journal of International Law, 221, 259.
Xing, H. (2001). An interpretation of the current policy ofminority languages in China. Chinese Sociolinguistics, 1020.
Zihui, X., & Junjun, F. (2011). Indicator system for
language ecology monitoring and evaluation. Language
Science, 5, 270-280.

Theoretical and empirical foundations of assistance tothreatened languages (Vol. 76). Cleveden, England:
Multilingual Matters.

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13

Appendix A
A Questionnaire on Language Attitudes and Ethnic Identity in the Pumi Language
Age :Gender : Male / Female

Occupation :Education level: A Primary school and below B Junior middle school C High school D Secondary school

E

University and aboveYour father’s nationality:

Education level: Pumi language proficiency: Skilled / Good / Slightly understand / NoneYour mother’s nationality: Education level:A

Pumi language proficiency: Skilled / Good / Slightly understand / None

(Multiple choices)

1. Which language did you first learn as a child?
A Pumi language B Mandarin

C Chinese Dialect D Minority Other languages

What is the language level? A Skilled

B GoodC Slightly understand2. What is your second language?
A Pumi language B Mandarin C Chinese Dialect D Minority Other Languages E None
What is the language level? A Skilled

B GoodC Slightly understand3. What is your third language?
A Pumi language B Mandarin C Chinese Dialect D Minority Other Languages E None
What is the language level? A Skilled

B GoodC Slightly understand4. What language do you currently use to communicate with parents and elders at home? A Pumi language B Mandarin
Chinese Dialect D Other minority Languages (C)

If more than one language，what percent of each language do you use to communicate with them？
The first language () , the second language (A 0-24% B 25%-49%

C 50%-74%), the third language ()

D75%-100%

5. What language do you currently use to communicate with siblings and peers at home?
A Pumi language B Mandarin

C Chinese Dialect D Other minority Languages ()

If more than one language，what percent of each language do you use to communicate with them?
The first language () , the second language (A 0-24% B 25%-49%

C 50%-74%), the third language ()

D75%-100%

6. Which language do you currently use to communicate with your child or junior at home?
A Pumi language B Mandarin

C Chinese Dialect D Other minority Languages ()

If more than one language，what percent of each language do you use to communicate with them? The first language (the second language (), the third language (A 0-24% B 25%-49%

C 50%-74%),)
D75%-100%

7. What language do you use to communicate with the local ethnic people in the village?
A Pumi language B Mandarin

C Chinese Dialect D Other minority Languages ()

If more than one language，what percent of each language do you use to communicate with them?
The first language () , the second language (A 0-24% B 25%-49%

C 50%-74%), the third language ()

D75%-100%

8. What language do you communicate with non-local ethnic people in the village?
A Pumi language B Mandarin

C Chinese Dialect D Other minority Languages ()

If more than one language，what percent of each language do you use to communicate with them?
The first language () , the second language (), the third language ()

The 2017 PanSIGJournal

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A 0-24% B 25%-49%

C 50%-74%

D75%-100%

9. What kind of language do you use to communicate with your classmates after school?
A Pumi language B Mandarin

C Chinese Dialect D Other minority Languages ()

If more than one language，what percent of each language do you use to communicate with them?
The first language () , the second language (A 0-24% B 25%-49%), the third language (C 50%-74%)

D75%-100%

10. What language do you use in the market?
A Pumi language B Mandarin

C Chinese Dialect D Other Minority Languages ()

If more than one language，what percent of each language do you use to communicate with them?
The first language () , the second language (A 0-24% B 25%-49%), the third language (C 50%-74%)

D75%-100%

11. What language do you use in your village meetings?
A Pumi language B Mandarin

C Chinese Dialect D Other Minority Languages ()

If more than one language，what percent of each language do you use to communicate with them?
The first language () , the second language (A 0-24% B 25%-49%), the third language (C 50%-74%)

D75%-100%

12. You think the best language to listen to is
A Pumi B Mandarin C Chinese Dialect D Other minority languages E Other languages
13. Your favorite language is
A Pumi B Mandarin C Chinese Dialect D Other minority languages E Other languages
14. You think the most useful language is
A Pumi B Mandarin C Chinese Dialect D Other minority languages E Other languages
15. Do you think Pumi language is cordial?
A Very cordial B Cordial

C General D No feeling

16. Is the Pumi language social influence big?
A Very big

B Big

C Not so big D No influence

17. Do you think Pumi language is easier to learn than other languages?
A Very easy B Easy

C Not so easy D Hard

18. Do you think it necessary to learn (speak) Pumi language?
A very necessary B necessary C not so necessary D not necessary
If you think it necessary, please answer this, why? (Multiple choice)
A Is conducive to the succession of our culture B Will help work and make money
C Will have more friends D Convenient life

E Other ()

19. If you speak Pumi language, please answer this, what is the reason that you learn (speak) Pumi language? (Multiple choices)
A My parents’ requirement B personal like

C for the future job, study, and test.

learn Pumi language E others (D As the Pumi people, I should) If you do not speak Pumi, please answer. What do you think is themost important problem you encountered in Pumi language? (Multiple choices) A So few people around me to speak it thatthe speaking opportunity is less B I afraid of others jokes and fear of communication
not want to learn

C It is difficult to speak and I do

D Useless, unnecessary to learn (say)20. If the Pumi people who can speak Pumi language in your village went out to work or study for some time and then cameback to the village, but they no longer speak Pumi language. What’s your attitude?
A Should not B Does not matter D Support
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21. Are you willing to further study and master the national language?
A Very willing to B willing to

C Does not matter D Do not want

22. If the Pumi relatives and friends do not speak Pumi, do you want them to learn it?
A Very much hope B HopeC Does not matter D Does not want

23. Do you want all the Pumi people to speak Pumi language?
A Urge B Take everything as it comes C does not matter D does not want B Language Education
24. What kind of language mode would you expect your next generation to receive in their school?
A Chinese education B Pumi language education C Chinese and Pumi language balance education
25. Do you think your primary school in your hometown should teach both Chinese and Pumi language?
A Very willing to B Willing to C Does not matter D Against
26. Do you want to create a set of Pumi characters on the basis of Pumi language?
A very hope B hope

C Does not matter D does not want to

27. What is the most needed now in Pumi language schooling: (Please sort by level of need)
A Policy support

B Capital investment

C Teacher training

D Teaching materials compiled E Pumi people want to learn

Appendix B
Interview Questions:
1. Your self-introduction
2 .Can you speak the language of your ethnic group? When and how did you learn it?
3. Under what circumstances would you use your language of your ethnic group? What is the situation of language of your ethnic
group usage at home?
4. What is your reason for using the language of your ethnic group? (For communication, for customary, because the people
around you speak it，or you have feeling about the language of your ethnic group? )5. What is the current Pumi language use in your village? The Intermarriage situation?
6. What is the current Pumi language use of Pumi children? The current situation of children education?
7. What do you think about current Pumi's bilingual education? What do you think of the necessity and the possibility of
implementation of bilingual education (Chinese and Pumi language)?
8. What is the Pumi development prospect? (Do you think it will be extinct or will maintain, or elevate, etc.) How can we
effectively maintain Pumi language?
9. How do you think the use of Pumi language，Mandarin, Chinese dialect and other minority languages? (Which is important?
the role?).
10. How do you think of the Pumi people who do not speak Pumi language?
11. Do you often speak Pumi language with the local Pumi people?
12. What is your attitude towards the language of your ethnic group and the Pumi identity?
13. Do you think it is necessary to improve the Pumi people's level of the Pumi language and Pumi culture?
14. What measures do you think we should take to protect the language of your ethnic group and your Pumi culture?

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16

Author Biographies
Jing An is a Ph.D. student of the Graduate School of International Cultural Studies, Tohoku
University. She belongs to the Department of Environment and Resources Policy. She is also a
student of the Human Security Program in Language Development, especially China’s
endangered minority Languages. an.jing.r8@dc.tohoku.ac.jp
Peter John Wanner is an Associate Professor of the Graduate School of International Cultural
Studies, Tohoku University. He belongs to the Language Division and is in the Applied
Linguistics Department. He also works with Human Security Issues in Language Development,
especially endangered Languages. wanner.peter.john.e3@tohoku.ac.jp
Jeong Soo Yu is a professor of the Graduate School of International Cultural Studies, Tohoku
University. He belongs to the Division of International Cultural Studies and he is in the
Department of International Environment and Resources Policy and Human Security Program.
jeongsoo.yu.d7@tohoku.ac.jp

Naoyuki Ono is the dean and a professor of the Graduate School of International Cultural
Studies, Tohoku University. He belongs to the Division of International Cultural Studies and heis in the Department of Theoretical Linguistics. naoyuki.ono.b7@tohoku.ac.jp

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Social Emotional Learning and Mental Health Issues in Japanese Education
Arnold Arao
Kurashiki Board of Education / University of Missouri (Columbia)
arnoldarao@gmail.com

It has become obvious that student success is determined by more than academic proficiency. 21st century
skills learning emphasizes a well-rounded approach to education promoting the development ofcompetencies beyond academic proficiency that will allow students to participate effectively in the dynamic
and evolving workforce of the future. An important element of this holistic education is a focus on themental and emotional well-being of individuals. Japan, like many other Asian countries, has a demanding
education system. Educators are all too familiar with the stress placed on students by high-stakes testing
environment. Over the years, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)
has implemented interventions such as shorter school hours, an emphasis on exercise and socialization, as
well as increased opportunities for dialogue with counsellors and teachers strategies aimed not only atdeveloping lifelong learners, but also to address the mental and emotional challenges faced by Japaneseyouth and adolescents. Despite Japan’s impressive secondary schooling graduation rate (97%), less than one
third of Japanese students go on to pursue and complete higher learning (OECD, 2015, pp. 41, 55).
Moreover, many are concerned that such a demanding education system factors into the ever-increasing
episodes of depression, ijime, and suicide among adolescents (OECD, 2012, p. 49).

Mental, Emotional, and Behavioural Disorders(MEB)

Depression
The past few decades have seen a dramatic change in how

In Japan’s collectivist society, the emphasis on social norms

Japanese view and manage mental disorders, particularly

and consensus has given rise to a form of “social privatization”

depression. A greater awareness of mental disorders as having

in which individual impulses are suppressed to secureboth physiological and psychological basis (depression was

acceptance into the group (Rios-Ellis, Bellamy, & Shoji,

once considered こ こ ろの かぜ, literally a “cold of the2000). Research suggests that this Japanese “need forsoul”), and the recognition that environmental factors

inclusion” and the related fear of exclusion make individuals

contributed as much as genetic propensity to outcomes,

reluctant to discuss, much less seek help for, mental disorders

allowed individuals to seek and receive more effective(Ando, Asakura, & Simons-Morton, 2005; Laser, Luster, &recovery options. However, the stigma of mental disorders

Oshio, 2007; Pallos, Yamada, & Okawa, 2005; Rios-Ellis,

persists. The Japan Committee for Prevention andBellamy, & Shoji, 2000; Watanabe, et al., 2012). For youth

Treatment of Depression (JCPTD) estimates that over 6% of

andmanifests

the population is clinically depressed, despite a reported

internally—as depression and social withdrawal (school

incidence of only 2%. In elementary school, one in 12

refusal and hikikomori), externally—in the form of deviant

students is reported to be depressed while that number jumps

behaviour or DSH (deliberate self-harm), and/or throughto one in four in junior high school (Pulvers, 2012).

adversity with existing relationships—in the form of bullying.

Preliminary research into young adults reports similar results

adolescents,

thesubsequentanxietywith estimates of one in five students suffering from clinicaldepression (Tomoda, Mori, Kimura, Takahashi, & Kitamura,2000). Given that these are only the reported and diagnosed
The 2017 PanSIGJournal

18

cases, depression is even more pervasive than these numbers

themselves from the group. Moreover, the Japanesesuggest.

educational system does not readily promote open

Hikikomori

communication about these problems with a tendency to

Hikikomori¸ “shut-ins,” have received much attention partly
due to sensationalized media coverage of hikikomori as
perpetrators of senseless violence and partly because it was apathology originally thought to be unique to Japan (Rizzo,2016). The Japanese Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare
defines hikikomori as “persons who refuse to leave theirhouses for a period exceeding 6 months” (Itou, 2003). In fact,many hikikomori remain in isolation for years and even
decades (Jones, 2006). Hikikomori manifests at a time when
adult responsibilities are forced on adolescents who feeloverwhelmed and incapable of fulfilling expected roles. Some

prefer teachers and administrators who appear not to have
any incidents of ijime to those who are able to manage ijime
effectively. There is much speculation that reported cases ofijime reflect only one tenth of all actual incidents (Rios-Ellis,
Bellamy, & Shoji, 2000). What makes ijime so difficult toresolve is that it often seems to be an accepted form of social
interaction. In Japan, where rigid social systems model
behaviour, there is a tendency to pass down, from cohort tocohort, negative social practices and mores, such as ijime, withlittle opportunity to develop the skills required to resist
negative peer influences.

researchers point to domestic pressures as a factor, while

Suicideothers refer to the incongruity between modern JapaneseSuicide has been a pressing health concern in Japan for wellyouth, influenced by western notions of self and individuality,

over half a century. Japan ranks second in suicide rate among

and the traditional notions of social harmony and rigid social

OECD countries and 17th in the world (OECD, 2015;

hierarchy. There are believed to be between 700,000 and 1

WHO, 2016). The number of suicides still stands at well overmillion cases of hikikomori in Japan, and an estimated 1.5

25,000 per year or about 70 suicides each day and the number

million at high risk of developing this condition (Hoffman,of annual suicides continues to grow, albeit more slowly2011). However, these numbers may be an underestimate, as(Japan Foreign Press Centre, 2014; White Paper, 2015).

cases of female and young adolescent hikikomori areunderreported (Fogel & Kawai, 2009).

A particular worry for educators is the fact thatadolescents and young adults are highly vulnerable to suicidal

Ijime

ideation (thoughts of suicide) (Hidaka, et al., 2008). Japan is

Whereas hikikomori is egosyntonic (consistent with one's

the only G7 country where suicide is the leading cause ofown beliefs and values), a voluntary withdrawal from society,school bullying, or ijime, is not only unwelcome, but also
pernicious. For a child who has been brought up believingthat success in life and as a human being is defined by groupaffiliation, the effects of ijime and subsequent social exclusion
can be devastating.
In 2014, MEXT reported 188,057 cases of ijime inschools, up by over 2,000 cases from the previous year.
Though junior and senior high schools saw a drop inincidents, a greater number of incidents are being reported byyounger students (Asia Pacific News, 2015). Unfortunately,
statistics regarding the prevalence of bullying in Japan tend to
be unreliable because of the unwillingness of victims to reportincidents for fear of repercussions or further isolatingmortality among adolescents and young adults, accountingfor 6.9% of all causes of death (Japan Foreign Press Centre,2014). Of specific concern are women in their 20s, who
account for 2.9% of all suicides, and adolescent males, who
represent 7.6% (Cabinet Office of Japan, 2015).
Risk factors among Japanese youth include mental
health problems, domestic strife, and poor peer relationships(Cabinet Office of Japan, 2015; Hidaka et al., 2008).
Moreover, studies on DSH, a predictor for repeated DSH
and completed suicide, suggest that emotional dysregulation,
depression, use of alcohol and drugs, and early sexual activity
are strong moderators for suicidal ideation (Cabinet Office ofJapan, 2015; Hidaka et al., 2008; Nishikawa, Hagglof, &Sundbom, 2010; Watanabe, et al., 2012). This is especiallysalient for Japanese women, who engage in DSH four times
The 2017 PanSIGJournal19

more often than men (Cabinet Office of Japan, 2015; Kerig,social-emotional competencies that describe the skills

Ludlow, & Wenar, 2012, p. 331; Watanabe, et al., 2012).

required for students’ success (CASEL, 2017):

Individuals diagnosed with and at risk forSelf-awareness: the skills to recognize one’s thoughts

developing disorders often present with deficits thatand emotions and understand the effect they havenegatively impact peer relationships. Emotional andon behaviour and on others. This includes a well-cognitive deficits and the resulting behaviours they produce

developed sense of self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-

make it difficult to “generate, evaluate and choose a response

confidence, perceived control, and optimism.

in social situations” resulting in peer aggression and ostracismSelf-management: the skills to effectively regulate(Parker, Rubin, Erath, Wojslawowicz, & Buskirk, 2006,

one's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. This

p.466). Updates to the DSM-V (Diagnostic and Statisticalincludes the abilities to manage stress and tackle

Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition) emphasize

challenges,

adaptive functioning and reflect the understanding thatmonitoring progress, and using effective problem-

many disorders are problematic specifically because theysolving strategies.

adversely affect functioning within the social domain. In fact,



byimplementing

goal

setting,

Social awareness: the skills to recognize andstudies demonstrate that the most effective academic

appreciate the perspective of others includinginterventions are not those that target academic behaviours

respect for divergent views and utilization of socialand outcomes, but ones that specifically address prosocial andresources such as family, school, and community.

proactive behaviours (Iovannone, Dunlap, Huber, & Kincaid,

2003, p. 160).

healthy relationships including the abilities tocommunicate and collaborate effectively, to resolve

Social and Emotional Learninginterpersonal conflict, as well as to resist the effects

Social and emotional learning (SEL) addresses those factorsthat make learning challenging for students so that they canbetter capitalize on learning opportunities. SEL programs
and intervention are effective not only at treating identified
problems, but also preventing the development of problems
by ameliorating risk factors, realigning deviant development

Relationship skills: the skills to develop and nurtureof negative social influences.


Responsible decision making: the skills to identify andrespond effectively to challenges including theability to consider multiple factors to makeresponsible and ethical decisions.

and maintaining gains throughout a child’s development.

As a preventive measure, SEL skills empower students to

Many countries have implemented SEL programs with muchcapitalize on their environment, take advantage of available

success. Japan, in turn, has begun investigating the viability ofresources, and make responsible decisions. This is particularly

SEL programs (Ikesako & Miyamoto, 2015).

important for students who feel disconnected from peer

What is Social and Emotional Learning?

groups and is instrumental to prevent disengagement fromschooling and socialization. By promoting dialogue, solving

SEL, also referred to as “noncognitive skills,” “soft skills,”

problems becomes the focus rather than managing the“21 century skills,” “character strengths,” and “whole childproblem student. Such a shift allows struggling students tolearning,” is the process of developing the skills andnegotiate the incongruities of expectations and perceived

competencies related to recognizing and managing emotions,capabilities and helps these students safely reexamine theirdeveloping care and concern for others, establishing positiverole in society and develop effective coping strategies.

strelationships, making responsible decisions, and handlingchallenging situations constructively (Zines, Weissberg,
Wang, & Walberg, 2004). According to the Collaborative forSocial and Emotional Learning (CASEL), there are five core

Withinanacademic

environment,

SEL

interventions are predicated on the idea that students’
academic performance is linked to their ability to regulateemotions, communicate effectively, and use problem-solving
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20

strategies to overcome academic challenges and interpersonal

Zucker, 2014, p. 96)—can also be integrated into existing

conflicts. It is important to remember that students do notpractice.

enter school knowing how to interact effectively with peers

implementation, SEL interventions should include:

and teachers or how to successfully navigate stressful
academic situations. Neither do students necessarily

Regardless

of

the

form

and

degreeofStudent-Centered discipline

understand how emotions impact decisions and affect others

Student-centered discipline happens when teachers provide

around them. Like academic content, these social andopportunities for learners to have input into what happens inemotional skills need to be learned, practiced, and developed.

the classrooms. Rather than focus on punitive measures andSuch skill development lends itself well to alanguage learning environment, with its emphasis on social
interaction and communication, particularly in classrooms
that incorporate communicative activities. Effective language
learning hinges on student affect and is as much a process of
intrapersonaldialogue

as

it

is

of

interpersonalcommunication. In addition, implementing SEL in languagelearning environments also supports language learners facing
challenges unique to learning a foreign language. Learners
often have yet to acquire the vocabulary and skills to express
themselves satisfactorily, especially their concerns andproblems. They experience frustration from the gap between

limiting actions, teachers work with students to develop
acceptable norms and logical consequences. In this way,
students learn to regulate their own behaviour and can
problem-solve difficulties that may arise.

Teacher language
Teachers can ncourage students for effort rather than foraccomplishment by focusing on what the student did andwhat they can do to become better. Changing how one praises
a student (i.e., praising effort over ability) can bring about agrowth mindset resulting in —persistence and what Dweck(2006) termed academic tenacity.

what they want to say and what they are able to say, which can

Responsibility and choicelead to a reluctance to engage in social interactions andCreate opportunities for students to make responsible

academic activities. As students learn a foreign language, theydecisions about their work and provide meaningful input

also develop their identities as language speakers. Limited

into not only what they learn but how they learn it. Social

ability in a foreign language may lead to perceptions ofresponsibility can also be developed by the implementation of

marginalization or prejudice. Moreover, social interaction

peer or cross-age tutoring or contributing to service learning

leads to engagement with various ideas and beliefs that areprograms (e.g., extending learning to engagement in theoften different from what students hold to be true. This isschool or local community).

particularly true when encountering a foreign culture. SEL isa process of implementing skills such as managing learning

Warmth and support

expectations, developing relationships, communicating

Though many teachers already work to ensure that theireffectively, being sensitive to others, collaborating, andclassrooms are safe and supportive environments, one

negotiating one’s identity, that are required to work througheffective practice is to provide opportunities for students tochallenges to effect positive outcomes.

showcase what they have learned. This can be done throughSEL Implementation

student-led discussions or lectures or even through the use of

SEL interventions do not have to be massive efforts to belearned or communicate what they are having trouble with.

effective (Durlak et al., 2011, p. 413). Tough (2012) utilizes
dual-purpose instruction, which involves explicitly teaching“exit tickets,” where students can record what they have

Cooperative learning

academic alongside character content. In addition, micro-

Cooperative learning is much more than “group work.” Itchanges—resource efficient, data-driven “small but highly

involves students pooling their resources to engage with

beneficial shifts in classroom practices” (Doll, Brehm, &content in a meaningful way. Students are required to be
The 2017 PanSIGJournal

21

aware of how they work together and be able to monitor theirprogress toward their established goal. Incorporating
student-developed rubrics that define collaborative andindividual accountability are helpful tools.

Classroom discussions
What distinguishes classroom discussions from conversations
is that in discussions, students and teachers build from eachothers’ ideas. Effective classroom discussion is student driven
and provides learners the opportunity to broaden theirperspectives and expand not only their own ideas but theCompetence building
Competenceisdeveloped

throughthesystematic

implementation of modelling, practice, feedback, andcoaching. Responsive classrooms are where teachers model
expected behaviors, monitor student performance, provide
feedback, and facilitate conflict resolution to solve problems
as they arise. These classrooms are rife with learning
opportunities that students and teachers capitalize on todevelop effective social and emotional skills. (Adapted from
Yoder, 2014)

ideas of others, whereas traditional classrooms conversations

Many educators already implement these in their

are often teacher assigned and bounded by target language orclassrooms. However, they are often not thought of as

topic.

opportunities to promote social and emotional learning. For

Self-assessment and self-reflection

example, cooperative learning and classroom discussions areoften implemented without focusing on the social skills being

Teachers can ask students to reflect and assess their own

used to make these tasks successful. A greater awareness of

performance in order to identify areas for improvement. SuchSEL and practices allows educators to tie what they are

self-assessment works when teachers work with students tocurrently doing with the development of social anddevelop criteria and priorities for learning, against which

emotional skills.

students can monitor their progress. In addition, it isWhat the Data Shows

important that students learn and practice how to source andutilize resources in their environment to help them meet

The past few decades have seen substantial gains resulting

their learning goals.

from programs implementing SEL approaches to reduce

Balanced instruction

behavior problems and support prosocial interactions.
Research has indicated that the development of SEL

Balanced instruction entails balancing direct instruction withcompetencies has a direct, positive effect on both behaviouralactive learning, providing students the opportunity to learn

and academic outcomes (Farrington et al., 2012) with

about and engage with content. It also entails balancing

improvement in academic performance by up to 11

individual with collaborative work. Project-based learning

percentile points (Durlak, Weissberg, Dyminicki, Taylor, &and portfolios provide many opportunities for this.

Schellinger, 2011, p. 417). Follow-up studies support these

Academic press and expectations

results and indicate that noncognitive skills, more than IQ,

Teachers want their students to succeed and many work hard

Matthews, & Kelly, 2007, p. 1098). Further, noncognitive

to support their students’ efforts. However, it should befactors are better predictors of student outcomes in school

remembered that students must also recognize that theand in life than cognitive measures such as test scores or IQ

responsibility for success, and failure, is ultimately theirs. To(Dweck, Walton, & Cohen, 2014, p. 214; Elias, Parker, Kash,effectively do this, teachers must be aware not just of students’

Weissberg, & O'Brien, 2008, p. 254; Weissberg & Cascarino,

academic capabilities but also their emotional reaction to2013).

academic challenges.

account for academic performance (Duckworth, Peterson,

To date, much SEL research and practice has
focussed specifically on K-12 where the development ofsocialization and intrapersonal skills are necessary for
The 2017 PanSIGJournal22

individuals to adapt to changing environments and meet

implementation of status of suicide prevention in Japandevelopment expectations. However, recent research on the2014. Tokyo: Government of Japan, Author.

implementation of SEL in higher education environmentsshows much promise, particularly those interventions that

CASEL. (2017). CASEL core competencies. Retrieved fromhttps://casel.org/core-competencies/

focus on the cognitive aspect of emotional processing, such as

Conley, C. S. (2015). SEL in higher education. In J. A.

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Author Biography:
Arnold F. Arao is currently an instructor for the Kurashiki BOE. He earned a M.Ed. in
Educational Psychology. His research interests include developmental psychology and special
needs education. His current focus is the integration of non-cognitive skills instruction inclassrooms. He is the editor for the LD-Sig’s publication, Learning Learning.

The 2017 PanSIGJournal25

[r] Interference in Learning Spanish as a Foreign Language
Miguel Campos
Tohoku University
migerukt@gmail.com
Phonological interference occurs when language sound systems differ at segmental levels. In this study, it
will be possible to identify the pronunciation success ratios of the phonological segment [r] in Japanese
students of Spanish within their first year of SLA. In order to achieve the aforementioned, 12 audiorecorded sets of 59 students were examined through the direct perception method and a speech analysis
software (PRAAT). 743 utterances containing the target segment were found organized into lexical units.
The articulatory performance, including all allophonic deviations, as well as the phonological interference
cases were analyzed and categorized in order to identify some of the major phonological difficulties inlearning Spanish as a FL.
音声体系に分節レベルで違いのある異なる言語間では音韻上の干渉が生じる。本研究では日本語を母語とし、第二言語としての習得期間が 1 年未満のスペイン語学習者が分節音[r]を正しく発音する割合を調査した。59 名の学習者が産出した各 12 本の録音ファイ
ルを直接認識法および音声分析ソフト（PRAAT)を用いて分析した。語彙単位内に含まれた分析対象分節音の発話が総計 743 個確認された。全ての異音を含む調音の成果と音韻上の干渉例を分析・分類し、外国語としてのスペイン語学習において生じうる主たる音
韻上の困難さの特定を行った。

Second language acquisition processes acknowledge the fact

only if they can perceive the main differences with theirthat second language learners (SLLs) will substitute orclosest counterpart in their L1; if not, such sound might betransfer sounds in order to simplify speech; and use similar

assimilated within a single L1 category and therefore interferesounds from L1 when some sounds from L2 are not present

in the learning process of the corresponding L2 category

in their phonological system (Crystal, 1987). However,(Altmann & Kabak, 2011).

Trubetskoy (2005) after studying the perceptive operational

Japanese and Spanish are certainly two very

processes in second language acquisition (SLA), added to thedifferent languages, in regard of their origin, grammaticalequation his well-known “phonological filter” proposal thatstructure, lexicon, writing systems, among many other areas.

stands for the speaker inability of perceiving non-native

However, at phonological level, Japanese and Spanish havesegments rather than just not being able to utter them. SLLs

some similarities (Ueda, 1977), both have 5 vowel sounds,

will face these phenomena in all their range: the distribution

shared the same stops, most of the fricatives, and more.

and number of phonemes in the contrastive systems, syllable

Nevertheless, as in any other pair of languages, there are somestructure, allophonic variations, prosodic shortening andsegments not shared in both sound systems, such as thelengthening, diachronic usage, among others.

segment [r], which is the main subject of this study.

Furthermore, Flege's speech learning model (Flege,

Considering the phonetic level, there are also several

1987, 1995) states that SLLs will be more likely to distinguishdifferences, such as the case of Japanese syllable structure,

L1 and L2 sounds when they are less similar in their

which certainly interferes in the pronunciation of SLLs

phonological categories. In this way, SLLs will be able to(Carruthers, 2005).

establish one or some new L2 categories of a given L2 soundThe 2017 PanSIGJournal

26

Japanese language does not have distinctive liquid

some considerations based on epenthesis phenomena (mainly

segments, but the Spanish sound inventory does ([r], [ɾ] andanaptyxis) in echo vowel were revised, as well as some gairaigo[l]), and despite there are several allophones of the Japaneselexicon (Labrune, 2012; Daulton, 2001), such as in the caseliquid [ɺ], they do not trigger any miscommunication in allof the words ‘restaurante’ ( レ ス ト ラ ン ) and ‘Puerto

their possible deviations. However, it is important that

Rico’(プエルトリコ) found in this study; however, none of

Spanish SLLs are able to identify the importance of these

these phenomena were described in this paper. Also, somedistinctive segments, as it could lead to misunderstanding, as

implications of L3 language acquisition theories werein the case of the following minimal pairs:

considered to discriminate if the presence of a previous L2 inpelo [l] (hair) - pero [ɾ] (but) - perro [r] (dog)the sample subjects might have contributed to phonologicalNi siquiera tengo ni un pelo (I do not even have a hair)

improvement of L3 (Wrembel, 2014), or on the contrary, led

Ni siquiera tengo ni un pero (I do not even have a ‘but’

to phonological interference.

[objection])

In order to accomplish the aforementioned, 59

Ni siquiera tengo ni un perro (I do not even have a dog)

Japanese students of Spanish (27 male and 32 female) divided

Therefore, understanding what are likely to be thein two groups, within their first year of language learning,variety of utterances of certain sounds ([l], [ɾ] and [r], in thisrecorded 12 sets of audios (stored in .wav format); all of themcase) is vital to create or choose methodological strategies towere reading assessments taken in their Spanish class which

improve SLLs’ speech accuracy; moving from what and how

were leveled according to the student’s lexicon and grammar

something is currently being uttered to what and how theyknowledge. Some of them contained only one [r] utterance

should be. Usually, SLLs do not own these skills on their own;

or more, which means that there is not relation of the number

therefore, providing the knowledge of the issues and remedialof sets recorded and the amount of [r] utterances in them,actions will allow them to move forward in their SLA process.

appearing in natural (not research-intended) speech (Excerpt1). Each student had the opportunity to record their reading

Methods and Analysis

assessment as many times as they considered was necessary

Through contrastive analysis between phonetic inventories

and choose the audio of what they believed was their bestof Spanish and Japanese, Spanish learners’ speech was

performance. Audio were recorded in individual computers

analyzed in order to attain an empirical registry of potential

with personal headsets through lab licensed audiovisual

articulatory interferences in their SLA. For it, the perceptual

software. Audios with not enough sound quality, noise

assimilation model (PAM) developed by Best et al. (1994)

overlap or without the standards for a proper analysis were

was referred to rank the phenomena in 3 degrees of

dismissed.

perceptual differentiation: 1) L2 sound is assimilated to an L1

In order to verify the rates of accuracy andcategory. 2) L2 sound is assimilated as an uncategorizableinterference, the audio sets were recorded in a 7 months span,speech sound. 3) L2 sound is not assimilated to speech.

so that it was possible to discard one-time errors in the

Furthermore,

due

to

some

phonologicalstudent’s utterances. Also, accuracy rates over time percorrespondence in both languages, only the segment

student were analyzed to identify the phonological progress[r] (alveolar - trill) was considered for this study, being oneof each one of the participants.

of a few segments not existing in the Japanese sound system;

From all sets, 743 utterances containing the segment [r] were

however, even though [r] is not formally part of it, it could befound, isolated and organized in 7 lexical units (utterance

found sometimes in Tokyo’s Shitamachi dialect, but “thefrequency/student): restaurante (4), Rico (2), Riqui (1),alveolar trill [r] is a variant marked with vulgarity” (Labrune,

Ramos (3), guitarrista (1), Rosa (1), and aburridas (1).

2012, p. 92), and therefore, its use tends to be avoided.

As suggested by Pearce (2011), each audio was

Despite there was no analysis of clusters carried out,

analyzed through the direct perception method but also withcharacteristic of the syllabic nature of Japanese language,

the support of a speech processing software (PRAAT) when
The 2017 PanSIGJournal

27

the discrimination of single segments was not possible using

utterances were due to phonological interferences of L2 into

this method. Then, the data was schematized and rates of

L1 or not.

accuracy frequency were determine to see if certain segment

Excerpt 1
Script 801
8.
02
Guía: Aquí estamos en el centro comercial Plaza Universidad.
03
Turista: ¿Hay buenas ofertas aquí?
04
Guía: Hay estupendas ofertas… y mucho más.
05
Hay tiendas de toda clase.
06
Hay cines con películas en español, en inglés, en alemán, en francés.
07¡A mí me encanta este centro comercial!
08
9.
09
Guía: Nuestro tour termina aquí en la Zona Rosa, una zona comercial
10
con las tiendas más elegantes de la ciudad.
11
También hay excelentes restaurantes y cafés al aire libre.
Results
Even though, most of the recording were analyzed with thedirect perception method, the speech analysis through
PRAAT helped to precisely identify all the segmental
categories, whether they came from the target segment orsome phonological interferences (Figures 1 & 2). Also, someof the audios were randomly chosen to undergo this analysis
to verify the accuracy of the main method. Through these
spectrograms, it is possible to clearly see how the segment [ɾ]shows one single flap in its articulation (Image 2), whereas thetrill [r] vibrates in multiple periods when being uttered(Image 1). Despite neighboring vowels can affect the way
certain sounds are articulated, creating multiple allophonicdeviations, such phenomenon will not be covered in thisstudy, but it will be considered for possible allophonicutterances within the articulatory accuracy ratio.
After analyzing all the recordings, the interferences
found were organized in three groups: segmental (L1 segment
is transferred directly into L2), allophonic (certain features of
the L1 closest segment are transferred into L2 as anothersegment in the L2 phonological inventory) and others(mainly coming from a pre-existing L2). Within these groups,
four main interferences were found: [ɺ] which is the main

Japanese segment, [ɾ] and [l] which come from the Spanish
inventory but share certain features with the former, and [ɹ]which was the most frequent and significant interference inthis group. The groups and interferences were organized asfollows (with their phonological categories):
Segmental: [ɺ] : alveolar - lateral - flap
Allophonic: [ɾ] : alveolar - flap[l] : alveolar - lateral - approximant
Others: [ɹ] : alveolar – approximantInterferences with the segment [ɹ] are identified as probably
coming from students’ former L2 language; as all of them
have received certain degree of foreign language training(English, in this case), during their secondary education years(being part of the Japanese national curriculum), as well as
current credit requirements in their university programs.
However, the number of interferences with such segment is
low enough to not further go on their possible causes andvariables.
As for the [r] segment, the average articulatory
accuracy ratio reached 17.36%, leaving 71.47% ofphonological interferences, and 11.17% of utterances fromother variables. The rates for each of the interferences can befound in Table 1. Unfortunately, there is not enough researchon allophonic deviations of the Spanish [r] segment
The 2017 PanSIGJournal28

throughout Latin America and Spain to acknowledge theseems that students performed better in uttering the [r]whole range of possibilities. However, some of the mostsegment in middle position (Figure 3.), because, despite both

known deviations where included in articulatory accuracy

the lexical units, guitarrista and restaurante, appeared

ratio.

together in the same assessment script (Excerpt 2), the[r] segment is normally found in initial (like in rosa

accuracy ratio of the target segment varied. Nevertheless, the[ˈrosa]) or middle (like in perro [ˈpero]) positions, but neverdata is not conclusive, due to the lack of more even utterancesin final position; however, when it is located in middle

with initial and middle positions, so that further research

position, it tends (not including some exceptions, e.g. after n,would need to be carried out to analyze such phenomenon.

s, or l) to graphically appear with double grapheme ‘rr’. It

Figure 1.
PRAAT Spectrogram of ‘rico’ - segment [r]Figure 2.
PRAAT Spectrogram of ‘rico’ - segment [ɾ]Table 1.
Percentage of accuracy vs. percentage of interference
Segments uttered

[ɺ]

[ɾ]

[r]

[l]

Other

Total utterances

Total

171

240

129

120

83

743

%

23.01

32.30

17.36

16.15

11.17

The 2017 PanSIGJournal

29

Figure 3.
Accuracy per lexical unit

According to Altmann and Kabak’s (2011)
postulate of SLLs assimilating an L2 sound within a L1 soundConclusions

when not able to perceive distinctive categories in L2, theSeveral research papers widely present phonologicalinterference ratios per lexical unit (Table 3.) showed SLLs

interferences between Japanese and other languages, butwere able to perceive certain but not all distinctive features in

Spanish has been addressed only in some specific concerns.

the target segment, leading to the use of segments partiallyThis paper proved [r] segment is certainly one of the main

sharing such categories; so that [ɾ] and [l] almost prevailed

phonological difficulties for Japanese students learningover all possible other interferences. Allophonic deviations of

Spanish, and it needs to be addressed properly in SLA

such segments were reduced and categorized within the

training. Having a better understanding of how phonologicalmentioned segments.

systems work can significantly improve SLLs’ pronunciation

The general accuracy improvement increased only

performance. The earlier students are aware of thein 8.18% from the first assessment session (18.98%) to thephonological contrast between their L1 and the language

last (27.16%) within the 7 months span of SLA. 30.5% of thebeing learned (whether it is a L2 or L3), will certainly improve

sample could not uttered the target sound [r] in any of thethe articulation rates of foreign sounds. There are several

ssessment sessions. Only a 25.42% of s tudents were above themethods and training techniques available for educators

accuracy mean (x̅ = 24.81) of who could successfully utter the

online and in published materials that can applied in any

target sound during the given SLA span. This suggests that

language teaching curriculum.

SLLs need further experience and phonological training toovercome their interferences.

The 2017 PanSIGJournal

30

Excerpt 2
Script 1101

5. 3:00

02

Por la tarde comemos

03

si es posible en un restaurante al aire libre.

04

El muchacho que trabaja en el restaurante es muy guapo.

05

6. 7:00

05

A veces hay una fiesta en casa de un amigo.

06

Kati y Daniel bailan muy bien, ¿no?

07

7. domingo 11:00

08

Los domingos siempre salimos de casa

09

un poco antes de las once y vamos a la iglesia.

10

Después paseamos y comemos juntos.

11

8. 6:00

12

Por la tarde, mi amigo Martín me lleva a una discoteca. ¡Cuánta gente hay!

13

Me encanta esta música.

14

El guitarrista toca y canta muy bien.

15

Y ustedes, ¿qué hacen un fin de semana típico?

Table 3.
Interference per lexical unit

The 2017 PanSIGJournal

31

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The 2017 PanSIGJournal

32

Enhancing Learner Experience Through Augmented Reality in High School
Erin Elizabeth Frazier
Kanda University of International Studies
Frazier-e@kanda.kuis.ac.jp

This paper introduces an augmented reality-based [AR] action research project implemented
within a high school environment during an intensive language seminar. An iPad app was designed
for the mystery narrative theme to enhance participants’ critical thinking skills, communication
skills, and motivation. The paper highlights how AR expanded the language-learning experience
for learners and teachers as well as exploring the perceptions they had of the technology. The
conclusion includes an examination of the difficulties that arose during the project and proposes
improvements to the body of action research, while also encouraging the increased use of AR
technologies within a classroom setting that spans multiple levels.
本論文は、高等教育という環境の中で、集中語学セミナー内で使用された拡張現実[AR]に基づいた研究プロジェクトを紹介していく。参加者が批判的思考、コミュニケーション能力、モチベーションを向上させるため、ミステリーをテーマとした iPad 用アプリがデザインされた。本論文では、AR が学習者、教師がどのように言語学習の視野を広げ、テクノロジーの認識を高めたかに焦点が置かれている。結論としてはプロジェクト実施中に挙げられた問題点の考察が含まれ、クラス内で複数のレベルに亘り、より多くの AR テクノ
ロジーの活用を促すといった、行動研究の主要な点に対する改善策が提案されている。

A massive shift in pedagogies has led to the need for educators

1. What are students’ and teachers’ perspectives on AR

and learners alike to engage in an ever increasing multimodal

within a learning environment?

environment inside and outside the classroom. It is through

2. How did the AR task affect learning?

blended learning, a mix of digital media within a traditionalclassroom where the learner controls time, place, path, orWhat Is Meant by AR

pace, which can open the doors to more creative learning

As there is no agreed upon definition of AR, this paper will

environments. One way to apply this within the classroom isrely on the definition provided by Sheehy et. al. (2014, p. 20)

throughaugmented

in which AR is an overlay of digital information or data,

learning. Sheehy et al. (2014) defined augmented learning as

including text or images, applied to the physical world. Hence

utilizing an "electronic device to extend learners’ interaction

AR technology is vastly different from that of virtual reality,with and perceptions of their current environment to include

which is a complete immersion into a digital world with noand bring to life different times, space, characters, andstimulus from the physical world. As Milgram et al. (1994)

possibilities" (p. 1). This technology has been utilized topointed out, AR technology can be considered as “mix reality”

expand on the learners’ experience within the maths andsince it is a blend of the virtual world with the physical one,sciences. However, AR has rarely been applied in TESOL as

however, for this paper the technology will be strictly referredan effective way to introduce language to learners. Therefore,

to as AR.

augmented

reality(AR)or

it is through an action research approach that this study
explored a gap in the application of this technology byconsidering two questions.
The 2017 PanSIGJournal

33

Why Consider Augmented Learning

substitution, augmentation, modification, and redefinition.

One of the strongest arguments for utilizing AR learning is

The substitute and augmentation stages of the model assumes

the kinesthetic learning or tactile learning element, in which

technology as a direct tool for substitute with no functional

learners learn through doing rather than watching (Gardner,change or functional improvement, an example of which2011). This method of learning is reputed to be extremely

would be students using a shared file in Google docs toeffective with young learners; by adding augmentation, as

complete a task as a functional replacement for pen and paper.

Radu and MacIntyre (2012) claimed, games that use theModification in the SAMR model is when technology allows

whole body increase learners’ skills development andfor significant task redesign. Whereas, redefinition in the

motivation through alternative learning paths in the samemodel leads to technology being used to create a new task thatway as physical interactions. AR learning may also be

was previously inconceivable in a classroom. An example ofresponsible for raising awareness of social components of athis would be the creation and implications of an AR task.

task, as learners must interact not only with the physicalThe SAMR model aids teachers in designing, developing, andworld but but also with the others involved in the task (Wu,incorporating digital learning tasks that target higher order

Lee, Chang, & Liang, 2013). Xu et al. (2008) illustrated thiscognitive skills, including analyzing, evaluating, and creating.

point in their study with a table-top augmented game, statingThis is the pedagogical approach this study was designedthat participants found the task to be more enjoyable and felt

around.

a stronger sense of “being together” through the applicationof AR. As learners are allowed more control of their learning

Methods

environment, this leads to more critical thinking. Price and

The research aligns with that of an interpretivist view, inRogers (2004) added to the argument by claiming that when

which the researcher seeks to explore the social world related

learning is combined with physical manipulation of theto the attitudes held about augmented activities within theworld, this leads to “higher order cognitive activities, likeclassroom (Thomas, 2013, p. 77). As well, regarding thethinking, reasoning and reflecting” (p. 138). They linked AR

language usage through the addition of AR learning as an idea

learning, which emphasizes the use of both brain and body, toshapes us as social beings and is context specific (Seargeant,Bruner’s (1973)

fundamental developmental theory,

2009, p. 1). The qualitative paradigm was the primary source

which states that “effective learning takes place whenfor data collected through mixed method design. Structured

meaning is taken from experience with the world, whenobservations in the field and video recordings were used tochildren through their own experience discover what is ‘going

capture the “Aha” moments, when students become aware of

on in their own heads’” (p. 72).

their learning and are able to gain a greater insight into the

Additionally, it is believed that when learners areactivity (Kato & Mynard, 2016, p. 156). How students andgiven a more powerful source of information to learn from,teachers interacted with material and situations throughout

like AR, it can vastly change their thinking processes. Papert

the three days was also recorded. Video observations allowed(1976,) stated that “the use of computer metaphors by

the researcher to analyze group work at a later date. Teachers

children will have effects beyond what is normally classed asprobed for student’s self-analysis during activities by asking‘cognitive skill.’ We expect it will influence their language,

questions during the observation. Participants also wereimagery, games, social interactions, relationships, etc.” (Sec.

asked to complete a self-reflective journal at the end of each

1.6, para. 9). This statement arguably could be extended to

day during the English experience, which provided an in-

AR learning by applying Punentedura’s (2014) SAMR model

depth understanding on how perspectives were shifting.

that applies Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive processes to AR

Finally, a survey was administered on the last day to gather

learning in the classroom. This model highlights how

quantitative data to analyze changes in perceptions during

essential the use of technology is, not only for learners, but for

the experience. With the use of both quantitative andteachers as well. The SAMR model consists of four stages:

qualitative methods (a mixed method), it could be argued
The 2017 PanSIGJournal34

that this study made use of triangulation to strengthen the

backgrounds and Englishes, all from the inner circle ofvalidity of the research (see Dörnyei, 2016).

Kachru’s three circle model (Kachru, 1992, p. 356). ThreeJapanese teachers from the public high school also took partContext

in the study. Teachers did not have a traditional role during

This research explored how first year Japanese public highthe language camp and instead functioned as overseers ofschool students and teachers experienced a three-day

activities and actors in the mystery and provided student

intensive English experience designed around the school’s

assistance.

stated goal of increasing learners’ autonomy andmultimodality. It was aimed at teasing out the perspectives

AR Crime Room Depiction

learners hold when exposed to “new ways” of learning,

The focus of this study was only a small part of the

including a “Clue-like” mystery themed performed by native

participants’ total experience during the intensive English

speakers, mixed-culture narratives, script creation, andprogram. This activity was carried out on the second day, so

implementing iPad applications using AR. These approaches

learner participants were already aware that their goal was toare intended to move students away from traditional

solve the mystery. The AR crime room was introduced after

literacies to more critical thinking tasks. This paper will focus

students had an opportunity to interview the nine teacher

primarily on the participants’ experiences when interacting

suspects for information about the mystery. This made thewith the AR activity. The application was designed

students aware of all the possible outcomes and helped themspecifically for the summer seminar. As each seminar has ato focus on who the “villain” could be. The AR crime room

different number of students and teachers, the mysteryexpanded on the overarching “Clue-like” narrative that thechanges annually. Hence, this version of the “crime room”

suspects had constructed up to that point. The learners wereapp could not be reused in following years. This was a known

meant to believe that the teacher acting as the “victim” hadlimitation of this study.

had their room ransacked and several items were taken to adifferent location and mixed with items that belonged to all

Participants

the seminar’s teachers. The activity was restricted to a large

There were two sets of participants. The first comprised ofroom with both decoy objects and target objects scatteredfirst year high school students with ages ranging between 15

around for learners to discover. Learner participants wentand 16. In total, 32 students took part in this study. Students

around in groups, locating 16 different target objects andwere all part of the international course at a public senior highthen determined who the object belonged to, using messages

school, which primarily focuses on English and internationalthat appeared when an object was scanned by an iPad or

relationships. Students tended to be A2 or B1 according toiPhone. The messages were color-coded and gave the learners

the CEFR levels (pre-intermediate/ intermediate ACTFL

an insight into the suspect’s innermost thoughts. This roomlevels) with an EIKEN score of 3, pre-2, or 2.

is where the learners uncovered that the victim might not be

The second group of participants consisted of the teachers

as innocent as they had thought from the messages.

taking part in the seminar. The teacher group included six
native speakers of English with varied educational

The 2017 PanSIGJournal

35

Figure 1. Left: Example of target object. Right: Examples of the app in use.

What Are Students’ and Teachers’ Perspective of
AR Within a Learning Environment?
Successesthat application of this activity within a public school would

Overall there was a positive impression of the activity by theparticipants saw AR as a feasible addition to the classroom as

student participants. For many of the students this was theit could lead to more natural English interaction and criticalfirst time they had access to technology like this in a learning

thinking. Students could analyze not only the meanings ofenvironment. There was a tangible sense of awe as thethe messages but also the correlation between relationships instudents worked their way through the crime room with clues

the mystery and the meaning of the objects through whichappearing when they found the target object. Students

the messages were conveyed. Teachers were as impressed withworked together with more enthusiasm to complete the task.

the technology as the students were. One of the teachers

As Sheehy (2014) pointed out, “augmented learning create[s]stated, “[The] AR mystery app was surprising to me, students

the social, affective, and cognitive conditions that will allow

are of the digital-native generation, therefore, they looked

individuals and groups of people not only to approach[as] excited as if they were playing ‘Pokemon-Go.’” Thislearning in a meaningful way but also to engage with it morestatement shows that the teacher believes there is a gap

deeply” (p. 2). This study highlighted these effects of

between the student knowledge of technology and their own.

augmented learning on the participants. The survey results

This activity was launched at the peak of interest in AR

from students indicated that at first they were hesitant about

gaming due to the influence of “Pokemon-Go,” which had

using the iPads for learning purposes, however, once they

been released a month prior to the language seminar.

were using the app within the AR crime room the students

Teachers identified this as a contributing factor of the successbecame very motivated to complete the task of locating theof the app. The same teacher later stated, “The AR

messages. The survey also showed that one third of thegame/activity was fascinating and a blast as a learning tool.

students saw the use of iPads in the classroom as a valuable

My group enjoyed having a more hands-on role in the activity,

learning tool. The learners expressed that they would like toi.e. [the students get to] ‘choose’ what information theysee more activities like the AR crime room in their general

received.” This shows that unlike the students, teachers saw

English classroom.

that AR technology could be a way to lead students to moreneed drastic modifications due to the barriers or lack of accessand knowledge of the technology. Contrastingly, the teacher

The predominant theme that emerged fromautonomous learning. Thus, AR could be a valuable tool tostudent reflections was viewing this application as motivation

invest in for a high school not only for special events like theas it added a game-like element to discovering information.

summer seminar, but also for general classes as well.

However, there was a clear awareness among the students
The 2017 PanSIGJournal36

Pitfalls

However, learners would not have been able to complete theThis section will focus on the most problematic issues that

final task of explaining the mystery and deciding “who did it”

occurred while using the AR app in this context. First, thewithout key information from the AR crime room. Hence,

distance from the target object to iPad became an issue.

like the SAMR model, which modifies and redefines

Students were instructed both verbally and in writing that

information with technology, the information gain in the AR

they needed to “move slowly and get close to objects for theroom was used in creating a new task (Punentedura, 2014).

message to appear” however, due to the excitement of the task

This task redesign also aligned with the cognitive processes ofand the novelty of the new technology, some students forgot

Bloom’s Taxonomy, leading learners to understand theabout these instructions, which made finding the messages

materials, apply the knowledge, analyze which information

more difficult. This led to some participants running out of

was relevant or irrelevant, evaluate the decision throughtime to locate all of the target objects. In total, four of the five

discussions, and finally create a hypothesis with which togroups completed the task by locating all 16 messages, withaccomplish the tasks (Anderson & Bloom; 2014). Learners

one group finding only 15 messages. The second issue

may not have been completely aware of the contribution theoccurred once a message was found. Students had to fill out aAR crime room made to their learning, as their journals entry

paper notebook that contained all the information they had

reflect, but through observation and their final project at thegathered during the seminar. However, there were no firm

seminar it was clear that there was an implicit effect on thesurfaces to write on without moving objects/target objects,

learners.

and this lead to cumbersome juggling acts as students tried tohold on to the device with the AR app, the notebook, and awriting utensil.

Changes to the Build
As depicted in the findings there were successes and pitfalls in

The next pitfall was one that in this context could

implementing AR technology in a high school environment.

not have been avoided. The number of iPads was not

This led to a second build of the mystery AR application thatsufficient for the number of participants. The study had a

could be utilized in any educational situation with all levels of

total of 5 iPads and iPhones for 32 students. For this activity

learners. The second version of the app is a self-contained

to truly be successful every student or at least each pair of

mystery, which involves the learners as key characters in thestudents needed to have a device. However, as these sorts of

mystery rather than just being the detective. When thedevices are generally not widely available to public highlearners begin the task, each person is given a QR code that is

schools, the only devices provided were the ones thecoded to assign a character to each player. The player is given

researcher could supply. Finally, the last issue related to thea bio-sheet of the character, which contains an image, theset-up of the crime room. Groups of students tended tocharacter’s name, their relationship to the victim, and thefollow each other around once someone located a target

information they have about the crime. Students then moveobject and its message. This herding mentality could havearound the room interviewing each other and inputting the

been avoided if groups were staggered during different times

information they believe is relevant in an in-game note-taking

throughout the day to enter the crime room, but the timesystem. The learners can also explore other QR code clues

limit would not allow that.

around the room to simulate a crime scene. These clues are
3D models, which brings AR learning into this task. TheseHow Did the AR Task Affect Learning?

adjustments to the activity solve some of the pitfalls and could

The effect of the AR task was met with a sense of awe. The

lead to a greater success in implementing AR within thetask, being a novelty for the learners, may have been viewed asclassroom. This build still capitalizes on the kinesthetic

more of a game rather than a tool of learning and information

learning aspect and gives students a greater opportunity to use

delivery. This is evident, as the learner participants did notcritical thinking and deductive logic as less information isseem to find value in the activity outside of the seminar.

given by one individual or clue.
The 2017 PanSIGJournal37

Figure 2. Students final project using all information gathered.

Figure 3. Left & right: Examples of the app in use.
Limitations

Conclusion

For these activities to be successful in this setting, there is a

Throughout history there has been resistance to new andneed for investment in technology. A limited access to theinnovative technology, for instance it was believed that thetechnology was possibly the most difficult limitation within

printing press would “destroy the oral society” (Burke, 1991,

this study. Public high schools in prefectures in southernp.71), that TV would lead to illiteracy, that the Internet

Japan simply do not have the funding to provide this kind ofwould be nothing but a distraction. It is clear that AR

learning tool. This financial constraint is compounded by thelearning in a high school context is following the same patternapproach being arguably less valued than traditional learningof hesitation to adopt, though surprisingly in this study themethods. This is a limitation that is not isolated to public

apprehension arose more among the learners than thehigh schools but can also be found in universities across Japan.

teachers. More exposure to this AR learning would be a

Not having mobile devices or technology in the classroom

valuable experience for the learners and might shift

limits the ability to introduce a blended learning

behavioral tendencies to avoid technology for educational

environment to learners and may hinder their abilities topurposes, something that is desperately needed. Further

function in a multimodal world.

research and builds of the AR app need to be analyzed toincrease the effectiveness of the technology and its reach into
the classroom. This will also lead to a need for teacher
The 2017 PanSIGJournal38

training in the pedagogical relevance of this approach. A

Price, S., & Rogers, Y. (2004). Let’s get physical: The

multimodal addition to a high school curriculum could

learning benefits of interacting in digitally augmented

enhance learners’ behavior towards technology, not only

physical spaces. Computers & Education, 43(1-2), 137-

through the uses of the AR mystery app built for this study,

151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2003.12.009

but also through free applications like HP Reveal or Plickers

Puentedura, R. R. (2014, December 10). SAMR, learning,that are readily available for use in the classroom now. It is

and assessment [Blog post]. Retrieved fromimportant to incorporate new and fresh ideas emerging fromhttp://www.hippasus.com/rrpweblog/archives/000139.hinnovations in the classroom. It may be difficult and there

tml

will be many barriers, but there are clear benefits.

Radu, I., & Macintyre, B. (2012). Using children’sdevelopmental psychology to guide augmented-reality

References
Anderson, L. W., & Bloom, B. S. (2014). A taxonomy fordesign and usability. In 2012 IEEE International
Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISAMR)

learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s.

(pp. 227-236).

Essex, England: Pearson.

https://doi.org/10.1109/isamr.2012.6402561

Bruner, J. (1973). Going beyond the information given. New
York, NY: Norton.
Burke, J. (1991). Communication in the middle ages. In D.
Crowley & P. Heyer, Communication in History (pp. 6776). White Plains, NY: Longman.
Dörnyei, Z. (2016). Research methods in applied linguistics:
Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methodologies.
Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Gardner, H. (2011). Frames of mind: The theory of

Seargeant, P. (2009). The idea of English in Japan:
Ideology and the evolution of a global language. Bristol,England: Multilingual Matters.
Sheehy, K., Clough, G., & Ferguson, R. (2014).
Augmented education: Bringing real and virtual learning
together. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Thomas, G. (2013). How to do your research project: A guidefor students in education and applied social sciences. Los
Angeles, CA: Sage.

multiple intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Wu, H., Lee, S. W., Chang, H., & Liang, J. (2013).

Kachru, B. B. (1992). World Englishes: Approaches, issues

Current status, opportunities and challenges ofand resources. Language Teaching, 25(01), 1.

augmented reality in education. Computers & Education,

https://doi.org/10.1017/s0261444800006583

62, 41-49.

Kato, S., & Mynard, J. (2016). Reflective dialogue: Advisinghttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.10.024

in language learning (pp. 155-178). New York, NY:

Xu, Y., Bolter, J., Macintyre, B., Gandy, M., Deen, S.,

Routledge.
Milgram, P., Takemura, H., Utsumi, A., & Kishino, F.

Schrank, B., Gorbsky, M., White, T., Barba, E., Radu, I.
(2008). BragFish: Exploring physical and social(1994). Mixed reality (MR) reality-virtuality (RV)

interaction in collocated handheld augmented reality

continuum. In Das, H. (Ed.), Systems Research, 235 (pp.

games. In Proceedings of the 2008 International Conference282-292). Telemanipulator and Telepresencein Advances on Computer Entertainment Technology -Technologies. https://doi.org/10.1.1.83.6861

ACE 08 (pp. 3-5).

Papert, S. (1976) An evaluative study of modern technology inhttps://doi.org/10.1145/1501750.1501816

education. [PDF file]. Retrieved fromhttp://www.papert.org/articles/AnEvaluativeStudyofMo
dernTechnology.html

The 2017 PanSIGJournal

39

Author Biography
Erin Frazier (Frazier-e@kanda.kuis.ac.jp) is a lecturer in the English Language Institute at Kanda
University of International Studies. She holds an MSc from Edinburgh University with research focusedon Global Englishes. Her current research interests include action research related to augmented reality,
blended learning, and CALL.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

40

Appendix
1. Water reflects less light than ice, __________ allowing the oceans to absorb more heat from the sun.
a. withoutb. therebyc. because
d. however
2. Choose the sentence that makes the most sense.
a. Maternal people tend to work better in the mornings than in the afternoons or evenings.
b. My maternal grandparents still live in Aichi prefecture.
c. The description was maternal and very difficult to understand.
d. Maternal beliefs often contradict religious beliefs.
3. Choose the best definition for the word in bold): He has a large repertoire.
a. Collection of skills
b. Kind of weaponc. A long list
d. A good reputation
4. Adolescents are often portrayed negatively in the media.
a. Legal guardians of children
b. Young people who haven’t yet reached full maturity; teenagers
c. Gambling addictsd. Unemployed or part-time workers
5. __________ ideology
a. Emotionalb. Casualc. Politicald. Illegal
6. You can ____________ the video into a blog post
a. initiateb. embedc. rotated. migrate
7. Choose the sentence that makes the most sense:a. Jake’s magnitude is well known in the city.
b. The last earthquake had a magnitude of 4.3 on the Richter Scale.
c. The building had several large columns made of magnitude.
d. When a volcano erupts, deadly magnitude flows from the crater.
8. Define: Theorem
a. A statement that can be provenb. Something that makes a changec. A thin covering of tissued. A state of balance

The 2017 PanSIG Journal41

9. The average amount of time spent reading per student and overall improvement in TOEFL scores correlate .
a. have a connection, in which one thing affects or depends on anotherb. appear very similarc. increase at a rapid rate
d. have an opposite relationship with one another
10. Consumption _______
a. beliefb. playc. diseased. tax11. Choose the sentence that makes the most sense.
a. An adverb may precede the verb.
b. Precede with caution, as always.
c. You may now precede to the checkout.
d. He was not willing to precede with the offer.
12. To drive a car legally, you must __________ a driver’s license.
a. integrateb. adaptc. obtain
d. audit
13. Define: Algorithm.
a. percussion-based musical scoreb. a dialect of Arabicc. an Ancient Greek work meaning ‘alphabet’d. a procedure or formula for solving a problem
14. Gender inequality is a huge problem in Japan.
a. The quality of being unfair or unevenb. A situation in which all people within a specific society or isolated group have the same status
c. Inaccuracy, mistakes, errors
d. An unnatural order
15. Define: Syllable
a. A unit of sound in speechb. A course outline or description
c. A type of traditional song, sung without any instruments
d. A statistic
16. She explicitly explained what needed to be done in her instructions
a. clearly, directlyb. secretly, vaguelyc. loudly
d. carefully

The 2017 PanSIG Journal42

17. Define: Nonlinear
a. Not straightforward, has many dimensions
b. Not mainstream, alternativec. Relating to the study of the planets and the universe
d. Something which is crafted very carefully
18. The internet helps ______________ the sharing of informationa. Stress
b. Facilitatec. Benefit
d. Interrupt
19. Choose the sentence that makes the most sensea. In aggregate, we raised $1000 in funds by selling KUIS tshirts.
b. He has temper problems. He needs to control his aggregate.
c. Aggregate is a dying industry in developed countries, as less and less people work on farms.
d. The aggregate form is something that defies stereotypes.
20. _______ disturbancea. Extendedb. Mixed
c. Elegant
d. Public

Author Biographies
Jacob Terrance Reed has been living and teaching in Japan since 2013, most recently at Kanda Universityof International Studies as a lecturer. His primary research interests include vocabulary acquisition andgamification.
James Emmet Owens is the Principal Lecturer for Research in the English Language Institute at Kanda
University of International Studies. His main study interests include critical discourse analysis, curriculum
design, and systemic functional linguistics.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

43

Neuroscience in the Classroom: Understanding How New Information is Processed
Satchie Haga
Seikei University
hagasatchie@gmail.com
In recent years, the imperative to establish stronger links between education and cognitive neuroscience has
led to an influx of new methodologies in the classroom. However, with the growing interest in humandevelopment there has also been a rise in misapplied and/or misappropriated theory in classrooms. The
purpose of this paper is to briefly outline the science of how the brain processes new information, andspecifically how learning gets transferred into long term memory. Then it will share evidence-based practices
that the author utilizes in teaching EFL in higher education.
近年、教育、認知神経科学の間に強いつながりを確立することは、教室での新しい方法論の流入を招いています。しかし、人間開発への関心が高まるにつれて、教室で誤用された理論や盗用された理論も増加しています。本書の目的は、脳が新しい情報をどのように処理するか、具体的にどのように学習が⾧期記憶に移行するかについての科学を簡単に概説することです。次に、高等教育で EFL を教える際に著者が利用する心、脳、教育の証拠ベースの実践を共有します。
In recent years, there has been growing calls for stronger

in classrooms (Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014, p. 11). Neuro-

applications of knowledge from cognitive neuroscience tomyths such as left-brained and right-brained theory, or

education. It is no longer sufficient for educators to focus

distinct

only on what ought to be learned, rather there is an increasing

visual/kinesthetic/auditory, etc.) has permeated classrooms

imperative for teacher pedagogy to reflect how people

and popular thinking for so long that teachers and students

actually do learn. It is a shift from teacher-led lecture style andalike believe that they are facts (Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014, p.

drill methodologies to more experiential, interdisciplinary

11-12). The time spent creating and implementing pedagogy

and learner-focused pedagogy. However, although the latterthat stem from these neuro-myths costs valuable class time

may be in practice in some countries such as Finland (Vitikka,

that could be spent utilizing more effective methodologies

Krokfors, & Hurmerinta, 2012), varying degrees ofbased on true evidence. However, although many teacher

implementation can be seen in other countries such as

education programs include coursework in cognitive

America or Japan. For instance, it is not uncommon forneuroscience, after pre-service training any further

teachers to be more constructivist in philosophy than inapplication or research must be self-initiated. Time-strappedpractice (Becker, 2000); and there is evidence that teachers

teachers who are focused on the more immediate needs ofengage in practices that they indicate that they do not support

preparing lessons may have little exposure or experience in(Lim & Chan, 2007, Liu, 2011). In other countries, such as

applying evidence-based theory based on cognitive

Japan, despite national calls for reform (MEXT, 2008, 2011)neuroscience in their classrooms. As such, they continue to

traditional teacher-fronted pedagogy relying on rote-teach using the same traditional, less effective methodologies.

memorization continues to be the norm in many classrooms(Gorsuch, 1998, 2000; Nishino, 2008, 2011). Moreover,with the growing interest in human development there has
also been a rise in misapplied and/or misappropriated theory

teaching

tospecificlearningstyles(eg.

The purpose of this paper is to first briefly outline
how the brain processes new information, specifically, howlearning gets transferred into long term memory. Then it will

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

44

share some evidence-based practices that the author utilizes

basic processes. 1. input/output, 2. information processing

to teach EFL in higher education.

(decoding & encoding), and 3. storage and retrieval. Our

Information Processing in the Brain
For educators, one of the key roles is to create the conditions
through which learning can be best achieved. Learning can be
defined as, “the relatively permanent change in a person’s
knowledge or behavior due to experience. This definition has
three components: 1) the duration of the change is long-term
rather than short-term; 2) the locus of the change is thecontent and structure of knowledge in memory or the
behavior of the learner; 3) the cause of the change is thelearner’s experience in the environment rather than fatigue,
motivation, drugs, physical condition or physiologic
intervention” (Mayer, R. E., 1982, p. 1040).
Learning and memory coexist in symbiosis
whereby they are mutually dependent upon one another. As
such, in order to help students to learn it is essential that
educators first understand how the brain processes and storesinformation. The cognitive system can be organized into 3

senses recognize external stimulus that we decode tounderstand and situate it within our existing schema. Upon
placing new information within our understood framework,
we then then encode it in order to process, and maintain itwithin our memory storage system. Once it is stored, (ineither working or long-term memory), we apply different
processes to retrieve that information during times when wewould like to utilize the data. Finally, our use of that
information will take form of some kind of output (Figure 1).

The Multi-Store Model
Atkinson & Shiffrin’s (1968) influential multi-store model ofmemory postulates three components of human memory:
sensory memory, short-term (working) memory (STM), andlong-term memory (LTM). As we interact with theenvironment our senses attend to stimuli. This information
is initially stored in sensory memory. The inputs we pay
attention to are then transferred to our STM whereby we
encode it. The inputs that we do not attend to are lost or
forgotten (Figure 2).

Figure 1.
Basic stages of processes involved in human memory (adapted from Marzano, 1998).

The 2017 PanSIG Journal45

Figure 2.
Atkinson-Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory (adapted from Atkinson & Shriffrin, 1968).
is related to other memories. As we encode our memories we

Sensory & Short-Term Memory Capacity andDuration

encode them to this network, or schema. For example, as we

Sensory and STM stores have a limited capacity. This results

know or have experienced, and then establish a connection.

in a limit in the number of inputs that can be attended to at

The extent to which these memories are encoded will affectthe sensory stage and within short-term memory. George

their transfer to LTM. The more often inputs are rehearsed

Miller (1955) found in his seminal research The Magicalthe more likely the transfer to LTM will be achieved.

Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two the capacity limit is 7 ± 2

Furthermore, if inputs are connected to strongly anchoredchunks of information. According to Miller, chunking canmemories or elements within the individual’s schema there isextend the capacity of STM by grouping strings ofalso more chance for that input to be stored in LTM.

information into smaller chunks so that they are easier to

However, tenuous encoding or lack of rehearsal can result inprocess (eg. a 9-digit telephone number broken down into 3

that data being difficult to retrieve (see interference andor 4 digit chunks). Another example of extending theretrieval failure below).

interact with a new input we relate it with what we alreadycapacity is through the use of mnemonics, for example,

Research suggests that LTM is limitless and holds

remembering the word STEAM to represent “Science,

information relatively permanently Atkinson & Shiffrin

Technology, Engineering, Arts and Mathematics”.

(1968). This is why once you learn how to ride a bike you will

The average duration of information within STM

always be able to ride a bike, even without using one for years.

is 10-20 seconds, with declining recall after 12 seconds

Retrieval of information stored within LTM is dependent(Peterson & Peterson, 1959). Information is lost throughupon retrieval cues. Unlike STM where there is a limited

decay or displacement (pushed out by new information). For

capacity and information is lost through decay or

example, forgetting what you want to say as you attend to

displacement, LTM is viewed to be limitless. Therefore, once

other external sensory inputs in a conversation.

stored in LTM the data remains indefinitely, however, thecues to recall the memory can be disrupted, or interfered with

Long-Term Memory Capacity and Duration

to the degree that the memory becomes either inaccessible or

According to the Multi Store Model, all humans have andifficult to recall. Each memory is stored in LTM within aexisting schema of neural networks that we have been

network of interconnected memories. Retrieval of theconstructing since we began to interact with our external

information within LTM can be affected by interference

environment. Within our neural networks, each memory is

and/or retrieval failure.

embedded in many neural connections, and each connection
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

46

Interference occurs as a result of stored
information that is similar which can distract from locating

Improving Retention of Information

the specific information we are trying to retrieve. There are

Rehearsal is necessary in order to improve the duration of

two types of interference: retroactive and proactive (Baddeley

stored information within STM. It has a limited capacity and& Hitch, 1977). Retroactive interference occurs when new

therefore, “use it or lose it” as it will decay or be displaced.

information interferes with old information. For example,

However, rehearsal alone does not guarantee transfer to LTM.

you get a new phone number and you become so accustomed

Craik & Lockhart’s (1972) influential research identified two

to telling everyone your new telephone number that recalling

main types of rehearsal: maintenance and elaborative.

your old telephone number becomes difficult. Proactive

Maintenance rehearsal is rote repetition, whereby aninterference occurs when something that you learned in theindividual may revisit the information often at different

past affects your ability to retrieve something you havetimes, perhaps by writing it or saying it often (e.g. drills).

recently learned. For example, you are beginning to learn aElaborative rehearsal links the new information in a

new language (Spanish), however you have studied Japanesemeaningful way to the individual’s personal schema alreadyas a second language for many years and when you try to ask

stored in LTM. Craik & Lockhart found that elaborative

a question in Spanish the words you recall are Japanese.

rehearsal promoted encoding to LTM better thanBecause all memories are embedded within othermaintenance rehearsal; the more active and meaningful the

associations in LTM over time if there is little access to that

encoding the stronger the connections because theinformation then the cues may be affected and the memory

information is processed more deeply. In other words, thenot recalled due retrieval failure. With retrieval failure, themore meaningful, the deeper the processing and the better

information is not lost or displaced, but it simply cannot be

the storage.

found (Tulving & Pealstone, 1966). More recent researchsuggests that information stored within LTM is not an exact

The Spacing Effectreplica of what occurred, but encoded reconstructions.

The spacing effect refers to the significant findings of

For instance, new information can be interpreted

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) that spaced presentations ofand encoded so that it fits with the individuals pre-existing

information is learned more effectively than long intensive

knowledge/schema, further strengthening prejudice or

massed presentations. For example, six intervals of 30

stereotypes. Another type of reconstruction is when theminutes of study will produce better recall than one 3-hourindividual encodes an event with additional information thatblock of study (Figure 3).

did not occur, which can result in distortions or even “false
memories” (Roediger & McDermott, 1995)

Figure 3. Spacing Effect. Adapted from Ebbinghaus, 1885.
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

47

Although the evidence of the spacing effect isinstead of using 30+ different possible phrases (discourse

robust, with numerous studies replicating the findings ofmarkers), only seven cards are given to each group to use.

Ebbinghaus, there is little evidence that the potential has been

These cards are then swapped for other phrases on anotherrealized in classrooms, or textbooks. Most course curriculums

day. Previously the activity used over 30 different discourse(and textbooks) teach new information in large chunks, ormarkers. The motivation behind giving students so many

units with limited rehearsal of previously learned material;phrase cards to use in the activity was to give them as many

review is most often in the form of a test. As such, there does

options as possible. However, the effect was that with so

not seem to appear to be a systematic implementation ofmany different phrases to choose from students became

spaced review in most courses (Demptster, 1988).

overwhelmed with choice and tended to search for and/or
only use the phrases they were familiar with; finally, they did

Applications in an EFL University Context

not add many new phrases to their active vocabulary. By

There are many evidence based pedagogies that apply

limiting the number of cards to the magical number 7 ± 2,

knowledge of how the brain processes information in orderstudents are better able to focus on, and process new terms

to enhance learner development; for a detailed discussion

within their working memory.

please refer to Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa (2014) Making

Recognizing the limits of the capacity in humanClassrooms Better: 50 practical applications of Mind, Brain

STM extends beyond vocabulary and grammar items to new

and Education Science and The ABCs of How We Learn: 26

sociolinguistic and sociocultural items. For instance, recently

scientifically proven approaches, how they work and when to use

there has been a great push for Content and Language

them by Schwartz, Tsang, & Blair (2016). In this section, theIntegrated Learning (CLIL). In a CLIL based approachauthor will introduce pedagogical applications of how thestudents are learning new concepts in a foreign language. The

brain processes information. Although the methodologies

new items they could be trying to decode and place withinwere applied to EFL classes in a university in Japan, with

their existing schemata are new content, ideas, ways to think

appropriate modifications they can most certainly be appliedand communicate with others, etc. In order to manage theto other teaching contexts.

feeling of overwhelm and to focus learners on the key lesson
objectives in my CLIL based lessons at the start of class I write

Limited Capacity of STM: Limit the amount of
new information introducedon the board the main learning points for the lesson. I have a

Most textbooks will have extensive vocabulary lists within

objective there will be less than 9 new items. For example, ineach chapter and the number of new words introduced ina lesson on “Quality of Life” the three objectives were:

maximum of three objectives for the class, and within each

each unit may vary from 10 to 20, and maybe more dependingon the teacher and lesson. Additionally, often class readings

1.

will include many new items that are outside of the

To describe the difference between “Quality of Life”
and “Standard of Living.”

vocabulary lists. Given that the capacity limit of what we can

2.

Give 3 examples of each.

process is 7 ± 2 chunks of information at a time it is impossible

3.

Discuss with others about your priorities in life (Givefor students to fully process long vocabulary lists. In fact,

Reasons and Ask others)

introducing too many new information can serve to distract
and take away from actual learning.

Upon introducing this topic students encountered a lot

In the University EFL classroom, with our limitedof new information through visual aids and text. However, I

capacity in mind, when lesson planning the author sets a

limited their focus to these points, and within these points I

target to introduce or work with only 7 new information

limited the number of items that I required them to work

chunks at a time. For example, in a discussion activity where

with. Objective 3 would be using discussion phrase cards as I

students use phrase cards to assist the flow of the discussion,

have described above. These phrases could be new, or terms
The 2017 PanSIG Journal48

that they are already familiar with, however, there would be
only 7 cards.

A more effective way is to have students think
about their lives and think of how they use the vocabulary intheir lives and create sentences about their immediate lives.

Elaborate Rehearsal – Focus on Anchoring to
Existing Schemata

For example, a vocabulary term in one of the textbooks I use

As previously mentioned, effective transmission of new

sentence I often saw sentences such as, “The weather forecast

information into LTM is dependent upon elaborate rehearsal.

predicts sunshine tomorrow.” However, on tests students

One aspect of elaborate rehearsal is establishing meaningful

would not be able to recreate this sentence and often did notconnections to the individual. As such, it may not be enoughremember this word at all. Since making an active effort toto simply rely only on “activating” the student schemata withhave students create more semantic connections I ask thema warm up activity before introducing new concepts. Insteadto think more specifically about the things that do in theireducators should actively work with students to help them

lives. For example, are they on a sports team? Do they have amake meaningful connections with new information. For

favourite sports team? Who do they predict will win and why?

instance, when introducing new vocabulary, it is common for

How about their lives after graduation, what do they predictteachers to ask students to write a sentence using that new

will happen? When do they predict things in their lives?

is predict. Previously, when I asked students to write avocabulary. However, although this process is more

In order to strengthen and create moremeaningful than simply remembering the words from a list orconnections to their existing schemata students complete

textbook definitions, often foreign language students rely on

vocabulary worksheets where they provide three different

their dictionary to give them a sentence. As such, thisexamples of how they see the new vocabulary in their lives

sentence is not “meaningful” to the student, and thus the(Figure 4). They then share the sentences with a partner

vocabulary has less chance of transfer to LTM than if they

who

anchored it to something within their existing schemata.

situation/experience. The sharing of meaningful experiences

then

must

ask

questionsrelatedtothewith a partner serves to enhance the anchoring and memory.

Figure 4. Vocabulary worksheet sample.
Anchoring the new words into their existing schema has served to not only increase vocabulary test scores,
but also the active use of new vocabulary terms in class discussions.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

49

Elaborate Rehearsal – Focus on Deep Processing

perhaps the end of the term when students “cram” for their
exams.

Elaborate rehearsal is not only about making semantic

One way to incorporate more structured spacing of

connections but fostering deeper processing. The deeper thetarget objectives is to identify key objectives at the beginning

processing the more likely the information is to be stored intoof the term that will be used throughout the year. For example,

LTM. Deeper processing can be achieved through activating

the traditional lesson format using units can still be utilized,

other areas of the brain which then create more connections

however in addition key vocabulary, phrases or objectives thatwith the new information (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). For

can be used throughout the year can be extrapolated and aexample, one way to interact with new information isschedule based on spaced repetition be prepared at thethrough text, however other ways to engage can be throughbeginning of the year. In the author’s case for instance,

visual images, or physically. Different inputs activate

discourse markers (such as phrases to agree, disagree, or ask

different areas within the brain; the more connections thequestions) can be used for all discussions, regardless of topic;

brain makes with the new information the stronger thethese discourse markers are introduced and recycled

encoding, and the greater the chance for transfer to LTM. In

throughout the year based on a schedule that cycles throughthe EFL setting in addition to having students connect new

the phrases used.

information to their individual lives, I also ask them to draw

Another application of the spacing effect could be

pictures, or even make a role play where they use new

to incorporate educational technology in the classroom or

vocabulary or learned concepts. For instance, the vocabulary

course work that utilizes space repetition within its design

worksheet described above (Figure 4) has a space for them tosuch as Quizlet or Anki cards. With these programs teachers

draw a picture.

can create their own set of digital flash cards that can be

The focus on deep processing is not limited toshared with the class. Part of the course grade could be

vocabulary, but applied to other concepts, or course

dependent on their use of the system. For Quizlet you canobjectives. For example, in a lesson on critical thinking andhave a teacher account where you can manage the class andlogical fallacies, reading simple definitions about (a limited

see their progress. Quizlet can also be used in groups where

number of) fallacies are supplemented with recreations ofeach group of 3-4 students work together on one mobile

situations in their lives where they have used logical fallacies.

device to answer the questions in a kind of race to see which

In order to encourage even deeper processing students workgroup finishes the fastest. You can also use Anki or Quizlet in

together in groups to create a role play to demonstrate one

teacher fronted activities where the teacher uses the system tofallacy to the class, which working together in groups identify

ask questions that is displayed on a projector. Students think

the fallacy.

their answers in groups and write them down on a teamwhiteboard (each group has one whiteboard). Each team with

Spacing Effect – Systematic Spaced Review in theClassroom

the correct answer gets a point. The team with the mostThe ample evidence that supports spaced review suggests that

items that are known so those that require more review will

educators and students would benefit from more structured

be displayed more often. This may be a more effective

pedagogy that incorporates the spacing effect. Two main

application than the teacher deciding what terms need moreobstacles have been identified to impede the application inreview based on observations.

points wins. The system’s algorithm maintains a record of theclassrooms: teachers often default to familiar methods, andThe final method that the author uses to structure

conventional instructional practice favors massed practicespaced repetition in the classroom is to revisit previously(Kang, 2016). For example, textbooks are based on units andlearned vocabulary and topics two or three weeks after theusually upon moving on to the next unit of study there is little

unit was taught in a class opening activity. Traditional

opportunity to review content from previous units until

themed units are still utilized in the author’s class, however,The 2017 PanSIG Journal

50

two weeks after completion of the unit revisit with a class

Finally, teachers must make more effort to apply research

opening activities that utilize concepts and vocabulary fromfindings about the spacing effect in the classroom by allowing

the previous unit. The opening activity could be a 2-minutemore frequent review of past learned items in their classes.

speech, or a 3-2-1 fluency activity (Brown & Nation, 1997)

Often teachers may believe that their role is tothat is a response to a question using some of the previously

teach/introduce new things, and as such may feel pressure tolearned vocabulary or concepts.

move on to the next unit and/or to teach something new.
However, teachers must also be cognizant of their role toConclusion

encourage retention and recall of items taught. Learning isLanguage is not only grammar and vocabulary, but cognitivenot manifest from the teaching of more new things, but

processes. It is vital for educators in the 21 century to assessrather the successful encoding and retention of items in ways

their current pedagogy through the lens of establishedthat they can be retrieved and recalled when needed at a later

cognitive theory in order to ensure that their practices

date. The introduction of more new information may be lessfacilitate learning most efficiently. Deeper understanding ofsignificant than ensuring that what is taught is retained andthe mechanisms and limitations of the brain can have arecalled more easily. With enhanced awareness of how

powerful effect on one’s teaching practice. With enhanced

humans process information, teachers can recognize theirknowledge about how the brain actually processes new

influence at every stage and the role of the teacher is changed

information teachers can re-evaluate and adjust theirfrom one who simply introduces new information, to one

methodologies to reflect how people actually learn, rather

that promotes human learning.

stthan “how people have learned in the past.” In order to raise

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Dempster, F. N. (1988). The spacing effect: A casestudy in the failure to apply the results of psychologicalresearch. American Psychologist, 43(8), 627-634.

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Author Biography:
Satchie Haga has a MA in TESOL from Teachers College, Columbia University. She is a fulltime lecturer at Seikei University in Tokyo. In addition to mind, brain and education science herinterests include educational technology, and teacher development.
hagasatchie@gmail.com

The 2017 PanSIG Journal53

Using Online Student Response Games for Vocabulary Review
Peter Harrold
Kyushu Sangyo University
harrold@ip.kyusan-u.ac.jp
This paper provides practical information on using online student response games such as Kahoot or
Quizlet Live for reviewing target vocabulary in class. These applications allow the teacher to create online
quizzes for students to compete against each other, either individually or in teams, using their smartphones
to answer the questions. This paper explains how these games can be created, what types of questions andformats can be used, and what data can be extracted from the students' answers to provide the teacher withmore information on which words may need further review.
この論文では Kahoot や Quizlet Live に代表される、語彙学習のためのオンライン学習ツールを用いた授業実践報告を提供する。これらのアプリによって、教師はオンラインでクイズを作成することができ、学生たちはクイズに解答するためにスマートフォンを用いて、個人ないしチームで互いに競い合う。本稿では、どのようにこれらのゲームが作成され、どのような問題や形式が用いられるのか、そして学生たちの解答からどのようなデータが抽出されるのかについて記述し、更なる研究を要する単語について教師に示唆を与える。

Students studying listening and speaking in a particular 1st-

Imtiaz, Norrihan, Muhammad, & Waqar, 2016). This may

and 2 -year English program at a Japanese university are

be done with mobile apps students download to facilitate

required to learn a preset vocabulary list of 15 words eachlanguage learning (Mindog, 2016), such as Quizlet forweek. These words are recorded with multiple definitions

vocabulary review (Dizon, 2016) or Socrative (Ohashi, 2015).

and example sentences in their vocabulary notebook for

Past research has shown there are many potential

homework. Students then have a weekly quiz on vocabulary

opportunities for integrating MALL into self-study

that tests the words from their notebook for the previous 3(Bozdogan, 2015; Imtiaz et al., 2016), but recently there has

weeks and contributes to their final grade. At the end of the

been a growth in interactive possibilities that utilize MALL

semester they also have a final vocabulary test reviewing all 10

for classroom games and quizzes.

ndlists. Teachers have discretion how they review vocabulary
before the quizzes or the final test, but using online student
response games such as Kahoot or Quizlet Live has proved to
be enjoyable and popular with the students. It also has thebenefit of providing the teacher with additional data on thewords the students find most difficult to remember.

There are now a range of options for digitallygathering responses from students in the classroom that use
the mobile devices available, such as Plickers, Kahoot, Google
Forms, Socrative, Flinga, and Quizlet Live (Howell, Tseng, &Colorado-Resa, 2017; Wolff, 2016). In the past, student
response systems such as individual clickers were restrictively

Background

expensive but now online solutions offer a free viable

Recent trends in mobile assisted language learning (MALL)

alternative for gathering student responses (Vandewalle,

research indicate vocabulary to be the most popular skill to2016). By using a student response system teachers canintegrate into digital mobile learning, with apps and websites

benefit greatly from obtaining instant whole class feedback

often being used by teachers and learners to enhance

during review tasks to see how well students have learnt the

vocabulary instruction and acquisition (Bozdogan, 2015;

target language. This paper will focus on how to use two of
The 2017 PanSIG Journal54

these systems, Kahoot and Quizlet Live, and what feedback
can be gained from the students’ responses. These two

Quizlet Live

options were chosen above others due to their simplicity of

Quizlet has been used widely as an effective tool for

use and suitability specifically for vocabulary review. The

vocabulary review using various activities and flashcards (Barr,

websites for both proved to be very user-friendly as they do

2016; Dizon 2016) but since 2016 it has also offered the

not require the students to download an app or open an

option of a collaborative class game known as Quizlet Live.

account, a drawback of alternatives such as Socrative.

This game allows students to interact in teams to match

Furthermore, there is no requirement for the teacher tovocabulary from a predetermined list, in a race against otherprovide the students with physical QR code response cards

teams. However, a potential drawback is that you need asuch as when using the Plickers response gathering system. In

minimum of six students to play, so is unsuitable for small

addition, Quizlet Live specifically targets vocabulary review,classes (Raine, 2016).

and the visual aspect of Kahoot also favors vocabulary-basedquestions. Therefore, they were considered the most suitable

How to Play Quizlet Livefor the intended task over alternative response systems thatFirst, the teacher must create a free Quizlet account. Then,may be used to generate more open-ended feedback fromthey are able to create a new word list with English andstudents such as Google Forms or Flinga. However, it should

Japanese meanings. This can be created from scratch or

be noted that to use these programs students do require access

imported from Word, Excel, or Google Docs if the teacher

to a device and the Internet, but it is also possible to share aalready has copies of the target vocabulary lists. Once thedevice if necessary.

word list has been created they can select the Quizlet Live

These games were trialed with six listening andspeaking classes, a total of approximately 180 students, forapproximately 10 minutes at the start of class. Only one
student involved did not have access to a device but was able
to borrow a device from the teacher. The games proved to beeasy to set up and implement, and students for the most partappeared interested and engaged when playing them. Quizlet
Live was particularly useful for weekly review, due to the easewith which weekly lists can be combined to make supersets toreview vocabulary words from multiple weeks, mimicking theformat of the weekly quizzes and which would contribute to
the students’ grades. The feedback the games provided helped
give the teacher some indication of which words students
found difficult, which were identified for further recycling
and review activities in later weeks. Kahoot in particularprovides extensive individual feedback for students. Overall,
the student response systems provided an interactive way toreview vocabulary before the weekly quiz, and were able toreplace previous review activities such as gap fill puzzles andcrosswords that require less collaboration and interaction.

option and display the code for students, by projecting it on ascreen, which students must use to join the game. Ask thestudents to go to the web address <Quizlet.Live> on theirdevice (e.g., an iPad or smartphone) then input the code
displayed on the teacher’s screen and write their name in
English to join the game. It is important to direct students tothe <Quizlet.Live> page to input the code, not<Quizlet.com>, as this page is simplified. There is only a box
for students to enter the joining code rather than the main
website. As students join, their names will be added to a list
displayed on the teacher’s screen. If students use aninappropriate name, or if they have not entered a name in
English, then the teacher can click on the name in the list, it
will be deleted, and the student must reenter their name.
When the teacher clicks “begin game,” the students
are assigned a team with an animal name. These groups are
displayed on the teacher’s screen and the students have tostand up and find their teammates. When the teacher clicks
again to start the game, students have to work together with
their group to match up the vocabulary. They see four
possible answers but not all students have the correct answer,
so they must share their devices and answers to identify whichgroup member should answer each question. The teacher’s
The 2017 PanSIG Journal55

screen displays the progress of the teams. There are 12
questions and it is a race to answer all 12 correctly. However,

How to Play Kahoot

if any member of the team makes a mistake, the score returns

First, the teacher must create a user account. Then, they will

to zero and the team must start again. The stages of the game

be able to create a new game, which requires providing general

as seen on the teacher’s screen are displayed in Figure 1.

information such as a quiz name, topic, and intended
audience. Once this has been entered, the teacher can create

Quizlet Live Feedback
When the game ends, the teacher’s screen shows apicture of the animal of the winning group and thenames of the players in that team. The teacher can click
to review the feedback that will display which two words
students confused while playing the game. However, as
pointed out by Raine (2016), there is a lack of data
provided to facilitate individual or group assessment, as
it does not specify which group or individual madewhich mistake.

individual questions. Each item must have a question, an
image, and four possible answers with the correct answer
highlighted, as well as the time limit to be imposed for student
responses for each question.
After clicking on “play game,” the teacher must
invite the students to go to <Kahoot.it> on their devices andinput the code displayed on the teacher’s screen. Similar towhen playing Quizlet Live, it is important they go to<Kahoot.it> not to <Kahoot.com>. During the game,
multiple-choice questions containing a question, picture, andfour possible answers will be displayed from the teacher’s

KahootKahoot has recently emerged as an effective game forreview that encourages student motivation andengagement (Alvarado, Coelho, & Dougherty, 2016).
Teachers can create visually appealing quizzes withimages, and students work either alone or in groups tochoose the best answer to multiple-choice questions.
The format has many potential benefits such as its
usefulness for assessing students and the provision of
immediate feedback with a wide variety of data for theteacher to evaluate. Until recently the game was limited
to multiple-choice quizzes. However, a new Jumble
game, in which students order the four options, hasrecently been added and more variations may also
become available in the future.

screen. The students then have to choose the correct word to
match the picture by selecting the colour that corresponds tothe answer from the four choices displayed on their device.
Students can play individually or in teams by sharing a device.
When the time limit for each question expires, theteacher’s screen will display how many students respondedwith each answer and which answer was correct. After eachquestion a scoreboard will be displayed showing the top fivescoring students. Students get points for correct answers andthe speed of their response. After the final question, the scoresfor the top five students are displayed. The teacher also has
the option to download the entire class results and quiz data.
The stages of the game as seen on the teacher’s screen aredisplayed in Figure 2.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

56

Figure 1. What will be displayed on the teacher’s screen while playing Quizlet Live.

Figure 2. What will be displayed on the teacher’s screen while playing Kahoot.
Kahoot Feedback

whether they found the activity fun or useful. Overall, theThe teacher can download a spreadsheet that contains the

feedback provided by Kahoot is much more extensive than

final scores and number of correct answers for each student.

that provided by Quizlet Live and allows the teacher to track

The spreadsheet also breaks down the number of correct

and assess the responses of individuals or teams, which would

answers for each question; the answers are colour coded so thealso make using the results for summative assessment possible

teacher can see at a glance which questions the students mostif desired. Kahoot has a great deal of potential for identifying

struggled with. The spreadsheet also provides an overview ofthe words students in general find most difficult to remember

the percentage of correct answers to give an idea if it was an

and recycling them through future review activities.

easy or difficult quiz as well as data on student responses as to
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

57

Conclusion

Barr, B. (2016). Checking the effectiveness of Quizlet as a

In summary, Kahoot and Quizlet Live offer engaging,tool for vocabulary learning. The Center for ELF

collaborative, and interactive ways to review vocabulary in

Journal, 2(1), 36-48.

class. They also provide feedback for the teacher to use in

Bozdogan, D. (2015). MALL revisited: Current trends andtracking students’ progress and deciding what words topedagogical implications. Procedia - Social andprioritize and recycle in future review tasks. These response

Behavioral Sciences, 195, 932-939.

systems are simple for both the teacher and the students to set

Dizon, G. (2016). Quizlet in the EFL classroom:

up and use, and in this paper I have attempted to provide

Enhancing academic vocabulary acquisition of Japanesepractical advice for any teachers considering using thisuniversity students. Teaching English With Technology,

approach.

2, 40-56.
The scope of this paper has been limited in focus to

Howell, D., Tseng, D., & Colarado-Risa, T. (2017). Fast

vocabulary review and the two specific response systems, but

assessments with digital tools using multiple-choice

future researchwill consider the wide variety of student

questions. College Teaching, 65(3), 145-147.

response systems now available for collecting different types

Imtiaz, T., Norrihan, S., Muhammad, S., & Waqar, A.

of feedback from students such as Google Forms, Flinga, or(2016). Impact of mobile assisted language learning

Socrative. These systems offer exciting new ways to collect(MALL) on EFL: A meta-analysis. Advances instudent contributions. Therefore, future studies will explore

Language and Literary Studies, 7(2), 76-83.

innovative ways they can be implemented in language classes

Mindog, E. (2016). Apps and EFL: A case study on the use

to engage students and provide teachers with meaningfulof smartphone apps to learn English by four Japanese

feedback on student progress.

university students. JALT CALL Journal, 12(1), 3-22.
Ohashi, L. (2015). Enhancing EFL writing courses with theonline student response system Socrative. Kokusaikeiei
Bunkakenkyu, 19(1), 135-145.
Rodriguez-Arancon, P., Arus, J., & Calle, C. (2013). The

References
Alvarado, N., Coelho, D., & Dougherty, E. (2016). Mobile
apps for ELLs: Supporting language learning withengaging digital tools. Argentinian Journal of Applied
Linguistics, 4(1), 43-58.

use of current mobile learning applications in EFL.
Procedia, 103, 1189-1196.
VandeWalle, B. (2016). Affordable technology response
systems. Connections, 30(2), 17-19.
Wolff, G. (2016). Quizlet Live: The classroom game now
taking the world by storm. The Language Teacher,40(6), 25-27.

Author’s BiographyPeter Harrold is an English Lecturer at Kyushu Sangyo University in Fukuoka, Japan. He holds
an MA in teaching English for academic purposes from the University of Nottingham, UK. His
research interests include EAP, autonomy, extensive reading, and MALL.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

58

The Effectiveness of Team Teaching in Japanese High Schools
Farrah Hasnain
Hamamatsu Higashi Senior High School
farrahhas@gmail.com
English education and team teaching in Japanese public and private high schools demand the collaborationof Japanese teachers of English (JTEs) and assistant language teachers (ALTs). The roles of each in terms oflesson preparation and materials selection as well as the perceived agency of the JTEs and ALTs in thenational foreign language curriculum can become sources of conflict and dysfunction. This is an
examination of their preservice and in-service training. High school ALTs and JTEs nationwide weresurveyed and interviewed. Both parties felt that there need to be clearer guidelines of their individual roles
to team teach effectively.
日本の公私立高等学校における英語教育とチームティーチングでは、日本人の英語教師である Japanese Teachers of English（以下、JTEs）と、外国語指導助手、いわゆる AssistantLanguage Teachers（以下、ALTs）の共同作業が要求される。授業準備や教材選びにおけるそれぞれの役割、そして同様に国の外国語教育課程指導要領にて示される JTEs と ALTsの責任の認識の違いが、チーム内に衝突や機能不全を起こす原因となりうる。本研究は彼らの事前研修および事中研修を分析したものである。全国の高校に勤務する ALTs と JTEs
を対象に調査し、またインタビューを行った。本研究の結果から、JTEs と ALTs のどちらのグループも、効果的な英語のチームティーチングを実現するためには、彼らそれぞれの役割についてのより明確なガイドラインが必要だと感じていることが浮き彫りとなった。

Introduction

communication classes were not required in Japanese public

Since 1987, the Japan Exchange and Teaching Program (JET

senior high schools until April 1994 (Tomei, 1998). The

Program)grassroots

listening section of the National Center Test for University

internationalization through providing native English-

Admissions test was introduced in 2006, and in effect, more

speaking assistant language teachers (ALTs) for JapaneseEnglish communication classes and interview exams haveschools to team teach with Japanese teachers of English

been woven into the English language curriculum in high(JTEs). When the JET Program was first initiated, the ALT’s

schools throughout Japan. Junior and senior high school

duties mainly facilitated intercultural exchange with little

ALTs were transitioning from being visitors to teachers whoemphasis on actually teaching English (Martin, 2010). Rather

would assist the JTE in English communication classes.

has

aimed

to

promotethan having one ALT consistently present at one school

However, as exams and English curriculum

during their term on the JET Program, ALTs wererequirements began to gear towards English oral

dispatched to a large number of institutions as visitors for acommunication in the 1990s and 2000s, the ALT’s role inday, acting as cultural ambassadors for their home country.

team teaching at Japanese high schools began to evolve into a

When the program was first implemented in public highmore active and prominent role in the classroom. A large

schools, especially the competitive and college bound (alsonumber of ALTs refer to their roles as “human tape recorders”

known as shingakugo) schools, team teaching was conducted

as their JTE only summons them to recite dialogues fromby JTEs on a voluntary basis (Iwami, 1992). English oral

their textbooks (McCrostie, 2017). Conflicts also arise for
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

59

JTEs as they try to navigate their role in team teaching. JTEs

curriculum in preparation for the 2020 Olympics, however,

who are used to solo teaching may have some confusion as toevokes issues with the perceived roles of the JTE and ALT

what the role of the ALT should be. Some may believe theduring their preservice and in-service training. In anrole of the ALT to be more of an entertainer or guest, ratherinterview with The Japan Times about the influx of ALTs inthan that of a partner in teaching (Rosati, 2005). These

Japanese elementary schools, Sophia University professor

beliefs can lead to an underutilization of the ALTs in classKensaku Yoshida stated, “The education ministry isplanning and teaching. While this underutilization of ALTs

responsible for ensuring the quality of ALTs, [b]ut if English

still remains an issue in JET’s 30th year, many senior highbecomes a proper subject (in 2020) and the education

school ALTs and JTEs escape this trend due to the nature ofministry doesn’t provide some kind of training, it may cause

their contracts and teacher training.

confusion (with the teachers)” (Aoki, 2014). As Yoshida

Currently, senior high school ALTs attend fourstated, it is vital to provide proper training for ALTs and JTEs

different kinds of training seminars during their employment.

to implement effective English education in Japan. This study

They first attend JET Tokyo Orientation for 3 days. Teamwas aimed at evaluating the current state of training thatteaching seminars are conducted by teacher trainers and are

English instructors receive and determining how English

divided based on the type of school that the ALT will teachteacher training can be improved in the future.

at. Until 2014, the Association for Japan Exchange and

It is important to note that almost all senior highTeaching (AJET), a volunteer organization of JET Program

school ALTs are contracted under the prefectural BOE,

participants, also facilitated workshops for incoming JETs.

while most elementary and junior high school ALTs are

ALTs attend another orientation exclusively for 1st-years

contracted under the municipal BOE. As of July 1st, 2016,

with their respective Board of Education (BOE). The 1st-

there are approximately 1,739 prefectural JET ALTs (JET

year orientation is combined with the elementary and junior

Programme, 2016). The JET Program does not document

high school ALT orientation, and the ratio of the content

the exact number of senior high school ALTs in Japan andbetween teacher training and general living in Japan varies

some senior high school ALT contracts vary between BOEs,

depending on the BOE. Prefectural and municipal ALTs alsoso there may be a margin of error in this estimate. For example,

have the annual Skills Development Conference (SDC)

the Hamamatsu Municipal BOE oversees one senior hightogether in the fall or winter. The length and the content ofschoolthis conference varies between BOEs depending on how“level”/ranking the ALT’s school is. A competitive senior

many ALTs are contracted in the prefecture. Larger

high school with a low acceptance rate would be labeled as aprefectures usually host SDC for 2 days or more with a“high-level school,” while a senior high school with a highdesignated committee of BOE employees, ALTs, and JTEs,

acceptance rate would be considered a “low-level school.”while prefectures with fewer ALTs only host the SDC for 1

There are ALTs who are also placed at specialized schools

day. Senior high school ALTs also have their own regional(technical, commercial, agricultural, etc.).

meetings in the spring, where they discuss team teachingstrategies and attend workshops for a day.

ALT.

BOEs

also

directly

confirm

which

Since 2014, the number of ALTs contracted in
private and public schools in Tokyo have also significantly

Now, most senior high school ALTs work at only

increased, and the training seminars for Tokyo JET

one school during their entire term on the JET Program

participants are conducted differently from the rest of thewhile the elementary and junior high school ALTs visit

prefectural BOEs in Japan. In Tokyo, the Tokyo Private JET

multiple schools and rotate often during their term. In the

Shigaku Zaidan Organization (東京都私学財団) mainly

past few years, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,

organizes and facilitates training for Tokyo ALTs by hosting

Science and Technology (MEXT) has changed their policies

workshops that are presented by teacher trainers who wereto include ALTs in more schools throughout Japan by 2020

former ALTs. While ALTs receive teacher training(Aoki, 2014). This dynamic nature of the national English

throughout the year, JTEs seldom receive training on teamThe 2017 PanSIG Journal

60

teaching. Before 2006, teacher licenses in Japan were

taught 2nd-year students; and 75% taught 3rd-year students.

permanent after passing the licensing exam, but now all

The 2nd- and 3rd-year student team teaching classes,

teachers must take special seminars every 4-5 years to retain

however, are optional elective courses (English Expression,

their teaching license. However, JTEs only have one

Debate, etc.). 57% of the ALTs stated that they taught less

opportunity to receive training for team teaching throughthan 15 hours a week, which was interesting, considering that

SDC, and only one or two JTEs per school are required to

BOEs require senior high school ALTs to teach 15 hours

attend the conferences. In the following questionnaires, bothminimum per week (Shizuoka BOE). 40% taught 11-14

the JTEs and the ALTs expressed their concerns about how

hours; 14% taught 6-10 hours; and 3% taught 1-5 hours per

their teacher training lacks focus on their respective roles inweek. Some ALTs noted that they only visit the elective

team teaching. These opposing levels of exposure to teamcourses classes once a month, but a majority of them taught

teaching in the training that the JTEs and ALTs receive relate

the 1st-year students once a week.

to how they experience team teaching together in the

Questionnaire

classroom.
This study was an examination of the positive and negative

In order to understand how confident ALTs and JTEs wereexperiences that both ALTs and JTEs have had with teamin their team teaching experiences and abilities, ateaching at Japanese senior high schools. The research wasquestionnaire was distributed to 128 ALTs and 14 JTEs

focused on three areas: (a) the pre-service and in-service

nationwide. The questions were designed based on surveys

training ALTs and JTEs receive during their employment,that other studies (Birch, 2009; Gifu Prefectural Education(b) how ALTs and JTEs are collaborating when they teamCenter, 2002; Luxton, Fennelly, & Fukuda, 2014; Mahoney,

teach, and how they perceive each other’s roles in team2004) have conducted for comparison, and others were basedteaching, and (c) how future job satisfaction and job training

on postconference surveys that BOEs distribute. Thesefor both ALTs and JTEs can be improved.

studies asked ALTs and JTEs about how they perceived eachother’s roles. This study resembles Birch’s questionnaire

Methodabout satisfaction with teacher training for ALTs but also

Participantsinquired about the JTE’s satisfaction with their own training

The ALTs who participated were recruited throughin team teaching. Luxton, Fennelly, and Fukuda (2014) alsoprefectural BOE newsletters and Facebook groups that wereidentified the obstacles both groups face when native English

exclusive to senior high school JET participants. JTE

speakers team teach with JTEs and how most JTEs perceive

participants were contacted via these ALT participants.

the ALT’s role as a guest in the classroom.

Participants included 128 ALTs and 14 JTEs.

Questions 1-12 (see Appendix) related to the

63% of the ALTs team teach with four to sevendemographics of the ALTs and JTEs in terms of how long

JTEs per year. 56% of the ALT survey participants possessed

they have been team teaching and the level of the institution

a teaching certification of some kind. 59% of them had TEFL

they currently teach at. Questions 13-19 focused on the ALT

certification (29% of them noted that they received theirand JTE’s satisfaction with team teaching and the extent it

TEFL certification through the CLAIR TEFL Grant whilevaries among the other JTEs. Questions 20-30 reviewed thein the JET Program); 20% had CELTA certification; 11%satisfaction that ALTs and JTEs have with their preservice

had teaching licenses in their home countries; and 4% had

and in-service training and how much of their training

received other forms of teaching certification. 51.4% of the

focuses on team teaching. Finally, questions 31-37 focused on

ALTs were teaching at low-level senior high schools; 21.2%

the ratio of the average ALT and JTE involvement in lesson

were teaching at intermediate-level; 9.6% taught at high-planning, teaching, and evaluating between the two groups.

level; and 17.8% taught at specialized high schools. 97% of the

At the end of the survey, ALT participants were asked to leave

ALTs were teaching 1st-year high school students; 83%

their email address for a follow-up interview.
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

61

planning and lack of feedback from the ALT or JTE wereInterviews

reduced to “cultural misunderstandings” rather thanInterviews were conducted in English to clarify and provide

strategizing a feasible solution for the lack of communication

context for the initial survey results. Interviews were recorded

between ALTs and JTEs.

and transcribed. ALTs based in the Seibu region of Shizuoka

Lesson Planningwere interviewed in person, and ALTs outside of the Seibu
region were interviewed via Skype. All of the JTE interviews
were conducted in person in English and Japanese within the
Seibu

regionof

Shizuoka.

ALT

interviews

wereapproximately 1-2 hours long while JTE interviews lasted 3045 minutes.

Results
Satisfaction with Training
Both JTEs and ALTs expressed that they received no clear
criteria of what the other teacher was supposed to do for teamteaching. A 1st-year ALT at a technical senior high schoolstated, “In Tokyo Orientation, we were told what we woulddo, but not what the JTE would do…and each of my JTEs
would be very different. Some just look out the window, sometranslate everything I say. It didn’t feel like ‘team’-teaching.”
121 ALTs provided similar responses regardless of the level ofthe high school they taught: the lack of information on what
input they should expect from their JTEs and theoverwhelming brevity of their roles in the classroom. All JTE
respondents who had received their licenses over 5 years ago(86%) noted that they had also received no preservice
training on lesson planning or team teaching with ALTs.
However, two of the JTE respondents had obtained theirlicenses within the past few years and noted that their job
interviews and preservice training seminar involved BOE
employees who were former ALTs. As for the in-service
training, 98 of the ALTs and 12 of the JTEs also expressed

105 out of 128 of the ALT respondents confirmed thatthey made 100% of the lesson plans on their own and
13 out of 14 of the JTE respondents agreed. Only 2
ALTs stated that they designed less than 50% of thelesson plan (Table 1.).
Both sets of respondents stated that this ratio
seldom varied among the other JTEs. 115 of theparticipants were satisfied with this ratio because theysaid it allowed the ALT to have an active role in theclassroom while the JTE could act as the assistant. One
ALT respondent wrote, “I like it. It allows me to havecontrol. It gives [JTEs] a break and it makes me a better
teacher. Our classes are more interactive and focusedon output.” However, 48% of the ALT respondents
were dissatisfied by the lack of feedback from the JTE
before and after lesson planning and wished that theJTE participated more actively in class whenmonitoring the students’ output. 37% of the ALTs also
noted that their BOE and base school never reviewed
their performance or explicitly stated what they should
improve on. One ALT wrote, “I think this is the only
job in the world where you're not given a performance
review.” Eight of the JTE respondents stated that they
did not have time to read through lesson plans orprovide adequate feedback due to their job duties
outside of team teaching.

that most conflicts in the workplace that involved lesson
Table 1. Responses to How Much of the Team Teaching is Facilitated by the ALT?
Lesson planning

Team teaching

<50%

50%

50%< 100%

<50%

50%

50%< 100%

ALTs

2

0

21

105

2

8

92

26

JTEs

0

0

1

13

0

0

2

2

Note. ALTs: n = 128, JTEs: n = 14.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

62

Team Teachingengagement with their ALT; these were usually with 1st-year

A majority of the ALTs and JTEs agreed that the ALTs

ALTs. One JTE stated, “The ALT’s PowerPoint was veryshould create lesson plans, present, practice pronunciation,

long. The students had no time to practice their speaking,”

and give feedback to students to monitor their participation

and another stated, “The students could not focus in the class.

and confirm their understanding of the lesson. However,My ALT did not engage with the students.” Both ALTs and

20% of the ALTs were unsure if they had to monitor class

JTEs felt that there needs to be more equal participation andparticipation or discipline students. Both parties also agreed

engagement with students during team teaching, and that thethat the JTEs should discipline the students, provide

students should have more opportunities to speak in agrammar explanation/translations in Japanese if necessary,seminar-style class instead of a lecture.

and monitor participation, implying that that JTEs would
play a more supporting role while the ALT played a main role

Interviewsin team teaching. The ratio of ALT and JTE participation

27 current ALTs and 4 former ALTs were interviewed for 1-

was slightly more balanced than the ratio of involvement with

2 hours. 29 of the interviews were conducted over Skypelesson planning. 92% of the ALT respondents stated thatwhile 2 of them were in person. 21 worked at low-level

they facilitated over 50% of the class and that 71% of theirschools, four were at intermediate-level schools, three were at

JTEs facilitated 20%-30% of the class.

a commercial/technical/agricultural schools, one was at a

All of the ALTs noted that their best team teaching

high-level school, and one was at a private upper intermediate

experiences involved actively communicating with their JTEs

school. Seven current JTEs and one former private school

before and after lessons and having their JTE motivate

JTE were interviewed in person for 15-20 minutes. Four werestudents to participate in class. A 2nd-year ALT wrote,

from low-level schools, one was from an upper intermediate

One of the best JTEs would do everything

school, one was at a high-level school, and one was from awith me. He would greet the class, explain

private upper intermediate school. Participants were asked toactivities, do examples, motivate students to

extrapolate on their survey responses and how their roles andparticipate, and help students ALL with me.

training should improve.

I’m basically the main teacher but thisWhen asked about their own perceived roles, mostparticular teacher understood my roles andof the ALTs stated that they were the main teacher rather

limits. He even took the time each week tothan the assistant, while the JTE should act as the motivator.

talk about the classes we had together.

They specifically noted that JTEs should show that English

Others didn’t bother reading it.

can be useful for Japanese people, provide grammar

The JTE respondents overall stated that their best

explanations, and show what an English-speaking Japanese

team teaching experiences involved the students’ active

person would be like to show how feasible it is for a nonnative

engagement with the ALT during the lessons.

English speaker to master the language. A 2nd-year ALT

When asked about their worst team teachingcommented, “Please, just tell the ALT explicitly what you

experiences, all of the ALTs noted the lack of engagement andwant for the lesson. Also, the ALT part of team teachingclassroom management from their JTE. One ALT wrote,

mystifies me. If I am an assistant, let me assist. As it is, I plan

“The most difficult experience was team teaching with aall the lessons myself.” 30 of the ALT interviewees had similar

teacher who, despite having gone over the lesson plan justresponses. When asked about the ALT’s agency in lesson

before class, refused to participate on a regular basis andplanning and team teaching, one JTE stated, “The English

would stand in the back or off to the side without

Conversation Class is for the ALTs. They should encourage

participating. On a bad day, they would sleep in the back.”

students to talk. Sometimes, I have to translate instructions

There were 94 similar responses. The JTE respondents had

in Japanese,” and four other JTEs provided similar answers.

negative experiences with time management and lack ofAnother JTE noted that their presence was only necessary
The 2017 PanSIG Journal63because it would be illegal to leave the ALT alone in theSome limitations in this study include the setting where theseclassroom. Based on the interviews, it seems that the JTEs andsurveys and interviews were announced and conducted. The

ALTs both feel that the ALT should have the most agency

ALT respondents were recruited online via BOE newslettersand have a leading role in team teaching.

and Facebook groups, so it is possible that some ALTs may

When they were asked about how team teaching

not have seen the survey if they are seldom online. Links to

could be improved, all 31 of the ALTs and six of the JTEs

the survey were not posted in AJET-affiliated Facebook

referenced their preservice and in-service training. Five of thegroups or public JET-affiliated Facebook pages because they

JTEs also noted that their impression of the ALT was based

were public and accessible to non-ALTs, risking theon the old model of team teaching: visit the classroom as apossibility of collecting false data. There were much fewer

foreign guest rather than a teacher and return to their home

JTE participants than ALTs, and JTEs were only recruited tocountry. When asked about their ideal roles, 29 of the ALT

take the survey by their ALT. This implies that the JTEinterviewees expressed that they wanted their classes to be

would already have an open working relationship with theirmore legitimate and focused on collaborative team teaching.

ALT to complete the survey and volunteer for the interviews.

One ALT stated, “Do lessons together. Besides using theNone of the JTE interviews were online and were conducted

ALT as a parrot or cool toy, actually plan lessons with us.

in public places, so they may have been less forthcoming withMake our classes as important as ‘normal’ classes.” Three of

their workplace issues compared to the Skype interviews. The

the JTEs stated that they wanted the students to have more

Skype interviews were more private, so the interviewees

opportunities to speak with the ALT.

appeared more relaxed and vocal in their responses.
The results yield several implications for teamDiscussion

teaching practices. First, both groups expressed that they

In order for ALTs and JTEs to team teach effectively,

would be more satisfied with team teaching if their roles wereintercultural communication and more uniformity of themore clearly defined in their preservice and in-service training.

ALT and JTE roles must be emphasized in their training. In

The lack of mutual clarity in the ALT’s and JTE’s roles inthe survey responses, more than half of the participants fromteam teaching affects their in-class performance to a hugeeach group echoed the same sources of confusion when it

extent. ALTs are assumed to take the leading role in lesson

comes to team teaching. While senior high school ALTs

planning and leading their lessons, but there are few

attend training seminars multiple times a year, JTEs rarely

assumptions about what the JTE should do during theirattend the same ones. Both groups also agreed that ALTs

lessons since team teaching is rarely discussed in the JTEs’

should design over 50% of the lesson plans and lead theirtraining. It is necessary for JTEs to receive more training on

English Communication classes while the JTE should act as

the concept of team teaching and collaborating with ALTs

the assistant. The curriculum of the courses that the ALTs

during classes. Both groups should also become more assertive

team teach in are not connected to the course of study for thein their agency with lesson planning; if ALTs and JTEs

other English courses that the JTE solo teaches. This gives

directly confronted each other before and after lesson

ALTs more flexibility with creating the content for theirplanning, they could avoid potential issues during classes.

classes. The objective of the English Communication classes

Future job satisfaction for both groups can be improved byinvolves speaking and listening practice for the students, andtraining both ALTs and JTEs on collaborative lesson

the ALTs can invest most of their time in creating activities

planning and communication instead of only providing

to facilitate English conversations. This role reversal alreadydemos for games and ALT presentations. Designing content

occurs in team teaching, but both groups feel challenged

for lessons is essential to team teaching, but ALTs and JTEs

when the lesson plan is not discussed beforehand or evaluatedneed to confirm how they can execute the content

afterwards.

collaboratively with less confusion about their perceived roles
and agency in the classroom.
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

64

References
Aoki, M. (2014, January 2). Schools fret about assistantteachers ahead of proposed 2020 reforms. The Japan
Times Online. Retrieved from

Iwami, I. (1992). Team teaching in shingakuko: A case studyof Hachinohe High School. The Language Teacher,16(11), 21-29.
Luxton, R., Fennelly, M., & Fukuda, S. (2014). A survey of

http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/01/02/nationa

ALTs and JTEs. Shikoku University Kiyo, (A)42, 45-54.

l/schools-fret-about-assistant-teachers-ahead-of-

Retrieved from https://www.shikoku-

proposed-2020-reforms/

u.ac.jp/education/docs/4-42.pdf

Birch, G. (2009). ALTs’ roles and duties: Official

Mahoney, S. (2004). Role controversy among team teachers

documents versus ALT self reports. Chubu English

in the JET Programme. JALT Journal, 26(2), 223-244.

Language Education Society, 38, 101-108. Retrieved from

Retrieved from https://jalt-publications.org/files/pdf-

https://www.academia.edu/10080579/ALTs_Roles_and

article/jj-26.2-art6.pdf_Duties_Official_Documents_Versus_ALT_Self_Reports
Daigaku Nyuushi Center. (n.d.). National center for
university entrance examinations. Retrieved fromhttp://www.dnc.ac.jp/
Gifu Prefectural Education Center. (2002). ALT

Martin, R. (2010). Team-teaching in Japanese publicschools: Fissures in the ALT industry. Rikkyo University,
145-152. Retrieved from http://icc.rikkyo.ac.jp/wp/wpcontent/uploads/2016/01/110007590294.pdf
McCrostie, J. (2017, May 3). As Japan’s JET Programme
hits its 30s, the jury’s still out. Retrieved fromsurvey results. Retrieved from http://www.gifu-

http://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2017/05/03/i

net.ed.jp/kyoka/eigo/CommunicativeEnglish/05-

ssues/japans-jet-programme-hits-30s-jurys-

6ALT%20Survey%20Results.htm#feflink

still/#.WX6whtOGORs

JET Programme. (2016, July 1). Number of participants

Rosati, S. (2005). Participants in the JET Programme. The

by host prefecture/designated city (ALT/CIR) 2016-

Ryukoku Journal of Humanities and Sciences, 27(1), 99-2017. JET Programme. Retrieved from120. Retrieved fromhttp://jetprogramme.org/wp-content/themes/biz-

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110005998557/

vektor/pdf/countries/2016_jet_stats_e.pdf

Appendix
1. Which prefecture do you teach in?
2. [ALTs Only] What gender do you identify as?
3. [ALTs Only] How old are you?
4. [ALTs Only]How many schools do you work at?
5. Do you change schools every year/semester?
6. Do you have any of these certifications? (TEFL, CELTA, Teaching License, Other:___)
7. Is your high school private or public?
8. What grades do you teach?
9. What level is your school?
10. What do you do at school? (Oral Communication, Writing, Test Prep [EIKEN, University Entrance Exams,etc.], Grading, English Club, Other:___)
11. [ALTs Only] Which program do you work for? (JET Program, Interac, Altia Central, Private Hire, Other:__)12. How long have you been an ALT/JTE? [Current Year]: (1st year, 2nd year, 3rd year, 4th year, 5th year,
Other:__)
13. [ALTs Only]Do you plan on recontracting? (Yes/No)
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

65

14. [ALTs Only][Optional] Why/Why not?
15. How many JTEs do you work with? (1-2, 3-5, 6-8, 9+, Other:_)
16. On a scale of 1-5, how satisfied are you with team-teaching? (1: least satisfied, 5: very satisfied)
17. [ALTs only] On a scale of 1-5, does the JTE assist you when you team-teach? (1: does not participate, 5: fully
assists when team-teaching)
18. [ALTs only] On a scale of 1-5, Are all of your JTEs able to interact with you in English? (1: Cannot speak in
English, 5: Can perfectly speak in English)
19. Are there any issues/challenges you face with the program/school you work for?
20. How helpful was your pre-service training? Rate on a scale of 1-10 (1 being “not helpful at all”, 10 being“extremely helpful”)
21. Did your pre-service training help you learn how to team-teach?
22. How helpful was your in-service training? Rate on a scale of 1-10 (1 being “not helpful at all”, 10 being“extremely helpful”)
23. Did your in-service training help you learn how to team-teach?
24. On average, what percentage of the lesson plan is made by the ALT and the JTE? Is it 50-50?
25. To what extent does it vary between JTEs?
26. Should this percentage change? Why/why not?
27. Does the JTE discuss lesson plans before/after the class? [Yes (both), Yes (before), Yes (after), No]
28. On average, what percentage of team-teaching is done by the ALT? Is it 50-50?
29. To what extent does it vary between JTEs?
30. Should this percentage change? Why/why not?
31. How much English and how much Japanese is being used by the JTE? [Two Scales: 1-10; 1: Never used, 10:
Used very frequently]
32. What should the ALT and JTE’s role be in team-teaching?
33. What was one of your best team-teaching experiences/classes?
34. What was one of your worst team-teaching experiences/classes?
35. How could team-teaching be improved?
36. Write your full name & e-mail if you'd like to be interviewed for this presentation.
37. [ALTs Only] Please share this with your JTE if they would also like to provide feedback.

Author Biography
Farrah Hasnain is a 4th-year ALT with the JET Program at Hamamatsu Higashi Senior HighSchool. She is from Washington, DC, USA. Her research interests include English education in
Japanese high schools and ethnography of immigrant and minority communities in Japan and theUS.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

66

Critical Thinking Through the Study of History
Caroline Hutchinson
Juntendo University, Faculty of International Liberal Arts
carolineshutchinson@gmail.com
This article describes the theoretical framework of an elective content and language integrated learning(CLIL) course in modern Japanese history. The course focuses on cross-cultural exchange between Japanand the world during the period 1868-1926. After describing the course structure and lesson organization,
the article considers key elements of critical thinking and historical analysis, organizing them into threestrands: description (using evidence to understand what took place); analysis (the how and why of historicalchange); and evaluation (connecting what they have learned to their own lives). It then describes selected
activities that are used to support learner development of those skills. The article concludes with the finding
that, with appropriate teacher scaffolding and feedback and discussion mechanisms, CLIL history can behighly motivating for both learners and instructors.
本稿は、1868 年から 1926 年の間に日本が世界と行った異文化交流を扱う近代日本史（選択科目）の授業を、内容言語統合型学習（CLIL）にて行う理論的枠組みについて説明したものである。学習構成と授業の進め方について説明をしたうえで、批判的思考と歴史的分析の重要な要素を検討し、それらを「説明」（証拠の活用による過去の事象理解）、「分析」（歴史的変化の経緯と理由）、「評価」（学んだ内容の実生活への応用）の三部分へと整理していく。次に、これら説明・分析・評価のスキルを学習者が伸ばしていけるようサポートするべく選り抜かれた諸活動について述べる。教師が然るべき足場を提供し、適切なフィードバックと議論の仕方に沿って授業を進めることで、CLIL による歴史の授業
は学習者と講師双方の関心を強く引きつけて内容に集中させ、意欲を高めることができると結論付けている。

CLIL (content language-integrated learning) is an umbrella

The CLIL history course described here, “Japan and theterm for a variety of pedagogical approaches that combine

World: Through Travellers’ Eyes,” focuses on the experiences

content and language learning. Rather than seeing languageof “travellers” between Japan and other countries between

development as an end, however, "CLIL is about using

1868 and 1926. The focus of assessment is student analysis oflanguages to learn" (Marsh, Marsland, & Stenberg, as cited incourse content (cognition) and exploration of how course

Ball, n.d.). Coyle’s 4Cs curriculum proposes four essential

content interacts with culture, in particular how what they

components

content,

have learned connects to their own lives. Content is notcommunication, cognition, and culture. In this model,

directly assessed (there is no test of historical facts, forlearning of content (subject matter) takes place when

example), and language is only assessed insofar as it affects

students personalize their learning by thinking on many levels

student ability to communicate their ideas. This assessment(cognition) and interacting with others (communication).

structure is intended to emphasize critical thinking skills and

The final component is culture, which encompasses cross-to move away from the idea that history is a list of objective

cultural awareness and exploring self and “otherness” infacts to be rote-learned for examinations.

ofeffective

CLIL

practice:

relation to what is learned (Coyle, Hood, & Marsh, 2010).

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

67

Writers such as Momoki (2016) have criticized thein their historical knowledge, their familiarity with key

lack of focus on thinking skills in Japanese history education

personalities and terms aids their comprehension of content.

and its tendency to artificially separate Japanese history fromI also encourage them to do background research in their L1

the history of the world. When discussing their history

to support their learning. To lower the cognitive demand,learning experiences, course participants often echo thesestudent readings focus primarily on individuals (the travellers

sentiments and report feeling ashamed at their limited graspof the course title), and I provide context through shortof their country’s history. Another way of approachinglectures. Readings also focus on concrete events or opinions

history, I believe, is to see it as a rich source of stories about

whose objective details can be understood fairly readily by“what man has done and thus what man is,” in the words ofstudents, but which lend themselves to deeper analysis.

philosopher of history R. G. Collingwood (1946). In otherwords, by using historical sources to describe and understandwhat happened in the past and interpreting how and why it
happened, students can learn to make connections between
past and present and so use history as a resource tounderstand human actions in the present.

Classes are divided into input classes, review classes, andclasses for preparation or delivery of presentations. The basic
structure of input lessons follows a “test-teach-test” structurein that students first complete a comprehension task without
input from the teacher for homework (British Council, n.d.).
Students read a background text describing the life ofThis paper will describe the conceptual framework

someone who travelled to or from Japan (a traveller), pairedof the course “Japan and the World: Through Traveller’swith a short authentic text (2-3 paragraphs) written by thatEyes,” and outline selected activities that I use to encourage

person. Before reading, students are guided to research andcritical thinking and reflection. As this is a pedagogical paper,

record necessary vocabulary. After reading, they answer three

not a research paper, all references to student comments aresets of questions:

anecdotal.

1. Chronological questions, aimed at understanding
the story;

Basic Course Outline and Lesson Procedure

2. Comprehension questions, aimed at understanding
the authentic text. Where there is no authentic text,

The course focuses on the Meiji and Taisho periods in Japan

students summarize the background text; and(1868-1926), a time of tumultuous change. The Meiji

3. Discussion questions, aimed at provoking thought

Restoration of 1868 saw the overthrow of the military
shogunate that had ruled Japan for centuries. The feudal classsystem was abolished, and limited parliamentary democracy
introduced. Citizens were free to choose their professions,and Japan was opened to foreign trade and ideas after
centuries of relative isolation. Debates raged about how best
to achieve “Civilization and Enlightenment” (文明開化),with some thinkers proposing the abandonment of theJapanese language, while others, especially later on, argued
that Japan was losing its own identity in its haste to adopt
Western fashions.
“Japan and the World” is an elective course for 3rdand 4th-year English majors, who must have a minimum ITP
TOEFL score of 480. To date, all participants have been
educated in Japan; thus, despite low levels of self-confidence

on relevant issues.
In class, students have 20 minutes to compare andsummarize their ideas in small groups. I elicit possible answers
from students, clarify understanding where necessary, andadd ideas to a shared class Google document. I then give ashort lecture (15-20 minutes) focussing in greater depth on
the issues in the homework questions. Finally, students spend
20 minutes writing a reflection, which will be described ingreater detail below.
Students are assessed based on their understanding andanalysis of the course content; language is only assessed when
it influences their ability to express their ideas. They havetime to prepare for all assignments and are never tested ondates or facts. The assessment breakdown is as follows:

The 2017 PanSIG Journal68

12 x comprehension questions and reflections: 40%

Group presentation: 20%



Individual presentation and small-group discussion:
20%



Reflective interview with teacher: 20%

consider differing perspectives on the same events andthe credibility of different accounts.
1a) Using evidence. Students learn how to interpret andanalyze primary sources.

1b) Contextualizing and evaluating credibility.
Students infer connections between the historical context

Framework for Critical Thinking Through History
The course was structured around an amalgamation ofhistorical skills and critical thinking skills. For criticalthinking skills, I referred to Facione’s (2011) summaryof the Delphi Report on Critical Thinking, which
defines the subskills of critical thinking based on theopinions of 46 experts. Historical skills were drawn fromtwo main sources: The Historical Thinking Project(n.d.) and Historical Association (Disciplinary
concepts)(https://www.history.org.uk/secondary/categories/ppdisciplinary-concepts).

and the information in the source. They try to see events fromthe perspective of the writer. Using context, knowledge of thewriter, and alternative sources, they evaluate the credibility ofthe source.

1c) Understanding multiple perspectives. Students
infer and evaluate the positions of multiple participants.

Strand 2: Interpretation
Students identify key events and trends and the interrelations
between them. They consider how comparisons across timeand space can add to our understanding of history and the

I divided the target skills for the course into
three strands: description, historical analysis, andevaluation. These concepts are discussed further in thesection on self-regulation, below. Briefly, they are drawn
from the “DIE” model used in intercultural studies, andare aimed at moving from objective description, throughinference and analysis, to subjective evaluation andpersonal identification with the themes underconsideration.

present.

I will first outline the framework that I used tobuild the course, before describing sample activities thathave proved engaging and effective in developing
students’ skills. I hope that this framework will act as a
useful starting point for teachers hoping to stimulate
critical thinking and historical enquiry among students.

2c) Comparison.

Strand 1: Description
Students use primary sources (created during the time
being studied) and background information tounderstand events in the context of the times. They

2a) Establish significance. Students interpret available
information and identify the significant aspects of the past.

2b) Cause and consequence. Students consider theevidence and infer causal links that can explain subsequent
events. They consider “long-term ideologies, institutions, andconditions, and short-term motivations, actions and events”(The Historical Thinking Project, n.d.)Students infer similarities anddifferences between societies at different points in time orspace and consider how events were experienced differently
by different individuals and social groups. They use thisknowledge to explain behaviour or outcomes.

Strand 3: Evaluation
Students “consider [their] own relationship to [the content]
and how we personally fit into the context of the issue”(Brookfield, pp.7-9). They try to empathise with the people
they study and evaluate their actions. They reflect on what
lessons history can have for the modern world and how their
The 2017 PanSIG Journal69

thinking has changed in light of lesson content. They

fill gaps in their understanding, and where possible I use

consider what they have learned about the study of history

visual texts to supplement verbal explanation (in this case, theand its impact on our world.

2006 movie of the event; Igarashi, 2006).

3a) Empathy. Students evaluate the available information

Activities using visual evidence allow students toand attempt to take the perspective of a person living at that

communicate while applying their cognitive skills to maketime. They try to understand “the social, cultural, intellectual,sense of content, without the additional burden of having toand emotional settings that shaped people’s lives and actions

comprehend a written text in their L2. According to Levstik

in the past” (The Historical Thinking Project, n.d.).

& Barton (2005, p. 88), images also generate interest and “tap3b) Ethics. While empathy involves understanding eventsfrom the perspective of participants, ethics involves steppingback and evaluating individual actions and the consequencesof their decisions.

into a much wider range of background knowledge thanprinted text or oral discussions.” One excellent activity from
the

MIT

Visualizing

Cultureswebsite(https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/yokohama/cur_teacher/yb_cur_01.html) asks students to examine Japanese3c) Self-regulation. Students monitor their own learning

woodblock prints depicting Yokohama shortly after it

and apply critical thinking skills to their own opinions, “withopened to foreign residents. Using a series of guiding

a view toward questioning, confirming, validating, orquestions, students search for evidence of the interactions

correcting [one’s] reasoning” (Facione, 2011). They come tobetween Japanese and non-Japanese residents. In past courses,

a greater understanding of what is subjective judgement andstudents have identified people of different origins using

what can be stated objectively given available evidence.

gestures to communicate, for example, or the imbalance in3d) Meta-history. Through exposure to issues such as

status between white westerners at leisure and the Japanesecredibility, multiple perspectives, and differing historicalexplanations for events, students gain insight into history as adiscipline and the “uses and abuses” of history in the modern
world.

(usually women) who serve them. This leads into thediscussion of how much we can rely on these sometimes
fantastical images and the purpose of the artists in making
them.

1b, 1c) Credibility and context. English writer andSample Activities for a Japanese History Course

explorer Isabella Bird travelled to Japan in 1878, making an
unusual decision to travel north to Hokkaido. She

Strand 1: Description

subsequently published her letters home to her sister.

1a) Using evidence. For homework before input sessions,

1881), which focus on concrete aspects of daily life—such as

students read a short authentic text written by the focus
individual. It is crucial that students understand this evidence,as it forms the basis for all the other skills described above,and to this end texts chosen describe concrete events rather
than abstract concepts. For example, in spite of its flowery
English, students are able to use a text from 1910 to grasp
what five young men from Choshu province (the Choshu

Students read selected excerpts from these letters (Bird,
the lives of rickshaw pullers or the new steam trains. For
homework, students categorise Bird’s impressions into
positive and negative. After sharing their impressions withother students, they are given an image depicting the same
theme, either a Western tourist photograph or a Japanese
woodblock print.

Five) had to do to stow away illegally on a ship bound for

The teacher gives a brief orientation to theEngland (Griffis, 1910). They are aided in this by theirlimitations of photography at the time and a set of guiding

existing schemata; knowing the context—that their actions

questions. Students work to compare the image and the text

are illegal—helps students guess the meaning of words such asthen present to other students. Considering two sources“evading.” Students are encouraged to research in their L1 tosimulates the work of the historian in seeking corroboration
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and reconciling differences in evidence and encourages2b) Cause and consequence. The Choshu Five risked theirstudents to understand that all texts, even photographs, canlives stowing away and travelling to England when it was still

be subjective.

illegal to do so. Why? Students usually respond that the five1d) Multiple perspectives. Students read a text describing
the Namamugi Incident, in which a British merchant was
killed by samurai in 1862 (Satow, 1921). The text, written bya British diplomat, presents the incident as a vicious andunprovoked attack. Based on background research, and theirunderstanding of Japanese society at the time, students retellmen disagreed with Japan’s national isolation and wanted tolearn skills that could modernize Japan. In fact, all fiveyoung men did just that, learning skills (and English) thatwere invaluable in leading the new government formed in
1868, so this is one answer that is supported by evidence.
Having tested student understanding, I used my

the incident from the Japanese perspective. They can makelecture to teach aspects they may not have considered; in thischanges at the global level (explaining why it was consideredcase, over the centuries of its existence, the feudal classdisrespectful to walk in front of a daimyo’s retinue), or

system had become warped by the growing wealth of theidentify words that demonstrate the writer’s bias (“amerchant class (technically near the bottom of society) andbarbarous murder,” for example).

the impoverishment of low-ranking samurai (technicallyThis activity is followed by the visual text activity
described in 1a, above, which gives students morebackground on contemporary relations between Japaneseand non-Japanese in Yokohama, near where the Namamugi
Incident occurred. Students are also asked to decide who is at
fault for the incident, which provokes lively debate and leads

near the top of society). As the Choshu Five were all lowranking samurai, they may have been pushed to take extreme
measures in order to influence society. While it was notcompulsory to consider interpretations introduced in mylecture in lesson reflections (the second test), many students
chose to do so.

to examining the terms of the Anglo-Japanese Friendship
Treaty signed in 1854, which exempted British nationals
from Japanese law. This lesson clearly has an impact on

Strand 3: Evaluation

students, as a majority of them choose to discuss it in their

3a, 3b) Empathy and ethics. According to Endacott andfinal reflective interviews.

Brooks (2013), historical empathy takes place when students
place events in context, take perspectives on those events, andmake an affective connection with the historical figures. I

Strand 2: Analysis
In the initial design of this course, I included several
activities in which students were to carry out historicalanalysis in small groups. Perhaps because students lacked
confidence in their history knowledge, or in their ability tomake inferences, these had limited success. Revising thecourse, I decided to use the test-teach-test setup “to identify
the specific needs of learners” (British Council, n.d.); I
would give students a chance to generate ideas in response to
homework questions (test) and use my lecture to cover
points that I felt they had missed (teach).
Let us consider the example of the Choshu Five,introduced above in section 1a.

have discussed some ways in which the first two elements
might be promoted. In terms of affective connection, I believethat this course’s focus on the experiences and decisions ofindividuals allows students to get to know them andempathise with their motivations. In addition, classroom
discussion of empathy-related questions gives students “alarger pool of affective responses to draw from in theirattempts to empathize” (Endacott & Brooks, 2013, p. 50),and students frequently reported that their classmates had
introduced them to new perspectives.
In the course we also consider ethical issues, and I
attempt to offer alternative perspectives to the acceptedinterpretation of history. For example, I ask students toconsider whether Ito Hirobumi was (a) a hero who risked his
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

71

life to travel overseas with the Choshu Five, to learn

2. Analyse that aspect. This involves making

technology to modernise Japan, and who led Japan as its firstinferences about why something happened, why it

prime minister, or (b) a villain who left Japan illegally to

was important, or comparing it with otheracquire arms to overthrow the government and who wassituations and behaviours. It differs from stage

assassinated for his role as Governor General of occupied

three in focussing on non-subjective inference.

Korea. This leads many students, in their reflections, to

3. Evaluate what the chosen aspect and its analysis

speculate about how our memory of Ito, and indeed themean for the student/ modern society. How docourse of history, might be different if he had been captured

they feel about it? What have they learned?

and executed.

These strands are originally drawn from intercultural

We also consider war and the Japanese empire.

studies and are aimed at “fostering discernment between

Although conflicts such as World War 2 occur outside thewhat can be said objectively, what can be said in the realm oftime period of the course, they are considered as part of ainference or speculation, and what may be expressed as value

period of empire-building beginning with Japan’s victoryjudgment and personal opinion” (Nam & Condon, 2010, p.

over China in 1895. Our traveller for this topic is Lafcadio

86). I also use this framework to formulate my feedback on

Hearn, who praises the strength shown by Japan in defeatingreflections, pointing out inferences with insufficient evidence

China and Russia (in 1905). As a counterpoint to this, in myor value judgements represented as fact. Students often

lecture, I discuss some of the controversies surrounding theaddress these comments in their final reflective interviews.

Japanese empire.
Although there is an argument for avoiding such3d) Meta-history. Through this course, I hope thatissues, I believe it is essential to understand this darker

students will encounter a way of studying history that is quite

backdrop to Japan’s success in building an industrial

different to the way that they studied in school and that thiseconomy. I also believe that it is important for students to be

will stimulate reflection on the nature of history. In addition

able to understand present political issues in Japan (such as

to the reflective writing after each input lesson, students carry

the move to reinterpret the pacifist constitution) and abroadout a prepared summative interview with the teacher at the(recurrent political tensions in Asia). Nonetheless, I do not

end of the course. In this, they are required to expand on one

require students to discuss them with their peers. Students

event, one person, and consider their understanding of the

may choose to address them in their reflections, which are notnature of history as a discipline.

read by other students, and are not penalised should theychoose not to do so. However, students that choose to addressthese issues usually state that they agree with their inclusionin the course.

This last question takes the form of (a) discussing a
way in which their view of history has changed or has notchanged or (b) analyzing a well-known quote about the studyof history, which I chose to encapsulate the core concepts of3c) Self-regulation. Following each input session, students

the course framework. This allows me to assess the student’s

write a reflection on their learning. They are encouraged tograsp of course content, while also giving room for students

connect what they have learned to their own lives and reflect

to analyze and evaluate what has been studied. Coming at theon the learning process. The format is relatively free, although

end of a cycle of reading, understanding, discussion, lecture

students are encouraged to make points in each of the three

input, reflection, and teacher feedback, it also offers students

strands of the course framework:

an opportunity to reflect on how their thinking has changed

1. Describe an aspect of what we have studied thatand what they have learned from their classmates.

they find interesting.

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72

Conclusion
Despite the initial perception among course participants that

Content and language integrated learning. Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press.

history is a dry, difficult subject, a gratifying proportion

Endacott, J., & Brooks, S. (2013). An updated theoreticalreport at the end of the course that this perception has

and practical model for promoting historical empathy.

changed. I believe this demonstrates that the actions,Social Studies Research and Practice, 8, 41-58. Retrieved

motivations, mistakes, and interactions of people in the pastfrom http://www.socstrpr.org/wp-

can all be made accessible to the second language students ofcontent/uploads/2013/04/MS_06482_no3.pdf
Facione, P. A. (2011). Critical thinking: What it is and why

today.
For teachers, the task of identifying historicalit counts. Millbrae, CA: Insight Assessment. Retrieved

topics and materials for a course of study may seem daunting.

from https://www.insightassessment.com/About-

However, my experience designing this course suggests that

Us/Measured-Reasons/pdf-file/Critical-Thinking-What-

the principles of second language teaching are most

It-Is-and-Why-It-Counts-PDF

important in making CLIL lessons successful. The content
needs to be an adequate springboard, but one that students
can locate and use; by setting tasks at appropriate levels,

Griffis, W. E. (1910). The statesmanship of Ito. The North
American Review, 191, No. 650, 114-127.
Hearn, L. (1896). Kokoro: Hints and echoes of Japanese

identifying important vocabulary, and providing ample

inner life. Urbana, IL: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved from

opportunity for peer and teacher discussion and feedback,www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8882

teachers can empower students to think deeply aboutcomplex historical issues in a way that is motivating for bothteachers and students. I have found this course to be hugely

Igarashi, S. (2006). 長州ファイブ(Choshu Five) [Motion
Picture]. Japan: Ken media.
Levstik, L. S., & Barton, K. C. (2005). Doing history:

rewarding and would encourage all teachers looking toInvestigating with children in elementary and middle

develop students’ critical thinking skills to expand theirschools (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

interests and give CLIL history a try.

Momoki, S. (2016). Exam hell and the crisis in history
education. Nippon.com. Retrieved from

References

Ball, P. (n.d.). What is CLIL? Retrieved fromhttp://www.onestopenglish.com/clil/methodology/articl
es/article-what-is-clil/500453.article
Bird, I. (1881). Unbeaten tracks in Japan. Urbana,
IL: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved fromhttp://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2184
British Council. (n.d.) Test-teach-test. Retrieved fromhttps://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/test-teachtest
Collingwood, R. G. (1946). The idea of history.
Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). CLIL:

http://www.nippon.com/en/in-depth/a05103/
Nam, K. A., & Condon, J. (2010). The D.I.E. is cast: The
continuing evolution of intercultural communication’s
favourite classroom exercise. International Journal ofIntercultural Relations, 34 (1), 81-87. Retrieved fromhttp://global.wfu.edu/files/2015/02/DAEArticle_NamCondon_IJIR_2010_v34.pdf
Satow, E. (1921). A diplomat in Japan. Urbana, IL: Project
Gutenberg. Retrieved fromhttp://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/43541
The Historical Thinking Project. (n.d.). Historical thinking
concepts. Retrieved fromhttp://historicalthinking.ca/historical-thinking-concepts

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73

Author Biography
Caroline Hutchinson teaches in the International Liberal Arts department at Juntendo University, Tokyo. Her
research interests include motivation and learner autonomy, CLIL and Japanese history. She can be contacted atcarolineshutchinson@gmail.com

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74

“G-PACS”: Process of Development and Effects of Political Simulation Games
Yusuke Ishikawa
Nagoya University
yusuke.b.ball.piano@gmail.com

This paper describes a hands-on political simulation game, the Global Peace and Conflict Simulation Game
(G-PACS), which was developed over several years by students, including the author, in the English seminarclass of the Meiji University School of Political Science and Economics. This paper first reviews possible
benefits of such games from English and political education perspectives. Several theoretical benefits ofplaying and developing the game are provided. This paper then traces the actual processes of learning andgame development by the students and illustrates how inspiration for developing the game came from theseminar and study abroad experiences.
本論文では Global Peace and Conflict Simulation Game (G-PACS)と呼ばれる、明治大
学政治経済学部での著者を含む英語に関する演習クラスを履修していた生徒達によって数年をかけて開発された実践的な政治に関するシミュレーションゲームについて説明する。初めに英語教育と政治教育の視点からゲームの有効性について議論する。そのゲームを行うこと及び開発をすることに関して、いくつかの理論的な効果がそこには提示されている。続いて、本論文では、そこで起きた、生徒の学習とゲームの開発の過程を追う。そこでは演習クラスの授業から発想を得て開発をしていった過程が示されている。
This paper examines theoretical benefits of hands-on politicalissues, particularly political education, as well as English

simulation games and provides an example of the backgroundeducation; it includes elements of learning about “bothand development of such games. This game is called thecontents and language,” as Coyle, Hood, and Marsh

Global Peace and Conflict Simulation Game (henceforth,described (2010, p. 1). Recently, one of the teaching methods“G-PACS”). It has been developed over 2 years by two

in English learning, content and language integrated learning

undergraduate students, including the author, who majored(CLIL), which combines content, communication, cognition,

in Political Science at Meiji University in Japan. It is expected

and culture (Coyle, Hood, & Marsh, 2010, p. 41), hasthat this paper will serve to help university English teachers

attracted the attention and investigation of scholars,of intermediate and advanced level students in university,

especially in Europe. Some universities in Japan have also put

especially for those who teach social issues in English, and

CLIL theories into practice. For example, Lockley and Cookeinspire them to develop their own simulation games as well as(2017) taught “A History of Japanese International

lead their students to develop such games.

Communication” as a CLIL course at one university located

Review of Literaturenear Tokyo, aiming to improve English skills as well as criticalthinking on intercultural issues (pp. 66, 69).

This first section discusses the possible benefits of playing andmaking political hands-on simulation games for students
from the perspectives of political education and English
language teaching (ELT), including the neuro-ELT
perspective. Political education is discussed in this section
because G-PACS includes elements of education about social

Political Education Perspectives
Political education perspectives provide mainly two benefits
for students in playing and/or making hands-on politicalsimulation games, namely, learning different points of viewand gaining knowledge effectively. First, political simulation
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75

games can provide basic concepts such as identity, state power,skills through simulation games by observing that , “because

personal leadership, and alliances, which are necessary to

the student involved in a situation has every reason to listen

analyze politics within and outside of each country.

attentively, speak convincingly, read perceptively, and—inParticipants can learn, or at least feel, these concepts throughmany instances—write forcefully, simulation gaming brings

listening to opinions in other countries and seeing available

this traditional goal of English nearer to realization” (1972, p.

options in the process of earning points, since “making

105).

choices and experiencing the consequences of those choices

Simulation

gamingencompasses

severalserve as analogues for real-world environments and decisions”

approaches such as CLIL, task-based language teaching, and(McCall, 2012, p. 13). Esquith (1992) noted that concepts

communicative language teaching. Not only do political

based on political theory are important since they “address

simulation games include extensive basic English skill

how citizens think through particular conflicts within local

learning and methods, but also enhance students’ memoryand cooperative institutions as well as centralized national

and learning. Since “language is managed by various

institutions” (p. 261). He did not mention global politics ininterconnected parts of the brain” (Tokuhama-Espinosa,

his paper, but his comments would be also applicable there as

2008, p. 56), we should cultivate its function in a number ofwell as in domestic politics.

ways. Political simulation games also match many of the

In addition, playing simulation games themselvesrecommended elements for effective learning from neuro-

has various benefits for gaining insights in many fields,

ELT, for example, “choices,” “emotion,” “collaboration [withincluding international politics. Scholars argue that

other learners],” and “solvable mysteries” (NeuroELT

simulation games generally lead students to acquire

Conference, 2015).

knowledge by either forcing or encouraging them to learn outof necessity (Mubaslat, 2012, p. 4; Oblinger, 2006, p. 3).
Robinson, Anderson, Hermann, and Snyder (1996), forinstance, found that those who prefer simulations to casestudies tend to get higher scores on exams in theunderstanding of principles within the various areas ofpolitical science (p. 64).

English Language Teaching Perspectives
ELT perspectives claim that students can develop all of thefundamental English skills—reading, listening, speaking, andwriting—from several approaches with enhanced memory
and learning. To begin with, playing political simulation
games enables students to cover various kinds of English skills.
These games, for instance, can cover reading skills throughthe instructions about the situation in the imaginary world,
listening skills through watching videos about real global
issues and listening to other people’s speech, writing skills
through drawing up agreement documents, and speaking
skills through negotiations. Such skills would be even moreenhanced when students develop the game by themselves
through research, writing, and explaining the situations.
Brewbaker described the effect of learning various English

The Background of the Simulation Game
Development
The development of G-PACS began in 2015 in a university
seminar class consisting of five members including the author
and codeveloper. One of the requirements for enrollment was
to be concurrently taking at least one class in the special
English program for better communication skills in businessand academic situations. This program was limited to those
who had a score of 520 or above on the TOEIC test. Over100 people join this program every year in order to takeclasses in the program and/or participate in events held by the
program. The English levels of the students in the seminarclass where G-PACS had its start were intermediate oradvanced.
Members of the seminar must not only participate
actively but also organize most events and activities in the
English program, including an English summer camp that isheld in September for several days and a reunion party, whose
purpose is to encounter and have exchanges with the alumniof the program. The focus in this section is to present thestudent game developers’ learning process during the several
years it took to complete the development of the game.
The 2017 PanSIG Journal76

Stage One: A Teacher-Led Class
The seminar was a teacher-led class during the entire springsemester of 2015. The teacher used extensive teachingmaterials, including TED Talks and the “21 Day Challenge”(Achor, 2011), an attempt to rewire the students’ brains tofocus more on the positive. She encouraged the seminar
students to post their positive feelings on Facebook regarding
such events as a 3-day study camp with international students
held by the university. As Achor (2011) stated, “every single
relationship, business and educational outcome improves
when the brain is positive first” (para. 7), it was a significant
tool to motivate the students in the seminar.
The seminar members, however, were not satisfied
with the class as it was because no additional events wereorganized for the students in the English program in theuniversity. Even though the teacher had asked the seminarmembers to do so several times since the beginning of theseminar, they had struggled to determine what to do forthemselves in the fall semester until they found one TED
Talk on the World Peace Game at the end of the springsemester.

Stage Two: Inspiration
In their research, the seminar members discovered a TED
Talk from 2011 called “Teaching with the World Peace
Game,” presented by John Hunter, which stimulated thedevelopment of G-PACS. This game is mainly played by
fourth-grade students; the game includes an imaginary set of“fifty overlapping crises” (Hunter, 2013, p. 46). The
following is one example situation from the game:
The Kajazians [one of the tribes in theGame] are living in an area that theywant to claim as an independent nation
are petitioning the United Nations forpolitical and economical control overthat territory. . . . The mother country,of course, is unwilling to recognize
Kajazian independence for fear of losing
the oil. (Hunter, 2013, p. 46)
Everyone in the seminar was inspired and amazed by thispresentation since it showed that even fourth-grade children
could negotiate complex political issues. John Hunter invitedthe children to participate in deep thought, or as one of thestudents said, “you're actually getting taught something likehow to take care of the world” (Hunter, 2011), and heconnects situations in the Game with the present, using thewords of Sun Tzu:
Now I’m feeling really weird because
I’m living what Sun Tzu said. . . . He said,“Those who go into battle and win will
want to go back, and those who lose inbattle will want to go back and win.”
And so I’ve been winning battles, so I’mgoing into battles, more battles. And I
think it’s sort of weird to be living what
Sun Tzu said. (Hunter, 2011)
This presentation led the seminar members toconsider how to develop a political simulation game that
could engage college students in negotiations, especiallypolitical ones, from English education and political education
perspectives. The seminar members began to look for amethod that would help participants, mainly college students,
enjoy negotiations about politics and understand the basic
situations of politics in the real world. That was the beginningof the development of G-PACS.

Stage Three: Research and Development
Noticing a change, the teacher began to reduce her control of
the class and left the development to the students. Thispushed the seminar members to start researching anddeveloping a trial simulation game by themselves. Since they
did not have the time or money to observe the World Peace
Game, they obtained basic ideas from books by John Hunter,such as a board game involving the participants asrepresentatives from each country, and made their own 5hour-long trial game. It consisted of four countries involvedin such issues as proxy wars, minority rights, and terrorism,
inspired by the Syrian War and by the September 11, 2001,
tragedy. They also produced a promotional video, pamphlets,and documents explaining the situation in each country inorder to promote the game and increase its sophistication.
Despite these efforts, the game did not work well in
its first trial in December 2015. That was contrary to the
expectations of leading participants to enjoy negotiations

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77

equally regardless of their understanding of politics. Rather,

the order of presentation of points

the more knowledge the players had, the more initiative theywould be that selected by the

took in the trial game. In January 2016, the seminar ended

government, and the other side would

and the development of the game also ended for a while. The

be forced to negotiate the government’s

two seminar members who would later develop G-PACS, theproposals, and not the other way

author and another member, left Japan to study abroad for 6

around. However, in order to make any

months and 3 months, respectively.

progress at all in any negotiations, theStage Four: Breakthrough and Development of GPACS

arguments and proposals of each party

The author and other seminar member decided to begin
developing another trial game starting in summer 2016, when
they had returned from studying abroad. Their learning
experiences and insights gained while overseas shaped thetrial game in a way that could not have been achieved without
the benefit of the study abroad experience. Notably, a classabout negotiation and conflict resolution that the author
took at an American university helped contribute to anincreaseinunderstanding

necessaryforsuccessful

development of what would become G-PACS. In that class,students negotiated about 20 issues based on role-playing
activities with a point system, for example, 60 points for one
option and 400 points for another option, being used to guidethe play. As Harteveld and Sutherland pointed out, “scoresare generally viewed as an extrinsic motivator used toreinforce competition and engage players” (p. 2336). In otherwords, a point system makes the game easier and more fun toplay.
The class also led the author to connect politicalnegotiations and daily life. Active listening is an importantand effective tool for conflict resolution in daily life, forexample, in problems with love, quarrels between people, anddifferences of opinion about how to spend one’s time
studying abroad best, to name a few. Scholars (e.g., Stone,
Patton, & Heen, 2010, p. 166) have pointed out that active
listening leads the partner to listen. The author came to therealization that the experiences gathered from studying
abroad, in addition to the insights from the class mentioned
above, could also be applied to politics. According to Ocran(1985), “even when the idea is absolutely unacceptable to
one’s side, it is best to treat it and its proposer with somerespect” (p. 419). He continued:

must, of course, be communicated tothe other. (p. 419)
A case in point is the issue between Japan and
China of comfort women. The author realized theimportance of such listening skills when he talked about thisissue with a Chinese woman. As scholars emphasize, citizens
in each country have different narratives of their countries
during war time and that can easily lead to conflict between
them Yoshino, 2015; Hujiwara, 2001). For the author andthe woman, the only way they came to understand the other’s
perception was to listen actively. From this realization, the GPACS developers decided to introduce issues of daily life aswell as game scores into their own simulation game.
In addition to the valuable insights gained fromsuch interpersonal experiences, the difference in academic
major at university between the author and the codeveloperof G-PACS proved useful for game development. The
different areas of specialty in Comparative Politics andInternational Relations of the author and codeveloper,
respectively, enabled them to combine their specialties intocreating an effective simulation game.

Results: Contents of G-PACS
G-PACS consists of two simulation games: Introduction
Games, which include negotiations mainly about daily life,
and the Main Content, which deals with political issues.1

Introduction GamesThe Introduction Games are aimed at helping participants
understand basic concepts of negotiation and conflict
resolution with issues related to daily life. For example, theynegotiate about issues in planning school festivals, such as
what to sell and the selling price of goods. Topics here varydepending on participants’ majors and interests. In the
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78

Note

introduction games, two parties play these negotiations using
a point system. They must come to agreement within a set
time limit in selecting one of giving choices which havevarying numbers of points attached for each party. At the

All content can be accessed through the G-PACS website:
http://seesaawiki.jp/gpacs_edu/d/Examples

same time, the players have a vested interest in choosing theReferences

options which maximize their score.

Achor, S. (2011, August 30). The blog: Five ways to turn

Main Content

happiness into an advantage. HuffPost. Retrieved fromThe Main Content game consists of six countries with seven

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/shawn-

global issues. Whereas these countries are imaginary states,

achor/happiness-leads-to-success_b_940611.html

developers aim for these issues to cover some contemporary
global issues, such as the Syrian Crisis, compensation issues
between Japan and China, military base issues, and trade

Brewbaker, J. M. (1972). Simulation games and the English
teacher. The English Journal, 61(1), 104-112.
Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). Content andfriction issues. Each country gets a game score depending on

language integrated learning. Cambridge, England: Ernst

its choices, with 5000 points maximum. For example, in

Klett Sprachen.

terms of the Syrian Crisis, the main issues from which are

Esquith, S. L. (1992). Political theory and politicalincluded in G-PACS, the points earned differ for eacheducation. Political Theory, 20(2), 247-273.

country depending on whether and how intervention isHarteveld, C., & Sutherland, S. C. (2015, April). The goal

executed, for example, with 1000 points, 100 points, -1500

of scoring: Exploring the role of game performance inpoints, -1000 points, -5000 points, and 800 points,

educational games. In Proceedings of the 33rd Annual

respectively, for the option of intervention by land forces.

ACM Conference on Human Factors in ComputingThis crisis is set to emerge in conflicts between imaginary

Systems (pp. 2235-2244).

supporting countries (e.g., countries similar to the United

Hunter, J. (2011, March). John Hunter: Teaching with theStates, Japan, etc.) and opposing countries (e.g., countries

World Peace Game. [Video file]. Retrieved fromsimilar to China, Russia, and Syria). This content expects

https://www.ted.com/talks/john_hunter_on_the_world

participants to become interested in politics and use the basic_peace_game/transcript

skills they learned in former simulation games to maximize
their points. They begin to negotiate after short lectures by
the organizers to enhance their basic understanding of realinternational problems that are occurring throughout theworld.

Hunter, J. (2013). World peace and other 4th-grade
achievements. New York, NY: Mariner.
Hujiwara, K. (2001). Senso wo kioku suru [Remember wars].
Tokyo: Kodansha.
Lockley, T., & Cooke, S. (2017). Investigating attitudinal

Conclusion
This paper examined and reviewed the possible benefits ofmaking and playing G-PACS, especially for the field ofpolitical education and English Language Teaching. This
paper also reported the background and origin of G-PACS,
which was inspired by insights gained in a seminar andstudents’ study abroad knowledge and experiences. However,this paper did not provide enough data about the results due
to experimental limitations. Further research is needed tocollect more data for quantitative and qualitative analysis.

change arising from a content and language integrated
learning (CLIL) history curriculum in Japan. Omon
Ronso, 93, 57-87.
McCall, J. (2017). Navigating the problem space: The
medium of simulation games in the teaching of history
curriculum in Japan. The History Teacher, 46(1), 9-28.
Mubaslat, M. M. (2012). The effect of using educational
games on the students’ achievement in English language
for the primary stage. Jordan. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 529467).
NeuroELT Conference. (2015). The 50 proposed
The 2017 PanSIG Journal79

maxims of neuroELT. Retrieved from http://fabefl.com/page11/page15/index.html
Oblinger, D. (2006). Simulations, games, and learning.
ELI White Paper.
Ocran, T. M. (1985). The process and outcome ofnegotiations with multinational corporations: A
conceptual framework for analysis. Akron Law Review,
18(3), 405-434
Robinson, J. A., Anderson, L. F., Hermann, M. G.,

Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. N. (2008). The scientifically
substantiated art of teaching: A study in the development ofstandards in the new academic field of neuroeducation(mind, brain, and education science) (Unpublisheddoctoral dissertation). Capella University, Minneapolis,
MN.
Yoshino, T. (2015, October 28). Iannhu mondai, nikkannno rekishi “ninshiki” ha naze tairitusuru? Kan Kimura,professor in Kobe University, ni kiku [The “comfort& Snyder, R. C. (1966). Teaching with inter-nation

women” issue, why are the historical “perceptions” ofsimulation and case studies. The American Political

history in Japan and Korea opposed to each other?].

Science Review, 61(1), 53-65.

HuffPost. Retrieved from

Stone, D., Heen, S., & Patton, B. (2010). Difficult
conversations: How to discuss what matters most. New

http://www.huffingtonpost.jp/2015/10/28/comfortwomen-japan-korea-relation_n_8319014.html

York, NY: Penguin.

Author Biography
Yusuke Ishikawa is a master student at Nagoya University. Having majored in Political Science at Meiji
University, he is moving on to study Corruption and Governance at the graduate school of University of
Sussex. He also conducts research on simulation games on politics played in English.
(yusuke.b.ball.piano@gmail.com)

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80

Making Academic Writing Interactive
Kent David Jones
Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University
joneske@apu.ac.jp
This paper describes the process of revising the writing materials of a pre-intermediate L2 English writing
course at a private Japanese university to encourage more interaction among students. This process involved
four steps: a) Students were surveyed about the quality of the materials. b) Results were analyzed identifying
a lack of interactivity as a key shortcoming. c) The materials were revised according to the theoretical modelsof the Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1934/1978) and collaborative dialogue (Swain &Wigglesworth, 2013). d) A second survey about the revised materials was administered. More students
responded that the revised workshops were both more interactive and helped them notice their mistakes,
improve their content, and organize their writing than in the previous survey.
この論文は、日本の私立大学における準中級レベル（L2)の英語ライティングコースで、受講生同士の協働学習を促すために実施する、教材の改訂過程を説明するものである。
この改訂過程には、４つのステップが含まれる。まずはじめに、教材の質について受講生にアンケート調査を実施した。続いて、その教材が使われた授業の中で、協働学習が活発であったかどうかを重要な判断基準とし、アンケート結果の分析を行った。３つ目に、教材を最近接発達領域(Vygotsky, 1934/1978)と協働対話(Swain & Wigglesworth, 2013)の理論に基づいて、協働学習が促進される内容に改訂した。最後に、改訂された教材を使用して授業を実施した後、２度目のアンケート調査を実施した。この調査で、受講生の多くが２度目のアンケート調査に協働学習がより活発に行えたと答え、教材の改訂が受講生同士の協働学習促進に寄与したことがわかった。

Introduction

Literature Review

Why should EFL instructors endeavor to promote

Exploring findings from sociocultural research provides

collaborative learning through interactive tasks? Particularly,

justification for situating interactive and collaborative tasks

how can they develop materials which promote suchwithin a writing curriculum as such tasks can cultivate ainteraction? The present study describes the development of

supportive environment where knowledge is developed andthe writing materials of a pre-intermediate English course atexpanded on over time. This environment is commonlya Japanese university to make them more interactive. Thisreferred to as a learner’s Zone of Proximal Development

was achieved by surveying students and teachers about their(ZPD), which is defined as the difference between what a

impressions of the course materials, identifying that thelearner is capable of achieving individually in the L2materials of the time were not sufficiently interactive enough,compared to what they can accomplish if aided by others

revising the materials to make them more interactive, and(Vygotsky, 1934/1978). However, before considering theadministering a second survey to gauge the extent to which

research findings on the effectiveness of collaborative tasks, athis aim was achieved. In the end, it was found that the revised

reflection on some of the challenges facing EFL writing

materials were indeed better received by students in the

instructors at Japanese universities provides some needed

program than the earlier versions. The following study willcontext.

review the advantages of revising writing materials to get
students working and learning together.

One challenge is that many learners have notreceived formal expository writing instruction in their L1 or
The 2017 PanSIG Journal81

L2 and are mostly acquainted with emotive forms of writing

the complex nature of writing, providing a supportivein which they discuss their subjective feelings about aatmosphere where learners can develop writing skills is crucial

particular subject instead of writing an objective description

to their success. One often untapped potential source ofor argument. Many Japanese high school students do notlearning for students is their peers. Implementing tasks thatlearn how to compose introductory or concluding elements

require discussion, negotiation, problem solving, andof an essay, and do not understand how to logically develop

teamwork to accomplish a goal can lead to collaborative

an argument and support their positions with reasons anddialogue, which Swain and Watanabe (2013) state can be

examples (Mulvey, 2016). Therefore, university instructors

about anything, and will refine knowledge and promote ain Japan cannot simply assume learners have any formal

deeper understanding of a phenomenon. The authors go on

knowledge of writing in Japanese or English, and must

to explain that in collaborative dialogues, language is used tosurmise learners’ writing abilities using instruments such as

mediate thought, and as group members turn their thoughts

diagnostic or placement tests. Ideally, learners will have had

into shared utterances, meaning is co-constructed andsome formal writing instruction in their L1 and L2 by the

becomes a source of language learning and development fortime they reach university, but this does not seem to be thethe group.

norm at present.

Collaborative tasks, specifically, tasks that involve a

One possibility instructors may face is that learners

writing component, provide a variety of cognitive benefits

have zero to limited formal schemata. Another is that theyand enable learners to do more together than they could

may have adequate knowledge of formal writing in Japaneseindividually. This view has held true in the classroom

but not in English. In either case, cultural or educational

experience of both authors, and it has been validated in thefactors could account for difficulties they face in producing

literature (Kim & McDonough, 2007; Swain & Lapkin,writing in the L2 (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2005). At the same

2001; Watanabe & Swain, 2007; Wigglesworth & Storch,time, individual learner differences that are not easily2009). The benefits of collaboration can be accounted formeasured or inferred, such as motivation (see Dörnyei, 1998)

from a sociocultural perspective in that the interpersonal

and aptitude (see Robinson, 2001), could be the primaryinteraction that occurs in the environment during

cause of difficulty learners face when writing in their L2.

collaborative learning gives impetus to new knowledge andCombine these potential influences on language acquisition

learning. In successful instances, learners who take part inwith what Brown (2007) cites as the complexity of writtenthese dialogues internalize the new knowledge over time,

versus spoken language—the various rhetorical structures,

enabling them to complete tasks, for example, writing aremoval of redundancy, high frequency of subordination,

paragraph, on their own (Swain & Watanabe, 2013). In lightreferences to other parts in a text, and requirement ofof the research findings mentioned in this literature review,

syntactic and lexical variety—and it becomes clear thatproviding collaborative tasks where learners can work

developing Japanese learners’ writing skills in English is atogether seems to be an effective and interactive way tocomplex task requiring expert knowledge, guidance, andimprove their writing abilities.

judgment on the part of the instructor.
Fortunately, pedagogical interventions exist to help
develop writers’ skills through collaborative interaction.

Methodology

These methods will require both instructors and learners to

The pre-intermediate writing program referred to in thissee writing as more than an individual task; Brown (2007)

paper requires students to produce six pieces of writing. Of

cautions against only approaching writing as an exercise to be

those pieces of writing, four are paragraphs which students

completed individually, and posits that learners benefit fromcomplete as assignments and two are in-class writing tests, indeveloping as writers within a community of learners. Given

which students have 30 minutes to produce a paragraph based
The 2017 PanSIG Journal82

on a prompt given in class. The writing tasks are divided into
two discussion types: comparative paragraphs and advantages
and disadvantages paragraphs. In the first half of the semester,
students must produce two comparative paragraphs as
homework assignments before taking an in-class writing testin which they can demonstrate the skills they have learned
from completing the assignments. In the second half of thesemester, they must do the same with advantages anddisadvantages paragraphs.
The process which students undergo to complete
these assignments is quite heavily scaffolded. Students are
given a topic and are asked to write interview questions about
it. They then use those interview questions to interview aninternational student on campus. After that, they take thosenotes from the interview and compose an outline which ischecked by the teacher to determine if the student has asufficient grasp of the organizational structure of the
discussion type they are writing in and that the content isappropriate. Finally, they produce a paragraph based on what
they learned from their international partner.
As a supplement to help the learners in producing
the final draft of their paragraph, there are a series of activities
called "writing workshops.” These are designed to help
students understand the expectations of the assignment, thegrammatical and lexical structures often used for their topic,
appropriate cohesive devices, as well as how to organize ideas
and support them with reasons and examples. While theinterview and outline stayed more or less the same
throughout the development of the writing curriculum, theworkshop portion changed considerably.

Surveys
Two surveys were created in Google Forms. They were
distributed to all of the students in the program using thecourse Learning Management System, Manaba. Participationin the survey was voluntary. The first survey was distributedat the end of the Fall 2016 semester before the main changes
described in this article. Its purpose was to discern thechanges that needed to be made to the writing materials in
the course (See Appendix A for a sample of the mainquestions in the survey). During the Winter break of 2017
the researchers developed materials according to the results ofthis survey. The second survey was distributed at the end of
the Spring 2017 semester after students used the newmaterials, and the aim of that survey was to determine thelevel of satisfaction that students had with the changes. The
same questions were asked in both surveys.

Participants
The participants in each survey were students in the preintermediate course. Because the survey was administered in
two different semesters, the participants in each survey weredifferent. In the first survey, 115 students took part, and 59
students and participated in the second survey.

Revision of the Writing Materials
During the Winter break of 2017 the workshops werechanged in a number of ways. The first was to move from
activities at the sentence level to the paragraph level to give
students a better idea of the overall structure of the paragraph.
More important to this project, activities were adjusted to get
students talking about the material, thus raising their

Researchers
The researchers were also teachers in the pre-intermediateawareness of various elements of writing. One example of thisis activities that teach cohesive devices. Figure 1 shows atypical activity from the workshops before the revision.

course. They administered the surveys for the purpose ofdeveloping the materials for the writing workshops.

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Figure 1. - Typical pre-revision activity teaching cohesive devices
Activity 2 Choose the correct answer.
1.

Tokyo has an amazing subway and train system. ___________, Osaka has a very
convenient transit system.
a.

Likewiseb. Converselyc. In a similar fashion

Figure 2. - Revised paragraph organization activity (excerpt)
Organization Activity
Instructions: Work with a partner or small group to put the following paragraph in order. Write the correct
number (1) to (5) beside each section. Also, use the phrases in the box to fill in the missing words.
one similarity isdiffer are different

In summary

However# ___ _______, the festivals also _____ in some ways. The first difference is activities. At the Quebec
Winter Carnival all of the activities are winter related. For example, there is snowboarding, ice canoe,
snowshoes, dogsledding, and many beautiful ice sculptures are on display. On the other hand, the Kerncounty fair features dancers, bands, and magicians. There are also a lot of farm animals and children can
pet them. The main event is a Rodeo, and you can see cowboys riding bulls and trying to catch cows with arope.

Figure 3 - Pre-revision sentence corrective activity (excerpt)
4 Understanding Teacher Comments: Word Forms
When you make a mistake with word forms your teacher will write “WF” (which means“Word Form”) above the mistake. Look at the following examples and correct them.
WF
1. My hometown, Tokyo is very convenience, but my partner’s hometown,
Beppu is not.
Figure 4 - Revised pair error correction activity (excerpt)
A Wildfire to Remember (Partner A)
One of the scariest story from my childhood is about the time I survived a wildfire with myfamily in a California forest. I had gone camping with my family for one week in this forest. It
was
A Wildfire to Remember (Partner B)
One of the scariest stories from my childhood is about the times I survived a wildfire with myfamily in a California forest. I had gone camping with my families for one weeks in this forest.

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84

Though this activity does require the student to understandit doesn’t give them an idea of what it is like to correct

the meaning of the cohesive device and select the correct

mistakes within a larger piece of writing.

answer, it does not require them to understand how to use it
in the context of a longer paragraph. Moreover, it does notlend itself to pair or group work because all the student isrequired to do is select the correct answer and move on to thenext question. For this reason, an ordering activity such as theone sampled in Figure 2 was introduced (see the full activity
in Appendix B)

The revised activities, in contrast, were more
multifaceted and required student interaction to complete
the task. Figure 4 shows a sample of an activity similar to an
information gap. Students were given two different versionsof the same model paragraph that contained different errors
related to vocabulary, grammar, unclear or insufficientdetails, word order, sentence order, missing transitions,

In addition to encouraging students, not only
think of how the cohesive devices work within the larger
context of paragraph organization, it also encourages students
to work together to complete the activity.
Another important activity type that underwent

missing conjunctions, and punctuation (See the full activity
in Appendix C)
They took turns reading each sentence aloud toeach other and decided which paragraph contained thecorrect information. Students would then correct thesome large scale changes was one that dealt with evaluating

mistakes in their own paragraph. Thus, by the end of theand revising writing samples. Although the pre-revision

activity, both students would have identical correct

workshops contained activities in which students were given

paragraphs in their possession. They were not only able toa sentence and asked to find the error and correct it, they werediscern the positive examples from the negative ones, but

mostly composed of decontextualized sentences in which thethey were also able to do it through collaborative

students individually found the error and moved on to theinteraction.

next one. Moreover, these errors were mostly grammar andvocabulary errors. Figure 3 provides an example of this kindof activity.

Along with the formal aspects of their writing,students were also encouraged to think critically about thedepth and acceptability of the content of the paragraph.

In addition to being very individual, this activity

Figure 5 shows an excerpt of an activity in which students

doesn’t help students to notice error types as the error typewere given a paragraph with various deficiencies, such as

has already been selected and identified for them. Moreover,details that were irrelevant or insufficient (See the full
activity in Appendix D)

Figure 5 - Revised focus and details activity (excerpt)
Focus and Details Activity
Instructions: The paragraph below got a very bad grade in the "Focus and Details" section of the rubric. The teacher wrote
question words over each section where information is missing. Read the paragraph and talk with a partner about what kindof information is missing.
For example:
S1: Why do you think the teacher asks this "Who" question?
S2: Because the student didn't write his partner's name.
S1: I think so too.
Who?

Where?

My festival and his festival are similar and different. My festival is the Onsen festival and his
Where?

What?

festival is the Tenjin festival. First, the festivals are similar in food. Both festivals sell
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Figure 6 - Writing Workshop Process
Writing Workshop Process: Repeated for Each Discourse Type
Features of Writings 1 and 3

Features of Writings 2 and 4

Assessment of Production

receptive and controlled tasks:

productive tasks

In-class writing based on asingle sentence promptlabeling

collaborative writing basedmatching

on prompts given by teacher

organizing

students produce processrunning dictation

paragraph for writings 2 andstudents produce process

4, each with two drafts

paragraph for writings 1 and3, each with two drafts

Students were required to work as a group, discuss the parts

provides an example of a fact sheet given to groups to helpof the paragraph that were poor and work together to rewrite

them complete the paragraph.

the paragraph with more acceptable content. This allowed
students to realize that writing is not just about correct
grammar, but also about communicating a relevant message
with sufficient depth.
As explained, the program dealt with two pieces ofwriting completed as homework assignments, followed by an
in-class writing test. To fit with this structure, workshops
followed a progression from passive controlled and semicontrolled activities in the first workshop for each, like theones just described, to more active and productive tasks that
required collaboration to complete successfully. Figure 6
explains the types of tasks contained in each workshop.The
second workshop for each genre was composed of a

Each student wrote their part of the paragraph inpencil. When they finished writing, they assembled theircompositions together and gave each other advice about what
may needed to be changed. Once they decided that they are
happy with what they had written, they “published” it bytracing over it with marker, pasting each strip of paper to theposter, and agreeing on a suitable title. They then gave theteacher the poster to evaluate. The teacher then took it home,gave feedback and brought it to the next class. The students
then worked together to address the teacher’s feedback.
Appendix F shows an example of a paragraph that students
collaborated on to complete.

collaborative task in which students worked together inThis task represents an optimal way of reaching agroups of five to produce a paragraph. They were given a

Zone of Proximal Development. Students who may beprompt as well as five strips of paper, markers, and a large

struggling to understand the various elements of theposter sized piece of paper. Each student chose a part of theparagraph, or how to write supporting details, can get

paragraph to work on: the topic sentence, first supporting

assistance from students who have a better understanding ofpoint, second supporting point, third supporting point, andthese elements. There is also a motivational aspect embedded

concluding sentence. They then looked at the prompt whichin this collaborative task. It is one that extends beyond simple

contained information about a certain topic. Together theyinteraction and which is different from the teacher-student

decided which three sub-topics they would write about andinteraction as the student must do his or her best to fulfill

used the information provided on the prompt to write

their role within the group to meet its expectations andsupporting details, such as reasons and examples. Appendix E

achieve its goals. Donato (2004) emphasizes that group goals
and processing, positive interdependence and mutuality of
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86

Results

learning, individual accountability, and collective humanrelationships are essential aspects of successful collaborations.
It is the authors’ experience that these factors generally
motivate learners to participate actively during collaborative
tasks.

The following table shows the results of both the Pre-revision
and Post-revision surveys. There is a general indication
throughout the survey that more students perceived therevised materials as interactive, they also perceived them as
being more helpful in improving their skills.

Table 1. - Survey results
Pre-revision Survey

Questions

Gave students chances tointeract with classmates.

Strongly

Post-revision Survey
Strongly

Strongly

Agree

Disagree

50.4

20

15.7

51.3

1.7

10.4

4.4

Disagree

Agree

5.2

24.3

4.3

Strongly

Disagree

Agree

1.7

10.2

59.3

28.8

28.7

3.4

6.8

47.5

42.4

61.7

26.1

0

6.8

54.2

39

4.4

52.6

38.6

0

10.2

47.5

42.4

3.5

7.8

62.6

26.1

0

5.1

61

33.9

1.8

21.9

52.6

23.7

0

10.2

69.5

20.3

3.5

18.6

59.3

18.6

0

8.5

67.8

23.7

4.3

14.8

61.7

19.1

0

11.9

62.7

25.4

2.6

12.2

56.5

28.7

0

6.8

62.7

30.5

Disagree

Agree

Students benefit frominteractive workshop
activities.
Improved overall writing
ability
Improved paragraphorganization
Improved content
Improved ability to noticeerrors
Improved ability to correct
vocabulary mistakes
Improved ability to correct
grammar mistakes
Improved ability to correct
mistakes in punctuation,
capitalization, and spelling

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There was a marked increase in the number of students who

seen by the student satisfaction indicated by the survey.

either agreed or strongly agreed that the workshops were

Therefore, the author of this paper strongly encourages theinteractive, improved their content, ability to notice errors,

use of collaborative tasks in approaching L2 English writing

and their ability to correct vocabulary mistakes and mistakes

due to its increased learner engagement during tasks andin punctuation. However, the increase in percentage ofimproved learning outcomes long-term.

students who believed the workshops helped them improvetheir organization, and ability to correct grammar mistakes

Limitations and Considerations for Further Study

was less marked.

Discussion
The fact that more students perceived the workshops asinteractive is not surprising given the extent to which theresearchers worked to design materials that facilitatedinteraction. Nonetheless, it is surprising that the changes instudent perception of their improvement in organization andability to correct grammar mistakes were less noticeable,
especially considering that research on collaborative learning
has focused on how collaborative dialogue improves theformal aspects of student writing. This could be due to thefact that, though all of the activities gave examples ofparagraph organization indirectly for the simple reason thatthey were in paragraph form, the number of activities which
focused specifically on requiring students to order the partsof a paragraph were few. Indeed, the example activity given inthis paper was the only activity which focused specifically onorganization. As for grammar, it should be noted that the prerevision materials were quite heavily grammar focused. It
could be argued that the shift in focus from grammar to awider range of writing elements made it seem that grammar

The data collection for this study focused solely on student
perceptions of the extent to which the materials were moreinteractive and helped improve their writing. It does not,however, provide empirical evidence of the extent to which
students actually improved their writing skill. The reason forthis limitation is that it was a classroom study and research
activity was not allowed to interfere with the overall workingsof the course. Indeed, participants in the study changed fromone semester to the next making it unclear as to whether theincreased level of satisfaction was due to actual improvementsin the materials, or just the individual differences of thestudents. If the same participants used both the pre and post
revision materials it would give a clearer indication of student
perceptions of the improvement of the material. An
experimental study measuring the improvement of students
on a specific writing task, with one group using the prerevision materials, another group of equal proficiency using
the revised materials, and a control group using neither would
give information about the actual gains of the interactive
approach.

was less emphasized. Nonetheless, though the change is not

The studies reviewed for this paper stated thatas clear as the other items, there was an increase in thecollaborative dialogue can be especially beneficial when

students’ perceived improvement in these areas as well.

groups are composed of members of varying proficiency levels.

Conclusion

Though this was a justification for the design of the materials,
an inquiry into whether or not teachers grouped theirStudent perception of the writing materials discussed in thisstudents based on proficiency and the extent to which thisproject improved greatly due to this change in approach fromwas effective was not explored because the university in which

individual to interactive and collaborative activities, as well as

the study took place grouped students according to theirfrom activities which focused on writing at the sentence level

placement test scores and grades in their previous classes. As

to writing on the paragraph level. The main reason for this is,a result, students in the classes tended to be very similar inas the research has also stated, students work better when theylevel. It would be useful to explore the extent to which mixed

are given a clear idea of the task that is expected of them andproficiency pairs and groups helped their composite membersa chance to talk with their peers to complete it. This can be

to improve.

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88

Finally, there were fewer participants in the second
survey than in the first. This was unfortunate consideringthat the second survey was the most important gauge ofschools, why, and why it matters. The Language Teacher,40(3), 3-8.
Robinson, P. (2001). Individual differences, cognitive

whether or not the materials were successful. This was theabilities, aptitude complexes and learning conditions inresult of a limitation of the method of distributing the survey

second language acquisition. Second Language Research,

to be taken voluntarily on the school LMS which can result

17 (4), 368-392.

in a large variation of the number of participants from one

Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (2001). Focus on form throughsemester to the next. Therefore a more controlled datacollaborative dialogue: Exploring task effects. In M.

collection method is recommended.

Bygate, P. Skehan, & M. Swain (Eds.), Researchingpedagogic tasks: Second language learning, teaching, andReferences
Brown, H.D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An

testing (pp. 99-118). Harlow, UK: Longman.
Swain, M., & Watanabe, Y. (2012). Language:
Collaborative dialogue as a source of second language

interactive approach to language pedagogy (3rd ed.) White

learning. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied

Plains, NY. Pearson Education, Inc.

linguistics. Oxford, England. Blackwell Publishing.

Donato, R. (2004). Aspects of collaboration in pedagogical

Retrieved fromdiscourse. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 284-

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267633649_

302.

The_Encyclopedia_of_Applied_Linguistics

Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign
language learning. Language Teaching, 31, 117-135.
Ferris, D., & Hedgcock, J. (2005). Teaching ESL
composition: Purpose, process and practice (2nd ed.)Vygotsky, L. (1934/1978). Interaction between learning anddevelopment. In Mind and Society (pp. 79-91).
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Watanabe, Y., & Swain, M. (2007). Effects of proficiency

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

differences and patterns of pair interaction on second

Kim, Y., & McDonough, K. (2008). The effect oflanguage learning: Collaborative dialogue between adultinterlocutor proficiency on the collaborative dialogue

ESL learners. Language Teaching Research, 11(2), 121-

between Korean as a second language learners. Language

142.

Teaching Research, 12(2), 211-234.
Mulvey, B. (2016). What is being taught in Japanese highWigglesworth, G., & Storch, N. (2009). Pair versus
individual writing: Effects on fluency, complexity andaccuracy. Language Testing, 26(3), 445-466.

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Appendix A - Survey questions
All questions asked students to respond using a 3 point likkert scale ranking: 1 - strongly disagree,
2 - disagree, 3 - agree, 4 - strongly agree.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

The workshop activities gave me a chance to interact with my classmates.
I would like more interactive workshop activities.
I could improve my overall writing ability thanks to the workshops activities.
The workshops helped me organize my paragraphs well.
The writing workshops have helped me to become better at noticing errors in my own
writing.
The workshops help me understand the kind of details I needed to include in my writing.
The workshops helped me understand how to fix common vocabulary mistakes in mywriting.
The workshops helped me understand how to fix common grammar mistakes in my writing.
The workshops helped me understand how to fix common mistakes in punctuation,
capitalization and spelling in my writing.

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Appendix B - Revised paragraph organisation activity
Organization Activity
Instructions:
The following paragraph is out of order. Write the correct number (1) to (5) beside each section to put the paragraph in order.
Also, use the phrases in the box to fill in the missing words.

one similarity isdifferare different

In summary

However# ___ _______, the festivals also _____ in some ways. The first difference is activities. At the Quebec Winter Carnival
all of the activities are winter related. For example, there is snowboarding, ice canoe, snowshoes, dogsledding, and many
beautiful ice sculptures are on display. On the other hand, the Kern county fair features dancers, bands, and magicians.
There are also a lot of farm animals and children can pet them. The main event is a Rodeo, and you can see cowboys ridingbulls and trying to catch cows with a rope.
# _____________, the Quebec Winter Carnival and the Kern County Fair both have interesting mascots that teach themeaning of the festivals. However, they have some differences in what people do and when they started. If you like wintersports and ice sculptures, I think the Quebec Winter Carnival is a great event for you. If you like animals and watchingrodeos, perhaps the Kern County fair is best for you.
# ___ The festival in my country, called the Quebec winter carnival and the festival in my partner Francisco's country called
the Kern County are both very popular festivals. Both events have mascots that show the meaning of the festival, but theydiffer in activities and history.
# ___ Secondly, the histories of the two festivals __________. The Winter Carnival started in 1894. In contrast, the Kern
County fair started in 1925. Therefore the Quebec Winter Carnival is 31 years older than the Kern County fair.
# ___ Firstly, ____________ that both festivals have a mascot. The Quebec Winter Carnival has Bon homme and in
French this means “good fellow”. He is a snow man with a red and a large smile and he represents winter. The main
meaning of the festival is a celebration of winter sports, so Bon homme shows the meaning of the festiva. The Kern County
Fair also has a mascot that shows the meaning of the festival. It is a bull named KC which means Kern County. Because themeaning of the festival is to show the achievements of Kern County, this mascot shows the meaning of the festival.

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Appendix C - Revised pair error correction activity
A Wildfire to Remember (Partner A)
One of the scariest story from my childhood is about the time I survived a wildfire with my family
in a California forest. I had gone camping with my family for one week in this forest. It was my first
camping trip ever. We did many things like fishing, hikings, hunting, canoeing in a river, and swimming ina lake. The mountain air was fresh and we felt the beauty of nature every days. This continued until thelast day of our trip when my cousin, Hector, saw some smoke on the horizon. Before we knew it, we weresurrounded by a fire and it was hard to breathe due to the smokes. We even saw a few wild animal runningaway from the fire. It was frightening. Fortunately, one firefighters came quickly to the forest. They ran to
our location and rescued us from danger. We lost a great number of expensive things in the fire, forexample, our car and our tent, so it took a great number of money to replace everything, but we were alive.
We will always remember the firefighters’ bravery and how they saved our lives.
A Wildfire to Remember (Partner B)
One of the scariest stories from my childhood is about the times I survived a wildfire with myfamily in a California forest. I had gone camping with my families for one weeks in this forest. It was myfirst camping trips ever. We did many things like fishing, hiking, hunting, canoeing in a river, andswimming in a lake. The mountain airs was fresh and we felt the beauty of nature every day. This
continued until the last day of our trip when my cousin, Hector, saw a few smoke on the horizon. Before
we knew it, we were surrounded by a fire and it was hard to breathe due to the smoke. We even saw a few
wild animals running away from the fire. It was frightening. Fortunately, some firefighters came quickly tothe forest. They ran to our location and rescued us from dangers. We lost a great number of expensive
thing in the fire, for example, our car and our tent, so it took a great deal of money to replace everything,
but we were alive. We will always remember the firefighters’ braverys and how they saved our lives.

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Appendix D - Revised focus and details activity
Focus and Details Activity
Instructions: The paragraph below got a very bad grade in the "Focus and Details" section of the rubric. The teacher
wrote question words over each section where information is missing. Read the paragraph and talk with a partner
about what kind of information is missing.
For example:
S1: Why do you think the teacher asks this "Who" question?
S2: Because the student didn't write his partner's name.
S1: I think so too.
Who?
Where?
My festival and his festival are similar and different. My festival is the Onsen festival and his
Where?

What?
festival is the Tenjin festival. First, the festivals are similar in food. Both festivals sellsimilar festival food.
Secondly, they are similar about activities because they both have a water race. However, the Onsen
How?
How?
festival’s race is about going to onsens and the Tenjin festival race is about boats on the river.
Finally,When?
they are different in history. The Onsen festival started a long time ago, but the Tenjin festival started a
When?
How?
longer time ago. In conclusion, the Onsen and Tenjin festivals are the same, but also different.

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Appendix E

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Appendix F

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Author Biography
Kent David Jones is a lecturer at the Center for Language Education at Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific
Univeristy, Beppu, Japan. He has taught ESL at universities and colleges in Canada, as well as
EFL in universities in Japan. His curriculum development and research work is largely related towriting, particularly feedback.

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Parents' Interpretation of the Hafu Referent
Tenesha Kanai
Osaka City Board of Education
teneshachin@gmail.com

Most parents of mixed-race children living in Japan recognize the inescapably mainstream usage of the word
hafu in reference to their children. This study therefore investigated parents’ interpretation and perceptionof the word hafu as used within Japan to describe their children’s appearance and whether parents’interpretation affected their strategies in raising their children in Japanese society. Nine parents living in
the Kansai and Chubu area participated in a semi-structured interview. Thematic analysis revealed four
major themes: rejection, acceptance, reluctant acceptance, and deliberate racial socialization. Parents in the
study recognized that because others see their children as different, they must make an effort to teachmessages that racially socialize them. This research can be useful for new parents or intercultural couples
thinking about settling and starting families in Japan.
日本に住む人種の異なる親の間から生まれた子供の大部分の親は、わが子に対してハーフという言葉が必然的に主流であることを認識しています。本稿では、日本で用いられているハーフの言葉の解釈と認識を調査し、両親の解釈が日本社会における子育て方針に影響を及ぼしているかどうかを議論しました。関西と中部エリアに住む 9 人の両親が、半構造化面接に参加しました。テーマ別分析では、拒絶、受け入れる、消極的受け入れ、意図的な人種社会化の 4 つの主要テーマに分かれました。研究対象の親は、他人が自分のハーフの子供を生粋の日本人とは異なると見なすため、様々な人種の人たちと触れ合う必要を教える努力をしなければならないことを認識しています。この研究は、新しい親や異文化のカップルが日本の家族を持つことについて考えるときに役立つと言えます。
Embracement of multiethnic and multicultural people inlabel in present day Japan “hafu” (“half Japanese”; Greer,

Japan has seen slow and there have been varied reactions

2003; Kamada, 2005; Oshima, 2014). Greer (2003) statedthroughout history (Törngren, 2017).These slow and variedthat although the hafu referent “enjoys many positive

reactions have been influenced by an education system that

nuances, conferring on its recipient cosmopolitan qualities ofemphasizes similarities rather than differences (Okano &internationalism, elite bilingualism and worldly experience”

Tsuchiya, 1999). Among individuals in Japan, homogeneity(p. 18), some parents and their multiethnic children haveand conformity are valued and individuals who are different

contested and rejected this explicit ethnic categorization.

in any way are considered “less Japanese” and even “non-Many recipients of the hafu referent believe, when it is used

Japanese” (Oikawa & Yoshida, 2007). Children with one

by a Japanese speaker, the label constitutes “half Japanese-ness”

Japanese and one non-Japanese parent are a good case inor “foreignness,” which some parents and their multiethnic

point. The visible differences in the appearance of some ofchildren see as positioning multiethnic individuals in athese children have determined different attitudes bysubtractive manner (Greer, 2003; Kamada, 2005).

multiethnic people themselves, as well as how people andWhen individuals are described as hafu, they may

society treat them as belonging to neither the minority nor

be stereotyped in Japanese talk as gaijin [foreigner], lacking

the majority (Oshima, 2014). One way in which they areknowledge of Japanese culture, language, and sociocultural

excluded from the majority is by the most commonly usednorms. (Kamada, 2005; Kashiwazaki, 2009). This may
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

97

influence some multiethnic individuals to hide their true

ethnic categorization.According to Day, ‘ethnic group’identities and attempt to pass themselves as Japanese because

categorizations were often…treated as inappropriate andthey want to fit in, as many only know Japan as their homes.

were contested.’ (pp.154) He further found that, individuals

Almonte-Acosta (2008) interviewed 30 Japanese-Filipino

may react against the categorization altogether since thesechildren in Japan. Twenty-seven of the 30 children wished tocategories and who they apply to are contestable inbe identified as only Japanese and not as Japanese-Filipino.

themselves.Day found five ways in which resistance to ethnic

Participants described and identified themselves as Japanesegroup categorization was done verbally at the two workplacesby virtue of being born and raised in Japan and only

he studied: (a) one can dismiss the relevance of the category;understanding Japanese. The children in the study were(b) one can minimize the supposed “difference” between

believed to have internalized the ubiquitous theme ofcategories; (c) one can reconstitute the category so that one isconformity in Japan: that being different was not always

excluded; (d) one can ethnify the ethnifier; and (e) one canvalued (Almonte-Acosta, 2008). Similar behavior was seen inresist “ethnification” by actively avoiding it. Although Day’s

another group of multiethnic children who preferred to hidestudy wasn’t conducted in the context of Japan, it, however,their non-Japanese identities to fit in: Takeshita (2010)

shed some light on being categorized and labelled. In thisinterviewed 59 Japanese-Brazilian children who revealed that

paper, I assume that parents interpret the term hafu inthey idealized English over their heritage language and trieddifferent ways when used towards their children. I also

to pass as Japanese or hide their identities.

assume that their interpretations will have an impact on their

Multiethnic individuals in Japan are not given theparenting strategies. The first place children learn theability to identify as persons from more than one ethnic

meaning of race and racial labels is within the family (Roth,background (Shigematsu-Murphy, 2001). This can be2005). Therefore, parents’ interpretation of the term will be

problematic for many parents and their children who want topassed on to their children. This study will seek to answer theidentify as Japanese or as a multiethnic individual, and the use

following two questions:of labels such as hafu can only seem to further marginalize and1. How do parents interpret the label hafu when used to

discourage them from choosing an ethnic identity. Some

describe their children?

parents have tried to correct the negative nuance of this term

2. How do parents’ interpretation affect the strategies

and coined the term daubaru (“double”) as an alternative andtaken in raising their children in Japanese society?

more idealistic term than hafu. However, the term has failed

Methodto catch on in Japanese vernacular and hafu is used by many
Japanese and non-Japanese. With this paper, therefore, I seek

Participants

to add to the literature on the hafu referent in Japan by

Nine parents living in the Kansai and Chubu areas in Japan

interviewing

andparticipated in the study. Participants consisted of one

interpretations of the term hafu when used to describe their

Japanese, one Canadian, one British, one Italian, threemultiethnic children.

Jamaicans, one Australian, and one American. The medianparents

about

their

perceptions

age was 35 years old. Eight participants were married and one

Theoretical Backgroundwas single and they all had children below the age of 5. Parents

In this paper, Day’s (1998) framework of negotiatingwith children under the age of 5 were selected because of theidentities and the concept of being ascribed and resisting an

newness of their parenting journey, and initial thoughts andethnic identity will be incorporated. In Day’s study

strategies could be communicated. Moreover, only parents

investigating linguistic ethnic group categorization at two

with biologically related mixed-race children participated inwork places in Sweden consisting of a large number ofthe study. Therefore, a purposive sampling method was used

immigrants, he showed how people were categorized into

to recruit participants.

ethnic groups and described ways in which people resisted
The 2017 PanSIG Journal98

Proceduremust use a more encompassing word because I think the word

A semistructured interview was developed for the study. The

hafu neglects one side of the parent” (Tina). Similarly,

interview focused on three areas of parents’ interpretation ofanother parent said, “I believe it’s too broad and simplistic. I

the hafu label: (a) frequency of use of the term hafu towards

would rather her identify with all of her racial identities so …

their children; (b) parents’ interpretation of the term; and (c)I don’t want her to just be in this box that’s half when she is

its impact on their parenting goals. Examples of the questions

more than just hafu” (Aiko). Parents also spoke passionately

include the following:

about using a term that was more inclusive and highlighted

What do you know about the label hafu?

their children’s multiethnicity. One parent mentioned, “IHow often is it used to describe your child?

would prefer the term ‘mixed’ as opposed to hafu. If I knowHow do you feel when you hear this word used tothe person, I let them know he is mixed and not half and that

describe your child?

he is a whole person, just with parents from two different

How does your interpretation of the term hafu impact

nationalities” (Kelly).



the values instilled in your child?

Other parents interpreted the term as connoting

A total of 16 questions were asked. Interviews weredistinction between their children and general population.

conducted at a mutually agreed-upon location. The

One parent described her child as Japanese and believes thatinterviews were recorded with a digital audio recording device

the term is unhealthy and unhelpful for her child. The parent

and were transcribed verbatim. All names were changed tosaid, “I feel like hafu is kind of dividing you from Japanese.

protect participants’ identities.

She has Japanese nationality, so she is not hafu; she is Japanese”

Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data.

(Yuki). The parent went on to describe an occasion when she

Thematic analysis is the process of “identifying, analyzing andwas questioned about whether her child was Japanese because

reporting patterns [themes] within interviews” (Braun &of her daughter’s appearance:

Clarke, 2006, p.79). Each interview was read several times

A woman asked me, “Are you Japanese?”line by line before the initial themes were created. Memos

Then she asked about her: “Is she Japanese?”were created to keep track of significant events, concepts, andI said, “Yes.” She said again, “No. Is she

ideas. Initial codes were created during the data analysis.

Japanese?” I said “Yes! She is Japanese.” I

Themes were developed and defined to represent participants’

don’t know. If I’m Japanese, then of course

interpretations of their experiences.

she is Japanese. It’s difficult to make people
understand. (Yuki)

Results

AcceptanceFour major themes emerged from the analysis of parents’

The theme of acceptance consists of parents’ interpretationinterpretation of the hafu referent and the influence of theirof the term as a positive linguistic discourse. For these parents,

interpretation on their parenting strategies. The themes were

the term was complimentary and empowering for theirrejection, acceptance, reluctant acceptance, and deliberatechildren. One parent reported, “I take it like a compliment,

racial socialization.

as I think he has got something more, right? Like having half

Rejection

vanilla and half chocolate ice cream. It’s better than having

The theme rejection refers to parents’ interpreting the term

just vanilla ice cream” (Liz). Another parent said, “My wife

as either an inaccurate description of their children or a term

said it’s actually a compliment to say that a baby is [hafu] eventhat connotes differences or excludes their children from

if you know both parents are Japanese” (Andrew).

being considered Japanese. Parents who saw hafu as anSome parents explained that some Japanese were fascinatedinaccurate description believed that the label limits the trueand intrigued by mixed-race children because their featuresnature and complexity of their children’s ethnicities andwere different than those of the majority. One parent listed

diverse backgrounds. One parent explained, “I think theyThe 2017 PanSIG Journal

99

the comments made about his child by Japanese speakers

But as I have lived here longer, I’ve come towhen they ask if she is hafu:

realize, native Japanese, many of them don’t

Things like, “She looks like a model,” “looks

think it’s a bad thing to say, right? I havelike a doll,” “looks like an angel,”even heard my wife referred to them using“unbelievably cute,” “eyes are so big,” things

that term, and I am thinking it is ok. They

like that. High school girls tend to go crazyhave this image: If you aren’t fully one of us,

when they see her when we’re walking inthen you are half. So, this is their word forthe morning. (Andrew)

the Japanese. (James)

Another parent believed that mixed-race children are liked in

Parents reported that they understand that multiculturalism

Japan and believes it is the same in other places. He said:

is yet to be fully understood in Japan, so the comments andEverybody likes them. People want to bequestions about their children are expected. One parent

them or, yea, for the most part. You hear a lot

reported, “Because Japan is 99% Japanese, homogenous, so

of Japanese female saying, “Yes, I want a havethey stick out so obviously. They are going to say he ismixed kids” or “hafu ga hoshi [“I want aforeigner or he is hafu” (Frank). Another parent reported

mixed child”]; yappari hafu kawaii [“asthat she is also uncertain of how to reply, and to avoid

always, mixed children are cute”]” … I thinkfurther discussion of the hafu label, she says her child is such:it is the same everywhere. Mixed- race kids

When people ask “hafu?” I am not sureare coveted. They get the best of both world.

which half are they asking. Does that make(Frank)sense? Because I am also hafu, so that will

Another parent mentioned that before the interview, shemake her three fourths Japanese. But there

consulted her Japanese husband about the use of the word in

isn’t a term in Japan for that, so I just say she

Japan: “I think it is a way to say it for them. It is normal. I

is hafu. (Aiko)asked my husband if he thinks Japanese use it as a bad word.
He said it is the first word that comes to mind” (Lola).

Deliberate Racial Socialization

Parents reported that questions about their children were

Parents in the study recognized the use of the term hafu

usually directed in a curious way, so they believe that mostmeant that others in society have mixed perceptions of theirpeople in Japan have no emotional attachment to the word.

children. Therefore, they described making a deliberate“Japanese people don’t think about it, and they just take theattempt to socialize their children to accept themselves andword that’s been given to them, and they use it completely intheir ethnicity, which influenced their parenting strategies

a benevolent way. I have no problem with it; neither does mymore profoundly than Japanese parents without mixed-racewife” (Andrew).

children. One parent reported that the label hafu means that
her child must know she is Japanese: “I want to teach her that

Reluctant Acceptancethere isn’t much difference between Japanese and her and

The reluctant acceptance theme includes parents’

other people. We are one people” (Yuki). Another parent

description of finding themselves in a position where theyspoke of preparing her child for the rejection she may face inwere uncomfortable about the use of the term hafu, but theysociety because she is seen as different: “I have to instill values

reluctantly accepted it to avoid conflict. One parentof self-worth, inner strength, and courage in her, the need toreported that he believes the word implies that his children

achieve despite obstacles, because they will become affected

aren’t Japanese, but the longer he lives in Japan, the more heby the subtle discrimination they will face in Japan” (Tina).

realizes that people will continue to use this word, even his

All parents mentioned that they would like tospouse:provide a multicultural experience to their children bymeeting different people or being raised outside of JapanThe 2017 PanSIG Journal

100because it is difficult to do in Japan. One parent said, “I wantgirls in Japan, which showed how the participants chose to

her to meet many different people” (Yuki). Another parent

celebrate and embody the cultural capital of bilingualism anddescribed her intentions of returning home, so her child canbiculturalism of being hafu.

have a broad experience. Parents believed that exposing their

The parents who rejected the hafu referent viewed

children to their culture was important for their confidence

the use of the term as inaccurate and aimed at categorizing

and personalities:

their children. One parent faced questions about her child’s

My goal will be to raise her in America andnationality and ethnicity because the child’s facial features

not Japan—just where it is multicultural

were not the accepted color, face shape, and hair of theand not everyone is Japanese. Not saying

Japanese. Rockquemore and Laszloffy (2005) noted thatanything is wrong with this country, but I

society will reject multiethnic individuals based on theiram American; I want her to grow up withappearance. Other parents are still uncertain about how to

Americans, which is quite difficult to Japan.

respond or feel about the term when used towards their

There is a certain mentality that doesn’t sit

children, so they reluctantly accept the use of the term. This

well with me—just conformity, think theexperience was confirmed by Singer (2000), who said thatsame. I really want her to be an individual

parents who accept the word hafu often prefer not to makeand not be afraid to be unique. (Aiko)an issue out of it for the sake of their children. In applying

All parents mentioned that bilingualism was the goal for theirDay’s (1998) framework, I saw two out of the five ways inchildren. They believe that for mixed-race children, it iswhich parents rejected the ethnic categorization. Some

important to be able to communicate in both parents’parents dismissed the relevance of the category, stating that

languages. The parents believed that their children would betheir child is another ethnicity such as Japanese. Others

at a disadvantage if that were not achieved, especially in Japan

reconstituted the category so that one was excluded, as one

where the perception of children born into interculturalparent said, “I let them know he is mixed and not half andmarriages is that they are fluent in English and Japanese. One

that he is a whole person” (Kelly).

parent said, “I want him to be bilingual. I think it is important.

The research further showed that parents in the

He needs to know about both sides of his culture. He needs

study recognize that the use of the term hafu meant others see

to able to converse. It’s mottainai [a waste] if he knows one

their children as different, so they must make an effort toand doesn’t know the other” (Frank).

teach messages that racially socialize them. Parents spoke ofteaching age-appropriate messages of self-worth andDiscussion

egalitarianism. One parent insisted that her child must know

In this research I sought to answer two questions: How do

she is Japanese and is no different, while another parent

parents interpret the use of the term hafu when used tomentioned teaching her child self-worth. This experience wasdescribe their children, and how do parents’ interpretationconsistent with Hughes and Chen’s (1997) revelation that

affect the strategies taken in raising their children in Japaneseparents communicated racial messages to their biracialsociety. As predicted, I found different interpretations of thechildren and that when parents communicate about race toterm hafu by parents. Some parents interpreted it as a positive

their children, it promotes positive development and well-referent, others rejected its use and interpreted it as an

being. This idea is suggested by symbolic interactionist that

inaccurate and an exclusive label, and some reluctantly“racial socialization is primarily contained within nuanced

accepted it to avoid further discussions on the topic. Parents

microsocial exchanges between parent and child (Hughes &in the study who accepted the hafu referent believe it infers aChen, 2003, p. 471). Other parents revealed that raising theirpositive characteristic on their children such as beauty andchildren to be less Japanese was important for them. Hughes

biculturalism, which are objects of adoration in Japan. This

and Chen’s (2003) studies on racial socialization have shown

was similar in the Kamada (2005) study of six multiethnic
The 2017 PanSIG Journal101

that parents who themselves identify with an ethnic or racial

Child psychology: A handbook of contemporary issues (pp.

minority intentionally socialize their children as such.

467-490). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Conclusions were drawn from a small data analysis;

Kamada, L. (2005). Celebration of multi-ethnic cultural

however, it does contribute to the discourse surrounding

capital among adolescent girls in Japan: A

mixed-race individuals in Japan and also contributes to an

poststructuralist discourse analysis of Japanese-Caucasian

understanding of parents’ voices on the use of hafu towards

identity. Japan Journal of Multilingualism andtheir children. For future research, perspectives from children

Multilingualism, 11(1), 19-41.

may be investigated to understand their interpretation of theKashiwazaki, C. (2009). The foreigner category of Koreanshafu referent and show whether they confirmed their parents’in Japan: Opportunities and constraints. In J. Lie & S.

beliefs. I will be conducting further investigation into parents’Ryang (Eds.), In Diaspora without homeland: Being

interpretation of the hafu referent. With the increasing

Korean in Japan (pp.121-146). Berkeley: University offigures in interracial marriages and mixed-race children in

California Press.

Japan, it is important to create a better understanding ofMurphy-Shigematsu, S. (2001). Multiethnic lives andissues that affect these families to create an environment thatmonoethnic myths: American Japanese Amerasians inwelcomes all individuals. Living as mixed-race can be

Japan. In T. K. Williams & C. L. Nakashima (Eds), The

challenging for children as well as parents in homogenous

sum of our parts: Mixed heritage Asian Americans (pp.

societies such as Japan. This study can be helpful for new

207-216) Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

parents or individuals thinking of settling and starting

Oikawa, S., & Yoshida, T. (2007). An identity based on
being different: A focus on biethnic individuals in Japan.

families in Japan.

International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 31(6),633–653.

References

Okano, K., & Tsuchiya, M. (1999). Education in

Almonte-Acosta, S. A. (2008). Ethnic identity: The case ofcontemporary Japan: Inequality and diversity.

Filipino-Japanese children in Japan. Asia-Pacific Social
Science Review, 8(2), 17-33.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in

Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Oshima, K. (2014). Perception of hafu or mixed-race people
in Japan: Group-session studies among hafu students at a

psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-

Japanese University. Intercultural Communication

101.

Studies, XXII(3), 22–34.

Day, D. (1998). Being ascribed, and resisted, membership ofRockquemore, K. A., & Laszloffy, T. A. (2005). Raising

an ethnic group. In C. Antaki & S. Widdicombe (Eds.),

biracial children. New York, NY: Altamira Press.

Identities in talk. (pp. 151-170). Thousand Oaks, CA:

Roth, W. D. (2005). The end of the one-drop rule?

Sage.
Greer, T. (2003). Multiethnic Japanese identity: An applied
conversation analysis. Japan Journal of Multilingualism
and Multiculturalism, 9(1), 1-23.
Hughes, D., & Chen, L. (1997). When and what parents tellLabelling of multiracial children in black intermarriages.
Sociological Forum, 20(1), 35–67.
Singer, J. (2000). Japan singular doubles. Japan Quarterly,
47(2) 76-82.
Takeshita, S. (2010). The passing CCKs in Japan: Analysis

children about race: An examination of race-related

on families of cross-border marriages between Japanesesocialization in among African-American families.

and Brazilian. Journal of Comparative Family Studies,

Applied Developmental Science, 1(4), 200-214.

41(3), 369-387.

Hughes, D., & Chen, L. (2003). The nature of parents’ race

Törngren, S. O. (2017). Ethnic options, covering, andrelated communications to children: A developmentalpassing: Multiracial and multiethnic identities in Japan.

perspective. In L. Balter & C. S. Tamis-LeMonda (Eds.),

MIM Working Paper Series, 17(3).
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Author Biography
Tenesha Kanai has taught in Japan since 2009. She has a master’s degree from the University ofBradford, UK and a Cambridge CELTA. Her research interests include mixed-race children in Japan,
intercultural parenting, second language acquisition and bilingualism.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

103

New and Old TOEIC L&R: Score Comparison and Test-Taker Views on Difficulty
Level
Masaya Kanzaki
Kanda University of International Studies
kanzaki-m@kanda.kuis.ac.jp
New question formats for the TOEIC Listening and Reading test were introduced in May 2016. Due tothe complex nature of these formats, learners preparing for the test were concerned that the changes might
negatively affect their performance on the test. This study was aimed at determining whether the new andold versions of the test are comparable in terms of scoring and difficulty level. The scores of 141 university
students who took both versions were analyzed using descriptive statistics and paired-samples t tests, andcorrelations were examined. The average score for the new version was 12 points higher, which is statisticallysignificant but small, and the scores for the two versions correlated at .87. Also, 56 participants responded
to a 5-item questionnaire designed to elicit their perception of the difficulty level of the new version. The
majority of the respondents indicated that they believed the new version was more difficult.
2016 年 5 月に TOEIC Listening and Reading Test の試験形式が更新された。新形式問題は複雑なので、TOEIC に備えて学習している学習者は形式変更がテスト結果に負の影響を及ぼすのではないかと懸念していた。本研究は新旧両形式のスコアと難易度に互換性があるか見極めることを目的として行われた。両形式の TOEIC を受けた 141 人の大学生のスコアに対して記述統計分析および対応のある t 検定を行い、さらに相関関係を調べた。
新形式版の平均点の方が 12 点高く、これは統計的に有意であるが小さい。また、新旧両形式版のスコアの間には.87 の相関があった。さらに 56 名の参加者が新形式の難易度に対する見方を探るための 5 項目の調査票に回答した。過半数の回答者は、新形式の方が旧形式より難しく感じたと答えた。
In November 2015, Educational Testing Service (ETS), thewould have fewer questions, whereas the harder sections ofcreatorParts 3, 6, and 7 would have more.

ofthe TestofEnglishforInternational

Communication (TOEIC), announced that question

ETS stated that there would be “no change to theformats in the TOEIC Listening and Reading test (TOEIC

difficulty level” and that TOEIC scores would “continue toL&R) would be changing and that a new version of the exam

be comparable” (ETS, 2015a). However, these assertions

would be introduced in May 2016 (ETS, 2015a). ETS

cannot be taken at face value, as the organization has a vested

provided sample questions online (ETS, 2015b), and theinterest in maintaining the popularity of the TOEIC L&R.

Institute for International Business Communication (IIBC),

Research was therefore needed to verify their claims.

the Japanese administrator of TOEIC programs, posted

One way to determine compatibility between thedescriptions of the changes in Japanese on its website along

two versions of the test is to have learners take both and thenwith example questions (IIBC, 2015). When Japanesecompare their scores. This was possible while the old version

learners of English who were preparing for the TOEIC L&R

continued to be used in the Institutional Program (IP) until

reviewed the sample questions, some expressed concern thatthe end of March 2017. This is one of two TOEIC programs

the changes might negatively affect their performance on thethrough which an institution sets the exam time, date, andtest, resulting in a lower score, as the new question types

location, and only those who belong to the institution canappeared to be more complex and difficult. In addition, Parts

take the test. The other program, namely the Public Testing

1, 2, and 5, which are relatively easier than the other sections,

Program (PTP), through which IIBC sets the exam time, date,
The 2017 PanSIG Journal104

and location, administered the new TOEIC L&R in May

Spanish language majors, four Indonesian language majors,

2016 for the general public. With two programs

three Vietnamese language majors, three Portuguese language

simultaneously offering different versions of the test,

majors, two Chinese language majors, and one Thai language

Japanese learners of English were able to take both up until

major.

March 2017, allowing for score comparisons over a shortperiod of time. Taking advantage of the situation, this study
was designed to answer the following research questions.
RQ1: How comparable are scores for the new and old
versions of the TOEIC L&R?
RQ2: Do test-takers find the new version more difficult thanthe old version?

Materials
The new and old versions of the TOEIC L&R and aquestionnaire were used in this study. The new version was
administered in the Public Testing Program (PTP) and theold version in the Institutional Program (IP). IIBC provided
the results for both versions, and the scores were analyzed
using Microsoft Excel 2013 and IBM SPSS Statistics 23.

Methods
The new and old versions of the TOEIC L&R wereadministered to 141 university students; 81 of theseparticipants took the tests in July 2016 and the other 60 tookThose who took part in the January 2017 sessions received
the questionnaire online via Google Forms, and 56 of the 60
participants responded. The survey data were then enteredinto a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet for analysis.

them in January 2017. Their test scores were analyzed fordescriptive statistics, and paired-samples t tests were
performed. Correlations between the listening and readingscores for the two versions were also calculated. In addition,
56 of the 60 participants in the January 2017 sessions
responded to a 5-item questionnaire, the results of whichwere compiled and examined.

Participants
The participants of this study were 141 university students(121 female and 20 male) who were attending a private
Japanese university specializing in foreign languages in the
Kanto region. Fourteen of the participants took part in bothJuly 2016 and January 2017, but the related data were treatedas if obtained from different individuals on the assumptionthat their English levels must have been different after 6
months, and therefore they were, in effect, different learners
due to the 6-month gap between tests. The participants took
part in the study on a voluntary basis and received a 3,000 yen
discount on exam fees; the total cost of taking the TOEIC IP
test and TOEIC PTP test for each participant was reduced
from 8,200 yen to 5,200 yen. Among the participants, 12
were in their first academic year, 26 in their second, 77 intheir third, and 26 in their fourth. As for their fields of study,

Two Versions of the TOEIC L & R
Both versions of the TOEIC L&R are composed of two
subtests: the listening test and reading test. These subtests
each consist of 100 multiple-choice questions, and raw scoresof between 0 and 100 are converted to scaled scores ofbetween 5 and 495. The listening test has four parts and thereading test has three. What especially makes the latest
version of the TOEIC L&R different from the previous
version are its new question types and new formats, whichare:
1. Conversations with three speakers in Part 3
2. Questions asking the meaning of a phrase or sentence in agiven context in Parts 3, 4, and 7 (e.g., What does the woman
mean when she says, “I’ll be using the projector a lot”?)
3. Questions with a graphic, such as a table, floor plan, or
coupon, that require the test-taker to connect what they see
in the graphic with what they hear, in Parts 3 and 4
4. Questions in which the test-taker chooses a sentence thatfits in a blank in a Part 6 passage
5. Questions in which the test-taker chooses the right place toinsert a particular sentence in a Part 7 passage
6. Text message chains in Part 7
7. Sets of three related passages with five questions in Part 7

there were 53 English language majors, 52 international
communication majors, 12 international business majors, 11
The 2017 PanSIG Journal105

5-item Questionnaire

Compared to the questions and formats of the previous
version of the test, the new additions appeared to be more
complex and difficult.
Another major difference between the test versions
are the numbers of questions in each part, except Part 4.
Table 1. lists the tasks that test-takers perform in each partand the number of questions for each section in the two
versions. Where there are fewer questions in the new version(i.e., Parts 1, 2, and 5), the tasks are relatively simple, whereas
in the parts with more questions (i.e., Parts 3, 6, and 7), thetasks are more demanding.
Those who participated in July 2016 took a PTP
test (new version) on July 24 and an IP test (old version) on
July 29. Those in the January 2017 sessions took an IP test on
January 26 and a PTP test on January 29.

A 5-item questionnaire was administered to elicit theparticipants’ views on the two versions. The questions were:
1. Which listening test was more difficult, the new (PTP) or
old (IP) test?
2. Which reading test was more difficult, the new (PTP) or
old (IP) test?
3. Overall, which version was more difficult?
4. When you prepared for the exam, which version did you
focus on?
5. Which version of the TOEIC L&R do you prefer?
The questionnaire in this study was in Japanese (seeAppendix) and administered via Google Forms so thatparticipants could fill it out online.

Table 1.
Tasks and Number of Questions in Each Part of the Two Versions of the TOEIC L&R
Part

Tasks

No. of Qs in old version

No. of Qs in new version

10

6

30

25

30

39

30

30

40

30

12

16

48

54

For each question with a photo, listen to1

four sentences and choose the one thatbest describes the image.
Listen to a question or statement followed2

by three responses and choose the mostappropriate response.
Listen to a conversation and answer

3comprehension questions. Some questionsin the new version include a graphic.
Listen to a short talk and answer

4comprehension questions.
Some questions in the new version
include a graphic.

5
6

Choose a word or phrase to fill in a blankin a sentence.
Choose words, phrases, or sentences to fillin blanks in a passage.
Read a passage or a set of two or three7

passages and answer comprehension
questions.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

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Table 2.
Descriptive Statistics for the Scores for the Two Versions of the TOEIC L&R (N = 141)
Test

M

SD

Min Max Skewness Kurtosis

Old L

370.74

55.94

185

495

−0.35

0.82

New L

371.70

59.56

150

495

−0.62

1.11

Old R

295.21

73.76

120

480

−0.23

−0.37

New R

306.67

71.65

95

440

−0.59

0.14

Old LR

665.96 120.72 330

970

−0.20

−0.05

New LR 678.37 122.75 245

930

−0.60

0.43

Note. Old = old version; New = new version; L = listening; R = reading; LR = listening and reading combined;
Min = lowest score; Max = highest score.

Results
Descriptive Statistics for the Scores for the Two
Versions

the old version (M = 370.74, SD = 55.94). This difference, -Scores for the two versions of the TOEIC L&R were

0.02. In other words, there was no significant difference

examined in three categories: listening scores, reading scores,

between the listening scores for the two versions. The reading

and total scores (i.e., the listening and reading scoresscores for the new version were also higher (M = 306.67, SD

combined). Table 2. shows the descriptive statistics for the= 71.65) than those for the old version (M = 295.21, SD =three categories. The average scores for the new version were

73.76). This difference, -11.45, BCa 95% CI [-18.37, -4.82],

higher in all the categories; the average listening score waswas significant, t(140) = -3.30, p = .001, but represented a

0.96 points higher, the average reading score was 11.46 points

small effect size, d = 0.16, which was below Cohen’s (1988)

higher, and the average total score was 12.41 points higher,

convention for a small effect (d = .20). This means that there

compared to the old version. Histograms, normal Q-Q plots,

was a statistically significant difference between the reading

and box plots for the six sets of scores were created to gauge

scores for the two versions, but its effect was small. Similarly,

the normality of score distributions, and a visual inspection

the total scores for the new version were higher (M = 678.37,

of these confirmed that the scores were approximately

SD = 122.75) than those for the old version (M = 665.96, SD

normally distributed. However, the box plots indicated= 120.72). This difference, -12.41, BCa 95% CI [-22.39, -several outliers: For the old version there were two in the2.74], was also significant, t(140) = -2.42, p = .017, butlistening scores and one in the total scores, and for the new

represented a small effect size, d = 0.10. Again, between theversion there were two in the listening scores, two in the

total scores for the two versions, a statistically significant

reading scores, and one in the total scores, and all were below

difference was found with a small effect size.

0.96, BCa 95% CI [-7.82, 5.50], was not significant, t(140) =-0.31, p = .759, and represented a very small effect size, d =the bottom boundary. These outliers were not removed fromthe study so as not to reduce the number of participants.

Correlations
The scores for the two versions were significantly correlated

Paired-Samples T Tests

in all three categories; the listening scores, r = .80, the reading

Paired-samples t tests were conducted to compare the scoresscores, r = .84, and the total scores, r = .87 (all ps < .001).

for the old and new versions in terms of listening, reading,Figures 1, 2, and 3 are scatterplots of the listening, reading,and total scores. On average, the listening scores for the newand total scores, respectively, for both versions and show how

version were higher (M = 371.70, SD = 59.56) than those forclosely the two sets of scores correlated.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

107

Questionnaire

two reasons. One is that their effect sizes were small; Cohen’s

The questionnaire was used only for the January 2017

ds for the reading score comparison and the total scoresessions, and 56 participants responded. Table 3. shows thecomparison were 0.16 and 0.10, respectively, which means

descriptive statistics for their scores, for both versions and thethe differences were a 0.16 standard deviation for the reading

three categories. Again the average scores for the new version

scores and a 0.10 standard deviation for the total scores. Their

were higher in all categories: The average listening score was

effects are therefore limited. The other is that, as a5.98 points higher; the average reading score was 7.76 points

measurement instrument, the TOEIC L&R is not very

higher; and the average total score was 13.78 points higher,

accurate when measuring such small differences. ETS

compared to the old version.

(2015c) reports that the standard error of measurement for

The first item on the questionnaire asked thethe TOEIC L&R is about 25 points for each of the listening

participants which listening test they found more difficult

and reading sections, which means a test-taker’s true total(see Table 4. for responses). Nearly three quarters of thescore could be ±50 points of the reported score they receive.

respondents indicated that the new version was more difficult.

Since measurement errors cause a difference of ±50 points to

The second item on the questionnaire asked thea total score, a difference of around 10 points is not so

participants which reading test they found more difficult (seeTable 5. for responses). Nearly two thirds of the respondents
indicated that the new version was more difficult.

important by comparison.
Second, the scores for the two versions significantly
correlated for the listening subtest, r = .80, for the reading

The third item on the questionnaire asked thesubtest, r = .84, and for the whole test, r = .87 (all ps < .001).

participants which version they found more difficult overall

Usually, this level of correlations is considered to be strong;(see Table 6. for responses). More than three quarters of the

however, one could argue that the figures should be higher

respondents indicated that the new version was more difficult.

because two versions of the same test were compared, andThe fourth item on the questionnaire asked the

ETS claims that the two versions are equivalent. It must be

participants which version they focused on while preparing

remembered, though, that the TOEIC L&R is not a highly

for the test, and about three times more of them had focusedaccurate measurement instrument, and measurement errors

on the old version, compared to the new version (see Table 7.

of ±50 points out of 990 points are reported (ETS, 2015c).

for responses).

Spearman (1904) suggested that raw correlations are lower

The fifth item on the questionnaire asked thethan true correlations because of measurement errors and,participants which version they preferred, and there were

therefore, in order to estimate the real correlations, the raw

almost twice as many participants who preferred the old

figures need to be corrected on the basis of reliability

version as there were those who preferred the new version (seeestimates. ETS does not disclose reliability estimates for the

Table 8. for responses).

scores of a particular test form, but it reports that the KR-20
reliability index for the listening and reading scores across all

Discussion

forms from their norming samples “has been approximatelyFirst, according to the data obtained in this study, the average

0.90 and up” (ETS, 2015c, p. 22). If reliability estimates forlistening, reading, and total scores for the new version were

the scores of the two forms used in this study were .09, thenhigher than those for the old version by 0.96, 11.45, andthe raw correlations of .80, .84, and.87 could be corrected12.41 points, respectively. The results of the paired-samples t

to .89, .93, and.97, respectively, by using the formula fortests indicated that there was not any significant difference

correction for attenuation proposed by Spearman (1904).

between the two sets of listening scores, but the differences

Therefore, considering measurement errors, the figures

between the reading scores and between the total scores wereobtained in this study could be considered high enough tostatisticallysupport ETS’s claim that the two versions are equivalent.

significant.

However,thesestatisticallysignificant differences are almost negligible in practice for
The 2017 PanSIG Journal108

Finally, 44 of the 56 respondents to the

TOEIC L&R has increased. However, because ETS makes

questionnaire survey indicated that the new version was more

sufficient adjustments based on test-form difficulty when

difficult. One could argue that the new version was moreconverting raw scores to scaled scores, TOEIC-takers should

difficult due to the fact that nearly 80% of the respondents

not worry that their scores will be negatively affected by the

believed it to be so. However, people use their subjective

question and format changes.

judgment to determine which version is more difficult, andtherefore responses can vary from person to person, even

Acknowledgments

among those who have taken the same tests. In addition, twoThis study was supported by the Center for Foreign

respondents indicated that the old version was more difficult,Language Proficiency (FLP) at Kanda University ofand 10 respondents were unable to say which version was

International Studies. The author wishes to express his

more difficult.

gratitude to Professor Nobuko Hasegawa, the Director of the

Even though nearly 80% of the respondents
considered the new version to be more difficult, their average

FLP, for providing financial aid and useful advice, without
which this study would not have been possible.

score for the new version was higher than that for the oldversion, which may seem counterintuitive. One reason forthis is that ETS made some adjustments to offset thedifference in the overall level of difficulty when converting
raw scores to scaled scores, as ETS (2015c) explained:
Scaled scores are transformed and derived
from test takers’ raw scores through a provenstatistical procedure called “equating.” This
procedure adjusts for test-form difficulty andestablishes the relationship between test
takers’ raw and scaled scores so that the scaled
scores from different test administrations arecomparable. (p. 4)
Thus, even if the new version was more difficult andthe participants performed poorly, this was not necessarilyreflected in their scores. For example, on an easier test form,
test-takers need to get 53% of the questions correct in orderto score 500, but on a more difficult form they can get thesame score with a lower percentage of correct answers.
Considering the results of the score comparisons in this study,
it seems that ETS is capable of making these adjustments witha high degree of accuracy.
In conclusion, scores for the two versions could beconsidered comparable because the score differences were
almost negligible, despite their statistical significance, and thecorrelations between the scores seem reasonably strong. Also,
as the majority of the participants thought the new version

References
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the
behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Educational Testing Service. (2015a). TOEIC
listening and reading test to receive updates. Retrieved
from http://news.ets.org/press-releases/toeiclistening-reading-test-receive-updates/
Educational Testing Service. (2015b). TOEIC
sample test 2015. Retrieved fromhttps://www.ets.org/s/toeic/pdf/toeic_lr_sample_q
uestions_japan_korea.pdf
Educational Testing Service. (2015c). TOEIC
examinee handbook – listening and reading.
Princeton, NJ: Author. Retrieved fromhttps://www.ets.org/Media/Tests/TOEIC/pdf/TO
EIC_LR_examinee_handbook.pdf
Institute for International Business Communication.
(2015). Examples of new item types on the TOEIC
test. Retrieved from http://www.iibcglobal.org/library/default/iibc/info/2015/i025/pdf/
Examples_of_New_Item_Types_on_the_TOEIC_
Test.pdf
Spearman, C. (1904). The proof and measurementof association between two things. The American
Journal of Psychology, 15(1), 72-101.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1412159

was more difficult, it is likely that the difficulty level of the

The 2017 PanSIG Journal109

Figure 1.
Scatterplot of the listening scores for the two versions of the TOEIC L&R (N = 141).

Figure 2.
Scatterplot of the reading scores for the two versions of the TOEIC L&R (N = 141).

Figure 3.
Scatterplot of the total scores for the two versions of the TOEIC L&R (N = 141).

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

110

Table 3.
Descriptive Statistics for the Scores of the 56 Participants Who Responded to the Questionnaire
Test

M

SD

Min

Max

Skewness

Kurtosis

Old L

374.11

52.56

250

495

0.25

0.35

New L

380.09

61.04

170

495

−0.85

1.59

Old R

309.29

65.85

150

480

0.00

0.52

New R

317.05

67.10

110

440

−0.78

1.01

Old LR

683.39109.18

400

970

0.24

0.77

New LR

697.17117.72

350

930

−0.63

0.60

Note. Old = old version; New = new version; L = listening; R = reading; LR = listening and reading combined; Min = lowest
score; Max = highest score.
Table 4.

Responses to Question 1 (n = 56)
New (PTP)

Old (IP)

Unsure41 (73.3%)

3 (5.4%)12 (21.4%)

Note. Question 1 = Which listening test was more difficult, the new (PTP) or old (IP) test?
Table 5.
Responses to Question 2 (n = 56)
New (PTP)

Old (IP)

Unsure36 (64.3%)

6 (10.7%)

14 (25.0%)

Note. Question 2 = Which reading test was more difficult, the new (PTP) or old (IP) test?
Table 6.
Responses to Question 3 (n = 56)
New (PTP)

Old (IP)

Unsure44 (78.6%)

2 (3.6%)10 (17.9%)

Note. Question 3 = Overall, which version was more difficult?
Table 7.
Responses to Question 4 (n = 56)
New (PTP)

Old (IP)

Both equallyDidn’t do much preparation

7 (12.5%)

23 (41.1%)

6 (10.7%)

20 (35.7%)

Note. Question 4 = When you prepared for the exam, which version did you focus on?

Table 8.
Responses to Question 5 (n = 56)
New (PTP)

Old (IP)

Hard to say

13 (23.2%)

25 (44.6%)

18 (32.1%)

Note. Question 5 = Which version of the TOEIC do you prefer?

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111

Appendix
Original Questionnaire in JapaneseQ1. リスニングはどちらが難しく感じましたか。
1) 公開テストの方が難しい。2) 学内 IP の方が難しい。3) どちらとも言えない。
Q2. リーディングはどちらが難しく感じましたか。
1) 公開テストの方が難しい。2) 学内 IP の方が難しい。3) どちらとも言えない。
Q3. 総合するとどちらが難しく感じましたか。
1) 公開テストの方が難しい。2) 学内 IP の方が難しい。3) どちらとも言えない。
Q4. テストに向けた学習は新旧どちらの形式がメインでしたか。
1) 新形式がメイン。2) 旧形式がメイン。3) 両方同じくらい。4) テスト対策は特にしなかった。
Q5．新形式と旧形式ではどちらが好きですか。
1) 新形式の方が好き。2) 旧形式の方が好き。3) どちらとも言えない。

Author’s Biography
Masaya Kanzaki teaches at Kanda University of International Studies. His research interests include
language testing, vocabulary acquisition, and corpus linguistics. He can be reached at kanzakim@kanda.kuis.ac.jp.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

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Extending Class Presentations beyond the Classroom With Moxtra
Timothy Knight
Shirayuri University
tknight@shirayuri.ac.jp
The student presentation is a common and usually satisfying classroom activity. Whole class talks,
however, take time and limit individuals’ speaking opportunities. Poster presentations, orpresentations made in small groups, allow more speaking time, but restrict the chances for eachpresentation to be seen. Using the mobile app Moxtra allows, and encourages, student interactions
and appreciation of each other’s work beyond the classroom. Students upload their presentations
for others to watch, and give feedback on, as well as learn from. Teachers can also keep these digitalpresentations as a record, which is helpful for grading.
学生によるプレゼンテーションは授業活動としてはよくあるもので、大抵満足度も高いものである。しかしながら、教室全体で行う場合は時間の関係で、一人ひとりが発話する機会が限られる。一方で、ポスタープレゼンテーション又は小グループ内でのプレゼンテー
ションは発話時間が多く取れるが、それぞれのプレゼンテーションを視聴する機会が限られてしまう。携帯アプリの Moxtra を利用することで、学生が教室外においてもお互いにプレゼンテーションを評価し、やりとりすることができ、またそれを促すことができる。
学生は、自分のプレゼンテーションをアップロードし、他の学生のプレゼンテーションを視聴し、フィードバックを行い、そこから学ぶことができる。教員にとっても、これらのデジタルプレゼンテーションを保管できるため成績評価の際に便利である。

This paper describes the use of Moxtra to extend class

Finally, the software allowed the teacher to collect a digitalpresentation projects beyond the classroom and argues that

portfolio of work from each student. This helped the teacher

its use enhances a typical presentation course. Moxtra is anwhen grading, as it was something the teacher could refer toapp, available for smartphones (iPhones and Android) and as

at the end of the course in addition to notes taken during thea cloud-based computer software. Moxtra was used in thispresentation tasks performed in class time.

project following individual student presentations in small

The main purpose of using Moxtra, then, was togroups in a round-robin style. It was found to have several

add an extra dimension to a presentation course. It can, in fact,

benefits.

be used as a way for students to share their presentationsFirst, it gave a chance for all class members to see,

without any classroom performances. In the courses outlinedin their own time, all their classmates’ presentations. Second,

below, however, it was used to augment and extend the

Moxtra allowed students directly to give, and receive,

activities restricted to the classroom.

feedback from their peers, even promoting interaction
between students after classroom activities had finished.

Background

Third, it encouraged students to have meaningful speaking

Having students make presentations in their English classes

practice out of class. Students needed to record theiris a common task set by teachers in all kinds of courses. Recent

presentations in Moxtra outside of class time and were able toexhortations from Japan’s Ministry of Education, Science

make as many efforts to complete the work as they wished.

and Technology (MEXT) for more “Active Learning” (JonesThe 2017 PanSIG Journal

113

and Palmer, 2017) mean that this activity is likely to become

Puentedura’s (2010) SAMR model of technology use in

more prevalent in a range of courses rather than less.

education. Hockly (2013) neatly explained that the SAMR

According to Prince (2004), “Active learning is generally

model “describes the use of technology in learning tasks, fromdefined as any instructional method that engages students inthe simplest (substitution) to the more complex andthe learning process… The core elements of active learning areinnovative ones (redefinition). The SAMR model sees

student activity and engagement in the learning process” (p.

Substitution and Augmentation as ways to enhance learning1). A presentation task undoubtedly involves students in antasks, whereas Modifications and Redefinition allow for

active learning process.

transformation” (p. 3). Regarding the use of Moxtra in thisOne thing teachers have to decide, though, is how

project, I would argue that as the presentations can be

students make their presentations. There are various formats.

recorded for homework, and feedback can be given and

One student, a pair of students, or a small group of students,

received out of class, which is not possible in traditional classpresenting to the whole class is one way. There are clear

presentations, the final part of the activity even fits thebenefits to this method. For example, making a presentation

Redefinition stage of the SAMR model.

to the whole class gives the student presenters a sense ofoccasion. It is clearly a performance, and it brings together all

Context

the elements of public speaking while displaying visual aids

The university-level courses in which my students use mobile

on a big screen. It also allows everyone in the class to see, andphones for presenting are called Digital Presentation, or Oral

listen to, each presentation.

Communication. The first time students in those courses use

There are, however, some downsides to the whole

their mobile phones is for an audio-only self-introduction

class presentation style, which have made other formats

task (Knight, 2015). Then they use their phones to show

popular. As King (2002) argued, “oral presentations can be a

pictures as visual aids to accompany talks to audiences oftime-consuming project with no guarantee of a satisfactory

between one and three classmates. By switching groups

performance” (para. 2). An alternative to having students

around, the teacher can give students several chances tostand in front of the whole class is the poster presentation

practice and give their talks so that they gain confidence,

format (Bayne, 2005). There are two key benefits to this: first,

fluency, and even accuracy (Nation & Newton, 2009). Then,

it is less stressful for student presenters; and second, it gives

for later presentations, students learn how to makepresenters several chances to make their presentation. As theslideshows, using one of the main apps available: Keynote,number of students involved in each poster presentation isPowerPoint, or Google Slides. Many of them can alreadysmall, it increases each student’s chances to speak, both as amake basic slides on a computer, but need guidance in usingpresenter and also as an audience member.

the apps.

Even more mobile and quicker to use than posters,

The bigger challenge for me in this 2nd-year

however, are the iPhones and Android smartphones that

university course is to build the students’ confidence andstudents now bring to class as a matter of course. These

enjoyment in making presentations at all, whether they were

“Bring Your Own Device” policies (BYOD) are perfect for

using slideware or other visual aids or not. This was clear from

“Blended Learning” activities, which combine the use of

the responses to a questionnaire I gave the students on thetechnology with more traditional classroom tasks (Brown,

first day of the course. In April 2016, at the start of the course2016). Smartphones are perfect research and display tools for

dedicated to presenting, 64% of the students in two classes

students who are preparing, and then making, presentations(25 out of 39) agreed clearly that it was “useful to have goodto small groups. In addition, as the students’ use their own

presentation skills.” Only five students did not agree.

devices, in the words of Hockly (2013), “to practise, record,

However, just under half answered that they outright did not

and re-record until they are happy with the final version” (p.

like presenting (17 out of 39). It was even worse in April4) of their presentation, it fits the Modifications stage of2017: Only 55% of the students (20 out of 36) agreed that
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

114

having good presentation skills was useful, and more than halffamiliarity, which we can refer to as ‘mobile literacy’, is an(19 out of 36) declared they did not like presenting.

increasingly important skill” (p. 4).

It was pleasing to note that there was a change in attitude

After downloading the Moxtra app, it is easy for anyone totowards presenting among a large number of students at thesign up with an email address and a password. In the earlyend of the first semester in 2016. The outright dislikes forstages, though, the teacher needs to be organized, firstly bypresenting had fallen from 43.6% in April at the start of the

making sure all the students join what Moxtra calls a Groupcourse to 11.8% in July at the end of the semester. There wasConversation. To do this, the teacher creates and names ano chance on that occasion to follow up with interviews, andconversation (probably an assignment such as “Travel

it has to be noted that there were five fewer students taking

Presentation”) and then invites the students to join it. This is

the course by then, but I believe one big factor for the drop

the only slightly awkward part. The most straightforward way

was the predominant use of round-robin-presenting-to-small-to do this is to type each student’s email address into thegroups tasks rather than the more stressful memorizing-a-

invitation. With, say, a class of 20, this is a little time-speech-for-the-whole-class type presentation the students had

consuming, and the teacher has to be careful to, first, get themostly done in their first year. Several of the students alsoemail addresses, and second, to type them in correctly. This isnoted that learning how to use various apps on their phones

the only time in the project when I suggest it is better to use a

had also been enjoyable and useful, including Moxtra.

computer rather than a mobile device.
The first thing the students should do once they

Moxtrahave joined the Group Conversation is to make their own

This section will explain what Moxtra is and how teachers canfolder under their own name. If this stage is omitted, theuse it for online presentations. Moxtra is available as an app

conversation gets disorganized as files and recordings areon all mobile and computer operating systems and is basicallyuploaded and get mixed up. Individual folders keepa place where people can share and collaborate online.

everything in good order. Inside the folders, students upload

According to the company’s website, it is widely used intheir visual aids. Moxtra accepts PDFs, PowerPoint andbusiness and education and claims its mission “is to enhance

Keynote files from anywhere, including linked apps, such as

education for global communities” (Moxtra, 2017). The free

Dropbox or Google Drive, as well as separate photos from theversion is enough for most teachers’ needs and was used forphone’s picture gallery.

this project. Although it works very well from a computer, I

Once students have their visual aids in their folders,

was attracted by its mobile-friendly nature; indeed, whatin the form of either a single file or separate photos, they can

Moxtra calls its “mobile-first architecture.” My classes areeasily record over them. To make a smooth presentation,

held in normal classrooms with reasonably reliable Wi-Fi, so

while recording, the presenter simply swipes left to move tothe focus is utilizing apps that are available for students’ own

the next slide. As with creating the personal folders, thedevices. The use of Moxtra comes only at the end of a normal

teacher can demonstrate this through a projector on thepresentation process of choosing a topic; researching it;classroom’s large screen. There is a recording time limit of 10

making notes; doing interviews to practice speaking andminutes in the free version of Moxtra, which is ample for theexchanging opinions on the topic; organizing the material;

online presentation tasks I set. It is possible both to pause

preparing visual aids; writing an outline or part of the script;

while recording and to discard a finished recording if theand practicing, before doing classroom presentations.

speaker is unhappy with it and wants to try it again. Students,

In order to use Moxtra in this presentation project,
there is no doubt that teachers as well as their students need

therefore, can feel safe in the knowledge that only the work
they are happy with will be seen and heard by others.

to be familiar and comfortable with using mobile devices in

Finally, after the students have recorded their own

class. However, as Hockly (2013) has pointed out, “Thispresentations, they are required to make a comment on atleast three of their classmates’ presentations. As they have
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

115

usually done their presentation in class to several of theirbeautiful! I want to go to Hawaii somedayclassmates, I further stipulate that they make these comments

too.”

on presentations they did not have the chance to see in class.

“It takes only about 6 hours to get to Bali,

This makes the task more meaningful. Again, I demonstrate

so we can go there easily. Your visual aidson the big screen how to make the comment. It is possible tohelped me to understand the place. I wantcomment by typing or by a recorded message. I usually let thevisit there!”

students choose how they make their comments, but“My second language is also Spanish. Your

sometimes I make it a rule that one of the comments should

speech interested me so much and madebe voiced, as this is the option rarely, if ever, chosen freely byme want to go there! I’d love to see thestudents, in my experience. Presenters are notified within

beautiful

Moxtra when comments are made, and the keener students

recommended.”

view

and

the

food

sometimes reply to the comments.
Here is an example of a rare, slightly critical

Peer Feedback in Moxtra

comment among the positive feedback:Comments made by students on their classmates’“Your voice is easy to listen but I felt it waspresentations are almost always positive and supportive. As ita little fast: ( I interested in your topic.”

is the end of the project, this is probably a good thing, andcertainly something I, as the teacher, am satisfied with. MoreThis should be useful for the presenter to bear in

critical comments and suggestions about how to improve themind the next time she presents, especially inpresentation are more useful earlier in the process and are

Moxtra. Some comments following presentations

made in other ways, such as by face-to-face interaction, on

about more serious social issues are below. They

paper, or in Google Forms. These final comments in Moxtra

show that students are able to reflect on the content

are also on display at the end of the recorded presentations forand the activity, both requirements of active

everyone in the Group Conversation to see. There is somelearning. These were about English education invariation, though, in the style of the comments. Some

Japanese elementary schools:

comments concentrate on praising the way the presentation“I agree that Japanese students should start

was done, while others comment on the content. Somestudying second language in elementary

manage to do both. Some typical examples following aschool.”presentation around the theme of travel are:

“The comparison with other countries is“Your English is very good! And I

effective to think about this topic! I also

surprised at most people want to go

think Japan should start second language

Europe as honeymoon trip. Thank you forlearning from earlier age.”your interesting presentation.”“Thank you for interesting talk! It was a

The last group of comments is on a presentation

very nice presentation. The graph was also

about the freedom of Japanese married women toeasy to understand.”choose their surname:“I was very excited about this survey. Your

“Thank you for your presentation! Your

English pronunciation was very good! I

topic was interesting for me because I had tolike your English.”change my last name because of my mother’s“You talk very well and the accent is reallysecond marriage. As you said in theclear! Besides, the information is given inpresentation,

one’s

name

is

closelydetail and the pictures are all very
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

116

connected with his/her identity, so I think itpresentations. They, along with the comments made by theirshould be free to choose which name to use.”classmates, are all accessible in the individual folders within“It is interesting that all of the people in the

the Group Conversation created for the presentation project.

class think we can choose which name to use.”

Thus, the teacher can refer to them at any time to assess each

“I also think married woman don’t have tostudent’s voice work, slides, and content. The teacher can alsochange name by force. Some people want tolook at the comments to assess the effort each student haslive with their own name.”

made in giving feedback. These assessments can add a further“Thank you for your great presentation. I

dimension to the task of grading at the end of the course.

was surprised at the results of this topic.”

Conclusion
It was gratifying to see how these comments were made after

In this paper I have discussed different formats of presenting

the classroom activities were finished. Students were

for university students, and then described how the free app

encouraging their peers in their work and also learning from

Moxtra can be used to extend classwork into online

each other’s presentation content.

presentations. The activities described tie in well withblended learning and active learning, which are both being

Course Feedback

increasingly recommended to, if not demanded from,At the end of the first semester of the course, a survey was

educators. The main advantage of making and sharing online

given to the students in a Google Form. Thirty-four students

presentations for students is that they have a chance to doin two classes answered the questions, one of which wastheir presentation once more, thereby gaining further

specifically about using Moxtra. The question simply asked,

speaking practice out of class, and to get direct feedback from

“What did you think of using Moxtra?” and allowedclassmates and the teacher. They also have a tangible record

respondents to choose one or more of the following fourof their work in digital form. The teacher also has a record ofoptions: useful, fun, not useful, not fun. The answers were

the students’ work, which can help with grading at the end ofoverwhelmingly positive. There were 19 selections of thethe semester. Both teachers and learners can also develop

option useful, and 14 for fun. In contrast, only one choice wastheir mobile literacy through the activities described, which

made for the option not useful, and five for not fun.

will be useful from now on.

The 20 students in a different oral communication(OC) course also gave overwhelmingly positive responses toReferencesa similar survey question (also asked in a Google Form)

Bayne, K. (2005). Using the ‘poster session’ format in L2

afterwards. The question this time was, “Did you find using

Contexts. Proceedings of the 4th Annual JALT PanSIG

Moxtra useful/enjoyable?” and gave them a choice of yes or no

Conference, 87-97. Retrieved fromfor their answer. 17 students chose yes to answer that

http://hosted.jalt.org/pansig/2005/HTML/Bayne.htm

question; three students answered that using Moxtra had
been neither useful nor enjoyable.

Brown, I. (2016). Blended learning with student BYOD
smartphones and iPhones. Studies in Language andThese results were not a surprise to me, but they

Literature, Matsuyama University, 36(1), 79-119.

did confirm my belief that Moxtra has attractions for

Hockly, N. (2013). Mobile learning. ELT Journal,

students and has benefits as a tool for extending class67(1), 80-84. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccs064

presentations.

Jones, B. A., & Palmer, R. (2017). Active learning inJapanese university EFL classes: Clarifying the construct.

Grading Assistance for Teachers

Hirao School of Management Review, 7, 107-125.

A further benefit of using Moxtra in a course is that theKing, J. (2002, March). Preparing EFL Learners for oralteacher can collect a digital record of the students’
The 2017 PanSIG Journal117

presentations. The Internet TESL Journal, VIII(3).

the research.

Retrieved from http://iteslj.org/

Journal of Engineering Education, 93(3), 223-231.

Knight, T. (2015). Using student BYODs (phones) for a

Retrieved fromgetting-to-know-you extension activity. The Language

http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/publ

Teacher, 39(2), 32-33.

ic/Papers/Prince_AL.pdf

Moxtra. (2017). “Philanthropy.” Retrieved fromhttp://moxtra.com/
Nation, I. S. P., & Newton, J. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL
listening and speaking. Abingdon, England: Routledge.

Puentendura, R. (2010). SAMR and TPCK: Intro toadvanced practice. Hippasus. Retrieved fromhttp://hippasus.com/resources/sweden2010/SAMR_TP
CK_IntroToAdvancedPractice.pdf

Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? A review of

Author Biography
Tim Knight has been teaching at universities in Japan for more than 20 years. He now works
mainly in the English Dept. of Shirayuri University in Tokyo. His main research and practicalteaching interests are in CALL, especially in the use of mobile devices, pragmatics, and British
studies.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

118

Discovering Students’ Needs for a Content and Language Integrated Learning(CLIL) Course
Malcolm Paul Larking
Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University
larkingm@apu.ac.jp
This study reports on the findings of a needs analysis (NA) for a content and language integrated learning(CLIL) based advanced English university course. The goal of the NA was to inform an alignment of thecourse content with the students’ major subjects and future career needs. The NA consisted of interviewsof a stratified sample of both English and Japanese language basis students. The results showed that thecourse needed more content relevant to the participants’ subject areas of management and international
business in order to support their language needs for their major courses and career tracks. This paper
synthesizes the participants’ responses and discusses the next steps in reforming a CLIL course.
本研究では、CLIL（Content and Language Integrated Learning）ベースの上級英語コースのニーズ分析（NA）の成果について報告します。 NA の目標は、コース内容と学生の主要科目と将来のキャリアニーズとの整合性を知らせることでした。 NA は、英語と日本語の両方の基礎学生の層別サンプルのインタビューから構成されています。 結果は、参加者の戦略的管理と国際ビジネスの分野に関連したより多くのコンテンツが必要である
ことを示しました。 本稿では、参加者の反応をまとめ、CLIL コースの改革における次のステップについて説明します。
Assessing the needs of a content and language integrated

ensure appropriate major course preparation was being

learning (CLIL) course requires careful attention to thesuccessfully provided. A secondary objective of the course wastarget content, the objectives of the course, and the needs ofto help the students’ career-based English needs, and it was

the students. One of the first tasks of a CLIL course designer

determined that understanding their career needs should also

is to identify what level and type of content is appropriate forbe included in the NA as well.

the students. Whilst teaching a CLIL-based advanced
English course, it became apparent that a greater
understanding of the type of content the students’ required
for their major subject courses was needed. One objective of
the advanced English course was to help EFL students
prepare for their English medium instruction (EMI) major
subjects. This was done by engaging in advanced andcontroversial issues in-depth with mini lectures, criticalreading of journal articles, writing academic summaries, andparticipating in debates. The course content focused on social
issues such as the legalization of prostitution, gun control
laws, euthanasia, and capital punishment. A needs analysis(NA) was instigated to provide a greater understanding of thestudents’ major course content requirements in order toreview and revise the advanced English course content to

The NA was part of a faculty initiative project(FIP) to make CLIL modules for use at various levels within
Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University’s (APU) English
Program related to the students’ major subjects. APU isdivided into two colleges, Asia Pacific Management (APM)
and Asia Pacific Studies (APS). The cluster subjects for the
APM College are accounting and finance, marketing, andstrategic management and organization, and the cluster
subjects for the APS College are culture, society and media,
international relations, and tourism. APU is a dual Englishand Japanese-based university where it is compulsory fordomestic students to study English up to an upperintermediate level (B1 on the CEFR scale) and take major
and cluster subjects in English as well. APU has a “3 fifty”
vision of internationalization whereby international students
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

119are admitted from 50 countries and regions, a 50% ratio of

benefits of CLIL as increased motivation, deeper cognitive

international to domestic students is maintained, and a 50%

processing, improved communicative skills, stronger personalratio of foreign to Japanese faculty is also maintained in orderconnections, intercultural awareness, and language learning

to create a multicultural campus (“Ritsumeikan University

strategy development. Through collaborative CLIL classes,

and APU House,” 2009). The advanced English course underlanguage teachers and content lecturers can work together

review accepts both international and domestic students

and create a program that improves the quality of thecoming from a wide range of nationalities, English learning

institution as a whole. This can foster new and innovative

backgrounds, and language proficiencies. It was within thisteaching strategies that might not be known outside of theinternational learning context that a review and reform of thedisciplinary field. It was with this collaborative approach incontent was identified as necessary to ensure the course

mind that the FIP and NA focusing on the needs of theobjectives of providing a CLIL-based course which fused

students in both the English Program and their major

English language instruction with content relevant to thesubjects were born, in the hope that a greater awareness andstudents’ major subjects and career needs was undertaken.

interaction across departments within the university would

What is CLIL?

streamline and benefit the students’ learning.

CLIL is a term created by Marsh (1994) to encompass
pedagogies that combine foreign language immersion andcontent-based instruction. As such, CLIL includes a mix ofeducational practices from bilingual education andimmersion programs (Coyle, Hood, & Marsh, 2010). It
simultaneously attends to language learning and content
instruction. In this context, language learning relates toactivating prior knowledge, guiding understanding, focus on
language form, and the four key skills of listening, speaking,reading, and writing. Content-based skills involve scaffolding,social interaction, cognitive engagement, problem solving,and higher order thinking. CLIL is not a new form of content
or language instruction, but an innovative fusion of both as
Coyle, et al. (2010, p. 27) noted “all learning is complex, andunderstanding the potential of integrating content andlanguage demands an exploration of emergent synergies
where the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”

Needs Analysis for CLIL Course
Any studious course designer should, if possible, undertakesome form of NA in the initial stages of course design. In
order to design a course that is relevant, appropriately graded,and efficient, it is essential that the course designer
understands the learning needs of the students. According toRichards (2001), a NA is a procedure for compiling andanalyzing data about learners in order to set goals andcontents of a language curriculum based on the needs of thoselearners. Mackay and Mountford (1978) contended that all
language instruction should be designed for the specificpurposes of the students taking the course. To understandthese specific purposes, a systematic analysis is necessary andis a prerequisite in designing the content of a language
program relevant to the learners’ needs. Brindley (1984),
stated that in the EFL context, the language attitudes, course

CLIL sees language as just one part of a student’s

expectations, and learning habits of the students should belearning process and is guided by a 4 Cs framework consisting

analyzed when conducting a NA. Furthermore, the students’of content, cognition, communication, and culture (Coyle,interests, their age, and their social and career ambitions2008). Utilizing this framework, teachers should integrateshould also be assessed when selecting course content (Kayi,

content from across the curriculum through language2008). The importance of personal relevance when designinginteraction (content), engage learners through higher ordera course is a recurring theme in the NA for EFL courses

thinking (cognition), use language to express ideas and values

research. Kayi’s (2008) study of 46 EFL students’ reasons for(communication), and interpret the significance of content

studying English found that educational purposes and job

and language in relation to cultural identity (culture) (Coyle,requirements were considered the most important and2005). Dale and Tanner (2012) listed some of the key

concluded with the recommendation that a CLIL curriculum
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

120

must include content that is directly related to the students’

selected, with 14 male and 11 female participants represented.

personal lives and their specific educational, social, and career

There were 18 English-basis students and 7 Japanese-basis

challenges.

students. There was broad representation from 1st- to 4th-

One feature of the advanced English course under
examination was the inclusion of student voice andautonomous learning. The students were asked to put forthyear students and the APM and APS colleges and major
subject areas. Ten nationalities were represented (see Table
1.)

ideas for debate topics and reading material and the ideas

The data collection method consisted of one-to-would be voted on by the students to determine content for

one semi-structured interviews. This interview format was

the course. In keeping with this approach, it was decided theselected to allow for open-ended questions and responses to

NA would consist of qualitative student interviews to ensure

engenderstudent voice was heard in regards to the type of content they

Furthermore, two research assistants were employed toperceived themselves to need. Although students sometimes

conduct most of the interviews and as Bernard (1988) notes,

may not fully understand their learning needs (Long, 2005),

semi-structured interviews are appropriate when a number ofa stratified sample was taken to mitigate this problem andinterviewers are involved in collecting data and there is only

ensure a diverse range of students were interviewed. In

one chance to interview each participant. There were 20 main

particular, interviewing students from a range of age groups

questions accompanied with additional sub-questions

and year levels ensured expectation-based needs andguiding the interviewers, starting with basic biographical data,

retrospective-based needs were included. From the interview

leading into questions about the participants’ current

data, a content analysis (CA) was undertaken to observe

learning needs, their difficulties and challenges with theirimportant themes and trends.

major and cluster subject content, and finally questions

deeperreflection

from

the

participants.

relating to their perceived future career needs (see Appendix
for interview items). The interviews were recorded andResearch Questions
After careful consideration of the objectives of the advanced
English course and its role in bridging the students from EFL
instruction to EMI major course content, two researchquestions were devised:extensive notes were taken by the interviewers during andafter the interviews. The responses from each interview were
written into separate documents under the question items.
A content analysis (CA) was conducted on theinterview responses using the Atlas.ti qualitative data analysis

1. Does the current advanced English course material

software (“Atlas.ti8”, 2017). According to Hsieh andprovide broad support to the students’ major course

Shannon (2005), CA is a “research method for subjective

content?

interpretation of the content of text data through the

2. Does the course content equip the students with thesystematic classification process of coding and identifying

necessary skills to achieve their future career goals?

themes or patterns” (p. 1278). The CA methodology for
qualitative data analysis focuses on extracting categories fromthe data (Cho & Lee, 2014) and “systematically describe theMethods
In order to provide a representative picture of the culturally
diverse and international context at APU a stratified sample
was selected from the participant pool. Prospective
participants were randomly recruited during their attendanceat the university’s Self Access Learning Center (SALC) by thestudent peer advisors. Twenty-five participants were finally

meaning” of the data in relation to the research questions(Schreier, 2012, p. 3). The first step in the data analysis wasindexing, whereby all relevant and reoccurring words andphrases were coded. Any responses that the interviewer noted
as important, surprising, or repetitive were coded. The data
analysis was guided by grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss,1967), where codes emerge naturally upon reading and
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

121

Results

interacting with the data. After the first indexing process, thecodes were moved into metacodes, that is, larger themes thatemerged from the initial codes. By isolating each question
type across all responses, emergent themes and key variables
were clearly identified. To provide a quantitative analysis of
the responses as well, the number of times a content area wasrecorded in the answers was tallied for each content based
item type, to analyze the frequency of responses.

The interview data delivered a wide range of responses which
exposed the breadth of content knowledge required of theparticipants. In terms of future career needs, the responses
were less diverse with some clear trends towards international
business and communicative fluency. The content areas thatthe participants found most difficult were maths, finance,
economics, media, international marketing, human resourcesmanagement, environmental studies, and statistics. The

Table 1

content areas that participants had not already learnt about

Needs Analysis Participants’ Nationalities

but would like to study were business ethics, politics,

Nationality

No. of participants

Vietnamese

4

Uzbek

1

Taiwanese

1

Singaporean

1Japanese

7

Iranian1

Indonesian6

Indian1

Fijian2Chinese1

computer science, cross-cultural consumer behaviour,
economic history, governance, insurance, interculturalcommunication, investment, and journalism. Some of theparticipants noted that more in-depth instruction was
desired. For example, the rudimentary aspects of investment
would be covered but they wanted to know more about the
ethics and history of investment.
For specialized vocabulary needs, it was clear thatpolitical, legal, economic, and managerial terminology was ahigh priority. Participants noted that such specialized terms
were vital for their understanding of lectures yet they were
aware of their lexical shortcomings in these content areas (seeFigure 1). The others category included a wide array of areas
including academic, administrative, financial, gender-related,
literary, marketing, media, statistical, and theoretical terms
which exposed the extent of the vocabulary learning needs
imposed on the participants.

Figure 1. Content areas with difficult specialized vocabulary.
The 2017 PanSIG Journal122

Figure 2. Intended use of English after graduating.

Figure 3. English skills considered important for future careers.
When asked what topics the participants thought

Under the culture, society and media code, public

were important, interesting, and relevant for use in debates,

surveillance, inequality in familial structures, and the banningmore specific issues were elicited. Suggested topics wereof publishing personal photos were suggested as possible areas

coded by college and subject area. Under the environment

for debate. Topics that fell into the finance and accounting

and development code, topics such as rural development insubject area included white collar crime, rural development,

Japan, debt cancellation for developing nations, and theand universal healthcare. Marketing related topics included

prioritization of climate change policies were offered astargeting advertising to children and inappropriate images ofpossible debate topics. Under the hospitality and tourism

women. Strategic management and organization relatedarea, hunting endangered animals, sex tourism, and unethicalthemesforms of tourism were suggested as debatable issues. For theinternational business ethics. Under the economics code,

international relations subject area, negotiating with

topics such as universal income and zero fees for university

terrorists, imposing democracy, and the impacts oftuition were put forward as interesting areas for debate.

globalization on traditional culture were areas of interest.

Despite the wide variety of responses, the topics chosen wereconsistedofoffshore

manufacturing

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

and

123

globally current, geopolitically specific, and had major subject

legal terminology may also prove beneficial to the students

relevance.

based on the specialized vocabulary results.
The question items which attended to the second

Given speaking skills were considered of primaryresearch question about the participants perceived English

importance for the participants’ careers, the focus onand content needs for their future careers showed some clear

debating was validated. As debate incorporates negotiating

trends towards speaking skills, business acumen, and native-

and rhetorical skills, its central role in the course design andlike English proficiency. Figure 2 displays how students

assessment remains secure. Tasks that require small groupintend on using English after graduating from university,

negotiation and consensus decision-making based on

clearly showing that work is a top priority. International

management related topics would extend the students’business was identified separately as a specific type of work

speaking skills on content that is required for their major

which was considered important and was also a prominentsubjects as well as their future careers. The desire for native-

answer when participants were asked about their intended

likecareer tracks.

communicative confidence is highly prized, showing that

When asked about which English skills areimportant for their careers, speaking was the most prominent

proficiency

implies thatspokenfluencyandactivities that engender real-world communicative contexts
will aid students in achieving their ideal English identities.

answer (see Figure 3). Presentations, communication withWhilst one course cannot attend to all the content

customers, and public speaking were identified as specificdeemed necessary, a fine-tuning of the current content

speaking skills that were considered imperative for their

towards the management major and cluster subjects will help

careers. In the others category, negotiation and pronunciation

the advanced English course come closer to its objective of

were also present, adding weight to the importance ofproviding a practical and relevant bridge from English

speaking skills. Moreover, when asked about their ideal self inlanguage instruction to the students’ major course content.

regards to English usage, native-like proficiency was the mostExpanding the speaking tasks and assessments appears to be

popular choice which indicates a desire for communicative

the most important reform in terms of skill-based change.

fluency as well. In addition to speaking, composition was also

Given written composition was also identified as important,reported as an important skill which may be related to their

its role in the course should stay consistent. The current

focus on English usage in work environments.

course requires a large amount of academic reading but thisskill was not reported as important as the other skills, and the

Discussion
The results clearly indicate a strong desire to use English in aninternational work environment. Whilst a wide variety ofimportant content was reported, APM College related
content, particularly international business, was the mostfrequent. Political and legal themes and vocabulary were also
reported as relevant. When reviewing the current content of
the advanced English course in comparison to such results, ashift from APS College-related content, or more social andquestion remains if reducing the focus on reading is anecessary reform. Another difficult matter is that ofvocabulary instruction. Attending to the diverse vocabulary
required of a wide array of subject areas is a daunting task but
explicit instruction in specialized political, economic,
managerial and legal terminology as well as targeted gradedand glossed readings may go some way in addressing thestudents’ vocabulary needs.

Limitations

cultural issues, to more APM College-related content appears
necessary. Topics that attend to current issues in

In reflecting on the limitations of the NA, the small sample

international management, marketing, and finance may

size must be taken into consideration. The stratified sample

better suit the content needs of the students. Readings andhelped mitigate this issue as well as the semi-structured nature

lectures that incorporate managerial, economic, political, andof the interviews which allowed participants to delve into
The 2017 PanSIG Journal124

extended responses. Having a range of ages allowed for
retrospection, and anticipation of content difficulties. Given
the participants only consisted of students, otherstakeholders’ voices, such as professors and teacher assistants,
was not included in the study. Interviewing a more diverse
pool of participants might garner more valid results asstudents may not be able to clearly identify what theirlearning needs actually are. Asking questions relating to what

Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge Paul Sevigny, SeniorLecturer at Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University, for his
invaluable advice and guidance in conducting the researchthat culminated in this paper. The author would also like toacknowledge the help of his research assistants, Tara Dietzen
and Pham Hoai Anh, in conducting the student interviews.

content would be appropriate for debate topics helped theparticipants identify specific topics for consideration rather
than just broad subject areas. More follow-up questions thatfurthered their responses in terms of specific content areas
would have been beneficial in identifying specific areas ofinterest and difficulty beyond more general subject content.

Conclusion

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Appendix: Needs Analysis Interview Items
Biodata:Name:
Nationality:
English Proficiency Level:
Gender:Language-basis:
Year and Semester at APU:
Major:

Interview Questions:
1. When did you first become interested in studying English? Why?
2. Can you imagine your ideal self with regard to English skills in the future? How close to native level do you want
to be? Is that regarding speaking? Taking academic content courses at APU? In graduate school?
3. Why did you choose APS/APM?
4. What preliminary content or subject matter in high school or in your first years at APU were most helpful in
preparing you for the content of your major and cluster area? What courses were most valuable?
5. What content areas do you expect to learn about in (your cluster)?
6. Which content areas are the most interesting for you? Why?
7. Which content areas are the most difficult for you?
8. Are there any issues or content areas that you have not learnt about but would like to study? (If they are APS andwant to learn APM topics or vice versa that is interesting to us)
9. Which specialized vocabulary do you feel is the most important to learn?
10. What are some key issues facing the Asia Pacific region at the moment?
11. Have you been to an English speaking country? Why? Do you see yourself going to an English speaking country
in the future? What do you see yourself doing? (Work/study abroad/graduate school?)
12. How do you see yourself using English after graduating from APU?
13. After you graduate, do you have a specific career track in mind already? How do you see English fitting into this?
14. What specific English skills do you think will be necessary for your career? Which of those skills do you need to
improve the most?

The 2017 PanSIG Journal126

15. Is there a first or second year course at APU that you would recommend to students interested in your cluster?
What course is that or what courses are those?
16. What have been some of the most commonly recurring topics you’ve encountered in your time at APU?
17. Can you think of some content areas that might help your studies in your cluster?
18. More specifically, can you think of some controversies that you have noticed in one of these areas?
19. Can you frame one or two of these topics in a statement for or against one side of the debate?
20. Thank you for your time today. Would it be okay to contact you if I have follow up questions? Could I get youremail address?

Author Biography
Malcolm Paul Larking is a Senior English Lecturer at the Center for Language Education, Ritsumeikan Asia
Pacific University, Beppu, Oita, Japan. His research interests include critical reading strategies, conversation
analysis and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). larkingm@apu.ac.jp

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

127

How Do Self-Directed Learners Keep Going? The Role of Interest in Sustained
Learning
David McLoughlin

Jo Mynard

Meiji University, Tokyo

Kanda University of International Studies, Chiba

dmclough@meiji.ac.jp

joanne-m@kanda.kuis.ac.jp

In a 4-year longitudinal study, the researchers track nine learners of English at a university in Japan in order
to investigate the extent to which they engaged in self-directed language learning outside of class. Drawing
on the self-regulation of motivation (SRM) model (Sansone, 2009; Sansone & Thoman, 2005), this paper
will present some of the data from the first three years of the study collected from annual interviews withlearners It will focus in particular on the role of interest and the learners’ developing awareness of how theylearn. This paper will present case studies of three learners and show how motivation and self-regulation
have developed from year 1 to year 3.
４年間の横断研究の一環として研究者達は、日本の大学で英語を学習する９人を対象に、彼らがクラス外で自主学習にどのように従事するかについて追う。この論文ではモ
チベーションにおける自己調整モデル(self-regulation of motivation)(Sansone, 2009;
Sansone & Thoman, 2005)を利用し、学習者との年に一度のインタビューから得られた
いくつかのデータを以下の二点、興味の担う役割、且つ、学習者がいかに学ぶのかという自覚の発達、に特に注目しながら述べる。この論文で取り扱うのは３人の学習者の事
例研究における研究１年目から３年目迄の学習者のモチベーション及び自己調整がいかに発達したかについてである。
This paper explores how language learners sustain andregulation of motivation and awareness of learning has

regulate their motivation to persist in out-of-class learning. It

developed or changed over the 3 years of the study.

is part of a 4-year longitudinal study that investigates the
motivations of nine university students pursuing self-directed

Self-Regulation of Motivation

English language learning. In this paper, the authors will

This study uses the self-regulation of motivation (SRM)

present some results from the first 3 years of the project. Inmodel (Sansone, 2009; Sansone & Thoman, 2005) tothe initial stages of the study, the importance of interest as a

examine learners’ motivation. This model presents

source of motivation became clear (McLoughlin & Mynard,

motivation as a dynamic process, in which the amount and2015). The self-regulation of motivation (SRM) model

direction of motivation are not seen as static but as features(Sansone, 2009; Sansone & Thoman, 2005) was used as the

an individual can regulate over time and across contexts

theoretical framework because its focus on goals-defined and(Sansone, Thoman, & Smith, 2010). In other words,

experience-defined motivation encapsulated the experiencesmotivation needs to be understood as a self-regulatoryof the participants. In the 2nd year of the study, the authors

process (Sansone et al., 2010). As previously reported

explored how learners’ motivation had developed by(McLoughlin & Mynard, 2015; Mynard & McLoughlin,

examining multiple case studies from among the original2016), according to the SRM model, individuals maintainparticipants (Mynard & McLoughlin, 2016). In the present

their motivation in two different, but interrelated, ways.

paper, the authors examine whether the participants’ self-

Goals-defined motivation (Sansone, 2009) is directed towards
the achievement of particular goals. According to Sansone

The 2017 PanSIG Journal128

(2009), such goals can be target goals, which reflect the what

learning activities. However, focusing on the importance of aof activity engagement (completion of task, high scores in agoal such as a good grade may increase anxiety and thereforetest) or purpose goals, which reflect the why (to achieve, tolower interest (Sansone, 2009; Sansone et al., 2010).

enjoy). Although many theories of motivation have tended toInstead of persisting with uninteresting tasks through the use

focus on goals (Hidi, Renninger, & Krapp, 2004), this type ofof strategies for enhancing goals-defined motivation, learners

motivation is not the only one. Equally important is

can change how they perform learning tasks, using strategies

experience-defined motivation (Sansone et al., 2010). As

to make performance of the task itself more interesting

Renninger and Hidi (2011) pointed out, “experience” here

(Sansone & Thoman, 2005). For instance, learners canrefers to the experience of interest—how engaging an activity

creatively alter some aspect of a task to make it moreis—and the concept draws on previous interest research (suchchallenging, or they can try to make studying more like a gameas Hidi, 1990). The ability to persist with learning may(Wolters, 2003). While strategies that make learning more

depend not only on regulating goals-defined motivation, butinteresting may have the negative effect of diverting learners

also on the regulation of experience-defined motivationfrom their goal and lowering performance, in the long run(Sansone, 2009; Sansone, Smith, Thoman, & MacNamara,

they may lead to greater persistence and ultimately improved2012).

performance (Sansone, Weir, Harpster, & Morgan, 1992;
The self-regulation of motivation (SRM) model

Sansone, Wiebe, & Morgan, 1999).

aims to integrate goals-defined and experience-defined

McLoughlin and Mynard (2015) found that somemotivation within the one self-regulatory process. The twolearners in a course of self-directed learning were regulatinginteract in complementary and opposing ways. If a student

their experience-defined motivation. For these learners,

has clear goals and is interested in the activities that help her

doing interesting activities was a better way to stay motivatedprogress towards those goals, the two types of motivation arethan focusing solely on their learning goals, so they usedcomplementary, both orienting the student’s actions in thestrategies to enhance their experience-defined motivation.

same direction (Sansone, 2009; Sansone et al., 2010).

Interest has been shown to enhance motivation andHowever, the student’s experiences of learning may be

performance: Interested learners study more, read moreuninteresting, thus orienting her in the direction of quitting

deeply, persist longer, remember more, and get higher grades

instead of persisting unless her goal-directed motivation is(Silvia, 2008). Though short-term goals may be enough tostronger than her experience-defined motivation (Sansone,

initiate learning behaviour; over long periods of time2009; Sansone & Thoman, 2005). For example, if the student“interest may be necessary for goal-directed action tostrongly values her goals and has high expectations that she

continue” (Hidi & Ainley, 2009, p. 83).

will reach them, she will be more likely to stay motivated andpersist (Sansone et al., 2010).

Regulation of experience-defined motivation
would involve exposure to engaging stimuli over the short

In the SRM model, as part of the self-regulation

term and the ability to sustain interest over the long term.

process, learners can use strategies that help them regulate

These are essentially two distinct types of interest: situational

both their goals-defined motivation and experience-definedinterest and individual interest (Hidi, 1990; Hidi &motivation (Sansone, 2009; Sansone et al., 2010). For

Renninger, 2006). Situational interest refers to a

example, they might engage in goal-oriented self-talk to keep

psychological state triggered by a specific stimulus at athemselves on track (Wolters, 2003). In such a way, goals-

particular moment in time (Ainley, Hidi, & Berndorff, 2002).

defined motivation can be maintained and even strengthened,Individual interest refers to one’s relatively enduringdespite a lack of interest. These types of strategic actions canpredisposition to reengage with particular content(s) (Hidi etalso have an effect on experience-defined motivation.

al., 2004) and is “associated with a psychological state of

Learners may come to value their goals more andpositive affect and persistence” (Ainley et al., 2002, p. 545).

consequently become more involved and interested in
The 2017 PanSIG Journal129

As Hidi and Renninger (2006) pointed out, teachers often

learning English? This research question is being investigatedthink of interest as fixed: Students either have it or not.

through annual semistructured interviews held near the end

However, the distinction between situational andof each academic year for 4 years.

individual interests suggests not only that interest can betriggered where it previously did not exist but also that

Participants“momentary experiences of interest” (Sansone & Thoman,

There are nine participants in the study, three males and six

2005, p. 177) can develop into an enduring individual

females; however, some students are at times unavailable tointerest.

be interviewed. All nine students completed two SALC
Hidi & Ainley (2009) presented a model ofmodules in their 1st year and volunteered to be interviewed

interest development with four phases that individuals goeach year. Eight participants were Japanese, and one wasthrough, from situational interest to individual interest.

Chinese.

Phases 1 and 2 are situational interest: triggered situational

Methods

interest and maintained situational interest. In both these

Annual semistructured interviews are conducted in English

phases, interest has to externally supported and can beby one of the researchers (the same researcher for all of thedeveloped through working with others (Hidi & Ainley,interviews in the study) and last around 30 minutes. Three2009). Phases 3 and 4 are emergent individual interest andquestions (below) are emailed to each participant in advancewell-developed individual interest. Interest becomes more self-of the interview and these questions form the starting point

generated, and there is evidence of greater self-regulation andfor the interviews. However, the semistructured nature of theself-reflection (Hidi & Ainley, 2009).

interviews allows for other ideas to emerge.

Context
Participants of the study are all full-time undergraduate
students at a small private university near Tokyo. The
university specialises in the study of languages andinternational cultures. The self-access learning center(SALC) offers courses and self-directed learning modules
designed to introduce learners to key concepts connectedwith planning, monitoring, and evaluating language learning,and supporting learners’ developing autonomy. With help
from a learning advisor, students can create and implement a
self-designed language program over several weeks according
to their needs. There is also a professional one-to-one
advising service which supports learner autonomy throughdialogue.

Do you do any independent English study these days
(apart from homework)? Why/Why not?

How do you study English?

How is your motivation for studying English
independently? Why?

Each participant’s interview is then transcribed and analysedby the two researchers in order to establish whether the
motivation and self-regulatory behaviors could be describedas goals-defined motivation and/or experience-defined
motivation according to the SRM model (Sansone, 2009;
Sansone & Thoman, 2005).

Results
The SRM model facilitated the analysis of the data and theresearchers were able to agree on whether participants mainly
sustained their self study through experience-defined

The Study
The overall research project will continue for at least 4 years
and a brief overview of the project is provided in Table 1. inorder to situate the research in the present paper (phase 2 inyears 1-3). The broad research question for phase 2 is: How
did the learners generate and maintain motivation for

motivation, goals-defined motivation, or a combination of
both. A summary of the analysis of the interviews over the 3
years is presented in Figure 1, and a discussion of the resultsof the first 2 years can be found in previous papers(McLoughlin & Mynard, 2015; Mynard & McLoughlin,2016). Each of the participants has a unique narrative of their

The 2017 PanSIG Journal130

self-regulation of motivation for self study, so the researchers

studies are presented in this paper. The reason that three cases,

are not attempting to suggest overall patterns at this stage.

rather than just a single more detailed case, have been chosen

The research approach used to understand theindividual

participants’motivational

orientation

is to illustrate the diversity of motivations among learners

isfrom the same context. The cases chosen provide rich data

exploration in the form of multiple case studies. Three casefrom a full set of interviews spanning the 3 years of the study.

Table 1.
Overview of the Overall Research Project
Phase 1

Phase 2

April 2014 to March*November 2014 to*November 2015 to*November 2016

November 2017 to2015

January 2015

January 2016

to January 2017

January 2018

(year 1)(year 2)

(year 3)

(year 4)

Analysis of 89

Interviews with nine

Interviews with fiveInterviews with

Interviews with as

weekly reflective

participant volunteers whoof the original nine

five of the original

many of the original

journals of students

took a second SALC

participants.

participants.

nine participants as

taking SALC

modulepossible.

modules* The focus of this paper.

*All names are pseudonyms** Blank spaces indicate missing data
The 2017 PanSIG Journal131

Figure 1. Summary of three years of motivation orientations.

Case Studies
The three case studies discussed in the remainder of the paper
allow the researchers to understand the motivational
orientation and self-regulation of the three participants overthe 3 years. The researchers draw on a narrative inquiry
approach (Barkhuizen, Benson, & Chik, 2014), whichallowed for a rich understanding of each learner’s case in theirown words. However, in order to highlight the diversity ofmotivations in three participants, these narratives arenecessarily brief in this paper. Once the project is complete,detailed single case studies may be published as separate
papers.

Case Study 1: Jun, M

his self-regulation by limiting the amount of time spent
focussing on IELTS study.
Year 3. In his 3rd year, Jun talks about his upcoming year of
studying abroad: “. . . some things change because, um, maybe
this year is different because, you know . . . I’m going to New
Zealand, I think that’s a way to push me out, outside of the
comfort zone.”
The main reason that Jun decided to study abroad
was be in a new environment in order to push himself toprogress in English: “I want to be strict to myself because, um,
I need to learn fast . . . . Japanese students around me . . . it’s
just I don’t feel I can learn a lot from whatever they are talking,like, um, . . . like, we’ll use similar simple language, words,
every, all time, and it’s just not a challenge for me any more . . .

Year 1. Jun had not thought about motivation before being

so, yeah, I think going abroad is quite a big opportunity to me.”interviewed for the first time in year 1, but he already had a

Jun appears to be developing his individual interest

strong and established sense of what Hidi and Ainley (2009)in learning English by finding ways to enhance the learningtermed individual interest as this extract indicates: “English isexperience. His decision to go “outside of the comfort zone”

really my passion and I want to learn and that’s why I can keep

and challenge himself is a choice to develop his knowledge ofmyself motivated.”

English and is indicative of an evolving individual interest

He had a long-standing interest in English songs,(Hidi & Renninger, 2006). At the same time, Jun needs tomovies, and dramas and English has always been an integral

achieve certain test scores for future job hunting, so goals-

part of his life. In the first interview, Jun does not mention

defined (target and purpose) motivation emerged in year 3:

goals at all.

“I’m thinking if you want to stay in Japan you need to getthese certifications . . . that’s why I’ll take TOEIC though I

Year 2. Jun maintained his individual interest for learning

don’t want to, to take TOEIC test . . . and maybe one more

English through many daily activities that used as much

IELTS. So I do have a goal . . . . I want to have job, a good

English as possible: “There are a lot of things you can do, fordecent job here.”example, I like games. I play mobile games now and I always
set the language for the game - always English. I’m trying to
do what I like to do in English like live streaming while I’m

Case Study 2: Kiiko, F

cooking.”

Year 1. Initially, Kiiko had a strong experience-defined
Again, Jun did not mention goals in the second

motivation for learning English and focussed on enjoyableinterview until the interviewer asked specifically whether heexperiences. Although she was generally aiming to improve

had any goals. At this point, he mentioned that he needed toher listening skills, the resource or content matter was moretake the IELTS exam, so his strategy was to work on thatimportant for regulating motivation than specific language

intensively for a month through necessity only; IELTS study

goals as these excerpts show: *I choose enjoyable resources

was perceived to be a stressful inconvenience. Sansone andand new topics . . . difficult resources make motivation go

Thoman (2005) suggested that this kind of external goal candown . . . . When I have previous knowledge of a topic, that

decrease interest. However, Jun recognizes this and manages

make motivation goes up. ”
The 2017 PanSIG Journal132

*I change resources so that I don’t get bored.

strongly goals-defined (target). Although ultimately, his

Kiiko shows signs of maintained situational interest (Hidi &Eiken score would be useful for future jobs, part of his

Ainley, 2009), in that she is actively seeking resources that are

motivation was sustained by imagining the deep sense of

likely to trigger interest.

intense satisfaction he would feel when he achieved his ideal
score. Even in year 1, Yuta’s approach was to studying English

Year 2. In year 2, Kiiko was studying abroad and due to her

was “like a job,” that is, not something enjoyable, but a series

new environment, her motivation for learning shifted toof tasks you were obliged to complete every day. He

becoming goals-defined with the purpose of being able toestablished a daily routine in order to keep going and achieve

meet people. She found that she had a lot of free time and she

his goal in year 1. “I study 2 hours everyday. Study has becomeused this time to talk to people from different countries in

my custom.”English: “You know I studied abroad for one year and I talked
with a lot of native speakers or people from different

Year 2. There seemed to be a shift in motivation from year 1

countries to I had to speak English of course and also I wanted

to year 2 as this extract from the second interview indicates:

to talk with people from different countries like Vietnam and“English is just a tool. In the first year I just focussed on

Thailand and of course American and I wanted to talk withstudying and exams, but now I focus on people, connections

people from different countries so I had to study English

and what I want to do in the future (3D design modelling for

more. My motivation was really high.”movie making).”
Whereas in year 1, Yuta’s self study was an individual

Year 3. Kiiko was now back in Japan and the focus again

project, something that he alone needed to work on, in year 2,

shifted, this time to job hunting. Job hunting is anotherhe emphasised the important role of others in this purpose

purpose that provides a source of goals-defined motivation;and process. This includes connecting with people in his

but it is quite different from what sustained her motivation

chosen field and asking for introductions and having an

in year 2 because it is accompanied by a strong focus on

influential mentor. Such behaviours “can contribute to thespecific targets: “I have my goal. Maybe I feel I really focus on

maintenance of situational interest” (Hidi & Renninger,job hunting and some of the company decide the score like

2006, p. 114). His self study has shifted from focussing on an

TOEIC score or TOEFL score and so I have to get the exact

exam to teaching himself skills he will need in the future

score to get the job so it is like my motivation.”

related to design and computer skills. Yuta still recognises

As her motivation was strongly experience-definedthat English proficiency tests are important, but he has

in her 1st year, this was discussed in the interview in year 3. Is

developed a deeper awareness of purpose—that he will needseems that Kiiko still considers English to be part of her life,

to use English if he achieves his dream to work for a large

but the focus on getting a job is her priority, which seems tointernational company in the future.

be inhibiting the interest she used to experience in studying.
“Learning English is part of my life. It’s going to be forever, so

Year 3. In the third interview, Yuta’s interest in the field of

I’m not pretty sure, but I think I’m going to continue to study

design has further matured, yet he seemed to have lost the

English of course in fourth grade (senior year), but I don’t

motivation he once had for learning English or taking exams.

know how to study English. I don’t decide how to improve

He reflects on how he used to approach language study in his

English.”1st year as “learning useless and difficult vocabulary for Eiken”

Case Study 3: Yuta, M
Year 1. Yuta’s initial focus was to get a good score on the
Eiken test (a Japanese test for English often required by
employers) for job-hunting purposes. His motivation wasand described it as “narrow study.” However, he now watches
substantial amounts of online videos in English as a way tolearn about design skills.
“I don’t study English recently like I was in highschool. Like write words, words, words, meaning, meaning,
The 2017 PanSIG Journal133

meaning, I don’t do that . . . . I always watch English video, I

students’ lives and a developing awareness of what drives

think it’s study . . . maybe? . . . The purpose in learning how

them. Teachers have a role to play in this development of

to make how to do [3D] modelling, the main purpose is notawareness.

English, the secondary purpose is English.”Summary and Conclusions

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Author Biographies
David McLoughlin is an Associate Professor in the School of Global Japanese Studies at Meiji University
in Tokyo, Japan. His areas of interest are attribution theory, affect, and interest in language learning andlearner development.
Jo Mynard is a Professor in the English department and the Director of the Self-Access Learning Center at
Kanda University of International Studies in Chiba, Japan. Her areas of interest are learner autonomy,
advising, self-access, and motivation in language learning.

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135

Supervising “Sotsurons” (Japanese Graduation Theses)
Mary Goebel Noguchi
Kansai University, Faculty of Letters

Fred E. Anderson
Kansai University, Faculty of Letters
As a result of the Global 30 program, the follow-up Top Global University Project and other initiatives tooffer content courses in English at Japanese universities, an increasing number of non-Japanese aresupervising graduation theses (sotsurons) at Japanese universities. Given the differences in the academic
traditions of Japan and the West, instructors may feel at a loss: What are the requirements for an acceptablesotsuron? How can instructors help students find an appropriate topic and reading materials? How canresearch methodology be taught? Based on years of experience as “sotsuron advisors,” the authors will try toanswer these questions and share ideas that they have used in their seminars.
グローバル 30 やスパーグロバル大学創成支援のような国際化のためのネットワーク形成推進事業など、日本の大学における英語で行う授業のために提供する様々な企画結果によると、卒業論文を指導する西洋人の専任教員数が増えつつある。日本と西洋の学問の伝統が大きく異なっている故、卒論指導を課された西洋人教員はそれをどうすると良いか、迷
うこともあるだろう。つまり、基準を満たす卒論とはどうあるべきか、学生が適切なテーマと資料を探すに当たって、教員はどのように指導できるか、研究方法をどのように導く
か、などが不明瞭であろう。本論文では、⾧年にわたり卒業論文指導の経験のある著者二人が、これらの質問に答え、著者たちのゼミで使ったアプローチを共有する。
Non-Japanese citizens have been teaching at Japanese colleges

2009, this program was tied to the government plan to attractand universities for over 100 years, dating back at least to the

300,000 international students to Japanese universities andtime of Lafcadio Hearn, a Greek-born British citizen who

was designed to “welcome” large numbers of “international

later became a Japanese and taught in Japan during the last

students and professors” (Higher Education Bureau, 2012).

two decades of the 1800s (Tramore Development Trust,Among the Ministry’s goals for 2020, the year the Olympics

2017). However, the percentage of non-Japanese holding

will be held in Japan, are the “Internationalization oftenured posts at Japanese universities has remained small;universities and nurturing global human resources” byAppleby (2014, p. 778) pointed out that they represented

increasing the number of “degree programs taught in English

only 3.8% of the full-time teaching staff in Japanese colleges

only” (MEXT, 2014). Under the “Top Global University

and universities in 2012.

Project,” which commenced in 2014 after the conclusion of

Nonetheless, Japan undertook a number of

the Global 30 program, extra funds have been allotted to hire

initiatives to “internationalize” Japanese society starting in

non-Japanese faculty and Japanese who have graduated fromthe 1980s and 90s, including the increased hiring of native

foreign universities (MEXT, 2017). As a result, more

speakers of English at all levels of education. More recently,

westerners are being hired to fill tenured positions at Japanese

the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science anduniversities, and often as part of their positions, to supervise

Technology (MEXT) established the Global 30 program tograduation theses.

make Japanese universities more competitive. Launched in

The 2017 PanSIG Journal136

Yet the academic traditions of the East differ aor 6 credits for writing a thesis. Also, it appears that many

great deal from those of the West. Based on a large volume ofschools are getting stricter about requiring students to give

empirical evidence, Nisbett (2003) argued that in general,oral presentations about their research and/or undergopatterns of perception, cognitive orientation, and even thequestioning by one or more professors.

use of logic differ greatly between East Asia and the West,

However, it seems that supervisors are given a greatboth in daily life and in the field of education. Whereas in thedeal of leeway in setting their own standards for theirWest, the emphasis in education tends to be on criticalstudents, so even in the same school, each seminar may havethinking, and plagiarism is strongly condemned, problems

different rules. Thus, potential sotsuron supervisors need towith copying in Japan, China, and other countries have beenfind out their school and department requirements and thenwidely reported (e.g., LoCastro & Masuko, 2002; Pennycook,

decide what goals and standards they themselves want to

1996; Scollon, 1994). In addition, expectations of the role ofestablish for their students.

college itself as well as appropriate attitudes of students inIn the Faculty of Letters at Kansai University,

class tend to be quite different between Japan and the West

where both of the authors teach, students are required to(see, e.g., Kelly, 1993; Anderson, forthcoming).

submit a thesis of approximately 20,000 characters inThus, non-Japanese suddenly put in charge ofJapanese or 7,000 words in English and undergo a 10- to 15-

supervising graduation theses—sotsurons in Japanese—mayminute oral interview with their supervisor and one otherbe quite at a loss: What are the requirements for an acceptableprofessor from their department. In addition to these generalsotsuron? How can instructors help students find an

guidelines, the authors have developed some special

appropriate topic and reading materials? How can researchguidelines for their seminars. To encourage reading in themethodology be taught? Based on years of experience as

field, the students are asked to write a long literature review,“sotsuron advisors,” the authors will try to answer these

preferably based on five or more sources and preferably notquestions and share ideas that they have used in theirfrom the Internet. In addition, they are expected to conduct

seminars.

a study based on independent field work or analysis of texts.

What is a Sotsuron?

Both authors also insist on thorough citation of sources, teachThe short answer to this question is “it depends”. In general,

APA style, and refuse to accept papers that contain plagiarism.

a soturon is the final product of a student’s senior year zemi.
“homeroom” or base in the student’s major course of study.

How Can Instructors Help Students Find an
Appropriate Topic and Research Question?

Usually students are required to take one such seminar each

Helping students find appropriate sotsuron topics isschool term, and in these courses, they typically learn research

surprisingly difficult. The topic needs to be sufficiently

and presentation skills and may also gain some knowledge oflimited in scope to lend itself to a relatively short thesis, andthe instructor’s specialty.

it must also be one that is “researchable.” Johnstone (2000, p.

“Zemi” refers to a series of courses that serve as a kind of

An informal survey of acquaintances supervising34) provided suggestions as to “what makes a workableseminars at various types of colleges and universities—both

research topic” that can be applied to Japanese sotsuron

public and private—around Japan showed that there is a great

research. The following is a somewhat abbreviated version ofdeal of variation in terms of whether a sotsuron is required at

Johnstone’s criteria:all, and if so, what the requirements are. It would appear that

sotsurons are a tradition and are required at many but not all
university departments in Japan. In many English

a set of related questions

departments, they must be written in English, but a large
number of English departments allow graduation theses to be
written in Japanese. At most schools, students get an extra 4

A well-focused idea that can be phrased as a question or
A clear idea of what the research methodology will be foranswering the questions

An understanding of why the questions are important ina wider context
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

137



A familiarity with the research site

have observed something in life that makes him or her ask

Sufficient time to realistically carry out the research,questions about a specific issue.

analyze the results, and write the report

However, it is important for students to understand that,Ways of collecting and analyzing data with which one iswhile experience is valuable, it is not on its own enough to

comfortable and at which one is competentwrite a thesis about. They will still need to read what others

The last two criteria are particularly worthy of note inhave written about the topic and include this information assupervising undergraduate thesis research, as students are apt

a “literature review” at the beginning of the paper.

to be unaware of the constraints posed by time and relative

Another point that many students have trouble

competence. Often, students begin with an idea that could

understanding is that a “research question” is not the same as

easily be the subject of multiple book volumes: for example,

an item on a questionnaire or a question in an interview;“American slang” or “cultural differences between Japan andrather, it is something that gives direction to the thesis as aAmerica.” Just as often, students approach the sotsuron as awhole and directs the researcher to ask further questions. In

way to find a definitive answer to an existential question such

simple terms, a research question should ask, “What am I

as, “Why are Japanese poor language learners?” or “What istrying to find out through this research?”the ‘best’ way to learn (or teach) English?” While questions of

Let us, then, consider an example of how research

this nature may be interesting for classroom debate orquestions might assist one in narrowing an otherwise overly

discussion, they are hardly topics that can be investigatedbroad topic. Suppose that one is interested in “English

empirically within the time and length constraints of a

education in Japan.” After discussions with the instructor,

sotsuron project.

reading some materials, and considering his or her specificOur approach, therefore, centers on trying to leadinterests, a student might narrow the topic to something likestudents to reframe their broader interests into narrower,

the following: “beliefs of Japanese elementary school teachers

doable topics. For example, a broad interest in cross-cultural

about English language teaching.” This is still somewhat

differences might be realized as a pragmatic study comparing,broad, but it can be narrowed down further by formulating

say, compliments or refusals in Japanese and English. Data

research questions such as the following:

could be gathered and analyzed through questionnaires

1. Do Japanese elementary school teachers agree with theadministered to university students, or through film clips

teaching of English to 5th and 6th grade children; why or

selected for their comparative value that show contrasts

why not?

between the Japanese and English usages of the speech act
involved.

2. Do Japanese elementary school teachers believe that
English education should begin earlier than the 5th grade?

As an important part of the process of narrowing
the topic, we encourage students to formulate one to three

3. What do Japanese elementary school teachers believe isthe best way for children learn English?

specific “research questions,” which can then be studied using

4. What is the range and diversity of beliefs of Japanesea particular research method. Research questions are

elementary school teachers in relation to the teaching ofgenerated from a variety of sources. A question may be based

English in elementary school?

on something that the student encountered during reading

Each of the questions suggested above presents a problem

about a more general topic that seemed interesting and worththat could be investigated using specific methods. One could

further study, or, similarly, something that the student has

get answers to questions 1-3 by giving a questionnaire tolearned in a class but would like to pursue on a deeper level. It

groups of elementary school teachers or by interviewing some

may also be based on something that the student hasof them individually (or, better yet, by using a combination ofexperienced, for example, through studying foreign languages

questionnaire and interviews), after locating teachers who are

or living in a foreign culture. More generally, the student may

willing to participate. Question 4 would be difficult to answer
through a single questionnaire but could be answered after
The 2017 PanSIG Journal138

looking at the results of questions 1-3 and finding generalmeaning of plagiarism. Related skills, including paraphrasing

patterns.

and citation methodology, also need to be taught andpracticed repeatedly.

How Can Instructors Help Students Find
Appropriate Reading Material?

a number of articles about this topic that include definitions

As mentioned above, in writing their theses, students in ourof plagiarism, examples of what it entails, ideas about how toseminars are required to read published works on their topic

avoid it, and accompanying worksheets (e.g., Iijima &and summarize them in a “literature review,” which generally

Okamoto, 2004; MacGregor, 2002). Many Americancomprises about half of their thesis. One problem that often

universities also have good pages on their websites in whichcomes up is the fact that many Japanese works in the field ofplagiarism is explained and concrete examples of what is andcomparative culture are not founded on research, but instead,what is not plagiarism are presented (e.g., The Writing

are based on personal impressions and anecdotes. Although

Center, University of Wisconsin, 2017).

Over the years, JALT publications have contained

the Kansai University Library is reputed to be one of the best

In the authors’ department, students enroll in thelibraries in western Japan, many of the books written in

seminar in which they will write their sotsuron in the fall ofJapanese about American or Western culture andtheir junior year. They can therefore be taught about

intercultural communication in the library contain sweeping

plagiarism from this time on or in earlier writing courses, withovergeneralizations such as “Americans never apologize” orreview sessions fortifying their knowledge in their senior year.

“There is no way to be polite in English.”

One helpful activity involves asking students to summarize a

To avoid having students spend a great deal of time

few pages of a book they have brought to class, then exchangereading unscholarly material, supervisors can give them apapers with another student, who is asked to read the same

recommended list of research-based references from which tofew pages and then check their partner’s summary forstart their literature review. Works such as Nisbett (2003),

plagiarism.

Yamada (1997), and Barnlund (1989) have been translated

Supervisors should be aware that the risk of

into Japanese and offer many insights into cultural

plagiarism rises as the deadline for submitting the thesis

differences that are backed by rigorous research.

approaches. It is therefore wise to have students submit

Other tactics that can help include warning

summaries of the works they read as early as possible and also

students to avoid anecdote-based works and teaching themto require that they submit their entire literature review early

how to use the bibliography at the back of solid reference

as well—if possible, as summer homework in their senior year.

works to learn about other reliable books and articles in theThis allows teachers enough time to go over the literaturefield. In addition, taking time in class to discuss how to findreview carefully and identify any problematic sections so that

reliable sources on the Internet can help steer students away

they can have students revise them before submitting thefrom personal blogs and other unreliable sources ofthesis itself.

information.

How Can Instructors Prevent Plagiarism?

How Can Instructors Teach Research
Methodology?

Another problem thesis supervisors often encounter is

Research methods have been alluded to earlier in relation toplagiarism, which has been found to be a widespreadchoosing topics and formulating research questions. In thephenomenon in universities in Japan and other East Asian

present section, we would like to suggest some ways forcontexts (LoCastro & Masuko, 2002; Pennycook, 1996;

instructors to help students develop actual research skills. As

Scollon, 1994). To help students avoid it, non-Japaneseis well known, the Japanese secondary school system is largely

supervising graduation theses are advised to spend a good deal

geared toward passing tests, especially university entranceof time on multiple occasions teaching their students theexams, rather than promoting critical thinking. Thus, it is not
The 2017 PanSIG Journal139

surprising that when they enter university, students tend towithin an undergraduate humanities curriculum). Open-lack the academic writing skills necessary to produce anended questions yield a wider variety of responses and hence

extended paper, even in their native language. Similarly, as

often contain more interesting data, which can be analyzed

already suggested, they have little idea of how to delimit andboth qualitatively and quantitatively. Yet open-ended

conduct research on a scale necessary for a sotsuron project.

questions are generally more difficult to analyze effectively, as

Three general research methods that we have found useful for

their analysis entails the discovery of patterns in the data that

our sotsuron students are questionnaires, interviews, andmay not be obvious at the outset.

various types of linguistic (or sociolinguistic) analysis. As a

Another type of research activity that one of thepart of our 3rd- and 4th-year zemi classes, we engage students

authors has recently introduced into his 3rd-year seminarin a variety of group projects to practice some of theseclass, and has found to be useful to develop students’ skills inmethods. The purpose of these projects in the 3rd year is notanalyzing naturally occurring data, is a “linguistic landscape”

to actually produce a sotsuron (the students will do thisproject. Linguistic landscape is a relatively new but

individually by the end of their 4th year), but for them toburgeoning area of study in sociolinguistics that explores thepractice in supportive group-work situations applicableuse of written language in urban environments, such as themethods that can later be transferred to their individual

language on shop signs, directional signs, and restaurant

projects. In the discussion that follows, we will describe somemenus (see Backhaus, 2007; Blommaert, 2013; or the journal

activities that one or both of the authors have used to help

Linguistic Landscape published by John Benjamins).

students develop their research acumen at a basic level.

In the author’s class project, student groups are

In one project, groups create and administerassigned to study different neighborhoods in the Osaka area.

questionnaire surveys to address a research question of their

The first stage of the project is to visit and describe thechoosing. Since the purpose of the activity is simply to get aneighborhood in a general sense, in terms its physicalfeel for questionnaire research, the topics do not have to be as

characteristics and the kinds of people who live or visit there.

closely related to English linguistics as we require for their

In the second stage, students look specifically at the landscapesotsurons. In recent classes, the students have addressedof written script, taking notes as well as photos. Written

questions such as how international exchange students learn

script here means not only the use of foreign languages (e.g.,

Japanese kanji characters, how Japanese students view

English as opposed to Japanese) but also the use of the

English education, and what Japanese attitudes towarddifferent Japanese scripts—kanji, katakana, hiragana, andinternational marriage are.

romaji. The goal, however, is not simply to describe what they

In priming students for this activity, it is useful tosee, but to discover patterns and to try and explain them.

differentiate between “closed-ended” and “open-ended”

This combination of description plus explanationquestions. Closed-ended means that respondents choose

is in fact a foundation of any good qualitative research projectfrom among a number of fixed responses; this includes

based on observation, though it is easy for novices to overlook

Likert-scale items, where respondents indicate numericallythe “explanation” aspect if not coached adequately. In thethe degree to which they agree or disagree with specificlinguistic landscape project, a key question would be, “Why isstatements. In contrast, open-ended questions allow

one type of script used rather than another?” For example,

respondents to express their opinions more freely and at

English or French may be selected to convey a message rather

greater length. We encourage the groups to include boththan Japanese, or katakana used rather than kanji. An

types of questions in their questionnaires. Closed-ended

additional question might be, “Why is the same script

questions are usually a more comfortable entry point into

sometimes used for different purposes in different contexts?”

doing research, as they yield responses that can be counted

A related issue is that English writing in Japan has at least two

and quantified easily without complicated statistical analysis

quite different functions: to provide important information(which is beyond the scope of what would normally be taught

to non-Japanese, and as an “emblem” aimed at a Japanese
The 2017 PanSIG Journal140

audience, such as to signal westernness, non-Japaneseness, ormovie is the “devilish” behavior of the boss, her language

just “coolness.” In a third and final stage of the research, thecannot be considered typical of American female bosses, sogroups relate their linguistic observations and analyses fromthis choice of material should be discouraged. Moreover,the second stage back to the general description of thestudents also need to ensure that their Japanese and English

neighborhood with which they began. Here, it is hoped thatmaterials are similar in terms of setting, character

they will reach a deeper level of analysis by explaining how the

relationships, and the time period in which the material wasuse of written language seems to reflect the broader social

made. As with questionnaires, it can be helpful for students

characteristics of the neighborhood.

using this kind of methodology to present their ideas in the

The activities described above are for students whoare being primed to write a thesis but are not yet at the stage

seminar and get feedback about the appropriateness of theirmaterial.

where they are preparing for their individual projects. Oncethey begin working on their individual research, seminar time

Conclusion

can be used effectively for the piloting of questionnaires and

The above is a summary of some of the many challenges thatpeer review of texts and movies under consideration forwesterners supervising sotsurons may encounter and some ofanalysis. Students who plan to conduct a survey using a

the techniques the authors have developed for dealing withquestionnaire are asked to bring copies of a draft to class.

them. It is hoped that this will make the challenge of

Their classmates and the supervisor then fill in the draft

supervising sotsurons a little easier for those non-Japanese

questionnaire and offer feedback and possible alternatives for

who are new to the task.

questions that were difficult to answer or for which thewording was unclear.
Student progress reports documenting their

References
Anderson, F. E. (forthcoming). Nails that still don’t stick

successes and challenges in their individual studies are

up: Revisiting the enigma of the Japanese college

another tool that can be used to encourage the seminarclassroom. In P. Wadden & C. C. Hale (Eds.), Teachingparticipants to provide assistance to each other. For example,

English at Japanese Universities, A new handbook.

students frequently have trouble locating English-speaking

Singapore: Routledge.

respondents for surveys involving cross-cultural researchAppleby, R. (2014). White western male teachers

questions. However, one year, a student discovered aconstructing academic identities in Japanese higher

conversation exchange app called “Hello Talk” that enablededucation. Gender and Education, 26(7) 776-793.

him to make friends with a large number of native English

Backhaus, P. (2007). Linguistic landscapes: A

speakers and get them to fill in his questionnaire. He told thecomparative study of urban multilingualism in Tokyo.

other students in the seminar about this app, and as a result,

Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

all of the students using cross-cultural questionnaires wereBarnlund, D. (1989). Public and private self in Japan andable to obtain sufficient data from non-Japanese respondents.

the United States: Communicative styles of two cultures

Another possible source of materials for cross-(reprint). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. (Translated

cultural analysis is written texts or movies from the cultures

into Japanese by S. Nishiyama & M. Sano, under the title

to be compared. If these are used, students should be advisedof Nihonjin no Kyougen kouzo: Kouteki jiko to shiteki

to avoid choosing fantasies as well as materials with extreme

jiko, amerikajin to no hikaku).

situations and characters. For example, a student studying

Blommaert, J. (2013). Ethnography, superdiversity andJapanese and American pragmatics may want to compare

linguistic landscapes: Chronicles of complexity. Clevedon,orders given by female bosses and decide to use The Devil

England: Multilingual Matters.

Wears Prada as one source of material, since it centers on aHigher Education Bureau, Ministry of Education, Culture,

powerful woman boss. However, since the theme of thisThe 2017 PanSIG Journal

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Sports, Science and Technology. (2012). Chapter 5;

Nisbett, R. (2003). The geography of thought: How

Internationalization of universities. Higher Education in

Asians and westerners think differently … and why. New

Japan. Retrieved July 24, 2017, from

York, NY: Free Press. (Translated into Japanese by Y.

http://www.mext.go.jp/en/policy/education/highered/ti

Muramoto under the title of Ki wo miru seiyoujin, moritle03/detail03/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2012/06/19/130265

wo miru toyoujin).

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Iijima, Y., & Okamoto, K. (2004). Act to avoid trouble. The
Language Teacher, 28(9), 26-28.
Johnstone, B. (2000). Qualitative methods insociolinguistics. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Kelly, C. (1993). The hidden role of the university.
In P. Wadden (Ed.), A handbook for teaching English at

Pennycook, A. (1996). Borrowing others’ words:
Text, ownership, memory, and plagiarism. TESOL
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Scollon, R. (1994). As a matter of fact: The changing
ideology of authorship and responsibility in discourse.
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University of Wisconsin, Madison, home page. Retrieved

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LoCastro, V., & Masuko, M. (2002). Plagiarism andacademic writing of learners of English. Hermes, Journalof Linguistics, 28, 11-38.
MacGregor, L. (2002). A student guide to plagiarism. The
Language Teacher, 26(1), 11-15.
MEXT. (2014). Special feature 1: 2020: Toward a newhttps://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/QPA_plagiarism.ht
mlTramore Development Trust. (2017). Lafcadio Hearn
Japanese gardens. Retrieved fromhttp://lafcadiohearngardens.com/story-lafcadio-hearn/
Yamada, H. (1997). Different games, different rules: Why

growth. Retrieved July 24, 2017, from

Americans and Japanese misunderstand each other.

http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab20

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into Japanese by M. Sudo under the title of Shaberu

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amerikajin, kiku nihonjin).

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142

Author Biographies
Mary Goebel Noguchi has lived in Japan for over 40 years and has supervised the writing of
graduation theses for 10. Her research interests include bilingualism, gender, and comparative
Japanese and American culture.
Kansai University, Faculty of Letters, 3-3-35 Yamate-cho, Suita-shi, Osaka-fu 564-8680;
Phone/Fax (Home) 0774-68-5260, email: mnoguchi@kansai-u.ac.jp
Fred E. Anderson has taught in Japan for over 30 years and has supervised graduation theses forover 10, at two Japanese universities. His research interests include educational sociolinguistics,
world Englishes, and intercultural communication.
Kansai University, Faculty of Letters, 3-3-35 Yamate-cho, Suita-shi, Osaka-fu 564-8680;
Phone/Fax (Home) 0774-68-5260, email: fred@kansai-u.ac.jp

The 2017 PanSIG Journal143

Survey on Americans’ Understanding of Made-in-Japan English Words
Josh Norman
Shokei University
jnorman1998@yahoo.com
Although knowledge of English-based loanwords in Japanese facilitates various aspects of learning English,
errors of various sorts originate from false cognates and can be disruptive to communication. In a previous
survey (Norman, 2012) conducted on 285 Japanese university students, found that in general the students
were not very aware that many of the vast number of katakana words and phrases in the Japanese vernacular
are actually of Japanese and not English origin. This study examines the results of a two-part survey
conducted on 198 Americans gauging their understanding of common made-in-Japan English words(waseieigo) in the Japanese vernacular, both with and without sentence context clues. Results indicate large
positive statistical differences in understanding when given context clues, thus stressing the importance ofJapanese students using full sentences (versus singular word utterances) when trying to communicate
common waseieigo terms with native speakers of English.
日本語の中の英語由来の借用語を熟知していれば、英語のアウトプットだけでなく、いろ
いろな面で英語の学習が容易になる。一方で、英語の様々な間違いは、それらの誤用が原因であり、意思の疎通を困難にする可能性がある。以前、筆者が 285 人の日本人学生を対象に実施したアンケート調査（Norman, 2011）で、日常的な日本語に見られるカタカナ語の多くは日本語由来であり英語由来ではないことを、一般に学生があまり知らないことが分かった。本研究では、198 人のアメリカ人を対象に実施した２部構成のアンケートの調査結果を考察した。アンケートでは、日常的な日本語で使用される一般的な和製英語について、文章的な手がかりがある場合とない場合とで、その和製英語に対するアメリカ人の理解度に差が生じるか否かを測った。その結果、手がかりがある場合の方がはるかに理解が進むことが統計的に示され、日本人学生が英語の母語話者とコミュニケーションを取る場合には、単語だけを口にして意思の疎通を図るのではなく、しっかりと文章で意思を伝えることの重要性が明確になった。

Japanese students of the English language often struggle toexclusively of made-in-Japan English (called waseieigo inmake themselves understood in English due to a fear ofJapan) terms that sound like proper English but are often

making mistakes. Instead of using complete sentences todifficult to understand or even incomprehensible to native

express themselves, students often resort to one or two word

speakers of English.

utterances, which can make it difficult for native speakers ofThis paper will first give a brief background on

English to understand what meaning they are trying to getwaseieigo. After briefly summarizing the author’s previous

across. Johansson (1978) has pointed out that the fact thatsurvey done on Japanese university students’ awareness ofnative speakers of English rate lexical (i.e., word choice) errors

waseieigo, the methodology behind the survey on Americans’as being more disruptive and more serious than grammaticalunderstanding of waseieigo used in this paper will be given.

errors is a troubling fact for the Japanese. Things can get even

The results of the survey itself will then be followed by somefurther complicated when such short utterances consist

The 2017 PanSIG Journal144

final comments and considerations for possible future

reworking and experimenting with loanwords in a way that

research.

completely changes their meaning and often makes themcompletely incomprehensible to native speakers of English.

Background on Made-in-Japan English

The ever-expanding number of English loanwords

waseieigo (和製英語), literally translated as “made-in-Japanin the Japanese vernacular has in turn given rise to an

English,” are constructions based on English words or parts

increasing number of waseieigo terms. While the myriad ofof word combinations that are not used by English native

possible reasons behind this increase in waseieigo terms has

speakers or whose meanings differs from the words they werebeen widely researched and thus beyond the limited scope ofderived from. Other names for waseieigo that have been

this paper, the influences of the media (see Miller, 1997) andcommonly used in academic research thus far include

advertisers (see Hogan, 2003) in particular are worth noting.

“Japanized English words” (Zhang, Tamaoka, & Hayakawa,

The increasing popularity and use of waseieigo by the Japanese,2014), “pseudo-loanwords” (Miura, 1985), and “pseudo

even though often Japanese equivalents already exist, can be

English” (Quackenbush, 1974). Japanese often haveascertained from such examples as charennji suru (チャレンdifficulty in distinguishing between waseieigo and trueジする) = to attempt a difficult task, which is often used in

Anglophonic English because waseieigo words and phrases are

everyday conversation in place of chousen suru (挑戦する),

written in katakana, which is the script typically used for

and faito (ファイト) = work hard/keep trying, in place of

foreign loan words (Norman, 2012). Common examples ofganbaru (頑張る).

waseieigo in everyday conversation would be the terms furaido
potato (フライドポテト) [“fried potato”] for French fry

Summary of Previous Survey Results

and bebii kaa (ベビーカー) [“baby car”] for stroller. The

In a previously published paper (see Norman, 2012), theamount of waseieigo terms in use is considerable andresults of a three-part survey conducted on 285 Japanesecontinues to increase on a yearly basis (Olson, 2004).

university students at two universities (one high level and one

Certain types of cognates, defined as words havinglow) to gauge their awareness of waseieigo in the Japaneserelated forms and meanings in two or more languages

vernacular were examined. The first part of the survey asked(Anthony, 1953), can certainly be helpful for beginningrespondents whether they knew the waseieigo term given waslearners of a foreign language. But other types of cognates canin fact waseieigo.

often hinder communication and cause misunderstandings.

respondents’ knowledge of waseieigo terms by mixing

A vast amount of research has been done thus far on cognates

loanwords and waseieigo terms together and asking if theyand their accompanying pitfalls (see Daulton, 1998; Hatch &thought each term was waseieigo or not. The last part required

Brown, 1995; Shepard, 1996). Uchida (2001) attempted torespondents to translate the given English into Japanese using

rank the difficulty of different types of cognates for Japanesethe katakana script. (All terms in the final part of the survey

learners of English and found that the most difficult types

had waseieigo equivalents in Japanese.)

The second part directly tested

were close false friends (words having meanings clearly

Although it had been hypothesized that there

different but close to one another), followed by distant false

would be statistical differences between the two types offriends (words having meanings that are distant or totally

universities on a large number of survey items for all three

unconnected). Daulton (2008) later posited that waseieigo

parts of the survey (which theoretically would have been

would fit in somewhere between these two most difficult

reflecting the difference in English ability between students

types of cognates.

of the two universities), in reality there were large statistically

Here the importance of distinguishing waseieigo

significant differences found on only many (12 out of 14)

from such other terms as gairaigo (foreign loanwords) should

items of Part 3 of the survey. In contrast, Parts 1 and 2 of the

be noted. Whereas loanwords are simply borrowed words

survey only showed statistically significant differences for a

from another language, waseieigo takes it a step further by

few items each (4 out of 20, and 1 out of 20, respectively). It
The 2017 PanSIG Journal145

was hypothesized that one possible reason for this was that

Oregon, U.S.A.) as well as a popular local communal area

waseieigo words and phrases are not taught or emphasized at(Pioneer Courthouse Square, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.) in

the junior high or high school levels nearly as much asorder to get a variety of participants from different walks ofcommon vocabulary words and phrases that are likely tolife. It was confirmed beforehand that all participants wereappear on entrance tests.

native speakers of English. In addition, they were asked if they

Overall, survey results suggested that Japanese

had ever studied the Japanese language previously and werestudents at the university level are not very aware that many

excluded from participating if they answered “yes” since priorof the vast number of katakana words in the Japaneseknowledge of Japanese would likely skew the results. Due tovernacular are of Japanese and not English origin. An

the nature of the survey itself and for research purposes,

electronic adaptation of this study conducted by Goddard

participants were asked to complete Part 1 first and then turn(2017) had almost identical results.

the paper over to complete Part 2 without referencing or
going back to change their answers for Part 1 in any way.

Current Survey Methodology

Participation in the survey was completely voluntary andWith the results of this previous survey in mind, it wasanonymous, with participants receiving only some wrapped

pondered how well some of the more common waseieigo

candy afterward if they wanted some as a small compensation

terms from the survey would be understood, both with andfor their time. Answers to the survey can be seen in Appendix

without sentence context clues, by everyday native speakers

B. It was hypothesized that there would be a statisticallyof English. Out of the 50 possible waseieigo terms found on

significant difference in the percentage of correct answers forthe original survey, 15 were chosen based on those that were

each waseieigo survey item when given in a sentence (part 2)

thought to be the most likely to be used in everyday

versus word only (part 1).

conversation. The current survey consisted of two parts (seeAppendix A), and both parts contained the exact same

Survey Results and Discussion

waseieigo terms. Part 1 asked respondents to write out what

Part 1 aimed to gauge participants’ understanding of eachEnglish word(s) they thought the waseieigo term was referring

waseieigo term with the difficulty of having only the waseieigo

to with only the waseieigo term itself given (i.e., with no clues).

term itself given. As can be seen from the results for Part 1

Then in Part 2 respondents were asked the same question for(Table 1.), correct responses for each item varied widely fromeach waseieigo term, but this time were given sentence context

0% for four items (konsento [コンセント] → outlet/socket,

clues to aid in guessing what each term meant. The term

plus alpha [プラスアルファ] → something extra, karute [カ“made-in-Japan English” was used in place of waseieigo in the

ルテ] → medical chart, and posuto [ポスト] → mailbox) totitle and throughout the survey itself because it was felt this

78.3% (fried potato [フライドポテト] → French fries),

was the easiest term for the average American to understand.

with an overall average of only 15.7%. (The written responses

In addition, for authenticity, waseieigo terms on the survey“no idea” and “don’t know” were treated as blank for bothwere written in Japanese katakana script followed by theirparts of the survey.) Ten out of 15 of the waseieigo terms were

English phonetic equivalent. (Possible issues with how thepractically not understood at all with less than a 5% correct

Japanese sounds were transcribed into English will be

response rate. Of the remaining five terms, respondents werediscussed in the summary section.)able to guess correctly slightly well for three of the terms (22%A total of 198 Americans (71 males, 123 females,

for jet coaster [ジェットコースター] → roller coaster,and 4 unknown) of various ages (under 20 = 3, 20-29 = 43,

31% for dust box [ダストボックス] → trash can, and 36%

30-39 = 43, 40-49 = 36, 50-59 = 28, above 60 = 41, andfor baby car [ベビーカー] → stroller) and quite well for two

unknown = 4) participated in the survey in the span of 2of them (78% for fried potatoes [フラ イド ポテト ] →weeks during the summer of 2016. The survey was conductedFrench fries and 60% for back mirror [バックミラー] →at a local library (Hillsboro Brookwood Library, Hillsboro,

rearview mirror). Analyzing these results, it was noticed that
The 2017 PanSIG Journal146

all the five terms with a medium or high correct response had

ルファ], karute [カルテ], manshon [マンション], andeither close phonetic equivalents in English (such as with backnoto pasokon [ ノ ー ト パ ソ コ ン ]) that were still quite

mirror) or were easy to create an image in one’s mind of what

misunderstood with correct response rates of less than 50%

the other person is talking about (such as with fried potatoes).

each.

However, even with the word “coaster” contained in the

In order to test the previously stated hypothesis

waseieigo term jet coaster, the somewhat low 22% correctthat there is a statistically significant difference in the

response rate was surprising.

percentage of correct answers for each waseieigo survey item

In addition to the low average percentage of correctwhen given in a sentence (Part 2) versus the word alone (Partresponses, the high average percentage of blank responses

1), a one sample t test between percentages using correct(32.5%) is equally worth noting. In these situations, native

versus wrong or blank answers was carried out for each item

speakers couldn’t even fathom a guess as to what a Japaneseindividually (see Table 3.).

speaker would be trying to communicate, which in real life

The p value for 14 of the 15 survey items was <would likely result in miscommunications or total

0.001, indicating we can say with 99.9% confidence there is acommunication breakdowns.

significant difference between the percentage of correct

In Part 2 of the survey (Table 2.), which contained

responses for these items when given sentence context clues

the same waseieigo terms as Part 1 but this time with sentence

versus without them. The one exception was item #2 (friedcontext clues, correct answers on each item also ranged widely

potato [フライドポテト] → French fries), which had a p

from 9.1% (plus alpha [プラスアルファ] → somethingvalue of 0.058 and was still very close to the standard p < 0.05

extra) to 92.9% (fried potato [フライドポテト] → French

threshold. It is worth noting that the failure of this one

fries). However, the average percentage of correct responses

waseieigo term to have a statically significant difference

surged to 58.1% compared to just 15.7% on Part 1. In

between Parts 1 and 2 was most likely caused by the highaddition, the average percentage of blank responses decreased

percentage (78.3%) of respondents who answered correctlyfrom 32.5% on Part 1 to just 15.6% on Part 2, indicating

on Part 1, thus leaving less room for improvement in the

more willingness by the native speaker of English topercentage of correct answers for Part 2 (92.9%).

communicate (regardless of whether the respondent’s guess

These results indicate large statistically significant

was correct or not). Furthermore, the average percentage

differences in comprehension of waseieigo terms when given

correct on the 10 survey items which had been understood bysentence context clues, thus stressing the importance ofless than 5% each on Part 1 jumped to 46.7% on Part 2, withJapanese students using full sentences (versus singular wordsome rising as dramatically as 0.5% to 61.1% for refomu [リutterances) when trying to communicate to native speakers

フォーム] and 0% to 79.8% for posuto [ポスト]. Althoughof English common waseieigo terms they do not know thepresenting the waseieigo terms n sentences in Part 2 certainly

correct English for.

helped with comprehension on most items, there were still
five terms (skinship [スキンシップ], plus alpha [プラスア

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

147

Table 2.
Survey Results (Part 1, Only Words Given)
Question

Correct

Wrong

Blank

1

3.0

69.2

27.8

2

78.3

15.7

6.1

3

0.0

76.8

23.2

4

0.0

58.6

41.4

5

0.5

64.6

34.8

6

36.4

49.5

14.1

7

0.0

63.6

36.4

8

0.5

84.8

14.6

9

31.3

43.4

25.3

10

2.0

27.3

70.7

11

0.5

57.6

41.9

12

60.1

21.2

18.7

13

0.0

43.4

56.6

14

22.2

46.5

31.3

15

0.5

55.6

43.9

Note. All numbers are percents. Some columns do not add up to exactly 100% due to rounding. Correct average = 15.7%; wrong
average = 51.9%; blank average = 32.5%

Table 3.
Survey Results (Part 2, With Sentence Context Clues)
Correct

Wrong

Blank

1

22.2

66.7

11.1

2

92.9

4.0

3.0

3

54.0

19.7

26.3

4

9.1

48.0

42.9

5

61.1

23.2

15.7

6

65.7

23.2

11.1

7

36.9

22.2

40.9

8

26.8

68.2

5.1

9

67.2

17.2

15.7

10

40.9

38.4

20.7

11

56.6

30.3

13.1

12

90.4

3.0

6.6

13

79.8

11.6

8.6

14

87.9

4.5

7.6

15

79.8

15.2

5.1

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

148

Table 4.
Statistical Analysis
df

t

p

1

197

5.825

0.000

2

197

1.580

0.058

3

197

15.246

0.000

4

197

4.452

0.000

5

197

17.097

0.000

6

197

4.263

0.000

7

197

10.760

0.000

8

197

8.197

0.000

9

197

5.460

0.000

10

197

10.387

0.000

11

197

15.593

0.000

12

197

3.587

0.000

13

197

27.968

0.000

14

197

11.300

0.000

15

197

26.7390.000

Note 1. One-tailed test since percentage correct is theorized to be higher for part 2 than part 1

Issues Regarding Survey

context as well as what part of speech it is being used as) also

Several issues were encountered when developing the survey

was an issue. So in this case, a direct character by characterand tallying the results. First, during the development stage,katakana transcription was used.

it was a struggle to determine how to transcribe the waseieigo

A second issue with the development of the survey

terms (written using the katakana script in Japanese) used inregarded the example sentences that were used in Part 2.

the survey into English while keeping in mind that the survey

Realistic conversation-style sentences that didn’t give too big

was trying to gauge how well these terms could beof a hint were come up with as much as possible, but it cannot

communicated by Japanese when trying to speak in English.

be denied that the results for each waseieigo term could have

For example, instead of simply transliterating the katakana

differed depending on the sentences used. For instance, in thefor item #1 character by character as sukinshippu [スキンシcase of Item 14, there likely would have been a somewhatップ], it was decided to write it as “skinship” not only so thatlower percentage of correct answers had the sentence been

native speakers of English could easily read it, but also because

shortened to just “I like to ride on jet coasters.” It is hoped

it was theorized that it would be much more likely that athat this effect was minimal. It is very likely that the large

Japanese person would say “skinship” versus sukinshippu

statistically significant differences previously discussed in thewhen trying to communicate that word in English.

results section would still have been found regardless of the

However, transcibing all the waseieigo terms thisexample sentences used.

way would have skewed results in an unfavorable way. Take

Two issues were noticed when tallying survey

for instance the survey item sain [サイン]. Writing the word

results. The first was that a handful (2%) of respondents did

as “sign” on the survey would likely have caused all

not try to guess at all for any of the survey items on Part 1

respondents to write “sign” as their answer and rendered the(perhaps because they had felt overwhelmed) even though

result meaningless. The fact that the word “sign” has many

participants had been verbally encouraged before starting thedifferent meanings in the English language (depending on

survey to guess.
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

149

Furthermore, there was a small group (3%) ofsimilar survey all orally in the future to see if the results are

respondents that did not complete Part 2 of the survey,

similar to those garnered here. However, the time factor andperhaps because they did not remember there was a Part 2 to

not putting any pressure on respondents are two concerns

the survey even after being given a verbal explanation. This

regarding this type of survey method. It might also be

issue did not appear to have any discernible impact on survey

interesting to gather information on the education level ofresults due to the limited number of people and the fact that

respondents and see if it has any meaningful impact on

approximately the same number of people forgot to do Part 2

comprehension of waseieigo terms.

as answered none of the questions in Part 1.

Considering the results of the survey and the fact

The second issue was the discovery that somethat many Japanese students do not speak using full sentences

respondents wrote more than one guess for some of thewhen trying to communicate in English, it would besurvey items. This was not an issue when both guesses were

worthwhile to investigate what coping strategies Japaneseincorrect. However, if one of the two guesses was deemed

students of English employ during conversations to try tocorrect, it was only counted as correct if it was the one written

explain waseieigo terms that at first are not being understoodfirst. Having clearly stated “write only one response per item”

properly by native speakers of English.

in the directions to the survey would likely have avoided thisWith an ongoing increase in the number ofloanwords as well as waseieigo terms in the Japanese

problem.

vernacular, it would be beneficial for English teachers at allConclusions and Suggestions for Future Researchlevels of instructionto find ways to raise their students’

Survey results suggest that a large number of waseieigo terms

awareness of waseieigo so that misunderstandings due tocannot be understood by native speakers of English, especially

production errors can be lessened. This in turn can help

when used as stand-alone words (i.e., without any type ofJapanese students feel more confident about their English

context). It had been hypothesized that there would becommunication ability.

meaningful statistically significant differences between thepercentage of correct answers for waseieigo terms when usedby themselves versus in sentences with context clues. This
indeed was the case with 14 out of the 15 survey items, witheven the lone nonstatistically significant term being very close

References
Anthony, E. (1953). The teaching of cognates. Language
Learning, 4, 79-82.
Daulton, F. E. (1998). Loanword cognates and theto the p < 0.05 threshold. These results stress the importanceacquisition of English vocabulary. The Language Teacher,of Japanese students using sentences (versus single-word

20(1), 17-25.

utterances) when trying to communicate waseieigo terms to

Daulton, F. E. (2008). Japan’s built-in lexicon ofnative speakers of English. It should be noted that even if a

English-based loanwords. Clevedon, England: Multilingual

full sentence with various context clues is not produced, theMatters.

recipient may be able to guess the meaning of a word or phrase

Goddard, J. (2017). Recognition of English loanwords

based on the situation. However, the survey demonstrates(waseieigo) among Japanese university students. Kitasato

that there is a much better chance of being understood when

Daigaku Ippan Kyoiku Kiyo [Bulletin of Kitasato

using full sentences in conjunction with context clues.

University College of Liberal Arts and Sciences], 22, 59-65.

Since the survey was all done on paper, it is hard to

Hatch, E., & Brown, C. (1995). Vocabulary, semantics, anddraw definitive conclusions regarding how well the waseieigo

language education. Cambridge, England: Cambridgeterms in the survey would be understood by native speakers

University Press.

of English in real-life communication situations, especiallyconsidering the issue regarding transcription of the waseieigo
terms previously discussed. It would be worthwhile to do a

Hogan, J. (2003). The social significance of English usage inJapan. Japanese Studies, 23(1).
Johansson, S. (1978). Some aspects of the vocabulary learned
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and scientific English. Gotherburg Studies in English. Acta
Universitatis Gothoburgensis, 42.

Shepard, J. (1996, February). Loanwords: A pitfall for all
students. The Internet TESL Journal. Retrieved

Miller, L. (1997). Wasei eigo: English “loanwords” coined infromhttp://iteslj.org/Articles/Shepherd-Loanwords.html

Japan. In J. H. Hill, P. Mistry, & L. Campbell. The life of

Uchida, E. (2001). The use of cognate inferencing strategies bylanguage: Papers in linguistics in honor of William Bright.

Japanese learners of English (Doctoral dissertation).

Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs, 108. Berlin,

University

Germany: Mouton De Gruyter, 123-139.

http://hdl.handle.net/10068/534355

Miura, A. (1985). “Engrish” in Japanese. Tokyo, Japan:ofEssex,England.

Retrievedfrom

Zhang, J., Tamaoka, K., & Hayakawa K. (2014).

Yohan Publications.

waseieigo no rikai ni okeru eigo oyobi nihongo no goi

Norman, J. (2012). Japanese university student awareness ofchishiki no eikyo: Chugoku kato chiiki no nihongo

waseieigo. In A. Stewart & N. Sonda (Eds.), JALT 2011

gakushusha wo rei ni [Effects of Japanese and English

Conference Proceedings. Tokyo: JALT.

lexical knowledge on comprehension of Japanized English

Olson, R. C. (2004). A look at “wasei” English.

words: A case study of Chinese students learning Japanese

Bulletin of Tomakomai Komazawa University, 11, 43-58.
Quackenbush, E. (1974). How Japanese borrows
English words. Linguistics, 131, 59-75.

in the eastern China region]. Nihon Kyoka Kyoiku
Gakkaishi [Journal of the Japan Curriculum Research andDevelopment Association], 36(4), 23-32.

Appendix A
SurveyPart 1: Can you guess what English word/phrase the Japanese speaker is trying to say with only the Made-inJapan word/phrase given? (Please guess freely. If you have no idea, it is okay to leave it blank.)
1. スキンシップ (“skinship”) →2. フライドポテト (“fried potato”) →3. コンセント (“konsento”) →4. プラスアルファ (“plus alpha”) →5. リフォーム (“refomu”) →6. ベビーカー (“baby car”) →7. カルテ (“karute”) →8. マンション (“manshon”) →9. ダストボックス (“dust box”) →10. ノートパソコン (“noto pasokon”) →11. ビル (“biru”) →12. バックミラー (“back mirror”) →13. ポスト(“posuto”) →14. ジェットコースター (“jet coaster”) →15. サイン (“sain”) →Part 2: Now can you guess what the Japanese speaker is trying to say with the words/phrases from Part 1 in a
sentence with context? (Please guess freely. If you have no idea, it is okay to leave it blank.)
1. I believe skinship is important in a romantic relationship.→
2. I like to eat fried potatoes with my hamburger sometimes. →The 2017 PanSIG Journal151

3. Could you please put this plug into the konsento? →4. The store wanted to do plus alpha for its customers. →5. I decided to do refomu on my house. →6. Oh look, what a cute baby car that mother has! →7. The doctor looked at the karute for his patient. →8. I live in a 15-story manshon in Tokyo. →9. Could you please put this into the dust box for me? →10. I use a noto pasokon to do my homework. →11. I work in a large biru in downtown Tokyo.→
12. Be sure to look in the back mirror before you pull out. →13. I need to put this letter in the posuto before tomorrow. →14. I like to ride on jet coasters at amusement parks. →15. Could I please get your sain on this document? →Appendix B
Survey Answers
1. body/physical contact / intimacy
2. (French) fries
3. (plug) outlet / socket
4. something extra / more
5. renovation(s) / remodeling, etc.
6. (baby) stroller/carriage/buggy, etc.
7. (medical) chart / file / record, etc.
8. condo/apartment building / high-rise
9. trash/garbage can / wastebasket, etc.
10. laptop computer / note(book) PC
11. building
12. rearview mirror
13. mailbox / postbox
14. roller coaster15. signature / autographNote: Answers are the same for both parts of the survey

Author Biography
Josh Norman graduated from Kumamoto University in 2006 and has been in Japan since 1997. He iscurrently teaching in the Department of Culture and Language at Shokei University in Kumamoto. His
research interests include L1 use in the L2 classroom, waseieigo, and bilingualism.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

152

Approaching L2-Only Classrooms With Real-Time Anonymous Self-Reporting
Michael Ellsworth Rector
Nagoya University of Foreign Studies
michael.rector@me.com
In the debate over the merits of second language (L2) only classrooms, a growing body of evidence suggeststhat first language (L1) use may be both useful and inevitable. The questions of whether and how broad
compliance with L2-only policies is achievable or beneficial remain unanswered. The author proposes that
L1 use may be partly due to habit and that anonymous self-reporting of language use might help learners
remember to use the L2 enough to develop new habits. The paper describes a controlled preliminary
experiment that showed the intervention reduced L1 use and increased L2 use in a 1st-year four-skills
English communication courses in a Japanese university. In addition, the author tested a sampling
procedure for monitoring class language use. The success of the intervention and sampling procedure point
to the possibility of answering a variety of questions about the feasibility and merits of L2-only classes.
クラスルームのみでの第二言語（L2）のメリットについての議論では、第一言語（L1）が有益で、必然的であると数多く証明で示唆しています。L2 のみの政策を広く順守することが、どのようにして達成可能で、有益なのかについての問題は答えが出ないままです。作者は、L1 の使用は部分的には習慣によってであり、匿名による言語使用の自己報告によって学習者が新しい習慣を作れるほど L2 を忘れずに使用するのに役立つのではと提案します。論文では、ある日本の大学の 4 技能英語コミュニケーション授業の 1 年目に、L1 を減らして L2 を増やす介入を表す管理予備実験について説明しています。さらに、作者はクラス言語の使用を監視するために抜き取り手順をテストしました。介入と抜取手順の成功は、L2 のみのクラスの実現可能性とメリットについての様々な質問への回答の可能性を指し示します。
Many language teaching professionals believe that students

for some functions it might be appropriate to encourage L1

benefit from using only the target second language (L2) in theuse. However, these papers do not address whether it isclassroom setting, but is this an achievable goal? There is apossible to motivate or train students to use the L2 for thegrowing body of research documenting the uses of thefunctions in question.

students’ first language (L1) in L2 classrooms. Antón andSome researchers have partially addressed thisDicamilla (1999), Swain and Lapkin (2000), Storch andquestion. For example, writing about the context of emersion

Wigglesworth (2003), Moore (2013), and Bao and Duclassrooms for children in North America, Tarone and Swain(2015) all found that the L1 was used in L2 communicative(1995) observed the phenomenon that learners use the L2 fortasks for various task-related functions, such as task

class activities but switch to their shared L1 for off-task

managementsocialcommunication. They concluded that this is because thecommunication. These researchers concluded that L1 use

students lack the vernacular needed for nonacademic peer-to-serves important functions and should not be forbidden.

peer interaction, a problem they believed cannot be solved by

Swain and Lapkin (2000) and Storch and Wigglesworth

the teacher. They suggested that it might help if students had(2003) took a middle ground, adding that it ought not besocial interaction with native-speaking peers. Carless (2008)

encouraged. On the other hand, Moore (2013) suggested thatinterviewed secondary school teachers in Hong Kong about

andclarification,

as

well

as

The 2017 PanSIG Journal153

how they try to get their students to use English in class andmore students. Something is needed to help the students

found that task design was a common consideration. Ford

monitor themselves and reward themselves.

(2009) looked at the beliefs and practices of university

This paper is a report on a preliminary experimentteachers in Japan concerning enforcement of English only

to solve two problems before researching how to develop apolicies in EFL classrooms and noted that teaching

habit of using the L2 in class. The first was to test self-

communication strategies and cajoling were among thereporting as a solution to helping students self-monitor their

methods employed to accomplish compliance. However,language use, avoiding their L1 and using their L2 more. At

neither of these made any attempt to evaluate thepseudo-random times, I asked the students to anonymously

effectiveness of the reported strategies. This seems to be aself-report about their language use in that moment. The

major gap in the literature. Questions of the relative merits ofclassroom projector displayed the results in real time so thatusing or not using the L1 is moot if broad compliance with an

the students could see how their peers responded. The second

L2-only policy cannot be achieved.

problem was to find an effective way to measure the students’

One possible solution to the problem comes fromlanguage use that is economical in terms of the researcher’s

the neuroscience of habit formation. According to Duhigg

time. The attempted solution was to frequently sample the(2012) habits are behavioral chunks encoded in a brain region

students’ language use by walking among the students during

called the basal ganglia and associated with a specific cue andpair work and recording which language each pair of students

reward. When the cue arises, the habitual behavior is carried

was using. This sampling approach was successful and theout more or less automatically. Changing the behavior

experiment showed that anonymous self-reporting with real-

requires the intervention of another brain region called thetime feedback may be very effective in motivating students toprefrontal cortex, which requires energy and attention and isuse the L2 in the classroom. These results opened the door to

subject to fatigue. The habit is essentially a way to save energy

testing the hypothesis that L1 use is the result of habits andand speed responses to routine situations. It seems possible

other questions about L1 and L2 use.

that students develop a habit of using the L2 for classroom
activities based on the cue of the teacher giving instructions

Methodbut then fall back to the previously established habit of using

The experiment was a controlled blind trial. Before thethe L1 when other cues arise. A possible solution mightexperiment, the participants signed consent forms informing

therefore be to help the students develop a habit of using

them that one of two classes would do experimental activities

English in response to various cues that arise in the classroom.

designed to help them use more English but not which class

How might this be accomplished? Duhigg (2012) described

was the control group nor which activities were connected

how businesses train people to respond to specific problems

with the experiment. I collected preintervention data about

by planning a response and practicing until the response

their language use by systematically observing them in classbecomes a habit. However, in my experience this is notand then chose the experimental class based on that classsufficient in L2 classrooms, perhaps because class time does

having used less English and more Japanese. I did a trial run

not allow for sufficient dedicated practice. It is possible thatof the intervention with the experimental group in the classstudents need something to help them remember to respondmeeting before collecting the in-intervention data. Finally, I

to classroom cues in the L2 during regular class activities tocollected the in-intervention data on a day when we were

get enough practice to develop a habit. Students also needdoing the same set of activities as preintervention datasome kind of reward to complete the cue–reward cycle. Ancollection day. Details about the participants, intervention,

obvious solution might be for the teacher to monitor the classand data collection and analysis follow.

and remind the students to use the L2. However, realisticallya teacher cannot function as the prefrontal cortex for 20 or

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154

The Participants

Data Collection and Analysis

The participants were two classes of 1st-year university

Data was collected about the participants’ language use in two

students in the British and American studies department at aclass meetings, once before and once during the intervention.

small Japanese university specializing in foreign language

On these days, the classes did a routine set of linked-skills

studies. The experiment was conducted in a twice-weekly 90-

activities in which the students communicated in pairs andminute, four-skills, communication-based English as achanged partners frequently, doing three iterations of each

foreign language course called Core English taught by thisactivity. While circumambulating the classroom, the teacher

researcher. The students also take a once-weekly small-group

recorded what language each pair of students was using at theconversation course called Power-up Tutorial (PUT) intime he passed. One circumambulation of the room

which they primarily practice conversation strategies. These

recording data for each pair constituted one sample. The data

two courses constitute the bulk of their communication in

generated consisted of a simple code: “E” for English, “J” forEnglish in the 1st year. They also have opportunities toJapanese, “S” for silent, and “I” for indeterminate. Silent

interact with native speaker peers.

meant that the students were not communicating.

The two classes are from somewhat different

Indeterminate meant that the students were clearly

populations. The experimental group were a class of 20

communicating but it was not possible to determine what

students taking the British and American Studies standard

language they were speaking. For the control group, thecurriculum. The control group were 19 students in a class ofrecord included “N” for nonparticipant if a nonparticipant

22 students taking a curriculum with more emphasis on

was speaking or the pair was silent. The data did not include

communication and less emphasis on culture in the 3d andany information about the identity of the participant or the

4th years. The two curricula are identical in the 1st year.

content of the communication.

However, the later curriculum is popular and was planned to

To limit sources of error, the data includes thebe more selective so there may be some differences in averagesame number of samples for each class, each collection day,abilities as well as interests and motivations between the two

and from corresponding iterations of each activity. On eachclasses.

data collection day the classes did four communicative

The Intervention

activities. The first was a warm-up discussion. In the second

In the intervention, at the sound of a bell, the participants

activity, students compared and discussed answers toanonymously self-reported their language use three times

homework consisting of true-or-false reading comprehension

during the class using an application called Socrative on theirquestions with the goal of reaching agreement on all answers.

smartphones. The projector displayed the class results so theyThis was followed by a discussion of open-ended reading

could see the result. If the participants used mostly English,comprehension questions and a discussion of personalization

the teacher praised them. To report, the students answeredquestions. Whenever possible the samples recorded consist of

one question, “What language where you using to

two samples from each iteration of each activity and one

communicate?” The students could select either “English,”sample between each activity. In any case when it was not“Japanese,” or “I was not conversing.”

possible to collect the same number of samples for an

In the two class sessions of the intervention the bell

iteration between the two classes or the two data collection

rang three times. The teacher made sure the bell rang bothdays, the discarded samples were those collected last as theseduring and between activities, but pretended that the bell

were most likely to have been from students finished with therang at random times by setting a timer and walking away.

activity.

This was to insure that the participants would think the bell

Data analysis was a straightforward calculation ofmight ring at any time and that they should do all their

the difference in the means for each population of samples

communication in English.

and of statistical significance. The first step was to calculate
percentages for each sample and then the means for each class
The 2017 PanSIG Journal155

and data collection session. This was followed by calculationand iterations and in true-or-false answer discussion. Table 2.

of the difference between the means for the two datashows the mean language use by activity. The preintervention

collection days for each class and p values using a paired, two-

data show that much of the Japanese use and much of thetailed t test.

silence came in the true-or-false answer discussion activity
and between activities. Japanese use decreased 18% and 32%

Results

respectively and silence decreased 22% and 31% respectively.

There are three important results from this experiment, two

These changes were statistically significant. For the control

regarding the intervention and one in connection with thegroup, the silence in particular was also concentrated in thesemethod for sampling language use. To begin with, thetimes. There were no statistically significant changes in theexperimental group increased their English use while

control group. It should be noted that the true-or-false

decreasing their silence and use of Japanese. Table 1. shows

answer discussion is an activity that some pairs finish very

that the percentage of observations in which the experimental

quickly while others have long discussions. Basically, thegroup were using English to communicate rose dramaticallybetween-activity time is from when the pair finishes theon the intervention day. There were corresponding changes

activity to the time they change partners. Therefore, somein percentage of observations in which the participants were

portion of the true-or-false answer discussion represents in-speaking Japanese (which fell to zero) and in which

between time. The changes are likely at least in part to beparticipants were silent. All these changes in the experimental

from the same cause. Although, the data do not include

group were statistically significant to a high degree of

information on the content of their communication, I noted

confidence. In contrast, the control group had no statisticallythat many participants in the experimental class engaged insignificant changes in their language use.

social interaction using English in this time on theintervention days.

The data also reveal that the largest changes inparticipants’ behavior occurred in the time between activities

Table 1.
Difference in Mean Language UseClass

Language

A: Preintervention

B: In-intervention

A-B

Experimental

English

55.2%

85.4%

30.2%*

Japanese

13.7%

0.0%

-13.7%*

Silent

29.5%

10.5%

-19.0%*

indeterminate

1.6%

4.1%

2.5%

English

61.5%

67.0%

5.5%

Japanese

2.9%

1.6%

-1.2%

Silent

33.3%

28.3%

-5.0%

indeterminate

2.4%

3.1%

0.7%

Control

Note: n = 35; * = statistically significant (p < .0001), all others (p > .05).

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156

Table 2.
Mean Language Use by ActivityDay

LanguagenWarm up

True or false

Reading comp.

Discussion

Between iterations

5

10

6

6

8

Experimental

Pretreatment

In-treatment

English

87%

41%

80%

85%

13%

Japanese

2.2%

18%

3.7%

1.9%

32%

Silent

8.9%

37%

17%

13%

56%

indeterminate

2.2%

4.4%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

English

100%

82%

91%

93%

71%

Japanese

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

Silent

0.0%

14%

1.9%

1.9%

25%

indeterminate

0.0%

3.3%

7.4%

5.6%

4.2%

Control

Pretreatment

In-treatment

English

93%

58%

92%

92%

0.0%

Japanese

5.0%

2.5%

0.0%

0.0%

6.3%

Silent

0.0%

33%

7.9%

7.9%

92%

indeterminate

2.2%

6.1%

0.0%

0.0%

1.6%

English

100%

68%

91%

83%

14.1%

Japanese

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

4.8%

3.6%

Silent

0.0%

25%

8.6%

4.8%

82%

indeterminate

0.0%

6.7%

0.0%

7.0%

0.0%

Finally, there are several useful observations about theleast in the specific context, to achieve broad compliance withsampling method. First, it was easy to walk around the classL2-only policy. This is demonstrated by the experimental

and record the information on either a tablet or paper.

group reducing their Japanese use to zero or near zero while

However, hearing which language the students were using

increasing their total communication. Second, thewas sometimes impossible with soft-voiced students in aintervention probably played a causal role in the changes.

noisy classroom. Another problem was that sometimes aThis is demonstrated by the large statistically significant

student asked a question interrupting sampling. Stopping tochanges in the experimental group and the lack of statisticallyanswer student questions prevented taking sampling a few

significant changes in the control group. However, there weretimes. Finally, in practicing data collection it was difficult toinitial differences between the two groups. If some otherassess the contents of the students’ communication due tofactor such as practicing conversation strategies, ordifficulty hearing. It was therefore necessary to restrict datainteraction with native speaking peers, contributed tocollection to language only.

changes in the experimental group, whatever caused theinitial difference may be masking those changes in the control.

Discussion

Thus, the experiment shows it is very likely that something

There are three findings regarding L1 and L2 use in theclose to an L2-only environment can be achieved, but theclassroom from this experiment. First, it may be possible, atintervention’s contribution is less certain.
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157

The third finding is that the students did not accomplish

be done. This would involve doing the intervention for an

their decreased use of the L1 by cutting their social

arbitrary number of class sessions and then periodicallyinteraction. In fact, they appear to have increased their social

sampling the students’ language use to see how it changes overinteraction as is demonstrated by the decreased silence andtime. If habits contribute to when and how students use their

Japanese use and increased English between activities. The

L1 in class one would expect that the control group would

concern raised in the literature by Antón and Dicamilla

gradually use more Japanese and less English over the course(1999), Swain and Lapkin (2000), Storch and Wigglesworthof the term as they become tired. The experimental group,(2003) and others that L1 use serves important functions andbeing more habituated to using the L2, would do a better job

therefore should not be banned implies that learners might beof maintaining their L2 use over time.

harmed if they don’t use their L1 for these functions. One

The possibility of having classes that broadly

might expect that, in the case of social communication, if they

comply with L2-only policies raises the possibility of

avoided it to avoid L1 use they might be a less cohesive group.

controlled experiments that could address various questions

This experiment constitutes one data point that the concern

about L1 use in the classroom. For example, an experiment

about L1 use in the case of social communication may be

could shed light on Tarone and Swain’s (1995) hypothesis

unfounded.

that students do not use the L2 for social communication in

Turning now to the method for sampling theclass because they lack vernacular language needed toclasses’ language use, the method has weaknesses but may be

communicate at the desired register. To test this, the effects

very useful for exploring ways to increase L2 use in classes. Itof the intervention could be compared on two otherwise

has the advantage that it is simple and easy to implement.

similar classes, one of which engages in extensive

Teacher–researchers can use the method to evaluate thecommunication with native speaker peers. Similarly,

effectiveness of interventions without spending timequestions about the merits of L2-only policies or of using L1

transcribing recordings. However, one needs to be carefulin the classroom might be answered, but comparing classes

about biasing one’s results when the language students arethat get the intervention to classes that do not. Researchers

using is difficult to determine. This problem could be avoided

could collect a variety of data to see how they solve

if a third party collected the data before and after ancommunication problems and how their learning andintervention so the person collecting data does not know

language acquisition outcome differ. Answering thesewhich group is experimental. This approach might have its

questions will be challenging and the answers may differ forown problems, however, because participants might behave

different contexts. This experiment provides hope for adifferently with an unfamiliar person walking around writing

beginning.

information about them. Finally, the method has limitation -Conclusion

at least when implemented by this researcher- that it is

The present experiment shows that anonymous self-

difficult to record data about what kind of communication

reporting may help L2 learners pay enough attention to their

the participants are engaged in. To answer questions about

language use in class that they can approach a L2-only class

how an intervention affects specific kinds of communication,

environment without the teacher engaging in unpleasant andactually recording student conversation may be necessary.

possibly futile policing of language use. However, it is not

Nevertheless, the technique shows promise in that it will beclear how much the conversation strategy practice portion of

useful to quickly evaluate whether an intervention leads tothe curriculum or interaction with native speaking peers

changes in how much L1 and L2 communication takes place

contributed to the students’ success in increasing theirand to monitor the same over time.

English and decreasing their Japanese usage. It may be that

The apparent effectiveness of the intervention andthese factors are co-requisite. It is also unclear whether thethe ease of use of the sampling method mean that a study tointervention will result in the students developing a lasting

test the author’s hypothesis regarding L1 use and habits canhabit of using only the L2 in class or whether, on balance, that
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

158

would be beneficial to them. Answering these questions willuse in the Japanese university EFL classroom. JALT

require extensive additional experiments. That said, theJournal, 33(1), 63-80.

apparent success of this experiment raises the possibility that

Moore, P. J. (2013). An emergent perspective on the use ofcontrolled longitudinal studies of L2-only class environments

the first language in the English-as-a-foreign-language

can be carried out.

classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 97(1), 239-253.

References
Bao, Rui. & Du, X. (2015). Learners’ L1 use in atask-based classroom: Learning Chinese as a foreign
language from a sociocultural perspective. Journal of
Language Teaching and Research, 6(1) 12-20.
Carless, D. (2007). Student use of the mother tongue in thetask-based classroom. ELT Journal, 62(4), 331-338.

Storch, N., & Wigglesworth, G. (2003), Is there a role forthe use of the L1 in an L2 setting? TESOL Quarterly, 37(4),760-770.
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (2002). Task-based second
language learning: The uses of the first language. Language
Teaching Research, 4, 251-274.
Tarone, E., & Swain, M. (1995) A sociolinguistic

Duhigg, C. (2012). The power of habit: Why we do what weperspective on second language use in immersion

do in life and business. New York, NY: Random House.

classrooms. The Modern Language Journal, 79(2), 166-178.

Ford, K. (2019). Principles and practices of L1/L2

Author Biography

Michael Ellsworth Rector has taught English as a foreign language in various Japanese contexts for 15 years. An
avid fan and aspiring practitioner of science, his ambition is to test our beliefs about best practices with controlled
experiments. In his free time, he enjoys bicycling and traveling with his wife.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

159

Developing Academic Lexis: An Interactive Approach
Jacob Terrance Reed

James Emmet Owens

Kanda University of International Studies

Kanda University of International Studies

reed-j@kanda.kuis.ac.jp

james-o@kanda.kuis.ac.jp

For many teachers and course designers, deciding what vocabulary to teach can be difficult; designingefficient strategies that allow large numbers of words to be acquired without being too time-consuming or
burdensome on students can also be challenging. Based on a promising pilot study, this paper explains an
updated teaching method employed and the research methodology utilized to evaluate it. The teaching
method involves group study and student creation of assessments with intermittent teacher feedback. The
research method compares a class receiving additional retrieval activities, a class without them, and a control
group without the activities or the teaching method.
教師や講座詳細の作成者はどの語彙を教えるかという問題点は常にある。それに語彙を習得させる効率的で、あまり時間を取らず、生徒にも負担させすぎないような教授法を導き出すのも問題点である。有望なパイロット・スタディを基にする当研究は、パイロット・
スタディの最新教授法とその評価を説明する。教授法は生徒がグループで勉強したり、教師の断続的なアドバイスで生徒が作成した試験を受けたりする事である。当研究方法は、教授法と追加の復習活動・教授法・教授法と追加活動なしの対照群という三つの授業のグ
ループの結果を比較する。

Previous Study Summary

Introduction
There are challenges to the explicit teaching of vocabulary,not least among which are knowing what words to teach, how
to teach them, and allocating time to dedicate to it within an
already dense course. This paper along with a previous study
represent our ongoing attempt to meet these challenges. As
such, this paper is a follow-up study to a previous paper inwhich a new method of teaching vocabulary and theeffectivenessof

additional

retrieval

exercises

wereinvestigated. Owens and Reed (2017) was a response to theneed for improvement to the vocabulary component in a new
course designed for freshman university students in Japan.
The impetus for the study was a wish to know what words weshould teach, what methods are effective, and what it means

For more detailed information about the previous study,
please see Owens and Reed (2017). However, a rudimentarysummary of the study is necessary here in order to provide thecontext of this paper. Previously, we looked at theeffectiveness of a new method of teaching selected vocabulary
from the New Academic Word List or “NAWL” (Browne,
Culligan, & Phillips, 2013) in advanced-level freshman
university courses. The name of this course is Foundational
Literacies (FL), in essence a reading and writing course
consisting of 180 minutes of taught classes per week with two
15-week semesters and a curriculum inspired by amultiliteracies-based pedagogy (New London Group,1998).

to “know” a word. The emphasis of this paper is on the

One measure used to investigate this effectivenesschanges made to the original study, so a cursory

was a comparison of learning vocabulary under two

familiarization of the previous study is recommended to theconditions. One class of students studied words from thereader, but it is briefly summarized in the next section.

NAWL (Browne et. al., 2013) using the new method coupledwith additional review exercises, whilst another used the same
method but had no review exercises. The review exercises
The 2017 PanSIG Journal160

consisted of a variety of different activities, for example the

The research questions in this previous study were thus:

memory-based “concentration” game, in which students had
to match words with their meanings. Other examples of1.

Did the new method have any significant impact on thereview activities included Pictionary, crosswords, and various

retention of academic vocabulary? That is, was there a“guessing” games in which a student holding a secret cardsignificant difference between pre- and posttest scorescontaining one of the target vocabulary had to elicit the word

(taken in Week 1 and 15 of a 15-week semester)?

from group members without explicitly referring to it. While2.

it could be argued that each game had its own strengths andweaknesses, and that this variety could therefore be seen as aninterfering variable, the important distinction is that one

Did the class that had experienced review activities makesignificantly more gains than the class that did not?

3.

Was the new method rated more favorably than the oldby students?

class was purposely re-exposed to the target vocabulary andthe other did not experience review.

MethodThe method involved breaking a list composing the 250 mostfrequent words from the NAWL into 10 subsections. A classon the FL course contains about 20 students; these were thenwere divided into 5 groups of 4 students. Each group was
given 2 subsections of words to look at, in order to create atest that would focus on any 10 of the 25 listed items in eachsubsection. These student-designed tests were reviewed andedited by a teacher and then taken by all students as a whole
every week; each group attempted the test together andreceived a collective score. Collective scores were used as a way
to encourage students to bond and study together outside of
the class, as their scores would in part be determined by teameffort. It is also arguably an effective way of motivating
students to work harder in the Japanese context, where
people might be said to take their group responsibilities more
seriously than their own selfish interests (Davies & Ikeno,
2002). The average score for each group after taking thesetests comprised the vocabulary component of eachindividual’s grade (10%) for the semester.

Research Questions
Separate to these student-designed tests, the researchers
collected results of pre- and posttests for both classes at the
beginning and end of a semester to see the extent to which
their vocabulary scores had improved. Additionally, a survey
was used to gauge student perceptions of the new method,especially in comparison to the former method.

Results and Limitations
According to the data processed in Owens and Reed (2017),
both classes made significant gains but this could not be
conclusively ascribed to the new method used. As far as thereview exercises were concerned, there was no significant
difference between the two classes suggesting that they had
any positive effect. The surveys generated less ambiguous
results, with the vast majority of students appraising the new
method positively, especially when compared with the older
method. However, students were less keen on the grouptesting of the method, in as far as they did not want to sharethe same grade as those within their group who they
perceived as weaker, or less diligent than themselves.
There were other limitations to the study thatprovided the impetus for the same researchers to carry out
this current study. For example, the pre-/posttest utilized tomeasure improvement was itself imperfect. It comprised only
10 questions, and whereas the student-designed, weekly tests
typically looked at in-depth productive knowledge of form,
meaning, and use by using a variety of question types, the pre/posttest only tested only one kind of receptive knowledge(simple definitions) using the New Academic Word List Test
(NAWLT) available from the NAWL website (Browne et. al,2013).

Current Study Overview and Changes
The current study thus employed the same method but withsome decisive changes. Similarly to the initial study, students
looked at words from the NAWL. The reason we decided tofocus on the NAWL is because it is an updated version of the
The 2017 PanSIG Journal161

original Academic Word List (Coxhead, 2000) which was

Research Questions

not only drawn from a much larger corpus (288 million

The research questions for the current study were as
follows:
1. Would the groups with testing have significantly
higher scores than the control group?
2. Would the group with review perform significantly
better than the Tests-Only group?

words versus 3.5 million), but was created without using
word families, which have been shown to be problematic forlearners (Schmitt & Zimmermann, 2002).
A list of 250 words from the NAWL was, as in theinitial study, broken down into subsections and administered
to different groups of students. In the weekly studentdesigned tests, they were encouraged to employ a variety ofParticipantsquestion types to more thoroughly test deeper knowledge ofeach word, as outlined by Nation (2013). However, while in
the first study students also took these tests as groups andshared a common grade, in the current study students instead
took the tests independently and were responsible only for
their own grade. This was a direct response to feedback in theinitial survey: “confident students did not wish to share agrade with ‘weaker’ students, who in turn felt that sharing a
grade with ‘stronger’ students meant they were lessmotivated to study hard for themselves” (Owens & Reed,

All three classes of students were from the advanced streamof a freshman course within the English department of aforeign languages university in Japan. All were thus agedsimilarly (18-20 years old) and of similar language ability;
proficiency tiers are decided by combining student TOEFL
scores with their grades on an internal entrance exam. The
gender dynamic was also similar in each class withapproximately 75% of each class being female.

2017, p. 247).

MethodAs in Owens and Reed (2017), one class of students
experienced additional review exercises and one did not.
However, this time an additional control group was looked at.
This class of students had no retrieval exercises or experienceof the new method, that is, they had no review or weekly test
exercises. They were however given the list of 250 words andwere subject to the same pre- and posttests. This was in orderto test a hypothesis that it was merely access to the words that
had led to improvements in the pre-/posttests in the initialstudy, irrespective of any explicit teaching of vocabulary.
Thus this time three different classes were looked
at: a class that employed the new student-designed tests
method and had exposure to review activities, a class thatutilized the new method but had no review activities, and aclass that were merely provided with the list and had no
instruction in any method or review activities.
Finally, the pre-/posttest was adjusted to include
20 words rather than 10 and to more closely resemble thekind of questions students would use in their weekly tests byusing a greater variety of question types to better test in-depth
productive knowledge of words (see Appendix).

Students in all classes were given a pretest (see Appendix),
which also functioned as an example of the types of quizzes
they would be making in the Tests-Only and Tests-PlusReview groups. They were also given a list of 25 words eachweek to study on their own or with their quiz teams.
Students in the Tests-Only and Tests-Plus-Review
groups took turns in their classes to make the weekly 10-item
quiz with their quiz teams. After finishing making the quiz,
they would send it to their teacher for accuracy and suitability
review. During the following class period, the students would
take the quiz individually. We decided to have the students
take the quizzes individually because of the comments in theprevious study expressing dislike of group scores contributing
to individual grades.
At the end of the year, all students in all groups
took the posttest, which was the same as the pretest. Their
final scores were compared with their pretest scores to see theextent to which the tests and/or the review exercises had had
a significant effect on their vocabulary.
Finally, the teacher in charge of the Tests-Onlygroup asked for students’ feedback on all parts of the course
The 2017 PanSIG Journal162

through an end-of-course survey. One part asked them to rate

Plus-Review group and the Control group. In other words,

the vocabulary lists and tests that they used in class on a 5-

the data show that the Tests-Only group significantly

point scale ranging from 1 = not at all useful to 5 = very useful.

outperformed the Tests-Plus-Review and Control groups on

Data listing all the above results are provided in the next

the posttest, and the Tests-Plus-Review group’s mean score

section.

was not significantly different to the Control group. An
analysis of these mixed results is part of the discussion in the

Results

following section.

Looking at descriptive statistics, all three groups increased

The results of an end-of-course survey conducted

their mean scores, with the largest gain by Tests-Only groupby the teacher of the Tests-Only group included an item

and the smallest by the control group. Table 1. summarizes

wherein students could rate the vocabulary portion of thethese findings. Table 2. shows the results of statistical analysis

course on a scale of usefulness from 1 to 5. The results of theof the mean Post-Test scores.

19 students who answered the survey indicated that most

Performing statistical analysis using ANCOVA

students who used the vocabulary lists and tests found themand post-hoc pairwise comparisons revealed no significant

to be 4 = quite useful to 5 = very useful, with a mean rating ofdifferences on the mean posttest scores between the Tests-

4.32 out of a maximum of 5 points.

Table 1.
Pretest and Posttest Mean Scores
Group

Pretest M

Posttest M

SD of Posttest scoresN

tests-only

11.41

16.35

2.760

17

tests-plus- review

10.89

12.42

2.317

19

no tests (control)

12.06

12.81

2.786

16

Sig.b

95% CI for Differenceb

Table 2.
Pairwise Comparisons(I) group(J) group

Mean

SE

difference (I-J)
no tests (control)

tests only

tests-plus-review

lower boundupper boundtests only

-3.924*

.779

.000

-5.489-2.358yests plus review

-.296

.769

.702

-1.843

1.251

no tests (control)

3.924

*

.779

.000

2.358

5.489

tests plus review

3.627*

.745

.000

2.130

5.125

no tests (control)

.296

.769

.702

-1.251

1.843

tests only

-3.627*

.745

.000

-5.125-2.130*= The mean difference is significant at p < 0.5b= Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Least Significant Difference (equivalent to no adjustments).

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Discussion
The statistics showed that the Tests-Only group performed
the best on the posttest relative to the other two groups, but
a glaring question remains: Why did the Tests-Plus-Review
Group perform no better than the control group? If theseresults are to be taken at face value, it would imply that review
activities, or at the very least the review activities employed inthis study, are not only ineffective, but inhibitory to
vocabulary acquisition to the extent that they counter any ofthe benefits of creating and taking the weekly tests.
However, accepting such a simplistic conclusion
based on insufficient data would be ill-advised because it islikely that the statistics are not telling the whole story. For
instance, issues such as individual differences in study habits
among the groups, the timing of the posttest administration,and the fact that the groups were taught by different teachers
all could have affected the results. Furthermore, the study
itself was conducted as part of an ongoing course and was

On the other hand, considering the results of the Tests-Onlygroup is equally important. The fact that their scores weresignificantly higher compared to the other groups coupledwith the overwhelmingly positive appraisals given on thesurvey both indicate that continuing to use the testing format
while subjecting it to action research or perhaps formalizedlaboratory inquiry is a worthy pursuit.
To conclude, the results and statistics were mixed:
One group using the Tests performed very well, and anotherwith the Tests and Review activities performed no better
than the control group. The reasons for this difference areunclear because the statistics cannot assist us in identifying
and measuring the qualitative differences between the groups.
Nevertheless, because the Tests-Only group seemed tobenefit a great deal from the testing format and the use of the
NAWL, it is possible to recommend experimenting with thistesting format to others who desire that their students engage
with and learn more academic lexis.

therefore not as controlled as a laboratory setting might be.

Limitations

Qualitative differences between the groups such as these may
have been substantial.
One other difference between the groups is theissue of word exposure. All groups were exposed to the same
list of words and encountered all of the words at least one
time when the list was given in class. However, because thestudent-made quizzes comprised only 10 of the 25 words
given each week, and were chosen by the students, it ispossible that the quizzes for the Tests-Only groupcoincidentally exposed students to more of the words thatappeared on the pre-/posttest than the Tests-Plus-Review
group, thus explaining their higher final scores. The reasons
why students chose some words over others can only be
assumed. For instance, it is possible that some students would
favor words that they felt would challenge their peers, andothers might choose words that they already knew in order toreduce the study burden. This is yet one more variable thatlies beyond the scope of the present study.
In short, there are various confounding variables
involved and any one of them might have had an impact on
the posttest scores that the statistical analysis used cannot
detect.

While the test format and the NAWL were highly appraisedby the students in the Tests-Only group, one might worry
about students’ beliefs regarding language learning being used
to advise curriculum. It is nevertheless important to consider
what they say given that students arguably have the most at
stake in a Japanese university setting.
Additionally, even though the Tests-Only group performed
significantly better on the posttest, we cannot claim that thetesting format encouraged or facilitated long-term retentionof the vocabulary. It is possible that students simply became
better at taking the tests themselves as opposed to actuallyacquiring the words (e.g., process of elimination in multiple
choice questioning).
Unequal exposure to the words was touched on in thediscussion section, but it is worth reiterating this point. We
expected that students in both treatment groups would have
similar scores, and one possible explanation is unequal
exposure on account of the quizzes being student-created.
Because the quizzes made by the students were not the same
between groups, this could call our reliance on a standardized
posttest for comparative analysis into question. In other

The 2017 PanSIG Journal164

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same vocabulary appearing on the posttest to differing
degrees, then the results of the posttest are suspect andunreliable. Caution should be exercised if attempts are madeto extrapolate any of the results of this paper.

Conclusion
Although this study’s results and analysis do have someBrowne, C., Culligan, B., & Phillips, J. (2013). The New
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Foundational Literacies course by drawing on a corpus-based,

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New London Group (1998). A pedagogy of multiliteracies:

successful. Finally, it is the hope of the authors that other

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Owens, J., & Reed, J. (2017). So many words, so little time:learning and studying methods that they use in their own

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The 2017 PanSIG Journal165

Developing a New Locus of Control Instrument: The Abridged Kambara Scale
Michael James Rupp

Ian Maxwell Isemonger

Tokai University

Kumamoto University

michaelrupp@tsc.u-tokai.ac.jp

ian-m@kumamoto-u.ac.jp

This paper reports on the results of a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using survey data collected with
an abridged version of the Kambara Locus of Control Scale (K-LoCS; 1982, 1987). Previous work on the
K-LoCS, using CFA (Rupp, 2016a), exploratory factor analysis (EFA; Rupp, 2017b), and qualitative focus
group studies (Rupp, 2016b), all provided evidence that a modified and abridged K-LoCS may produce
scores with improved psychometric properties. A subset of items, informed by findings in the previous work,
was assembled under a two-construct measurement model, and this model was tested a priori, using a newdataset (N = 211). The results, in terms of the p value for the chi-square and the model fit indexes, indicatedconsiderable improvement over results in previous studies.
本論文は短縮型の鎌原氏のローカス・オフ・コントロール(統制の所在)尺度 (K-LoCS;
1982, 1987)、によって収集した調査データの確認的因子分析(CFA)結果を報告するものである。以前鎌原の尺度を対象した研究の CFA(Rupp, 2016a)、探索的因子分析(EFA;
Rupp, 2017b)、及び定性的なフォーカス・グループ法(Rupp, 2016b)の全ての研究結果が尺度の変更と短縮することによって尺度から得られるスコアの心理測定的に改善見込みがある証拠を示した。以前の研究の結果を考慮した一部の項目を集め二つ構成概念モデルを構築して新データ・セット(N = 211)を分析・検証した。結果は、カイ二乗及びモデル・
フィット指数の p 値に関して、これまでの研究結果よりも著しく改善されたことが示された。
Locus of control (Rotter, 1966) is a psychological constructlanguage learning outcomes (Chang & Ho, 2009; Ghonsooly

in which people are seen to vary along a continuum ranging& Elahi, 2012; Ghonsooly & Moharer, 2012; Ghonsooly &from internal locus of control (I-LoC) to external locus of

Shirvan, 2011; Peek, 2016).

control (E-LoC). An internal orientation is associated with a

In the Japanese context, the 43-item Kambara

belief that outcomes in one’s life are mostly due to internal

Locus of Control Scale (K-LoCS43, Kambara, 1987) has had

factors and are within one’s own control. Conversely, ana presence in the literature for many years. The 43-item scale

external orientation means that one tends to believe that it is

has its roots in an earlier 18-item scale (K-LoCS18; Kambara,

factors beyond one’s control which dictate the course of one’s1982) and represents significant lengthening of the originallife. These external factors might include such things as fate,

instrument by simply adding further items. Since its creation,

luck, and influence from other people, among others. This

the K-LoCS43 has been used in a wide variety of domains

construct has an important place in the field of language

including, but not limited to, studies on employee psychology

teaching and learning, because having a high degree of I-LoC(Kanda, 2006), developmental psychology (Fushimi, 2011),

is arguably aligned with having a strong sense of personaland, more recently, in secondary-level English education

agency and self-efficacy and a greater degree of learnerstudies in Japan (Hosaka, 2007). The construct of locus ofautonomy (Oxford, 2003; 2008); of course, these are qualities

control clearly has a strong notional relationship to learner

which are seen as beneficial to language learners. A number ofautonomy (Oxford, 2003; 2008), and given that learnerstudies with EFL students have demonstrated a correlation

autonomy has proved difficult to measure (Horai, 2013a,

between a high I-LoC orientation and more successful

2013b; Macaskill & Taylor, 2010), Rupp (2016a, 2016b,

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

166

2017b) proceeded with a line of research into thecomplained that the 4-point Likert scale was too restrictive

psychometric properties of scores produced by the K-(Rupp, 2016b), so for this study a 5-point scale was adopted.

LoCS43, under the theoretical rationale that locus of control

In order to reduce the number of items, five items per

might stand in for an important aspect, or dimension, of

construct were chosen (see Appendix) under the criterion

learner autonomy. This work was conducted in the context

that they not be operationally redundant in terms of any

of Japanese tertiary education, and it was initially necessary toother item. Additionally, and using results from the previous

test the model hypothesized for the instrument (both the 18-

EFA (Rupp, 2017b), items which had better loading

item and 43-item version) by Kambara (1982, 1987) using

coefficients on the two factors representing I-LoC and E-Loc

CFA. To date, such a test had not been conducted anywhere

were selected. Finally, participants in the focus groupin the literature and in any domain; only EFAs had been

discussions reported that it was more natural for the Likert

conducted (Kambara, 1987; Hosaka, 2007). Scores produced

scale to range from positive to negative; in other words fromby the K-LoCS43 were shown to have poor fit (Rupp, 2016a)

strongly agree to strongly disagree. Kambara constructed thewith the model hypothesized in a study of Japanese highLikert scale to range from negative to positive, and previous

school students (N = 1125). A test of the 18-item version

studies by Rupp (2016a, 2016b, 2017b) had preserved thisproduced slightly better results than for the 43-item version,

formulation. In this study, the outcome from the focus groupbut were still unsatisfactory overall. These findings were later

study was observed, and the scale was reversed to align withmore fully explored through a focus group study (Rupp,

what participants had indicated a preference for.

2016b) and an EFA-based analysis (Rupp, 2017b). The
overall evidence from these various studies was combined ina mixed-methods analysis (Rupp, 2017a), which showednumerous areas of potential improvement for the K-LoCS43.
The results reported in this paper represent a
continuation of this trajectory of research using new data. An
abridged version of the K-LoCS43 was assembled by selecting
a subset of items from the original scale. Previous research in
the trajectory (Rupp, 2016a, 2016b, 2017b) had indicatedthat (a) the scale was too long, (b) items were repetitive andoperationally redundant in cases, and (c) the 4-point Likert
scale should be more refined. With respect to the length of
the scale, other studies (Dragutinovich, White, & Austin,
1983; Ross, Kalucy, & Morten, 1983) on other locus ofcontrol instrumentation have reported better psychometric

Methods
The revised instrument comprised ten items (see Appendix)
for which the students responded on a 5-point Likert scale.
Five items were hypothesized to measure the I-LoC construct(Items 02, 05, 06, 09, and 10) and five items the E-LoC
construct (Items 01, 03, 04, 07, and 08). The survey wasadministered in Japanese, using the original Japanesephrasing from the K-LoCS43 for the selected items. The
survey included a Japanese consent form informing thestudents of the voluntary nature of the questionnaire and thatparticipation would not affect their grades. The abridged
instrument created for this study was designated as theKambara Locus of Control 10-Item Scale (K-LoCS10).

results after the number of items has been reduced in an

Participants and Procedure

instrument. Given this previous experience in the literature

There were 213 total participants in this study with two

and the significant length of the K-LoCS43 for only two

responses removed for having incomplete data, leaving 211

measured constructs (I-LoC and E-LoC), an abridged version

usable responses (N = 211). The data was collected fromwas expected to have better prospects. The second point

students attending three Japanese universities, two publicconcerning operationally redundant items (i.e., near-(32%) and one private (68%). Males represented 55% andrepetitions of other items) corresponds with the first, because

females 45% of respondents. Ages ranged from 18 years to 24

many of the items were not actually expanding theyears with a mean age of 19 years. The majority ofoperational bandwidth of the two measured constructs. With

respondents (95%) were between 18 years and 20 years. The

respect to the third point, many focus group students

faculties represented were agriculture (35.5%), business
The 2017 PanSIG Journal167

administration (20.4%), engineering (11.4%), literature

TLI, > .95, SRMSR, < .08; RMSEA, < .06. These cutoffs were

(8.5%), and management (24.2%). It required approximately

empirically derived, using a Monte Carlo or simulation

5 minutes to administer the survey.

analysis, and under the rationale of minimizing Type I and

Analytical Procedure
The data collected from participants was entered directly into
IBM/Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS;
Version 20). Descriptive statistics (means, score distributions,and normality) and reliability estimates (Cronbach’s alphaand the confidence intervals for alpha) were calculated using
SPSS. The CFA was conducted with Analysis of Moment

Type II error, that is, the mistake of rejecting a model when it
should have been accepted or accepting a model when it
should have been rejected. It is important to note that Hu
and Bentler recommended using these indexes intriangulation. In other words, in order to claim model fit, amodel has to satisfy the cutoffs on all of the indexes and notjust one, or some, of them.

Results

Structures (AMOS; Version 21). Item responses were given
numerical values ranging from 1 to 5 with 1 being strongly
disagree and 5 being strongly agree. The data was first analyzed
with a focus on univariate normality; i.e., skewness andkurtosis. The critical ratios for skewness and kurtosis werecompared against two criterion levels (stipulated in advance).
These levels were less than 3.0 (more relaxed), and less than
2.0 (more rigorous), with the latter assisting with identifying
meritorious results.
With respect to executing the CFA and assessing
model fit, the analytical procedure went beyond merely
relying on the chi-square statistic and its associatedprobability level, because the various researchers in theliterature caution that this statistic tends to over-rejectmodels (Byrne, 2001; Hu & Bentler, 1999). In this regard,
four indexes of model fit recommended by Hu and Bentler(1999) were adopted and used in triangulation. These
included two absolute fit indexes (the SRMSR and RMSEA)
and two incremental fit indexes (the TLI and CFI). An
absolute fit index indicates how well the observed data fits the
specified model, whereas an incremental fit index gives acomparison of how much improvement there is in model fit
when the model specified is compared with a more restrictedbaseline model. It is important to note that these are indexes
and not test statistics (like the chi-square), and therefore they
are not interpreted in terms of probability (i.e., a p value), butrather are interpreted on a continuum using cutoff criteriathat are empirically informed and available in the literature.
The cutoff criteria for interpreting the values produced forthe model on these indexes were adopted from Hu andBentler’s (1999) study. These were as follows: CFI, > .95;

The results, presented below, are reported in terms ofdescriptive statistics for items scores, reliability estimates forthe two subscales, and model fit assessment consequent to the
CFA.

Descriptive Statistics
Table 1. indicates the means and standard deviations for each
item. From Table 1. it can be observed that means tended tofall in the positive range (or agreement range); that is, above
3.0. Only Item 04 and Item 08 presented with means fallingin the negative range (or disagreement range).
Table 1.
Item Means and Standard Deviations (SD) for Scores Derived
on Items Comprising the K-LoCS10 (N = 211)
Test items

M

SD

Item 01

3.02

1.248

Item 02

4.09

1.036

Item 03

3.69

1.116

Item 04

2.55

1.184

Item 05

4.09

1.000

Item 06

3.61

1.227

Item 07

3.04

1.294

Item 08

2.33

1.332

Item 09

4.43

0.925

Item 10

4.14

0.993

Table 2. shows the critical ratios for skewness and kurtosis
for each item. Skewness and kurtosis are essentially measuresof the spread or distribution of scores. If, for example, there
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168

were an excessive number of responses around 4 or 5 on the

nonnormality. Multivariate normality becomes important

Likert scale and very few around 1 or 2, the data would bewhen the statistical procedures to be conducted are

positively skewed, and an associated loss of information

multivariate rather than univariate, and CFA (thewould occur because part of the scale is essentially not used,

centerpiece of the analysis in this paper) is a multivariate

meaning that variability does not extend into this part of thetechnique. The multivariate nonnormality found in the datascale. Kurtosis is similar to skewness, but refers more

affected the subsequent CFA procedure through the decision

precisely to the extent to which distribution is concentrated

to use the Bollen-Stine bootstrap procedure (Bollen & Stine,

towards the means, and if it is excessive, it is also associated1992), which assists in accommodating for these negativewith a general loss of information. The asterisks indicate

distributional properties of the data.

whether the absolute value of the critical ratio fails to meet

Reliability Estimatesthe more relaxed criterion of 3.0 (two asterisks) or thestricter criterion of 2.0 (one asterisk).

Although the CFA that follows is the more powerful analytic
tool with respect to assessing the structural or dimensional
properties of the scores produced by the K-LoCS10,

Table 2.
Values for Critical Ratio for Skewness and Kurtosis
Test item

Skewness

Kurtosis

Item 01-0.802-3.778**Item 02-6.683**

1.562

Item 03-4.359**-1.087Item 04

4.024**-1.465Item 05-7.533**3.913**

Item 06-3.778**-1.877Item 07-0.503-3.691**

Item 08

4.120**-2.351**

Item 09-12.455**

13.285**Item 10-7.323**4.003**

Note. *Item is skewed at a threshold of 2.0.
** Item is skewed at a threshold of 3.0.

As can be seen in Table 2. only two items met thethreshold for skewness of 2.0, with the remaining eight items
all failing to meet even the more lenient threshold of 3.0. In
general, it can also be seen that there is a tendency for negative,
rather than positive, skewness. With respect to kurtosis, four
items met the 2.0 threshold, with the remaining six items
failing to meet the 3.0 threshold. With a 5-point Likert scale,

Cronbach’s alpha was also calculated. This was calculated interms of the value derived for alpha (Nunnally & Bernstein,1994) on each subscale (I-LoC and E-Loc), as well as theassociated confidence intervals for alpha (95%). Reporting ofconfidence intervals was recommended by Fan andThompson (2001), and these intervals are important because
they express the range within which the true value, or
population value, for alpha lies, with an associated level ofconfidence (usually stipulated as 95%). One benefit of this is
the possibility of more accurate comparisons of alpha results
across different studies. In terms of Cronbach’s alpha, theresults were as follows (95% confidence intervals inbrackets): .53 (.43 - .63) for the I-LoC subscale and .68 (.60
- .74) for the E-LoC subscale. These values are not satisfactory.
Typically, .70 is taken as a rule-of-thumb cutoff forinterpreting alpha, with values below this thresholdindicating an unsatisfactory result. However, the value foralpha is also positively biased by the number of items
appearing in the subscale, and thus the rule of thumb needs
to be treated with considerable care in these results, because
the number of items in each subscale of the K-LoCS10 is only
five, which is very few.

the data may be considered rather coarse for this sort of

CFA Model Results

analysis, but it is clear that the distributional properties of

The model tested was based on the original conception of thescores on many of the items is not satisfactory and iscontributing to information loss.
Multivariate normality was assessed using Mardia’s
coefficient (16.53), and this was relatively high indicating

instrument wherein items are hypothesized to measure either
I-LoC or E-LoC, with the difference here being the reduced
number, and particular selection, of items. A two-factor
correlated model tested. The model had 55 distinct sample
The 2017 PanSIG Journal169

moments with 21 distinct parameters to be estimated andterms of this procedure, the model fit better in 444 bootstrap

therefore 34 degrees of freedom (55-21). This met the

samples and fit worse in 56 bootstrap samples, and thecriterion of overidentification; a criterion which has to be

associated probability level for this analysis was p = .114,

met for a model to be testable. The chi-square value was 49.64

which is nonsignificant, and thus indicates model fit

with an associated probability level of p = .04. This is aaccording to the inverse logic for CFA discussed above.

relatively positive outcome because according to the logic of

Discussion

CFA, which is counterintuitive to usual statistical thinking,models are rejected when you get a significant result, because
this means that the hypothesized model is different from thedimensionality of the data and thus does not fit (Byrne, 2001).
In the case of this result, and if we presume a threshold of p
< .05, the probability level was almost nonsignificant. Thismeans that only slightly better properties in the data would
have resulted in model fit according to this criterion, that is,if the p value had risen to above .05. This result is also muchbetter than that achieved in Rupp (2016a), where the chisquare was 4344.26 with an associated probability level of p=.000 and much further away from rising above a p valueof .05. However, it should be noted that the previous study
used a larger sample, which affects statistical power. In otherwords, a larger sample makes the chi-square test moresensitive and more likely to reject models, which is anotherreason why the indexes reported below are necessary.
The results for the model indexes were as follows,with cutoffs (Hu & Bentler, 1999) provided in parentheses:
TLI = .90 (> .95); CFI = .93 (> .95); RMSEA = .05 (< .06);
and SRMSR = .06 (< .08). We can see that the absolute fit
indexes, RMSEA and SRMSR, both indicated model fit,
however the incremental fit indexes both narrowly failed themodel fit criteria. In fact, under an earlier version of Hu andBentler’s work (Hu & Bentler, 1998), the TLI and CFI
results would have indicated fit because the cutoffs at thattime were recommended to be .90. In the case of CFA,
however, and as mentioned above, results of the various
indexes must be triangulated; under this direction, the modelcannot be said to fit, because results were not satisfactory on
all indexes at once. However, the departure from model fit interms of these indexes is relatively narrow. This
interpretation of narrow departure from the model is further
supported by the results from the Bollen-Stine Bootstrap
procedure (Bollen & Stine, 1992), which was adopted toaccommodate for the nonnormal properties of the data. In

A triangulation of the CFA indexes of model fit indicatedthat the model did not quite meet the requirements for
acceptance as a plausible explanation of the dimensionality ofdata generated by the K-LoCS10. However, in comparing
these results with the previous CFA results for the widelyused K-LoCS43 (Rupp, 2016a), it is also clear that progresshas been made in improving the scale and that the
information gained from the focus group study (Rupp,
2016b) and the EFA (Rupp, 2017b) have contributed
towards this result.
In the case of the K-LoCS43, from which thisabridged instrument was created as a potential replacement,
the chi-square value was 4344.26 (p = .000), indicating
rejection of that 43-item model. Notably, the chi-square wasmuch smaller in this study (49.64) and the associatedprobability level (p = .04) closer to nonsignificance, which in
the logic of CFA is desirable, because a nonsignificant result
indicates model fit. The fit indexes for the K-LoCS43 (Rupp,
2016a) were also significantly worse than those derived forthis abridged version of the instrument (for ease of inspection,
those derived for this study are in square parentheses andcutoffs are in round parentheses): TLI = .60[.90] (> .95);
CFI = .62[.93] (> .95); RMSEA = .06[.05] (< .06); andSRMSR = .07[.06] (< .08). The improvement in the absolute
fit indexes (TLI and CFI) is quite noteworthy. The older
version of the K-LoCS43 with 18 items (K-LoCS18) had also
been previously tested (Rupp, 2016a), and similarly failed thechi-square test with a value of 967.20 (p < .01). Index values
for the old 18-item version were as follows: TLI = .71 (> .95);
CFI = .75 (> .95); RMSEA = .07 (< .06); and SRMSR = .07(< .08). These are slightly better than for the 43-item version
on the incremental fit indexes, slightly worse for the RMSEA,
and the same for the SRMSR. However, the results for the
CFA in the present study register an improvement on theolder 18-item version as well.
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

170

One analysis of the progression of fit indexes, forcontrol and learner-control on web-based language

the 43-item and 18-item versions in Rupp (2016a) and forlearning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 22(3),the 10-item version in this study, would appear to be that the189-206.

shorter the scale, the better the results with regards to the fit

Dragutinovich, S., White, K. D., & Austin, D. A. (1983).

indexes. This has explanatory value to the extent that long

Factor analysis and norms for an 18-item version of Reid

instruments lead to fatigue, false answers, and pattern

and Ware's Internal–External Scale. Canadian Journal of

responses. Participants may be able to give more thoughtful

Behavioural Science, 15(3), 259.

and sincere answers when not feeling harried by numerous
questions. The K-LoCS43 is indeed a long instrument.
Overall, it would appear that the nonnormal

Fan, X., & Thompson, B. (2001). Confidence intervals
about score reliability coefficients, please: An EPM
guidelines editorial. Educational and Psychologicaldistributions of scores present a continuing problem for thisMeasurement, 61(4), 517-531.

iteration of the instrument in the continuing trajectory of its

https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164401614001

abridgment and revision. One possible solution to this, inFushimi, M. (2011). The relationship between individual

terms of future research, would be to slightly rephrase certain

personality traits (internality-externality) anditems, which in the worst cases can read like truisms which are

psychological distress in employees in Japan. Depression

hard not to endorse, so that better distributional properties

Research and Treatment, 2011. Article ID 731307.

are obtained. This would proceed beyond revision of item

https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/731307

selection to actual revision of the items themselves. AnotherGhonsooly, B., & Elahi, M. (2012). Validating locus ofsolution would be to further extend the length of the Likert

control questionnaire and examining its relation toscale to 6 points, in an even greater accommodation of results

general English (GE) achievement. Journal of Teachingwhich came out of the focus group study (Rupp, 2016b).

Language Skills, 29(1), 117-143.

This endeavor to refine the K-LoCS43, which has

Ghonsooly, B., & Moharer, A. (2012). Examining thea significant presence in the literature, to arrive at a

relationship between translation students’ locus of

measurement model with plausible fit to the dimensionality

control and their translation achievement. Internationalof scores it produces is not complete but significant progress

Journal of Linguistics, 4(2), 244-259.

has been made. In the absence of good measures of learner

Ghonsooly, B., & Shirvan, M. E. (2011). On the relation ofautonomy, an evidence-based approach to developing andlocus of control and L2 reading and writing achievement.

refining other instruments that have clear notional andEnglish Language Teaching, 4(4), 234-244.

theoretical relation to learner autonomy, like locus of control,

Horai, K., (2013a). Measuring learner autonomy: A

is imperative. This provides alternatives to measuring learnerconfirmatory factor analysis of scores on an EFL learnerautonomy more directly and also provides avenues for theautonomy questionnaire. Soujou Daigaku Kiyou, 38, 59-

theoretical and empirical elaboration of learner autonomy,

72.

provided, of course, that these notionally associatedconstructs can be measured appropriately.

References
Bollen, K. A., & Stine, R. A. (1992). Bootstrapping
goodness-of-fit measures in structural equation
models. Sociological Methods & Research, 21(2), 205-229.
Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with
AMOS. London, England: Erlbaum.

Horai, K., (2013b). Confirmatory factor analyses ofmeasurement models for a Japanese adaptation of alearner autonomy instrument. International Journal ofSocial and Cultural Studies, 6, 57-76.
Hosaka, Y. (2007). An empirical study on streaming in
English class: With a focus on the relationship between
LoC and achievement. Ritsumeikan Studies in Language
and Culture, 18(3): 193-200.
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance

Chang, M. M., & Ho, C. M. (2009). Effects of locus of
The 2017 PanSIG Journal171

structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized

Learner autonomy, learning strategies and learning tactics

model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3(4), 424-

in independent language learning. In S. Hurd & T. Lewis

453.

(Eds.), Language learning strategies in independent settings

Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit(pp. 41–63). Bristol, England: Multilingual Matters.

indexes in covariance structure analysis: ConventionalPeek, R. (2016). Exploring learner autonomy: Language

criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation

learning locus of control in multilinguals. International

Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55.

Journal of Multilingualism, 13(2), 230-248.

Kambara, M., Higuchi, K., & Kiyomizu, N. (1982)

Ross, M. W., Kalucy, R. S., & Morton, J. E. (1983). Locus of

Locus of control no shakudo no sakusei to shinraisei,

control in obesity: Predictors of success in a jaw-wiring

datousei no kentou [Creating and researching the

programme. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 56(1),reliability and validity for a locus of control scale].

49-56.

Kyouiku Shinrigaku Kenkyuu, 30(4), 302-307.
Kambara, M. (1987). Koukousei no locus of control ni kan
suru kenkyuu: kitai oyobi gakushuu douki to no kanren[Locus of control belief in high school students: On the

Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internalversus external control of reinforcement. Psychological
Monographs: General and Applied, 80(1), 1.
Rupp, M. J. (2016a). Examining the Kambara locus ofrelation to expectancy and motives for learning]. Toukyou

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Daigaku Kyouiku Gakubu Kiyou, 26, 107-117.

Studies, 9, 47-69.

Macaskill, A., & Taylor, E. (2010). The development of a

Rupp, M. J. (2016b). Using focus groups for qualitative

brief measure of learner autonomy in university students.

feedback on psychometric instruments. In G. Brooks, M.

Studies in Higher Education, 35(3), 351-359.

Porter, D. Fujimoto, & D. Tatsuki (Eds.), The 2015

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Oxford, R. L. (2003). Toward a more systematic model of

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Rupp, M. J. (2017a). Recommended modifications to the
Kambara locus of control scale based on mixed methods

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172

Appendix
The 10 items of the K-LoCS10 (Rupp’s translation into English followed by original Japanese) along with indications ofinternal (I) and external (E) locus of control, followed by the original item number in parentheses from the K-LoCS43.
Item 01E

It is best just to go with the flow. (1 E)
何でも成り行きまかせが 1 番だ。

Item 02I

My happiness depends on my own efforts. (13 I)
幸福になるか不幸になるかは,自分の努力次第だ。

Item 03

E

My future depends on luck and chance. (15 E)
自分の将来は運やチャンスによって決まる。

Item 04

E

I cannot change what happens to me. (16 E)
自分の身に起こることは自分の力ではどうすることもできない。

Item 05I

If I am careful about my actions, people will trust me. (19 I)
自分の行動に注意していればいずれは人から信頼される。

Item 06

I

If I work hard, I can get the job I wish for. (21 I)
努力すれば希望の職につくことができる。

Item 07

E

Maintaining long friendships depends on the situation. (27 E)
友人とのつきあいが⾧く続くかどうかは周りの状況による。

Item 08E

We cannot change how smart we are. (33 E)
頭の良し悪しは変えることはできない。

Item 09

I

I can get a much better result on tests if I plan my studies. (38 I)
前もって計画的に試験勉強をすれば結果はずっと良くなる。

Item 10I

If I am kind to my friends, someday they will help me. (42 I)
友人に親切にしていればいつかは友人に助けてもらえる。

Authors’ Biographies
Michael James Rupp holds a PhD in Applied Linguistics/TESOL from Kumamoto University and is alecturer at Tokai University in Kumamoto. His research interests include learner autonomy, curriculum
design, EAP/ESP, and teacher development.
Ian Maxwell Isemonger is an associate professor in the Department of Communication and Information
Studies and the Post Graduate School of Social and Cultural Studies at Kumamoto University. His
research interests include psychometrics and the digital humanities.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

173

Students as Content Teachers: Peer-Taught Lessons in EFL Classes
Jamie Taylor
Chubu University
taylorjamiec@gmail.com
This paper outlines a way to engage learners and promote real communication through the use of peertaught mini lessons. After a brief background and rationale, the author details the steps for implementing a
project in which students serve as content teachers on a topic they are knowledgeable about. During theplanning and presentation of the lessons, the teacher acts as a guide, scaffolding the students through theprocess. Both motivation to communicate and engagement with the course content improve during thisproject. This activity can easily be used in a variety of contexts and classes, both content-based and languagebased, and is recommended for any teacher who wants to help students improve their understanding ofcourse content as well as their confidence in the second language.
本稿では，小規模共学習を介した，学習者を授業に惹きつけ，言語によるコミュニケーシ
ョンを促進する方法を紹介する。本活動では，学習者である学生は，自身の見識ある情報を共学習者である学生に対して発表する。その企画や発表準備過程において，教師は学習者がそれを達成するための土台作りを援助する。学習者のコミュニケーションをとるためのモチベーションや発表のための準備に対する努力は，本プロジェクトの価値を高め。この活動は，言語習得目的に関わらず多くの授業などで簡単に利用でき，学習者の授業内容の理解と第二言語の習得を願う教師に薦めることができる。

The author teaches a content-based university course in

to build students’ comfort using English communicatively,

English in which there is almost no explicit language

making use of their enthusiasm in class was a natural next step

instruction. This elective course, entitled “Discussing

in meeting this goal. The author thus began a class project inEntertainment,” covers basic topics in art, music, and film

which students design and teach mini lessons on a film, artist,

appreciation. It is usually a small class with fewer than 16

or musician that they are passionate and knowledgeable

students from departments throughout the university. The

about. After guided planning and preparation, students are

first time this course was taught, the instructor selected all theable to teach a 20-25 minute content lesson to their

topics, and they seemed to be enjoyable for the students.

classmates. Overall, this has been a highly successful activity

However, it quickly became apparent that the students werethat is recommended for a variety of contexts.

even more interested and engaged when discussing artists,musicians, and movies that the instructor was not familiar

Content-Based Instruction

with. While they enjoyed lessons on Beethoven, Miles Davis,

Content-based instruction (CBI) is a general term for aand The Beatles, they were the most energetic when given thevariety of approaches to language teaching in which language

opportunity to discuss their interests in Taylor Swift, EXILEand content instruction are integrated. Instructional

TRIBE, and AKB48, for example.

approaches falling under the umbrella of CBI range from theStudents seemed to almost instantly overcome any

heavily content focused (e.g., total immersion), to supportive

shyness or lack of confidence when talking about theirlanguage courses provided alongside content courses, tofavorite entertainment. As the author’s ultimate objective islanguage classes organized into thematic units (Brinton &The 2017 PanSIG Journal174

Snow, 2017; Lyster & Ballinger, 2011). CBI provides a

the target language to communicate. In the process ofvariety of benefits for language learning in both ESL and EFL

teaching content, learners must use the language

contexts as it supplies authentic input and numerous

communicatively to help their peers, resulting in improved

opportunities for negotiation and production of meaningful

second language skills in addition to deeper knowledge of theoutput (Brinton & Snow, 2017). Content-based courses

subject they are teaching (Luk & Wang, 2011; Mynard &present a context for students to use the target language in a

Almarzouqi, 2006). In the present course course, the first few

highly communicative and meaningful way. The more

weeks are spent with the instructor teaching content andmeaningful content is emphasized in the classroom, the lessusing the entertainment-related language students will needstudents focus on language form and instead focus on theto teach their own lessons later. The students are therefore

meaning of the language, resulting in greater interest andable to combine the language that they have heard theirmotivation (Amiri & Fatemi, 2014).

instructor use in class with their prior knowledge in order to

Not only does CBI support language acquisition, it

teach their classmates about a topic.

has also been found to enhance critical thinking ability (Tsaiconnect new information to their existing knowledge, andMethodology
Introducing The Project

they are asked to explore the information from different

The present project typically takes parts of two to threeperspectives. When students are presented with increasinglyclasses to plan. The amount of time spent on each step

challenging content in CBI courses and asked to reproduce

depends on the proficiency level of the students and the size

what they learn, they are able to engage more deeply with theof the class. As an introduction to this project, the last 20

information (Kong & Hoare, 2011). This deep content

minutes of one class are reserved for explaining the goals andprocessing leads to deeper engagement with the language andplanning process to the students. In this introduction class,a deeper understanding of the relationship between language

the instructor guides them through brainstorming potential

form and meaning.

topics to be covered in their lesson. For example, if the& Shang, 2010). Learners are given many opportunities toteaching project for a given semester is to introduce a

Peer-Taught Lessons

musician the class is not familiar with, a timer is set for 3-4

Classmate tutoring and peer-taught lessons have been used

minutes and students are asked to make a long list of musicalsuccessfully in a variety of contexts (Stigmar, 2016). Whenartists that they enjoy listening to.

students are required to teach other students, they are

After the students have listed their favorite

required to think more critically about the content andmusicians, they circle the ones that they think theirprocess it more deeply than in traditional teacher-led lessonsclassmates do not know about. They are then asked to choose(King, 2002). The students have to decide what aspects of thethe one among these that they are most knowledgeable about.

content to cover, how to teach it, and how to solve problems

Next, students share their choices with their classmates tothat might arise during their lesson. Mastery of content

check whether the musician is unfamiliar to the group.

knowledge is thus one of the greatest benefits to having

Commonly listed artists in recent semesters include Maroon

students teach others (Mynard & Almarzouqi, 2006).

5, Justin Bieber, Morning Musume, and RADWIMPS.

Students are rarely required to learn content as deeply as they

Typically, most of the musicians listed are familiar to the

do in the process of planning and teaching lessons to theirgroup, but there are always also less well-known groups listed.

peers.

For example, topics selected in the most recent semester of
In addition to improved content knowledge, well-this class included groups such as Busted, The Chopsticks

planned peer-led lessons can also result in greater motivation

Brothers, Green Day, and the Korean idol group TWICE. As

and improved willingness to participate (Assinder, 1991). Ina homework assignment, students are asked to learn as muchthe foreign language classroom, this means increased use of
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

175

as possible about the musician before the next week’s lesson

learning of the information they presented. Students areand bring their notes to class.

given the option of assessing the learning of each student (e.g.,with a written quiz) or the class as a whole (e.g., a whole-group

Modeling and Planning The Lessonsgame).

The following week, 45 minutes to an hour of class time are

Because students in this class have never planned a

devoted to helping students plan their lessons. This class islesson before, the teacher circulates as they complete their

typically started by asking them to write a content learning

planning sheet and checks each step of their plan, guiding

goal for their lesson. They are instructed to make this asthem towards more specific language. Before students leave

simple as possible, the teacher explaining that more generalclass for the day, the instructor checks and approves eachgoals will be hard to achieve in a short lesson. The students

lesson plan. Occasionally, students who need extra help inselect the most important content that they want their

this planning stage are asked to come to the instructor’s officeclassmates to learn, then they write a lesson objectivehour for more guidance.

statement beginning, “Students will be able to…” Example
objective statements include “Students will be able to identify

Presenting The Finished Lessons

the stage name and mask of each of the members of MAN

Finally, students present their lessons on a pre scheduled day.

WITH A MISSION,” “Students will be able to recognize andThis presentation typically takes place at least 2 weeks after

name the three most popular songs by TWICE,” andthe planning class so that students have ample time to prepare“Students will be able to list the most important influences

and practice for their lessons. Usually, three lessons per classon Green Day.”are scheduled; although the students plan a 20 to 25 minuteOn a planning worksheet (see Appendix), students

lesson, they sometimes take up to 30 minutes to complete. If

copy their goal statement and write a plan for three parts ofthere is extra class time after that day’s lessons are finished, it

their lesson: presentation of information, practice with theis used to review content learned earlier in the semester orinformation for their classmates, and an assessment of theirintroduce the topics that will be covered in the weeks afterclassmates’ learning. Before students complete the worksheet,the student mini lessons are complete.

the instructor presents a model lesson, drawing students’

By far the most common way students present

attention to each of the three main parts. During thisinformation is by using PowerPoint and playing audio orplanning class, the teacher also shows video clips of student

video clips. In the practice phase of the lesson, students havelessons from previous terms and examples of materials thatgiven worksheets, made games for classmates to playstudents have created. For lower proficiency groups, time isindividually or in groups, and asked the group to discuss

given in a subsequent class to practice teaching their lesson toquestions they have prepared. The most common types ofa partner.

assessments include paper quizzes and whole class trivia or
The planning worksheet prompts them to specify

games. During the lesson presentations, the instructor sits

what they will do to execute each step. First, they list theirwith the class and acts as a student, only switching back into

goal statement, which will guide their lesson. Second, theyteacher mode to guide the students when they need it (e.g.,determine how they will introduce the content in the first“Would you like to call on a classmate to answer yourpart of their lesson: “I will introduce the information to bequestion?” “Would you like to try explaining that a different

learned by…” Students explain what they will do in the lessonway?”).

to present the content. Third, the practice step begins: “I willlead the class in practice of the information to be learned by…”

Discussion
Avoiding Potential Difficulties

For this step, students are to design an activity that all

As students are guided through each planning stage and thestudents can participate in, either individually or in groups.

instructor is present during the lessons to facilitate as needed,

Finally, students list how they will check their classmates’

students are usually able to get help working around potential
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

176problems before they arise. The most common issue is thatengage with their peer teacher than when the instructor isstudents choose a topic too broad to teach in a short lesson.

leading a typical class. This may be attributed to the relative

Because the instructor spends the first few weeks of the course

novelty of being taught by a peer (Luk & Wang, 2011). The

getting to know students’ interests, the teacher is able to guidestudents acting as learners ask more questions and are more

students to topics that they are an “expert” on and can help

willing to share their reactions or opinions without being

them choose a content learning goal that is specific enough toprompted. It seems that having a classmate as a teacher is

be covered successfully during their lesson time. Giving

more interesting and less intimidating than having theirplenty of examples of presentation, practice, and assessment

regular instructor leading the lesson.

activities helps students to plan successful tasks for theirStudent Feedback

lesson.

Quality of Student-Taught Lessons

In a subsequent class, students are asked to answer a simple

Overall, the students in this course have impressed theirquestion about the project: “What did you think about the

instructor with their creativity and ability to teach a simple

teaching presentation? As a presenter? As an audience

lesson even with low English proficiency. Especiallymember?” They are asked to write their response (in either

impressive is the variety of activities they create to use in theirEnglish or Japanese) on a sheet of paper that the instructor

lessons. The author has used this project during five different

later collects. With respect to acting as a teacher, students

terms, and it has been surprising to find that no two students

have responded overwhelmingly positively. Among thehave used the same method for the practice step. They are also

responses from the 10 students from the most recent

able to lead the class in practice much longer than either thesemester’s class, one typical comment was, “As a presenter atstudents or the instructor imagined before beginning this

this class I got a chance to share my idea with other guys, andproject. The interactive nature of the lessons seems to takeit also improved my English skill.” Similarly, another student

some of the pressure off of the “teacher,” and the students

wrote, “It’s good for me. I must try to talk English, so I thinkteaching lessons seem more confident with this format thanthat my English skills improved!” One responder noted, “It’swith traditional presentations. As Assinder (1991) pointed

good education because when I work some society it’s very

out, increased confidence when teaching lessons to peers inimportant skill.” Two students acknowledged that this

this format may be due to the improved self-esteem thatproject was challenging, with one writing, “When I teachcomes with being an expert on a topic. The learners seemsomething, I have to prepare so much.” These comments are

eager to share their interests with others as well as proud ofin line with findings of Bradford-Watts (2011) and Luk andtheir knowledge of the topic.

Wang (2011), who found that even though this activity is

Students are better prepared and practice morethoroughly for this project than for any other part of the

difficult for students, peer teaching is a rewarding learning
opportunity.

course. This is likely due to the increased sense of

In response to participating as an audience member,responsibility and motivation student teachers have whencomments were all positive. A common theme was about

they are responsible for the learning of their peers (Assinder,

enjoying learning about new entertainment: “As an audience,

1991; Mynard & Almarzouqi, 2006). To date, the author has

I could learn some foreign singers and movies that I haven’t

only observed one unsuccessful student lesson; after the

known.” Another frequent response was about learning morepresentation, this student admitted that he had not taken

about their classmates, for example, “I had a chance to know

time out of class to prepare or practice his lesson. This is thethe others.” Students also mentioned liking the opportunity

only project in the course in which the students who are

to practice listening to English, with one student writing, “Ipresenting take the initiative to check the comprehension of

could put on listening ability to listen the presentation.”

their classmates and offer help as needed. The students
participating as audience members also seem more eager to
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

177

Recommendations for Implementing Similar
Projects
Different Class Sizes and Proficiency Levels

been used in class. Further empirical research in this area

This project works best in small classes. This course typicallyduring a traditional presentation. With adjustments, thishas between 8 and 16 students, but this project could be

project would be successful in a variety of both traditional

successful in slightly larger classes if students work in groups

language classes and content-based courses taught in theto prepare and teach their lessons. If students have lower

target language. This project is recommended to any teacher

English proficiency, it is helpful to break the planning stage

who is interested in engaging their students more deeply ininto smaller parts spread out over more classes, give more

the class content and encouraging use of the second language

examples of lessons and materials, and have them teachto communicate.

might compare the volume of student speech during ateaching presentation with the amount of output produced

lessons of shorter duration. Advanced students typically need

References

less scaffolding; they can plan their lessons with lessinstructor input and usually require less in-class planning

Amiri, M., & Fatemi, A. H. (2014). The impact oftime. They do not need as many examples and are often able

content-based instruction on students’ achievement into teach longer lessons. As Luk and Wang (2011) suggested,

ESP courses and their language learning orientation.

it may also help to schedule this activity as a final project after

Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(10), 2157-

getting students used to talking in front of a group with

2167.

presentations throughout the term. Working in pairs can also
be helpful for nervous or lower proficiency students.

Assinder, W. (1991). Peer teaching, peer learning: Onemodel. ELT Journal, 45(3), 218-229.
Bradford-Watts, K. (2011). Students teaching students?

Different Course Types

Peer teaching in the EFL classroom in Japan. The

The success of peer-taught lessons over several terms andLanguage Teacher, 35(5), 31-35.

among learners with a variety of proficiency levels suggests

Brinton, D. M., & Snow, M. A. (2017). The evolving

that this will be an enjoyable activity to adapt for use in otherarchitecture of content-based instruction. In M. A. Snowcourses. In coming semesters, the author is planning to use& D. M. Brinton (Eds.), The content-based classroom:

this project in non content based classes. In conversation

New perspectives on integrating language and content (pp.

courses, students will teach simple lessons about topics

2-20). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

familiar to them (but not necessarily to others) such as theirKing, A. (2002). Structuring peer interaction to promote

hometown or their hobbies. In classes with students fromhigh-level cognitive processing. Theory Into Practice,various departments, the instructor will have them introduce

41(1), 33-39.

their classmates to something simple about their major. In

Kong, S., & Hoare, P. (2011). Cognitive content

classes where the instructor is required to use less-engaging

engagement in content-based language teaching.

textbooks, the author will ask students to learn a section of

Language Teaching Research, 15(3), 307-324.

the course book (with instructor guidance) and teach it to

Luk, H., & Wang, M. (2011). Peer teaching and learner
responsibility. Kwansei Gakuin University Humanities

their classmates.

Conclusion
Common benefits to using peer-taught lessons include

Review, 16, 39-54.
Lyster, R., & Ballinger, S. (2011). Content-based language

greater motivation, increased participation, and improved

teaching: Convergent concerns across divergent contexts.

critical thinking (Stigmar, 2016). Students in the present

Language Teaching Research, 15(3), 279-288.

course are more involved and enthusiastic and take initiative
to analyze and discuss each topic more deeply with peertaught lessons than with any other class project that has

Mynard, J., & Almarzouqi, I. (2006). Investigating peer
tutoring. ELT Journal, 60(1), 13-22.
Stigmar, M. (2016). Peer-to-peer teaching in higher
The 2017 PanSIG Journal178education: A critical literature review. Mentoring &content-based language instruction on EFL students’

Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 24(2), 124-136.

reading performance. Asian Social Science, 6(3), 77-85.

Tsai, Y.-L., & Shang, H. F. (2010). The impact ofAuthor’s Biography
Jamie Taylor has taught English in France, the United States, and Japan, and currently teaches
full-time at Chubu University near Nagoya. Her research interests include bilingual language
processing and content-based language teaching. She can be contacted at taylorjamiec@gmail.com

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

179

Appendix

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

180

Using Modern Tabletop Games in Your EFL Classroom
Juha Vaittinen
Kyushu Sangyo University
juhapmvaittinen@gmail.com
Games in the classroom have traditionally been seen as a reward after students finish their classwork, rarely
as part of the actual work (Mayer & Harris, 2010). However, modern tabletop games, a far cry from theroll-and-move games of the past, can offer a highly interactive, collaborative, and communicative experience
for the EFL classroom. While these games can also help students improve their interpersonal skills anddevelop their higher order thinking skills, perhaps the biggest benefit of authentic modern tabletop gamesin the EFL setting is their communicative nature. This paper looks at cooperative games and social deduction
games—two genres of modern tabletop games in which communication is a key component of the game
experience—and introduces an example game in each genre. The paper then describes ways in whichteachers can use tabletop games to teach reading, listening, and speaking in their classes.
授業中のゲームについては、以前から課題を達成した後のご褒美として用いられてきており、ゲーム自体が課題として取り扱われることはほとんどなかった(Mayer & Harris,2010)。しかし、最近の卓上ゲームは過去のすごろくゲームとは大いに異なり、英語の授業に導入した場合には、対話を促し、協力、コミュニケーションの機会を与えてくれる。最近の卓上ゲームは、生徒たちの対人コミュニケーション力や思考能力を高めるだ
けではない。英語の授業で導入する一番のメリットは、卓上ゲームのコミュニケーショ
ンを必要とする本質だと考える。今回はコミュニケーションが鍵となる協力を必要とするゲームと Social Deduction ゲームの２種の卓上ゲームを分析し、例となるゲームをそれぞれ紹介する。その後、リーディング、リスニング、スピーキングを指導する際の卓上
ゲームの最も効果的な導入方法について述べることとする。

Many of us have fond memories of evenings spent playing

Harris, 2010). The problem of player elimination, forclassic tabletop games like Monopoly, The Game of Life, andinstance, has largely been done away with. Moreover, modern

Clue. While some of us would perhaps like to utilize these

designs aim to ensure that all players remain engaged with thegames in our classes, they tend to suffer from problems thatgame experience throughout the game (Nicholson, 2011).

in many ways render them unsuitable for the EFL classroom.
Many classic games simply take too long to play, making it
difficult to finish a game within a single class. The roll-andmove mechanics in many of the classics offer few
opportunities for meaningful interaction between players,
and often result in too much down time between turns.
Player elimination, another common feature in older games,

Since the early 2000s, we have been in a golden ageof board games (Duffy, 2014; Hofer 2003). Thousands of
new titles are published every year, and game designers areconstantly creating more interesting and engaging gamemechanics, even new genres of games. Some of these recent
designs lend themselves particularly well to teaching English.

is another mechanic ill-suited for the classroom as it turns

The aim of this paper is to illustrate why modern

students into passive observers. However, modern tabletop

tabletop games can be great teaching aids in the EFL

games, also known as designer games, have successfullyclassroom. I will start by discussing the advantages andremedied many of these issues and offer a far more engaging

challenges of using designer games in class. I will then examine

and interactive experience (Nicholson, 2008; Mayer &two particularly suitable genres of games for the EFL setting:The 2017 PanSIG Journal181

cooperative games and social deduction games. I will also briefly

evaluation, and organization to information in order tointroduce two games, one in each genre, and look at theconstruct understandings, draw conclusions, and create new

language skills students can practice while playing them.

knowledge. Well-designed games, therefore, demand the use

Finally, I will describe ways in which teachers can utilize

of inquiry and information-processing skills from the players

games in their classes and show how games can be helpful(Mayer & Harris, 2010). After all, players are constantly

tools when teaching reading, speaking, and listening,

required to evaluate the ever-changing game state and theparticularly within a task-based-learning lesson framework.

options available to them as the game progresses.
Another strength of modern tabletop games isAdvantages and Challenges of Modern Tabletop
Games

their authenticity, and, as Oura (2001) argued, using

According to Henricks (2015), play is a fundamental form offor students. Nunan (1999) defined authentic materials as

human activity, and, as Harris (2009) asserts, engaging

spoken or written texts produced in a genuine,

students to learn through play is hardly a new concept. In fact,communicative context; in other words, they have not beentabletop games have been used for educational purposes for a

made specifically for teaching a language. Rulebooks, gamelong time. Monopoly was originally designed to educate thecomponents, player aids, and supplementary videos are all

public about the evils of capitalism (Pilon, 2015). In thedesigned with one singular goal in mind: help players learn,

United States, organizations as varied as the Central

play, and enjoy the game. Harris (2009) acknowledged theIntelligence Agency, the Navy, and the Department ofimportance of authenticity, asserting that if teachers want

Agriculture use board games to prepare their operatives andstudents to immerse themselves in classroom games, it is vital

analysts for real-world situations and tasks (Larson, 2017;to provide students with real games, as opposed to worksheets“War Games,” 2015). But modern tabletop games can alsowith dice masquerading as games. Similarly, Nicholson

have plenty to offer in the EFL classroom. They provide a(2011) characterized this traditional question-and-answer

social environment in which students interact andmodel of dice-rolling classroom games as “one of the greatcollaborate (Mayer & Harris, 2010).

failings in educational game design” (p. 60). Modern tabletop

Compared to many of the classics, modern
tabletop games present a more open-ended play environment,rich in opportunities for negotiation and discussion. In thisway, these games can “complement classroom activities andengage students in active learning” (Levine, 2008). There areoften multiple ways to complete objectives and a wide variety
of different strategies players can employ. Nicholson (2011)

authentic materials in class can be a meaningful experiencegames provide players with opportunities to make interesting
decisions (Levine, 2008) as opposed to random chance
making those decisions for the player. Furthermore, modern
designers place great emphasis on creating visually appealinggames that look great on the table, which, combined with thetactile nature of these games, helps create a unique andengaging classroom experience.

argued that games “in which the gameplay emerges from the

One of the main challenges with tabletop games iscontent can create board game experiences that are vibrant,

the time it takes the play them. Harris (2009) argued that for

motivating, and provide opportunities for deep engagement”

a game to be suitable for classroom use, it must be played from(p. 60). This open nature of these designer games is one of thethe beginning to the end in about 40 minutes, including set-qualities that make them powerful teaching aids (Mayer &up and learning the rules. Large classes present another set ofHarris, 2010). According to Harris (2009), modern tabletop

challenges. Very few games can easily accommodate groups

games challenge players to think critically through alarger than 10, necessitating the purchase of multiple copies

sophisticated thought process that the games necessitate. Heof the same game or having some students engage in anotherasserts that while playing, players engage in a research processactivity while waiting for their turn. Observing students andin which they must apply skills like analysis, synthesis,making sure they speak English while playing a game can also
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be a challenge. Students may switch back to their L1 if the

Although cooperative games still often feature individual

teacher is not looking, but I find that pre-teaching some ofplayer turns, the collaborative nature of these games

the language required to successfully play a game can help

encourages players to plan their moves together. One player

remedy this issue. In general, I have found students to be morecannot solve the game on their own because players havewilling to try harder when they are genuinely engaged andaccess to different pieces of the main puzzle in the game andimmersed.

typically have unique abilities they alone can use, creating

It is, therefore, critically important that teachers
find games that are both thematically and cognitively
appropriate for their educational setting. Finding games withsuitable themes for your students is a manageable task due tothe sheer number of games available. However, one of thechallenges with modern games is their complexity (Levine,
2008) and especially those teaching young learners shouldbear this in mind. Finding games that both necessitatecommunication and challenge students cognitively without

communicative gaps. Cooperative games, therefore, require
players to share information and discuss, together as a team,
the best course of action or negotiate towards a solution.
According to Mayer and Harris (2010), the absolute necessityof communication in cooperative games makes them ideal for
language-learning classes. Furthermore, they argue thatcooperative games are especially effective at “building teamskills and helping students see value in different opinions andapproaches” (p. 113).

being so difficult that they cause frustration presents possibly

Forbidden Island (Gamewright Games, 2010,

the most significant hurdle in the way of successfully utilizing¥3000, 2-4 players, CEFR A2+) is one of the easiest

games in class. When searching for suitable games, the website

cooperative games to learn and, clocking in at 30 minutes, isBoardGameGeekanrelatively quick to play. It is suitable also for younger learners,

invaluable resource. It is an enormous database of tabletop

both thematically and cognitively, but thanks to its adjustable

games, documenting even the tiniest minutiae of virtuallydifficulty level, it remains sufficiently challenging for adults as

every game ever published. On BoardGameGeek, teachers

well. The small player count makes the game ideal for small

can search for games based on factors such as their genre,classes, but thanks to its cooperative gameplay, pairing up

theme, complexity, game mechanics, or playing time.

does not significantly hurt the game experience. In Forbidden(www.boardgamegeek.com)

isIsland, players find themselves on an island trying to locate

Genres and Example Games

four legendary treasures. The island, however, is rapidly

When using tabletop games in the EFL classroom, not all

sinking into the sea and parts of the island soon become

games are equal. Some genres of games are better suited forinaccessible. Players must discuss their options, make full use

classroom use than others. In this chapter, I will discuss twoof their characters’ unique abilities, and work together as agenres that are suitable for language learners. I will also briefly

team because every move counts. If players find all four

introduce an example game in each genre—games that I havetreasures and make it back to their helicopter before theused in class myself. I considered the following factors whenisland submerges completely, they win.

selecting the games: price, availability, playing time, and thelanguage level required to play them.

Forbidden Island is excellent for practicing
offering suggestions and giving opinions. The gameboard is in

The first category of games I would like to discuss

a constant state of flux as the island sinks further into the sea

is the cooperative game genre. While some older games likewhile the players desperately shore up key areas to maintain

Scotlandsomeaccess to different sections of the island. The random nature

cooperative elements, truly cooperative games are a relativelyof the sinking process leads to constant speculation, making

recent invention. Cooperative games pit the players against

the game ideal for practicing conditionals. The game is a non-the game. Players must work as a team to reach a goal orstop barrage of conditionals like “If you move there now, thencomplete an objective, either winning or losing together.

next turn I can…,” “You shouldn’t do that because if this area

Yard

(Ravensburger,

1983)

featureThe 2017 PanSIG Journal

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sinks, we won’t be able to…,” or “If I go here, could you…?”

witness, and accomplice, each requiring a slightly different

Collaborative decision making is key, as players constantly

play style. After the players have received their roles, theformulate plans, evaluate them, and express agreement or

gameplay consists almost exclusively of discussion. One

disagreement. The cooperative nature of the game ensures

player, the forensic scientist, provides others with a steadythat without good communication, players quickly finddrip-drip-drip of revelations, but the evidence is often

themselves in need of a life vest.

ambiguous. Investigators try to interpret the clues, whereas

Social deduction games are another genre that canbe effectively utilized in the language classroom. Most

the murderer’s job is to obfuscate by attempting to steer theconversation away from the solution.

tabletop games feature at least some element of deduction,

Deception excels at making players do their best to

and in some games deduction is even the central element

persuade others. Since the murderer could be anyone, players(Faidutti & Branham, 2000). However, social deduction

are all trying to convince others of their innocence. By

games take deduction games a step further by introducing

comparing and contrasting evidence and the randomly

bluffing and deception into the mix. In social deduction

assigned belongings of each investigator, players try togames, or hidden role games as they are sometimes known,

identify the murderer, the murder weapon, and a key piece of

players are assigned secret roles and typically given a sharedevidence left behind by the murderer. If the correct player,task to complete or a mission to accomplish. Some players,

weapon, and key evidence are found, the investigators win—

however, merely appear to be furthering the team goals while,

but each player gets only one attempt at solving the crime. If

in fact, actively working towards objectives of their own. The

the murderer is successful in tricking the investigators tochallenge comes from players trying to identify those working

accuse innocent players of the crime, the murderer wins.

against them or their team, as the group discusses team goals
and how best to accomplish them. Older classics in the genre
like Mafia (also known as Werewolf) feature player
elimination, thus making them less suitable for classroom use.
However, modern hidden role games like Deception: Murderin Hong Kong (Grey Fox Games, 2015) have done away withplayer elimination altogether. Most social deduction games
feature fairly simple rulesets and simultaneous, conversationbased gameplay. Social deduction games can often
accommodate bigger groups of players, making them
particularly suitable for classroom use.

Cooperative games and social deduction games are
ideal for English classrooms due to their highly interactive
and communicative nature. In many games, like the two
mentioned above, the gameplay itself revolves aroundconversation. The games provide students with structure andobjectives, but much of the gaming experience—and the
fun—is derived from the conversations players have as theynavigate the game’s challenges. However, not all games inthese genres are suitable for classroom use; teachers must still
make an effort to find games that work well for their group oflearners.

In Deception: Murder in Hong Kong (¥5000, CEFR

Utilizing Games in Class

A2+, 20-30 minutes), players are investigators trying to solvea murder case. The twist is that the murderer is one of the

In this section, I will describe different ways teachers caninvestigators. Deception can accommodate up to 12 players,utilize designer games in their classes. Games are surprisingly

and if the teacher is willing to make a DIY version of a key

versatile, and classes built around games can easily becomponent or two, there’s enough content in the box to get

modified to suit the needs of the students. Below I will give

two, possibly even three, games going at once. Despite theexamples of how a game lesson can focus on reading, listening,grisly-sounding theme, the game is silly rather than dark.

and speaking.

Regardless, thematic appropriateness may still be an issue

Rulebooks as Jigsaw Reading Tasks

with younger learners. There are many different randomly
assigned roles in the game, such as investigator, murderer,

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Instead of teaching students how to play a game, students canthese videos present an opportunity to supplement theirlearn the rules cooperatively through jigsaw reading tasks. In

game classes with authentic listening activities. Authentic

a jigsaw reading task, students are given different parts of avideo contents, according to Kwon and Kim, have positive

text. After reading their texts, students report back to theireffects on listening ability, particularly for learners of lowgroup, tell others what they learned, and, as a group, piece

proficiency (as cited in Song & Kim, 2010, p. 134). Although

together the whole text.

authentic listening materials can be more challenging forModern tabletop games have rulebooks that lendthemselves well to this type of reading task. Most rulebooks

students, the scaffolding provided by the visuals and thecontext helps bring the difficulty level down a notch.

consist of four distinct sections: the premise or idea of theStarting a game class with a video introduction orgame, set-up, game and/or turn structure, and end or win

impression can help activate schema by accessing students’conditions. The sections on the premise and winningprior knowledge of the topic or theme of the game and thus

conditions are usually shorter and easier to understand,prime them for the main task. Instead of reading the rulebook,whereas the turn structure part tends to be longer and more

students can learn the rules by watching a rules explanation

complicated. Therefore, it is often beneficial to split the turn

video, followed by, for example, comprehension questions or

structure section into two parts or have two students work on

a group discussion to check understanding. In addition,

it together. This also allows teachers some flexibility; while itlistening activities based on video playthroughs provide a

may be worthwhile to have all students read about the idea or

great way to introduce key vocabulary and useful phrases topremise of the game, teachers may assign the easier sections tostudents. Sometimes it can be beneficial to have the students

lower level students and have more advanced students tackle

play the game first—this way students are familiar with thethe challenging parts of the rulebook. Afterwards, the teacher

game and the context for the language—and then follow up

can check understanding by confirming that the game haswith a playthrough-based listening activity in which students

been set up properly, asking the students questions about theare directed to pay special attention to key linguistic resources

game, or even having the students prepare a short oral report

like signposting, agreeing and disagreeing, offeringon the basics of the game.

suggestions or opinions, and negotiation. Then, time

Jigsaws constitute a learner-centered, teacherfacilitated approach that fosters positive interdependence

permitting, students may play the game again, now armed
with authentic language they gleaned from the listening.

between students (Meng, 2010). Although this approach canSome of the online resources I have used are Watch

take more time, it allows students to take ownership of the

It Played, Shut Up & Sit Down, and TableTop. Watch It

process of learning the game. The process of piecing together

Played, a YouTube channel by Rodney Smith, is great for

the rules of the game also provides an opportunity for

concise rules explanations with helpful visuals. Shut Up & Sit

meaningful communication with a clear, well-defined

Down (www.shutupandsitdown.com) is a tabletop gaming

purpose.

blog by British tabletop enthusiasts whose entertaining game

Using Tabletop Gaming Videos for Authentic
Listening Activities

introductions, reviews, and play-throughs have generated a
sizeable following in the gaming community. Their website isalso a great resource for discovering new, classroom-friendly

The rise of modern tabletop games has spawned a huge online

games. TableTop (geekandsundry.com/shows/tabletop/), a

community. Today, hundreds of blogs, websites, andweb series hosted by actor Wil Wheaton, focuses on play-companies are creating game-related podcasts or video

throughs. Wil’s short, often humorous introductions makecontent. On YouTube, for example, it is possible to findfor great primers.

channels dedicated to game introductions, rules explanations,impressions and reviews, and play-throughs. For teachers,

Games as Communicative Tasks

The 2017 PanSIG Journal185

As mentioned before, modern tabletop games areplay the game? The second outcome is the result of the gamecommunicative in nature. These games can also be utilized

and the events that occurred.

within a task-based framework as communicative tasks. Ellis(2009) has determined that tasks have four distinct
characteristics. First, the primary focus of a task must be on
message, not language. Second, tasks require some kind of agap. Third, the language needed to complete the task is freely
chosen by the learners. And finally, a task must have a nonlinguistic outcome.

In the pre-task stage, short videos like the ones
discussed earlier work well to activate students’ priorknowledge or introduce key vocabulary and language. For the
post-task review stage, I have found success with oral reports,
discussions or stories based on the events of the game.
Teachers willing to invest in a larger collection of games also
have the option of having multiple groups of students playModern tabletop games meet all these criteria.

different games simultaneously. Afterwards, some students

When playing games, the focus is always on conveying

from each group can rotate, teach the rules to their new groupmeaning: Players are communicating in order to escape frommembers, and play another round. This makes for a great

an island or to discover the identity of a criminal, for example,

post-task activity as it truly checks students’ understanding ofand not to practice grammatical structures or vocabulary.

the rules and content of the game.

Likewise, games do not automatically give players theConclusion

language to use while playing. Instead, the players themselves
must decide which linguistic—or non-linguistic—resources

In the EFL classroom, games have often been used as a closer

to employ and how best to get their ideas across. Furthermore,or a reward for students after they have finished the more

the puzzle-like nature of modern games necessitates the

traditional parts of the lesson, but very rarely as part of theformation of gaps. Prabhu (1987) has identified threeactual classwork (Mayer & Harris, 2010). However, modern

different types of gaps: information, opinion, and reasoning.

tabletop games can offer significant benefits in language

Information gaps involve the transfer of
information between two or more participants with access todifferent information. Reasoning gaps require students toanalyze information available to them, derive new
information from it by using reason and logic, and use it toresolve a problem or make a decision. Opinion gaps
necessitate the expression of personal preferences, ideas, or
feelings in response to a situation. Well-designed games makeuse of all three gap types. Games limit access to information,

classes.

Modernconstantly provide players with new information to process
and analyze in order to solve problems or challenges. Opinion
gaps stem naturally from information and reasoning gaps: Asplayers are privy to separate pieces of information and thus
come up with different solutions to the problems at hand,
they must offer, discuss, and evaluate opinions andsuggestions together in order to plan a move or reach aconclusion. Finally, games have two non-linguistic outcomes.
The first one is simple: Were the students able to successfully

encourageinteraction

andcommunication, and their design ensures that players remain
involved and engaged throughout the game. While thesegames can also help develop students’ higher order thinking
skills, their biggest advantage is their ability to foster genuine,
goal-oriented communication. By combining games withauthentic listening materials available online, teachers cancreate varied and effective lessons that enrich the students’classroom experience.

Referencesleading to information gaps and the need for communication.
Reasoning gaps are a fundamental part of gameplay: Games

games

Faidutti, B., & Branham, F. (2000, December).
Deduction games. The Games Journal. Retrieved fromhttp://www.thegamesjournal.com/articles/DeductionGa
mes.shtml
Ellis, R. (2009). Task-based language teaching:
Sorting out the misunderstandings. International Journalof Applied Linguistics, 19(3), 221-246.
Harris, C. (2009). Meet the new school board:
board games are back—and they’re exactly what yourcurriculum needs. School Library Journal, v55 n5, 24-26.
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

186

Retrieved from http://www.slj.com/2009/05/collection-

Nicholson, S. (2011). Making the gameplay matter:development/meet-the-new-school-board-board-games-

Designing modern educational tabletop games.

are-back-and-theyre-exactly-what-your-curriculum-

Knowledge Quest, 40(1), 60-65.

needs/#_
Henricks, T. S. (2015). Play and the human condition.
Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Hofer, M. (2003). The games we played: The golden age ofboard & table games. New York, NY: Princeton
Architectural Press.
Larson, S. (2017, March 13). Why the CIA uses board

Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching and learning.
Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle.
Oura, G. K. (2001). Authentic task-based materials:
Bringing the real world into the classroom. Sophia JuniorCollege Faculty Bulletin, 21, 65-84.
Pilon, M. (2015, April 11). The secret history of Monopoly:
The capitalist board game’s leftwing origins. The

games to train its officers. Retrieved from

Guardian. Retrieved fromhttp://money.cnn.com/2017/03/13/technology/cia-

http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/apr/11/

board-games-training/index.html

secret-history-monopoly-capitalist-game-leftwing-origins

Levine, J. (2008). Broadening our definition of gaming:
Tabletop games. Library Technology Reports, 44(3), 7-11.
Mayer, B., & Harris, C. (2010). Libraries got game: Aligned

Prabhu, N. S. (1987). Second language pedagogy. Oxford,
England: Oxford University Press.
Song, D., & Kim, B. (2010). A study on difficulty oflearning through modern board games. Chicago, IL:

authentic listening texts and tasks in the EFL classroom.

American Library Association.

Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 13(3), 131-153.

Meng. J. (2010, July). Cooperative learning in the practice of

War Games. (2014, March 15). The Economist. Retrieved

English reading and speaking. Journal of Language

from http://www.economist.com/news/united-

Teaching and Research, 1(4), 501-504.

states/21599016-understand-war-american-officials-are-Nicholson, S. (2008). Modern board games: It’s not aplaying-board-games-war-games

Monopoly any more. Library Technology Reports, 44(3),8-10, 38-39.

Author Biography
Juha Vaittinen has been teaching English in Fukuoka for 6 years, currently working as a part-time
instructor at Kyushu Sangyo University. His research interests include learner motivation, cooperative
learning, and the utilization of authentic games in the classroom. He can be reached at
juhapmvaittinen@gmail.com

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Multimodality and the Song: Exploiting Popular Song in the University Classroom
Richard John Walker
Reitaku University
rwalker@reitaku-u.ac.jp
ELT teachers have always been aware of the educational potential of music. Songs often embody values
found in various cultures and subcultures, and, as such, can be used as tools to teach content-based material.
This short paper looks at the use of pop songs in a four skills course that applied a multimodal approach tothe analysis of songs. It aims to raise awareness of different modes found within a pop song as a product andthe effects of combining them. Following a discussion of how multimodality connects to music, I explain
how I used three songs to help teach three themes.
英語教育のおいて音楽が持つ教育効果が確認されている.歌は、どのような形態であれ、様々の文化やサブカルチャーの価値を具現化しており、テーマ言語形式、世界観の肩幅を開く教材として広く認識確認されている。本研究の結果、営業英語教育において音楽を使用することは、生徒の興味を引き出すことができ、多くの生徒達は、彼らが感銘を受けた歌を通じて第二言語や文化に対する興味を探めることが確認された。本文では、日本の大学の授業で三つの歌が多様に使用された理由とその方法を考察する。

The song is a powerful tool to use in the classroom. Mainly

communicative situations as events which rely on

used in fun and light activities that focus on lyrical meanings,

combinations of forms to be effective (Bateman, Wildfeuer,

it can support a variety of themes, projects or tasks. An& Hiipola, 2017, p. 17). When we listen to a song, we

individual song is chosen for its relevance to a teaching goal,

automatically attend to its aural and linguistic modes, but if

but the linguistic meaning of the lyrics is only one way it

we have purchased the song and communicate with it as acommunicates to us. It communicates aurally with music that

product, we engage with spatial, textual, and visual modes.

suits or contrasts the lyrics, and visually through images in

The act of appreciating, consuming, and listening to a song

CD booklets, covers, and videos.

is a deep, rich multimodal experience (Way & McKerrell,

Lyric, sound, and packaging work separately, but

2017, p. 14).

together have a combined effect. The linguistic, aural, andTo simplify matters, we can say a modern pop songvisual modes of a song produce a multimodal whole, but if we

has internal body modes (i.e., linguistic and aural modes) andisolate each mode and study their effects, it is possible toexternal clothing modes of packaging and promotion (i.e.,develop new insights into a song. This short essay considers

spatial, visual, and textual). We might say it is a body madehow and why the song - as a multimodal text- can be exploited

more attractive when fully clothed.

for teaching purposes. When seen as an artefact, a song or
songs can be the focus of a class or a course. One song canillustrate an idea, represent a culture, or help evoke places or
periods of time.
The study of song falls within the field of
multimodality. Multimodal approaches to study consider

Internal and External Modes
A student will become interested in a song, therefore,
because of its body and clothing. S/he may become
interested in one song because of its sound-based impact but
interested in another because of the visual-based impact of
the artwork or the video. A few years ago, many students
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were enthusiastic fans of the British band, One Direction.

literacy skills to study or critique the modes of a song.

Was their popularity due to an appreciation of their body ofStudents already critique images, lyrics, and performancessongs, or due to the carefully designed clothing of theirof songs. They know that communication is multimodal.

product? Almost certainly it was both. Their songs

They know songs communicate meanings. They know that

communicated strong messages in both internal and external

modes have specific possibilities and limitations. A teacher

modes. Knowing this, a focus on a song (or songs) should

can build on their basic knowledge and explain why thehold potential interest with students. By analysing different

study of combinations of modes (or semiotic resources) canmodes, students may be inspired or stimulated to see newlead to a fuller or deeper meaning.

things within a song. The combination of multimodal effects
may even lead us to see its essence.

The New London Group (1996) focused on fivesemiotic or meaning-making systems to talk about how

Only a few generations ago, young people discovered

meaning is created. Aural, gestural, linguistic, spatial, andpop songs on the radio. With that medium, a listener had novisual modes all contribute patterns of meaning, and all arechoice but to focus on internal modes. The present

used with the song as a product. Aural and linguistic modes

generation tend to discover songs online and on screen, a

are found in its internal body; gestural, spatial, and visualdevelopment which has increased the importance of external

modes in its external body. This can be shown with almost

modes such as vision and gesture. A song’s internal modes

all songs in the modern world. One song that has provenmay still possess the most tangible communicative message,

popular with ELT students, You Belong With Me by Taylor

but the external modes communicate the first attraction.

Swift is a great example. It utilises multiple modes to create

The physical appeal of a performer may provide the initial

combined meanings. The body (lyric and music) provide

spark; an appreciation of product design may deepen theample meanings alone, and when combined with clothinginterest. The internal quality of a song may not be noticed(pose on the CD cover, choice of a font on the cover, theuntil much later.

promotional video) a rich communicative effect is made.

A Multimodal Approach Requires Multiliteracy
SkillsTo encourage students to understand pop songs from amultimodal perspective we need to raise their awareness ofmultiliteracies. Multiliteracies is a pedagogical approach

Some modes are more prominent and powerful modes thanothers, and a skilful teacher can find connections between
modes to help students reconsider or deepen theirunderstanding of a song.

Combining Modes

developed by the New London Group (1996) that asserts

Outside of ELT, a significant number of interdisciplinarythat teaching that covers multiple literacies or modes help

studies have investigated how modes work together (e.g.

students be prepared for life in the modern world. Each

Jewitt, Bezemer, and O’Halloran, 2016). There are threeliteracy has forms of expression that are related to anmain approaches to multimodal research: systemic

analysis of different modes. Multiliteracy is therefore

functional linguistics (SFL), social semiotics (SS), andrelated to multimodality. Knowing, performing, or studying

conversation analysis (CA). SFL focuses on the organisation

a literacy involves the application, appreciation, andof language, SS on the agency of actors and on power

understanding of different modes.

relations, and CA on organisation in interactions. From

Multiliteracy and multimodality both involve thesearch for communication and meanings within an artefact(Jewitt, Bezemer, & O’Halloran, 2016, p. 3). Thankfully,
for ELT teachers, our students do not need advanced

these three, SFL and SS are the most useful when studying
the song. Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) have alreadyshown how an SFL approach can help connect verbal andvisual modes in analyses from still or moving images. ThisThe 2017 PanSIG Journal

189

and similar studies may inspire teachers to find ways to

the 30-lesson “English Workshop” course considered the

exploit songs in their own classroom.

following aims.

As for social semiotics, Sellnow (2010) showed howi.

The course will use a multimodal approach.

music uses different modes to communicate rhetorically. Sheii.

It will focus on combining the meaning of modes.

showed how discoursal modes combine with nondiscoursal

iii.

There will be five themes and 26 lessons basedmodes to communicate and persuade. Lyrics are a construct

around each letter of the alphabet.

of virtual experience and music is a construct of virtual time.

iv.

Their interplay allow songs to function on a rhetorical level.

mode, and race.

Both vocals and music contain patterns of intensity andv.

There will be a focus on themes of social power

patterns of release that communicate emotional effects. If aand protest.

lyric and music express similar emotions, the songcommunicates congruently; when they have contrastingemotions, they communicate incongruently.

The five themes will be change, gender, literature,

The first aim covered the division between internal andexternal modes. It was easy to find resources on the Internet
and in the author’s store of artifacts. The second aim relied

Lyrics, however, provide more precise meanings

upon knowledge of which modes best complemented

than sound. The imprecision of music makes it necessary toanother in a song. Because individual songs have modes thatuse connotation signs or deictic signs to make meaning

contrast, synthesize, and multiplicate a core message it is(Tagg, 2012, pp. 160-61). A promotional video can, however,important to have a deep knowledge of the song as product.

provide even clearer meanings. It can build upon, ignore, orreact against the bodily modes of a song. If the song lacks
lyrical meaning, the video can combine modes and forge
interrelationships. It can make narrow, defined meanings

The five themes were taught in 26 lessons over one
academic year. Table one lists the first seven classes whichwere taught in alphabetical order, from A to G. The firstfrom a semantically ambiguous song (Moore, 2013, p. 14).

seven classes include three songs discussed below: Hurricane

The Course

Better by Hot Chip. All three songs were taught differently,

Below I shall explain how I used a multimodal approach in a

by Bob Dylan, Ain’t Your Mama by Jennifer Lopez, and I Feelbut all were taught using a multimodal approach.

four skills music and communication course. The design ofTable 1. From A to G
Class Title

Example of song used

Main modes

A is for Androgyny

Lola by The Kinks

Aural, linguistic

B is for Boy BandI Feel Better by Hot Chip

Aural, linguistic, visual

C is for Class

Common People by Pulp

Aural, linguistic, visual

D is for Dialect

I Wanna Be Yours by John Cooper Clark

Aural, linguistic, visual

E is for Evolution

Freedom of Choice by Devo

Aural, linguistic, visual

F is for Folk

Hurricane by Bob Dylan

Aural, linguistic

G is for Girl Power

Ain’t Your Mama by Jennifer Lopez

Aural, linguistic, visual

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The Songs
The discussion that follows focuses on three classes: F is for

picture could communicate and represent. This visual image

Folk, G is for Girl Power, and B is for Boy Band.

can, therefore, be used to elicit responses from students.

F is for Folk: Hurricane by Bob Dylan“Songs are unlike literature. They're meant to be sung, notread. The words in Shakespeare's plays were meant to beacted on the stage. Just as lyrics in songs are meant to be sung,not read on a page.” (Dylan, 2017)
Bob Dylan believes that song lyrics are not created
to be read alone. They are created to be sung and not read as
one might do for a poem. He stated this after being awarded
the Nobel Prize for Literature, a prize many felt he didn’t
deserve. In such a context, it is unsurprising that he distanced
his texts from that of the full-time poet or novelist.
Lyrics are, however, a rich resource in our context.
It is especially true with the folk song. The F is for Folk classbegan with a short reading on the meaning of folk and moved
onto the role of Bob Dylan in American folk music. Electing
not to use one of his celebrated acoustic songs, the teacher
used his protest song, Hurricane (Dylan, 1975). Hurricane
has a rich narrative that is challenging for any class. The lyrics
alone are worthy of study. Prior to any linguistic analysis,
however, the initial focus was on the record cover.

Rosenblatt's transactional theory, usually associated withliterature, is relevant here - as each student will respond to
the picture according to his or her transaction with it. A
teacher does not need to lead a class to a foreseen
understanding; s/he will use the differences between
students to craft out significant discussions or writings.
Advanced students may come up with something like this:“I notice a boxer in his physical prime. He is an athlete
who wears boxing gloves and is ready to fight. His gloved
right hand covers the centre of the bottom third of thepicture. He stares at us but with a vulnerable look in his
eyes. This may soften our perception of him. Spatially, hisframe dominates the cover. Covering the page diagonally
he commands attention.”
This could be the start of a semiotic analysis. Students will be
primed to expect a protest song about a sport, a boxer, and,perhaps, an African-American. This priming will help themread the lyrics with intent. They can search for references toa character or a topic. Some may think it best to tell students
the background to the story (an alleged account of racism
and false imprisonment by the police) before seeing the cover,but because the lyrics are dense with imagery it makes sense
for a teacher to present the storyline gradually. Beginningwith visual input seems best. A teacher may even use thecover alone as a jump-off point to research cases ofcorruption and misuse of power. All of this can be done
before listening to the song.
This analysis of lyrical and visual modes increase
the chance of students forming understandings of the song.
The teacher might also tell them of Dylan’s (2017) words in

Figure 1. Hurricane: Rubin Carter. (Dylan, 1975)
The record cover uses a picture of the main character in
Hurricane, Rubin Carter (see Figure 1). His pose andexpression may act as a synecdoche for the overall message ofthe song. A student does not need knowledge about him,
though, to make meaning. It is easy to imagine what thehis acceptance speech for the Nobel Prize (see above), anddiscuss whether songwriting can be termed as literature.
After listening to the song the class could consider whether
there were contrasts, extensions or syntheses of meanings. It
could consider whether some modes were more significant
than others.

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For literary and more advanced groups, there areother issues to be tackled. One is authorial intention andsong and produces an equal or stronger message. As Lemke(2002) wrote,ownership. Bob Dylan wrote the lyrics to Hurricane withpoet Jacques Levy, and his musicians came up with the music.
We might ask how much of it belongs to Dylan. It is aquestion that can spark students off into an investigation ofan artist’s creative history and the notion of the ownershipof ideas.

Visual communication is at its most powerful, notwhen it retreats into the splendid isolation of an imaginary
semiotic autonomy, but when it confronts verbal language
head-on and challenges its hegemony, when it takes its place
as an equal (and equally often as a leading) partner inmultimodal communication. (p. 323)

In Dylan’s case, he has had indisputable control
over songs that bear his name. A different picture emerges
when we look at pop songs. It is not uncommon for
professional songwriting teams to write for a singer whose
contribution is a voice and an image. This seems to be thecase with one song used in the G is for Girl Power class. How
much of Ain’t Your Mama came from Jennifer Lopez? It is
an important question, as is the follow-up: Does the answer
matter, anyway?

G is for Girl Power: Ain’t Your Mama by Jennifer
Lopez

Lemke referred to hypertexts, but his words may beappropriated to describe what happened when Cameron
Duddy interpreted Lopez’s song. Duddy did not synthesise
the meaning of the lyrics; he transformed them into a visual
text that could be an entry point into a discussion on
feminism. The female characters in the video could be used
to help describe the three waves of feminism (a floorcleaning housewife from the 1950s, a sexually harassed office
workerinthe1970s,

andabeautifully-attired

businesswoman from today).
Classroom use of this video, however, can begin

Jennifer Lopez is the singer of Ain’t Your Mama, the face andwith students reading the lyrics and summarising its

voice of a song that was the product of a large team. Six

meaning. Screenshots of the characters in the video can thenwriters wrote the lyrics (Trainor et al., 2015), and abe passed around with students requested to consider andprofessional filmmaker directed the video (Duddy, 2015).

discuss the potential roles of the characters. With Ain’t YourThe lyrics concern a woman who is dissatisfied with her male

Mama (and other videos) it is important for a teacher topartner. She states over 30 times that she isn’t her partner’s

scaffold understanding before viewing it due to intertextual

mother (ain’t your mama) and voices dissatisfaction with hisbarriers that impede understanding.

behaviour (playing video games, being late for work,
complacency, and a lack of awareness of his luck to have her
curves). She works, cooks, and does his laundry, while helazes around and does little for her. The message is easy tounderstand and the lyrics have contracted words (ain’t), newuses of words (crazy for deeply) and nonstandard American
ethnolects.

These barriers emerge at the start of the video with
Lopez playing a tired-TV news anchor who is about topresent the news. A Hillary Clinton speech on women’s
rights can be heard in the background while Lopez walks into
the TV studio. Students are unlikely to realise it is Clinton;
nor will they know that the studio scene parodies the 1976
US TV movie, Network. In that movie, a TV presenter has a

The video, however, makes this song a useful one inmeltdown live on air and screams that he is “not going to takethe ELT classroom. The lyrics detail a woman’s complaints,

it anymore.” Lopez has a similar meltdown, but uses it to

but the video is set to a backdrop of changing roles for

empower herself. Teachers who prime students to expect

women in the workplace. It shows how women have movedreferences to Clinton or Network will enable students tofrom traditional homemaking roles to more active

better understand the video. Indeed, the whole video

managerial roles. This visual mode builds on the original

resemiotises the lyrics. Knowledge of Clinton and Network

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deepen cultural knowledge and what the song - as a productrepresents.

B is for Boy Band: I Feel Better by Hot Chip
Students prepared for the Boy Band class by reading about
the history of the modern boy band. Many students go
through a phase of appreciating boy bands and most have an
opinion on it as a genre. In an EFL class, an obvious choiceof artist is One Direction or the Beatles when they were a boy
band. In this course the song I Feel Better by Hot Chip wasused. It is another song that has a video with a stronger
communicative message.
Work on I Feel Better began with students listening
to the opening section. A generic, expansive keyboard soundis heard before any lyrics are sung. It sounds like a typical boy
band song with suggestions of love and romance. The
opening lines confirm it: She said, “How did we get ourselves
so lost?” And I said, “I don't know, but we will not be leaving
tonight, tonight.”
This opening is enough to construct a scenario.
Students can envision the situation. They can consider what
the content of the song will be about. Who is she and why
will her friend not be leaving tonight? After students
consider these lines, they are ready to hear the song or watch
the video. In the video, we see a boy band, a crowd, a man inwhite, and a disembodied man of African ancestry. They
each have identities that strike a chord in modern music
culture. By giving students a picture of these characters, they
will be able to predict what may happen in the video.
The video itself is original and striking. It is set atboy band concert at which the band perform to an
enthusiastic crowd of screaming girls. The band stop playing
when a white cloud signals the emergence of a new character.
To the disappointment of the girls, a bald white man in shiny
white robes moves toward the stage. Older and far lessattractive than the band members, he could never be a boy
band member. After much action on the stage, anothercharacter emerges at the end of the video: a disembodied

These are characters who represent tropes found inmodern music. The boy band represent idealised handsome
young men; the bald man is the antithesis of a boy band
member, and the African may symbolise an authentic
bluesman who helped create modern music. The video may
be a comment on popular music today. A teacher need notinform students of what s/he thinks they represent, but byshowing pictures discussion can be stimulated.
Students come up with creative readings of the songthrough pictures alone. By combining visual images withlyrics, students can strike into deeper veins of meaning. My
students often claim the song is about a couple who are lostin love or lost in a city. They end up at a live concert where arobed man and a disembodied man fight over the girl. Thisis a conclusion that the final lines foster: “We are a violent
race and we deserve what we get. When you hold me, when
you hold me. I feel better, I feel better.”
The video of I Feel Better is rich enough to be usedalone. In fact, with the sound turned off, it can be used in apair work exercise where one student faces the screen anddictates what is seen in the video. The storyline andexpressivity of the characters make the external modes more
important than the internal modes. Most importantly,
though, the storyline opens up the opportunity to critiquethe boy band.
The video is of a live concert that falls into disarray.
First, the white man in robes attacks the boyband, and laterthe disembodied head directs laser beams to destroy theconcert hall. Students often wonder why such a video was
made. Some believe the intention is to question the role ofboy bands. Some male students respond by identifying withthe robed man. One said, unprompted, that the saccharine
image of boy bands alienated him and that he could
understand the desire to destroy them.
As with all songs, there are several ways to get students toconsider the multimodal construction. For I Feel Better, I
gave the written exercises in Figure 4.

head of a man who appears to be of African ancestry.

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1

Describe the setting, characters, narrator, and events in I Feel Better. Where does the action
take place and what are the main “events”? What and who causes these events? Does timechange much in between the scenes?

2

Interpret the video in terms of morality or immorality. Why might the white man have feltthat the boyband alienated him and represented something he disliked? Is this video acomment on the business of pop music? What or who might like this video?

3

What mode has the most powerful effect on you: the lyrics, the song, the video, or thepromotional photos? Which modes work together and which modes do not? Try and describe
a combined meaning of the song.

Figure 4. Written exercises for I Feel Better.
Conclusion
Most teachers who use “the song” already use a multimodal
approach. Too often though the focus remains on one mode,
but as this short paper has shown we can use multiple modes
in order to get a fuller picture of the communicative
potential of a song. With time and the will, most ELT
teachers could teach such a course. While it may be more
applicable for higher level students or those interested in
textual analysis, in an age when students focus on the visualover the word, it may be worth considering ways to use
multimodality in the texts (and not just the song) we usewith students.

Dylan, B. (1975). Hurricane [Recorded by B.
Dylan]. [CD]. USA: Colombia Records.
Dylan, B. (2017). Bob Dylan—Nobel lecture.
Nobelprize.org. Web. 8 Jul 2017. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laure
ates/2016/dylan-lecture.html
Halliday, M. A. K, & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M.
(2004). Halliday’s introduction to functional grammar.
London, England: Routledge.
Hot Chip. (2010). I feel better [Recorded by Hot
Chip]. On One life stand [CD]. USA: EMI Records.
Jewitt, C., Bezemer, J., & O'Halloran, K. (2016).
Introducing multimodality. London, England: Routledge.

References
Bateman, J., Wildfeuer, J., & Hiippala, T. (2017).
Multimodality: Foundations, Research and Analysis–A
Problem-Oriented Introduction. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter
Bezemer, J., & Kress, G. (2016). Multimodality, learningand communication. A social-semiotic frame. London,
England: Routledge.
Cope, B. and Kalantzis, M. (2009). ‘Multiliteracies’: Newliteracies, new learning. Retrieved fromhttp://newlearningonline.com/files/2009/03/MlitsPaper13Apr08.pdf.
Duddy, C. (2015). Ain’t your mama [Recorded by
J. Lopez; Music video]. Retrieved fromhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pgmx7z49OEk

Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (2001). Multimodal
discourse: The modes and media of contemporarycommunication. London, England: Arnold.
Lemke, J. L. (2002). Travels in hypermodality.
Visual communication, 1 (3), 299-325.
Moore, A. F. (2012). Song means: Analysing andinterpreting recorded popular song. Burlington, UK:
Ashgate.
Nelson, M. E. (2008). Multimodal synthesis and thevoice of the multimedia author in a Japanese EFL context.
Innovation in language learning and teaching, 2(1), 65-82.
Sellnow, D. D. (2010). The rhetorical power of
popular culture: Considering mediated texts. Los Angeles,
CA: Sage.

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Serafinowicz, P. (2010). I feel better [Recorded by

Trainor, M., Thomas, T., Hindlin, J. L, Lewis, G., Walker,

Hot Chip]. [Music video]. Retrieved from

H., & Dr. Luke. (2016). Ain’t your mama [Recorded by J.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MaCZN2N6Q_I

Lopez]. [Digital recording]. USA: Epic Records.

Tagg, P. (2012). Music’s meanings: A modern musicology
for non-musos. New York: Mass Media's Scholar's Press.
The New London Group. (1996). A pedagogy ofWay, L. C., & McKerrell, S. (Eds.). (2017). Music asmultimodal discourse: Semiotics, power and protest. New
York, NY: Bloomsbury.

multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard
Educational Review, 66(1), 60-93.

Author’s Biography
Richard John Walker is a lecturer in the Faculty of Foreign Studies at Reitaku University. He recently
collaborated on the textbook, Academically Speaking, for Perceptia Press, and has published papers on extensive
reading, material writing, and media theory. He can be contacted at rwalker@reitaku-u.ac.jp

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A Case for Metaphor and Metonymy in the Classroom
Kevin Anderson White
Kyushu Sangyo University
kevinandersonwhite@gmail.com

This paper presents a case for figurative language, particularly metaphor and metonymy, being taught in theclassroom. It uses cognitive linguistic notions to demonstrate how figurative language can be conceptualised
to make it easier for students to learn it. Teaching figurative language can be deemed important as it canhave the knock-on effect of building students’ vocabulary. Some practical examples of tasks that can be donein class are given.
本小論は修辞技法、特に授業で学ぶ比喩や換喩の一例を提示するものである。認知言語学的概念を用いて修辞技法がどのように体系化していくかを、生徒が理解しやすいように示すものである。修辞技法を教えることは生徒の語彙量を相乗的に増やす目的で重要とみなされている。授業ですぐ使える実践的例題も数例提示する。

Cognitive linguists (Croft & Cruse, 2004; Fauconnier &are rooted in experience, conceptualisation, and usage (Evans

Turner, 2002; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) have contended that& Green, 2006), then at least experimenting with a cognitive

the knowledge used to understand language is highly

linguistics (CL) approach may be of benefit to learners. Tyler

conceptual and experiential; it is not limited to autonomous(2008) advanced the view that “cognitive linguistics offers

language cognition but linked to other cognitive faculties

explanations that draw on learners’ everyday real world

outside of language. Thus, an understanding of language andexperience by tapping into an intuitive reservoir of

the concepts that it tries to convey stem from a (social)knowledge that facilitates an understanding of the systematicinteraction with the material world. Language is grounded inrelationships among the units of language” (p. 462). In thislived human experiences and is crucial to reflecting how

paper, I seek to discuss the concepts of metaphor andhumans perceive, understand, and interact with them (Tyler,metonymy and their role and implications in L2 language2008). People do not rely solely on words as a means of

instruction as well as how teachers can use some cognitive

conveying the whole idea as words provide only a limited andlinguistic notions to teach them.

imperfect means of expression (Littlemore, 2011).

Why Metaphor and Metonymy

Understanding what the interlocutor is trying to convey
requires the listener to engage other spheres of knowledge to

A refrain that might be frequently repeated by teachers when

decode the message.

it comes to teaching abstract notions of language is, “I do not

Langacker (2000) championed the ideas thatgrammar is conceptualisation and that there is a correlation
between a language’s grammatical structure and the way thata people conceptualise the world. Based on Langacker’s
supposition, it can be argued that aspects of grammar are notas innate or arbitrary as they appear but are rooted in aconceptual framework (Tyler, 2008). In other words, there is
rhyme and reason as to why the language is constructed theway it is. If knowledge and awareness of the use of language

know. Just learn it as it is.” However, CL may provide asolution to teaching these aspects because research has shownthat some of the figurative conceptualisations behind thesedevices are motivated —they are there for a reason— and notarbitrary(Boers,2000).

The

research(Boers&

Lindstromberg, 2008; Koveces & Szabo, 1996; MacLennan,1994) seems to strongly indicate that students who areexposed to the teaching and conceptualisation of figurative
language have better retention of that knowledge. This is
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accredited to the fact that interacting with figurative language

ourencourages students to mentally engage in higher ordermetaphorical, then the way we think, what

processing. The engagement of a deeper / higher level of

we experience … is very much a matter ofmental processing leads to better retention (Hedge, 2000).

metaphor.” (p. 3)

Thus, there is some merit in helping students develop theirfigurative competence.

conceptual

systemislargely

The rewards that teaching of metaphor andmetonym could reap in the classroom could be twofold. It

Metaphor and metonymy may not be receiving due

could both offer students the higher level processing andattention in the classroom because many teachers tend toengagement that they need to help them retain the new lexis

view teaching them as a waste of time. This perspective may

better and assist students in coping with the abstract language

be attributed to the fact that metaphor and metonymy are

notions of the L2.

most likely considered literary devices and not commonplace

Metaphorfeatures of speech (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Littlemore,
2004; Littlemore & Low, 2006). However, work by the

Metaphor can be considered a form of conceptual blending

aforementioned researchers has shown to the contrary. It(Fauconnier & Turner, 2002). This entails the selection of

could be that teachers may not know how to develop theirelements of two conceptions that “are projected andstudents’ metaphoric competence, that is, their students’integrated to form a third, which is often purely imaginative“awareness of metaphor and strategies for comprehending

but nonetheless real as an object of thought” (Langacker,

and creating metaphors” (Deignan, Gabrys, & Solska, 1997,

2008, p. 71). Some examples of metaphor are: Time is money,p. 352).

and I do not have time to waste.
It must be stated that when teaching figurative

In metaphorical relations, “one thing is conceived

language, teachers will have to consider the level of the learner.

in terms of another, and its primary function is

Teaching students to understand figurative language may notunderstanding” (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980, p. 36). It is thebe suitable for all levels of learners. It may be best gearedinterpreter’s role to determine how these concepts work

towards intermediate and advanced learners or learners on

together. For example, saying of someone, he / she is bubbly

examination courses, where a richer lexical knowledge iscan be interpreted as a metaphor for being cheerful or being

needed. Furthermore, metaphor and metonymy do not seem

active. Abstract notions that are not easy to verbalise are

to be easily learnt incidentally. They seem to require a lot ofconceptualised through imagery and can be done verbally

explicit instruction on the part of the teacher (Boers, 2000;

through the use of metaphor (Langacker, 2008). In thisLittlemore & Low, 2006). Therefore, teachers would have toexample, the abstract notion of state is seen as a liquid in abe aware of the metaphor, its motivations, and its significance.

container, which in this case, is the body. The source domain

Since CL contends that language is motivated andnot arbitrary (appearing randomly), metaphor andmetonymy are seen as key concepts in this field because they
lie at the very core of how language is conceptualised andstructured. According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980),“concepts that govern our thought are notjust matters of the intellect. Our concepts
structure what we perceive, how we getaround the world, and how we relate topeople. … If we are right in suggesting thatliquid, “the semantic field that is being used to describe thetarget” (Littlemore & Low, 2006, p. 272), is being mapped on
to the target domain state, “the semantic field underdiscussion” (Littlemore & Low, 2006, p. 5) to bring two
unrelated domains together to give the abstract notion more
concreteness.
Grady (2007) stated that mapping is a key function
in conceptualising metaphor and that “mapping refers to thesystematic metaphorical correspondences between closely
related items” (p. 190). An element is projected from one

The 2017 PanSIG Journal197

conceptual domain into another. The mapping takes placeand “if we accept there is a need for vocabulary instruction,from the source domain to the target domain . Grady (2007),then teachers should facilitate cognitively enriching

however, cautioned that “the reverse metaphor is not possible,

engagements with the target vocabulary to help foster

linguistically or conceptually” (p. 191). Even though it isretention” (Boers, 2012). According to Schmitt (1997),

quite possible to refer to a person as being bubbly, it would beresearch suggests that activities requiring a deeper, morerather strange to refer to a glass of water as being cheerful.

involved manipulation of information promote more

Metonymy
Panther and Thornburg (2007, p. 240) defined metonymy asa “cognitive process that operates within one cognitive
domain or domain matrix and links a given source content toa less accessible target content.”

effective learning.
Nation (2007) outlined four key strands that hesupports as being pivotal to good language instruction:
meaning-focused output, meaning-focused input, languagefocused learning, and fluency development. It is in the strandof language-focused learning that metaphor and metonymy

Similar to metaphor, metonymy can be conceptual.

may have their niche, particularly in the teaching of idioms,

However, it differs from metaphor in that metaphor

phrasal verbs, and polysemy (Boers, 2012). These aspects ofrepresents the mapping of an element from one conceptual

the English language are especially difficult for L2 learners todomain onto another separate and distinct domain while

master.

metonymy stays within the confines of “one cognitive
domain” (Panther & Thornburg, 2007, p. 238) and “oneentity can be used to refer to another” (Lakoff & Johnson,
1980, p. 36). For example, Chicago takes on Miami at 7 eastern,
9 central illustrates the daily use of metonymy, especiallywhen talking about sports. What is being referred to here isbasketball teams. Chicago here stands in for the individual
members of the basketball team from Chicago, the Chicago
Bulls and Miami represents the individual members of thebasketball team from Miami, the Miami Heat.
Another special feature of metonymy is the part ofan entity can represent the whole. The following sentence

If there is a persuasion to agree with Lakoff andJohnson (1980) that language is highly conceptual and thatconceptualisation is primarily based around metaphor andmetonymy, it could be argued that it would be therefore wise
to make students aware of such conceptualisations when theopportunity presents itself. If students are familiar with theconcepts that underlie a particular language, this may help
them in becoming familiar with how that language works.
Littlemore’s (2011) research into the use of
metaphor in the classroom seems to augur well for its
applications in teaching vocabulary:highlights one such example. The stadium was jumping for joy,

Metaphor in the language classroom iswhere the stadium represents the people that are inside of thesignificantly more effective than lessstadium. As illustrated, figurative language is present insystematiccommon everyday expressions and not confined to theteaching, and those learners who have beenscholarly or to literature.

subjected to such an approach are able toMetaphor, Metonymy and Their Applications in
the ESL / EFL Classroom
An essential requirement to acquiring a second language isthe building of vocabulary. As Thornbury (2002) aptly stated,“Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without
vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (p. 13). It is generally
agreed that vocabulary learning depends on memorisation

approaches

tovocabulary

extrapolate from what they have learned tohelp them understand new vocabulary. (p.
91)
She seems to be suggesting that teaching figurative languagein the classroom arms students with the tools to become
autonomous learners. However, she cautions that moremethodical research has to be effectuated to mark the long-

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term gains that the approach of using metaphor in theclassroom has on retention and production.

Examples of the Use of Metaphor and Metonymy
in the Classroom

Besides drawing students’ attention to a different
linguistic form of the idiom in the second language, it would
also be beneficial to make students aware of its source domain.
Boers (2012) opined that if students’ attention ismethodically drawn to the source domain of metaphors andThere seems to be a strong correlation between teaching

to vocabulary involving metaphor, their richness offigurative language in the classroom and increased vocabularyknowledge of that language and their ability to recall it can be

input and retention, so this section will provide five activities

significantly improved. One of the activities that can be donethat I have done in the classroom to get students to engage

to help students conceptualise the metaphors better is thetheir higher thinking skills and to assist them in coping withgrouping of idioms that share the same umbrella source

figurative language. The focus will be on idioms, phrasal verbs,

domain. Allowing students to resolve the source domain forand polysemy (for reasons explained in the previous section).

themselves may help improve their retention of theexpressions. The following examples were chosen because

Idiomsthey might be easier to visualise. The following is an example

Biber et al. (1999) defined idioms as “relatively invariable
expressions with meanings that cannot be predicted from themeanings of the parts. That is, idioms are expressions whichhave to be learned as a whole, even if we know the meanings

of a grouping activity that can be done in the classroom:
What is the source of origin for the following?
He drove home the point.

eye.

of the individual words composing them.” (p. 988)
Even though it can be argued that some conceptual
metaphors may be universal (Boers, 2012), students may beaware of the concept but may need to be made aware of theform as well because the concept may be expressed differently
in another language. For example, in English, it can be said of
someone who is extremely angry he / she blew their top. On

We don’t always see eye to

She does everything at full

I don’t see your point.

throttle.
Liverpool is now in the

You don’t see the possible

driver’s seat at the top ofdanger.

the table.
Source of origin? (cars)

Source of origin? (sight)

the other hand, in Japanese this concept is expressed as
dohatsu ten wo tsuku, which translates as his / her angry hair
spikes the heaven. Illustrating the differences in form tostudents may impede interference from the first language.
Moreover, Littlemore and Low (2006) highlighted the factthat “language learners may lack the cultural connotations
that need to be activated in order to grasp the figurative
meaning” (p. 273).
Glucksberg (2001) further supported this view byaffirming that the students need not only become bilingual
but also bicultural if they want to become fully competent in
the use and understanding of figurative language. Teachers
may feel hesitant in drawing students’ attention to theconceptual underpinnings of the senses of some words orphrases for fear of fossilising stereotypes (Lazar, 1996).

In this grouping activity, students are given somecommonconventionalised

metaphoricalexpressions(idioms) governed by a similar concept and asked to identify
the possible source domain for the expressions. Craik andTulving’s (1975) psychological research on memory seemed
to suggest that semantically processed stimuli engenders
better memorization.
A variation of the grouping activity that could bedone is an activity in which the teacher could present thestudents with a few examples of idioms within a text and ask
the students to correctly match the idioms to theirconceptualisation. For example, the students read thefollowing sentence in a text: The teacher barked at the student
for not having done his homework. At the end of the text, theThe 2017 PanSIG Journal

199

student has to choose the correct category for the idiom:senses of a word have a central origin, the connection between

ANGER IS FIRE; ANGER IS A HOT LIQUID; AN

these senses is related, and understanding the inner

ANGRY PERSON IS A DANGEROUS ANIMAL. The

relationships between the words facilitates understanding theteacher could focus on more than one categorisation of theouter relationship.

idiom in a lesson.

The sense relation between polysemous words isoften times metaphorical in nature. For example, the head ofPhrasal Verbs

a body and the head of a company, or the hand and give me a

According to Biber et al. (1999),

hand are quite different, but the figurative use of the lexemeunits

head in the head of a company or hand in give me a hand canconsisting of a verb followed by an adverbial

be understood when mapped to the central origin meaning ofparticle (e.g. carry out, find out, or pick up).

head or hand as it relates to head or hand of a body.

phrasal

verbs

are

multi-word

These adverbial particles all have core
spatial or locative meanings (e.g. out, in, up,
down, on, off); however, they are commonlyused with extended meanings. (p. 403)

Lazar (1996) gave some examples of activities thatcan be done in class to assist students in realising theseconceptualisations. For instance, a teacher dealing with the
topic of the parts of the body will be able to use that

Phrasal verbs can be considered a bane for language

opportunity to introduce students to the metaphorical uses

learners and language teachers alike (Boers, 2000; Littlemore,

and senses of those words. As an illustration, the teacher can

2004; Littlemore & Low, 2006). Boers and Demecheleer

ask students to discuss the similarities between the foot of the(1998) suggested that from a pedagogical standpoint it may

body and the foot of a mountain. The teacher can also design

be useful for teachers to explicitly draw the students’

riddles for students to solve using the parts of the body: Whatattention to the aspects of an adverbial particle’s spatial sense

has a mouth but cannot speak? _____________ (Lazar, 2003,

that are especially relevant for its conceptual metaphorisationp. 9) *a river*processes. For example, teachers can point out to students
that MORE is UP; LESS is DOWN: cut down expenses, fill up
the car, and turn up the volume; ACTIVE is UP; INACTIVE
is DOWN: shape up, look up, settle down, and listen up; TIME
IS MOTION: reflect back and look forward to (Kovecses,
2002; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Boers (2012) posited thatthe metaphors in these cases are motivated and not arbitrary
and phrasal verbs can be given a sense of systematicity
through teaching of the conceptual metaphor. When there isan increase, things go up, and when there is a decrease, things
go down. Likewise, when something is active, it can be said
to be up, and when inactive, down. Kovecses (2002) statedthat past times are behind the observer while future times arein front of the observer. Hence, there seems to be somesystematicity to the phrasal verbs.

Polysemy
Fillmore and Atkins (2000) defined polysemy as the ability ofa word to have multiple related meanings. The multiple

Teachers may give students a gap-fill activity andmime the missing words for students to fill in. For instance:
The politician used his rhetoric skills to s_______ public
opinion (the teacher mimes the word sway; Boers, 2012).
These types of activities encourage engagement and semantic
elaboration with the vocabulary, which may engender better
retention and memorisation. However, the teaching of
figurative language and the conceptualisations that support
them do not have to be done in every class and not every
expression lends itself to being explained easily throughillustrating the root concept, but if the opportunity is there,
it should be utilised. The explanations need not be elaborate.
A simple mime, picture aid, gap-fill activity, or simple
explanation would suffice.

Conclusion
Language, it has been argued by cognitive linguists (Croft &Cruse, 2004; Lakoff 1987; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980), is very

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

200

much interwoven into all facets of cognition and not a(1999). Longman grammar of written and spoken English.

separate anomalous faculty. Much of how language is

Harlow, England: Pearson Education.

conveyed “is basically conceptual” (Croft & Cruse, 2004, p.
2).

In cognitive linguistics, the significance of theconceptualisation of language is attributed to metaphor andmetonymy. These “tropes are not merely ornamental figures

Boers, F. (2000). Metaphor awareness and vocabularyretention. Applied Linguistics, 21(4), 553-571.
https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/21.4.553
Boers, F. (2012). Applications of cognitive linguistics to L2of speech and writing, but they are crucially involved inpedagogy [Video Conference]. Retrieved fromhuman conceptualisation…they are rooted in human bodily

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8iO69eMhcrEexperience and interaction with the environment” (Panther

Boers, F., & Demecheleer, M. (1998). A cognitive semantic& Thornburg, 2009, p. 3).
Supplementary to their pedagogical practicality inhelping students build and develop their vocabulary,
metaphor and metonymy have also shown that “grammatical
patterns are motivated at least partially, by conceptual andpragmatic factors” (Panther & Thornburg, 2009, p. 4). Someof these conceptualisations are highlighted when teachingphrasal verbs, where the use of the adverbial particle can beviewed as being metaphorically motivated and not arbitrary,
and when teaching idioms, where the conceptualisation
behind the idiom may be metaphorically or metonymicallymotivated (all hands on deck / bite off more than you can chew).
If students are made aware of the figurative conceptualisation
behind such devices, they might be better able to comprehend
them. Kovecses (2001) claimed that pointing out theunderlying metaphor to students can facilitate access toabstract lexical and grammatical items.

approach to teaching prepositions. ELT Journal, 52(3),197-203. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/52.3.197
Boers, F., & Lindstromberg, S. (Eds.). (2008).
Cognitive linguistic approaches to teaching vocabulary andphraseology. Berlin, Germany: Mouton de Gruyter.
Craik, F., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and theretention of words in episodic memory. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: General, 104(3), 268-294.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.104.3.268
Croft, W., & Cruse, A. (2004). Cognitive linguistics.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Deignan, A., Gabrys, D., & Solska, A. (1997). Teaching
English metaphors using cross-linguistic awareness-raising
activities. ELT Journal, 51(4), 352-360.
https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/51.4.352
Evans, V., & Green, M. (2006). Cognitive linguistics: An
introduction. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University
Press.

Helping the students’ to make metaphoric

Fauconnier, G., & Turner, M. (2002). The way we think:connections between ideas would set them on the path toConceptual blending and the mind’s hidden complexities.

improving their other competencies as “metaphoric

New York, NY: Basic Books.

extensions of word meaning are likely to account for many ofFillmore, C. J., & Atkins, B. T. S. (2000). Describing

the vocabulary items that they encounter” (Littlemore &polysemy: The case of ‘crawl.’ In C. Leacock

Low, 2006, p. 273). Advertisements, newspaper headlines,(Ed.), Polysemy: Theoretical and computational

jokes, novels, and daily speech are all full of figurative

approaches. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

language and if students are to fully understand and cope with

Grady, J. (2007). Metaphor. In D. Geeraerts & H.

these, they would need to develop their figurative

Cuyckens (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of cognitivecompetence, which, in turn, positively affects the

linguistics. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

development of other competencies (principally the ones

Glucksberg, S. (2001). Understanding figurative language:
From metaphors to idioms. New York, NY: Oxford

mentioned earlier).

References
Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Finegan, E.

University Press.
Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and learning in the language
classroom. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
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Kovecses, Z. (2001). A cognitive linguistic view of learning

Littlemore, J., & Low, G. (2006). Metaphoric competence,

idioms in an FLT context. In M. Putz, S. Niemeier, & R.

second language learning and communicative language

Dirven (Eds.), Applied cognitive linguistics 2: Language

ability. Applied Linguistics, 27(2), 268-294.

pedagogy. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter.

https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/aml004

Kovecses, Z. (2002). Metaphor: Practical introduction.
Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Kovecses, Z., & Szabo, P. (1996). Idioms: A view from
cognitive semantics. Applied Linguistics, 17(3), 326-355.
https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/17.3.326
Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, fire and dangerous things.
Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press.

MacLennan, C. H. G. (1994). Metaphors and prototypes inthe teaching and learning of grammar and vocabulary.
International Review of Applied Linguistics, 32, 97-110.
Nation, I. S. P. (2007). The four strands. International
Journal of Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching,
1(1), 2-13.
Panther, K. U., & Thornburg, L. (2007). Metonymy. In D.

Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by.

Geeraerts & H. Cuyckens (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of

London, England: University of Chicago Press.

cognitive linguistics. New York, NY: Oxford University

Langacker, R. (2000). Grammar and conceptualisation. New
York, NY: Mouton de Gruyter.
Langacker, R. (2008). Cognitive grammar as a basis for

Press.
Panther, K. U., & Thornburg, L. (2009). On figuration ingrammar. In K. U. Panther, L. Thornburg, & A.

language instruction. In R. Robinson & N. Ellis (Eds.),

Barcelona (Eds.), Metonymy and metaphor in grammar.

Handbook of cognitive linguistics and second language

Amsterdam, the Netherlands: J. Benjamins.

acquisition. New York, NY: Routledge.

Schmitt, N. (1997). Vocabulary learning strategies.

Lazar, G. (1996). Using figurative vocabulary to expand

In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary

students’ vocabulary. ELT Journal, 50(1), 43-51.

description, acquisition and pedagogy. Cambridge,

https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/50.1.43

England: Cambridge University Press.

Lazar, G. (2003). Meanings and metaphors: Activities topractice figurative language. Cambridge, England:
Cambridge University Press.
Littlemore, J. (2004). Interpreting metaphors in the
EFL classroom. Les Cahiers de l’APLIUT, 23(2), 57-70.
Littlemore, J. (2011). Applying cognitive linguistics

Thornbury, S. (2002). How to teach vocabulary. Harlow,
England: Pearson Education.
Tyler, A. (2008). Cognitive linguistics and second language
instruction. In R. Robinson & N. Ellis (Eds.), Handbook
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to second language learning and teaching. Basingstoke,
England: Macmillan.

Author’s Biography
Kevin Anderson White teaches English at Kyushu Sangyo University. He has been teaching in Japan
since 2008 at different institutional levels. He has an interest in cognitive and social linguistics. When
he is not teaching, he loves a good game of chess and a good book. kevinandersonwhite@gmail.com

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Concept Mediation by Elementary L2 Learners
Clay H. Williams

Naeko Naganuma

Akita International University

Akita International University

williams@aiu.ac.jp

nana9801@aiu.ac.jp

A key goal of vocabulary acquisition is linking L2 words directly with mental concepts. According to the
Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), L2 learners’ first only access mental representationsof meaning via the L1, and direct links between L2 words and concepts develop only with time and practice.
While the model has long been a focus of research, relatively little attention has been paid to its application
to young learners. As young children are engaged in daily L1 vocabulary acquisition, it is conceivable thatchildren would be able to forge automatic conceptual connections to newly acquired L2 words. This paper
details a study of L2 concept development by Japanese elementary students. After a single vocabularyteaching session, children displayed faster reaction times in matching L2 vocabulary with pictures than with
L1 written words, thereby demonstrating conceptual access. Furthermore, this disparity in reaction time
was affected directly by teaching methods.
語彙習得の目標の一つは、第二言語の単語と既存概念との連結である。Knoll & Stewart(1994)の改訂階層モデルによると、学習初期段階では第二言語学習者は第一言語を介してのみ第二言語の単語の概念にアクセスが可能であり、また時間をかけ練習を積むことでのみ、その能力が身につくと考えられている。このモデルが⾧く注目される中で、このモデルの児童への応用についてはあまり研究されていない。子どもは第一言語でも日常語彙獲
得プロセスにあるため、第二言語でも自動的に概念連結ができる可能性がある。本論では日本人小学生の第二言語の概念形成についての研究を詳説する。第二言語語彙の授業を一回実施後に取得したデータで、日本語で示された単語よりも概念を表す絵への連結のほうが反応が早いという結果がでた。したがって、絵が示す概念の直接連結の可能性が判明した。さらに、この反応時間の差異は指導法が影響していると考えられる。
It is widely acknowledged that most of our

exposing the shortcomings of a strong Sapir-Whorf

knowledge and memory is not stored as verbal information,

hypothesis. However, the presupposition of such a storage

but rather, it is stored in a conceptual manner—often visually,

center also immediately raises the issue of how those verbal

albeit some ideas are purely abstract. While this sort oflabels become connected and how they are retrieved. This“mentalese” (Pinker, 1994) seems to provide the foundation

issue becomes particularly acute when discussing theof much human thought, nevertheless, these mental concepts

acquisition of a second language (L2), which would

are linked to verbal labels that further enable our ability bothnecessarily entail the linking of a new set of verbal labels toto classify concepts and to give voice to our thoughts. Thispre-existing concepts. This paper explores whether or notconceptual level of the brain is where we make sense of theelementary-aged children are capable of automaticallyworld and how we assign meaning to words, phrases, andconnecting mental concepts with newly acquired L2 labels or

sentences. The existence of a conceptual storage center that

if they initially have to translate L2 words to L1 labels in orderfunctions independently of verbal labels certainly has someto access those concepts.

intuitive appeal—for example, it helps to clarify the possible
cognitive activities of preverbal children, as well as forcefully

The 2017 PanSIG Journal203

Study Background: Conceptual Accessword could then be used to retrieve the L2 form. Note that

Imagining a model conceptual access of word labels by

WAM assumes no direct link between the concept and themonolinguals is a relatively simple process. Incoming

L2 form. By contrast, CM (see Figure 2) asserted that both

stimulus (say, a picture of a tree) would be received andL1 and L2 had equal access to the concept, and therefore thebroken down via pattern and feature recognition processors;route to L2 word retrieval was considerably shortened,

the “concept” whereby all knowledge, ideas, and so forth arelooking exactly like L1 word retrieval (i.e., the stimulus isstored would be consulted; and the stimulus would berecognized via the concept, which then triggers the L2 word).

matched with the mental representation of a tree. The

Fortunately, both were testable hypotheses. If WAM were“concept,” linked directly to the L1 lexicon, could thentrue, then translating an L1 word into the L2 should be faster

retrieve the verbal representation of the retrieved mental

than naming a picture of the same L2 word, as translation

representation, thereby unlocking our linguistic knowledge

would enable the test-taker to bypass conceptual access,of the word tree, including pronunciation, orthography,

whereas picture naming would require accessing the concept

word class, and so forth. While the link between concepts and(and then accessing the L1 word, and only then could the L2

lexicon is widely assumed, the nature by which L2 isword be retrieved). On the other hand, if translation from L1

connected to the concept is a matter of some debate. Unlike

to L2 required an equal amount of time as did picture naming,in L1, where direct linkage between verbal representations

this would indicate that CM was correct. The Potter et al.

and mental concepts could be automatically assumed, in L2

study, proceeding according to these very assumptions, foundthere was immediate disagreement over whether or not thethat the answer varied according to L2 proficiency. Among

L2 could be tied directly to the concept or if a learner could

students with advanced proficiency in the target L2, the time

only access conceptual knowledge through the L1. Potter, So,latency for L1 to L2 translation did not vary statistically fromVon Eckardt, and Feldman (1984) explained the two

the time required for picture naming in L2, seeming todivergent models that framed this debate: the word

confirm CM; however, in low proficiency L2 students, theassociation model (WAM) and concept mediation (CM).

opposite proved true. Translations from L1 to L2 were

According to WAM (see Figure 1), L2 labels could only bestatistically faster than picture naming, seeming to indicate

retrieved via the L1. Stimulus would trigger a mental concept,that the concept could not directly access L2 word forms.

which would then automatically trigger an L1 label. The L1

Figure 1. Word association model (WAM).

Figure 2. Concept mediation (CM).

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The Revised Hierarchical Model

either L1 or L2). Subsequently, they took a translation test.

This discrepancy in the results according to relative language

Priming facilitation for the pictures they had previously

proficiency ultimately led to the development of the revised

named only occurred when translating from L1 to L2 andhierarchical model (RHM; Kroll & Stewart, 1994), which

occurred regardless of whether the picture had been

was designed to account for proficiency differences directly

previously named in L1 or L2.

by representing how direct links between the concept and L2
form

could

develop

over

time

(see

Figure3).

Critiques of the Revised Hierarchical Model
Since its inception, the RHM has faced considerable criticism
stemming from variability in the replicability of results. Some(e.g., Brysbaert & Duyck, 2010) have suggested rejecting themodel entirely in favor of more connectionist models;
however, adherents to the model claim that the variability canbe simply explained by factors such as the relative frequencyof test items (with relatively low frequency L2 terms being
less likely to have developed a robust connection to theconcept—e.g., Kroll, van Hell, Tokowicz, & Green, 2010). Ina test designed to directly compare and contrast the claims of

Figure 3. Revised hierarchical model (RHM).

the RHM with the more connectionist “Bilingual interactive
activation plus model” (Sunderman & Kroll, 2006), it was

In the model, one can see a strong, pre-existing two-way linkfound that while form-relatives of target words were activatedbetween L1 labels and mental concepts; furthermore, newly

in readers regardless of relative proficiency level, activation of

acquired L2 terms are immediately connected to their

L1 translation equivalents in the presence of L2 stimulus wascorresponding L1 words. Links between the L2 and the

directly dependent upon the test-taker’s proficiency level.

mental concept as well as the ability to translate from L1 to

Additionally, new information has come to light since theL2 emerge more gradually, and the connection strength may

original proposal of the RHM, which has prompted somenever be as robust as L1➔concept and L2➔L1 links. This

reinterpretation of how we consider L1 and L2. In cases ofmodel provides a rationale for why whether or not L2

immersion where the L2 becomes the dominant language,

vocabulary can access the concept directly seems to depend

there is evidence that such translation asymmetries actually

upon relative L2 proficiency. The RHM was designed toreverse, leading to a proposal that instead of L1 vs. L2, theaccount for the discrepancies in processing according to

RHM should be understood more in terms of dominant vs.

student L2 proficiency found in the Potter et al. (1984)

additional languages (e.g., Heredia, 1997; Linck, Kroll, &studies, but other pieces of evidence have since emerged to

Sunderman, 2009). While somewhat surprising, such results

support it. For example, Kroll and Stewart (1994) foundcan still easily be accommodated by the RHM. Finally, there

asymmetries in categorical interference, whereby semantic

has been some recognition that the original hypothesis of ainterference effects would happen during L1➔ L2

bidirectional initial weak link between L2 and concept may

translation, but not in L2➔L1 translation. This finding

be incorrect, as the asymmetries are considerably morestrongly suggests conceptual access was occurring when

profound in production tasks (i.e., naming) than intranslating L1➔ L2, but not when translating in the opposite

comprehension (Kroll, van Hell, Tokowicz, & Green, 2010).

direction. Likewise, Sholl, Sankaranarayanan, and Kroll

Despite these critiques, the RHM remains an influential(1995) found a similar asymmetry in susceptibility to priming

model that remains central to considerations on vocabulary

facilitation during translation tasks. In the study, participantsacquisition and representation in the brain today.

engaged in a picture naming activity (naming the pictures in
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Child L2 Vocabulary Acquisition and Conceptual
Accesslanguage at the elementary level, the question over how

In contrast to the robust debate and voluminous research on

pertinent than ever. The current study was designed to follow

the RHM concerning bilingual adults, there has been

up on the Comesaña et al. (2009) study and to investigate

considerably less focus on the issue of child L2 learners.

whether young learners are able to establish near-immediate

Increased attention to these learners would be meritedconceptual links to newly acquired L2 vocabulary. We

because preadolescent language learners bear some notable

additionally attempted to identify the age at which this ability

traits that differentiate them from adult learners.

(if, indeed, elementary school students can produce such

Elementary-aged children are still actively learning new L1

immediate links between L2 vocabulary and the concept)

vocabulary at an astounding rate. Children between the ages

would cease, giving way to the adult patterns predicted by theof 6 and 8 are estimated to learn 6-7 new words each day, and

RHM. Finally, we sought to determine whether or not

this increases to 12 words per day from ages 8-12 (Bloom &specific pedagogical methods would impact the relative

Markson, 1998). If they are so deeply engaged in L1 learning,

strength of L2➔concept connections.

children forge L2 lexical connections to a concept is more

and as such, are daily creating links between new words andconcepts, presumably they could be more receptive to forging

Subjects

direct links between concepts and L2 vocabulary as well.

One hundred and fifty-six elementary school students (grades

Comesaña, Perea, Piñeiro, and Fraga (2009) present evidence2-6) were recruited from two different schools in Akita, Japan.

that this indeed may be the case. In a study of Spanish-L1

All students were native speakers of Japanese. The number of

elementary school students learning Euskera (Basque), evenparticipants according to grade level was as follows: 2

after a single vocabulary session, learners displayed semantic

graders—6, 3 graders—9, 4 graders—49, 5 graders—43,

interference effects (i.e., they had more trouble rejecting

and 6 graders—49. The imbalance in number of students atsemantically related, but nevertheless incorrect, translations)the 2 and 3 grade levels is due to permission for testing atin processing L2 words. This semantic interference effect wassuch low ages only being granted at one of the schools. All

intensified when vocabulary was taught via pictures as

students below 5 grade had either no or minimal priorcompared to when taught via translation to the L1. The study

exposure to English. The 5 and 6 graders all received one 45-

methodology was repeated with native speakers ofminute English class each week starting from the beginning

Portuguese, with Euskera again being used as the target L2of 5 grade. All students had normal or corrected-to-normal(Comesaña, Soares, Sánchez-Casas, & Lima, 2012). The

vision. Due to the ages of the study participants, parental

children tested showed a similar pattern to the previous

consent for study participation was collected prior to the

Spanish subjects: They displayed semantic interference

beginning of the study.

rd

th

nd

th

th

nd

rd

th

th

th

th

effects for semantically related words, and the semanticinterference was intensified when vocabulary was taught with

Materials

pictures. Additionally, as the participants were tested at two

A total of 42 vocabulary items were utilized. The vocabulary

times (immediately and one week later), the results revealed

was chosen during consultation with the students’ teachers inthat the delayed test increased the degree of semanticorder to maximize the probability that the study participantsinterference effect regardless of teaching method.

had never heard the L2 vocabulary before. Nevertheless, thevocabulary items had to be concrete and familiar to the

The Present Study

children recruited for the study, so the items tended to be

In the present-day Japanese context, amid plans to bringphysical objects that would be commonly found within the

English into the lower elementary curriculum by 2020, andstudents’ immediate environment. Social, affective, andthe accompanying concerns over what form such English

nontangible

studies will take and how to best go about teaching the

Furthermore, the researchers made special effort to avoid any

L2exemplars

wereexplicitly

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

avoided.

206

vocabulary items that might be used (in any incarnation or

stimuli; Forster & Forster, 2003). The test presented spoken

for any purpose) as katakana-eigo (i.e., English loan words in

English vocabulary words (which the test participants

Japanese). Two sets of laminated cards (A4 size) were created.

listened to over headphones). After each vocabulary item,

One set featured pictures of the individual vocabulary items,

two choices were presented on the right and left sides of theand the other set featured a Japanese translation of thecomputer screen, respectively, and the students were tasked

vocabulary items. Note that, as elementary school students inwith matching the correct choice with the vocabulary theyJapan are not taught English reading and writing skills, thehad just heard via pressing one of the two specially designatedcards did not feature any of the vocabulary items written in

RIGHT/LEFT ‘SHIFT’ keys. The choices presented on the

English.

split screen were either pictures (these were not the same

Procedures

pictures used to teach the vocabulary the preceding day) or

The study followed a 2-day procedure for each class tested.

L1 translations (written in kana). While all test takers were

Before meeting with study participants, individual classes

presented with both picture and L1 translation test items,

were divided into two equal-sized groups by their homeroom

only one option appeared at a time (i.e., each individual test

teachers. On the first day of the study, the two groups would

item would only display either two pictures or two kanaeach go to a separate classroom, where they would receive awords—kana and picture response options never appeared at

45-minute English lesson taught by a graduate student fromthe same time). Items were counterbalanced, so for any given

Akita International University’s English Language Teaching

L2 vocabulary word, half of all test takers had to choose

Practices program. The first 20 minutes of the lesson in both

between two picture responses and the other half chosegroups was devoted to teaching and drilling the 42 vocabulary

between two kana words. The presentation order wasitems; however, the teaching method used for introducing

automatically randomized. Reaction times were recorded forthe vocabulary varied according to the group. One group

analysis.

(hereinafter, “Picture Group”) were taught the L2 vocabulary
using the laminated picture cards. The instructor was

Analysisforbidden from using Japanese translation during theParticipants were grouped: 5 and 6 grades being analyzed

vocabulary session and was also discouraged from making any

together, and 2 , 3 , and 4 grades were analyzed together.

acknowledgement if students, looking at the picture,

This was done for two reasons. First, the number of students

happened to say the relevant vocabulary word in their L1.

in the lower grades was much lower than those from the

The other group (hereinafter, “L1 Group”) would be taught

upper grades, so combining the three grades helped to makevia the laminated cards featuring Japanese translation

the numbers more balanced for analysis. Additionally,equivalents of the vocabulary items. The instructor of the L1

dividing the groups between 4 and 5 grades allowedGroup was free to say the L1 word and to acknowledge

comparison to be made between students who had previously

student queries posed in Japanese.

studied English with those who hadn’t. Across the board, the

th

nd

rd

th

th

th

th

On the day immediately following the presentation

study participants were faster at matching the L2 vocabularyof the vocabulary items, testing was conducted. Anotherto pictures than to written L1 equivalents (see Table 1.). Item

English lesson was offered by an AIU graduate student—thisanalyses revealed that the difference in reaction time wastime to the combined class— in order to keep the students

statistically significant—5 and 6 Graders: F2 = 6.60, p <occupied and together, but during the lessons, students were0.034; 2 -4 graders: F2 = 11.03, p < 0.011; all groups

called out individually and taken to a separate room to

combined: F2 = 10. 65, p < 0.012.

th

nd

th

th

undergo a short computer-mediated test of the vocabulary
learned the previous day. The computer test was programmedusing DMDX software (a free, Windows-based software
package that can measure reaction time to auditory and visual
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

207

Table 1.

was almost even between the experimental conditions (i.e.,

Reaction Times by Grade and Test Condition

matching L2 words to pictures vs. to L1 translation), andGradeReaction time: L2

Reaction time: L2

then from 4 grade to 6 grade, there was a steadily increasing

levelmatch to picture

match to L1

differentiation between the two conditions, with picture

5th-6th1055ms1345msmatching becoming progressively faster than matching to L1

2nd-4th1488ms1713mstranslation. While this result may initially appear mysteriousththor even contradictory to the RHM, it was easily explicable byWhile all groups reacted more quickly to questions withthe relatively high error rates and slow overall reading speeds

response choices displayed as pictures than they did toobserved in the lower grades. This seems to suggest that the

response choices displayed as L1 words, still, a clear trend wasyounger children’s L1 reading skills are still underdeveloped,

found whereby the degree of difference between reaction

leading to overuse of guessing as a strategy to decrease

times to matching the L2 vocabulary words with pictures andreaction time (i.e., instead of reading both words on the

L1 words was significantly greater for those students who

screen, they may have read only one or neither and simply

were taught using pictures. The average latency between

guessed). Regardless, as two subjects were eliminated frompicture matching and L1-word matching for students taught

each of the 2 and 3 grade groups due to excessive error

via L1 words was 166ms, whereas for students taught with

rates—a rather high rate of subject elimination when

pictures it was 352ms. This difference was statisticallyconsidering the already anemically low subject numbers at

significant: F1 = 54, p < 0.01.

those grades—it appears that the appropriateness of thendrdtesting procedure for such young children should be called

Discussion

into question. The subject numbers for these two grade levels

Initial results seem to clearly support the hypothesis thatare simply too low to adequately evaluate separately; however,elementary school-aged students can create near-immediate

the data obtained seems to indicate that, as the current

conceptual links to newly acquired L2 words. Additionally,

research paradigm is only effective for fluent L1 readers

L2 vocabulary taught via pictures appears to result in more(which is why 1 graders were never recruited for the study),

robust conceptual links, thus aligning with the results of the

future testing of this type should eliminate 2 and 3 gradersstudies by Comesaña et al. (2009) and Comesaña et al. (2012),

from analysis altogether as high-quality data (i.e., reasonable

which similarly found that semantic interference (and, thus,

error rates and reading speeds) were only obtainable starting

conceptual access) was more robust for vocabulary taught via

from the 4 grade.

st

nd

rd

th

L2-picture association learning than by L2-L1 association
learning. The conclusion is reached on the basis that if

Conclusion

students could only access concepts via the L1, then picture

As Japan begins to implement English lessons at increasingly

matching would necessarily be either as slow as or even slower

lower grades of instruction, it is vital to develop effective

than L1 word matching; however, the significantly fasterpedagogical methods and standards for vocabulary teaching

response to pictures would seem to indicate that the test-

to young learners. Such pedagogies can only be developed via

takers were able to tie the L2 form to the concept without L1

a thorough understanding of how young brains process

mediation.

foreign languages. Even though the research to date seems to

In-depth analyses did, however, reveal someindicate that, fortunately, young learners may have certain

potentially complicating factors, which will be explainedadvantages over adults for learning vocabulary, it isherein. Grade by grade analysis revealed a U-shaped

imperative to expand our knowledge of child L2 lexicaldevelopment curve, with 2 graders being overwhelmingly

representation in order to give future generations maximal

faster when responding to pictures than when responding toopportunity to benefit from L2 instruction. While this study

words written in L1. By contrast, 3 graders’ reaction timeoffers evidence that elementary-aged students are able tondrd

The 2017 PanSIG Journal208

create conceptual links to newly acquired L2 vocabulary, as

Heredia, R. R. (1997). Bilingual memory and hierarchicalthe effect persisted through the oldest grades tested, it is stillmodels: A case for language dominance. Current

unclear at what age this ability to directly link L2 words to

Directions in Psychological Science, 6, 34-39.

concept is lost. Further study with progressively older

Kroll, J. F., & Stewart, E. (1994). Category interference instudents may be warranted in order to ascertain antranslation and picture naming: Evidence for asymmetricapproximate measure of this. Another limitation of the study

connections between bilingual memory representations.

is its inapplicability to early elementary or younger students,

Journal of Memory and Language, 33(2), 149-174.

as it requires some basic level of L1 literacy. The development

Kroll, J. F., van Hell, J. G., Tokowicz, N., & Green, D. W.

of testing procedures that would enable L2➔concept testing(2010). The Revised Hierarchical Model: A criticalfor ever younger children would be a welcome development.

review and assessment. Bilingualism, 13(3), 373-381.
Linck, J. A., Kroll, J. F., & Sunderman, G. (2009). Losing

References
Bloom, P., & Markson, L. (1998). Capacities underlying
word learning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2(2), 67-73.
Brysbaert, M., & Duyck, W. (2010). Is it time to leavebehind the Revised Hierarchical Model of bilingual
language processing after 15 years of service? Bilingualism:
Language and Cognition, 13(3), 359-371.
Comesaña, M., Soares, A. P., Sánchez-Casas, R., & Lima, C.
(2012). Lexical and semantic representations of L2
cognate and noncognate words acquisition in children:

access to the native language while immersed in a second
language: Evidence for the role of inhibition in second
language learning. Psychological Science, 20, 1507-1515.
Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct. New York, NY:
Harper Perennial Modern Classics.
Potter, M. C., So, K. F., Von Eckardt, B., & Feldman, L.
(1984). Lexical and conceptual representation in
beginning and proficient bilinguals. Journal of Verbal
Learning and Verbal Behavior, 23(1), 23-38.
Sholl, A., Sankaranarayanan, A., & Kroll, J. F. (1995).

Evidence from two learning methods. British Journal ofTransfer between picture naming and translation: A test

Psychology, 103, 378-392.

of asymmetries in bilingual memory. Psychological Science,

Comesaña, M., Perea, M. Piñeiro, A., & Fraga, I. (2009).
Vocabulary teaching strategies and conceptual

6, 45–49.
Sunderman, G., & Kroll J. F. (2006). First language

representations of words in L2 in children: Evidence withactivation during second language lexical processing: An

novice learners. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,

investigation of lexical form, meaning, and grammatical

103, 22-33.

class. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28, 387-

Forster, K. I., & Forster, J. C. (2003). DMDX: A

422.

Windows display program with millisecond accuracy.
Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers,
35(1), 116-124.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

209

Author Biographies
Clay Williams is an associate professor in the graduate-level English Language Teaching Practices
department at Akita International University. He is the author of Teaching English Reading in the
Chinese-speaking World: Building Strategies across Scripts and Teaching English in East Asia: A Teacher’s
Guide to Chinese, Japanese, and Korean Learners.
Naeko Naganuma is an assistant professor in the English for Academic Purposes program at Akita
International University. Her research interests lie in second language pragmatics, CALL, and reading andvocabulary teaching methods.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

210

Promoting EFL College Learners’ Language Learning Strategies Through Facebook
Interaction
Pei-Ling Yang
Center for General Education, Oriental Institute of Technology, Taiwan
peiling1225@hotmail.com
The study aims to investigate the effect of task-oriented instruction and peer collaboration on EFL college
low achievers’ language-learning strategies. It integrates the principles of social cognitive theory andcooperative learning to examine the target learners’ strategy application (memory, cognitive, compensation,
metacognitive, affective, and social strategies) through this kind of learning. Two classes took a freshman
English course for one semester; during the class time, only the participants from the experimental classwere required to participate in Facebook groups and complete in-class tasks. The study results show thatthe participants in the experimental class applied more language-learning strategies and gained more selfconfidence in English learning.
In Taiwan, English has long been a compulsory school

lost in learning and gradually they build up their level of self-

subject; on average, students in Taiwan have learned English

confidence.

at least for 10 or 12 years, but unfortunately, most of the

In light of this situation, the author would like to suggest acollege students nowadays do not possess the ability or

solution to guiding language learners towards learning theconfidence to speak or write in fluent English. Students intarget language more effectively and efficiently andTaiwan tend to view learning as memorization. For most of

encouraging them to be responsible for their own learning.

them, good memorization refers to good learning. To these

Therefore, this study was aimed at exploring the possibility ofstudents, especially the low achievers, English is merely aapplying task-oriented learning and peer collaboration in aschool subject, not a tool for them to explore the worldsocial networking environment to EFL curricula.

outside. The majority are usually passive and sit quietly
waiting for the teachers’ instruction to take the next step.

Literature Review

They gradually lose their confidence of using English andLearning strategies are commonly defined as operations usedpossess little passion to learn the target language.

by learners in the way to assist in acquisition, storage, retrieval,Many studies investigating the relationship between learningand use of information (Rigney, 1978). Oxford (1990, p. 8)

strategies and language performance have found that

expanded the definition to a“specific actions taken by the

proficient learners apply more strategies than less proficientlearner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more

ones (Bremner, 1999; Green & Oxford, 1995; Yilmaz, 2010).

self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new

Compared with less successful learners, more successful

situations.” In a similar vein, learning strategies were definedlearners are able to monitor their own learning process andby Cohen (1990) as “learning processes which are consciously

performance and to overcome their learning and affective

selected by the learner.” (p. 5) Learning strategies, from thedifficulties (Norton & Toohey, 2001). Some studies haveview of educational psychology, refer to “thoughts, emotions,shown that learners’ studying behavior and reading

and behaviours that facilitate the acquisition of knowledge

comprehension could be enhanced through language-

and skills, or the reorganisation of one’s knowledge base”

learning strategies (Carrell, 1989; Pintrich, 1999). Once

(Weinstein and Meyer, 1994, p. 335). In short, learninglearning strategies are enhanced, language learners do not feelstrategies are not naturally acquired by learners but are
something they learn and use for the purpose of enhancing

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

211

their learning performance (Cohen, 1998). Therefore,kinds of learning strategies are considered as indirect

learning strategies could be learned (Oxford, 1990) and thenstrategies. They are metacognitive, affective, and social

be of assistance in mastering a target language (Dornyei &strategies.

Skehan, 2003).

Many studies investigating the relationship

One of the primary features of language learning

between learning strategies and language performance havestrategies is their focus on communicative competencefound that proficient learners apply more strategies than less(Oxford, 1990), as illustrated in Table 1.. It takes meaningfulproficient ones (Bremner, 1999; Green & Oxford, 1995;

and contextualized language to develop communicative

Yilmaz, 2010). Similar findings are also reported by Gan,competence. Language strategies provide learners with

Humphreys, and Hamp-Lyons (2004) who found that more

opportunities

authentic

successful language learners use a wider range of strategies

communication, which also encourages the development ofthan less successful ones. On the other hand, less successfulcommunicative competence (Oxford, 1990).

learners tend to rely more on memorization strategies thantoparticipate

activelyin

their higher level peers. Less successful language learners,
Table 1.

moreover, are less flexible and less effective in the way of using

Features of Language Learning Strategies (Adapted fromstrategies and applying them to their learning (Vann &Oxford, 1990, p. 9)

Abraham, 1990). Compared with less successful learners,

Language Learning Strategies

more successful learners are able to monitor their own

contribute to the main goal, communicative competence

learning process and performance and to overcome their

allow learners to become more self-directed

learning and affective difficulties (Norton & Toohey, 2001).

expand the role of teachers

Some studies have found evidence to support the idea thatare problem-oriented

learners’ studying behavior and reading comprehension could

are specific actions taken by the learner

be enhanced through the metacognitive strategies (Carrell,

involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive

1989; Pintrich, 1999). Researchers have also reported that

support learning both directly and indirectly

more successful L2 learners use more metacognitive strategies

are not always observablein terms of both amount and quality (Zhang, 2010).

are often conscious

Compensation strategies, based on the findings, could

can be taught

enhance learners’ reading comprehension (Oxford, 1990)

are flexible

and increase their reading speed (Winstead, 2004; Zhang,

are influenced by a variety of factors

1992).
In a recent study (Lai, 2011), 418 EFL learners in

Language learning strategies, according to Oxford

Taiwan participated in a self-reporting strategy survey. The(1990), can be classified into two categories: direct andsurvey report showed that there was a significant influence of

indirect. Direct strategies include memory, cognitive, andlearners’ language proficiency level on their strategy choicecompensation strategies; indirect refers to metacognitive,

and application, with the more proficient learners applying

affective, and social strategies. Unlike the direct strategies,

more strategies to their learning while the less proficientindirect strategies do not directly influence the learning itself.

applied fewer strategies. The more proficient learners,

Rather, they are used to help learners control their own

moreover, used more metacognitive and cognitive strategies,

cognition, regulate their own emotions and attitudes, andcompared with the less proficient learners who applied morelearn from others through interaction and communication.

memory and social strategies. In sum, there was a direct andIn other words, indirect strategies “support and manage

positive effect of learners’ language learning strategy use on

language learning without (in many instances) directly

their language performance. The more strategies learners

involving the target language” (Oxford, 1990, p. 35). Threeused, the better language performance they achieved. Similar
The 2017 PanSIG Journal212

to the above study, Salahshour, Sharifi, and Salahshour’s

the the number of learning strategies used after the Facebook-research (2013) showed that more proficient learners

assisted learning?

reported using more strategies, especially cognitive and social

Research Question 2: What are the participants’ perceptions

strategies. In sum, language proficiency seems to haveof their English learning?

Methodinfluence on learners’ application of strategies.
Skehan (1989) argued that the application ofThis current study is a mixed study. Two out of 23 classes

language learning strategies is one of the most important

were selected on a basis of convenient sampling. One of theindividual factors in language acquisition. Ellis (1985), in a

two classes was randomly chosen as the experimental group.

similar vein, suggested that learning strategies are one of theDuring the 18-week (an academic semester) study, theessential processes for language development. Language

participants from the experimental group took part in thelearning strategies, in other words, enable learners to be more

Facebook activities while the control group only interacted

responsible for their own learning and they are more likely towith each other in a traditional face-to-face context. Apart

become self-regulating learners (Dickinson, 1987; Dornyei &from the instruction and face-to-face discussion, theSkehan, 2003; Oxford, 1990). In a more self-regulating

experimental group members were required to work together

learning environment, learners would try out more methods

to complete tasks. Every week, there were at least threeor strategies to help improve their language development.

Facebook discussion and cooperation activities for them toFacebook is a social networking service that has attracted atparticipate in. The discussion topics were related to theleast 800 million active users. Through Facebook, users havecourse book or their daily lives. Instead of emphasizing

opportunities build up their own personal space, exchange

product or performance in their English writing, themessages, and participate in any online social group (Goertler,

instructor only played a role as a guiding and encouraging2009).

leader, without highlighting and correcting grammatical
Social networking has been applied to higher

errors or sentence structure. The learners were not gradededucation in recent years, strengthening peer-to-peer

according to syntactic structures and grammatical errors. Theinteractions and building up student communities in whichgoal was to make the learners feel less stressed and morelearners can receive more social support to keep learning

willing to express themselves. The control group only

(Bateman & Willems, 2012; Grey, Lucas, & Kennedy, 2010).

received instruction from the researcher-instructor. ThereSocial networking also plays a stimulating role for lifelong

was no additional online interactional tasks assigned to theand autonomous learning (Lenartz, 2012; McLoughlin &learners.

Lee, 2010). Facebook, the most accessible social networking
site (Ellis, 2011), is considered easier to use compared with

Participants

institutional learning management systems (Grey, Lucas, &The participants in the present study were 83 college students

Kennedy, 2010).

in northern Taiwan taking Freshman English as a mandatory

The research questions were drawn from somecourse for one semester. They were randomly selected out of

empirical studies (Bremner, 1999; Chamot, 2004, 2007; Lai,

1,205 students. Before the study, they were informed of the2011; Oxford, 1990, 2011; Yilmaz, 2010; Zhang, 2010) but

purpose of the study. The participants majored in Designing,were incorporated with the concepts of learner interaction

Hospital Management, and Information Technology

and scaffolding. Therefore, two questions were formed toManagement, but they all reported to be interested in English

explore the possibility and advantages of applying Facebook

learning and expressed a desire to learn more about English.

for English learning purposes.

According to the instructor-researcher’s observation, theResearch Question 1: Are there any significant

majority were highly involved in in-class English learning

differences between the experimental and control group in

activities. The background information of the two classes

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

213

shows that there was no significant difference between the

Compared with the passing score of the test (72 scores), thetwo groups in terms of level (Table 2).

target learners’ English proficiency was far below that ofintermediate-level learners (college students).
Table 3. illustrates the mean scores of six categories

Table 2.
The Participants’ Backgrounds (Descriptive Analysis)of language learning strategies by the two groups before andafter the study. For all the strategies, Group 2 (M = 3.08, SD

Group No.

M

1

43

37.76

10.49

= 0.57) outscored Group 1 (M = 2.92, SD = 0.53). In order

2

40

41.47

11.49

to find out whether there was any significant difference

1

43

18.40

0.54

2

40

18.70

1.62

Learning years 1

43

10.16

2.56

2

40

10.16

2.62

GEPT

age

SD

Note. GEPT = General English proficiency test, (a standarized
English proficiency test in Taiwan); Group 1 = Experimental group;
roup 2 = control group.

between Groups 1 and 2 in their use of the language learning
strategies, an independent samples t test was conducted andthe findings show that there was no statistically significant
difference between the two groups (p = .634 < .05) before theintervention of the Facebook-assisted cooperative activities.
After the study intervention, Table 4. shows that there wassignificant difference between the two groups in theirapplication of all language learning strategies after theInstruments

discussion activities (F (1,80) = 5.75, p = .019 < .05).

Three instruments were used in the study to collect data.
They were (a) a background information questionnaire, (b) a
General English Proficiency Test (GEPT) reading test, and(c) the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL;
Oxford, 1990). The background questionnaire was adaptedfrom the background questionnaire developed by Oxford(1990, p. 282), and all the questions, translated into Chinese
by the researcher, were answered by all the participants in thetwo classes. The GEPT reading test chosen from the GEPT
tests designed by The Language Training & Testing Center(LTTC) with approved validity and reliability wasadministered at the beginning of the study in order toexamine the learners’ general reading ability. Oxford’s SILL
consists of six strategy types: memory, cognitive,compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social. The 50item questionnaire, answered with a five-point Likert-type
scale, has proved to be highly valid and reliable in a vast bodyof research (Chamot et al., 1993; O’Malley & Chamot, 1990;
Oxford, 1986, 1990). This was applied to the study as one of
the major instruments before and after the study.

Results
The result of the participants’ English proficiency tested by
the GEPT reading test was an average score of 39.62.

Conclusions
Given the above results, the findings of the study indicate that
the EFL learners’ strategy applications could be enhanced
through the assistance of Facebook collaboration andactivities. Before the study, they seldom applied strategies totheir language learning. However, learning a language does
not simply involve obtaining satisfying scores, but it
represents a useful tool for communication. Good
communication could bring more chances for betterinteraction, businesses, and development. In this Facebookassisted learning environment, the learners showed moreengagement and participation. A virtual discussion spacecreates countless opportunities for language input andoutput; apart from these, it also presents learners with alearning path and an opportunity to progress. Through thiskind of self-involved and self-discovery learning journey, theparticipants become more aware of their own learning, andthrough learning from others, they learned how to achieve
their language goals more efficiently and effectively. Similar
results are found in other studies exploring the use of
Facebook for language learning (Lin, Warschauer, & Blake,2016).
Therefore, it suggested that Facebook-assisted
discussion could be applied to formal language education to
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

214

provide EFL learners with more language input and output

learning activities and feel better about their English abilities.

chances and to promote their strategy applications. Note that

Lastly, Facebook-assisted in-class activities could be tailoredthe language-learning environment in Taiwan could possibly

to meet different types of curricula.

be shifted from a more teacher-centered to a more learner-

The limitation, first, is the external validity or

directed context through this kind of Facebook discussion.

generalizability of the study. The participants in the present

Facebook, in this sense, does not just provide a platform forstudy were probably not representative enough of the wholesocial interaction but also enables the teacher to establish a

Taiwan EFL population to make generalizations from thisvirtual classroom for peer-to-peer cooperation and learning

study. It is suggested that future researchers include

strategy enhancement.

participants from diverse colleges from different geographicalparts of Taiwan. Second, the study time was not long enough

Limitations and Implications

for in-depth investigation; therefore, it would be better to

The findings of this current study suggest at least three

conduct the investigation over a whole academic year in orderpedagogical implications. First l, for language learners,

to gather data from different perspectives of the target

Facebook-assisted in-class activities could help increase theirlearners.

applications of language-learning strategies. Second, for
language teachers, the study presents the possibility ofinspiring learners to become more involved in English

Table 3.
Levels of Language Learning Strategy Application by All Participants
Pre-activity
Memory strategies
Part 2
Part 3
Part 4
Part 5
Part 6
Total

Post-activity

Group

n

M

SD

n

M

SD

1

43

2.82

.59

43

3.03

.59

2

40

3.02

.60

40

3.03

.60

1

43

2.87

.60

43

2.96

.56

2

40

3.07

.61

40

3.05

.61

1

43

3.16

.64

43

3.19

.66

2

40

3.22

.63

40

3.22

.63

1

43

2.98

.67

43

3.08

.65

2

40

3.19

.79

40

3.19

.79

1

43

2.78

.68

43

2.78

.68

2

40

2.91

.89

40

2.91

.89

1

43

2.95

.68

43

3.35

1.16

2

40

3.10

.70

40

3.14

.67

1

43

2.92

.53

43

3.06

.48

2

40

3.08

.57

40

3.09

.57

Note. Part1 = Memory strategies; Part 2 = Cognitive strategies; Part 3 = Compensation strategies; Part 4 = Metacognitive
strategies; Part 5 = Affective strategies; Part 6 = Social strategies.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

215

Table 4.
ANCOVA results of the six parts of language learning strategies.Dependent: All Strategies
dfmean square

F

Sig.

partial eta. squared

19.09a2

9.55

216.02.000.84Intercept

.50

1

.50

11.40

.001

.13

All strategies

19.08

1

19.08

431.75

.000*

.84

Group

.25

1

.25

5.75

.019

.07

Error

3.54

80

.04

Total

808.51

83

Corrected Total

22.63

82

SourceType III sum of squares

Corrected modelNote. R squared = .844 (Adjusted R squared=.84); * p < .05.
Analysis of the learners’ reported learning orientation revealed that the majority of the experimental group (92.31%) had
positive attitudes towards the Facebook-assisted activities. They felt that it was an interesting way of learning English, it provided
chances to learn from peers, and it encouraged them to learn more about how to be able to express themselves well in English.
The participants reported that they began to check the meanings of unknown words or phrases on their own, and they started
spending coming up with their own English sentences. Although at first they felt that the interaction was a torture, they became
used to the virtual environment in which they expressed themselves in English after an academic semester.

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GILE SIG Forum: Educating for Global Citizenship
Emiliano Bosio

Baku Matsui

Yokohama City University

Akita International University

ebosio@yokohama-cu.ac.jp

b1300656@gl.aiu.ac.jp

Arisa Ibe

Jennie Roloff Rothman

Akita International University

English Language Institute, Kanda

b1400322@gl.aiu.ac.jp

University of International Studies
rothman-j@kanda.kuis.ac.jp

Every year at PanSIG, the Global Issues in Language Education SIG holds a forum that aims tolink the conference theme with the mission of the SIG. In Akita, the forum gave both students
and teachers the opportunity to expand their potential regarding teaching for global education.
This article introduces the SIG mission and summarizes the content from forum participants. A
university educator, Emiliano Bosio spoke about implementing principles of global citizenshipeducation into university curricula. Two students from Akita International University, Baku
Matsui and Arisa Ibe, as examples of global citizens, shared their experiences with project-basedlearning activities and discuss how it linked with their language learning.
グローバル問題と言語教育部会は、毎年 PanSIG にて、SIG の役割と会議での議題を繋げる目的でフォーラムを開いている。秋田ではこのフォーラムが、グローバル教育において、教師と生徒に可能性を広げる機会を与えている。本論文は、SIG の役割を紹介
し、フォーラム参加者から収集された内容がまとめられている。大学教授エミリアノ・
ボッシオは、グローバル市民教育の原則を大学のカリキュラムに活用することについて話した。秋田国際大学の生徒 2 名、松井麦,井部有彩は、グローバル市民の例として、プロジェクトベースの学習アクティビティの経験を共有し、それがどのように言語学習と繋がっていったのかを議論する。SIG により共有されたグローバル市民としての経験とアイデアは、第二言語教育者全員にとり価値があるという可能性が考えられる。

I am not an Athenian or a Greek, but a citizen of theworld. - Socrates

promote the ideal of world citizenship through their work,”
because of English’s presence as a global lingua franca and theuse of language as a way to encourage cross-cultural

Since its inception in 1990, the JALT Global Issues inunderstanding (1999, para. 3).

Language Education (GILE) SIG has worked to promote

Cates went on to identify geographic literacy,awareness of global issues and the concept of global

world themes (religions, flags, etc.), and global issues as thecitizenship through its large membership base. While being acentral tenets of education for global citizenship. In order to

global citizen may sound new in today’s interconnected

gain an understanding of what is happening in the world andworld, the concept has been around as long as civilization

be an active force in potential solutions, students must

itself. As longtime SIG coordinator Kip Cates stated,possess certain knowledge. For example, they need to be able

“English language teachers are in a unique position toto identify where places are, as well as what common elements

The 2017 PanSIG Journal218

may be impacting the circumstances. This leads to a deeper“value-creators” and proactively contribute in the worlds ofunderstanding of, for example, a war-torn region of the world,

today and tomorrow (Ikeda, 2005; Oxfam, 2006) demands

an area trapped in a cycle of poverty, or a country clogged withthat universities develop their “global competencies”

the pollution of development. Global citizenship also goes

(Gaudelli, 2016). In this context, there is growing interest in

hand-in-hand with critical thinking because implicit in it is

Global Citizenship (GC) and its educational extension

the act of “consider[ing] our own relationship to [an issue]

Global Citizenship Education (GCE), signaling a shift in theand how we personally fit into the context of the issue”

role and purpose of education to that of shaping more

(Brookfield, cited in Halvorsen, 2005).

peaceful, tolerant, and inclusive societies (Burbules & Torres,This year at PanSIG 2017, the GILE SIG held a2004).

forum comprised of three speakers, one educator and two

However, there are diverse interpretations of thelocal students, who spoke on the theme of global citizenship.

notion of “global citizenship.” A common understanding, theAs universities worldwide are seeking to develop global

one embraced in this article, is that it means supporting our

citizens, Emiliano Bosio surveyed a variety of models forlearners to develop “a sense of belonging to a broader

curricular implementation, with the aim of developing his

community, beyond national boundaries, that emphasizes

own model for application to Japan. This talk was

our common humanity and draws on the interconnectedness

complemented by that of two students at Akita International

between peoples as well as between the local and the global”

University who participated in the university’s project-based(UNESCO, 2016, p. 6). In this perspective, GC is based onlearning (PBL) program. This program allows students tothe universal values of human rights, democracy,

actively become world citizens by sending them on short trips

nondiscrimination, and diversity. It is about civic actions thatin multinational student groups, both domestically andpromote a better world and future.

abroad. Arisa Ibe shared her experiences of connecting elders

Accordingly, GC’s educational annex GCE is defined inin the Akita region with visiting international students.

the UNESCO’s (2015) perspective as a form of civic learning

Cross-cultural understanding, and thus global citizenship,that involves students’ active participation in educational

was built through the sharing of local food history. Baku

undertakings that tackle global issues of a social, political,

Matsui shared his experience of becoming a global citizen as aeconomic, or environmental nature (Bourn, 2015). GCE

result of a trip to Sabah, Malaysia where he was a part of aaddresses themes such as peace and human rights,

multinational team working with indigenous peoples and theintercultural understanding, citizenship education, respect

Malaysian government to balance the twin goals offor diversity and tolerance, and inclusiveness, and it responds

sustainable

to globalization byeconomicdevelopment

andhonoring

government commitments to local populations. Togetherthese three presentations illustrate the pathways universities
are building towards global citizenship and showing what it

society;looks like in action. The GILE SIG would like to extend its
gratitude and appreciation to all three speakers for an

Expanding the concept of civic education to global
Adopting the ethical values of peace education andhuman rights education;

illuminating forum at PanSIG 2017.

Drawing upon the “global society” perspective,
which not only investigates global topics, but more
specifically merges the global and the local into the

Emilano Bosio: Global Citizenship in Higher Education
The growing global interdependence that epitomizes our

glo-cal; and

Involving multiple stakeholders, including thosetime calls for a generation of “fully human” leaders who can

outside the learning environment, in the community

engage in effective global problem solving (Andreotti, 2010)

and in wider society.

and participate concurrently in local, national, and global

Furthermore, GCE aims to be “transformative, building

civic life (Torres, 2017). Put simply, preparing students to be

the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that learners need
The 2017 PanSIG Journal219

to be able to contribute to a more inclusive, just and peacefulgender, socioeconomic status, culture, religion, age

world” (UNESCO, 2014, p. 46). It attempts to enable

and other issues; andlearners toDevelop an understanding of global governanceglobal issues at local, national and global levels as

structures, rights and responsibilities, global issues

informed, engaged, responsible and responsive

and connections between global, national and local

global citizens. Encourages learners to analyze real-systems and processes;

life issues transformatively. (UNESCO, 2014)

Recognize and appreciate difference and multiple
identities, (e.g., culture, language, religion, genderSpecifically, GCE entails three core conceptual dimensions

and our common humanity, and develop skills for(UNESCO, 2016):
living in an increasingly diverse world);and critical thinking about global, regional, national

critical inquiry, information technology, media

and local issues and about the interconnectedness

literacy, critical thinking, decision-making, problem

and interdependency of different countries andsolving, negotiation, peace building and personal

populations;Socio-emotional: to feel one belongs to a common

Recognize and examine beliefs and values and how

humanity, sharing values and responsibilities,

they influence political and social decision-making,empathy, solidarity and respect for differences andperceptions

diversity; andabout

socialjustice

and

civic

engagement;

Cognitive: to acquire knowledge, understanding

Develop and apply critical skills for civic literacy, e.g.,

and social responsibility;Participate in, and contribute to, contemporaryBehavioral: to act effectively and responsibly at

Develop attitudes of care and empathy for others

local, national and global levels for a more peacefuland the environment and respect for diversity;and sustainable world (see Figure 1).

Develop values of fairness and social justice, andskills to critically analyze inequalities based on

Figure 1. Global Citizenship Education core conceptual dimensions. Reprinted from UNESCO (2016, p. 8).

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

220

Moreover, I advise that the GCE approach does not mean

in responding to the pressures associated with globalizationthat our students’ national identities are deemed obsolete,(Reimers, 2009a).

just like the formation of nation states could not erase local

In Japan, GCE in HE “has been embraced as a way

and regional identities. Neither would it be appropriate to sayof producing graduates capable of explaining their country tothat a parallel identity, namely a cosmopolitan or global one,the wider world” (Trahar, 2016, p. 5). In Japanese universities,

is added to our learners’ existing identities. GCE rather

GCE is concerned with the dimensions of morality and social

means transforming a paradigm (Bosio, 2017); the relevant

responsibilities as people in the world (Bosio, 2015). Indeed,frame of reference is no longer the nation state, but a large-

it is difficult to find Japanese higher education institution

scale society that is networked on multiple levels and equally

websites these days that do not in some way address the issue

localized and globalized (Gaudelli, 2016).

of increased international integration and the emergence of aIn this perspective, GCE has been an attempt by

global community; many of them offer programs on global

international institutions such as UNESCO (2014) to assist

studies and their representatives are quite open to connecting

local and national policy makers and educators in addressing

their institutions to a global environment (Shattle, 2008).

the multifaceted challenges of globalization that impact

Sophia University in Tokyo offers a PhD and an MA in

education and society. Particularly, the Global Education

Global Studies examining “world systems, transnational

First Initiative (GEFI) launched in 2012 by the former U.N.

processes, and global-local interactions from perspectives ofSecretary General Ban Ki-moon (United Nations, 2012),

anthropology, history, political science, religious studies andsuggested GCE as a solution to boost global peace—in what

sociology.” International Christian University offers a major

Beck (1992) defined a “risk society”—improve thein Global Studies that aspires “to educate responsible, global

sustainability of the planet, and encourage the defense of acitizens who can identify significant world issues, examine theglobal commons (UNESCO, 2014). In other words, GCE

structure and related phenomena of global governance using

addresses the intersection of globalization, education, andan interdisciplinary approach, and exercise leadership andprogrammatic efforts to prepare young people to live in acreate partnerships to promote conflict resolution in the

more interdependent world (Gaudelli, 2016).

global community of the 21st century.” Soka University’s

According to Torres (2017), there are at least three

Faculty of International Liberal Arts (FILA) in Hachioji aims

reasons that justify GCE in higher education (HE). First,

to “foster students capable of meeting the demands of our

GCE can support global peace. Second, it can help toglobalized society (“Message from the Dean”). And thepositively intervene in social, cultural, and economic

Department of Global Citizenship Studies at Seisen

inequalities and diminish poverty globally. Third, it can offer

University “established as the first department in Japan toconcrete options and best practices to endorse civic virtues

specialize in global citizenship studies [aiming] to educatethat will cultivate a more democratic society.

women who have global perspectives and can think as

Consequently, the past decade has seen an increase

genuine global citizens” offers an MA Program for Global

in publications and discussions about GC and GCE in HE,

Citizenship Studies “designed for people who think globallyattesting to the fact that these two concepts are of increasing

and act locally.”

relevance for today’s universities (Oxley & Morris, 2013).

The Seisen’s Department of Global Citizenship

Academics, policy makers, and practitioners have beenStudies case offers a basic pattern of GCE implementation

describing, contributing to, and shaping interpretations of

where the dominant three features of the curricula are (a)both phenomena, which has created a conceptual terrain that

global society, (b) multicultural understanding, and (c)is diverse and varied (Reimers, 2006). Simultaneously,

fieldwork being the latter pivotal to their students’ learning

universities have been engaging in launching a broad array ofexperience. According to this university website,

graduate and undergraduate GC programs designed to foster

In the Fieldwork Course, the students are

students’ appreciation of major global issues (Gaudelli, 2016)

required to join in international or domestic
The 2017 PanSIG Journal221study tours, well planned by themselves andprograms to build more sustainable and peaceful societies

with the assistance of faculty members. This

(Hammond & Keating, 2017).

provides rich experiences to study and work

Indeed, reaching clarity on what such forms of GCE

in Japan and abroad. It also gives theactually entail and what kind of global citizens higher

students excellent occasions to deepen theireducation institutions aim to educate is not so simple and it

understanding of different cultures andinvolves complicated policies and well organized courses andlanguages, as well as to develop good skills of

ultimately that good assessment practices be in place (Shultz,

communication with other peoples in the2011; Schattle, 2008). Policy-wise, the first issue is that many

world. After finishing various surveys andcurrent prototypes of HE locate education primarily as ainterviews, the students are required to write

business and, as a result, universities are used for commercial

reports about their research outcomes,

purposes via marketing (Tawil, 2013). The second issue iswhich are usually published in both Japanese

whether GCE should adopt a combination of formal andand English. Their fieldwork studies bring

nonformal education; for instance, Andreotti (2010)

the students great success, based on theirsuggested that it is necessary to embed GCE in the “usual

strongtheworks” of the university through policy and programming

appropriate theories and skills needed for(e.g., social justice is a key part of the university vision and isconducting their surveys. In the classes theyreflected across university programs). A third aspect isare also required to develop skills to present

concerned with linking programs to strategic vision. That is,their research findings and analyses before

a university’s intellectual, moral, and social mission in

an audience. (Seisen University, n.d.)developing GC needs to be translated into concrete andfoundationinlearning

sustainable policy and practice, and the goal of GCE isThus, GCE in the Seisen’s Department of Global
Citizenship Studies outlook entails a fieldwork experienceembedded within each of the university’s core functions:teaching, research, and service (Rizvi, 2009).

that encourages learners to open up to different cultures,

In terms of GC program streams, one of the major

think, act, and connect more widely in different ways. It is atrends that I wish to emphasize in introducing this brieflearning progression concentrating not only on what

review of literature on universities’ GC programs relates tostudents learn but also how they learn—about themselves

their location. It appears that the majority of “robust” global

and others, to learn to do things and interact socially—

GC programs “are located in the United States and, to a lesser

inspiring hands-on roles.

degree, in Canada, the U.K., and Australia. The use of GC to

As illustrated in the previous section, it seems clear

frame HE educational programs is scarcely found outside ofthat universities worldwide, including those in Japan, aim tothese countries. Accordingly, Shultz (2011) implied thatconvey an international breadth to the knowledge content of

GCE is often the purview of Western, privileged students andthe curriculum, enhance global skill building, expand

universities. In response to this critique, some argue that thisintercultural relations in culturally mixed classrooms, andis just a matter of time, and attention to educating about theeventually foster globally disposed graduates. In a departure

global context is beginning to take place in Southernfrom the past, they want to move from rhetoric mission

institutions as well, for instance in Japan as examined in mystatements to changing the nature of the education that theirprevious section.

learners receive (Bosio, 2017), although many advocate that

An additional major issue here is that, according to

it is not clear yet whether higher education institutions,

Shultz (2009), current programs of GC have gatekeeping

particularly in Japan, are cultivating “global workers” who aremechanisms that might privilege a global elite. Study andreadily employable for the job market or “global citizens” whovolunteer abroad components that many of the GC programs

should use knowledge, skills, and values learned in the GCE

involve and/or require for credits are often costly. As a result
The 2017 PanSIG Journal222

of this, Taylor (2013) argued, “Individuals are constructedJapan. Since this project was conducted in Japan and most of

into global citizens through their ability to access elitist

the informants were local Japanese people who are not fluent

modes of attaining citizenship. . . GC, therefore, is an identity

in English, all Japanese participants were expected to takeavailable and granted to some but not to others” (p. 21-22).

roles of translators in the interviews between international

To conclude with further key concerns, we shallstudents and local people.

mention assessment/evaluation. Shultz (2011) concluded

Our team was divided into three subgroups basedthat because of resource dependency, evaluations are focusedon targeting generation—elderly, middle, and young—andon satisfying funders. This means that the researcher’seach group had at least one student who is fluent in Japanese.

impartiality might be influenced by specific interests of those

Ultimately, we reached one conclusion that people embrace a

who are funding the project. Another challenge of evaluating

certain degree of local attachment through affiliation toward

wide networked program approaches on GCE is thattraditional food culture passed down from generation tomembers leading individual projects or activities within thegeneration. However, there were remarkable gaps between

program tend to focus on results of their own work and failelderly people and younger generations in that the elderly

to find opportunities to aggregate individual successes.

generation prefer more traditional Japanese food while

Furthercomplicating

GCE

programmaticyounger people tend to accept Western food culture and thedevelopment in HE is the ongoing issue of defining in depth

coexistence of Japanese and other countries’ cuisines on one

a multifaceted term global citizenship and the realization thattable. This suggests a declining tradition of local food culturecolleges and universities have developed their own definitionsin the daily eating habits among the younger generation. It

as influenced by their mission statements, strategic plans, orcan be concerning that the tradition disappears in the futureeven the discussions held around a meeting table (Torres,because of aging, depopulation, migration of young people to2017). Perhaps, this area will be examined in further

urban areas and the seeking of cost and time efficiency. One

publications.

finding from this research was that the elderly do not always
want young generation to inherit their traditions. Some

Arisa Ibe: My Challenges in Akita

referred to “room to let” young people who pursue their styles

My presentation explained about my experience of analong with their desires. Thus, new culture or tradition ofinternationally collaborated research project through a PBL

local food has been created in the current rural regions.

course as an opportunity to recognize the significance ofPerhaps this situation is occurring in countries around thelanguage ability on translation in scenes of international

globe.

cooperation. The project was offered in February 2017. The

In my elderly group, all eight interviews required

PBL course allows students to learn actively by identifying

my translation, though it was challenging for me, as the only

their research questions, designing their research methods,

undergraduate participant, to keep up with advanced

and trying to reach one conclusion. The theme of the research

graduate-level content. There were several reasons related tofor this year was the sustainability of a rural community in

my difficulties with translations. Firstly, it could be attributed

Japan through examining local food habits and place

to a low level of language competency regarding a lack ofattachment among local people. It took place in Gojome

vocabulary of specific terms since I was not familiar with

Town a small town in Akita Prefecture, northeast Japan. This

academic terminology for sustainability fields. Sometimes it

program was in cooperation with four institutions: GPSS-

took significant time to seek proper expressions for a natural

GLI from the University of Tokyo, LUCSUS from Lund

translation. I was afraid of failing because low quality

University, UNU-IAS from United Nations University, andtranslation might lead to a smaller amount of analysis data

Akita International University. The team members consisted

and affect the final outcomes for the visiting students. Iof about 20 students from nine countries: Sweden, India,

realized that, at the university level and particularly withPakistan, China, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Kenya, andinternational students, my role involved coping with pressure
The 2017 PanSIG Journal223

to support high level research while bridging the cultural gaps

which I participated. In PBL, students are divided into small

we encountered. Also, sometimes it was hard for me to listen

joint groups and make policy proposals to tackle specific local

to local people because I was raised in central Japan where

issues that exist in reality. The primary purposes of this reportpeople mainly talk in standard Japanese. The Akita dialect

are to share my experiences from participating in this projectcontained unique expressions I had to first understand inand thoughts related to English education and global

Japanese before trying to pass on the ideas in English.

citizenship.

Additionally, I found it challenging to manage interviews andOne of the biggest things I learned from PBL is thatfurther discussions for data analysis. My group members had

being able to contribute to international community requires

different motivations and attitudes towards participation due

practical English as a working communication tool in a real-

to varied academic knowledge as well as personal

world context. I realized that I perceived studying English as

backgrounds. Each student perceived interview content

only for communicating with native English speakers andthrough their experience from their home country. As aruled out the possibility of communicating with nonnativetranslator I controlled the flow of interviews as well as how

speakers. My first stay during infancy was in the Unitedculture was understood. It was crucial that everyone agreed

Kingdom, as was my study abroad destination. Even in myon the understanding of the information shared. These

home university, I was taught foundation by native speakers,

situations encouraged me in both my language andand most of the professors in class were native English speaker.

management skills.

However, during the PBL, there were only nonnative English

These challenges provided opportunities to

speakers so it was my very first time to use English discussing

develop skills that can be further utilized in my future as aa highly academic topic with nonnative speakers. Apart fromglobal citizen. For example, in the context of globalization, we

communication skills and English fluency, PBL was anmight often encounter international interactions. In those

impetus for me to be aware of the importance of English in ascenes, language competence and management skills can be

more realistic sense.

utilized to communicate with people from various

Another lesson I learned from PBL, related to thebackgrounds and thoughts in order to understand individuals.

experience above, is the importance of adjusting to local

This contributes to uniting and keeping harmony within an

varieties of English, or perhaps adjusting English to ainternational team. It is important to share the same

mutually understandable ground. In the middle ofunderstanding and come to one conclusion. Also, sharing thediscussions, I realized that our understanding was not always

experience of participating in high level challenges canon the same wavelength. This was attributed to the usage ofencourage other students to try and develop themselves.

English by both groups of students, who used English in theirown manner and varieties. Over time, by using simpler andeasier vocabulary, grammar, and shorter sentences, we

Baku Matsui: Project-Based Learning in Sabah

managed to understand each other. This does not mean that

In August 2016, I participated in a project named

English was degraded so that others could understand, but it“Multidisciplinary Approaches to Green Economy.” In thismeant that we all attempted to find a common ground to spurcourse, students literally explored a green economy in Sabah,mutual understanding.

Malaysia. The United Nations Environmental Programme

Most of the classes I have taken were based on a

(UNEP) defines a green economy as an economic systemstyle in which students do not necessarily have to be active;“that results in improved human well-being and social equity,

things are prepared and rehearsed to a greater extent. In PBL,

while significantly reducing environmental risks andon the other hand, there was nothing predictable or prepared.

ecological scarcities” (UNEP, 2011). Unlike mainstream

Under these circumstances, in order to develop real English

lecture-style classes, PBL is a course that aims to cultivate theas a working communication tool for global citizenship, PBL

skills necessary for work in the real world as in the project inis the best educational resource and it should be made more
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

224

available. Indeed, since it is an unusual form of classroom, I

citizenship. Yearbook of the National Society for the Study offirmly believe that there are other things that could be

Education, 107(1), 83-99.
Beck, U. (1992). Risk society: Towards a new modernity

meaningful for students.

(Vol. 17). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Retrieved from

Conclusion

http://www.shi.or.th/upload/risk0002.pdf

There were three talks in the PanSIG 2017 GILE SIG forum,

Bosio, E. (2015). Intercultural communication in Japanese

one by a university educator and two by AIU students. First,

learners of English. The Bulletin of the Graduate School,

Emiliano Bosio showed a variety of models for global

Soka University, 37, 211-236.

citizenship and introduced the manner in which universities

Bosio, E. (2017). How do we create transformative

are incorporating the concept into curricula. To demonstrateglobal citizens? University World Wide News, 485.

how one university is putting such citizenship into practice,

Retrieved from http://www.universityworldnews.com/

two students from the host institution, Akita International

Bourn, D. (2015) The theory and practice of development

University, then spoke about their experiences in the

education: A pedagogy for global social justice. New York,

university’s project-based learning (PBL) program. The

NY: Routledge.

program is designed to encourage students to become a part

Burbules, N. C., & Torres, C. A. (2004). Globalization andof a larger global community by mixing them with students

education. The Routledge Falmer reader in science education.

from other countries. In the case of Arisa Ibe, this meant

New York, NY: Routledge.

sharing what she learned by connecting elders in Akita with

Cates, K. (1999). Teaching English for world citizenship:

international students doing graduate work. For her, global

Key content areas. The Language Teacher, 23(2), 11-14.

citizenship came of sharing of local food history while
simultaneously

learning

theimportanceofsharedunderstanding across language. The second student speaker,
Baku Matsui, spoke of becoming a global citizen on his trip
to Sabah, Malaysia. He was a member of a multinational team

Gaudelli, W. (2016). Global citizenship education:
Everyday transcendence. New York, NY: Routledge.
Gaudelli, W. (2013). Critically theorizing the global. Theory
and Research in Social Education, 41(4), 552-565.
Halvorsen, A. (2005). Incorporating critical thinking skills

that mediated between the Malaysian government anddevelopment into ESL/EFL Courses. The Internet TESL

indigenous peoples to allow for sustainable economic

Journal, 11(3). Retrieved from http://iteslj.org

development that honored the government's commitment toHammond, C. D., & Keating, A. (2017). Global

such populations. Through this, he learned that belonging tocitizens or global workers? Comparing university

a global community required a commitment to varieties ofprogrammes for global citizenship education in Japan andEnglish. The GILE SIG thanks these three speakers for

the UK. Compare: A Journal of Comparative andshowing us not only how universities are encouraging global

International

citizenship, but embodying it in their experience.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2017.1369393

Education.

Ikeda, D. (2005). Forward by Daisaku Ikeda. In N.

References
Andreotti, V. (2010). Postcolonial and post-critical global
citizenship education. In G. Elliott, C. Fourali, & S. Issler

Noddings (Eds.) Educating citizens for global awareness (pp.
ix-xi). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Oxley, L., & Morris, P. (2013). Global citizenship:(Eds.), Education and social change (pp. 238-257). London,

A typology for distinguishing its multiple conceptions.

England: Continuum.

BritishAppiah, K. A. (2006). Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a world of
strangers. New York, NY: Norton.
Appiah, K. A. (2008). Education for global

Journalof

Education,

61(3),

301-325.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2013.798393
Oxfam. (2006). Education for global citizenship: A
guide for schools. Oxfam Development Education
Programme. London: Author.
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

225

Reimers, F. (2006). Citizenship, identity and education:

Taylor, V. (2013). Education for democratic citizenship in the

Examining the public purposes of schools in an age ofCaribbean. Plenary Presentation at the UNESCO Forum on

globalization. Prospects, 36(3), 275-294.

GC Education, Bangkok, Thailand.

Reimers, F. (2009a). Enlightening globalization: An

Trahar, S., Green, W., de Wit, H., & Whitsed, C.

opportunity for continuing education. Continuing Higher(2016). The internationalization of higher education. In J.

Education Review, 73, 32-45.

M. Case & J. Huisman (Eds.), Researching higher

Reimers, F. (2009b). Global competency: Educating the

education: International perspectives on theory, policy andworld. Harvard International Review, 30(4), 24-27.

practice (pp. 23-41). London, England: Society for

Rizvi, F. (2009). Towards cosmopolitan learning.
Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education,30(3), 253-268.

Research into Higher Education.
Torres, C. A. (2008). Education and neoliberal
globalization. New York, NY: Routledge.

Schattle, H. (2008). The practices of global citizenship.

Torres, C. A. (2017). Theoretical and empirical foundations

Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Seisen University.

of critical global citizenship education. Abingdon, England:(n.d.). Department of Global Citizenship Studies. Retrieved

Taylor & Francis.

from

http://www.seisen-

u.ac.jp/eng/academics/academics/05_global.php
Shultz, L. (2011). What do we ask of global citizenship

UNESCO. (2014). Global citizenship education:
Preparing learners for the challenges of the 21st century.
Retrieved

fromeducation? A study of GC education in a Canadian

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002277/22772

university. International Journal of Development Education

9E.pdfand Global Learning, 3(1), 5-22.
Shultz, L. (2007). Educating for global citizenship:

UNESCO. (2015). Topics and learning objectives.
RetrievedfromConflicting agendas and understandings. Alberta Journal

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002329/23299

of Educational Research, 53(3), 248-258.

3e.pdfTawil, S. (2013). Education for ‘global citizenship’:

UNESCO. (2016). Global citizenship education: An

A framework for discussion. UNESCO Education Research

emerging perspective. Outcome document of the Technicaland Foresight (ERF) Working Papers Series, No. 7. Paris,

Consultation on GC Education. Paris, France: UNESCO.

France: UNESCO.

United Nations. (2012). United Nations secretarygeneral’s global education first initiative. New York, NY:
United Nations.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

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Author Biographies
Emiliano Bosio , PhD candidate in the Department of Curriculum, Pedagogy, and Assessment atUniversity College London, obtained an MA in TESOL at Soka University and is a full-time
lecturer at Yokohama City University. His work centers on integrating innovative approaches to
Global Citizenship Education (GCE) into university programs. <ebosio@yokohama-cu.ac.jp >Arisa Ibe is an Akita International University undergraduate who participated in a project-basedlearning program organized in Akita in February 2017 with participants from Sweden, Vietnam,
Malaysia, Kenya, India, Pakistan, and Indonesia. At PanSIG2017, she shared herexperiences researching together about local attachment through food culture among local
people. <b1400322@gl.aiu.ac.jp>
Baku Mastui is an Akita International University undergraduate who played a key role in the
Sabah project-based learning program in August 2016. At PanSIG2017, he spoke about his
experiences participating in the program on the interdisciplinary approaches to green economy in
Sabah, Malaysia. <b1300656@gl.aiu.ac.jp>
Jennie Roloff Rothman is Principal Lecturer of Professional Development-Teacher Developmentin the English Language Institute at Kanda University of International Studies. She attained her
MA in TESOL at Teachers College Columbia University and is pursuing an EdD at Northeastern
University. She was GILE SIG Program chair from 2013-2017. <rothman-j@kanda.kuis.ac.jp>

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

227

Literature in Language Teaching SIG Forum Report
Tara McIlroy

Atsushi Iida

Meiji University

Gunma University

Quenby Hoffman Aoki

Gregg McNabb

Sophia University

Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology

At the 2017 PanSIG conference at Akita International University the Literature in Language Teaching SIG
forum focused on recent activities by the SIG and SIG committee. Four speakers presented on their chosen
topics for 10-15 minutes each. The topics were (a) publishing in journals related to literature and language
teaching, (b) publishing in the SIG journal specifically, (c) examples of classroom activities using poetry andreader response, and (d) the background, current status, and future directions of the LiLT SIG. After thepresentations there was an interactive question and answer session in which audience members were invited
to comment on and talk with the presenters about their topics. This paper provides short sections by eachof the speakers in order to document the forum.
本稿は、Literature in Language Teaching (LiLT) SIG フォーラムにおける 研究発表の報告書である。SIG フォーラムでは、４名の英語教師が登壇し、以下の題目でそれぞれ研究発表を行った。１）文学・言語教育分野における学術誌への投稿 ２）特に、LiLT SIG ジャーナル発刊に際しての問題点 ３）詩を使った教育実践例と生徒の反応４）LiLT SIG の背景, 現状と今後の方向性。本稿では、これらの内容に焦点を当てながら、LiLT 分野における様々な問題を議論していく。

In this article we report on the talks given by members of thetalked about the current state of the SIG and future plans for

LiLT SIG at the PanSIG forum at Akita University on May

the group.

21st, 2017. In the forum, four presenters described a range

We define literature as short stories, poems, novels,of topics of direct importance and relevance to the continued

prose, or fiction of any kind, including movies. The brief

activities of the SIG. These were all connected to the issues ofoutlines in this short article summarize the contributions byteaching and learning using literature. This report aims to

the members of the forum to help document the SIG’sguide the SIG through its first year of having full SIG status,

progress and activities. All speakers invited comments andwhile also looking into future possible goals and challenges

contributions from the participants, which due to limitations

for the group. First, Atsushi Iida introduced advice for gettingof space were not possible to summarize in this article. It is

published in the field of literature and language teaching fromhoped that in highlighting the work of the SIG and thehis own research perspective, including a number of journals

current issues and trends related to the SIG’s work, thewhich specialise in empirical studies using literature.

progress can be shown for future use and will help motivate

Continuing the theme of journals, the SIG Journal

others to contribute to the SIG in the future.

editor Gregg McNabb talked about procedures involved inprocessing submissions for the LiLT SIG Journal and someadvice for prospective authors. Quenby Hoffman Aoki gave apresentation on the methods she uses to teach texts such as

Challenges and Issues of Publishing Second Language
Poetry Writing Research
Atsushi Iida

poetry using reader-response theory. Finally, Tara McIlroy
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

228

There is increasing pressure for scholars to publish English

In each of the five areas, research interests of a group ofarticles in academic journals (Flowerdew, 2008; Lillis &scholars vary from the others. Likewise, the research

Curry, 2010). The same is true for nonnative English-

methodology employed in each field is different. Of

speaking teachers and researchers at the tertiary level. The

particular importance in this publication practice is tofact is that publication is one of the crucial requirements forrecognize where they position themselves in academia and togetting a new (and/or better) position, tenure, or promotion

properly present their studies in a disciplinarily acceptedin the university contexts. In this short article, I discuss somemanner.

challenges and issues of publishing my second language (L2)

The third issue involves a lack of existing empirical

poetry writing research by reflecting on my past 10-year

studies into the use of literature in L2 contexts (Hanauer,

experience of writing for scholarly publication.

2010; Iida, 2011, 2012; Paran, 2008). This situation makes it

I have published several articles on L2 poetry

difficult for teachers and researchers to develop theoretical

writing research in national and international journals since I

underpinnings and design empirical research in this field.

was a doctoral student in the United States. I do not think

Many teachers know that studying and composing literature

writing for scholarly publication in this area is easy and lessand poetry promotes L2 learning (Iida, 2010), but they know

challenging than any other area. Since the study of literaturevery little about the potential outcome of writing poetry inin language teaching (LiLT) in the L2 context isthe target language. Lack of previous studies and insufficientcomparatively new and interdisciplinary in nature, I havedata further challenges them in justifying existing theoreticalencountered some problems and difficulties in writingarguments.

scholarly articles. Particularly, I have found three major issues
when publishing my work in academic journals.

In this article, I have discussed three major issues ofscholarly publication in the field of literature in L2 education.

The first issue is to choose suitable journals (seeIt may be highly competitive when publishing our articles,

Iida, 2016). Each journal has its scope, aim, and target

but teachers of English still have a chance to do so by carefully

audience. Contributors must incorporate these perspectives

looking at the target journal, understanding their positioning

in their manuscripts, because writing for scholarly

as a researcher, and critically reviewing previous studies

publication is “a disciplinarily situated literacy practice, andpublished in this field. While many international, refereed

our message is for someone else in a particular discourse

journals (e.g., Scientific Study of Literature) tend to accept thecommunity” (Iida, 2016, p. 43). In other words, thesubmission of research-based, empirical papers, our own SIG

contributors must become aware of a group of teachers andJournal, the Journal of Literature in Language Teachingresearchers who share the same goals and scopes in a

(JLiLT) accepts practical papers in addition to featured

particular academic community. No manuscript will bearticles. I believe that submitting work to the JLiLT is a good

published unless it fits into the scope, aim, and target

start and it will provide teachers and researchers of English

audience of each journal. In this sense, it is crucial to clarify

with an opportunity to expand knowledge about their studies

who the article is for, what the purpose is, and what original

by receiving constructive feedback through the peer-review

contributions can be made in each study.

process. Publishing each of our case studies or practical

Self-positioning as a researcher is the second key
issue in the publication practice. Because of its

reports in the L2 classroom can be a great contribution to thefield of literature in language teaching.

interdisciplinarity, teachers and researchers of English may

situation more complicated. For instance, my research on L2

Publishing in the Journal of Literature in Language
Teaching
Gregg McNabb

poetry writing involves the following five areas of study:

In the past 2 years, The Journal of Literature in Language

composition, stylistics, TESOL, literature, and psychology.

Teaching has somehow become known to researchers outside

have ample opportunities to submit their work in various
academic journals, but at the same time, it makes their

The 2017 PanSIG Journal229

Japan (e.g., Turkey, Singapore, Iran, the U.S.A., and others).

As is the case for many aspects of life, good timing does matter.

As a result, compared to previous years, competition to be

If in the previous issue someone wrote about tanka and you

published has increased. As the editor of the journal sincehave a submission dealing with haiku, there is a fair chance

2015, I have outlined ways for LiLT members to improvethat it will be rejected. There is no harm whatsoever intheir chances of having their publications accepted.

sending a brief message to editors of various journals to

In a general sense, perhaps the best way for

confirm whether your topic is timely.

contributors to approach writing an article for The Journal of
Literature in Language Teaching, or any other journal for thatmatter, is to assume that their next job offer will depend on
the quality of that article. Thus researchers should probably
have a multimonth, multistage plan that allows several

Revisiting Literature as Authentic Content andEncouraging Reader Response in Japanese University
Students
Quenby Hoffman Aoki

months for research, ample time for the first drafts, some time
for trusted critical readers to offer constructive feedback, andAn often-repeated phrase used by Japanese university

finally several months for the editing process if theirstudents when discussing the meaning of a literary work is

submission has been accepted. Regarding specifics,“what the author wants to tell.” They also tend to focus oncontributors should carefully proofread submissions to avoid

searching for the “message” or “hidden meaning” of avarious typing errors, spelling errors, formatting errors, andparticular story or poem. According to students, this is on thereferencing problems (e.g., a source is cited in the body of theentrance examinations. Emphasized by high school teachers,

paper but not included in the references section) and toit becomes habitual. Furthermore, students are often

ensure that everything conforms to APA conventions. For

reluctant to make a strong statement of response, because

example, after a city name, the state abbreviation is now

they are afraid to be wrong. The teacher is supposed to know

required in upper case. For consistency, British writers mustthe correct interpretation, and if she does not tell them theuse American conventions and place the period before final

answer they become uncomfortable, even annoyed, and may

quotation marks. Unfortunately, some submissions do not

simply give up. In this short forum talk I outlined some ways

attend to these points of etiquette. As to content, statements

to overcome this limitation.

should be well supported. One of the most common

A TESOL-trained instructor may find this to be a

problems noted in the double-blind review process is that

top-down, hierarchical approach, which goes against basic

writers’ ideas are not as fully supported as they could be.

principles of active learning or communicative language

Because we can reasonably assume that readers ofteaching (CLT). To focus on what a writer wanted to say

the journal are educated and also have an interest in using orassumes that a text has a message or hidden meaning andunderstanding literature in language teaching, it is nottherefore a correct answer, putting accuracy before

necessary to provide a lot of background or an extensive

communication. In short, one is not taking responsibility forliterature review. Writers should provide a concise

one’s own reading process.

background or introduction and then present the body ofTeachers who majored in education, TESOL, ortheir article. Ideal articles maintain a judicious balance

applied linguistics (including myself) may not have studied

betweenclassroom

literary theory, but here is a situation where it becomesapplications, keeping in mind that the journal is also readhelpful, particularly reader response criticism, definedoutside of Japan. The journal does not accept submissions

succinctly as a set of theories which view texts as “interactionthat are essentially extended lesson plans or which are longer

between author and reader,” and reading as “an act of creation,versions of JALT’s The Language Teacher “My Share”

no less than writing” (Gardner, 2013, p. 198). In thiscolumn.

approach, any attempt to state an author’s intention isresearch/theory

andpractical

impossible to know, and because it is decades or centuries
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

230

after a work was written, may not matter that much, at leastThis poem describes a Black neighborhood in a city

not in relation to students’ language development. Any workin the U.S. Consider how your reactions to the poemof literature was written at a certain time and place, but isare influenced by racial and cultural stereotypes.

being read now in a very different setting by an individualThis poem was written in the late 1950s as the Civil

who comes from a different background. The reader has to

Rights movement was beginning. Would themake sense of texts using his or her own cognitive, social, andsituation be different now?

cultural tools. Furthermore, the other readers in theclassroom will probably respond in their own ways. Although

How would you react if you saw a similar group ofboys in your neighborhood?

knowing the historical context and the author’s background

Such questions encourage students to read actively and tomay be useful and interesting, once the words are on the pagevalue and express their own responses to literature.

they ultimately belong to the reader. Even the author is not

Furthermore, simply changing the words used to talk about

always aware of a clear intention when writing. Humanliterature can, in fact, create a major shift in perception. For

beings are complicated!

example, instead of “Author A wants to tell us…” students can

As a start, students can be encouraged to look at thesay “This poem describes….”

Instead of “Author C’s

text with a minimum of background information and sharemessage is…” they can phrase it as “The theme of this story

their responses to it. Poetry is particularly effective for this,is….” These are simple but effective ways to use literature forbecause to really understand a poem requires discussion,communication, critical thinking, and active learning.

negotiation, and analysis. One poem that has worked well in

In conclusion, it is important to emphasize that

this context is “We Real Cool,” a short, vivid, and rhythmical

reader response does not mean that historical, cultural, andsnapshot of life in an urban neighborhood just as the Civil

biographical information is unhelpful or irrelevant. It does

Rights Movement was beginning, written by Gwendolyn

mean that, regardless, readers are bringing their own

Brooks, the first African-American to win the Pulitzer Prize.

experiences and beliefs to the conversation. Placing meaning

The poem is based on a true story. Brooks was walking nearand learning with the reader helps students develop active

her home in Chicago during school hours and saw a group ofreading and thinking skills that can be used in other classes

young men playing pool. In a rare case of clearly statedacross the curriculum and in the real world after graduation.

authorial intention, Brooks said that “instead of asking why
they weren’t in school, I asked myself, ‘I wonder how they feel
about themselves’” (Academy of American Poets, audio clip at
https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poem/we-real-cool ).

The Literature in Language Teaching SIG's Current
Position and Future Directions
Tara McIlroy

Poems can be seen as stories, having a setting andcharacters as fiction does. An effective exercise using the

The LiLT SIG is special amongst the SIGs in JALT as being

poem above is asking students to imagine themselves inside

the only place for teachers interested in poetry, prose, film,

the poem with discussion or writing questions like theand other types of creative texts such as songs to discuss theirfollowing:

topic. Although literature in many language learning contexts

Imagine you are one of the pool players. Whatis a marginalized source of material, interest in literature

would you say if someone asked you about your life

remains steady and is perhaps enjoying something of a revival.

and thoughts? Imagine your life 10 or 20 years later;

The LiLT SIG has been growing steadily since its creation inwhat have you done since that day in the pool hall?

2011 and in 2017 became a full SIG, meaning that the

Imagine one of the pool players is someone you

membership of the SIG was steadily above 50 for the past 12

know and care about. What would you say to him?

months. The main reason for the creation of the SIG was that
there was no existing research or presentation space forteachers of poetry, content-based literature programs using
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

231

literature to teach language, or for presentations that werewhich also hosts the archived newsletters (The Word) withdirectly related. Over the past 6 years the SIG has been able

content written by the SIG committee. Next we are looking

to produce a range of events which suit the size of the SIG andat ways to support attendance of conferences by setting up a

the availability of the SIG members to be able to participate.

grant system to support a member of the SIG to visit theIn this short talk about the SIG’s background, current status,

JALT International conference for the first time. Although

and future possible directions, I considered the SIG’s guiding

we are not receiving more interest globally, we remain a local

principles and ongoing development, concluding with angroup with our main interests related to the members of theinvitation to forum participants to discuss the latter aspect,

SIG in Japan.

that of future directions.

As for the future of the SIG and future goals, these

The first type of activity the SIG has been involved

are still being considered at the time of writing. The talk at

in is organising events. The SIG has had two conferences

the forum briefly introduced some suggestions for the SIG,

devoted entirely to literature both entitled The Heart of the

including the possible increase of international support for

Matter. The first of these was held in Aichi in 2014 and thisvisitors to Japan, making connections internationally withlocation was chosen for its proximity to a number ofother groups connected to the goals or the LiLT SIG, andcommittee members. There were concurrent sessions and atrying to continue connecting our interests with those ofsponsored speaker for this event. In the second conference, inother SIGs in Japan also. Through these things we hope to2016, the main speakers were members of the SIG and thecontinue to expand our interests.

event was held in Kyoto. As well as special days with invited

Finally, as we consider the future plans of the SIG

and concurrent sessions, we have been involved in several

in the next few years, we welcome new members and thoseother activities also. These have included events at JALT

who may have time to offer the committee. While the SIG

International such as coordinating presentations at a forum

continues to grow and develop, we hope to have manyand inviting a sponsored speaker to the event. In 2015 Jane

opportunities to welcome new challenges and broaden our

Spiro was an invited speaker from the U.K., conducting

horizons in the world of the JALT SIGs and the field of

several talks at the conference on the topics of creative writing

literature.

and poetry in the language classroom. The SIG has invited aguest speaker to the JALT International conference again in
2017, in collaboration with the C-Group run by Alan Maley.
This year’s speaker will be Malu Sciamarelli from Brazil, andshe will talk at Tsukuba as well as participating in the FourCorners tour. Presenting and organising events is part of an
ongoing discussion amongst the committee and we welcome
suggestions about how to manage events and other activities
for the SIG.
As well as events such as conferences, the SIG has
started to consider other ways to be active and serve thecommunity of SIG members. One of these has been throughincreased promotion and publicity. Despite having a small
committee, we are a dedicated group who are interested inpromoting the SIG positively through our activities. We
share local and international news related to literature inlanguage teaching through our Facebook group and page. We

References
Brooks, G. (1983). Academy of American poets
audio archive (Producer). “We real cool.” [Audio
File]. Retrieved fromhttps://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poem/we-real-cool
Brooks, G. (2005). We real cool. In G. Brooks & E.
Alexander, The essential Gwendolyn Brooks. (pp. 6061). New York, NY: Library of America.
Flowerdew, J. (2008). The non-Anglophone scholaron the periphery of scholarly publication. AILA
Review: Linguistic Inequality in Scientific
Communication Today, 20, 14-27.
Gardner, J. (2013). Reading and writing about
literature: a portable guide (3rd ed). Boston, MA:
Bedford/ St. Martin’s.
Hanauer, D. I. (2010). Poetry as research:

have everything related to the SIG on the official webpage,The 2017 PanSIG Journal

232

Exploring second language poetry writing.
Amsterdam, the Netherlands: John Benjamins.
Iida, A. (2010). Developing voice by composing
haiku: A social-expressivist framework forteaching haiku writing in EFL contexts. English
Teaching Forum, 48, 28-34.
Iida, A. (2011). Revisiting haiku: The contributionof composing haiku to L2 academic literacy
development (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation).
Indiana University of Pennsylvania.
Iida, A. (2012). The value of poetry writing:
Cross-genre literacy development in a second
language. Scientific Study of Literature, 2, 60-82.

Iida, A. (2016). Scholarly publication: A
multilingual perspective. In C. McMaster & C.
Murphy, (Eds.), Graduate study in the USA:
Succeeding and surviving (pp. 41-50). New York,
NY: Peter Lang.
Lillis, T., & Curry, M. J. (2010). Academic writing
in a global context: The politics and publishing in
English. New York, NY: Routledge.
Paran, A. (2008). The role of literature in structured
foreign language learning and teaching: An evidencebased survey. Language Teaching, 41, 465-496.

https://doi.org/10.1075/ssol.2.1.04iid.

Author Biographies
Tara McIlroy is a Co-coordinator of the Literature in Language Teaching SIG and an associate
professor in the School of Global Japanese Studies, Meiji University, Tokyo. Her interests
include literary reading, investigating uses of creative texts, and uses of world literature in thelanguage classroom. tara.mcilroy@gmail.com
Quenby Hoffman Aoki teaches in the English Literature Department, Sophia University,
including literature, global issues, and fluency practice in her classes whenever possible. Her
research interests include literature in the language classroom and global issues (especially gender,
race, and environmental problems). She is a Member-at-Large for LiLT SIG.
quenbya@yahoo.com
Atsushi Iida is associate professor of English in the University Education Center, Gunma
University. He was awarded his PhD in English (Composition and TESOL) at Indiana
University of Pennsylvania. His research interests include second language (L2) writing, poetry
writing, and writing for scholarly publication. a.iida@gunma-u.ac.jp.
Gregg McNabb is an associate professor of English in the Faculty of Informatics at Shizuoka
Institute of Science and Technology. His main educational interests are writing and publishingreading textbooks and the support role of e-learning platforms. He dabbles in poetry and shortstory writing. greggmcnabb@gmail.com

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

233

Expanding Interests: Report on the Plenary Panel
Tara McIlroy

Naoyuki Naganuma

Meiji University

Tokai University

Tomoe Aoyama

Naoko Ozeki

Cambridge English Language Assessment

Meiji University

Annette Bradford
Meiji University

At the May 2017 PanSIG conference at Akita International University four invited speakers gave a panel
discussion about the conference theme “Expand Your Interests.” Through this topic they highlighted
current research trends and issues affecting language education in Japan. Next the speakers talked about
future directions of language teaching. Focusing on individual interests and how they will affect the field ingeneral, the speakers each introduced his/her area of special expertise including testing, educational policy
in Japan, and the language teaching field. This paper reports on the talks given by each of the four invited
presenters by providing a summary of each speaker’s ideas.
2017 年 5 月に国際教養大学で開催された PanSIG フォーラムにて“Expand YourInterests”のテーマで４人のゲストスピーカーによるパネルディスカッションが行われた。そのテーマを通して、日本の言語教育に影響を与える現在の研究の動向と問題が取り上げられ、続いて、言語教育の今後の方向性についても語られた。個々のスピーカーの興味とそれが分野全般にどのように影響するのかに焦点を当てながら、各スピーカー
は自身の専門領域を紹介し、テスティングや日本の教育政策、言語教育について話をした。本稿では今回のパネルディスカッションにおける４名のゲストスピーカーそれぞれの意見の要約を掲載する。

This is a report on the plenary panel of the 2017 PanSIG

these plenary speakers also helped to encourage through a

conference at Akita International University. The panel wassharing of their ideas. This plenary report summarizes

held from 5pm-6pm on Saturday, 20th May, 2017. Four

perspectives given from each speaker in the session.

specialist speakers were invited by the conference planning

The format of this paper is that each panellist

committee to talk about their area of knowledge with a focus

relates their interests and research perspective to theon current and future trends in language education in Japan.

conference theme in a short summary. The speakers then also

Their range of expertise covered areas including knowledge oflink their research background to the topic of current trends

ministry goals and policy and current trends in languagein language teaching. This allows each speaker to focus on

testing and implementation. An additional aim of the panel

their ideas about research and language education in Japan at

was to give an opportunity for the plenary speakers to speak

the current time. First, Tomoe Aoyama introduces 2017about their own interests and comment on the conference

MEXT guidelines and relates these to the current changes intheme “Expand Your Interests.” The conference theme

testing which will affect education contexts in Japan. Next,

focused on professional development and growth, which

Annette Bradford looks at the development of EMI (English
The 2017 PanSIG Journal234

as a medium of instruction) as a pedagogy for language

The second proposal would include partial usage of theeducators, describing her recent research into university

current national exam but would also allow for accredited

environments and how this affects language educators in thethird party exam results to be accepted.

tertiary setting in Japan. Naoyuki Naganuma discusses theI think it is fair to say that a change in the way

impact of the Common European Framework of Reference

English is assessed at secondary level could allow for broad(CEFR) on teaching and learning practices with a specialchanges also in the way that English is taught at high schools

focus on the effects of testing. Finally, Naoko Ozeki

and would ultimately affect English learning at each level ofintroduces the connection between the CEFR and theeducation from primary upwards. Of course, I would be

guiding principles behind it that relate to the current

delighted to see Cambridge English Exams being used as

challenges in English education today and in the future.

accredited exams and this is principally as I feel the learningoriented assessment (LOA) model, which all Cambridge

Language Assessment and Second Language Ability:
Tomoe Aoyama

exams follow, would move the emphasis of learning English

My interests lie in language assessment and, in particular, how

students learn English primarily to pass a test.

to enhancing lifelong skills from the current situation where

we assess students’ language ability. This includes considering

I believe that choosing where to place emphasis in

how we can improve upon this, what effect assessment has on

English education is very important. During the plenary

how English is taught in schools, and how practical

discussion, Professor Naganuma talked about the “Fiveassessment can bring positive change to English education in

Domains” of CEFR, which are listening, reading, speaking

Japan. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science(interaction), speaking (production) and writing. As we canand Technology (MEXT) announcement, just 4 days prior tosee speaking is separated into two disciplines but we should

PanSIG, detailing their intention to reform the nationalbe careful not to place all of our focus on improving speaking

unified university entrance examinations made “Expanding

skills to the detriment of the remaining three skills.

your Interests” an all the more relevant conference theme

If we look at the performance of secondary school

under which to discuss language assessment. The two

students in East Asia who have taken KET/KET for schools

proposals from the MEXT announcement are listed below:(CEFR A2) in 2016, we will see that Japanese students score
well in the speaking portion of the test, exceeding the pass

1.

From the 2020 academic year onwards, no English

mark on average. However, the same students have weakerexamination will be held as part of the common

listening, reading, and writing skills (Cambridge English

entrance test. When it comes to English, Accredited

Language Assessment, 2016). Making sure that we enhance

Examinations will be used for the selection of

the four skills, or five domains, in a balanced manner is very

university entrants.

important.
Looking further into the future, post 20202.

… the English language component of the common

problems for English education in Japan would revolve

entrance test will continue to be held until the 2023

around the uncertainty of funding after the Olympic Games.

academic year. Each university will make its own

Presently, there is an appetite amongst politicians for

decision as to whether to use the common entrance

increasing the nation’s English ability in preparation for

test, Accredited Examinations, or both.

hosting the Olympic Games but will we see a dramatic drop

(MEXT, 2017)

in funding for English education after 2020? I think it isimportant to invest in teacher training now while the funding

The first proposal would see a full shift to third party

is available. Teachers who can gain qualifications, such as

exams, such as Cambridge English exams (KET, PET, FCE,CELTA and DELTA, will in the future be better placed toetc.), being used to assess students’ English language ability.

train other teachers internally.
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

235

The Internationalization of Higher Education:
Annette Bradford

programs will also take EMI classes. There may be a mix ofthese students in any given EMI class.

My research centers on the internationalization of higher

The faculty members teaching in EMI programs

education. In other words, I am interested in how higher

are similarly diverse. Both Japanese and non-Japanese faculty

education institutions (HEIs) are responding to the forces ofteach in EMI classes, although research indicates that EMI

globalization and positioning themselves and their students

classes are more likely to be taught by Japanese faculty

for success both domestically and internationally. In recent

members (Brown, 2015). Many of these Japanese faculty

years, I’ve focused on issues surrounding student mobility andmembers are younger and have overseas graduate school

English-medium instruction (EMI) in Japanese higher

qualifications and work experience. Some will have been

education. These two topics go hand-in-hand. Over the last

hired directly to teach in EMI programs, but many will

decade, the Japanese government has redoubled its efforts toalready be teaching in Japanese-medium programs. Some ofboth increase the number of international students studying

the non-Japanese faculty members involved with EMI are

in Japan and the number of Japanese students heading

language specialists who are teaching EMI subject-content

overseas. Simultaneously, the government and HEIs want toclasses in addition to their language classes, while others are

increase the global-mindedness and intercultural skills ofcontent specialists hired directly into EMI programs or

Japanese students. EMI can be viewed as a tool to help achieve

taking on EMI in addition to their Japanese-medium

these goals.

teaching responsibilities.

The term EMI refers to the teaching of subject-

The conference theme “Expand your Interests” iscontent via the medium of English, with no explicit focus onvery relevant to the increasing interest in student mobility

language teaching or learning. In Japan, universities are now

and EMI. Those involved in these new programs areteaching various types of classes in English. The most recent

experiencing new ways of learning and teaching. It is also

information from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,

relevant to language educators. As a language specialist in

Science and Technology (MEXT, 2016) states that students

Japan, you may not be directly involved in leading trips

can now study undergraduate classes in English at 274 ofabroad or teaching subject-content. However, it is probable

Japan’s 781 universities and graduate classes at 204

that the students you teach will be enrolled in such programs.

institutions. It is possible to earn an entire undergraduate

Many students are no longer learning English as a strictlydegree in English in at least 28 universities (Ota, 2017).

academic exercise or to become merely conversational.

Undergraduate EMI classes tend to focus on the humanities

Instead they have more focused language learning goals thatand social sciences, however those classes that make up entire

may center on passing English proficiency tests to enter aEnglish-taught degree programs are more likely to be in theforeign university or on academic skills and discipline-specificfields of natural sciences and engineering (Bradford & Brown,

language to succeed in an EMI class. For the language teacher,2017).

this may mean expanding your professional interests to meet
The student and faculty composition of EMI

the needs of those students.

classes can vary greatly. Across Japan, most undergraduate

It can, however, be challenging to find out exactly

EMI students are Japanese students taking a few classes inwhat EMI student needs are. At many HEIs, there isEnglish as part of their predominantly Japanese-medium

disconnect between language and EMI programs, anddegree program. However, there are increasing numbers oflanguage specialists often do not have direct lines ofinternational students enrolled in mainstream degreecommunication to those teaching subject-content. Yet,

programs in Japan, and many will find their way into EMI

coordination and coherence are key elements in EMI

classes. Short-term visiting exchange students and long-term

programs. When language programs introduce and reinforce

international students enrolled in English-taught degree

the language and skills needed in EMI classes, students are
more likely to succeed (Iyobe and Li, 2017). It is therefore
The 2017 PanSIG Journal236

essential to reach out informally to colleagues teaching EMI

opinion in their output. Such deep input processing can beclasses to find out what they expect from their students.

encouraged by deep involvement of learners into the themeof the text. We need to foster curiosity and develop the

Language Learning Motivation and the Directionof the Next Course of Study:
Naoyuki Naganuma

inquiry skill and learning attitudes of learners when they are

My research background has always been in the fields ofinterest when they try to internalize the value of the theme oflanguage learning motivation and testing. The current

the text. Teachers as well need to expand their interests, bedirection of the MEXT’s foreign language educational

open to new interests and values, and be willing to search forreform movement to promote setting achievement goals in

an interesting theme in the text to be shared with the students.

the form of CAN-DO lists in the secondary schools is highly

The CLIL (content and language integrated learning)interesting. For me, a can-do oriented assessment is aapproach can be promising in the sense that it puts more

motivational tool to promote learner autonomy, as suggested

focus on the content of the text and does not treat a text justby the CEFR and the ELP (European Language Portfolio).

as a source of language. Deep active learning will be facilitated

At the same time, it is a tool to enhance self-efficacy ofwhen you have a cycle of deep input and deep output

learners in future learning and use of the language. The idea

connected by deep involvement.

facing a text. A situational interest of the topic may become
more individualized and eventually a well-developed newof learning-oriented assessment (Jones & Saville, 2016) is

These two new directions of the next Course of

essential when you set a can-do list in your class or school.

Study may be challenging enough for teachers, but we must

Performance assessments based on can-do descriptors are not

not forget about the coming change in the university entrance

only important to give a final grade (as a summative

exam system. The four-skill entrance exams are going to beassessment). They also give learners a chance and a feeling ofpromoted and learners may have a positive washback effect inconfidence to perform a task with scaffoldings when

their learning, focusing more on productive skills. However,necessary (as a formative assessment). Monitoring of task

most of the high-stake external tests do not offer a chance toperformance and adjustment of target attainment goal based

assess spoken interaction skills (as in the Cambridge English)on such monitoring during the process of learning needs towhile the Course of Study will emphasize five skill areas

be emphasized. Otherwise you may demotivate learners by

including both spoken production and interaction

sticking to the prescribed and pre-set can-do list of goals to be

influenced by the CEFR. On top of that, integrated skills

achieved by the end of semester and ignore what they aresuch as speaking or writing after reading a text or listening tobecoming able to do through the task over the course of thea lecture (as in the TOEFL iBT integrated tasks) are missingclass.

and not a target of assessment in most of the cases in those
Another aspect of the reform movement whichtests. We should be careful to note that tests cannot simply beattracts my interest is the concept of active learning. Whatcompared with the scores of other ones by referring to theneeds to be active is not just production but reception as well.

CEFR levels, because individual test tasks are different acrossDeep input processing is a key for deep output processing.

the tests, each of which has a different test construct.

Without a deep understanding of the text to foster thinking,Teachers need to have assessment literacy to see the matchyou cannot expect much from learners when they produce(and/or gap) between the attainment goals and the final

their opinions. The focus of understanding changes and theassessments and best elicit the possible washback effects from

input becomes more meaningful when you have a purpose of

the external tests to motivate learners.

output. Taking perspectives from the texts can work as a
scaffolding of thinking skills in output processing. Learners
can internalize the value of the message in the texts frommultiple resources and integrate them to develop their own
The 2017 PanSIG Journal

237

Guiding Principles of the CEFR and the Course of
Study in Japan: Naoko Ozeki

Academic skill, a key concept of the Course of
Study, corresponds to learner autonomy from the cognitivepsychological perspective. Another concept of the Course of

I am interested in ELT and the Common European

Study, human qualities that promote self-discipline together

Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) because thewith consideration for others, is similar to learner autonomy

guiding principle of the Course of Study in Japan, zest for life,

from the sociocultural perspective. These findings suggest

is similar to that of CEFR. For example, zest for life consists ofthat the underlying educational principles of the Course of

three components: (a) academic skill that includes the

Study and CEFR are alike, regardless of the cultural contexts.

abilities to plan, think, and act independently; (b) human

The conference theme, “Expand Your Interests” is relevant toqualities that cultivate self-discipline together withmy educational perspective. For example, I became interested

consideration for others; and (c) health and physical fitness.

in CEFR because initially, I was a member of a research group

The first two components correspond to intercultural(KAKEN) that focused on developing a Japanese version ofcommunicative competence and learner autonomy, which

CEFR, CEFR-J. I then investigated the principles of CEFR,

are guiding principles of CEFR. Intercultural communicativeand found similarities between CEFR and the Course ofcompetence includes the following abilities: (a) the ability to

Study. Often when you are interested in one topic, you will

respond to others in nonjudgmental ways; (b) the ability toalso explore related areas, thereby deepening yourlisten positively; (c) the ability to show respect and a positive

understanding.

attitude toward others; (d) the ability to tolerate ambiguity;

Regarding the challenges facing English languageand (e) the ability to participate in social interaction whenteaching in Japan today, there are two major issues. One islearning (Verjans, Rajagopal, Baten, Dusar & Van Maele,

English education at the primary school level. In 2020,2011).

English will be a required subject for fifth and sixth graders.
CEFR’s guiding principle of learner autonomy

These students will learn English and be evaluatedentails understanding two perspectives. One is a cognitive-

accordingly. Furthermore, foreign language activities, which

psychological perspective, and the other is a sociocultural

are English activities conducted in many schools, will begin inperspective. The ultimate objective of both approaches is togrades three and four. In principle, homeroom teachers will

foster learner autonomy. The cognitive-psychologicalteach English, regardless of their English proficiency levels orperspective focuses on the individual’s cognitive processes

teaching experience. This is controversial.

such as metacognitive and cognitive processes. This relates to

The second major issue related to English teachingresearching and developing learning strategies. For instance,

in Japan is the university English entrance exams. There is no

autonomous learners set learning goals, plan their learning,

consistency between the content of the Course of Study andmonitor their learning, solve problems while learning, andthat of university English entrance exams. The Course ofreflect on their learning after achieving their goals. On the

Study states that the four skills should be integrated andother hand, the sociocultural perspective involves not only

taughtindividuals but also the society around them and it focuses on“Communication English I, II, and III.” A recent MEXT

the continuing relationship between society and thesurvey found that 88.1% of public high schools set theirindividual. It is based on Vygotsky's (1978) idea that social

English education goals in the form of CAN-DO lists. To

interaction is the basis for the development of an individual’sachieve these goals, they try to integrate the four skills using

higher level mental activity. He described this process using

action-oriented teaching and then they use performance tests

the metaphor the zone of proximal development. Therefore,to evaluate students’ speaking and writing. Nevertheless, thefrom a sociocultural approach, autonomous learners are thosecurrent national English center test involves only two skills,

who can develop constructive relations with others andreading and listening. Private university entrance exams

proceed to the next level of learning with the help of others.

usually test only reading. On the other hand, universities that

accordingly,

especially

in

the

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

subjects

238were chosen by MEXT as super global universities have begun

East Asia. Cambridge, England: Cambridge ELA.

to use the results of achievement tests such as TOEFL, IELTS,

Iyobe, B. M., & Li, J. (2017). Factors for success andand TEAP for university admission. As secondary school

sustainability of an elective English-medium instruction

English classes have changed, university English entrance

program. In A. Bradford & H. Brown (Eds.), English-

exams have also begun to change.

medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy,
challenges and outcomes (pp. 225-237). Bristol, England:

Conclusion

Multilingual Matters.

In the plenary panel at the PanSIG conference a number ofJones, N., & Saville, N. (2016). Assessment of the four

topics related to language learning and assessment were

English skills. Studies in Language Testing, 45,

discussed in relation to the theme “Expand Your Interests.”

Learning Oriented Assessment: A systemic approach, 52-

This report brings together the summary discussions from

56. Retrieved fromthe panel, bringing the research areas into focus. As a way of

http://www.cambridgeenglish.org/research-and-documenting the forum, this paper reports on the panel withvalidation/fitness-for-purpose/loa/

the aim of reporting on the event to aide future panels andMEXT. (2016). 平成 26 年度の大学における教conference planning.

育内容等の改革状況について

Finally, it is relevant to comment on the diversity

Heisei 26 nendo no daigaku ni okeru kyouiku naiyoutou noof the group in the 2017 panel. Three out of four of the

kaikaku joukyou ni tsuite [About the state of affairs

speakers were Japanese, a higher proportion of Japaneseregarding university reforms to education in 2014].

plenary panelists than usual for a JALT event. JALT has a

Retreived fromnumber of Japanese members, but their presence can

http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/daigaku/04052

sometimes be in the minority at JALT events. There was a

801/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2017/02/17/1380019_1.pdf

fifth speaker, Bern Mulvey, who was regrettably unable to

MEXT. (2017). 文部科学省 HP 報道発表(平成attend the event. A number of conference attendees

29 年度の報道発表)高大接続改革の進捗状況につcommented after the session that they appreciated theいて[Press release; On the progress of reforming thepresence of female and Japanese plenary speakers this year,

transition between senior high and university education].

which reflects the changes occuring in educational contexts

Retrieved fromin Japan and internationally. Thus in selecting panelists andhttp://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houdou/29/05/138579

conducting the panel we hope that the event did indeed show

3.htm

JALT’s intentions to expand interests.

Ota, H. (2017, June). How accessible are Englishtaught programs? Exploring international admissions

References
Bradford, A., & Brown, H. (2017). English-medium
instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy,
challenges and outcomes. Bristol, England: Multilingual
Matters.
Brown, H. (2015). Module 2: Painting a picture of EMI inprocedures. Roundtable presentation at the 53rd Annual
Conference of the Japan Comparative Education Society,
Tokyo, Japan.
Verjans, S., Rajagopal, K., Baten, L., Dusar, L., & Van Maele,
J. (2011). CEFcult framework and methodology. Retrieved
fromJapan: Extent of, rationales for, and implementation of

http://www.dsg.univr.it/documenti/Avviso/all/all11708

undergraduate English-medium instruction classes at

4.pdf

universities in Japan (Unpublished doctoral dissertation).
University of Birmingham, England.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The
development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge,

Cambridge English Language Assessment. (2016).

MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published

Key English Test (KET) for school students performance in

1930s)The 2017 PanSIG Journal239

Author Biographies
Tomoe Aoyama is senior development manager at Cambridge English Language Assessment, Japan. She
is a member of MEXT’s Liaison Committee (2014 to present) and in 2015, her work enabled Cambridge
English to produce sample questions for MEXT and the National Center for University Entrance
Examination. aoyama.t@cambridgeenglishreps.org

Annette Bradford is an associate professor at Meiji University, teaching courses focused on enhancing
students’ international competencies. Her research focuses on education policy relating to theinternationalization of higher education, student mobility, and English-medium instruction. She holds an
EdD in Educational Administration and Policy Studies, The George Washington University.
bradford@meiji.ac.jp

Tara McIlroy is an associate professor at Meiji University, teaching courses in reading, writing, and ateacher’s license course using literature. Her interests include literary reading, investigating uses of creative
texts and uses of world literature in the language classroom. In 2017 she was the Panel Chair for the PanSIG
conference. mcilroy@meiji.ac.jp

Naoyuki Naganuma is a professor of the International Education Center, Tokai University. His researchinterests are mainly on language learning motivation and language testing, especially can-do oriented
assessment promoting learning and motivation. He was a committee member (MEXT) for setting learning
attainment targets in foreign language education. n.naganuma@tokai-u.jp

Naoko Ozeki is a professor at the School of Global Japanese Studies, Meiji University, and a vice presidentof JACET. She is actively engaged in developing English education at the secondary and tertiary levels. She
holds a PhD in Rhetoric and Linguistics from Indiana University of Pennsylvania. naoko@rr.iij4u.or.jp

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

JALT Special Interest Groups and the PanSIG conference
Extensive Reading SIG (ER)The ER SIG exists to help promote extensive reading (ER) in Japan. Through our website, our newsletter,
the ERJ Journal, and presentations throughout Japan we aim to help teachers set up and make the most of
their ER programmes.

Framework and Language Portfolio SIG (FLP)
FLP SIG wants to discuss the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) and European
Language Portfolio (ELP), and other similar frameworks and their relevance for Japan. There is an emphasis
on developing materials to support educators who would like to use these pedagogic tools. This is currently
practically pursued in a Kaken Project. Also, the bilingual Language Portfolio aimed at Japanese universities
is available on the SIG moodle.

Gender Awareness in Language Education SIG (GALE)
The purpose of the GALE SIG is to research gender and its implications for language learning, teaching,
and training. We welcome submissions for our newsletter (spring, summer, and fall issues) on topics, boththeoretical and practical, related to the SIG’s aims. Book reviews, lesson plans, think pieces, poetry -basically anything related to gender and language teaching is welcomed.

Global Issues in Language Education SIG (GILE)
GILE aims to promote global awareness, international understanding, and action to solve world problems
through content-based language teaching, drawing from fields such as global education, peace education,
environmental education, and human rights education. GILE SIG produces a quarterly newsletter,organizes presentations for local, national, and international conferences, and maintains contacts withgroups ranging from Amnesty International to Educators for Social Responsibility to UNESCO.

Japanese as a Second Language SIG (JSL)
日本語教育研究部会(JSL SIG)の役割は、第二言語としての日本語指導、日本語学習、
日本語 教育研究の向上を目指し、指導、学習、研究のための資料や情報を与えることです。日本語の指 導者、学習者、研究者の皆様加入大歓迎です。発表の援助をし、ニュースレターと論文集を発行 するので論文・記事の寄稿を歓迎します。
The mission of the JSL SIG is to serve as a resource for promoting JSL teaching, learning and research. We
welcome JSL teachers, learners, and researchers to join and take an active role in our SIG. We sponsor
presentations, and publish a newsletter and a journal.

Learner Development SIG (LD)The LD SIG is a lively energetic group sharing an interest in ways to promote learner (and teacher!)development and autonomy.
LD SIG は、多様な教育現場(大学以外)でご活躍の皆さんの参加を歓迎しています。 小学校、中学 校、高校、通信教育、大学院、語学学校での指導や、英語以外の言語を教えている教師の皆様、 どうぞご参加ください。

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

Lifelong Language Learning SIG (LLL)
We offer a bright future to our aging society. The energy of older learners who wish to lead active lives isflowing all over Japan. LLL is willing to help these older learners enrich their lives through language learning.
LLL also provides resources and information for teachers who teach English to older learners by holding
events and publishing online newsletters.

Literature in Language Teaching SIG (LiLT)
LiLT started up to encourage and promote the use of literature in the language classroom.
Literature provides real content to engage and to motivate our EFL students.

Materials Writers SIG (MW)The MW SIG was established to help members turn fresh teaching ideas into useful classroom materials.
We try to be a mutual assistance network, offering information regarding copyright law, sharing practicaladvice on publishing practices, including self-publication, and suggesting ways to create better language
learning materials for general consumption or for individual classroom use.

Mind, Brain, and Education SIG
The Mind, Brain, and Education SIG is a forum for language educators and researchers to share insights inneuroscience. We hope to be a driving force in bringing relevant new discoveries in psychology, cognitive
neuroscience and neurolinguistics into language teaching in Japan.

Other Language Educators SIG (OLE)
The OLE SIG was founded in 1996 in order to serve the special needs of learners and teachers of a wide
variety of languages (German, French, Chinese, Korean, Spanish, and Russian etc.). OLE can also be
considered part of peace education as languages are also thought to be instrumental in developing cultural
empathy, opening up our minds to other concepts and ideas, and enabling us to reflect on our own.

Pragmatics SIG (PRAG)
The Pragmatics SIG welcomes members who are interested in both research and practical teaching issues
related to “how people do things with words.” The group’s newsletter, Pragmatic Matters, is publishedelectronically three times a year. Our Pragmatics Resources series offers practical and theoretical articles on
language in use. If you do anything with language, you are using pragmatics.

School Owners SIG (SO)Language School owners have always played a significant role in JALT both at national & local levels. The
SIG functions as a private online forum where owners can share ideas, experiences & solutions to theacademic and commercial challenges they face which cannot be addressed through other SIGs such as:
recruitment & training; taxes, accounting, banking and bookkeeping; marketing & advertising; andpartnerships & trade between owners.

Speech, Drama, & Debate SIG (SD&D)
The mission of the SD&D SIG is to provide a forum for teachers and academics to discuss, research, andimplement oral interpretation, speech, debate, and drama in language education. The main activities are
creation of newsletters, two journals, and sponsoring a Speech, Drama, and Debate conference. Future
activities may be sponsoring and supporting local and regional speech, drama, and debate contests or
festivals.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

Study Abroad SIG (SA)The JALT Study Abroad SIG was established in 2008 to promote research on overseas study and facilitate
networking among those interesting in learning more about study abroad.

Task-Based Learning SIG (TBL)
The TBL SIG is aimed at teachers who currently use, or are interested in using, task-based approaches in
the classroom. TBL SIG focuses in particular on issues related to Task-based Language teaching andlearning in the Asian EFL context, where TBLT has yet to enter the mainstream of language pedagogy. We
hope that the SIG will serve as a useful forum for the exchange of practical teaching ideas, theoretical
discussion, and academic studies of TBLT issues.

Teacher Development SIG (TD)The TD SIG is a network for those who want to help themselves and others become better teachers. Our
activities include retreats, mini-conferences, social and networking events, and forums & presentations.
TD’s comprehensive newsletter, Explorations in Teacher Education, welcomes stimulating articles!

Teachers Helping Teachers SIG (THT)
THT is a grassroots organization founded by members of the Himeji Chapter of JALT in 2004, out of theefforts of the late Bill Balsamo, longtime president of the Himeji chapter. THT is dedicated to the aid andassistance of fellow educators and students in and around Asia. We fulfill this mission by providing teachertraining workshops in Bangladesh, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, and Vietnam that exhibit practical, student andteacher-friendly approaches to language

education that are informed by current research in the field.

Teaching Younger Learners SIG (TYL)
The TYL SIG is for teachers of children of all ages. We publish a bilingual newsletter four times a year withcolumns by many of the leading teachers in the field. We are always looking for new ideas and new people
to keep the SIG dynamic. With our bilingual newsletter, The School House, we particularly want to appeal
to Japanese teachers and teachers who team teach.

Testing and Evaluation SIG (TEVAL)TEVAL SIG aims to provide avenues for research, information, and discussion related to foreign language
testing and evaluation both from within JALT membership and with other professional organizations
which have common interests and goals. Current and back issues of Shiken, the TEVAL SIG publication,
are available on the TEVAL website.

Vocabulary SIG (VOCAB)
The VOCAB SIG aims to provide a forum for focused research and discussion in specific regard to
vocabulary acquisition. We aim to offer both teachers and researchers a place to connect regarding howlearners improve vocabulary knowledge, how to test their knowledge, and how these theoretical aspects willconnect to classroom practice. The VOCAB SIG aims to be a driving force for both current and future
research in the field of how vocabulary can be taught, learned, and tested in an increasingly global context.

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

PANSIG JOURNAL 2017
ISBN#: 978-4-901352-57-4
Anthony Brian Gallagher
Editor-in-Chief

ISBN#: 978-4-901352-57-4
PanSIG Journal 2017
Selected articles from the 2017 PanSIG Conference
Expand Your Interests
JALT Central OfficeUrban Edge Bldg 5F, 1-37-9 Taito, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-0016, Japan
http://jalt.org/
http://www.pansig.org/

The 2017 PanSIG Journal

PanSIG Journal 2017

ISBN# 978-4-901352-57-4
Created and Edited by Anthony Brian Gallagher
PanSIG is a yearly conference held by the Special Interest
Groups in the Japan Association of Language Teachers.