Pan
SIG
Journal2020

Edited by
Patrick Conaway and Duncan Iske
Patrick Conaway and Duncan Iske

PanSIG is an annual conference
held in May, and organized by manyof the Special Interest Groups(SIGs) of the Japan Association for
Language Teaching (JALT).

MESSAGE FROM THE EDITOR
The 19th Annual PanSIG conference was held online using the website Eventzil.la on June 20-21, 2020. The conference had many
obstacles to overcome due to the covid-19 pandemic. Thanks to the blood sweat and tears of many volunteers, the conference was able
to successfully bring together educators to share their research and practices despite being separated by physical distance. Although amain goal of the conference was to provide a way for language educators to continue their professional development while remaining intheir respective homes and offices, we were also able to reduce the carbon footprint of the conference due to the lower energy demandsof meeting online compared to traveling to a physical venue. PanSIG 2020 featured over 80 presentations and forums ranging acrossteaching contexts, pedagogies, and SIG topics, and including several presentations specifically focused upon teaching in an online context.
The conference was a collaborative effort from the 26 Special Interest Groups (SIGs) with the Japan Association for Language Teaching(JALT). The conference enabled participants to attend presentations on a variety of topics in a wide range of fields in language teaching
and learning.
This journal represents the sixth edition of the annual PanSIG Journal in its latest form – following 14 years of proceedings publications
beginning with 2002 – which includes a selection of articles based on presentations from the 2020 conference. With a detailed andsupportive blind peer review process, authors were able to produce high quality articles. The challenges posed by the pandemic in 2020
undoubtably made it difficult to make the time to write, review, and revise articles but our authors rose to that challenge. The articles
finally selected for publication in the 2020 PanSIG Journal effectively represent the diverse range of topics presented at the PanSIG
conference. Although the reader can only observe the final product of the selected articles, the effort and care of the authors and reviewers
to help the submissions reach their full potential clearly show that the PanSIG Journal is just as much a place to grow as a novice author
as for the language teaching community to share new ideas.
I would first like to give my warmest thanks to the authors and reviewers of this publication. It was an opportunity for me to read and learn
about topics that I may not have encountered if left to my own devices. Seeing the detailed and supportive reviews, as well as the authors’
thoughtful and inventive responses was truly inspiring. It made me excited to watch as the articles evolved before my eyes. I would also
like to thank Duncan Iske, the associate editor of the 2020 PanSIG Journal for his help and advice. Special thanks to Bill Pellowe forhelping me get familiar with the PanSIG website and Mark Brierley for inviting me to get involved with the PanSIG conference. The
success of this edition is a cumulative effort from a number of hard-working people who have invested their time and mental energy into
the creation of this journal. We hope that you will enjoy reading the articles, and that they may stimulate productive thinking.
Congratulations to all the contributors to this edition of the PanSIG Journal.

May 5, 2021
Patrick Conaway
Editor-in-Chief, PanSIG Journal 2020

The PanSIG is an annual conference held in May, and organized by many of theSpecial Interest Groups (SIGs) of the Japan Association for Language Teaching(JALT). The conference brings together leading scholars and practitioners inlanguage education from Japan, Asia, and throughout the world. It is meant to bea smaller, more intimate conference than the annual international JALT
conference (which is held each fall), and is a place where SIG members can
network with each other.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 i

Website: http://pansig.org/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/JALTpansig/
Twitter: https://twitter.com/JALT_PanSIG (Twitter handle: @JALT_PanSIG)

Selected articles from the 2020 PanSIG Conference
Artwork courtesy of James Dunn

ISBN# 978-4-901352-57-4
PanSIG Journal 2020
Selected articles from the 2020 PanSIG Conference
JALT Central OfficeUrban Edge Bldg.5F, 1-37-9 Taito, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-0016, Japan

http://jalt.org/

http://www.pansig.org/

All materials in this publication are copyright © (2021) by JALT and their respective authors.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 ii

PanSIG
Journal2020
PDF Version
PDF Version
Conference info
PanSIG 2020 was held June 20 - 21 online using the platform Eventzil.la to host Zoom meetings and Youtube video premiers. Thank you
to everyone who helped make this conference a success!
Website: http://pansig.org/Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/JALTpansig/Twitter: https://twitter.com/JALT_PanSIG(Twitter handle: @JALT_PanSIG)

Edited by Patrick Conaway and Duncan Iske

PanSIG is the annual conference for Special Interest Groups of the Japan Association of
Language Teachers

The PanSIG Journal 2020 iii

Thanks to our 2020 Journal reviewers
Tim Andrewartha

Jennifer Jordan

The British Council

Kwansei Gakuin University

Phillip A. Bennett

Toshiko Oda

Kanda University of International Studies

Tokyo Keizai University

Merissa Braza Ocampo

Daniel Parsons

Fukushima Gakuin College

International University of Japan

Michael Brown

Thomas Paterson

Kanda University of International Studies

Asia University

Brian Cullen

Esther Ratcliff

Nagoya Institute of Technology

Asia University

Roger Ferrari

Andrew Reiman

Fukuoka University Wakaba High School

Aoyama Gakuin University

Nobue Inoue

Yukie Saito

Niigata University of Management

Chuo University

Duncan Iske

Andrew Thompson

Yamagata University

Fukuoka Women’s University

Jonathan Issacson

Daniel Velasco

Tohoku Fukushi University

Rikkyo University

The PanSIG Journal 2020 iv

Table of Contents
The 2020 PanSIG Journal

The PanSIG Journal 2020 v

Study Abroad: Interest, Preferences, and Awareness1

Andrew Thompson
Using a Learner Corpus to Design a Placement Test

7

Daniel Parsons
Using Japanese Psychology to Promote Cultural Awareness and Self-Reflection in University Classrooms

16

Daniel Velasco
Genius Hour: A Case Study Implementing an inquiry-led project

23

Esther Ratcliff
The why and how of teacher created podcasts for EFL/ESL students

30

Jonathan Carl Isaacson
Teacher’s Anxiety, Burnout, and Stress (ABS) Management Through Self-Compassion

36

Merissa Braza Ocampo
Virtual Presentations at ELT Conferences

41

Michael H. Brown
Case Study of a Pre-Departure Orientation for Studying in the U.K.

47

Nobue Inoue
A Case for Scaffolding Self-reflection

55

Phillip A. Bennett
Amelia Yarwood
Etymology and Vocabulary in the Classroom

63

Roger Ferrari
Teaching an EFL Communication Course through Film and Short Fiction Analysis

70

Thomas Andrew Paterson
Assessing the Effectiveness of a Global Approach in a Japanese University

80

Tim Andrewartha
Pre-/Post-Study Abroad Learning in the Local Community

86

Toshiko Oda
Can the LMS promote self-regulated learning and cooperative learning?

92

Students’ Perception about the LMS in an English Course at a University
Yukie Saito

The PanSIG Journal 2020 vi

Study Abroad: Interest, Preferences, and AwarenessAndrew Thompson
Fukuoka Women’s University
There has been an increased focus in Japan on the importance of studying abroad and its role in theinternationalization of universities and the making of human resources able to play an active role in a global
community (Tsuneyoshi, 2005; Take & Shoraku, 2018). The purpose of this pilot study was to examine (a) student
interest and intent in studying abroad, (b) student preferences relating to studying abroad, and (c) student
awareness of opportunities made available through university programs. The study involved 64 (61% male and
39% female) first and second-year students. This study's findings indicate that most participants (61%) wanted to
study abroad; however, preferences and study abroad program awareness varied based on academic major andyear. Suggestions are made to improve student interest and awareness of opportunities made available throughJapanese universities.
日本では、大学の国際化やグローバルコミュニティで活躍できる人材の育成において、留学の重要性とそれらのプログラムが果たす役割がますます注目されています(Tsuneyoshi, 2005; Take & Shoraku, 2018)。この研究の目
的は、（a）留学に対する学生の関心と意欲、（b）留学に関する学生の優先事項、（c）大学のプログラムを通じて得られる留学の機会に対する学生の認識。この研究には 64 人（男性 61％、女性 39％）の 1 年生と 2 年生が参加しました。この調査の結果、参加者の大多数（61％）が海外留学を望んでいたことがわかりました。ただし、留学に関する学生の優先事項、および大学の留学プログラムに対しての認識は、学部専攻や学年によって異なりました。日本の大学を通じて提供される留学の機会において、学生の興味と認識を向上させるための提案をします。

The growing influence of the English language both domesticallyinternationalization of universities and the "TOBITATE! (Leap forand internationally has seen the Japanese Ministry of Education,

Tomorrow) Study Abroad Initiative" (2013a) that aims to double

Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT) promote

the number of Japanese students studying abroad to 120,000 by

university initiatives designed to increase Japanese students

2020. The "Tobitate" initiative, according to the official website, isstudying abroad. MEXT’s budget for study abroad scholarships

a public and private sector program for developing the future ofhas increased from 600 million yen in 2009 to 8.1 billion yen in

Japan. However, the number of Japanese university students

2017 (MEXT, 2017b). The most recent of these initiatives is thechoosing to study abroad is low compared to other developed"Projectcountries and has actually decreased since the “Leap forfor

Establishing

University

Network

forInternationalization" (known as Global 30) to promote theTomorrow” study abroad initiative was introduced (Figure 1).

The PanSIG Journal 2020 1

Source: https://tobitate.mext.go.jp
Figure 1. Number of Japanese students studying abroad 2003 – 2015 compared to other countries

Research Questions

experiencing new cultures and languages. Such experiences
have positively affected the second language acquisition ofThis pilot study addressed the following research questions:⚫

Do Japanese university students have an interest in
studying abroad?

⚫

What factors may influence a student’s decision to study
abroad?

⚫

Are students aware of university study abroad programs?

students in several ways. In reviewing the literature on what is
known about second language acquisition (SLA) as it relates tostudying abroad, Freed (1998) noted that it is expected students
that have studied abroad come back to their home countries withboth improved language skills and increased cultural awareness.
A report by Benesse Educational Research and Development
Institute (2012) supports this claim, stating that the main reasons

Education and Studying Abroad
Studying abroad has played an essential role within Japanese
education policy for several centuries. According to Katori (2016),
the primary purpose of studying abroad in China during the 6th
century was to learn new technologies, laws, or religious
teachings. China remained the primary country for Japanese
students seeking to study abroad until the 14th century. From theend of the 19th up to the start of the 20th century, Germany
became the destination for Japanese students to gain scientific,

for studying abroad among Japanese students are "language
learning" and "international exchange experiences." Short-term
study abroad programs are the most common type ofundergraduate study abroad programs offered by universities inJapan. In 2013, 97% of the 69,869 Japanese studying abroadwere on courses of less than one year (MEXT, 2015c), and a
recent survey conducted by JAOS (Japan Association ofOverseas Studies) indicates that most study abroad experiences(56%) are for less than three months.

technological, and cultural information. Students in these early
government programs had an exact role, to bring their learning
back to Japan to help develop the country. Today, studying
abroad in a Japanese university context is mainly related to

According to ICEF Monitor (2018), the decline in thenumber of Japanese students studying abroad over recent years
was not the result of the "students' outlook" but several barriers
The PanSIG Journal 2020 2

that do not incentivize studying abroad. These included the failurefrom three university faculties (Commerce, Engineering andof the education system to prepare students for studying abroad

Humanities). Participants were studying within a compulsory EFL

adequately; Japan’s economic stagnation; surplus enrollment

program consisting of two 15-week semesters per academic year

capacity of Japanese universities; institutional restraints due towith a 90-minute Listening and Speaking class per week. The

the academic calendar and transferring university credits; and theparticipants' English proficiency on the CEFR (Common European

hiring practices and preferences of Japanese companies, which

Framework of Reference for Languages) ranged from elementary

do not see studying abroad as an advantage.

level A2 to upper-intermediate level B2.

Education and Student Interest
Studies relating to student interest continue to link interest levels

Instrument

to vital components of education, for example, attention,

The online survey included seven items (see below). Four student

persistence, recall, and the quality of learner outcomes (Hidi &interest items were measured on a 6-point Likert scale from 1. Not

Berndorff, 1998). Interest has more recently been shown to betrue at all to 6. Very true for me. The remaining three items wereassociated with positive achievement and, more importantly, how

open-ended questions. The survey focused on four areas: student

interest may influence what learners choose to study and do ininterest in studying abroad, student awareness of the university's

future years after university (Harackiewicz & Hulleman 2010).

study abroad programs, student likelihood of joining a study

Research into the development of interest has seen Hidi andabroad program, and important points regarding a study abroad

Renninger (2006) propose a four-phase model of interest

program. Interest items were adapted from Thompson et al.

development. This model describes four phases in the(2015) to focus on studying abroad as the previous study was adevelopment and establishment of student interest. These phases

measure of interest in English. Items were initially constructed in

are Triggered Situational Interest (TSI), Maintained Situational

English and then translated into Japanese. Back-translations ofInterest (MSI), Emerging Individual Interest (EII), and Well-

items (Brislin, 1980) were conducted to ensure translation fidelity.

Developed Individual Interest (WDII). Educators need to be aware

Student responses were analyzed to detect descriptive statistics

of how student interest is triggered and maintained to develop

and coded based on frequencies of themes.

students' long-term interest in studying abroad truly. Considering
the significance that interest plays in learning and its influence on

1. Student Interest Measurepositive academic and future decisions, it is hoped that Japanese

1. I think study abroad would be personally meaningful.

university educators and administrators can trigger interest in

2. I think study abroad would be fun.

studying abroad, and by doing so, potentially develop “active”

3. I think study abroad would be useful.

student interest in studying abroad.

4. I think study abroad would be interesting.

Method

2. Student Awareness Question

The purpose of this pilot study was to examine (a) student interest

1. Do you know about the study abroad program at this university?

and intent in studying abroad, (b) student preferences relating to

Yes or No

studying abroad, and (c) student awareness of university study

If yes, what do you know?

abroad programs.
3. Study Abroad Program Question

Participants

1. Would you like to do a study abroad program?

The study involved 64 first (n=41) and second-year (n=23)

Yes or No

students (61% male and 39% female) from a private university in

If yes, why is that?

southwest Japan. Participants were non-English majors and cameIf no, why is that?

The PanSIG Journal 2020 3

4. Study Abroad Preferences Question

Unfortunately, the findings also show that students have little

Choose two important points regarding a study abroad programawareness of the university’s study abroad program (see Table 2).

for you?

Not surprisingly, most students who were aware of the university's

1. English Skill

study abroad program were second-year students from the

2. Study Abroad Duration

Humanities Faculty. These students were aware of the study

3. Study Abroad Location

abroad program locations, durations, and entry requirements.

4. Study Abroad Price
Table 2

5. University Credit

Percentage of students' that are aware of the university’s study

Procedure

abroad program%

The online survey was completed in the first 10 minutes of thelesson in the first and fourteenth class of the semester during the2019 academic year.

N

Yes

27

17

No

73

45

The online survey took students

approximately 5 minutes to complete. Student responses to openended questions were translated into English, and the accuracy

Notes. % = percentage; N = number of respondents.

of the translation was verified using back-translation procedures.
No problems were encountered in either the translation or theInterestingly, even though student awareness of the university’sback-translation of the student responses. In order to guarantee

study abroad program was low, just over half of the students

the anonymity of the participants, no personal information wasstated they would like to study abroad (see Table 3).

collected when agreeing to participate in this study.
Table 3Findings and Discussion

Percentage of students' that would like to study abroad

This pilot study's preliminary findings indicate that students'%Ninterest levels in studying abroad slightly increased over thesemester (see Table 1) with students. It should be noted that as
this was a pilot study, no specific treatment was introduced to

Week 1

52

62

Week 1461

64

students during the semester. The findings from this study also
Notes. % = percentage; N = number of respondents.
indicate that the majority of participants (see Table 3) did want tostudy abroad; however, program awareness (see Table 2), intent

See below examples of student’s comments on whether theylevels, and program preferences (see Table 4) varied based on
would or would not like to study abroad and why. The themes
academic major and year.
identified across the student responses were cultural experiences,
languageskills,futureemployment,

andfinancial

cost.

Table 1

Participants (39%) that did not want to study abroad mainly noted

Students' interest levels in studying abroad

the financial costs and language skills associated with studying

MSDabroad. In contrast, those that did want to study abroadNhighlighted
Week 1

4.92

1.16

62

Week 14

4.99

1.32

63

the

potential

benefitsof

improving

English,experiencing new cultures, and future employment benefits.

Notes. M = mean; SD = standard deviation.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 4

Cultural Experiences:mentioned earlier, it should be noted that short-term study abroad

I think that studying abroad will not only improve language skills
but also learn about other cultures and have a positive influence

experiences are the most common type of undergraduate study
abroad programs in Japan, and therefore obtaining credit may not
be seen as a priority or viable option among many Japanese

on your thinking.
By directly touching foreign cultures and languages, I think that
my world will be expanded, and my way of life will be enriched. I
think that study abroad programs can only be used during student

students. Not surprisingly, the perceived language proficiency
required for studying abroad by Japanese students and theassociated costs were the most significant factors influencing
whether students intended to join a study abroad program in thedays, which will be a valuable experience.

future.

I can imagine having the anxiety of living in a different culture.

Table 4
Important considerations regarding a study abroad program for

Language Skills:

students
I want to be able to speak English because I feel my English is not%good enough.
I want to do it, but I do not think I can do it with my English.

English Language Skill

33.33

Study Abroad Costs

30.08

Study Abroad Duration

17.07

Study Abroad Location

13.82

Study Abroad Credit

5.69

I'm not very good at English.

Future Employment:
I think studying abroad would be useful for future employment.
Listening to authentic English would improve my listening skills.
Also, it would directly help me learn about the culture.

Notes. % = percentage; N=62.

In today's global society, I want to acquire a certain level of English

Limitations

proficiency and expand my future work.
I think the overseas experience will definitely help in the future.

This short paper is based on a pilot study, so the number ofparticipants was not significant. Therefore, more data, from alarger sample group; utilizing preliminary and follow-up surveys in

Financial Costs:

association with student interviews are needed to confirm or refute
Because it costs money.

this pilot study’s preliminary findings. Thus, the results of this

It takes money to study abroad.

study are not generalizable.

I have no courage to go and no money.
It may be useful, but it is expensive.

Conclusion
It seems that students' foremost consideration regarding studying
This pilot study aimed to better understand students' interest in
abroad is the perceived language skills required and also, notstudying abroad. The students shared their opinions, perceptions,surprisingly,

based on their open-ended responses,

theawareness, and intentions relating to study abroad programs. Not

associated financial costs of studying abroad (see Table 4). Givento mention the factors that may influence their decision to study
that many universities can support the costs associated withabroad someday. The preliminary findings suggest that Japanesestudying abroad, it seems that students are mostly unaware of thisuniversity students do have an interest in studying abroad. The
fact. Interestingly, the university students surveyed put very little
students in this study did see the merits of studying abroad.
importance on obtaining course credit while studying abroad. As
The PanSIG Journal 2020 5

However, only 61% showed genuine intent to study abroad. As

ICEF Monitor. (2018). Japan well on its way to 300,000

with any study conducted within one university, the externalinternational

students:

Retrieved

validity of the results awaits further testing. This study was the firsthttps://monitor.icef.com/2018/01/japan-300000-

phase in the potential development of study abroad teachinginternational-students/

frommaterials designed to promote studying abroad to Japanese

JAOS (Japan Association of Overseas Studies). (2019). Statistics

students. It is recommended that the Japanese Ministry of

on Study Purpose of Japanese by Country “JAOS 2019

Education, university administrators, and educators continue toSurvey on the Number of Japanese Studying Abroad”:

investigate Japanese university students' specific needs to better

Retrieved from https://www.jaos.or.jp/top-eng#dd01

develop and support future study abroad initiatives once the "Leapfor Tomorrow" study abroad initiative comes to an end.

Katori, M. (2016). The Trends of Japanese Students’ Participationin Study Abroad Programmes. US-China Foreign
Language, March 2016, Vol. 14, No. 3, 239-249
doi:10.17265/1539-8080/2016.03.007

References

MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, andBenesse Educational Research and Development Institute.

Technology) Japan. (2013a). About Tobitate! (Leap for(2013). Kaigai

Ryugaku (Study abroad) (ResearchTomorrow) Study Abroad Initiative: Retrieved from

report,3,

https://www.tobitate.mext.go.jp/about/english.html

Chapter

pp.

53-61).

Retrievedfromhttps://benesse.jpdai_databook/2012/pdf/data_06.pdf

MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andBrislin, R. W. (1980). Translation and content analysis of oral andTechnology) Japan. (2017b). Japan Updates: MEXT’s

written materials. In H. C. Triandis, & J. W. Berry (Eds.),

Efforts towards Global Human Resource Development

Handbook of cross-cultural psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 389-

(CULCON Educational-Exchange Review Committee).
MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and444). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Freed, B. F. (1998). An overview of issues and research inTechnology) Japan. (2015c). Current situation of

language learning in a study abroad program. Frontiers:

Japanese

The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 4, 31-60.

http://www.mext.go.jp/_menu/koutou/ryugaku/1345878.

Retrieved

htm

from

studying

abroad:Retrieved

Take, H,. & Shoraku, A. (2018). Universities’ Expectations for

http://www.frontiersjournal.com/issues/vol4/vol4-

Study-Abroad Programs Fostering Internationalization:

02_Freed.pdf
Harackiewicz, J. M., & Hulleman, C. S. (2010). The importance of

Educational Policies. Journal of Studies in International

interest: The role of achievement goals and task values

Education,in promoting the development of interest. Social andhttps://doi.org/10.1177/1028315317724557

Personality

from

Psychology

Compass,4(1),42–52.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00207.x

v22

n1

p37-52.

RetrievedfromThompson A., Ozono S., Howarth M., Williams R. A., & Fryer K.
L. (2015). The Development and Validation of aHidi, S., & Berndorff, D. (1998). Situational interest and learning.

Measure of Student Interest in the English Learning

In L. Hoffmann, A. Krapp, K. A. Renninger, & J. Baumert

Task. Kyushu Sangyo University Language Education(Eds.), interest and learning: Proceedings of the Seeon

and Research Center Journal, No. 10. Fukuoka.

Conference on Interest and Gender (pp. 74–90). Kiel,

Tsuneyoshi, R. (2005). Internationalization Strategies in Japan:

Germany: IPN.

The Dilemmas and Possibilities of Study Abroad

Hidi, S., & Renninger, K. A. (2006). The four-phase model of

Programs Using English. Journal of Research ininterest development. Educational Psychologist, 41(2),International Education, v4 n1 p65-86. Retrieved from

111–127. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4102_4

https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240905050291

The PanSIG Journal 2020 6

Using a Learner Corpus to Design a Placement Test
Daniel Parsons
International University of Japan

Corpora have become essential tools to write test items in recent years. The research reported here demonstrates
a method to extract and analyse data from an academic corpus and learner corpora in the process of writing test
question items. An example is provided for the grammatical item “as” in the context of a placement test for Japaneselearners. The value of the data collection and analysis is illustrated through the consolidation of the data into areference table that can be used when writing test items. The reference table helps the test writer to write questions
while relying less on intuition and more on evidence about learners’ knowledge and errors at different proficiency
levels. This research is evaluated in terms of the needs of test writers.

近年、コーパスはテスト問題の記述に欠かせないツールとなっている。本研究では、テスト問題の記述過程において、学術コーパスと学習者コーパスからデータを抽出し、分析する方法を示した。例として、日本語学習者のプレースメントテストの文脈での文法項目「as」を挙げている。データ収集と分析の価値は、テスト項目を書く
際に使用できる参照表にデータを統合することで示されています。この参照表は、テスト作成者が、直感に頼らず、学習者の知識や誤りについての証拠に頼りながら問題を作成するのに役立ちます。この研究は、テストライ
ターのニーズという観点から評価されています。
One key consideration when placing students into language

describes

thecorpus-informed

approach

which

Barker,courses is learners’ ability to control grammar. Writing a

Salamoura and Saville (2015) claim is useful for validating test-

placement test for grammar usually involves the definition of

writer intuition about whether a construct has content-validity. In

grammar constructs. Purpura (2004) notes that providing

Hughes’ (2003) terms, content validity refers to whether the item

construct definitions is necessary for the test writer to adequately

being tested is an item that is used in the learners’ target context.

evaluate whether the test items are measuring what they are

For example, learners who will study in academic English at theintended to measure. However, such construct validity is notgraduate level will likely need to develop abilities in a wide range

always simple to establish. Hughes (2003) defines the termof grammar that is used in writing papers. Academic corpora canconstruct as “any underlying ability (or trait) that is hypothesized

be used to identify the particular grammatical content that is likely

in a theory of language ability” (p. 31) and argues that it is

to be found in academic writing and that learners are therefore

impossible to demonstrate construct validity if an ability has not

likely to need.

been established to exist in prior research. Fortunately, in the area

Defining a valid construct of grammar ability forof grammar, research exists which strongly suggests grammaticalplacement test purposes, then, depends on both the grammaticalability does indeed exist in learners.

items of a target domain, such as academic writing, and the

O’Keeffe and Mark (2017) describe the English

proficiency of learners. Purpura (2004) offers a clear definition forGrammar Profile project, which uses learner corpora of responses

the construct of grammatical ability as the ability to accurately use

to the writing components in the Cambridge suite of tests togrammatical form, meaning and pragmatics in a given context (pp.

determine the proficiency level at which learners are deemed to

83 – 99). He further offers an analysis of some well-known tests

have adequately acquired a given grammar item of interest.

and describes the grammatical items chosen by the test writers to

Callies (2015) refers to this approach as a corpus-based approach

represent the ability that learners need in a given domain. One

in that both native and learner corpora are compared to provide

specific example concerns a placement test in which the learners

evidence that can help operationalize proficiency. He also

are required to know the form of relative clauses and the
The PanSIG Journal 2020 7

meaningfulness of defining and non-defining clauses. While it is

Step One: Preparation of Materials

certainly possible to specify form and meaning when defining the

Corpora and dictionaries were prepared first. The selection of

construct of grammatical ability, the missing key in this type ofcorpora should be in keeping with the idea that a corpus

construct definition is proficiency.

represents the discourse community of interest (McEnery, Xiao &O’Donnell (2015) showed that it is possible to order the

Tono, 2006). Since successful academic writing was taken as thedifficulty of the tense-aspect structure of English based ontarget context for learners, the British Academic Written English

frequency of usage at different proficiencies in a learner corpus.

(BAWE) corpus was accessed through Sketch Engine to provide

He argued that this information can help sequence the items

content validity for the decision to test the use of as. Similarly,

within a curriculum. Similarly, Thewissen (2013) tracked learnersince the learners in question had varying proficiency levels anderrors in English across a wide range of proficiency levels for threewere required to write in an academic style, a corpus of learner

first-language groups (French, German and Spanish). She

writing in this context would give the most valid results. Since such

identified error development profiles, and found that intermediatea learner corpus was not available, publicly available corpora

and advanced learners make progress in reducing or stabilizing

were selected that best represented this context. Two corpora,

their error production, while an increase in errors is noted as a

ICNALE (Ishikawa, 2013) and ICLE (Granger, Dupont, Meunier,sign of learners’ development of grammatical complexity.

Naets & Paquot, 2020) were selected.

It is not difficult to extend these approaches to the case

The written portion of ICNALE (International Corpus

of test writing. Purpura (2004), in fact, points out that assessments

Network of Asian Learners of English) contains approximately 1.3

involving the distinction between meaning and form, as well as

million words of written learner texts by learners from ten countries

incorporating information about errors “may require innovation” (p.

in Asia, each between 200 and 300 words in response to an257). The approaches above have the potential to help test writersargumentative essay prompt. The writing is focused on two topics

to understand which forms and meanings are used at whicharound the issues of smoking in restaurants and part time jobs forproficiency levels, and what errors are made at what levels. Armedstudents. Each text is tagged for proficiency on the CEFR scalewith this information, test writers can rely less on intuition andas either A2, B1-lower, B1-upper and B2.

more on item design. In the case of placement tests, this can help

ICLE (International Corpus of Learner English) contains

to avoid false positives, in which a student may miss theapproximately 5 million words of mainly argumentative essays

opportunity to receive English support, and false negatives, inwritten by high-intermediate to advanced learners of English fromwhich a student who didn’t need support is required to enter a

26 mother tongue background. While these are not tagged forprogram (Fulcher & Davidson, 2007).

proficiency, assessment of 20 texts from each language

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the use of

background showed that these texts represent proficiency on thecorpora in the refinement of construct definitions for grammatical

CEFR scale at B2, C1 and C2, with around 65% being at theability, focusing on the item “as”, a common adverbial signal. Twoadvanced (C1 and above) levels (Granger et al., 2020).

learner corpora and one academic corpus is used to analyse theAn important step in selecting publicly available corpora

underuse, overuse and errors in both form and meaning amongis to ensure that the corpus contains the type of data needed toJapanese learners at different proficiency levels. The analysis istackle a given research question. More often than not, corpora areconsolidated into a reference table which can be used as adesigned with a specific purpose in mind, so it is necessary todescription to help write test items for “as”.

check that they can be used in a different research context. Of
interest in this research is Japanese learners’ writing, so the

Methods and Materials

distribution of words in the Japanese sub-corpus of ICNALE was

A seven-step process is described here for the design of grammar

examined. Table 1 shows the token and type counts at eachtest items in the context of the design of a placement test for

proficiency.

learners of academic English.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 8

A2

B1_lower

B1_upper

B2

Full

A2

B1

B2

Full corpus

corpusTokens

68,529101,981

48,192

218,702

Types

3,110

3,593

3,761

5,980

Tokens

68,52979,591

22,3908,532

179,042

Types

3,110

3,269

1,696

1,026

4,625

Table 1: Token and type frequencies for ICNALE: Japanese sub-Table 2: Token and type frequencies in the combined ICNALE
and ICLE Japanese sub-corpora

corpus

As can be seen in Table 1, B1-upper and B2 levels
contain very few words in comparison to the lower levels. Since
normalization (e.g. number of occurrences of as per 10,000
words) is a procedure used to compare sub-corpora, the small
number of words at higher proficiencies might introduce bias dueto the effect of a Zipfian distribution which cannot be accurately
predicted (Bestgen, 2019).
To deal with this, first, the B1-lower and B1-upperproficiencies were combined into a B1 proficiency. Second, 65
texts from the Japanese sub-corpus of ICLE that wereapproximately B2 level were selected and added to the ICNALE
corpus. One condition for the selection of texts from ICLE was thatthey had to be written under timed conditions, which matches theconditions of the ICNALE corpus. However, there are somedifferences to be noted. First, ICNALE focuses on essays about
only two topics, whereas there are many more topics in ICLE.

focuses on just a few topics, a bias towards highly frequent words
might emerge.

Step Two: Preparation of Tools
This step should occur simultaneously with step 1 in that the
choice of corpora will also determine the choice of tools used.
Antconc (Anthony, 2019) is freely available concordancing
software which is useful when the researchers have corpora
available

in

the

form

of

text

files.

SketchEngine(https://www.sketchengine.eu), another tool, provides access to awide variety of corpora, including BAWE and the Open Cambridge
Learner Corpus. Both tools allow for the extraction of frequency
data and concordance lines for the construct in question. Thisfrequency data and the concordance lines can be analysed in
Excel or Google Sheets, and if more rigorous statistical analysis
is necessary, the software package R can be used to handle data
efficiently. The present research employed AntConc and Excel.

Second ICNALE essays tend to be around 200 to 300 words inlength, whereas essays in ICLE are generally longer atapproximately 600 to 900 words. Nonetheless, given that theplacement test being designed is interested in separating lowerlevel learners (A2 and B1: those who need academic English
support) from the upper-level learners (B2), this trade-off seems
reasonable. This is because any variation in usage of as could be
attributed to proficiency differences as well as topic differences
and text length differences. The distribution of words in the
combined Japanese learner corpus is shown in Table 2. The
ICNALE corpus also contains an English Native Speaker (ENS)
sub-corpus, which allows for comparison with the learner sub-

Step Three: Preparation of Items
The target corpus is useful here to prepare items that potentiallymeet content validity, i.e., those items found in the target context(BAWE). Therefore, Sketch Engine was used to search for as in
BAWE. Since BAWE is tagged for grammatical parts of speechusing the CLAWS7 tagging system, Sketch Engine can count thefrequency for different uses of the word as. There are a total of 20
tags for the word as. Seven tags attribute to as the form ofsubordinating conjunction (CS), and include expressions such asas far as, as if, and as though. Six tags (e.g. RR and RG) label
degree and general adverb usage of as, and six tags (e.g. II) show
as as a general preposition, capturing expressions such as as well

corpora.
As can be seen from Table 2 and Table 1, the word
types count increased by approximately 1,300. This could be dueto the increased text length at B2 level, increased proficiency ofthe learners and the wider range of topics. In fact, Granger (2013)
pointed out in an analysis of ICNALE that if a corpus narrowlyas, such as, and as to. Table 3 shows the frequency data for someparts of speech tags attributed to as in BAWE.
From this, three form-based categories are proposed for theuse of as in academic writing:1.

subordinating conjunction as (including as if, as though)2.

preposition as (including such as, as to)

The PanSIG Journal 2020 9

3.

Step Four: Coding the Dataas ~ as expressions

According to the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written

Using Antconc, the word as was searched in each of the

English (Biber et al., 1999), these three categories are all

proficiency levels of the combined Japanese ICNALE and ICLE

subsumed under the term “adverbial”, in which subordinate

sub-corpus. The output was saved as a text file and opened forclauses and prepositional phrases can be adverbials within acoding in Excel. Each concordance line was then coded as one ofsentence. Additionally, these three categories may have face

the three form-types: subordinating conjunction, prepositional

validity on a placement test since they are regularly taught inphrase, or as ~ as structure. Figure 1 shows a screenshot of the

English language programs at all proficiency levels. Similarly, theycoding process. The existence of errors was also coded. Further

are easy for a test writer to recognize and code in a learner corpus.

coding was carried out to classify the functional usage (meaning)of the structure. Biber et al. (1999) provide a useful list of

Word

Tag

Frequency

asCSA

30,453asII

19,186

as

II22

6,886

as

II31

2,625

as

RG

2,293

categories for adverbials which can be applied to each of theconcordance lines in Figure 1.

Step Five: Analyzing the Data
Following coding, simple functions in Excel were used to quantify
the variations of forms, errors, and functions (meanings) to bequantified.

Focus on Forms

Table 3: Examples of parts of speech tags and their frequencies

Figure 2 compares the distribution of the forms of as as afor the word as in BAWE. Retrieved from Sketch Engine.

proportion of all sentences at each proficiency level. As can beseen, 71.9% of A2 sentences containing as are used as

ICNALE/ICLE

Raw Frequency ofNormalized

prepositions. These decrease as proficiency increases, althoughsub-corpus“as”

Frequency

B1 and B2 levels show roughly the same proportion. The

A2

236

34.4

proportion of as as a conjunction rises with increasing proficiency
and B2 learners are roughly at the same level as the ENS group.
The use of as ~ as expressions seems to vary in proportion, and
B1

364

35.7
this may be due to learners experimenting with the forms.
It has been noted in the learner corpus literature that as

B2+

278

57.7

ENS

724

79.9

learners acquire new forms, they tend to experiment with them,and that this can also increase the opportunity for errors(Thewissen, 2013; O’Donnell, 2015). The next stage of theanalysis involves focusing on errors, and the findings about errors

Table 4: Raw and normalized frequencies of as. Normalization ismay go some way to explaining the fluctuation in the proportion of
per 10,000 words.
as ~ as expressions.
The distribution of the word as at each proficiency level
for Japanese learners and English Native Speakers is shown in
Table 4. These tables show that A2 and B1 learners haveapproximately the same distribution of usage but as proficiency
increases, usage also increase.

Focus on Errors
After all the errors are coded, Excel can be used to aggregate theproportion of sentences which contain an error. Table 5 shows the
proportion of sentences containing errors at each proficiency level.
Interestingly, both A2 and B1 level learners have the same

The PanSIG Journal 2020 10

proportion of errors, but the proportion of sentences with asa proportion. However, errors for as ~ as expressions increase atcontaining errors reduces at the B2 level.

B1 level, which may be consistent with the idea above that B1

Proficiency

Percentage

learners are experimenting further with these expressions. There

A2

26.1

is a drop again at the B2 level to a proportion below that of the A2

B1

26.1

level. Nonetheless, the error proportions are quite high in

B2+

17.6

comparison with the proportions for prepositions and conjunctions.

Table 5: Percentage of sentences that contain an error with theuse of as in ICNALE/ICLE
A2

B1

B2+

Preposition

23.3

19.2

16.0

occur. Again, using Excel, the proportion of each form (preposition,

Conjunction

20.0

19.7

10.6

conjunction, as ~ as expression) containing errors can beas ~ as

43.8

52.4

37.1

calculated. Table 6 shows the proportions. The proportion of

Table 6: Proportions of each form containing errors at eacherrors drops between A2 and B2 for both prepositions andproficiency level

A key question to answer is where exactly these errors

conjunctions, with conjunctions showing the largest reduction as

Figure 1: An example of coding the concordance lines for form, function (meaning) and error

Figure 2: Variation in the use of as across proficiencies compared with the English Native Speaker sub-corpus (ENS)The PanSIG Journal 2020 11

Proficiency

Syntactic or usage error

B2 (prep)

Before I started to work as a part time, I thought that money is …
(W_JPN_PTJ0_009_B2_0.txt / ICNALE)

B1 (as ~ as)Smoking at all the public places should be banned soon as possible.
(W_JPN_SMK0_215_B1_1.txt / ICNALE)

A2 (conj)

Only one thing I can do is to serve foods and drinks to the guests as said.
(W_JPN_PTJ0_327_A2_0.txt / ICNALE)

B2 (conj)

It became so small and light as we can take it in our pocket. (JPWA1013.txt / ICLE)

B1 (prep)

A nonsmoker smokes indirectly if people surround him snoke in a small place as a
restaurant. (W_JPN_SMK0_236_B1_1.txt / ICNALE)

A2 (as ~ as)

The restaurant must make customers as much as possible be satified with service andkindness. (W_JPN_SMK0_114_A2_0.txt / ICNALE)

Table 7: Notable errors in forms at different proficiency levels

Notable errors can also be extracted qualitatively. This

common. This is likely a reflection of the part time jobs topic in

involves using the Excel sheet to tag error corrections to eachthe ICNALE corpus. Nonetheless, even though the B2 corpus isconcordance line which contains an error. Table 7 provides amade up of a variety of topics from the ICLE corpus, the usage

snapshot of some notable errors. It is important here not toof the limiting function is still quite high, and higher still than theargue that these errors are common, since the numbers do not

ENS portion of ICNALE. Native speakers make greater use ofnecessarily justify calling them common. Nonetheless, they are

the result function than the learners, but B2 learners arelikely to concur with a test-writer’s intuition and experience ofapproaching the same proportion as native speakers in their use

learner writing that these are important and can be used whenof the comparison function. B1 learners seem to be overusing

writing test questions. Adverbials of time, extent (as much as

the perspective function (as we all know), whereas B2 learners

possible), comparison (the same as), result (as a result), andappear to be overusing the apposition function (as mentioned

apposition (as mentioned above), as well as adverbials which

above). The overuse of these types of fixed expressions may belimit the scope of the verb or noun it is attached to (I work as adue to learners discovering their potential and experimenting

waiter; English as a second language) are just a few among awith new discursive functions in their writing.

wide range of functions for adverbials (Biber et al., 1999). Eachconcordance line from the learner corpus and ENS corpus canbe coded for its function. Figure 3 shows the proportion ofsentences at each proficiency level in which the word as fulfills
the particular function.
As can be seen in Figure 3, 56.7% of sentences
containing as at A2 level fulfill a limiting function. This is the mostcommon function at all proficiency levels, but it is particularlyhigh at A2 and B1 levels. The expression “I work as…” is quite

Step Six: Consolidating the Analysis
The next step involved taking the analysis and putting theinformation into a reference table. Table 8 provides an exampleof the reference table that can be created from the above
analyses. The table indicates where overuse and underuse ofform and function occur and highlights where errors tend tooccur in form. The table also includes information about notableerrors. All of this information can then be used in writing test
questions around the three constructs related to as.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 12

Figure 3: Percentage of sentences with as fulfilling different functional roles and distributed across proficiency
levels

A2 and B1 Learners

B2 Learners

OveruseUnderuse

High Error rates

Form: Prepositions

Form: Conjunctions

Form: Prepositions

Function: Limiting

Function: Comparison

Form: Conjunctions

Function: Result

Form: “as ~ as”

Function: Result

Form: Prepositions

Function: Limiting

Form: “as ~ as”
Notable Errors
A2 / B1

I worked as a part time job.
We can increase association such as parties (example does not match category).
As conclusion (In conclusion)
This is as same as …
make food as hard as they can (wrong adjective)
Do it even as you feel bad (wrong form: even if / even though)As buying it there is no benefit for us. (Dependent clause alone)B2

I worked as a part time job (this error persists)
We should do it as far as there is a lot of money (as long as)
As they can choose when they work. (Dependent clause alone)
As the reality / As the effect (wrong fixed expression)
Can’t speak as native speaker (as if we were)Table 8: Reference table created from the analysis. This can be used as a reference when writing test questions

The PanSIG Journal 2020 13

Step Seven: Writing the Test Questions
The reference table is designed to show the difference between
lower-level learners (A2 and B1) who would likely need support
in an academic English program, and higher-level learners (B2).
We can use observations from the table to help us write test
questions. Two samples are provided as examples:

construct questions. Each test question is essentially ahypothesis about what the learner knows and what types oferrors learners are likely to make. The choice of three forms wasconvenient at the time of coding the data. It is certainly possible
to code other forms such as multi-word expressions with as,
including as if, as though and such as. This would provide amore fine-grained analysis, but care must be taken not to

Question 1: This question is based on the observationthat “worked as a part time job” is a persistent error from A2 to
B2 and “as same as” seems to be an error at lower levels.

introduce too many categories as this can introduce sparsity into
the data. The combination of two different corpora should also
be treated with caution as this introduces variables into theanalysis which are not easy to control, such as text length

Which underlined word A, B, C or D is a mistake?
When I was theA same age asB you, I worked asC a part time job

differences and variation in the topic, which may potentiallyaffect the distributions of items across proficiencies. The best
approach would be for each institution wanting to write a test to

atD a restaurant.
Options A and B may act as distractors for lower-level

create its own specific learner corpus. However, if time andresources are constrained, then using open corpora, such aslearners.

ICNALE and ICLE, can provide a reasonable proxy for question
Question 2: The observation that both B1 and B2
learners sometimes choose the wrong form for conjunctions like
as if and as though, that B2 learners may be more familiar witha wider range of forms, and that B1 learners tend to make moreerrors with as ~ as forms allows us to write a question like this:writing. It should also be noted that test questions created in thisway provide only hypotheses for what we believe learners know,
don’t know and the errors they make. Essentially, this process
covers the first three stages of test writing outlined by Hughes(2003) and does not involve trialling on native and non-native
speakers, calibrating the test and then validating the test.

We can’t speak English ________ English is our first language.
A.

so as

B.

as if

C.

as

D.

as long as

Finally, the amount of time required to code andanalyse the data was considerable. Approximately 650
sentences were coded and analysed in this study and tookapproximately 20 hours in total. While a large number ofquestions could be generated from the reference table, a

We could predict that this question may be quitedifficult for the lower-level students and thus better discriminate
between the lower and higher-level groups.

judgement needs to be made about how efficient this process
is. Certainly, more work is required to refine and streamline thisprocess, but hopefully this research has demonstrated thepotential of this approach and provides a first step in a more

Conclusion
This study attempted to demonstrate a process for writing

data-driven approach to item writing.

References

grammar test items which provide content validity and allow thetest writer to address proficiency in terms of meaning, form anderrors. The data for the use of as was coded according to threemain forms: prepositions, subordinating conjunctions, and as ~as expressions. Errors and functional usage were also coded.
The analysis was consolidated into a reference table ofobservations that provides the evidence for the test writer to

Anthony, L. (2019). AntConc. Retrieved fromhttps://www.laurenceanthony.net/software/antconc
Barker, F. (2010). How can corpora be used in language
testing? In A. O’Keeffe & M. McCarthy (Eds.) The
Routledge handbook of corpus linguistics. London,
England: Routledge.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 14

Barker, F., Salamoura, A., & Saville, N. (2015). Learner

Ishikawa, S. (2013). The ICNALE and sophisticatedcorpora and language testing. In S. Granger, G. Gilquin

contrastive interlanguage analysis of Asian learners of& F. Meunier (Eds.) The Cambridge handbook of learner

English. Learner Corpus Studies in Asia and the World,

corpus research. Cambridge, England: Cambridge

1, 91-118.

University Press.
Bestgen, Y. (2019). Comparing lexical bundles across corporaof different sizes: The Zipfian problem. Journal of
Quantitative Linguistics.
Biber, D., Johannsson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Finegan,

McEnery, T., Xiao, R., & Tono, Y. (2006). Corpus-based
language studies: An advanced resource book. London,
England: Routledge.
O’Donnell, M. (2015). Using learner corpora to order linguistic
structures in terms of apparent difficulty. In E. Castello,

E. (1999). Longman grammar of spoken and written

K. Ackerley & F. Coccetta (Eds.) Studies in learner

English. London, England: Longman.

corpus linguistics. Bern: Peter Lang.

Callies, M. (2015). Using learner corpora in language testing

O’Keeffe, A., & Mark, G. (2017). The English Grammar Profile

and assessment: Current practice and future challenges.

of learner competence: Methodology and key findings.

In E. Castello, K. Ackerley & F. Coccetta (Eds.) Studies

International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 22(4), 457-

in learner corpus linguistics. Bern: Peter Lang.

489.

Fulcher, G., & Davidson, F. (2007). Language testing andassessment: An advanced resource book. London,
England: Routledge.
Granger, S. (2013). The passive in learner English: Corpus
insights and implications for pedagogical grammar.

Purpura, J. E. (2004). Assessing grammar. Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press.
Thewissen, J. (2013). Capturing L2 accuracy developmental
patterns: Insights from an error-tagged EFL learnercorpus. The Modern Language Journal, 97 (S1), 77-101

Learner Corpus Studies in Asia and the World, 1, 5-15.
Granger, S., Dupont, M., Meunier, F., Naets, H. & Paquot, M.

ICLE and ICNALE were accessed here:(Eds.) (2020). International corpus of learner English:

ICLE: https://corpora.uclouvain.be/cecl/icle/home

Version 3. Belgium: Presses universitaires de Louvain.

ICNALE: http://language.sakura.ne.jp/icnale/

Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for language teachers (2nd ed.).
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 15

Using Japanese Psychology to Promote Cultural Awareness and SelfReflection in University Classrooms
Daniel Velasco
Rikkyo University

With the push to internationalize university departments, Japanese students are encouraged and, in some cases,
required to participate in study abroad programs. This paper will provide a description of a pre-study abroad program,which contains aspects of both Western and Eastern psychological counseling modalities, that supports students'
mental health and encourages cultural awareness and self-reflection while they are studying abroad. Exercises thatare based on Japanese Psychologies, and that are used in this program, will be provided, along with ideas on how
they can be incorporated into a variety of university courses.

大学における国際化の動きの中で、多くの日本人学生が留学プログラムへの参加を奨励されており、時にはこうしたプログラムへの参加が必須のものとなっている。本稿で紹介するのは、西洋と東洋の心理カウンセリング手法を取り入れた留学準備プログラムで、留学中の学生のメンタルヘルスを支援し、異文化理解と内省を促すことを目的としている。このプログラムで用いられる、日本の心理学に基づく実践について、これを大学のコースへいかに取り込むかという視点と共に述べる。
Japan, along with many other countries, has been trying for manyon the principles of Oriental philosophy, Buddhism, self-

years to internationalize its higher education system. The process

improvement, and resilience (Exploring your mind, 2018).

of Internationalizing Japanese universities can be seen in

For the sake of completeness, an extremely simple

government programs such as the Top Global University Project

definition will be given: “Psychology that is practiced in Japan.”(スーパーグローバル大学創成支援 ), previously known as theThis definition may be unsatisfying to those seeking concrete

Global 30 Project, which encourages Japanese students to study
abroad (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, andTechnology, 2020).
Most universities hold orientations or short courses tobetter prepare Japanese students for study abroad. This paperanswers, but this is precisely the point—there is no concreteanswer to this question, and the definitions that exist are sure to
be rejected by some and accepted by others. Let us allow thevariousJapanese

psychologicalmodalities

torepresent

themselves.

will briefly explain one pre-study abroad counseling program, andOne of reasons why Japanese psychologies werethen share three activities that can be adapted to classrooms inchosen is because psychology and counseling were not widelyorder to further support cultural awareness and growth.

accepted in Japan due in part to the aforementioned stigma thathas been attached to mental health care for so long. According toClassroom Activities Based Off Japanese
Psychologies

Harvin (2016),
Years after the development of the

Before diving into the exercises, it is important to briefly discuss
Japanese Psychological Association, thean important question: What exactly is Japanese psychology?
One website claims that “Japanese Psychology blend[s] together
beautifully with a contemporary Western life-style and all

psychologists begun to focus more on thedevelopment of a curriculum that focused

mainstream religions and belief systems” (Indigo Intentions, 2016).

on introducing clinical psychology andAnother website claims that Japanese psychology has many

counseling. It was not until the early 1990s

common points in common, such as “similar approaches basedthat this strong demand surfaced. Although
The PanSIG Journal 2020 16[counseling] was not easily received, it“improvement” or “change for the better.” Psychologist Robertcould have been a lot better if more

Maurer first discussed applying Kaizen to personal change: start

professionals assisted in the process and if

small and make changes over time, what is often referred to as

the theories applied to the Japanese

taking “baby steps.”

culture. It was hard for Japanese people to

A great activity to use in classrooms and professional

determine the true meaning of counseling.

development sessions is titled “New Year’s Resolution,” and is a

There has been much progress in Japan, with indigenous

simple yet effective activity that both teaches the fundamental

psychologies emerging from the field, and becoming recognized,

principles of Kaizen while helping participants understand more

and widely used in many countries. It should be noted that while

about themselves and appropriate goal-making strategies. The

many of these methodologies have been labeled by various

instructor poses two questions: What is (or was) your New Year’s

scholars and practitioners as “psychologies” or “therapies,” it is left

Resolution, and what is (or was) your plan to achieve this goal?

to the discretion of the reader whether you agree that these are

Allow the class to discuss their answers in pairs or small groups,

psychologies. With that being said, for the sake of continuity andand then have people share their answers if they choose to do soclarity, they are referred to as psychologies in this article.

(some may be embarrassed by their resolution, so it is important

The following section contains three sub-sections on three well-

not to force everyone to share).

known Japanese psychologies. They are briefly explained, andAfter some or all resolutions and plans have beenthen a connected activity is given. It is important to note that thesepresented, and provide the following instructions: Look back at

activities are part of a larger pre-study abroad counseling program

your resolution, and write a new plan to reach your goal bythat has been conducted for the last four years with four different

breaking it into smaller steps and creating time frames to achievecohorts. The counseling program is 3-months long, and consists

each smaller goal. An example you can provide is a person whoof three modules (roughly one month each), and within eachwants to quit smoking, but instead of giving up cigarettes

module are exercises and activities that are paired with theimmediately (going “cold turkey”), he or she can reduce thepsychological modality used for that period of time. For example,

number of cigarettes smoked each day by 5 each month whilemodule 1 utilizes traditional psychotherapy; module 2 uses

incorporating small exercises or meditation sessions into their

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy methods; and module 3 draws

daily or weekly routine. While this method may not produce 100%

upon Japanese psychological modalities, mainly Morita Therapy.

success rates, there are multiple opportunities for smaller successParticipants in the program are informed of the overarching goal—(for example, a reduction in the number of cigarettes smoked or

to help them succeed during study abroad—and the exercises

the introduction of an exercise routine) that can be celebrated.

and activities are presented as tools they can use both during the
pre-study abroad period as well as during and after their time
abroad. The details of the activities based on the three Japanese
psychologies will be shared.

Naikan Therapy
While Kaizen has its root in and is most commonly used inbusiness, Naikan Psychology, or Naikan Therapy as it is mostcommonly referred to, is probably closer to an actual

Kaizen Therapy

psychological practice. Created by Ishin Yoshimoto (1916-1988)

Kaizen Psychology (also known as Kaizen Therapy or Kaizen

in the 1950s, Naikan is based on a strict method of self-

Method) is a program of organizational development based on

examination that is rooted in Buddhism. Through intense self-“continuous improvement, worker participation, and a humanizedexamination, one develops “a natural and profound sense of

approach to increased productivity” (Krech, 2014, p. 52). The

gratitude for blessings bestowed on us by others” (Reynolds, 1989,

word kaizen (in Japanese, かいぜん, カイゼン or 改善) means

p. 13). Although various Naikan activities have been developed to
The PanSIG Journal 2020 17

assist with self-examination, one stands out with its ability to besiblings, work associates, children, andapplied to a multitude of therapeutic and educational settings.

partners. You can reflect on yourself in

Before describing the activity, it is important torelation to pets, or even objects such as

understand the differences between Naikan Therapy andcars and pianos. You can reflect on a

traditional Western therapy. Western therapies typically focus on

specific period of time, one day or a holiday

helping clients:

visit to your family. In each case, you•

increase their self-esteem;

acquire a more realistic view of your•focus on their feelings;

conduct and the give-and-take that has•revisit hurt and mistreatment in their past;occurred in the relationship.

•

understand their personal experiences;

Morita Therapy•

consider others’ roles and responsibilities in current

The final Japanese Psychology is the most widely spread andproblems; andpracticed therapy that originated in Japan, with its own training

understand analyses and interpretations of theircenters and in-treatment facilities scattered across the world, andexperiences. (Naikan Therapy, n.d.)its own international organization or practitioners—the Japanese

Naikan Therapy, on the other hand, helps clients:

Society for Morita Therapy (JSMT). Developed by Shoma Morita••

increase appreciation;(1874-1938) in the 1910s to address anxiety-related problems,•

focus on facts;

Morita believed anxiety should be seen as “natural” phenomenon•

revisit how they’ve been cared for and supported;(compared to Western notions of “this is wrong, and therefore•

understand the experiences of others;

must be cured”), and should therefore be added to the human•take responsibility for their own actions andperception of nature.

decisions, and how those may have caused others•

Critics of Morita Therapy argue that this implies passive

problems or distress; andresignation, but it is quite the opposite—an active accepting of theself-reflect. (Naikan Therapy, n.d.)natural, including one’s fears of the future, imperfections, and

Now that an understanding of Naikan Therapy has beenother existential concerns. Dissatisfaction in life comes fromestablished, the activity can be introduced with a firm

“confronting, opposing attitudes” rather than an attitude ofunderstanding of where it is grounded. The activity is titled Threeharmony, which is connected to the Buddhist concept of “no-self.”

Questions, and presents participants questions that seem simple,

In Morita Therapy, there are three fundamental principles

but are actually quite intense and through-provoking. The

designed to “bring clients inside the rhythm of our natural

questions are:environment”: accept feelings, do what needs doing, and know

1)

What have I received from _____?

your purpose (Levine, 2019). Ishiyama (2003) adds, “While Morita

2)What have I given to_____?

Therapy has generally been regarded as a culturally embedded

3)

What troubles or difficulties have I caused_____?

model of mental health, it has been argued that Morita and other

The questions are simple, but provide a doorway that leads toindigenous therapies offer meaningful perspectives on, anddeep discussions and self-discover. Krech (2015) explains thisalternative conceptualization of, mental health issues” (p. 217).
Classic Morita Therapy (CMT) is quite intricate, requiring

activity best:
These questions provide a foundation fora great deal of time to devote to complete isolation, journal writing,reflecting on all relationships, including

talk sessions, and physical labor. CMT requires at least a monththose with parents, friends, teachers,

to complete, and consists of four stages that last a week or more:
The PanSIG Journal 2020 18

••

STAGE ONE: Seclusion, silence, and rest in acompleted in silence, and then a discussion of thecontained space.

experience with the larger group.
o

STAGE TWO: Light, repetitive work with limited

Sample Classroom Activity: Turn off theconversations

lights, make sure all cell phones are switched

STAGE THREE: Labor-intensive work and diaryoff, and have the class sit in complete silence

writing, with limited talking.

for 10-30 minutes. The time will depend on

STAGE FOUR: Reintegration back into regular life.

class size, as well as student personalities,

This structure is obviously not conducive for classrooms or

issues, etc. For teachers using this type of

professional settings, such as workshops or professional

mindfulness exercise for the first time, adevelopment sessions, nor is it able to be applied to the busy

recommended time to begin with is 10 minutes,

lifestyle of the modern-day university student. A shorter version,as this allows students to experience thecalled Brief Morita Therapy, was created, but this also proved toanxiety that accompanies silence (5 minutes)

be inadequate for use in these settings, as the program consisted

followed by a period of accepting and workingof three 50-minute therapy sessions aimed at quickly reducing

through the silence. Students are encouraged

anxiety (Ishiyama, 1986, p. 59). Therefore, a revised version—

to confront and accept feelings of discomfort

Revised Brief Morita Therapy (RBMT)—was created by the author.

and anxiety (Nakamura, 2010), understanding

In RBMT, the four stages are recreated to capture thethat these two feelings are normal parts ofessence of CMT, but manageable for busy students or working

daily life, and should be embraced. When theprofessionals. Each session, or exercise, usually requires one

time expires, turn on the lights, and have theclass period and is more extensive than the previous exercises

students immediately begin writing theirpresented in this article. The sessions below can be compared tothoughts and experiences in their journal. This

CMT, and blended to create a unique experience based ontransition should be done in silence, as it helps

personal preference of group dynamics. After each session is

students focus on processing and expressing

described, an example classroom activity is given.

their feelings and experiences. After 10-15

•

•

•

SESSION ONE: PERIODS OF SILENCE: “Excessive

minutes of writing, have students share theirperiods of silence could simulate absolute bedrest,

experiences in small groups or in a roundtable

during which the client would sit or lie alone for 30

session with the entire class. They may also

minutes with her or his anxiety and discomfort” (Ogawa,read from their journals. The act of verbalizing

2013,

be

their thoughts and feelings helps to further

counterintuitive, Aldous (1994) points out that aprocess the experience, and sharing can also

practitioner of Morita Therapy would “challenge thehelp build trust among the group. The teacher

anxious client to try to feel the anxiety as much as

should prepare to summarize the experience

possible [and] paradoxically, when the person tries tobyfeel anxious (i.e., wants the anxiety as opposed to being

discomfort and anxiety rather than fighting topanicked and fearful of it), the anxiety does not increase“fix” it (Nakamura, 2010).

p.

190-191).

While

this

appears toand often is reduced” (p. 244). This period is silence isfollowed by journal writing, which should also be•

reminding

them

of

accepting

one’s

SESSION TWO: OBSERVATION EXERCISES: Takean isolated walk once a day in total silence; no phone,
MP3 player, etc., and no direction or goal (for example,

The PanSIG Journal 2020 19

a walk to the convenience store to buy somethingchores can be done around campus (as explained

cannot be considered an isolated walk with no direction.).

below). If this is not possible, Levine (2016) suggests

This is followed by journal writing, and then group“Art-making activities…that enhance the experiences of

discussion.

a client’s inherent capacity or talent” can be used, asoSample Classroom Activity: Have students“such activities move into social engagement with atake a 10-15-minute walk around campus.

purpose” (p. 6). This is followed by followed by journal

They must be separate (no pairs or small

writing, and then group discussion.

groups of friends—and this can usually be•oSample Classroom Activity: Any small chore

accomplished by having a route, and lettingin the classroom or around campus involving

each student leave at 30- to 45-second

physical movement, and can be accomplishedintervals. The start of the walk should begin at

in silence, can be used for this exercise.

the classroom door, and the end of the walk

Chores could range from cleaning theshould be their desk (after walking through theclassroom to gardening in a campus garden to

campus). Once students reach their desk, they

picking up trash around the campus. If thisshould immediately begin writing. What did

work is not possible, simple art projects, suchthey see? What did they hear? Overall, whatas drawing, painting or making collages, canwas their experience/thoughts/feelings? Afterbe used. Students should do the work

10-15 minutes of writing, have students share

separate from each other, with no eye contact

their experiences in small groups or in aor talking, focusing only on the work that isroundtable session with the entire class. The

being done. Students should actively engage

teacher should, again, prepare to summarize

in the process that is being done, and try not

the

of

to be distracted by people or things aroundaccepting one’s discomfort and anxiety rather

them. Once students finish (and return to thethan fighting to “fix” it (Nakamura, 2010), butclassroom if they have left), they should

also of the importance of being mindful of theimmediately

world around them, and reconnecting theirexperience of engaging in and completing thebodies and mind to the natural things aroundtask. After 10-15 minutes of writing, havethem.

students share their experiences in small

experiencebyreminding

them

begin

writing

about

their

ACTIVITIES:

groups or in a roundtable session with theMultitasking has become a part of modern life, so

entire class. The teacher should prepare toproviding a time to focus on one activity, alone and insummarize the experience by reminding themsilence, will promote what Ogawa (2013) refers to asof accepting one’s discomfort and anxiety“self in the moment” reflection (pp. 190-191). This canrather than fighting to “fix” it (Nakamura, 2010),

be accomplished in a variety of ways, but traditionally is

the importance of being mindful of the world

done through daily chore that doesn’t require too mucharound them (including the tasks they arethinking

engaged in), and reconnecting their bodies

SESSION

THREE:(e.g.,

washing

ASSIGNED

dishes,foldinglaundry).

Depending on your school’s setting, administrativeand mind to the natural things around them.

flexibility, and students’ willingness to participate, certain

The PanSIG Journal 2020 20•

SESSION FOUR: APPLICATIONS IN DAILY LIFE: The

words, the entire process is designed to bring the participant into

last session provides the opportunity for students toa deeper connection with the self, and remove the need to solve

evaluation the entire experience. This activity could

their “problems,” instead focusing on functioning in every-day

include a discussion on reduced symptoms andsituations (e.g., work, studies) even when facing high levels ofaccompanying psychological distress, changes in the

stress and anxiety. As Chen (2010) explains, “Morita therapy

student’s lifestyle, and any behavioral problems andemphasize the importance of accepting the inconvenient thoughts

adjustments. The overall goal is to reach new levels ofand feelings as the basic staring point and constructive

self-awareness, self-acceptance, and insight (Ogawa,therapeutic means upon which one can normalize thinking and2013).

feeling toward a gradual process of coping and healing” (Chen,oSample Classroom Activity: The goal at this2010, p. 74).

stage is for students to be able to reflect on
their progress and present it in some form

Discussion(essay, presentation, artwork, etc.). Because

The recent coronavirus pandemic has caused a shift in the wayof the intimate progress that may havepeople study, work, and travel. Coupled with the intense pressure

occurred,isto internationalize education programs, study abroad programs

recommended (the less academic, the better),are suffering, with no relief in sight. With borders closing andwith informal presentation or discussion being

international movement restricted, recent study abroad programs

optional. Based on the author’s experience,

have been canceled, halting the opportunity for students aroundmost students have chosen to write an essay,

the world to participate in a unique educational experience in aand only a few students have opted not toforeign country. However, as unimaginable as it may seem now,

speak

An

study abroad programs will one day resume. The coronavirus has

important part is maintaining an atmosphere of

profoundly changed our way of living, working, and traveling,respect and support, even when students

which may add to the normal stress associated with studying

choose to remain silent.

abroad. Therefore, is it important for universities to support

anduring

essay

the

or

art

discussion

collagetime.

It should be noted that any part of CMT and RBMT canstudents to the best of their abilities well before they arrive at theirbe incorporated into a classroom or professional context, and candestination. This can be accomplished through pre-study abroad

be conducted in participants’ native tongue (L1) or their second

counseling programs, such as the one mentioned, coupled withlanguage (L2). For this pre-study abroad program, English was

activities that will guide students to better understand themselves,mainly used since almost all students were going to be using

their own culture, and different cultures around them.

English at their study abroad destinations, but Japanese has also

With a little creativity and time management, thesebeen used in a psycho-education course, with the results showing

exercises can be adapted to classroom settings, including

Morita Therapy exercises “brought about a clarification ofEnglish-language classes or classes where the majority ofproblems, an understanding of Morita psychotherapy, and a

students do not speak English as their native language. Thesechange in college students’ consciousness and character

exercises could also easily be incorporated into Zoom classes

understanding” (Aoki, 2014, p.1).

(conducted live on Zoom or other applications) or on-demand

While traditional Morita practitioners might argue that CMT should

lessons (pre-recorded and posted on YouTube or another video-

not be altered in any way (LeVine, 2018), the core of Morita

sharing website). Even after the coronavirus pandemic is over,

Therapy should always be the center of the activities. In other

online education may become a regular part of the global

The PanSIG Journal 2020 21

education system (Idrisova, Idigova, and Alikhadzhiev, 2020), so
it will be important to diversify lessons.
It is with great hope that mental health care will become
a common part of pre-study abroad orientations and courses, andthat students can safely and openly explore themselves whilefurther developing critical thinking, intercultural communication,

Journal of Counseling, 20(1).
Ishiyama, I. (2003). A Bending Willow Tree: A Japanese (Morita
Therapy) Model of Human Nature and Client Change.
Canadian Journal of Counseling, 37(3).
Krech, G. (2014). The Art of Taking Action. Monkton, VT: ToDo
Institute.
Krech, G. (2015). Naikan Therapy: 3 questions to put things intoand cultural sensitivity skills.
perspective. Retrieved fromhttps://tricycle.org/magazine/naikan-therapy/

References
Aldous, J. L. (1994). Cross-Cultural Counselling and Cross-

Levine, P. (2016). Classic Morita Therapy: Advancing
Consciousness in Psychotherapy. Psychotherapy andCounseling Journal of Australia. Retrieved from

Cultural Meanings: An Exploration of Morita

https://pacja.org.au/2016/08/classic-morita-therapy-

Psychotherapy. Canadian Journal of Counseling,

advancing-consciousness-in-psychotherapy-2/

28(3).
Aoki, M. (2014). The Morita Therapeutic Approach in PsychoEducation. Journal of Kamakura Women’s University,21, pp. 1-9.
Chen, C. P. (2010). Morita Therapy and its counseling
implications

LeVine, P. (2018). Classic Morita Therapy. New York:
Routledge.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology.
(2020). Top Global University Japan. Retrieved fromhttps://tgu.mext.go.jp/
Nakamura, K. (2010). Therapeutic Action of Morita Therapy: In

for social anxiety. Counseling Psychology Quarterly,Comparison with The Third Generation of Cognitive-

23(1). Routledge. doi: 10.1080/09515071003629805

Behavioral Therapies. Japanese Journal of

Exploring your mind. (2018). The 5 Keys of Japanese
Psychology.

Psychotherapy 36(1)17-23.
Naikan Therapy. (n.d.). Naikan vs. Western Therapy. Retrieved

Retrieved from https://exploringyourmind.com/the-5-

from http://www.naikantherapy.com/naikan-

keys-of-japanese-psychology/

approach.html

Harvin, T. (2016). The Practice of Psychology in Japan.
Retrieved
from https://www.theodysseyonline.com/practicepsychology-japan
Idrisova, J. V., Idigova, L.S., and Alikhadzhiev, S. Kh. (2020).

Ogawa, B. (2013). Desire for Life: The Practitioner's
Introduction to Morita Therapy. Bloomington, IN: Xlibris
Publishing.
Ono, Y., Furukawa T.A., Shimizu, E., Okamoto, Y., Nakagawa,A., Fujisawa, D., Nakagawa, A., Ishii, T., & Nakajima,

Online education: steps into the future. Journal ofS. (2011). Current status of research on cognitive

Physics: Conference Series, 1691:012179. doi:therapy/cognitive behavior therapy in Japan. Psychiatry

10.1088/1742-6596/1691/1/012179

and Clinical Neurosciences 65, (2): 121–129. doi:

Indigo Intentions. (2016). Japanese Psychology. Retrieved from

10.1111/j.1440-1819.2010.02182.x

http://indigointentions.com/japanese-psychology.htm

Reynolds, D. K. (1989). Flowing Bridges, Quiet Waters. New

Ishiyama, I. (1986). Brief Morita Therapy for Social Anxiety: A

York: State University of New York Press, Albany.

Single Case Study of Therapeutic Changes. Canadian

The PanSIG Journal 2020 22

Genius Hour: A Case Study Implementing an inquiry-led project
Esther Ratcliff
Asia University“When students are able to be curious, and explore their interests and passions, innovative work happens” (Juliani,
2014, p. xvii). Teachers are constantly faced with the challenge of how to engage their students in meaningfullearning and spark intrinsic motivation. Through the use of a case study, this paper presents an overview of an
approach to inquiry-led learning that can be used with a range of ages and levels. An inquiry-led learning approachcommonly known as 'Genius Hour' or '20% time', gives students autonomy over their own learning whilst also
creating a reason to learn. In turn, it offers an alternative way to approach course design. The paper draws primarily
on Inquiry and Innovation in the Classroom (Juliani, 2014). It will be of interest to teachers of young learners as wellas undergraduate university professors.
「生徒が好奇心を持ち、興味や情熱を探求できるとき、革新的なことが起こります」（ジュリアーニ、2005、
p.xvii）教師は常に有意義な学習に学生を巻き込み、本質的なモチベーションを刺激する課題に直面しています。
この論文では、ケーススタディを用いて、さまざまな年齢やレベルで使用できる探求型学習へのアプローチの概要を提示します。「20%の時間」とも呼ばれる「探求型授業（天才アワー）」は、学生に自分の学習に対する自律性を与えながら、学ぶ理由を創出します。さらに、コース設計にアプローチする別の方法を提供します。この論
文は、教室での探求と革新（ジュリアーニ、2015）と探求型学習に関する文献に基づいて書かれています。これは、若い学習者の教師だけでなく、学部の大学教授にとって興味の持てるものとなっています。

Genius Hour has grown to become an educational tool used inclassrooms around the world, from North America to international
schools in Hong Kong and Singapore, including Nagoya
International School as recently as September 2020. Dunphy(2017) suggests that inquiry-led learning like Genius Hour can

What arelearning?

thebenefitsofinquiry-led

Student choice is the driving force behind inquiry led learning.
Consequently,

lessonsarestudent-centred

ratherthanprescriptive and teacher-led. Teacher-led classrooms are often

help develop the skills needed in the 21st century classroom, suchas creativity, leadership and critical thinking. During Genius Hour,
students work on projects or research topics that interest them,allowing them to “follow their own questions and curiosities” (Coke,2018, p.27). Students choose a topic they are passionate about,and decide how they will explore it and what questions they wantcharacterised by rote learning approaches, where students play apassive role in the learning experience in order to accumulateknowledge for assessment. By contrast, a student-centred
classroom, in which learners play an active role in their own
learning, fosters a more inclusive learning environment andto answer themselves. Therefore, it is completely student-driven,appeals to all learners. Whilst there might be value in teacher-personalised and does not involve a textbook. Moreover, it iscentred classrooms in some instances, this approach does notinclusive, as each learner controls how they participate depending

always successfully cater to all students, individual student

on their linguistic level. This type of inquiry-led learning allows

interests or learning preferences.

students to be in control of their own learning, prioritising student
choice. Each week or lesson, a set amount of time is dedicated to
Genius Hour in which learners have a chance to further their areaof research. The next section will address the theory behind

A principal benefit therefore is that inquiry-led learning
gives students a chance to engage in learning that contrasts withmore traditional teacher-centred approaches students are often
used to. Dunphy suggests that in order to move away from theadopting inquiry-led learning.
traditional rote learning experience, teachers must provide their

The PanSIG Journal 2020 23

students with “more authentic, thought-provoking, and relevant
learning opportunities” (Dunphy, 2017, p.1).

The Case Study
A further benefit is this type of learning experience canbe thought of as small-scale research, or a mini-thesis. Allowing
students the chance to choose a topic to research and to explore
different avenues of investigation, gives students an opportunity
to experience what research is like by simulating the research
process, albeit on a smaller scale. In turn, learners develop skills
related to carrying out research, such as self-reflection,perseverance as well as learning how to deal with setbacks or

Background
The author was involved with a pilot of Genius Hour in the springof 2017 at a language school in Lisbon, Portugal. The classchosen for this case study consisted of twenty 16 and 17 year old
students at CEFR C1 level. The author met with the class once a
week

for

three

contact

hours,

withstudents spending

approximately 45 minutes working on their project each week. The
final week of the semester was dedicated to presenting the final

failures.

outcome to another Genius Hour class in the pilot.
Another benefit is related to student motivation. Whenteachers are faced with how to motivate students, there are twogenerally accepted types of motivation, extrinsic and intrinsic.
Teachers are often expected to include both types of motivation
in a course design. Rhem points out, “intrinsic motivation remains
inextricably bound to some level of choice and control. Coursesthat remove these take away the sense of ownership and kill oneof the strongest elements in lasting learning” (Rhem, 1995, p.4).
The element of control and choice of Genius Hour not only
appeals to intrinsic motivations, but can also be closely alignedwith the first phase in Winnie and Hadwin's four-stage model ofmotivation (figure 1), getting learners to notice a gap in theirknowledge (Winnie & Hadwin 2008, as cited in Hattie, 2012).

Planning the project
Teachers met at the beginning of the pilot and again periodicallythroughout the semester to reflect on the progress of the projectwith individual classes. At the initial planning stage questions that
arose included, how long the pilot would last, what classroom
ground rules should be established in terms of student
participation and lastly if students could work alone, in pairs or insmall groups. Firstly, it was decided that the pilot would run for theduration of one 12-week semester. It was the final semester of theacademic year and therefore students had built up a good rapport
with their peers as well as with the teacher throughout the term.
Secondly, teachers agreed that there should be three main
ground rules that should be established at the beginning of the

A final benefit is that students can learn about
themselves and their peers. Learning should be a collaborative
process and therefore teachers should foster an environment thatallows for peer-to-peer interaction and discussion (Hattie, 2012).
Depending on how Genius Hour is designed, peers can be
involved with peer feedback. The next section draws on the casestudy to illustrate how the project could be designed.

term. The first was that whenever possible, students should carryout research and share their ideas in English. Secondly, it was feltthat students should try and maximise their time for speaking in
English and agree not to waste time during the time dedicated to
Genius Hour. Both of these ground rules were in-keeping with the
all-English environment policy of the school. Lastly, It was decided
that it was best to allow students to decide themselves whether
they would work individually or in pairs.

Example projects from the case study
Some Genius Hour project examples from the chosen classincluded:•

Why do we smile? This pair of students interviewed theirfriends on camera and analysed when and why they

Figure 1. Four-stage model of motivation

smiled. The videos formed part of their final presentation.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 24

•

•

•

What is a black hole? This student worked alone. He

introducing their own Genius Hour Idea as an example for themade a cross section of the universe and added objects

students. Students were told that in the following lesson they

to help him explain his research.

would start thinking about their topic. In week 1, the classroom

What is skin? This student made a model to represent

ground rules were introduced and established.

the structure of skin to show during her presentation.

Week 2 – Generating ideas

The New Zealand All Blacks. This student gave a

In week 2 students were given time to think of different areas ofPowerPoint presentation and showed a short clip tointerest such as sport or technology. In order to illustrate theanalyse the team's strategy.

activity, the teacher demonstrated the process of brainstorming
initial categories of interest on the board. The teacher then added

Although Juliani (2014) suggests that students begin with a
sub-categories. In some cases, it might be possible to add anotherresearch question to be answered it should be noted it is not
more specific category to the interest. After the students complete
necessary to begin with a question. For example, the last project
their own spider diagram, they can show their diagrams to alisted above is a topic rather than a question. The participating
partner to compare ideas. Figure 3 shows an example spider
teachers felt that with lower levels or younger students,
diagram that can be used for this activity.
researching a topic rather than a research question might be moresuitable.

Breakdown of the semester
Figure 2 shows the different stages of the projects over the courseof the semester.

Figure 3. Example of completed spider diagram

Week 3 – Narrowing down ideas
A crucial step in the semester came in week 3. First, students had
to choose their final area of research based on the ideas they had
thought of the previous week. Students were asked to narrow
down their initial ideas by choosing their three preferred areas ofresearch, before making their final decision. At this stage,
students can show their diagram again to a partner to help them
Figure 2. Breakdown of semester

decide the final topic. Once students had chosen their final topic,
they were asked to think of research questions related to the topic.

Week 1 – Introduction to Genius Hour

A method that can be used for this stage is a 'Know', 'Want to

In week 1 students were introduced to the concept of Genius Hour.

know' and 'Learned' chart, or a KWL chart. A KWL chart is an

The students were told that for this semester only they would be

effective method of allowing students to assess what they alreadyworking on a special project. They were shown an animatedknow about a topic, what they want to learn about the topic, andYouTube video that explained the idea of Genius Hour. At thiswhat they have learned about the topic. As with the ideas

point it is also important to show example projects in order togenerating stage, it can be useful for students to see an example

generate interest and enthusiasm. Teachers can also considerof the activity. The KWL activity can be demonstrated by inserting

The PanSIG Journal 2020 25

the teacher's chosen idea (Figure 4). By the end of this activity

It was also necessary to reassure students that thestudents should have various questions from which to choose.

timetable could be changed later depending on how the project

Depending on the linguistic level of the students, the teacher might

unfolded. For example, during weeks 4 and 10, students could

need to help students formulate the questions in the second

revise some of the steps and adapting the timetable with morecolumn, however there should not be an over emphasis ofrows if necessary. The below example is taken from Juliani's

accurate language use at this stage as this could detract from theversion.

purpose of the activity. The third column should be left blank forstudents to complete at the end of the project.

Figure 5. Timetable template
In week 3, students were also asked to start thinking about how
they would like to present their project at the end of the semester.
At this stage, it was important to show a wide range of example
final projects as this provided clear models of expectation.
Figure 4. Example of completed KWL chart
Other possible driving research questions have beensuggested by Doss (2018) such as “How do you build a house?”and “How can I create a two-dimensional platform (video game)?”(p. 113). The process of completing a KWL chart maps onto
Winnie and Hadwin's four-stage model of motivation (figure 1).
First, learners notice a gap in their knowledge, illustrated in thefirst column. Next, they set goals to access that knowledge, whichis represented in the second column. Finally in the third column,
the gap of knowledge is closed (2008).

Examples included a PowerPoint, a homemade model, ademonstration, and a poster. It should be noted here that it isimportant for teachers to emphasise the fluidity of the project. For
example, if students cannot contact someone they had planned tointerview as part of their research, they might have to change thatpart of the research. Similarly, if a student cannot access aparticular material needed for their model they are planning tomake, they might have to consider an alternative solution for their
final outcome. Students need to be reassured it might benecessary to change the stages in the research, or even the final
project.

Lastly in week 3, students were asked to write an initial timetable
for their research (Figure 5). Writing a timetable engages students

Weeks 4 – 10 – Research timein thinking about how exactly they will need to carry out their

The teachers involved in the pilot agreed that teacher input

research, which aligns with Winnie and Hadwin's third stage of

between weeks 4 and 10 was also a crucial aspect of the project.

motivation, strategies to acquire knowledge. Students often find

It was felt that while the teachers took on a facilitator role and themoving from the first phase to the second phase is the mostclasses became less teacher-centred, it was still essential thatdifficult (Hattie, 2012). Using activities such as a KWL chart and ateachers helped keep students on track. Teachers involved in thetimetable, help learners become aware of their learning goals andpilot noticed that motivation towards the project fluctuated during

ultimately develop the necessary cognitive strategies to succeed

these weeks. It was felt this was a result of two possible reasons.

in their learning.

First, external factors unrelated to their Genius Hour project such

The PanSIG Journal 2020 26

as poor motivation towards taking extra-curricular English lessonsclassroom language. Allowing learners, especially children, toin general. Another external reason affecting student motivationreflect on learning in a different language, is no less beneficial

might have been apathy towards such a student-driven project

than using the target language. Doing so helps build a child's self-

especially since it was a different style of learning from the regularexpression and encourages children to express themselves

curriculum. Second, teachers noticed that students became lesswithout boundaries (Ellis & Ibrahim, 2015).

motivated during particularly challenging stages of the research.
Therefore, it is necessary for teachers to try and keep students

Weeks 11 and 12 – Finishing up and presentation
In week 11 the students spent the Genius Hour time finalising theirmotivated by showing interest in their project or giving guidance
projects for the presentation in week 12. Students were able toabout where to look for information. An obvious obstacle was also
finish their final project outcomes, practise their talks in smallthat some students took more time than others and therefore peergroups and also answer any questions from other students. For
feedback was not always possible since students were
the presentation class in week 12, the class met with anotherprogressing at different paces. Students were told peer feedback
participating Genius Hour class for the final hour of the semester.
was not compulsory every week. However, it was agreed it was
The classroom was set up to resemble an exhibition space with
beneficial to try and incorporate peer feedback as well as weekly
students either sat or stood at a table while the other students
self-reflection. It was felt that regular reflection helped students towalked around the room talking to each student. Depending on
progress by thinking about their learning, which in turn reinforced
the context it might be possible to invite parents and otherthe notion that iteration is inherent the learning process. It should
students to the final presentations.
be noted however, peer feedback was already an integral part ofthe curriculum at the school. In the Japanese context, peer
feedback might require separate preparation.

Thinking about learning
Between weeks 4 and 10 students answered self-reflection
questions at the end of each session. Students kept notes to theirquestions in a separate Genius Hour folder. After each session,
the teachers could look at the self-reflection sheets. It was agreed
that this was helpful for teachers to identify ways to help certain
students in the following weeks and also notice students lacking
motivation. Some guiding reflection questions used were:

Getting Started: Practical Implications andObstacles
Perhaps the biggest initial obstacle when starting Genius Hour isgaining buy-in and support from teachers. Since this case study
only involved a small group of volunteer teachers, the teachers
were already invested. Careful consideration is required in orderto gauge interest and garner support. However, teachers mightalso decide to implement Genius Hour as independent action
research. Getting buy-in from parents is also essential for Genius
Hour. Parents need to be informed about the benefits and•What did I find out today?

•

How did I find this out?

•

What was difficult? Why?

Blogs can also be used to publish updates throughout the project.

•

What I would do differently next time?

Students might also be invited to create their own blog•

What do I want to find out next week?

•

What can I do to find this out / How can I find this out?

rationale of Genius Hour. A suggested way to achieve this might
be to publish information about the project on the school website.

documenting their progress. Similarly, the students involved alsoneed to understand the rationale behind the project. In many
contexts, students are accustomed to more teacher-led classes.

Metacognitive learning such as this helps enhance and

Therefore, it might be necessary to coach the students about thedevelop a learner's perception of their own learning process.

benefits of a student-driven inquiry-based project. Although the

However, it should be noted that it can be beneficial to havecase study involved young learners aged 16 to 17, the author feels

students do reflection activities in their mother tongue or shared

The PanSIG Journal 2020 27

that Genius Hour could also be adapted for other age groups, forexample undergraduate students.

Constraints and Limitations
The author is aware that the European context of the case study
may raise questions about feasibility in Japan. The following threeconsiderations might be taken into account when implementing

Reflection and Feedback
Lack of formal assessment
As the case study shows, although reflection formed an integral
part of the learning process each week, formal assessment was
not a component. The subjective and highly personal nature of
Genius Hour means that student achievement cannot only bebased on the final outcome, rather it should focus on what
students have achieved through the whole learning process.
Consequently, Genius Hours lends itself to reflection selfassessment rather than formal assessment.

Reflection
The author feels that it would be possible to assess Genius Hourfrom a reflective point of view by which teachers provide
summative and formative feedback on the reflective stages of the
project. As presented in the case study, students were invited toreflect on their progress and learning process throughout the
project by using weekly guiding questions. Teacher feedback on

Genius Hour in a Japanese context.
The first point that should be considered is how to best
support the learners during the project. During the research weeks,teachers might consider grouping students by area of research.
For example, students whose research area is technology could
be grouped together. This could encourage a feeling of groupsupport, which might help students feel less isolated during the
project. Grouping students in this way means that like-mindedstudents have the opportunity to share ideas and give peer
feedback at all stages of the project.
A second consideration also concerns the learners
involved. As well as the need for support and guidance whilst
working on their individual projects, Japanese learners may alsoneed reassurance of their progress. Reminding learners that there
is not necessarily a correct answer to a research question, andthat instead their research should be a fluid process can help
reassure learners of the purpose and goal of the project.

students' ongoing weekly reflection could be combined withfeedback on a final longer summative reflection at the end of the
project. Teaching reflective writing as a genre, such as how to
express personal experiences and use personal pronouns forexample, very often forms part of higher education programmes.
The questions below (Figure 6) present some possible prompts
for a final reflective piece of writing. Students can also revisit their
KWL chart completed in week 3, which can form a basis for thereflective piece.

Finally, considerably more thought might be required
as how best present the concept to peers and colleagues in eachspecific educational setting. The idea of getting buy-in from otherteachers is mentioned in Getting Started: Practical Implications
and Obstacles, however educators in Japan might find they are
faced with more resistance to a project such as this. Therefore, it
might be necessary to present such Genius Hour with evidencebased research of the benefits and advantages of inquiry-led
learning. With these considerations in mind, the author hopes that
this case study might inspire other educators to experiment with
Genius Hour in their own context.

References
Coke, P. K. (2018). Using genius hour to change what we do withwhat we know. English Journal, 107(6), 26–30.
Figure 6. Final reflection prompts

The PanSIG Journal 2020 28

Retrieved fromhttps://library.ncte.org/journals/ej/issues/v107-6/29707
Doss, K. K. (2018). Providing opportunities for flow experiences

Ellis, G, & Ibrahim, N. (2015) Teaching children how to learn.
Surrey, England: DELTA Publishing.
Juliani, A. J. (2014). Inquiry and innovation in the classroom,and creative problem solving through inquiry-basedusing 20% time, genius hour and PBL to drive student

instruction. Global Education Review, 5(1). 108-122.

success. London, England: Routledge.

Retrieved fromhttps://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1177629.pdf

Hattie, J. (2012). Visible Learning for Teachers Maximising
Impact on Learning. Oxford, England: Routledge.

Dunphy, N. (2017). The effect of self-selected inquiry projects on
the perceptions of students' literacy engagement andmotivation. Goucher College. Retrieved fromhttps://mdsoar.org/bitstream/handle/11603/4352/DunphyNanette_paper.pdf.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Rhem, J. (1995). Deep/surface approaches to learning: An
introduction. National Teaching and Learning Forum,
5(1), 1-4. Retrieved fromhttps://drjj.uitm.edu.my/DRJJ/OBE%20FSG%20Dec07/
OBEJan2010/Learning-Intro2Deep-Surface-Rhem.pdf

The PanSIG Journal 2020 29

The why and how of teacher created podcasts for EFL/ESL students

Jonathan Carl Isaacson
Tohoku Fukushi University

Podcasts have become ubiquitous in all aspects of modern life, including the English language classroom. There
are many podcasts made specifically for English learners. However, sometimes there is a gap. Maybe students’interests and abilities do not align with anything available. In this paper, I discuss the practical aspects of creating,editing, and sharing a podcast. This includes the basic equipment and internet resources needed. I also share how
I have used my own podcasts for extensive listening practice, as well as ways to help students learn how to accessand best utilize the podcast format. I also discuss the reasons for making a podcast specifically tailored to yourstudents' needs and interests. Podcasts need not be limited to students at an intermediate level and above. I show
how to get past the hurdle of getting started, making it possible for every teacher to also be a podcaster for students.

ポッドキャストは、英語教室を含む現代の生活のあらゆる面でユビキタスになっています。英語学習者のために作られたポッドキャストはたくさんあります。しかし、時にはギャップがあることもあります。もしかしたら、生徒の興味や能力が、利用可能なものと一致していないのかもしれません。本論文では、ポッドキャストを作成し、編集し、共有するための実践的な側面について論じます。これには、必要な基本的な機器とインターネットのリソースが含まれています。また、私が自分のポッドキャストを使ってリスニングの練習をした方法や、学生がポッドキャスト形式へのアクセス方法や活用方法を学ぶのを助ける方法についても紹介します。また、学生のニーズや興味に合わせて特別にポッドキャストを作成する理由についても説明します。ポッドキャストは中級以上の生徒に限定する必要はありません。すべての先生が生徒のためにポッドキャスターになることを可能にする、始めるというハードルを乗り越える方法を紹介します。

Podcasts, digital audio programs, usually episodic, have grownprograms distributed via digital channels. Podcasts exist in a wide

greatly in the past decade. According to Edison Research, therange of genres, such as scripted serialized fiction, talk shows,percentage of United States residents who have listened toscience, and true crime, to name but a few. With the increase in

podcasts at some point in their lives has increased from 23

popularity of podcasts, many of the hosts of podcasts now arepercent in 2010 to 55 percent in 2020. The percentage listening

professional podcasters, with a few notable names such as Joe

weekly is now 24 percent. (2020)

Rogan and Marc Maron being some of the recognizable names.
Of course, given the ease of producing and sharing podcasts on

Given the nature of podcast production, along with the newnessof the medium, it is very easy for TESOL teachers to create theirown podcasts, tailor made for their students and extensive
listening (EL) activities. This paper will both address the rationale

the internet, many more podcast creators and hosts are amateurs,
including myself. Additionally, given the simplicity, podcasts offer
a useful tool for language teachers looking to create more
extensive listening opportunities for their students.

for making podcasts as a teacher of English and explain thepractical steps needed to create a podcast.

What is a podcast?

Why use podcasts for EL?
Extensive listening, modeled after the idea of extensive reading,is defined by Yeh as “an individualized listening activity with large

As mentioned in the introduction, podcasts are digital, audio

amounts of target language input of learners’ interests and at their

media. While it is something of an oversimplification, it is useful tolevels” (135). And as Brown notes, EL is beneficial for students

think of a podcast as something similar to a radio program. Somebecause the high level of aural language exposure leads tocontent that is labeled as podcasts is, in fact, traditional radio

The PanSIG Journal 2020 30

“automaticity of recognition of words in their spoken form, in turnwas relatively small at only 133 out of a total 1560 listening

leading to improved aural fluency and thus improvement in overall

responses. However, the rate of positive response to the podcasts

comprehension” (15). Podcasts offered an excellent opportunity

I created, with approximately 76% of responses saying they loved

for students to engage in EL even as far back as 2006, whenor liked the podcasts, compared to other listening choices is

Chinney noted, “Myriad subscriptions are available to English andstrong enough that, while small, I feel is worth investigating further.

other language learners” (13). The volume of listening options isimportant because, as Ridgway notes, “Practice is the mostimportant thing. The more listening the better, and the subskills
will take care of themselves as they become automatized” (183).

To answer the question of why podcasts are useful tools for EL, it
is useful to consider Krashen’s pleasure hypothesis. Krashen
posits that “those activities that are good for language acquisition
are usually perceived by acquirers as pleasant” (300). The

Podcasts are, in fact, being used in university settings for EL

argument is that the more a person enjoys an activity involving thepractice all over the world, as evidenced by Alshaikhi and Madiniuse of a non-native language, the more likely it is that the activity

in Saudi Arabia, Yeh in Taiwan, and Gonulal in Turkey. In

promotes acquisition of the new language. The above cited

Alshaikhi and Madini’s study, both students and teachers

studies from Alshaikhi and Madini, Yeh, and Gonulal would seem

expressed a positive attitude towards the usage of podcasts,

to support this hypothesis. Students reported overall positivenoting that both groups preferred short podcasts, with a variety offeelings about podcasts. Additionally, students in the Gonulal

difficulty levels, covering a wide range of topics that matchedstudy showed measurable improvement in their listening abilities.

students’ interests (44). Similarly, Yeh found that students weresatisfied with podcasts for EL in part due to the freedom of choice

How I use podcasts in my classes?

in their listening materials (97). Beyond students and teachers
enjoying podcasts, they show promise of measurably improving
students’ listening performance. In Gonulal’s study, students'
listening test scores doubled with the usage of podcasts for EL(312).

For me, I began my first podcast as a hobby, but I quickly realizedthat it would be a great resource for my classes. Initially, I made a
podcast wherein I interviewed my colleagues about their personal
journeys and how they ended up teaching in a university in Japan.
These initial podcasts were not intended for my students. I was

When I first used podcasting in my general education required

interested in my colleagues’ stories of how they ended up wherelanguage classes, I gave students weekly assignments with the

we all were - teaching English in a university in the Tokyo area.

choice of either EL or extensive reading (ER). For the EL options,

These podcasts became a truly authentic listening activity for mystudents were provided with links to the podcast episodes I had

advanced students that I was teaching at the time. The students

created as well as links to other appropriate resources. Students

would listen to one podcast of their choice every week. Near thewere also allowed to find their own options, allowing students theend of the semester, I then asked students to emulate themaximum possible choice for the assignment. They were asked

podcasts and interview someone in English and record theto complete a Google form every week, and included in the form

conversation. After I changed schools, I knew that I wanted to

was a 5 point Likert scale, indicating whether or not they enjoyedcontinue using podcasts in class as a listening activity, but due totheir choice for the week. Figure 1 summarizes the responses

the different student population in my classes, I also knew that I

from the academic year 2019-2020. The number of students who

would need to change the format of the podcasts to make themchose to listen to my podcast in the first year of my using themmore useful as a listening practice resource to my students.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 31

it is a simple conclusion to say that they are worth the effort of alanguage teacher.

What to record?
Personally, in my classes, I have not limited my students to only
Podcasts are a versatile medium, with podcasts existing forthe podcasts I create; rather I offer my podcasts as a starting point

almost every interest and niche. As a language teacher creating

for students who want to do extensive listening assignments. Of

podcasts for language learners, three common themes havecourse, there are a plethora of podcasts on the internet, including

emerged in my own podcasting: 1. Personal information, 2.

many aimed at English language learners. So the question

Cultural comparisons, 3. Language facts. While I fully understandbecomes, why should I add to the vast number of options

that most students do not have a deep seated desire to know moreavailable? And the answer is manifold. Perhaps the chief facet ofabout my personal life, by sharing personal information, it allows

the answer for me came down to the problem of ability andstudents to connect more with the podcast because it is not about

appropriateness. That is to say, for many lower level students, thean unknown person, but rather their teacher, someone who theylevel appropriate materials I was able to find were seemingly ofinteract with on a regular basis. And just as language textbooks

little interest to university aged students. The materials wereare full of cultural comparisons, these comparisons are a naturallargely aimed at younger children. Conversely, the interesting

part of language study, as it is difficult to separate language fromtopics were largely too difficult for the lower level students withinculture. Sharing facts about language, such as loan words

the groups that I teach. The ability to create my own materials

between Japanese and English or information about wasei-eigo

through a podcast helped to fill in a gap that I found in materials.

terms, also seems a natural topic for language classes. And all
three of these themes begin to point at the answers to the question

To break it down more specifically, there are five reasons forof why. Why create, as a language instructor, podcasts for yourcreating a podcast as a teacher in the TESOL realm. These areown students in the first place?

relevance, timeliness, personalization, appropriateness, andextendability.

Why record a podcast for students?

Relevance

As stated above, my first podcast began not as a listening

By creating original content, it is possible - simple even - to makeexercise for students, but as a hobby that grew into a listening

content that is relevant to what students are studying. If a certain

activity for high level students. After a change of schools and with

topic is covered in the textbook and even a few students show

it a very different student population, I wanted to continueinterest in that topic, it is quite simple to create further content,

podcasting for students. One of the chief reasons was a desire to

aimed specifically at the students who are interested in the topic.

give students an alternative to extensive reading. While I

There is no need for every student to listen to the same content

understand the benefits of extensive reading, one thing that isfor extensive listening. In fact, based on the definition of extensive

often omitted from the discussion with extensive reading is the factreading being done for pleasure, it stands to reason that extensivethat many students are not readers in their first language. If thelistening would follow the same guidelines. Students have varied

idea of ER is that it is “the more leisurely reading of longer texts,

interests, so podcast episodes will not appeal to the entire class.

primarily for pleasure” (Thornbury 191; emphasis added), a

As Chan, et al. noted, that students expressed a wide variety ofstudent who does not read for pleasure in their first language willinterests and stated, “It would appear that striking the rightlikely have difficulty reading for pleasure in a second language. To

balance between different topics of interest would be the bestthat end, I offer my students the opportunity to complete either

approach to take in selecting and determining podcast content”

extensive reading or extensive listening tasks, and this is where I(332). This personalization can make English listening more

directed my podcast creating energy after my change of venues

pleasurable.

as a teacher.

Timeliness
It is also important to note that research has also indicated that
podcasts are a useful tool, showing positive effects on learners’
listening skills. In research carried out in Saudi Arabia, Al Qasim
and Al Fadda concluded that “that the use of podcasts can makeapositiveandsignificant

difference

to

the

listening

comprehension for EFL higher education students” (39). Given
the ease of creating authentic, or at least quasi-authentic, listening
materials and the indication that podcasts have a positive effect,

Another benefit of creating podcast content for students is that it
can be timely, much more so than is possible with textbooks andthe accompanying audio elements. While traditional textbooks
can take years to develop and publish, the time limits of podcast
creation and publishing are determined only by the creator, in thiscase the instructor. It is possible to create a podcast and have it
available to students to download on their devices in a matter ofhours. This facet of podcasting makes it especially useful in

The PanSIG Journal 2020 32

addressing current events, news, or even topics that arise during

Recording and distributing a podcast

class.
In terms of the practical side - the how of podcasting - there are

Personalization

essentially three stages to making a podcast; the recording stage,

By utilizing some sort of simple request form, the teacher can

the editing stage, and the uploading or hosting stage. While itpersonalize podcasts in a way that is only possible with teacher

might seem creating a podcast is a daunting and expensive task,

created content, and by utilizing it in a manner such as forneither of these things are necessarily true. With podcasting being

extensive reading, it is possible to create content for each anda well-developed medium with more than two decades ofevery student and their own interests. It also gives teachers a way

existence, inexpensive and even free tools exist to make theto share with students a side of themselves that students would

creation and sharing of a podcast simple. While high end

otherwise be unlikely to see, which can help students connect withequipment

their teacher in ways that are not possible through in person

podcasting need not be expensive, as a relatively inexpensive

interactions.

microphone is potentially the only expense needed to really begin.

and software can be prohibitively expensive,

From personal experience, the microphone is the only equipment

Appropriatenessor software that I have purchased for podcasting.

As mentioned above, one of the driving forces for the creation of
my podcast for students was the issue of level appropriateness.

RecordingBy creating the materials, it is possible for instructors to create

With regards to recording, the would be podcast creator must

materials that are both interesting and level-appropriate forconsider both software and hardware issues.

students, as well as being an appropriate length, something that
Chan, et al. found was something that students had strong
opinions about, noting that in their study of Chinese and Korean
language students in Singapore, “a considerable number oflearners had indicated a wish for shorter podcasts” (331). These
considerations are all simple to take into consideration when

To record, the most important hardware for the would-be
podcaster is, of course, their microphone. While most computers
are equipped with built in microphones, for a teacher aiming to
produce multiple recordings with good sound quality, the built in
microphone is usually insufficient for these needs.

creating a podcast for students. Given enough time, it is even

When confronted with the choice of microphones, there arepossible for instructors to create multiple versions of the same

seemingly endless possibilities, each with its own strengths andbasic content for different ability levels. If this approach is utilized,

weaknesses. Do you need an XLR or a USB microphone? Should

it is then possible for students to push and stretch their abilities by

you use a dynamic or condenser microphone? While thesechallenging themselves to move up the ladder of levels within adifferences might be of greater concern for someone who has

single listening topic.

already learned the basics of podcasting, for a teacher looking tostart making podcasts for the first time, these differences are not

Extendabilityof critical importance. If a quiet place is available to record, a

While podcasts are most obviously a listening activity, as withsimple USB microphone with a stand is often the simplest, andalmost any classroom material, they are adaptable to multiple

often cheapest, option.

types of activities. Perhaps the most obvious extension activity is
to have students imitate what they have been listening to andUSB microphones utilize standard USB connectors, meaning thatcreate their own podcasts. As noted above, I have done so withthey require no extra hardware, plugging directly into most

students in the past, when I asked students to interview someone

computers. This ease makes them perhaps the best option forin English in a similar manner as my podcasts that they had been

many beginner podcasters or podcasters who do not have thelistening to for homework assignments. Other extension activities

time to master the other hardware required with other types ofinclude reaction papers to the episodes they listen to or evenmicrophones. Multiple microphone setups are possible with USB

research projects based on their favorite episodes. Based on the

microphones, though they require more technical knowledge ofability to personalize materials to students' interests and the ability

the computer system being used.

to be timely and relevant, it is very simple to use podcasts as aspringboard
assignments.

for

many

other

classroom

andhomework

If the podcaster is using a USB microphone, the next step is toplug it into a computer, and begin recording using some sort ofdigital audio workstation (DAW).
A large number of DAW options are available, both of the paid andfree varieties. One of the most popular options is a free software
application called Audacity. Audacity is a free and open source
The PanSIG Journal 2020 33

software application, meaning that besides the software being

recordings on a personal website, though this can require greater

free of charge, the source code for the software is made publicly

technical knowledge, especially if you want to distribute youravailable, allowing the software to be distributed, modified, andpodcasts using a RSS feed. RSS, or really simple syndication, isused for any purpose without the need to secure any rights.

a method commonly used to distribute media such as news stories

Audacity allows for recording and editing, with versions available

or podcasts to news readers and podcast aggregators

for MacOS, Windows, Linux and Unix-like operating systems,

respectively.

making it accessible to almost all computer users. Of course, other
DAW are available, such as Adobe Audition, Pro Tools, andGarageBand, to name but three popular examples. However,these examples are not free software, meaning that cost canbecome a barrier to entry, though GarageBand is included withMac computers. Regardless of which DAW you choose, they all
allow for recording and editing.

The final option is to use a podcast hosting service such as Anchor,
Podbean, or Castbox, all three of which are free services. By
uploading your finished product to these services, distribution to
podcast aggregators such as Apple Podcasts or Spotify is very
simple. For podcasters who would like to make their podcasts
available to the general public, podcast hosting services are thebest answer, removing the need to develop your own RSS feed,

Editing

while allowing the widest audience access to the podcasts. Using

Editing, while not absolutely necessary, gives the product a more

one of these free options is also perhaps the simplest method topolished sound, something to consider, especially if you intend to

get the podcast to students. Once hosted, all of these services

post the product so that is available to the general public, not justcan be submitted to sites such as Apple Podcasts, Spotify, andyour students. It is also a good opportunity to add any needed

other podcast distribution sites, which are the most likely points ofmissing information or to provide corrections. Additionally, in theaccess for students.

editing and post-production process, it is possible, desirable even,to add intro and outro music. When making the decision to add
music, it is imperative to be aware of copyright issues. There arealso several services that allow free usage of music in content.
One widely used is that of composer Kevin MacLeod. His
Imcompetech Music website offers over 2000 pieces of music thatcan be used for free so long as the content creator gives proper
credit. When searching for music options, it is best to search for
public domain free music or Creative Commons labeled music.
Creative Commons is a non-profit organization that offers

Of course, for a teacher making a podcast, the primary audienceis the students. Once the podcasts are available, the method ofgetting students to access them is the next item to be taken careof. Whether it is done through an internal server, a personal
website, or a podcast hosting service, the simplest answers as to
how to get students to access the episodes are to share direct
links on a class LMS and to share a QR code with students. Above
all, to encourage students to access the podcasts, it is best to
make it as simple and painless as possible to listen to the
podcasts.

copyright licenses that allow the creator of the work to retain
copyright, while allowing others to freely use the work, provided

Conclusions

proper credit is given. One last option is using your own music if
you have created original compositions, or asking permission from

Podcasting for students requires a teacher to answer two

friends or acquaintances who are musicians. While music is not aquestions:requirement, it does lend the podcast a certain air, one that canUnderstanding how to podcast might seem to be difficult topotentially change students’ perception of the media from “here issomeone who feels uncomfortable with technology. However, thesomething my teacher recorded in her office” to “here is areality is that the technological knowledge needed is not that great.

legitimate, professional product for my listening pleasure andUtilizing internet resources such as podcasting user groups andeducation.”

simple web searches, anyone can record and share a podcast

Why

podcasts?

How

do I

make

podcasts?

with the world. And as to the question of why, this paper has laid

Hostingout at least five reasons for doing so: relevance, timeliness,Once the podcast has been recorded, edited, and is fully produced,

personalization, appropriateness, and extendability. Podcasts are

it is time to put the finished product somewhere students caneasily producible teacher generated content that can also become

access it. Here too there are multiple options, each with its own

student generated content. While the level of authenticity of thepositives and negatives. And just as with recording and editing

language might be variable, teacher produced podcasts can besoftware, both free and paid options are available. One option

authentic listening material, and authentic listening materials haveavailable to university instructors or instructors in institutions witha positive impact on student learning, as Dewi showed: “After

their own web domain is to host the recordings within theanalyzing the data, the result showed that the students who were

institutional domain. This option is perhaps best for controllingtaught by using authentic materials got better achievement than

who has access to the files. There is also the option to host thethose taught by using non-authentic materials” (73). Even if
The PanSIG Journal 2020 34

authentic materials do not make up the entirety of a course, they

Chan, W. M., Chi, S. W., Chin, K. N., & Lin, C. Y. (2011).

should be, and can easily be, included, as they are easily

Students’ perceptions of and attitudes towards

produced. There is no reason for a class to be constrained to

podcast-based learning: A comparison of two language

publisher developed content in the twenty-first century. Just as

podcast projects. Electronic Journal of Foreign

services

Language Teaching, 8(1), 312-335.

likeYouTube,SoundCloudandSpotify

have

revolutionized music distribution, podcast services offer that same
possibility to language teachers. The gatekeepers have been

Chinnery, G. (2006). Emerging technologies going to the MALL:
mobile assisted language learning. Language Learning

removed.

& Technology. 10(1), 9-16.
One barrier that at least some people feel about creating a
podcast is the worry about what to say. And while I understandthis worry, there is something that my sister once said about herlate husband. He was an English professor and essayist, and it
was at least partially words my sister had once written about herlate husband that inspired me to begin my podcasting. She had
written about him, “One of the greatest talents he had was to geteveryone to believe that they had a story worth telling -- and he

Dewi, R. C. (2018). Utilizing Authentic Materials on Students'
Listening Comprehension: Does It Have Any
Influence? Advances in Language and Literary Studies,
9(1), 70-74.
Edison Research. (2020, March 19). The Infinite Dial, 2020.
Edison Research.
https://www.edisonresearch.com/the-infinite-dial-2020/

could get anyone to share that story with him. He listened withkeen interest and compassion to everyone he met, whether they

Gonulal, T. (2020). Improving listening skills with extensive

were his students, his colleagues, the people he met while

listening using podcasts and vodcasts. International

working as a reporter, or simply people he met in passing.”

Journal of Contemporary Educational Research, 7(1),311-320. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33200/ijcer.685196

And everyone does have a story to tell. Those stories can involve
many disparate elements, and telling those stories well takes

Krashen, S. (1994). The pleasure hypothesis. In J. Alatis (Ed.)

practice, but all of those elements can be included in a podcast to

Georgetown University Round Table on Languages

create something worth listening to for students.

and Linguistics. Washington, DC: Georgetown
University Press. 299-322.

References
Al Qasim, N., & Al Fadda, H. (2013). From Call to Mall: The
Effectiveness of Podcast on EFL Higher Education
Students' Listening Comprehension. English Language

Ridgway, T. (2000) Listening strategies—I beg your pardon?,
ELT Journal, 54(2), 179–185.
https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/54.2.179
Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT: A dictionary of terms andconcepts. Macmillan

Teaching, 6(9), 30-41.
Yeh, C-C. (2014). An Investigation of a Podcast Learning Project
Alshaikhi, D. & Madini, A. (2016). Attitude toward Enhancing
Extensive Listening through Podcasts Supplementaryfor Extensive Listening. Language Education in Asia. 4.
135-149. 10.5746/LEiA/13/V4/I2/A04/Yeh.

Pack. English Language Teaching, 9(32).
10.5539/elt.v9n7p32.
Brown, R. (2007). Extensive listening in English as a foreign
language. The Language Teacher. 31(12), 15-19.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 35

Teacher’s Anxiety, Burnout, and Stress (ABS) Management
Through Self-Compassion

Merissa Braza Ocampo
Fukushima Gakuin College

This paper examines the effectiveness of self-compassion techniques on English teachers’ Anxiety, Burnout, andStress (ABS) in Japan from 2018 to 2019. A total of 30 educators, sourced through word of mouth and snowballeffect in Tokyo and Tohoku participated in the study. A qualitative methodology involving written questionnaires,interviews, and guided practice of self-compassion techniques, such as emphasizing the idea of ‘being-kind-tooneself’ was adopted. Overall feedback from respondents after they were introduced to self-compassion concepts
and activities suggests that this is a highly promising avenue for helping teachers deal with the kinds of workplacegenerated emotional instability that many encountered. Moreover, the study found that accepting one’s own
mistakes is particularly useful in alleviating respondents’ ABS-related difficulties, and that practicing selfcompassion can increase awareness of one’s own needs, self-acceptance, and self-appreciation.

本研究は、2018 年から 2019 年までの日本の英語教員の不安、燃え尽き症候群、およびストレス（ABS）に対する自己同情技術の有効性を調べた。東京と東北の口コミと雪だるま式効果から供給された合計 30 人の教育者が参加しました研究。書面による質問票、インタビュー、および「自分に優しくする」という考えを強調するなど、特定の自己同情技法のガイド付き実践を含む定性的方法論が採用された。さらに、人間であることの一部として間違っていることや失敗していることを受け入れる能力は、回答者の ABS 関連の困難を軽減するのに役立つことがわかった。これらの結果は、自己同情を実践することで、自分のニーズに自己認識を与え、自己受容し、物事を積極的に受け入れて手放すことは、教員の間で否定的なことを前向きに認識するのに有益であることを示唆している。
This paper examines teachers’ stress through the lens of self-

Although numerous descriptions of teacher stress and its impacts

compassion. At the outset, this idea can be understood as “being

have been published (Bano & Malik, 2014; Fisher, 2011; Flook &open to and moved by one’s own suffering, experiencing feelings

Goldberg, 2013; Jepson & Forrest, 2006; McCarthy et al., 2009;of caring and kindness toward oneself, taking an understanding,Ocampo 2017), less research has focused specifically on what

non-judgmental attitude toward one’s inadequacies and failures,kinds of interventions, such as the deliberate application of self-

and recognizing that one’s own experience is part of the common

compassion, can assist in reducing the negative outcomes

human experience” (Neff, 2003). Self-compassion (SC) also has

associated with teacher stress and burnout. This situationa positive, celebratory dimension (Desmond, 2017; Zessin et al.,motivated the current study, which sets out to probe whether or2017), and emphasizes the importance of human relationships, as

not teachers who have a self-compassionate way of responding

suggested by the term’s underlying etymology (with compassion

during times of stress actually experience fewer negative effects

coming from the Latin com, meaning “with” or “together”, and pati,of Anxiety, Burnout, and Stress (ABS).

which means “to bear”, or “to suffer”). Hence, at the heart of the
English word compassion is a sense of suffering with or together,while being compassionate is being sensitive to one’s own
suffering and that of others, and its causes, with a commitment torelieve and prevent it (Irons & Beaumont, 2017).

In recent studies, teacher stress has been characterized
as “a negative, unpleasant emotional experience resulting from anaspect of teachers’ work,” (Weir, 2018) involving decreased life
satisfaction (Bano, 2014), burnout (Fisher, 2011), and perceived
lack of autonomy (Benson et al., 2003). Bora et al. (2013) havefocused on the dysfunctional behavior that emerges in teachers’
The PanSIG Journal 2020 36

workplace

relationships

andteaching

activities.

BeyondSelf-report measures have several advantages, including theirrecognizing the experience of stress and its manifestation inability to measure a range of emotions, and relative ease ofteachers’ behavior, it has been suggested that teachers’

administration. Such measures have been described by Harleysubjectivities: their underlying beliefs and attitudes, perhaps more(2016) as the ‘gold standard’ for measuring psychologicalthan external conditions, strongly influence stress. In thisphenomena in many disciplines. Table 1 shows the result ofconnection, Noddings (2003) has pointed to the belief thatparticipants’ SC factors according to a 26-item measure. The self-teaching involves not only helping learners to construct their own

compassion scale (SCS) (Neff, 2003) is composed of 26 items

knowledge of subject matter but is also a moral act motivated bygrouped in six factors: self-kindness, self-judgment, awareness ofthe perception of a longing for care on the part of the learner.

common humanity, isolation, mindfulness, and over-identification.
Respondents rated each item on a 5-point Likert scale from 1

Moreover, teachers who feel an overarching sense of
mission to educate and protect students, while attempting tomaintain a faultless moral and professional image, sometimes(almost never), 2 (rarely), 3 (sometimes), 4 (often), and 5 (almost
always). The total SC score was calculated by reversing thenegative subscale scores.

forget that they, too, are vulnerable. They face the significant
combined impact of pressure, workload, students’ disruptive

The participants were all teachers of English in Japan

behavior, and workplace environment. It is from the standpoint ofand were sourced through word of mouth and personalteachers’ subjectivities, and the kinds of beliefs referred to above,

introduction between February 2018 and March 2019. A

that the current study reaches towards positive intervention that

preliminary survey was conducted in which a total of thirty English

may assist in reducing the negative outcomes associated with

Language Teaching (ELT) educators from Tohoku and Tokyo

teacher stress and burnout. Such subjective adjustments involve

participated. Due to participants’ time limitations, only fourteen ofa move towards being more compassionate towards oneself.

these were able to fully complete the questionnaires andcompassion practices. The group of thirty respondents were madeA link between SC and mindfulness has been suggested
by Flook & Goldberg, (2013). Here, being mindful of what is goingon “at this moment”, “right here”, and “right now”, helps one toforge a positive disposition towards the openness of one’s nature.
The givens of our nature; love, compassion, sympathetic joy, andequanimity, are four potentials in us. They exist within us noup of tertiary level (25%) and elementary and secondary level(75%). Half identified as males and half as females. In terms ofrace/ethnicity

participants

were

Asian

(57.1%)andWhite/Caucasian (42.9%). Of this group, again, with time
constraints given as a reason, only 14.3% did the self-compassion
practices in full, while 85.7% did not complete them.

matter what the circumstances. We only have to be aware of them(Richo, 2008).
The rich array of ideas presented above support the claim that SC

The Self-report Questionnaire Package

offers educators a promising tool for stress management
intervention, which warranted further investigation in the current
study.

Participants’ consent form, SQP package, and MSC
guide were provided with a return envelope. Questionnaires
included in the SQP package were: (1) SCS questionnaire (Neff,

Methodology

2003), (2) Shared and disparate views of teachers on teaching,(3) Stress and burnout symptoms checklist, and (4) Coping

In order to probe teachers’ subjective experiences,

strategies to combat ABS. Some of the questions used were taken

beliefs and perceptions, in this study a generally qualitativefrom a questionnaire used previously by the author (Ocampo,

methodology was adopted. This involved a combination of2017).

preliminary survey which includes the Self-report Questionnaire
Package (SQP) and Map to Self-Compassion (MSC) to improvetheir ability to motivate themselves with kindness, be resilient
during life’s challenges, let go of self-criticism, and be morepresent and compassionate with others. (Desmond, 2017).
Having participants complete SQP prior to MSC helped to gauge
how they felt in general. Follow-up interviews with two of the
respondents were also conducted after the SC meditation tofurther interrogate its effectiveness on their wellbeing.

Results and Discussion(1) Self-Compassion Factors
In Table 1, the Means and Standard Deviations (SD)show that participants were almost always clinging to common
humanity related such as the idea that failings and difficulties werepart of the human condition, resulting in increased positive affectand overall life satisfaction. See Appendix A for the SC
questionnaire details.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 37

upset (2.8%). Finally in the over-identification factor, of theTable 1

respondents sometimes (32.3%) tended to exaggerate the event
when something painful happens, and rarely (25.8%) obsessed

Mean and SD of Self-Compassion Factors F1-F6
Self-Compassion Factors
Composite Likert
ScoresMeanSD
F1: Self-Kindness(Items 5, 12, 19, 23, 26)
F2: Self-Judgment(Items 1, 8, 11, 16, 21)
F3: Common Humanity(Items 3, 7, 10, 15)
F4: Isolation(Items 4, 13,18, 25)
F5: Mindfulness(Items 9, 14, 17, 22)
F6: Over-identification(Items 2, 6, 20, 24)

3.65

0.22

2.90

0.48

4.30

0.62

2.77

0.55

3.85

0.75

1.95

0.42

over everything that was wrong. Participants almost never(41.9%) felt inadequacy in their failures and were carried away by
their upset feelings.
Follow up interviews were conducted to further understand the
responses, and these revealed that self-kindness helped
participants gain a more positive view of life. One of the
respondents shared the positive impact of being aware of one’s
own feelings and emotions: “I used to prove [sic] and ignore thenegative feelings I had in the past by diverting the attention tootherthings.

Ieven mastered

to hide the

pain

and

disappointments in life. It helped me a lot though, but the negative
feelings caused by past experiences were still there.” In terms of
These results report extent to which (from almost neverlearning to incorporate self-compassion beliefs, this respondent

to almost always) participants claimed to adopt or experience aalso cited positive benefits as accruing from the acceptance of

behavior or attitude (from the 26 measured, grouped within SCS

Richo’s five givens of life. Namely, “everything changes and ends,

factor categories F1-F6), and the percentage (%) of overall

things do not always go according to plan, life is not always fair,participants who reported the particular behavior or attitude. As

pain is a part of life and people are “not loving and loyal all thedisplayed detailed in Table 1, the self-kindness factor revealed

time (Richo, 2008).” These findings were in line with Boyer (2007),thatcaring,who described them as processes that promote genuine

tenderness, and kindness they need in times of hard time andcommunication skills, both towards oneself and with others on theexperiencing. Sometimes (19.2%) they felt emotional pain, werelevel of heart and feeling. This involves comfortable and enjoyable

tolerant to their own flaws (19.2%) and patient towards aspects ofways to open oneself up and deepen the expression of positive,

their own personality they don’t like (19.2%). In the self-judgement

enriching feelings that bring deeper meaning and joy to our lives.

participants

often(21.9%)

givethemselves

factor, participants were often (25.9%) intolerant and impatient
towards those aspects of their personalities they don’t like. They
were sometimes (74.1%) disapproving and judgmental about theirown flaws and inadequacies, tended to be tough on their selvesin difficult times, got down on themselves when they saw(2) Shared and Disparate Views of Teachers on
Teaching and Stresssomething they didn’t like, and were slightly cold-hearted towards

Participants completed the four scale items of teachers’

themselves when they were experiencing suffering. In terms of

Shared and disparate views on teaching and stress (Ocampo,

common humanity, participants noted that when they feel2017) to assess how they perceive teaching stress (e.g., I find it

inadequate in some way, they almost always (28.9%) try to remindchallenging to teach lowly motivated students) and disparate

themselves that feelings of inadequacy are shared by most people

views (e.g., I feel stress when the employer always monitors myand see failings as part of the human condition, while they often

class by asking students indirectly). They rated each item on a

(50.7%) perceived that difficulties as part of life and shared byscale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Interestingly,

most people. Finally, participants sometimes (20.3%) reminded

respondents claimed that they still had time to prepare lessons forthemselves that there were other people in the world experiencing

students’ sake, despite experiencing negative factors including:the same feelings as them. In isolation factor, participants often

Perceived lack opportunities for promotion and staff development,(30.2%) felt like other people must be having an easier time, whenanxiety about how their colleagues evaluate them, concerns about

they themselves were struggling and sometimes (69.9%) thoughta fair relationship with immediate superiors, lack of professional

about their inadequacies that separate them from rest of the world,

recognition of their effort, lack of involvement in decision making,felt that other people are happier than them, and felt they wereand lack of effective communication among co-workers.

alone when they fail. For mindfulness factor, participants reported
often trying to keep their emotions in balance when something
upsets them (29.5%), trying to balance their view about thesituation (27.9%), keeping failure in perspective (24.6%), andsometimes approaching themselves with curiosity when they were

They also shared through personal interviews that
despite the aforementioned, they still had a clear sense of what
their roles were as educators. It appeared that merely introducing
the ‘positive side of being negative,’ not only towards students, but

The PanSIG Journal 2020 38

also with themselves, mattered a lot. Disempowering factors,

consumption. The belief that their employer paid them too little,

which participants felt directly influenced their academic

that the workplace environment lacked a social-professional

performance included the following: Feeling stressed when

support group, that they had many different tasks to cope with,students called them by their first name, having no autonomy on

and rapid program changes rarely added to these teachers

how to implement their lessons, teaching methods that were too

suffering

demanding or that contradict their beliefs about teaching (such as,

respondents revealed, “I always have back pain which is unusual”‘English should be taught in English), and having Japanese abilityand “every time I got nearer to the school campus, I felt throat

too limited to deal effectively with student’s needs. In addition,

spasm.” However, these respondents did not appear to suffer

these respondents revealed that they felt stress when employers

much from burnout, and this result strongly suggests that merely

constantly monitored their classes, and asked students indirectly

having awareness of self-compassion can support every

about their teacher’s performance in the classroom.

individual and help them obtain a feeling of relaxation.

(3) Anxiety, Burnout, and Stress (ABS) Symptoms(4) Coping Strategies to Combat ABS

fromburnout.

In

informalfollow-up

interviews

ABS was assessed using Stress and Anxiety Symptoms

Participants were assessed on how they responded

and Burnout questionnaires. For the Stress and Anxiety

when difficult or stressful events happen in their lives. They wereassessment, respondents rated each item on a scale from 1

asked what they did to cope with ABS, rating each item on a scale(hardly ever) to 4 (often), and while assessing Burnout Symptoms,of 1 (I usually don’t do this at all) to 4 (I usually do it a lot) (Ocampo,a scale from 1 (never) to 4 (always) was used (Ocampo, 2017). In

2017). As in (3) on ABS, the percentage % of participants

reporting results below, the percentage % of participants reporting

reporting an item is indicated, and for some items, the percentage

an item is indicated, and for some items, the percentage (%) is(%) is reported in combination with the extent to which the item

reported in combination with the extent to which the item was

was present (based on the scale from 1-4).

present (based on the scale from 1-4).
Experiencing some anxiety is normal - even healthy, and just likeAnxiety Symptoms. Of the respondents in this study, 60.5 %stress, it can motivate and push us to finish the task at handrevealed they avoided people, ate too much food to relieve stress,(Boniwell, 2012). However, when too much stress and anxiety

had trouble concentrating on the job, had headaches, easily

cause symptoms that interfere with our ordinary lifestyle, thencaught colds, lost interest in things, and became forgetful. Over aproper management is necessary to prevent ABS from ruining

third of the teachers in the study felt stomach upset occasionally,

one’s wellbeing. Such symptoms cannot be eradicated easily, norwere afraid of losing control of their job, felt confusion, had panic

cured overnight. Facing and treating anxiety requires a long-term

attacks, burst into tears, sweated excessively, experienced heart-plan and changing one’s working habits and lifestyle.

pounding, had nightmares and felt dizziness. These findings arecause for concern, since teachers play a major role in maintaining
an effective system of education, and their effective performanceis the key to the successful running of this system. It is clear that
job-related stress experienced by teachers can adversely affecttheir performance, and reduce occupational commitment, in linewith Jepson & Forrest (2006).

When viewed considering three broad coping strategy
groups; problem-focused (PF), emotion-focused (EF) andavoidance-focused (AC) (Carr, 2004), of the respondents in thecurrent study usually (33.5%) applied following PF coping
strategies to a medium degree: Took additional action to try to get
rid of the problem and thought about how they might best handle
the problem, made a plan of action, faced problems andStress and Burnout Symptoms. The results revealed thatchallenges one step at a time, and took additional action to get ridof respondents never (23.5%) consumed alcohol in excess norof the problem. Those using these approaches were making

used drugs. Neither were they denied the privilege to takeefforts to learn and grow as a person as a result of theirsufficient breaks, sick leave, and vacation. Moreover, they did notexperiences. With regard to EF coping strategies, the following

have excessive absences when totally burned-out and feeling that

items applied to 21.6% of the respondents: Feeling a lot of

their job demanded long periods of their time. The remaining

emotional distress and finding myself expressing those feelings aparticipants admitted that they rarely (76.5%) had the following

lot, accepting that the negative event has happened and that it

symptoms: Feeling tired even if they had enough sleep, dreading

can't be changed, putting one’s trust in God’s help, trying to elicit

going to work, avoiding having a conversation with co-workers,

sympathy, talking to someone who could do something concreterecurring headaches, stomach upset and back pain, feelingabout the problem, learning and growing as a result of theoverwhelmed, always checking the time, and increased alcohol

experience, and looking at the positive side of the problem.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 39

Finally, half of the respondents used the following AC

context, as in the current study, has tended to emphasize thestrategies: refusing to believe the negative event had happened,

relevance of a “western” idea of autonomy including those fromsleeping more than usual, drinking alcohol to think less about“non-western” cultural backgrounds. It is interesting to consider

problems, accepting that the situation cannot be changed andthe fact that even though more than half of the participants in thequitting trying, watching movies and television, and simply notcurrent study identified as Asians, their words suggest that theirthinking about the problems. Some of the respondents shared

minds were bound by fixed notions of autonomy, which affected

their personal coping strategies, which included surfing job

their perception of having freedom in implementing their personal

openings on the Internet, and relaxing using aroma scents.

techniques in the classroom. These teachers’ self-expectations
might be contradicted by the culturally related beliefs of their

The strategies applied by participants fall under threebroad coping categories and can be characterized as either
functional or dysfunctional (Boniwell, 2012). Functional problemfocusedstrategies

includedealingwithstress,while

simultaneously looking at the positive side of stressors; a realistic
action plan. Moreover, individual strategies to cope with stress are

employers. Here too, it is possible that stepping back from a rigid
need to ‘be right’ could ameliorate such a situation. With sufficientresilience and wisdom all participants in the educational process
could learn to firmly accept the idea of being wrong more positively,
recognizing that the power of autonomous choice is itself morevaluable than any particular outcome.

what teachers are left with in the absence of improvements to
structural issues or working conditions and environment. Also

In the near future, a series of before and after SC workshops forconstructive are EF ways of coping such as sharing feelings withteachers are planned. Through such ongoing work, the valuable

someone and seeking sympathy from someone you trust.

idea underlying this paper can be propagated. Namely, that gentle
yet firm self-acceptance has the clear potential to help teachers

AC strategies, however, can only be useful in the shortperceive negative things positively.

term and unattended problems do not sort themselves out but
tend to become worse with time. In the current study, several
respondents often used such avoidance strategies just to be able

References

to continue on functioning in their present jobs. For these
respondents, the only recourse left them was these kinds of
temporary individual strategies. This was due to structural issues
such as the absence of improvements to working conditions andeducational

environment.

Obviously,

paid

employment

isnecessary to support basic human needs, and if there is no otheralternative, then one must bear with the circumstances, accepting
the consequences of emotional instability. However, it has

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Conclusion and Recommendation
This study further confirmed the wide variety of stressorsthat teachers’ experience, and at the same time showed that SC

Boniwell, I. (2012). Positive Psychology in a Nutshell. The
science of happiness. Third Edition. McGraw Hill, Open
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techniques offer a useful avenue for alleviating these difficulties.
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Bora, C. H., Vernon, A., & Trip, S. (2013). Effectiveness of ato one’s own needs are equally important was strongly highlighted

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The PanSIG Journal 2020 41

Appendix A
Self-Compassion Questionnaire (Neff, 2003)
1. I’m disapproving and judge-mental about my own flaws and inadequacies.
2. When I’m feeling down I tend to obsess on everything that’s wrong.
3. When things are going badly for me, I see the difficulties as part of life that everyone goes through.
4. When I think about my inadequacies, it tends to make me feel more separate and cut off from the rest of the world.
5. I try to be loving towards myself when I’m feeling emotional pain.
6. When I fail at something important to me I become consumed by a feeling of inadequacy.
7. When I’m down and out, I remind myself that there are lots of other people in the world feeling like I am.
8. When times are really difficult, I tend to be tough on myself.
9. When something upsets me I try to keep my emotions in balance.
10. When I feel inadequate in some way, I try to remind myself that feelings of inadequacy are shared by most people.
11. I’m intolerant and impatient towards those aspects of my personality I don’t like.
12. When I am going through a very hard time, I give myself the caring and tenderness I need.
13. When I’m feeling down, I tend to feel like most other people are probably happier than I am.
14. When something painful happens I try to take a balanced view of the situation.
15. I try to see my failings as part of the human condition.
16. When I see aspects of myself that I don’t like, I get down on myself.
17. When I fail at something important to me I try to keep things in perspective.
18. When I’m really struggling, I tend to feel like other people must be having an easier time of it.
19. I’m kind to myself when I’m experiencing suffering.
20. When some-thing upsets me I get carried away with my feelings.
21. I can be a bit cold-hearted towards myself when I’m experiencing suffering.
22. When I’m feeling down I try to approach my feelings with curiosity.
23. I’m tolerant of my own flaws and inadequacies.
24. When some-thing painful happens I tend to blow the incident out of proportion.
25. When I fail at something that’s important to me, I tend to feel alone in my failure.
26. I try to be understanding and patient towards those aspects of my own personality I don’t like.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 42

Virtual Presentations at ELT Conferences

Michael H. Brown
Kanda University of International Studies

This study examines the proportion of conferences in the field of English Language Teaching (ELT) and related
fields that permit virtual presentations. Additionally, for conferences which permit virtual presentations, the mode ofvirtual presentation is also examined. The main finding is that, of more than 200 conferences examined,
approximately 12% of them permit virtual presentations. The results of this study are contextualized with a
discussion of what benefits virtual presentations may provide, why there may be reluctance for conference
organizers to allow virtual presentations, and how these the study’s findings may be read in light of the COVID-19
pandemic. Furthermore, a normative argument is made that more large conferences should permit virtualpresentations.

この研究では、バーチャルプレゼンテーションを許可する英語教育の分野と関連分野の学会の割合を調べます。
さらに、バーチャルプレゼンテーションを許可する学会では、バーチャルプレゼンテーションのモードも検討されます。主な結果は、200 以上の調査された学会のうち、約１２％がバーチャルプレゼンテーションを許可していることです。バーチャルプレゼンテーションのメリット、学会の主催者がバーチャルプレゼンテーションを許可することに抵抗がある理由、および COVID-19 のパンデミックに照らしてこれらの結果をどのように読むことができるかについてのディスカッションによってこの研究の結果が文脈化されています。併せて、大きな学会ではバーチャルプレゼンテーションを許可するはずという規範的な議論がなされています。

Are virtual presentations permitted at many English Language

this paper, on the other hand, by involving both spatial andTeaching (ELT) conferences, or at conferences in related fields?

temporal distance. Asynchronous VPs can, for instance, be pre-The study presented here examines how common it is forrecorded presentations that are later broadcast at a certain time

conferences to permit virtual presentations, and what formats

and place; or they might be hosted in a digital space that thesuch presentations may take when they are permitted. In addition,

audience can access at any time.

an argument that large conferences should be obliged to consider
permitting virtual presentations is offered.

Mixed modes are possible, too. For example, the slides and talkportion of a presentation may be pre-recorded, but an ICT-basedquestion and answer session could be conducted in real-time at a
pre-designated time following the broadcast or uploading of the
pre-recorded portion of the presentation. Thus, VPs are not only

BackgroundA virtual presentation (VP) is defined here as an ICT-baseda modern presentation option that offers an alternative to
traditional presentations, but are themselves variable.

presentation that does not require the presenter(s) physically to

From the perspective of presenters, there are several reasons

be in the same location as the audience at the time of thewhy choosing a VP might be preferable to traditional presentation

presentation. There are various modes of VPs, including

modes, such as: personal preference, ease of sharing,

synchronous and asynchronous modes. Synchronous mode, inclimate/environmental concerns associated with travel, competing

this paper, refers to presentations occurring in real-time with thetime-commitments, boycotts. Additionally, in some cases thepresenter(s) in one location and the audience in at least one otherreasoning that leads to a preference for a VP has less to do withlocation; the presenter(s) and audience are spatially, but nota sense of choice, and is more about necessity, such as: financial

temporally, remote. Asynchronous VP modes are characterized inconstraints, political and/or administrative restrictions on travel,
The PanSIG Journal 2020 41

disability, familial obligations, or concerns over personal safety in

is, not everyone seeks the same degree or type of interactivity thatcertain locales. That a presenter may wish to choose to do a VP,

comes with sharing a physical space with others. The affordances

however, depends on whether conferences permit VPs.

of modern ICT offer the possibility that presenting or sharing
research at a conference does not require physical attendance at

Nevertheless, in ELT and related fields, are there reasons forthat conference.

conference organizers to resist permitting VPs? What factors
might make conference organizers reluctant to permit them? In a

Moreover, VPs do not inherently reduce interaction, although theysurvey of education conference organizers, for instance, Jacobs

might change the nature of interaction. With sufficient preparation

et al. (2018) identified seven issues with VPs raised by conference

and the use of complementary ICT resources, there are manyorganizers: Concerns regarding the availability of appropriate

options for encouraging interaction around VPs inside and outsidefacilities, lack of optimal hardware and/or software, lack ofof a conference (Moore, Fisher, & Baber, 2016; Jacobs et al.,knowledge about how to use virtual presenting tools, a lack of2018).

flexibility (compared to in-person modes), difficulties arising forconference is held in a virtual/online space/format—can be highly

proper facilitation, interactivity (or lack thereof), and potentiallyinteractive and generate many interactional benefits typicallyreduced revenue for conferences. I will condense the first six offound at traditional conferences (Fraser, Soanes, Jones, Jones, &those issues into two basic categories for discussion in this paper:

Malishev, 2017; Stephens, Dewing, Brown, Middleton, & Neville,

value and capacity. The other issue they identified, focused on the2016). If a fully online conference can have a high degree of

topic of revenue, is important but not particularly germane to thisinteractivity, then surely a traditional conference can permit VPs

paper.

without compromising interactivity.

Some conference organizers may be hesitant to accept VPs

The question of capacity is one of logistics, expertise, and accessbecause they do not perceive them as having enough value, or

to technology. Smaller conferences that generally attract local

prestige, to justify permitting them. For instance, VPs may be seenpresenters, for example, might balk at the suggestion that they

as inferior to traditional presentations in terms of careerneed to permit VPs. Organizers of such conferences may havedevelopment and building a CV. Academic travel, particularly air

low budgets and few staff familiar with the technology needed totravel, is sometimes thought of as a necessity for career

manage VPs. Conference venues may not have reliable internet

progression. Indeed, presenting at conferences is beneficial foraccess. Necessary software or hardware needed for VPs may be

CV building (Borg, 2015). But the key is that presenting is key tolacking. As such, smaller conferences may soundly reason thatcareer progression for many academics, not travel itself.

they should focus on providing the best conference that they can

Academic travel may be reduced without sacrificing academic

in a traditional format.

Even fully virtual conferences—where the entire

productivity (Wynes, Donner, Tannason, & Nabor, 2019). Deriving
career-progression value from presenting does not entail physicalpresence at conferences.

Larger conferences, on the other hand, should have few to no
problems with logistics, expertise, or access to technology. In
other words, there is no excuse, capacity-wise, for larger

By providing flexibility through the permitting of VPs, conference

conferences not to consider permitting VPs. Arguably, withorganizers help academics and others who need to present, but

capacity a non-issue, permitting of VPs by larger conferences

will not or cannot be physically present for whatever reason(s), toshould be seen as obligatory. This sense of obligation especiallyparticipate in career-progressing activities. As long as vetting

arises in regard to conference organizers’ responsibility forprocedures are the same as those for traditional presentations,maximizing inclusivity/access (e.g. Brown, Thompson, & Leigh,the quality and rigor of VPs will be comparable to traditional

2018; Fleming, 2019) and the eco-ethics of academic travel andmodes of presentation, so they should be seen as having similar

conferences (e.g. Baer, 2019; Hickel, 2018; Jäckle, 2019).

if not equivalent value in terms of career progression and CV
building.

This brings us to the present study, which examines theacceptance of VPs at conferences in and related to the field ofConcerns about the value of VPs might also revolve around

ELT. It also investigates which VP modes are preferred when they

worries regarding interaction. Borg (2015) notes that manyare permitted. I am unaware of any prior studies that focus on theconference attendees highly value the opportunities for face-to-

acceptance, or lack thereof, of VPs at ELT conferences. Therefore,

face networking and sense of community they get fromthis study’s purpose is to establish a quantitative base of how

conference attendance. Indeed, for many attendees, conferences

widespread is the acceptability of VPs at ELT conferences; thisare important venues for maintaining and developing relationships.

base may then inform further exploration of a heretofore under-

But this is not the case for all presenters. For some, disseminating

researched topic.

their research may be their primary, or even sole, concern. That
The PanSIG Journal 2020 42

Following the description of the study’s results, this paper also

Restricting the analysis to only those 26 conferences which permit

includes an explicitly normative argument for why more ELTVPs, 7.7% permit specify synchronous VPs, 80.8% specify

conferences—especially large conferences—should consider

asynchronous VPs, and 11.5% allow either or a mixture. Thesepermitting VPs regardless of the pandemic situation.

statistics are also included in Table 2 below.

AnalysisTable 2 The Distribution of Modes Allowed Among ELT Conferences
Which Permit VPs (n=26)

What percentage of ELT and ELT-adjacent (e.g. applied
linguistics,

education,etc.)

conferences

permitvirtualpresentations? To investigate, I collected data on ELT and ELT-

Synchronous mode only

7.7% (2/26)

Asynchronous mode only

80.8% (21/26)

A mixture or either mode

11.5% (3/26)

adjacent conferences with language education tracks which were
held or were to be held from June 2019 through May 2020.
Policies on the types of presentations permitted were collectedfrom conference websites and calls for papers/presentations ofconferences known to me, shared with me by colleagues, or listed
on websites that collect and distribute information about ELTrelated conferences (e.g., eltcalendar.com and eltevents.com).
Only conferences that had open calls were considered (i.e., if a
conference had an invitation-only format, it was not included inthis study). Furthermore, if a conference was found to permit VPs,
thenwhetherVPs

were

specifiedtobesynchronous,

asynchronous, or either or a mixture of modes was checked andrecorded. The conferences that fit the criteria, and their publishedpolicies on permitted presentation modes were stored in a
spreadsheet. Data collection took place between June andNovember 2019. If a conference changed its policy afterNovember 2019, that change is not included in the data. This
makes the data a snapshot of policies as of November 2019.

Discussion
Discussing the Findings
The data and findings presented here are subject to a peculiar
caveat. The COVID-19 pandemic has upended the world of
academic conferences. Policies at conferences around the globe
regarding mode of presentation are being altered. Many
conferences in the spring and summer of 2020 have tried toincorporate VPs into their programs, if not go fully digital, as
happened with PanSIG2020. This is a “peculiar caveat” for thepresent study because the data and findings are from before theonset of the pandemic. Thus, this study should be understood asa snapshot of policies prior to the pandemic, and read with theunderstanding that many of these policies are now in a state of

In total, data for 211 conferences matching the search criteria

flux and may change, or have already changed, in significant

were collected. Of these conferences, 26, or 12.3%, have policies

ways.

permitting VPs. Two of the 211, or 0.9%, specify synchronous
VPs; 21, or 9.9% specify asynchronous VP; and three, or 1.4%,
allow either or a mixture of modes. These statistics are also
included in Table 1 below.

The results reported above are purely descriptive, and there isconsiderable leeway in how they may be interpreted. Is 12.3% alarge or small—or larger or smaller than one would expect—
percentage of ELT-related conferences permitting VPs? The
relatively simple methodology employed here does not lend itself
to answering questions such as this one. My own impression is

Table 1. Percentages of ELT Conferences Permitting Various Modes ofthat this is a rather low percentage, but it is not at all clear what
would be a non-arbitrary or objective amount for such a judgment.

VPs (n=211)

It may be that my impression of 12.3% being low is a function of
Permit Synchronous VPs

0.9% (2/211)

Permit Asynchronous VPs

9.9% (21/211)

Permit a mixture or either VP

1.4% (3/211)

the fact that I believe more conferences should permit VPs (I willaddress this belief more directly in the next sub-section).
One thing that does appear clear in the data is that when aconference permits VPs there is a strong tendency to prefermode

asynchronous modes. Why this is so is not known, although it may
Permit VPs (total)

12.3% (26/211)

be that asynchronous VPs are perceived as being easier tomanage (Jacobs et al., 2018). For instance, the technology
needed for broadcasting a presentation in real-time may be

The PanSIG Journal 2020 43

perceived to require more expertise and on-the-spot effort—

think of them (Perry, 2015). Since large conferences often carry aleading

possiblecertain degree of prestige and reach, they are valuable forcomplications—than the technology required to share atoconcerns

aboutcomplexity

andpresenters in terms of visibility, career progression, and otherpresentation asynchronously and which may be as simple as, say,professional benefits. Borg (2015) reports that conference

opening a video file that had been delivered by the presenter(s)attendees gain a sense of community that neutralizes feelings ofahead of time or directing attendees via web links to the pre-professional isolation that sometimes arise. Presenting, which

recorded presentation(s). Additionally, synchronous VPs may begives a sense of accomplishment, is an element of the process ofdifficult for both presenters and organizers if they are in different

becoming part of an academic community. Large conferences thattime zones, whereas this poses no issue for asynchronous VPs.

do not permit VPs deny such benefits to potential presenters who

Of course, these potential reasons for preferring asynchronous

are among the most likely to be isolated and would benefit greatly

modes are based on assumptions about the manageability offrom access to platforms of the scale provided by large

different VP modes, not differences in the quality or value of theconferences. Such potential presenters include those who cannot

different modes.

physically attend due to disability or other mobility issues, whowork or live in political contexts where travel is restricted or

There is also the matter of the aforementioned “peculiar caveat”
arising from the pandemic: Many conferences have moved tointegrate VPs, or even go fully digital, such as PanSIG2020.
However, this situation does not render the present study’s
findings moot since many of the effects of the pandemic on how
conferences are organized are yet unknown. For instance, is themove to integrate VPs or hold virtual conferences a one-off

dangerous, who are members of a vulnerable demographic where
the conference is held, who work in underfunded or resource-poor
situations, and many others. Not permitting VPs, even thoughlarge conferences have few or no capacity barriers to doing so,
further marginalizes already severely marginalized potential
presenters. Allowing VPs is one way for large conferences to work
toward an ethical obligation to maximize inclusivity/access.

occurrence due to the pandemic? Are VPs just a temporary fix?
Will conference organizers keep these changes in the future, or

The other significant ethical obligation, in my view, concerns eco-

will they revert to pre-pandemic policies? Other questions arise,ethics. As a general axiom, the larger one’s contribution totoo. Do other concerns (for example, increasing access for

ecological breakdown, the more responsibility one has to reduce

presenters with mobility issues) not matter enough to warrant

their impact. ELT-related conferences are obviously not thenormally including VP options, i.e. are pandemic conditions theprimary drivers of global ecological crises like climate change;

only factor strong enough to warrant more consideration of VPs

nonetheless large conferences do have heavy ecological andby organizers? The pandemic may have changed the perceived

carbon footprints that contribute to adverse ecological effects. For

salience of VPs for the moment, but has it altered the underlying

example, one estimate is that the CO2 emissions for the 2018

motivations or attitudes for offering (or not offering) VP options in

JALT International Conference were nearly 800 tonnes (Jones,

general?

2019). According to the United States’ Environmental Protection
Agency’s Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator (U.S. EPA,
n.d.), that is the equivalent of driving an average passenger
vehicle almost 2 million miles (3.2 million kilometers) or theMore Conferences Should Permit VPs

amount of carbon sequestered by nearly 1000 acres of forest inSome hold that virtual conferencing offers so many benefits which

one year. Normatively-speaking, if one were to agree with a moral

outweightraditional

principle that “it is prima facie wrong to perform an act which hasconferences that there should be significantly more conferences

an expected amount of harm greater than another easily available

held in completely virtual modes (Sá, Ferreira, & Serpa, 2019).

alternative” (Hiller, 2011, p.352), then we can grasp the eco-

While not strictly disagreeing, here I am suggesting something

ethical value of permitting VPs because their expected amount of

more limited: Traditional, large conferences should permit VPs.

harm in eco-ethical terms (e.g. via CO2 emissions) is less than

However, even this limited suggestion has not been embraced,

requiring physical attendance for all presenters. This is because

under non-pandemic conditions, by many large ELT-related

some presenters who would otherwise travel to the conference

conferences. This is unfortunate because the lack of acceptancecould opt to not physically attend. While fully virtual conferencesof VPs poses both ethical and strategic problems.

would be even more eco-friendly (Fraser et al., 2017) and nearlyany

drawbacks

when

comparedtoOn the ethics side, it has been noted above that conferences
arguably should feel a sense of obligation to permit VPs becauseof concerns around inclusivity/access and eco-ethics. Concerns
about inclusivity/access are especially acute because some kindsof access issues are largely invisible and organizers often fail tocarbon-neutral

conferencesarepossible(Hiltner,2018),

permitting VPs at traditional conferences remains a valuablecommitment that can reduce both the overall travel to aconference and resource use at the conference location. Since
VPs can play a role in reducing the ecological impact of ELT and
The PanSIG Journal 2020 44

ELT-adjacent conferences, permitting them is one way for large

trajectory of the acceptance of VPs at ELT-related conferences.

conferences to work toward their eco-ethical obligations.

Universities and other institutions, for instance, could do more toencourage or incentivize faculty and staff to sometimes present

The strategic problems associated with the lack of acceptance of
VPs at ELT and other conferences derive from the same
foundations as the ethical issues of inclusivity and access: By
limiting presentations to those who physically attend, conferences
have limited themselves and their ability to achieve theirobjectives because of the exclusion of particular voices. Researchthat may be of interest and value to other participants will not beshared at the conference. Standpoints and views that bring unique

virtually rather than travelling to distant conferences. Establishedpractitioners and researchers who routinely attend and present atconferences might experiment with VPs and by doing so signal
thevalidityofalternative

presentation

modes tootherstakeholders. These are just some examples, and though a fuller
examination of the roles of other actors is outside the scope of thispaper, future discussions on the potential roles and obligations ofother actors regarding VPs is certainly warranted.

and important insights to bear on discussions and debates will not
be heard at the conference. Opportunities for many to learn about
particular contexts, such as underfunded and remote contexts, inwhich ELT researchers and practitioners are working will be lost.

Future Research

Essentially, not allowing VPs means that not only are remote

There are several avenues of potential follow-up research to theparticipants deprived, but that those physically in attendance arepresent study. For example, researchers could analyze policies ofdeprived, too.

only large conferences, or compare and contrast policies ofconferences based in different regions, or compare and contrast

This deprivation can be illustrated succinctly by the fact thatallowing VPs does not need to affect traditional programs at aconference in any obvious way. If VPs are asynchronous, forinstance, then they can be broadcast at a time that does notconflict with other conference events or even simply be hosted ona virtual platform that conference participants can access at any
time. VPs can be a kind of value-added feature joined to the restof the traditional conference program. The opportunity cost
involved for large conferences appears small, and there is apotentially huge upside for both virtual presenters and otherparticipants.
However, VPs should not be understood as a panacea for the
aforementioned issues. For instance, potential presenters inunderfunded contexts may have difficulty not only traveling to aconference, but also locally securing the hardware/software and
ICT access needed to present virtually. In such cases a distributed
conference format—in which a conference is held in multiple
locations simultaneously and linked via ICT—may be more likely
to maximize access than simply permitting VPs at a traditional
conference. Nor are VPs automatically a sound strategy foraccomplishing some conference objectives. Because it is possible

pre-pandemic policies with post-pandemic ones (or policies since
the onset of the pandemic). Alternatively, there may hard-toquantify aspects of in-person presentations that, in somecircumstances, might counter some of the arguments in thispaper; thus, future research might try to illuminate in richer detailthe affordances and drawbacks of all kinds of presentation modes.
This is not an exhaustive list of research avenues, but merely anillustration that there is a variety of avenues. The prospect of VPs
becoming more widespread, and thus opportunities to identify
how they are handled and what best practices may look like, isunlikely to vanish.

Conclusion
The present study investigates the prevalence of ELT and ELTadjacent conferences permitting VPs, and whether those that dopermit VPs specify them to be synchronous, asynchronous, or
permit either mode or a mixture of modes. Of the conferences
examined (n=211), 12.3% permit VPs. Of those conferences that
permit VPs (n=26), 7.7% specify synchronous modes, 80.8%
specify asynchronous modes, and 11.5% permit either or a
mixture of modes.

policies for VPs may be suboptimal and their integration into
traditional conference programs carelessly handled in a manner

The reason for the preference of asynchronous modes isthat actually results in ill effects, permitting VPs at moreunknown, but it may be due to a perception that asynchronous

conferences will require careful planning by organizers. The main

VPs are easier to manage. The reason that more conferences dopoint is that the arguments for permitting VPs are contingent andnot permit VPs is also unknown, though it may be due to concerns

may be superseded by alternatives depending on the specificabout the value of VPs and a conference’s capacity to manage

context.

VPs. Revenue concerns, while not addressed in this paper, also
exist (Jacobs et al., 2018).

Furthermore, although this paper has focused on the permitting of
VPs by ELT-related conferences, there are other actors andFurthermore, I argue that concerns about value in terms of bothstakeholders that have important roles to play in determining thethe prestige and interactivity of VPs may be disproportionate—i.e.
The PanSIG Journal 2020 45

they may be sincere and reasonable, but are not generally strong

Political Science, 18, 630–650. doi:10.1057/s41304-019-

enough to justify prohibiting VPs—and concerns about capacity,

00220-6in the case of large conferences, are not persuasive in terms ofjustifying the lack of acceptance of VPs. Rather, large

Jacobs, G.M., Tan, H.S., Teh, J.X. (2018). The Acceptance ofconferences should permit VPs because they have eco-ethicalVirtual Presentations at International Conferences on

and inclusivity/access obligations with which VPs would help, and

Education. Ecolinguistica: Revista Brasilera de Ecologist e

because permitting VPs makes strategic sense in achieving someconference objectives.

Linguagem, 4(2), 49–64. https://periodicos.unb.br/index.php/erbel/article/view/12360
Jones, C. (2019). Greening ELT: JALT. ELT Footprint. https://

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The PanSIG Journal 2020 46

Case Study of a Pre-Departure Orientation for Studying in the U.K.
Nobue Inoue
Niigata University of Management
This research aimed to explore how the newly developed pre-departure orientation that focuses on the culture andlanguage of the host country (the Orientation) would benefit students from studying abroad perspectives. The study
adopted a qualitative case study to investigate the perceptions of five undergraduates enrolled in a university inJapan; pre-departure reflective journals and pre-and post-study abroad interviews were used to collect data fortriangulation purposes. Four key themes were identified: ‘The participants found the Orientation rewarding and wereencouraged to study abroad.’; ‘The participants found the culture session of the Orientation rewarding and that it
increased their interest in British culture.’; ‘The participants found the English session of the Orientation rewarding
and that it increased their motivation to study English.’; and ‘The participants wanted to have had more English
sessions and learn about practical matters on the U.K. to overcome difficulties abroad.’ Overall, it was found that
the Orientation was beneficial for those planning to study in the U.K., although there is a possibility that it can be
improved by including more sessions to improve their English and incorporating practical matters on the U.K.

本研究の目的は、留学先の文化と言語に焦点を当てて開発された渡航前オリエンテーションが学生に与える有益性について留学の観点から探るものである。日本の大学に在籍する 5 名の学部生の見解を調査するために質的ケー
ススタディを採用し、渡航前の振り返り日誌と渡航前後のインタビューを実施したところ、4 つの主要テーマが明らかとなった。「参加者はオリエンテーションに価値を見出し、留学への意欲を高めた。」「参加者はオリエンテーションの文化レッスンに価値を見出し、イギリス文化への興味を高めた。」「参加者はオリエンテーションの英語レッスンに価値を見出し、英語学習への意欲を高めた。」「参加者は留学中の困難を克服できるよう、より多くの英語レッスン及びイギリスに関する実用的事項の学習を望んだ。」概して、英語力を高めるレッスンを増やし、イギリスに関する実用的事項を取り扱うべきである改善の余地があるものの、開発されたオリエンテー
ションはイギリス留学を計画する者にとって有益であることが明らかとなった。

It is commonly believed that study abroad programs are ideal forfrom studying abroad. English (2012) and Summerfield (1993)

students to be immersed in the target language and culture, giving

also argued that it helps students develop cultural sensitivity andthem an opportunity to interact frequently with native speakers

prepare for a new cultural environment. Additionally, Vanand experience the authentic culture (Martinsen, 2011; Pellegrino,

Amelsvoort (1999) stated that intensive language training before1998). Summerfield (1993) pointed out, however, that the

departurephilosophy of education-abroad programming cannot be limited tocommunicating while abroad. For these reasons, a pre-departure

the actual time spent in another country. According to Cox (1996),

orientation is believed to create meaningful and successful

those without a good pre-departure orientation may be ill-

experiences for students studying abroad (Summerfield, 1993).

would

alleviatestudents’concerns

about

prepared for or overwhelmed by their study abroad experience,

Despite the importance of pre-departure orientations,

respond inappropriately in the new culture, or fail to benefit fromhowever, Barber (2014) and Koernig (2007) noted that there

potentially available study abroad opportunities.

appears to be a lack of research about what should be included

Indeed, several authors have discussed the importanceand the effectiveness of particular components of orientations inof a pre-departure orientation. For example, Highum (2014)

enhancing study abroad outcomes. In particular, it appears thatsuggested that a pre-departure orientation helps students travel

Japanese universities have not succeeded in implementing well-safely with knowledge of the host country and learn effectively

structured comprehensive pre-departure curricula in terms of
The PanSIG Journal 2020 47

cross-cultural and linguistic development(Hockersmith &Newfields,of2016).

Rather,thecontent

pre-departureorientations provided by many Japanese universities is likely to be

Methods

limited to travel logistics (Hockersmith & Newfields, 2016) andParticipants

students could end up regarding studying abroad as merely

The participants were five CEFR A2 level undergraduates (onetraveling, rather than as educational opportunities (Hockersmith &Chinese, one Korean, and three Japanese students) enrolled in a

Newfields, 2016).

private university in Japan as shown in Table 1. They attended theTherefore, faculty members leading study abroad

study abroad program in the U.K. from late February to earlyprograms are encouraged to hold pre-departure orientation

March 2018 (two weeks). To prepare for studying abroad, thesessions to help students understand the host culture andparticipants took part in the Orientation, which was held once a

improve their language (e.g., Marshall University, n.d.; Montana

month from October 2017 to February 2018 (five sessions in total).

State University, n.d.; University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, n.d.).
However, this information specifically relates to what American
universities do; Japanese universities do not put focus on these

Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Study Cohorts
Participants Gender Nationality Major
University
Yeara
A
Male
ChineseBusiness 3

academic matters and lack in-depth and well-structured sessions

B

FemaleKoreanBusiness2

to make overseas experiences more meaningful from cultural and

C

Male

Japanese

Tourism1

language perspectives (Hockersmith & Newfields, 2016). ThisD

FemaleJapanese

Tourism2

study therefore aimed to explore how pre-departure orientations

E

Male

Japanese

Business

4

This refers to the students’ year of study at the time of theirinvolvement in this study.
athat focus on the target culture and language would benefit
students enrolled in a university in Japan.

Study Design

Context of the ResearchThis research was undertaken as a qualitative case study toI developed a pre-departure orientation for a two-week study

explore and understand a group of students’ perceptions of theabroad program in the U.K., which was composed of a general

Orientation (Kumar, 2014; Moule & Goodman, 2009; Polit & Beck,

English language course and a homestay in the U.K. The

2004; Riazi, 2016).

orientation aimed to help students attending the study abroad

Materials

program understand British culture and improve their English
language skills before their departure. Specifically, the orientationconsisted of a total of five 60-minute sessions as follows (seeAppendix A for the syllabus):
1.

Session I: British Culture (Four Nations);

2.

Session II: British Culture (British Food);

3.

Session III and IV: Intensive English (Survival
Homestay English); and4.

Session V: Intensive English (Survival Airport
English).

To that end, the following research questions were posed to guide
this study: What are the students’ perceptions of the newly-

Two types of materials were used for this research: (1) one-to-one,semi-structured interviews and (2) reflective journals. The former
is believed to be well-suited for case studies and yield significant
amounts of information from an individual’s perspective (Hancock& Algozzine, 2017). The latter was used for triangulation purposes
because case studies often involve investigating the actions of thepast and participants may forget or reconstruct their interpretation(J. W. Creswell & J. D. Creswell, 2017; Newby, 2013; Polit & Beck,
2004; Riazi, 2016); participants’ recall is more likely to be precise
at the time of the experience, and thus, diaries would offer greater
accuracy than interviews (Merriam, 2009; Moule & Goodman,2009).

developed pre-departure orientation that focuses on British
culture and English language (hereinafter referred to as ‘theOrientation’)?

The PanSIG Journal 2020 48

Procedure
First, I explained to each participant about the research project

Results

and informed that their privacy would be protected at all times.
The participants then agreed to voluntarily take part in the study
and signed a consent form accordingly.
The interviews were conducted twice; the first interview
was conducted in February 2018 right after the Orientation ended,
while the second interview was conducted in March 2018 after
students returned from the UK. However, Participant D wasunavailable in March 2018 and was therefore interviewed in May

Orientation as a Whole
As shown in Table 2, the results of the three sources, the reflective
journals (RJ), the first semi-structured interviews conducted
before the participants’ departure (SSI-1), and the second semistructured interviews upon their return from the U.K. (SSI-2),
suggest that the participants found the Orientation rewarding andwere encouraged to study abroad.

2018. Each interview session lasted for about five to 15 minutes.
All interviews were recorded to ensure that the data were theTable 2. Theme 1 with Codes and Categories
Codes

Categories

Theme 1

actual verbatim responses of the participants (Polit & Beck, 2004),

Beneficial

and the audio recordings were transcribed. Additionally, theNecessary

Perceptions of
the Orientation

participants wrote a reflective journal after each orientation

Motivated

Orientation was
rewarding andencouraged us to study
abroadRelieved

Perceptions ofstudying abroad

session between October 2017 and February 2018 (a total of fivetimes). Finally, both reflective journals and interview transcripts
were translated from Japanese to English.
Although Participants A and B were not native Japanese
speakers, both were able to communicate well in Japanese andtranslators were not available for this study. Thus, one-to-one
interviews and reflective journals were conducted and written,
respectively, in Japanese.

Firstly, two participants (Participants A and D) indicated that theOrientation was beneficial for them:“The Orientation was really necessary. I wouldn’t be able
to go to the U.K. without attending it” (SSI-1: A); “It was
really necessary for my studying abroad” (SSI-2: A)“...everything I learned was definitely useful for studying
abroad...I learned what was necessary before going to
the U.K., so it was very rewarding…” (SSI-1: D).

Data Analysis
Content analysis was conducted to reduce the vast quantities oftextual data collected from reflective journals and interviews(Moule & Goodman, 2009): (1) the text was divided into smallerparts called meaning units, which were condensed further(Erlingsson & Brysiewicz, 2017); (2) subsequently, the condensed
meaning units were coded (Erlingsson & Brysiewicz, 2017); (3)the codes were then grouped into categories (Erlingsson &Brysiewicz, 2017); and finally, (4) these categories were clustered
together as themes (Erlingsson & Brysiewicz, 2017). The codes,
categories, for Theme 1 are summarized in Table 2. See Inoue(2020) for more details on how to conduct content analysis forstudy abroad research.

Secondly, four participants (Participants A, B, C, and E)
stated that the Orientation helped mitigate their concerns about
studying abroad. For example, Participant E mentioned, “...myconcerns got relieved compared to before, and I feel a little
better…no matter how bad a person’s English is, I’ve come tothink anyone has a chance” (SSI-1: E). Furthermore, two of the
respondents (Participants A and C) showed their motivation to
study abroad:“Thank you very much for holding the Orientation! I thinkthat studying in the U.K. is such a rare opportunity. I'mreally looking forward to it” (RJ: A).
“Taking full advantage of the Orientation, I want to try
hard in the U.K.” (SSI-1: C).

The PanSIG Journal 2020 49

conversation at the airport…Today, I already knew the questionsin advance, so I was able to answer them, but I thought that it
would be difficult when thinking about actual situations” (RJ: C).
Nevertheless, four participants (Participants A, C, D, and E)

Culture Sessions
As shown in Table 3, the results of RJ, SSI-1, and SSI-2 suggestthat the participants found the culture session of the Orientation
rewarding and that it increased their interest in British culture.
Firstly, all five participants expressed that learning about
British culture was beneficial for them. For example, Participant B
said, “I was able to know more about the U.K., so the lessons werevery beneficial” (SSI-1: B). Furthermore, Participant D stated,“What the culture session taught me was what should be learned
before departure” (SSI-1: D) and “my host mother taught me aboutfour nations…As a topic for conversation, the lessons were very

indicated that the English sessions increased their motivation to
study English. For example, Participant E noted, “By practicing
English conversation, studying abroad in the U.K. is starting to feel
more real…I look forward to actually using the phrases I
learned…I’ll study harder” (RJ: E). Additionally, two participants(Participants A and B) mentioned that the English sessions helped
relieve their concerns over English: “I’m really worried aboutcommunicating with Britons in English…By attending the English
sessions, I learned how…I’m relieved” (SSI-1: A) and “I had
concerns about English before going to the U.K. …By memorizing
what I learned, I would be confident with my English in real-life

useful” (SSI-2: D).
Additionally, three participants (Participants A, C, and D)

situations” (RJ: B).

indicated that they became interested in British culture. For
example, Participant C noted, “...I’ve found that there are cuisinesof various countries in the U.K., and I’ve become very

Table 4. Theme 3 with Codes and Categories
Codes

Categories

Theme 3

Beneficial

Perceptions ofEnglishsessions

English sessions wererewarding andmotivated us to study
Englishinterested…I didn’t know anything about British culture before…”

Necessary(RJ: C).

UsefulConfident

Table 3. Theme 2 with Codes and Categories

Difficult

Codes

Categories

Theme 2

Motivated

Beneficial

Perceptions ofBritish culture
sessions

Culture sessions wererewarding andincreased our interest in
British culture

Relieved

Necessary
UsefulInterested
Unfamiliar

Perceptions ofBritish culture

Perceptions ofEnglishPotential Improvement
As shown in Table 5, the results of SSI-1 and SSI-2 suggest thatthe participants wanted to have more English sessions and learn

English Sessions

about practical matters on the U.K. to overcome difficulties abroad.

As shown in Table 4, the results of RJ, SSI-1, and SSI-2 show thatFirstly, three participants (Participants A, C, and E)

the participants found the English session of the Orientation

mentioned that they wanted more sessions to improve theirrewarding and that it increased their motivation to study English.

English. For instance, Participant E stated, “There were not

Four participants (Participants A, B, C, and D) reported

enough orientation sessions, so even if I’m not good at English, I

that learning English was beneficial for them. For example,

wanted to have tried more, to be honest” (SSI-1: E). In addition,

Participant A stated, “If I had not participated in the lessons, I

two participants (Participants D and E) stated that they wanted toprobably wouldn’t have known how to converse…I studied a lot

know more about practical information about the U.K., including

about conversational English. I think this is really good.” (SSI-1:

British personality, British transport, and the host area:

A). Further, Participant C expressed, “At immigration, I had a“It's good to study abroad, but you’ll be defeated if you’reconversation in a similar way, so it was very useful” (SSI-2: C).

not mentally strong... while staying in the U.K., I found

All five participants mentioned that English was difficult.

British people generally assertive. Those who are

For example, Participant C mentioned, “…I practiced a
The PanSIG Journal 2020 50

planning to go to the U.K. next time should be preparedmentally before their departure” (SSI-2: E).
“You could have shared the information about a shopping
street near the host institution…and how to take a train…I
wanted to learn about the knowledge outside of thecontext of an English lesson” (SSI-2: D).
Secondly, all five participants expressed that they had
difficulty in English while in the U.K. Participant A had
trouble understanding British pronunciation, saying “TheBritish English pronunciation was a bit unfamiliar, sosometimes I didn’t understand well” (A, SSI1-2: A), and theother four had difficulty in speaking. For instance,
Participant C reported, “I faced difficulties outside generalsituations…For example, we went to McDonalds together
once, but it was very difficult…we couldn’t order a combo
meal because I didn’t know how to order it in English… (SSI2: C). Moreover, Participant D mentioned, “At homestay…I
was not sure if I made myself understood…I said something,
but when they replied in a different way from what I expected,
I couldn’t say anything. I couldn’t even say, “That’s not what

Discussion
As for the research question, the identified four themes show thatthe participants’ perceptions of the Orientation were generally
positive; however, the Orientation seems to require some
improvement in the contents. The first three themes suggest that
the Orientation was rewarding for the participants because it
encouraged them to study in the U.K. by increasing their interest
in British culture and motivated them to study English. Thesefindings prove the arguments made by English (2012),
Summerfield (1993), and Van Amelsvoort (1999), who suggested
that a pre-departure orientation would help students fully benefit
from studying abroad in terms of cultural and language
development. However, theme 4 suggested that the Orientation
should have included more sessions to improve the participants’
English and cover practical matters on the U.K. to help themovercome difficulties they would face while abroad. These findings
indicate that although there were no strong negative reactions
from the participants, the Orientation should be improved further
by additional language training and explanation about practicalmatters on the U.K.

I mean” (SSI-2, D). Furthermore, two of the respondents(Participants C and D) indicated that they had trouble using

Conclusion

British coins, which they were unfamiliar with. For example,
Participant D stated, “There were a wide variety of British

This study aimed to investigate students’ perceptions of the newly
developed pre-departure orientation that focuses on British

coins...I had a lot of coins left...I tried to pay by coins, but
because people were waiting behind me...I couldn’t use
coins much…I wish I had learned about coins in advance”

culture and English language (the Orientation). The study adopted
a qualitative case study to explore the perceptions of the five
participants enrolled in a private university in Japan. Two types of(SSI-2: D).
data collection instruments (semi-structured interviews andreflective journals) were used for triangulation purposes, and theTable 5. Theme 4 with Codes and Categories
Codes

Categories

Theme 4More English
sessions
Britishpersonality
Britishtransport
Host area

Students’
needs

Wanted to have more
English sessions andlearn about practicalmatters to overcome
difficulties abroad

BritishpronunciationSpeaking
EnglishUnfamiliar
coins

Difficulties
abroaddata were analyzed by content analysis.
As a result, four key themes were identified from thestudy: ‘The participants found the Orientation rewarding and wereencouraged to study abroad.’ (theme 1); ‘The participants foundthe culture session of the Orientation rewarding and that it
increased their interest in British culture.’ (theme 2); ‘The
participants found the English session of the Orientation
rewarding and that it increased their motivation to study English.’(theme 3); and ‘The participants wanted to have more English
sessions and learn about practical matters on the U.K. toovercome difficulties abroad.’ (theme 4).

The PanSIG Journal 2020 51

Overall, it is suggested that the Orientation would bevaluable for those planning to study abroad in the U.K. because
the culture sessions would help increase their interest in British

University,12 (2) 67–88. Retrieved fromhttp://id.nii.ac.jp/1074/00000933/
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design:culture and the English sessions would help increase their

Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches

motivation to study English. Nevertheless, there is a possibility(5th ed.). Retrieved from https://play.google.com/books

that the Orientation can be improved by including more sessions

English, B. J. (2012). Preparing Japanese University Students

to improve their English and incorporating practical matters on thefor Study Abroad. Tama University School of Global

U.K. to help them overcome potential difficulties while abroad.

Studies Bulletin, 4, 11–27. Retrieved from

Considering that pre-departure orientations that focus on the host

http://id.nii.ac.jp/1361/00000220

culture and language are unique in Japan, the findings would help

Erlingsson, C., & Brysiewicz, P. (2017). A hands-on guide toeducators gain insight on how to develop an effective pre-doing content analysis. African Journal of Emergency

departure orientation for students planning to study abroad.

Medicine, 7(3), 93–99.

However, five limitations of this study need to beacknowledged. First, the findings might not be fully generalized

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afjem.2017.08.001
Hancock, D. R., & Algozzine, B. (2017). Doing case study

beyond the case mainly because of the small sample size. Future

research: a practical guide for beginning researchers (3rdstudies may include a larger number of students to help generalizeed.). Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com

the findings. Second, although the study context was set in Japan,

Highum, A. (2014). Predeparture services for students studying

the study participants included two non-Japanese students, which

abroad. New Directions for Student Services, 2014(146),

might have affected the findings. Future studies can investigate

51–57. doi: 10.1002/ss.20090

whether the perceptions of international students differ from that

Hockersmith, A., & Newfields, T. (2016). Designing Study Abroadof the Japanese students. Third, content analysis is subjective,

Pre-Departure Trainings. Ryūgaku: Explorations in Studyand the data could be interpreted differently (Julien, 2008). Future

Abroad, 9(1), 2–12. Retrieved from https://sa-studies may analyze the same data to explore different

sig.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/2/1/132190340/ryuugaku-

perspectives. Fourth, the coding process of this study was not

9_1_.pdf

detailed, showing only the final codes triangulated from interviews

Inoue, N. (2020). Step By Step Guide To Content Analysis forand journals due to the vast amount of collected data. Future

Study Abroad Research. The Journal of Worldwide

studies could describe how the final codes were created from the

Education, 13(2), 53–62. Retrieved from https://sa-

original sources. Last, the fact that the English sessions of thesig.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/2/1/132190340/december_202

Orientation only covered homestay and airport situations might

0_volume.pdf

have affected the participant’s perceptions of the Orientation.

Julien, H. (2008). Content analysis. In L. M. Given (Ed.), The

Future studies should investigate a pre-departure orientation that

Sage encyclopedia of qualitative researchwould cover a wider variety of situations.

methods (pp.120–122). Retrieved fromhttps://books.google.co.jp/books?id=IFrb6IPLISEC&source

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Barber, J. P. (2014). Designing Pre-Departure Orientation as a

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For-Credit Academic Seminar: Curriculum and Content.

conducting a 2-week study abroad trip for

Capstone Collection. Retrieved fromundergraduate students: Guidelines for first-time

http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/capstones/2718

faculty. Journal of Marketing Education, 29(3), 210–

Cox, T. B. (1996). Pre-departure training for short study abroad

217. https://doi.org/10.1177/0273475307306886

programs. The annual report of researches of Soai

The PanSIG Journal 2020 52

Kumar, R. (2014) Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide

Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2004). Nursing research: Principles

for Beginners (4th ed.). Retrieved fromand methods (7th ed.). Retrieved fromhttps://play.google.com/books

https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=5g6VttYWnjUC&dq=n

Marshall University. (n.d.). Faculty-Led Study Abroad Program
Manual. Retrieved from https://www.marshall.edu/studyabroad/files/2013/03/FacultyLed-Program-Manual.pdf
Martinsen, R. (2011). Predicting changes in cultural sensitivity
among students of Spanish during short-term study
abroad. Hispania, 121–141. Retrieved fromhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/23032089
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design

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Riazi, A. M. (2016). The Routledge encyclopedia of researchmethods in applied linguistics. Retrieved fromhttps://ebookcentral.proquest.com
Summerfield, E. (1993). Predeparture Orientation and Reentry
Programming. In W. Hoffa, J. Pearson, & M. Slind (Eds.),
NAFSA's Guide to Education Abroad for Advisers andand implementation. Retrieved from

Administrators. (pp. 137–153). Retrieved fromhttps://books.google.co.jp/books?id=tvFICrgcuSIC&source

https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED356740=gbs_navlinks_sMontana State University. (n.d.). Study Abroad Handbook for

University of Wisconsin-La Crosse. (2014). International
Education Committee’s Procedures for Faculty-led Study

Faculty-led Programs. Retrieved from

Abroad and Service Learning Programs. Retrieved fromhttp://www.montana.edu/international/studyabroad/docume

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introduction. Retrieved from https://play.google.com/books
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Pellegrino, V. A. (1998). Student perspectives on language
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The PanSIG Journal 2020 53

Appendix A
Syllabus of the Newly Developed Pre-departure Orientation•

Duration: 5 sessions (60 minutes each)•

Course objectives:•o

To develop cultural knowledge about the U.K.

o

To improve English skills to facilitate communication in the U.K.

Course Schedule:(1) British Culture: Four NationsoStudents watch a video clip about the four nations of the U.K. (England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern
Ireland), which summarizes each nation’s culture, customs, and/or history. After watching the video, students
complete the relevant worksheet to check their understanding of the video.

(2) British Culture: British FoodoStudents watch a video clip that not only shows traditional English food but also a wide range of food frommany countries to introduce the cultural diversity of the U.K. After watching the video, students complete therelevant worksheet to check their understanding of the video.

(3) & (4) Intensive English: Survival Homestay EnglishoStudents complete the worksheet to learn English phrases used in homestay situations. After the exercises,
each student selects one of the homestay situations and performs roleplay with the instructor who pretends tobe a host mother.

(5) Intensive English: Survival Airport EnglishoStudents watch a video about immigration and airport check-in to learn English phrases used at the airport.
Subsequently, students are asked to replace model answers with their own answers and perform roleplayswith the instructor.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 54

A Case for Scaffolding Self-reflection

Phillip Alixe Bennett

Amelia Yarwood

Kanda University of International Studies
bennett-p@kanda.kuis.ac.jp

Kanda University of International Studies
yarwood-a@kanda.kuis.ac.jp

Self-reflection is a valuable tool in becoming an effective learner often leading to a greater capacity for selforganizing effective learning behaviors (Ryan & Deci, 2017). This paper will argue the need for more scaffolded
self-reflective pedagogies based on Self-Determination (Ryan & Deci, 1987) literature, and provide three mini-casestudies on how self-reflection can be implemented in university settings. The first of these mini-case studies outlinesmaterials developed for a reflective workshop conducted with 200+ sophomore students. The second will explore
how written reflections when revisited with a critical eye, results in deeper, more transformative reflective reports.
The final case-study will provide insight into how group discussions can help build supportive classrooms and raise
self-awareness. Each of these mini-case studies will demonstrate how student self-reflections elicited clearer goals
and encouraged self-endorsed learning. The paper will conclude with a call for more carefully scaffolded reflective
activities in the language classroom.

自己内省は効率的な学習者になるための価値のあるツールである。自己内省の出来る者はそれが出来ない者と比べ、自身の行動を管理する能力に優れている(Ryan & Deci, 2017)。本研究は、自己決定理論 (Ryan & Deci, 1987)に基づいた自己内省を促す足場掛け作りの必要性について、大学で実践された３つの小研究事例と共に述べる。
第 1 の事例は、200 名以上の大学 2 年生を対象としたワークショップの概要を紹介する。第 2 はリフレクションを再考することで批判的かつ熟考的で、より変容的なものになるのか探る。第 3 はディスカッションと通しクラス内
での所属意識および自己認識の向上に役立つか考査する。各小研究は、学生の自己内省がどの様に明確な目標を導き出し、自己承認型の学習を促進するか提言する。本研究は、授業内で足場掛けが施されたリフレクションの必要性について呼びかけるとともに、それを結論とする。

Reflection or reflective practice has been discussed in education

Deci, 2017), and enacting the behavioural change necessary to

for decades (for an overview see Farrell, 2019; meta-synthesis of

be an effective learner (Murray, 2008; Ryan & Deci, 2017).

studies on learner reflections, see Loo & Sulankey, 2019). Despite
this, scholars are yet to arrive at a consensus regarding adefinition. Reflection does however appear to go beyond the mereact of ‘thinking’. Early on, it was conceived by Dewey (1944) as
the revisiting of past experiences with substantial thought. Boud,Keogh and Walker (1985) expanded on this notion by adding thatnew perspectives could be constructed by re-evaluating theactions, ideas and feelings associated with the revisited memories.
These new perspectives could then lead to changes in behavior
going forward. In support of these concepts, modern research has
demonstrated that reflection on the self aids learners inunderstanding their values, beliefs and learning style (Golombek& Johnson, 2004; Moon, 1999), identifying and challenge
assumptions (Golombek & Johnson, 2004, Moon, 1999),
generating personally-relevant solutions to problems (Ryan &Self-Determinationreflection

Theoryand

Self-

Basic Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT), a sub-theory from
Ryan and Deci’s incredibly influential Self-Determination Theory(1987, 2017), views self-awareness as a foundation for individual
well-being and potential, and through substantial self-reflection,
self-awareness can be achieved. More specifically, BPNT
proposes that individuals are best served when they are able toexperience feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness.
Simply, autonomy is the need to be able to self-regulate one’s own
experiences and actions, often with a sense of volition.
Competence is considered to be the sense an individual has ofbeing capable. In other words, to be able to challenge themselves,

The PanSIG Journal 2020 55

develop mastery and occasionally succeed. The final component

assessments (i.e., intrinsic motivations). Additionally, students

of an individual's tripartite needs is relatedness which is viewed

can use test results and the testing ordeal as a whole as a part ofas feeling part of a community. This brings us back to self-

their reflections. This shift of dependence from external to internal

awareness which could come in the form of autonomy-support

factors allows students to feel more effectance on their learningwhereby educators are responsive to the perspectives andprocess while giving them opportunities for self-endorsed learning

concerns of those within their care. By giving learners a space,behaviors.

either physical or mental, and a voice with which to share theirexperiences, fears and desires, self-awareness can be facilitated.
This awareness then acts as a base for learners to engage inbehaviors that are congruent (to varying degrees) with their values

Based on our past teaching experiences, contrasted with ourcurrent university environment, Japanese junior and senior highschool learning environments tend to rely on motivating students
extrinsically through “controlling teaching behaviors” (Ryan & Deci,and psychological needs.

2017, p. 368) –– this is not a negative critique of Japanese schools
The provision of opportunities for individuals to develop

but a comparative observation. Additionally, the concept of self-

their self-awareness through reflective practices thus appears

reflection in our institution, which is influenced by positive

integral to their overall development as psychologically secure

psychology (MacIntyre & Mercer, 2014), might differ from students’learners equipped with the knowledge necessary to achieve theirunderstanding of self-reflection in regard to the concept of hansei.

full potential.

As Suzuki (2013) highlights, hansei can be understood as a formof “negative self-reflection” (cf. Izumi-Taylor, Lee, Moberly, &In this paper, we will be making our case for greater attention to

Wang, 2010).

be paid to the reflective opportunities we afford our students herein Japan, many of whom come from a background that favours

Therefore, when students enter our institution, they experience ahigh-stake testing (Sugimoto, 2014; Wicking, 2017). In high-“rupture” (Zittoun et al., 2013, p. 262) in regard to the autonomy

stakes testing, the focus is on product rather than the process,fostering environment and at times become overwhelmed withinmaking it less conducive to the teaching of reflective practices.

such a learning climate. Students are benefited through dialogic

Moreover, since self-reflection is in part a developmental processinteractions with peers and educators during their transition intoand requires a purpose (Gustafson & Bennett, 2002; Moon,1999),

new environments. A significant part of this process is achievedlearners must firstly have the capacity to interpret situations

by means of self-reflection advising strategies, activities, andbefore understanding what they are reflecting on and why it isworkshops that are powerful tools for students to deal with thebeneficial for them to do so. We believe that without theruptures that they go through. These self-reflection interventions

appropriate scaffolding and opportunities to develop their capacity

aren't limited to advising but are done collaboratively in class within these areas, our learners may be limited in understanding theirpeers and in private (e.g., reflective diaries).

needs. To support educators in creating opportunities for selfAs noted above, a common misconception aboutreflection, we will introduce three mini-case studies conducted at
Kanda University of International Studies (KUIS), Japan. This will
be followed up with a discussion of lessons learned andsuggestions for the future scaffolding of self-reflection activities.

reflection is that it is a description and retelling of events as well
as being focused solely on areas of needed improvement (e.g.,hansei). However, this is not the case as there are a number ofmodels of reflective practice, which can be achieved through

Before outlining the cases studies however, a brief

different levels of reflection or by approaching reflections throughexploration of self-reflection in the educational context of Japandiffering typologies (Farrell, 2019). If students just retell thewill be provided.

process of events, they will not be able to reap the full benefits ofself-reflection. Therefore, the objectives of the scaffolded self-

Self-reflection in Japanese Educationreflection activities covered in this paper were to help learners
deal with the new autonomy supportive environment in a

Due to the culture of high-stake testing in Japan as well as our
experience in the university system, students who enter Japanese
universities frequently rely on test scores as a metric of theirlanguage learning and growth. In our experience, the dependency
on test scores as the main gauge of learning appears to negatively
impact students’ motivation, affect, and goal setting abilities.
Through self-reflection learners are able to become lessdependent on exams and other external assessments (i.e.,
extrinsic

motivations)

and

more

influencedon

constructive way and to nurture self-reflective skills. Further, in
addition to students' current learning environment, learners areequipped with the ability to self-reflect and this serves as a holistic
approachtolearners’

well-being.

As

students

becomeaccustomed to self-reflection it can be scaffolded to other aspectsof their lives such as time management, motivation, affect, andcommunity.

internal
The PanSIG Journal 2020 56

Position statement

walked around the room and assisted students who were having
any difficulties and asked questions aimed at promoting further

Our role as Learning Advisors at KUIS places us in the uniqueelaboration such as “How did that accomplishment make you

position to dedicate much of our time to supporting our students

feel?” or “Had you experienced a similar obstacle before?” Thethrough the trials and tribulations of language learning throughlanguage used in supporting the students was conducted primarilyreflective dialogue. When learners speak to us, they share with us

in the target language (English) however support was also

their struggles and concerns, but also their successes. Our

provided to students in their L1 (Japanese).

advising sessions are not limited to the topic of language learning
either. Affective concerns such as motivation and confidence,

Where are you now?

academic aspirations to studying abroad, career pathways andIn the next section of the workshop students were asked to reflect

curiosity about social and political issues interweave themselveson their current situation and any issues they were dealing with byinto our sessions. Part of our interactions with learners also takeanswering questions meant to scaffold their reflection such asplace in the language classroom on the behest of the lecturer.

“What happened?” or “What were you thinking and feeling at that

Thus, our job requires us to take on a holistic approach which istime?” While the other student was tasked with asking “How” andfacilitated greatly by our students' self-awareness and volition.

“Why” questions in order to collaborate with their partner in

The materials and interventions discussed in this paper are

deepening the reflective process. Similar to the previous section,

therefore imbued with the values and beliefs we hold as Learning

pairs had 10 minutes in total to complete the activity.

Advisors.

Thinking ahead
The final step of the workshop concluded with a 10-minute activity

Case study 1: Reflective workshop

where students thought about ways in which they could overcome

Our first case study outlines the materials developed for aof action on how to do so. This was achieved providing students

reflective workshop conducted with between 200-250 sophomore

with a series of reflective prompts, adapted from Gibbs Reflective

students. The rationale behind this workshop was that byCycle (1998), which they used as a scaffold to reflect and a means

scaffolding

providingto address the issues they had. As the previous activity this was

opportunities to ask and respond to such questions collaboratively,

done while having a dialogue with their partner who also wasstudents would be able to become aware of the process made intasked with asking questions meant to elicit further reflection at a

language learning, realize their capability, and finally sharedeeper level. At the end of the workshop students werecommon experiences with each other. Further, we believed it

encouraged to meet with a learning advisor to further elaborate on

would be more impactful if students worked collaboratively

their action plan.

self-reflective

questions

and

then

any obstacles or challenges they were facing, and create a plan

(Myskow et al., 2018) in a way that allowed them to separate theself-reflective process into easily digestible steps rather thanrisking the issue of them struggling to answer reflective questions
independently. Taking that into consideration, we conducted four
60-minute workshops that consisted of three pair activities whichwere accompanied with a worksheet (Appendix 1) detailed in thecorresponding sections below. Each section of the worksheet
provided a scaffold for the students’ interactions.

Thinking backIn the first part of the workshop students were introduced to theconcept and purpose of self-reflection and then were given timeto think back on their past year as students focusing on their

Throughout the workshop students were highly engaged
while working collaboratively with their peers in all three parts of
the workshop. From the perspective of BPNT, we believe students
were able to identify points of effectiveness by identifying pastaccomplishments. In terms of feeling a sense of relatedness with
their partners, working collaboratively through active listening andasking reflective questions to one another provided them with thisopportunity. Finally, by making their own plan of action that was
relevant to their current situations, and which was self-endorsed
and congruent with their values, they were able to attain a degreeof autonomy.

accomplishments, obstacles, and realizations. This section was

Case study 2: Reflective training

then concluded by an active listening activity where the pairs were

The second of our case studies derived from changes made to agiven 10 minutes to share what they had accomplished, struggled

15-week elective module on self-directed learning. Since many of

with, and realized. While one shared, the other listened and took

the reflections we had been receiving were generally descriptive

notes on aspects of their partner's reflection that they thoughtwith occasional explanations, explicit scaffolding was introduced

were interesting––notably, aspects that were similar or different

to the first two weeks which we dubbed ‘Reflective training’. Ourfrom their own experience. During this activity, the advisors

goal in developing the materials was to encourage more in-depth,
The PanSIG Journal 2020 57

critical reflections through easy to implement reflective practices,

Following this advising session, the students were thenso we opted for a revision approach in the first week. How andasked to complete a reflection of their learning over the past week.

Why questions seemed to be the simplest route to elaboration, so

Two students didn't submit their reflections despite attending the

we built these into the revision process. In the examples weadvising sessions, however this round of reflections revealed thatprovided to the learners (Image 1), we made the conscious

two of the students were critically considering the wider

decision to focus on questions that would allow for exploration of

implications of their language learning processes while anthoughts, feelings and beliefs, rather than focusing solely on

additional two students had begun to explore the relationships

action.

between their learning and study behaviors. All remaining
students

Image 1. An example of the scaffolding provided for reflection revision

eithermaintainedorprogressedtoprovidingexplanations for their thoughts, feelings and actions.
Overall, the scaffolds put in place appeared to have hadsome impact on the written reflections we received from ourstudents. Word counts were generally higher, and the later roundsof reflections generally displayed greater depth with students
offering clear reasons for their thoughts and actions rather thanperfunctory descriptions. A caveat to this case study lies in thelength of exposure the students had to reflective scaffolding. Two
weeks of scaffolding may qualify as an introduction to reflective
practices but there is a need to explore what sustained support
could do in the development of our students’ reflective
capabilities.
An additional limitation to these findings can be found in
the layout of our module documents. In discussing the increased

Twelve students enrolled in the module and using the scaffolding
provided, all students bar one showed evidence of increasing
competence through the composition of more sustainedreflections (Table 1). In terms of sophistication, seven of thestudents moved beyond a simple revisiting of their study toproviding explanations for their thoughts, feelings and actions. An
additional two students took their reflections to an even higher
level by exploring the relationship between their actions and theirlearning, while one student was able to show evidence of aword counts, text box size was considered as playing a possible
role in students' perceptions of how much they were expected towrite. The text box for the initial reflection composed by thestudents was almost half the size of the space provided for thelater reflections. While the module was delivered through theonline platform Moxtra which permits the resizing of fonts, theinfluence of the space provided for reflections must still beconsidered. Word count did not however appear to play asignificant role in the depth of the reflections.

fundamental change in their thinking in regards to how theystudied. Only two from the group failed to make any changes tothe depth of their reflections.
In the second week, our module takers were provided
with a double layer of scaffolding. This was achieved by asking
the students to complete one of nine pre-existing activities thatencouraged the challenging of beliefs or the broadening ofperspectives. The work they had completed individually was thenrevisited during a meeting with a learning advisor. Due to thenatureofadvising

sessions,

questioning,justifying

andperspective switching are common features of the
discussion. Each of these features align with the features wesought to instill in our learners as part of their growing competencein reflective practice, making advising sessions an integral part ofthe scaffolds provided.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 58

Table 1 Reflection word counts

Image 2. An example of the discussion prompts and follow-up questions

Wk 1.

Wk 1.

Wk 2.

Initial

Revised

Double layered

S1

40

98

90

S2

40

128

N/A

S3

158

394

142

S4

75

72

159

S5

78

217

165

S6

55

93

130

S7

29

88

84

S8

46

62

51

S9

128

145

49

S10

72

178

165

Student

The discussion prompts were generated from ouradvising notes which documented the frequency of language
learning issues experienced by her advisees over the course ofan academic year. Rather than providing a single discussion
prompt, it was decided that by breaking down the main prompt
into additional questions, students would be empowered to view
an issue through multiple lenses before arriving at a conclusion.
While these additional questions were mostly developed for the
lower-tier students, anecdotal evidence suggests they proved

S11

84

163

384

S12

116

147

N/A

77

149

142

valuable for the higher-tier students who while linguisticallycapable, didn’t always have extensive life experience. Evidence
from focus groups conducted revealed that discussion prompts
related to the students' lived experiences were easier for them toreflect on a length, while more complex conceptual prompts suchas 'Who controls your learning' resulted in less sustainedreflections and greater silence within the discussion groups.

Case study 3: Discussions for reflection

Survey data and focus groups conducted at the end of the 6-weekCase study three derives from a six-week intervention study(Yarwood, Rose-Wainstock & Lees, 2019) designed from a BPNT
perspective. The aim of the intervention was to facilitate
autonomy-supportive classroom environments and raise learners’
self-awareness through peer-to-peer discussions about language
learning. Reflection was scaffolded through the use of discussion
prompts, follow-up questions (Image 2) and collaborativeknowledge building. Discussions in this study were instituted on atwice-weekly basis in two Freshman classes, and on a weekly
basis in one other Freshman class. All the classes weremandatory English classes for non-English majors. Students weregrouped into groups of 4-5 and asked to discuss the prompts

period revealed that the discussion prompts were successful indeveloping an autonomy-supportive environment where learners
felt comfortable to share their thoughts, feelings and experiences(Yarwood, Rose-Wainstock & Lees, 2019). Through reflecting ina collaborative environment, they were also able to re-evaluate
how they viewed various language learning issues. For somestudents, changes in their fundamental beliefs grew from listening
to their classmates' comments and drawing comparisons between
what they heard and what they themselves had observed orexperienced.

Furthermore,thesecollaborativereflection

experiences resulted in transformative action with some studentschanging their study behaviors following discussions.

amongst themselves for 10 minutes. This was then followed up by
a whole class discussion to clarify any questions and summarize

Discussion

the ideas, experiences and opinions brought up during thediscussion time. The classroom teacher was advised to stay out

While implemented in varying contexts, each of the case studiesof the discussions as much as possible to allow the students tooutlined offer some insight into how reflective activities can behave a true peer-collaborative experience, and ameliorate any

scaffolded. Using BPNT as a framework for this discussion, we

desire to impart 'expert' knowledge that could stymie active

will highlight some of the key ways in which the scaffolds werereflectionused to help catalyze self-awareness.

of

the

students'own

thoughts,

feelings

andexperiences.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 59

Competence

educational specialists are more likely to pick up these patterns,

For reflection to be effective it requires a purpose. Sustainedand dialogically guide the learner onto more productive paths.

benefits may additionally require that purpose to be seen by thelearner as being achievable and relevant to their immediate or
long-term needs.

Unstructured reflection could therefore

undermine the value of reflection as a whole in the eyes oflearners (Farrel, 2019; Loo & Sulankey). Without structure, they
may not know what memories to re-visit, what kinds of evaluations
to make, or how to connect past experiences with feelings,
thoughts, or future motivations. Structuring reflections through theuse of temporal spaces (past, present and future) as done in Case
Study 1 can help to activate memories associated with particulartime periods. It can also provide clear connections between past
memories and present or future action. The structuring ofquestions as shown in all case studies provides another support
for students. Time for reflection is often limited in classrooms, andso provision of prompts or a body of questions from which learners
can choose from, allows for smoother reflective practices to takeplace. As the learners are exposed to a wider variety of thoughtprovoking questions, they start to build a repertoire which can leadto a boost in confidence and skill in identifying which questions toapply to their own thoughts.

observed in the second and third case studies highlight thenecessity of repeated opportunities to reflect. Moreover, mixing
reflections with dialogic

Given the personal nature of self-reflection, and the possibility for
it to be conflated with a self-exploration of one's limitations, it is nowonder students may be reluctant to engage in reflective practices.
However, because individuals have the freedom to target matterspersonally relevant to their learning, reflective activities can beincredibly autonomy-supportive. Even in structured activities suchas those outlined in this paper allow learners to choose which
experience, aspects of their learning or opinions they wish toshare. Discussion opportunities with peers or specialists were
evaluated as beneficial because they gave individuals the chance
to gain a better understanding of what was important. In Case
Study 1 and Case Study 3, this led to clearer goals, and actionplans that while we had no substantial evidence of being
implemented,

still spoke to the students'

self-organising

behaviors.
Identifying areas that are relevant to students throughsurveys or student-generated reflective prompts are ways inwhich reflective practices in the classroom could engender

The benefits gained from the structured practicewriting

Autonomyonesorindividualwithcollaborative reflections could work to allay stagnation while still
providing students with the space to familiarize themselves with,and gain competencies in reflective practices. The greater
enjoyment and success learners have in reflecting on theirlearning, the more they may come to self-endorse the activity.

Relatedness
As shown, particularly in Case Study 3, discussions among

endorsement by the very students who are expected to engage inthe practices. As each of the case studies began with an explicit
rationale detailing the purpose of the activities involved, ourlearners knew from the start how we conceptualized self-reflection
and the benefits our activities were intended to produce. Special
attention was paid to establishing reflective practices, especiallythose that were collaborative, as personal, non-judgemental andprocess-focused.

Conclusion
Across these three cases of scaffolded self-reflection here aresome areas that we found of salience. We noticed that providing

students pertaining to their language learning experiences canstudents with reflective questions and prompts with clearly defined

help to create bonds between learners. Through the act of sharing,aims was more effective than instructing them to reflect with nolearners are exposed to a range of learning behaviors, goals andemotional experiences which can spark transformation. Even in
the cases where behaviors remain unchanged, values, beliefs andgoals may undergo a re-evaluation resulting in a greater selfawareness.
When bolstered with an autonomy-supportive specialist,
either a learning advisor or educator, students are able toexperience the validation that comes with having an older,
respected individual listen to, and aid in their reflection. The selfdirected nature of reflections means that learners have thepotential to fall into recursive thought patterns; ones that theirpeers may not have the know-how to deal with. However,supplementary

support.

In

addition,theopportunityforcollaboration with their peers allowed students to feel a sense of
relatedness throughout the reflective process. Subsequently, withthe help of discussion prompts, discussion with peers andautonomy-supportive specialists, deeper levels of reflection (e.g.,
re-evaluation of learning beliefs) were achieved. While suchopportunities for workshops and peer interactions dedicated toscaffolding students’ self-reflective processes are not always
possible, the scaffolding and development of students’ reflective
capabilities can be supported as a part of a course as seen inCase Study 2 and Case Study 3. However, it must be mentionedthat scaffolding self-reflection will be more beneficial for students
when done consistently to further develop their reflective

The PanSIG Journal 2020 60

capabilities. Coupled with the benefits afforded to students, as

Gustafson, K, L., & Bennett, W, J. (2002). Issues andeducators we were also able to enrich our understanding of ourdifficulties in promoting learner reflection: Results from a three-students and exercise facets of our teacher autonomy (Smith &Erdoğan, 2008). Therefore, due to students achieving deeper
levels of reflection, satisfying their basic psychological needs, andyear study. Last accessed, September 4th fromhttp://www.dtic.mil/cgi-

facilitating self-endorsed learning behaviors, we believe thebin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA472616&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.

benefits of scaffolded self-reflection were evident. Lastly, with the

pdf

significant number of reflection typologies and models, the ways
in which scaffolded self-reflection can be implemented inclassrooms, self-access learning centers, or any other learning
environment are extensive, and with ample research opportunities.

Izumi-Taylor, S., Lee, Y. Y., Moberly, D., & Wang, L.
(2010). Reflective skills of pre-service teachers: A cross-cultural
study of American and Japanese college students. Research inComparative and International Education, 5(2), 131-143.

Note: Parties interested in the materials associated with each of

Loo, D. B., & Sulankey, A, K. (2019). A qualitative meta-

the case studies should contact the authors at the email addresssynthesis of studies on learner reflections: Lessons for English

provided above.

language learner reflection. rEFLections, 26(1), 58-77.
Moon, J.A. (1999). Reflection in learning and professional

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Myskow, G., Bennett, P. A., Yoshimura, H., Gruendel, K.,

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Experience into Learning, Routledge Falmer, New York, 18–40.

autonomy: The roles of cooperative and collaborative learning.
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Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, andwellness. New York, NY: The Gilford press.
Farrell, T. S. C. (2019). Reflective practice in ELT.
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Smith, R. & Erdoğan, S. (2008). Teacher-learnerautonomy: Programme goals and student-teacher constructs. In
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9b8617c32b4570.pdf
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Fostering English-use in a SALC through a discussion-based

Appendix
Appendix 1. Reflective workshop worksheet

The PanSIG Journal 2020 62

Etymology and Vocabulary in the Classroom
Roger Ferrari
Fukuoka University Wakaba High SchoolStudents of English often face uncertainty when confronted with a large amount of synonymous or nearsynonymous vocabulary about what is most appropriate to use. A common reason for this is how synonyms often
have different root languages in English. With a little awareness of etymology in English we can help our students
overcome this barrier to learning and make their vocabulary-building more efficient. We as teachers can also be
more aware when presenting and teaching vocabulary to our students. After looking at the most common origin
languages in modern English and issues therein, we examine how teachers and students can raise their language
awareness in the classroom both inside and outside lessons.
英語を学ぶ生徒がよく直面する問題の一つに、数ある同義語や類義語の中から、一体どれを使ったらいいのか分からない、ということがある。それは、同じような意味の単語でも、元々はそれぞれ異なる言語に起源があり、そこから派生して英語になったケースがよくあるからだ。英単語の語源について少し意識することで、生徒が抱えるこうした悩みを克服するのに役立ち、また生徒たち自身がより効率的に語彙を増やす手助けにもなる。また
我々教師も、単語の語源を意識しながら教えることができる。本稿では、現代英語のルーツとされている数種類の言語と、そこにある問題について言及したのち、どのようにして教師と生徒が授業中または授業以外の場面で、語源を意識して英語を学ぶことが出来るか検討する。

A common problem that students have when looking forvocabulary in English is the number of synonyms or nearsynonymous words they find. When we try to steer them towards

What is Etymology?

the most suitable words, we as teachers can sometimes be at a

Etymology is the study of the origins and historical developments

loss to explain or fully understand which words are better for use.

of words and their meanings (Ross 1969). This is distinct from

We must attribute this to the long and winding history the English

philology, which is the study of the origins and historicallanguage has had. It is often a surprise to students of English, asdevelopment of languages and language systems. The origin andwell as a few teachers of English, just how rich and varied thehistory of a word itself is also its etymology. The field of etymology

linguistic origins of modern English are. Rather than being purely

looks at wide range of mechanisms through which words havea matter for linguists and scholars, a consideration for the origins

come into modern use from the past. This includes the borrowingof modern English can be a helping hand to those who wouldof words from other languages, often known as loanwords, andteach and learn it.

changes in semantics i.e. changes in how an extant word is used.

In this article, we will have a very quick tour throughFor the purposes of English language instruction as

the history of the English language before examining each of thecovered in this article, loanwords are too purely foreign to help

major origin languages for points of use and interest. Then we

provide students insight. Zeitgeist, for example, has beenmust ask ourselves: how can we use a knowledge of etymology

borrowed directly from German and has no connection to otherin our classrooms? Do I, as a teacher, have to learn Latin orwords in the English language. This is often why languages adopt

Greek?

loanwords when there is no concise vocabulary in the native

The PanSIG Journal 2020 63

language. Semantic change has also a “one-to-one” process

The role of etymology in the ESL classroom has been

where changes in word meanings, sometimes idiomatic ones, arediscussed before (Boers & Lindstromberg 2008, MacDonald 2016,

linear and have no application to other words in the language.

Noroozi & Salehi 2013, Pierson 1989) with little consensus that

Blank (1999) describes the types of semantic changes most usedetymology in the classroom has a clear efficacious role in ESL

in English.

vocabulary instruction. However, much of this research has been
aimed at university students learning English whereas I proposethat it could have more use in junior high- or high-school classes

Why Use Etymology in the Classroom?

where students do not learn field-specific vocabulary (MacDonald
looked at Japanese university students studying medicine, for

Ausubel (1968) defines ‘meaningful learning’ as learning thatexample).

takes place via a process of relating new ideas and events to preexisting knowledge and ideas. A student with even a rudimentary
understanding of etymology would allow them to apply new words
they learn in lessons or vocabulary books to words that they
already know, even if the word is entirely new to them, making it
more meaningful learning as opposed to rote learning which iscommon in Japanese high schools. The meaningfulness of thelearning will also aid retention (or subsumation) unlike rotelearning which often leads to words being learned almost
arbitrarily in isolation i.e. without any basis on previously-learned

A Brief History of English
This is a very brief overview of how the English language on the
British Isles, where English grew up, came to be. For the purposesof this article, it has been greatly simplified and is intended toimpress on how numerous and frequent its major influences havebeen rather than as a historic or linguistic discourse.

vocabulary. Meaningful learning could be most simply described
as learning something by connecting it to what you already know
(Thelen 1986).

The first known literate culture to emerge on the British
Isles was that of the Romans after their annexation of Britain to
their Empire in AD 43. They brought, among other things, Latin

The “meaningful learning” aspect to the use of(Baugh & Cable 2003 p.70). After the Roman Empire left in the

etymology in the ESL classroom could be considered two-fold:
fourth century there began decades of influx and invasion by tribes
Firstly, knowledge of word origins themselves (i.e. being able tofrom Scandinavia. They brought their own languages with them,recognize that the cir- in words like circus and circuit comes fromthe Latin preposition for ‘around’ circum, without having to look itup) and being able to analyse new vocabulary (the student should
not be stymied by such new words as circumnavigate or
circumference). Secondly, an understanding of etymology works
alongside the current method of rote vocabulary learning rather

generally grouped as Teutonic, and this period saw the birth of
Old English. This is the age of the likes of the Venerable Bede andBeowulf. In 1066 England was conquered by William I of
Normandy who brought Norman French with his new aristocracy.
The language of England by 1200 was now a mix of Teutonic,
Latin, Old English and French (Baugh & Cable 2003 p.114).

than in opposition to it, as it can be considered a skill set rather
than a separate vocabulary learning method. It should therefore
be practiced alongside rather than instead of existing classroom
vocabulary learning. This author has received a great deal of
positive feedback from students who have had etymology andlanguage awareness introduced to them in the manner describedin this paper.

The vast majority of people in history were illiterate andspelling was by no means defined. It was not until the genesis of
the printing press that spelling began to settle, sometimes
arbitrarily. The Enlightenment brought words coined from Latin
and Greek for the latest discoveries in science. Despite being
ancient languages, these words were brand new. By the time
The PanSIG Journal 2020 64

Samuel Johnson published his dictionary, one of the mostFigure 1: The three levels of immersion

important in the English language, in the middle of eighteenth
century the language had begun to settle (Baugh & Cable 2003
p.239). English had also by now reached the furthest corners of

The simplest ‘Light’ answer is that Warm welcome is

the British Empire. A teacher intending to introduce etymology toshorter. In English the tendency is for the shorter synonym to be

their classroom may find giving such a brief explanation to their

the more in everyday use and come from a Teutonic root (Figure

students will settle the aforementioned frustrations - the student

2).

who finds English unintuitive may now reassure themselves that
there is a reason. Now we have a little historical context, we cantentatively apply it to an imagined real-world scenario. We will now

Teutonic-based word

Latin-based word

look at some practical applications before a brief consideration ofBeg

Supplicate

the root languages in English.

BeheadDecapitate

Drink

ImbibeBitterness

Asperity

GreedyRapacious

HarmfulDeleterious

Hate

Abhor

House

Domicile

Choosing the Correct Synonym
Let us look at an example of two sentences which can beinterchangeable depending on the intended use and context, andhow we might explain to a student which would be better ineveryday spoken English:

Figure 2: Synonyms and their roots (Green 2008 p.21)

Warm welcome
A ‘Medium’ answer would be that cordial reception is
Cordial reception
longer and much more formal. Here we must be cautious of ourstudent’s understanding of the difference between ‘formal’ andIt may be clear to the teacher that the first sentence isbetter but they need some justification and understanding insaying it is so, and wish to give the student some means to help

‘polite’. The ‘Deep’ level answer is that cordial reception is madeup of words of French origin and that French words, thanks to ouraristocratic Norman invaders, are used for more formal language.

them next time they come across a similar quandary. Without
giving a long history and linguistics lesson we can nonethelessuse one of three levels of ‘immersion’.

Rules for Clear English
What this example has done is steered the student away from thelovely, exotic and formal language and towards something which
is much more suitable for the student’s needs. A keen student may
chafe at being led away from using longer words but it would dogood for them and us to look at what George Orwell, in his essay‘Politics and the English Language’ published in 1945, considered
to be the rules for anyone wishing to be a good English
communicator:

The PanSIG Journal 2020 65

i.

Never use a metaphor, simile or other figure of speech

Roman Empire. It remains the official language of Vatican City. It

which you are used to seeing in print.

the common descendent of Italian, Spanish, Portuguese,ii.

Never use a long word when a short one will do.

Romanian and French and has a large presence in the Englishiii.

If it is possible to cut a word out, cut it out.

language (Gwynne 2014 p.3).

iv.

Never use the passive when you can use the active.

v.

Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word or jargon if
Many Latin words in English often have ‘fixed’ prefixes

you can think of an everyday English equivalent.
Break any of these rules sooner than saying anythingi.e. the ‘un’ in ‘unimportant’ is not fixed because we can remove it

outright barbarous.

and still have a whole word, but we cannot remove the prefix ‘con’(Orwell 2013 p.19)

from ‘convene’. Latin words with the same fixed prefix tend to have

For the sake of this discussion, we need to be

the same nuance of meaning. For example, superlative,

particularly mindful of points ii and v: try to use shorter words, andsupernatural and superior are all about being the highest above

avoid foreign words and phrases whenever possible.

something else. Contain, concentrate and convene are usedvi.

when we bring something into one place, be it something real likepeople or something abstract like our thoughts. A teacher could
Although as teachers we ought to be mindful of all six

skim a learner’s dictionary or their students’ textbook to find thewhen we are teaching. Orwell wrote his essay and made thesemost common Latin prefixes and familiarise themselves with theirrules as an appeal for English to be used with clarity. If evenshared meanings in preparation for teaching.

professional writers in the English language need help from sucha prominent writer, then our students must be very much at sea ina maelstrom of synonyms. Should a student need a more formal

As well as roots that share prefixes, there are Latinsynonym, when preparing for the written part of an English exam,

suffixes that share roots. For example, the Latin root –port fromfor example, we can allow longer synonyms and foreign words.

the Latin noun portus is found in words like transport, export,
import and passport. These words share uses in the movement ofthings and people from one place to another as if these things

Root Languages

were like a doorway if we were to go to the ‘Deep’ part of the
pyramid in Figure 1. It may seem that such thinking is rather too

Herein will be a discussion of the major root languages in modern
English, what facets of those we can consider and how to draw
our students’ attention to them so the students can better develop‘language awareness’. Within English teaching, language
awareness is defined as the development in learners of anenhanced awareness of the forms and functions of language(Carter 2003). Students are encouraged to actively look at how
the English language, in our case, has been put together. Ourfanciful but creating images in the student’s mind may help themto remember vocabulary better. A mode of transport is almost
literally like a moving door – you step onto the train, the train (anddoor) moves, you step out. To use another example, translate has
the Latin prefix trans- and the root –late which comes from latus
as in lateral and latitude. If we wished to use etymology to explaintranslate, we can say that it literally means something moving
across from one language to another.

concern is how individual words come about in English, rather
than syntax or grammar.

FrenchThere have been two main waves of French influence on the

Latin
Latin was the lingua franca of Europe for many centuries and wasEnglish language, one in the 11th century and the second in the
Middle Ages when Paris became one of Europe’s great literary

the state language of the Roman Empire and later the Western

The PanSIG Journal 2020 66

centers, although French has continued to trickle into English

Cacophonous, for example, could be comfortably replaced by the(Bodmer 1944 p.233.

more everyday loud. Although we could draw our attention to two
features in the word cacophonous. The first being thepronunciation of ‘ph’ as /f/ since the English alphabet does not

Due to its heritage as a language of the nobility andhave the Greek letter phi. The other is the second half of the word,

literate classes (Baugh & Cable 2003 p.103), most French words

which is also found in words like telephone, phonology andin modern English are in government, the Church, war, law,symphony. An astute student would hopefully see the theme of

fashion, food, learning and medicine (Bough & Cable 2013 p.164-

sound and noise between all four. Other Greek root words which

6) and therefore outside much of everyday English. The passage

are commonly found in daily English include graphos (in graphics,of time has led to some words losing their French pronunciation

photography and calligraphy), and logos (found in academic fields

and becoming Anglicised e.g. carriage. The teacher can help thesuch as technology, astrology and logarithm).

student lost as to this discrepancy between spelling andpronunciation by explaining this origin and change. In many cases,
however, the French pronunciation has been kept. The ‘ch’ inTeutonic/Germanic

words like machine, chauffer and chef is pronounced /ʃ/ rather

It is the ‘nuts and bolts’ of English that we find Teutonic words.

than /tʃ/. The final sound in massage, beige and montage is theThis is including, but not limited to: pronouns, articles, auxiliaries,

somewhat rare /ʒ/.

adjectives both demonstrative and possessive, most prepositions
and conjunctions and most numbers except million, billion etc.
Since these words are such important parts of sentence structure

Unlike in Latin or Greek, there are fewer troublesome

and grammar, there are almost always no synonyms and theirsynonyms between words of French and English origin due to therules of use are fixed. A student looking for synonyms for a word

particular fields the French words are used in - we would be hard-

like of or him will be greatly disappointed. This is the kind ofpressed to find synonyms for words like lieutenant, cathedral,language Orwell talked about in his list as it has been the

mayor or treason. Therefore, the main difficulty with English words

language of the British Isles for centuries. In contrast to Latin

of French origin is likely to be pronunciation and spelling.

leaving many prefixes, noun suffixes such as –hood, -ship, -dom,and –er (as in writer) owe themselves to the Teutonic languages.

Greek
While there are some lines of influence going from Greek tomodern English through other languages (kubernetikos came via

What This Means in the Classroom

French to become government, for example), it was The

By now, we as teachers are better prepared to help raise ourEnlightenment and the age of invention where great thinkers

students’ language awareness. There is a brief discussion of justcreated English words of Greek origin. They stuck together Greek

how much teachers should immerse ourselves later on. There areroots, stems and prefixes to make vocabulary which was brandmany activities one can introduce to students as part of theirnew. Kubernetikos was lifted directly to make the English word

vocabulary studies, either in lessons or school English clubs. A

cybernetics, for example.

good class project is the creation of posters and “maps” showing
how the spelling of words has changed, or of the origins ofsynonyms and homonyms. Students in groups can choose aThus, it is in the realms of the sciences, technology

theme and work together to produce an informative poster. Thisand medicine that a lot of modern English words of Greek origin

not only encourages students to develop skills in raising their own

can be found rather than in everyday English. There are, however,language awareness but the posters stand as shared peer-taught

plenty

of

long

Greek

synonyms

foreverydayEnglish.
The PanSIG Journal 2020 67

products that will sit on the wall all year. They also generate

are given with accompanying simple etymology. The words

interest by making the language feel more alive and organic.

chosen can either be new ones that has aspects of etymology thatthe teacher wishes to introduce e.g. Latin prefixes or ones thathave already been introduced and are now being reviewed.

In-class activities to help raise language awarenesswhile

studying

vocabularycanincludestudents

findingsynonymous ‘pairs’ for any new words they have been tasked toStudents, alone or in small groups, must find the right word for the
space and what features of the word make it suitable. Students
then share their answers as a class.

study. In most cases this is finding the other half of aformal/informal pair, like our cacophonous/loud pair earlier. Thus,
a student learns twice the vocabulary without the extra cognitive

How Deep Should We Go?

load of learning twice the definitions, and they have a chance to
use their new vocabulary better. Staying with formal/informal pairs,
a classroom reading activity could involve giving students a text
with words highlighted and they have to find a more suitablesynonym depending if the text requires formal or less formal
language. In all cases, we can choose how immersed we want thestudents to be based on the pyramid in Figure 1.

When it comes to teachers taking it upon themselves to broaden
their knowledge of English’s origin languages, the question is just
how far we should go down the rabbit hole. The simple answer isthat it is up to the teacher. I would say, however, that more is better.
There are resources aplenty both online and in bookshops for the
self-studier to teach themselves Latin, Greek, French. German oreven Old English. There are books for general readership (e.g.
Baugh & Cable 2003, Green 2014) which any teacher looking to

Fortunately, classroom vocabulary books such as

expand their knowledge of etymology would do well to read.

Stock 4500 (Seki 2018) now have notes on word origins in their
margins so we can encourage students to use them. We can also
encourage them to use online search engines to fins the
etymologies of words and decide therein the suitability of the
vocabulary for their own purposes. Once we have developed ourown sense of language awareness, we should try to foster selfmotivated language awareness development in our students
rather than a direct top-down teaching style. Group work, pairwork, and solo work ought to be enough to make students selfsufficient.

Conclusion
English is a living language that has grown for many centuries.
Just as a botanist looks at a plant from stem to root or thedendrochronologist sees the life of a tree through its rings, so we
as teachers can do to English for our benefit and the benefit of ourstudents. The use of etymology in the English language
classroom is an aid to the comprehension of vocabulary. It
provides points of focus and lines of relation when words seem tohave been laid down and created arbitrarily. With a little
consideration and preparation, we can feel more confident in

One activity can be part of an ongoing syllabus or

helping our students learn new and better vocabulary.

separate if the teacher includes it in their language awareness.
Students are given a text with several gaps of words that might be

Referencesdifficult or lesser-known by the class. In a separate box, the words
Ausubel, D.P. 1968. Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View.
New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston.

Baugh, A.C. & Cable, T. 2013. A History of the English
Language (6th ed.). London, England: Routledge.

Blank, A. (1999), Why do new meanings occur? A cognitive
typology of the motivations for lexical Semanticchange, in Blank, Andreas; Koch & Peter (Eds.),
Historical Semantics and Cognition (pp. 61–90).
Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.

Bodmer, F. 1944. The Loom of Language: An Approach to the
Mastery of Many Languages. New York, USA: Norton
The PanSIG Journal 2020 68

Boers, F. & Lindstromberg, S. (2008). How cognitive linguistics
can foster effective vocabulary teaching. Cognitive
Linguistic Approaches to Teaching Vocabulary andPhraseology. 1-64.

Carter. R. (2003). Key concepts in ELT: Language awareness.
ELT Journal. Oxford, England: OUP

MacDonald, W. (2016). Do Japanese Medical Students Benefit
from English Etymological Instruction? The Language
Teacher. 40. 3.

Orwell, G (2013). Politics and the English Language. London:
Penguin

Pierson, H. (1989). Using etymology in the classroom. ELT
Journal. 43. p.57-63.

Green, T.M. (2014). The Greek and Latin Roots of English.
Maryland, USA: Lanhan, Rowman & Littlefield
Ross, A. (1969). Etymology. London: Andre Deutsch
Gwynne, N.M. (2014). Gwynne’s Latin: The Ultimate Introduction
to Latin Including the Latin in Everyday English.
London, England: Random House.

Sei, M. (2019). Stock 4500. Tokyo, Japan: Buneido

The PanSIG Journal 2020 69

Teaching an EFL Communication Course through Film and Short Fiction
Analysis

Thomas Andrew Paterson
Asia University

Research has shown learners often value film and reading activities more than instructors (Harlow &Muyskens, 1994). By studying language through film and literature, students are able to not only
practice their listening and reading but also develop their vocabulary and gain exposure to unfamiliar
accents, dialects, and cultures. Therefore, the writer created an accessible film and literature discussion
course with a class of Intermediate to upper-Intermediate students at a Japanese university. This article
will outline the topics, format and pedagogical methods adopted, as well as discuss the chosen texts
used in the course. It will also present and assess some of the activities used to make authentic,
ungraded film and short fiction accessible, engaging and a source of prolific discussion for students.

研究は、学習者がしばしばインストラクターよりも映画や読書を重要と感じていることを示しています (Harlow & Muyskens, 1994)。映画や文学を通して学ぶことで、リスニングや読書の練習ができるだけでなく、語彙を増やし、聞きなれないアクセント、方言、文化に触れることができます。そこで
作者は、日本の大学で中級から中・上級の学生を対象に、アクセスしやすい映画・文学のディスカッ
ションコースを作ることを希望していました。この記事では、採用されたトピック、形式、教育的方法の概要を説明し、コースで使用される選択されたテキストについて説明します。また実際の、学年別に分類されていない映画や短編小説をアクセス可能にし、魅力的で、学生のための多くの議論の源にするために使用される活動のいくつかを提示し、評価します。

A primary concern for language teachers is generating interest

Rationale for using Film and Literatureand sustained engagement with students. Two resources
teachers may fall back on are film and literature, but, while there
is a plethora of graded materials available to EFL teachers, there
is much debate as to the efficacy of using ungraded or native-level
media. One argument is that ungraded materials expose students
to more authentic vocabulary and ideas absent in gradedmaterials. On the other hand, ungraded materials are often
criticised for being overwhelming or too difficult for language
students. This article will outline an English communication classtaught in a Japanese university that used film and literature to
generate discussion and teach students how to effectively analyseand discuss different aspects of narrative texts.

In a study by Harlow and Muyskens (1994), instructors andintermediate language students were asked to rate a list ofnineteen common activities and media used in the language
classroom in order of their perceived importance. Interestingly,
students rated film and video fourth and reading seventh, above
other activities such as grammar exercises, oral presentations,role plays and games. This contrasts with the instructor’s ratings,
who placed film and video in twelfth position and reading in ninth
position. These results imply that intermediate students often
place a higher relevance on film and reading in language learning
than instructors. More recent studies have proven a sustained
efficacy and importance in the use of film (Ramazan, 2017;
The PanSIG Journal 2020 70

Rouxel-Cubberly, 2014) and literature (Rahman and Arju, 2013;

prediction activities based on specific images, characters, or the

Alfauzan and Hussain, 2017) in language acquisition.

titles from the texts. Some examples of questions used were:

Film

and

literaturecanprovide

a

depth

and

meaningfulness absent or lacking in textbook and gradedmaterials. As written by Rouxel-Cubberly (2014) in reference toteaching French through film, “Where textbooks often limit[students’] scope to the presentation of vocabulary and grammar“Look at this picture from the film, who do you think the charactersare? What do you think the plot will be about?” and “The title ofthe story is: Lamb to the Slaughter. What do you think this means?
What do you think the story will be about?”. Another activity wasfor students to create mind maps based on a setting or topic in the
narrative. Students were also asked to relate themes and plot

items with a culture note, films allow for a meaningful explorationof the themes presented” (p. 119). This statement may apply toliterature as well. Through these media, culture is viewed andlearnt in an authentic way, which can help generate a level ofinterest and engagement EFL-specific materials cannot. Students

points to their own experience, for example “When was the lasttime you…? How did you feel?”, which helped students empathisewith the plot and characters. Through empathy, students
generated strong opinions which they brought to the classroom.

can also gain exposure to unfamiliar but contextualised grammar

Second, a flipped-classroom approach was applied.

and vocabulary, as well as different accents and dialects in film.

Flipping the classroom means reversing standard teaching

Finally, students feel a sense of accomplishment whenfinishing a native-level text. In a post-course survey conductedwith students from the class in 2019, 78% of students expresseda sense of achievement after watching each film while 94% ofpractices so that input is conducted individually by students at
home. Developed by Jonathan Bergmann and Aaron Sams for the
L1 classroom, it allows classes to be better tailored to students’collective needs and therefore leads to an increase in studentstudent and student-teacher interaction. This was originally done

students expressed a similar sense of achievement after finishingby recording lectures for students to watch in their own time soeach short story. This suggests the challenge of completing andunderstanding the texts was overall more motivating thandeterring for the students. Also, in a pre-course survey, students
were asked which of the four language skills was the most difficult.
The majority of students (63%) responded that reading was themost difficult. Then, when surveyed at the end of the course, overhalf of the students (52%) felt that reading was the skill they had
improved the most during the semester.

that when they came to class the content input stage was alreadydone (Bergmann & Sams, 2002). When applying the concept tothis course, students were given the texts to read or watch and aworksheet as homework, which was then checked, discussed,and built on in class activities and discussion. Only very shortsections of the texts were watched or read in the classroom for indepth analysis. By removing the time-consuming task of readingor watching from the classroom, students were able to focus solely

Approaches

on articulating and discussing their opinions in class time. It also
allowed students to absorb the texts at their own pace, and to

Different approaches to teaching film and literature were adopted
in order to facilitate student engagement and comprehension, andto maximise the amount of discussion in the class.
First, a reader-response approach suggests readers
comprehend better when meaning is interpreted individually andwatch or read sections multiple times as individually needed. Thismethod was particularly successful because it ensured students
came to class prepared and ready to discuss the week’s text, oftenwith specific questions regarding comprehension, or with fully
formed opinions to share with the class.

imaginatively, with the reader’s feelings and personal response in
Finally, another approach used was to identify andmind (Spiegel, 1998). In the course, the approach was adopted
through previewing activities assigned to help activate student
schemata, thereby allowing students to use their prior knowledge
and own experience to give meaning to the texts. This was donein different ways throughout the course, in particular throughisolate the Story Grammar of a narrative: “the system of rules used
for describing the consistent features found in narrative texts”(Amer, 1992, p. 712). This was done by separating the plot into
identifiable structured parts such as exposition, rising action,
climax, and resolution. Therefore, as an introduction to the course,
The PanSIG Journal 2020 71

the first two lessons focused on plot and plot structure. The course

exposure to and generate interest in unfamiliar content. One film

began with eliciting and studying vocabulary to describe aand one short story was also grouped with a topic, providing

conventional plot arc (Appendix A), which students then appliedstudents with a single, clear aspect of the text to focus on.

to films and stories they already knew. Descriptions were kept

Therefore, it was important that each text lent itself to its lessonvague (without character names or unique settings) and were then

topic.

used in a group guessing game as an ice breaker activity. This led
into the first homework assignment in which students used thevocabulary to break down the plot of a familiar short story into
parts. By beginning with plot structure, students were able toidentify the story grammar of a narrative from the beginning which
aided comprehension of more difficult texts later in the course.

Course Information, Goals and Topics

The films selected for the course were Forrest Gump
(1994), Gladiator (2000), Lost in Translation (2003), Alfred
Hitchcock’s Psycho (1960), and East is East (1999). The shortstories used were a selection of Grimm’s Fairy Tales (1812-1858),
Roald Dahl’s Lamb to the Slaughter (1953), the first chapter ofHaruki Murakami’s short novel After Dark (2004), and Désirée’s
Baby (1893) written by Kate Chopin.

The course was a free elective English Communication class that

The course began by considering plot, familiarising

met once a week over a thirteen-week semester. Students werestudents with common plot features, structures and story

of intermediate to upper-intermediate level, and class sizes weregrammar. Forrest Gump and Grimm’s Fairy Tales were selected

between twelve and eighteen students. Using the set course texts,

because both plot structures are relatively easy for students to

the goals of the course were to: a) expose students to new ideas,

follow and describe. With Grimm’s Fairy Tales in particular,

themes, cultures, vocabulary and narratives; b) provide extensive

students were already somewhat familiar with the plots and werelistening and reading practice; and c) facilitate critical thinking

able to summarise them easily due to their familiarity withthrough in-class discussion.

adaptations produced by Disney.

The main analytical topics the course focused on were

To study characterisation, students watched Gladiator(in this order): plot, characterisation, setting, themes andand read Lamb to the Slaughter. Gladiator was chosen because

symbolism, and culture. Each topic spanned two weeks, in whichmuch of the characterisation is visual (through costume andstudents discussed both a short story and a film. For assessment,

action) and each of the three main characters have clearly definedalong with in class participation and homework worksheet

roles, following the traditional tropes: hero, heroine, and villain.

submissions, students wrote an essay and gave a presentation at

The accents in the film are also neutral, aiding comprehension,

the end of the semester (one on a book or short story and one on

and the plot contains the stages of a conventional narrative

a film of their own choice).

structure: exposition, conflict, rising action, climax, falling action.
In contrast to this, Lamb to the Slaughter is a humorous story in

Selected Texts and Rationales
Whilst selecting the texts to use in class, it was important that each
was accessible to students. Some aspects considered whenselecting the texts were length, linguistic difficulty, social andwhich a woman kills her husband with a leg of lamb. However,through its characterisation, the story makes the reader
sympathetic to the wife (the ‘villain’) and unsympathetic to her
adulterous and irrational husband (the ‘victim’).

cultural relevance and interest to the students, and appropriacy to

Next, the course focused on setting and students

the lesson topics. In terms of length, selected films were underwatched Lost in Translation and read the first chapter of After Dark.

two hours long and short stories were four pages or less. Since

Both texts are set in Tokyo, which, because of its familiarity, aided

students were watching or reading one text a week, texts had to

student comprehension. However, Tokyo is portrayed frombe of a manageable length. With social and cultural relevance,

different points of view (Lost in Translation from a foreigner’s pointtexts were selected from a variety of genres and portrayedof view and After Dark from Murakami’s). In the beginning of After

different cultures, settings, and periods, in order to give students

Dark, two mysterious characters meet for the first time in a family
The PanSIG Journal 2020 72

restaurant, which contrasts with the Hilton hotel featured

settings (examples included researching Ancient Rome forprominently in Lost in Translation. The language used to describe

Gladiator and parts of Pakistani and Muslim culture such as

both Tokyo and the family restaurant uses vivid imagery and ledarranged marriage for East is East) and prediction tasks based on

into the next topic of the course.

the title, a screenshot, or even a short excerpt of the text (seeThe penultimate topic of the course was theme andAppendix B for the ‘before’ questions for Lost in Translation).

symbolism. Students watched Psycho and read Désirée’s Baby.

Vocabulary activities were also an important tool in

Symbolism was one of the most challenging topics for the course

aiding student comprehension which, as well as giving students abut was important for students to learn to recognise in texts to lift

head-start on difficult vocabulary they would encounter, helped

their comprehension closer to that of a native reader. In Psycho,

students predict the content of the narrative. For example, as part

Hitchcock uses an abundance of symbolism. One particularof the ‘before’ activities for Gladiator, students were given a

symbol is the bird which symbolises women and Norman’s view

vocabulary-definition matching activity that included the followingof them. In one particular scene, Norman makes an observation

words: empire, dictatorship, senate, corruption, gladiator, andthat Marion ‘eat[s] like a bird’ and that ‘only birds look well stuffed

hero. After completing this activity, students had a strong

because they’re kind of passive to begin with’ while a bird of prey

indication of how the plot might unfold.

on the wall looms over him, symbolising his mother’s influence.
Désirée’s Baby provided a lot of discussion of its themes of race,colonialism, and identity, which led into the final film of the course
well.

With literature, research suggests that, unlike L1
readers, “most L2 readers do not seem to use visual imaging verymuch whilst reading” but “the few students who reported using
visual imaging tended to achieve greater comprehension and

Finally, once the students were familiar with the basic

recall than those who did not” (Tomlinson, 1998, p. 363).

narrative elements, the course ended with a film that challenged

Tomlinson continues by outlining activities to facilitate visualthem to interpret a culture different to theirs. Students watched theimaging including character drawing, connection activities, using

British comedy film East is East, which portrays a half-Pakistani

illustrations to form their own visualisations, and miming.

immigrant family living in Northern England. This film was perhaps

Therefore, based on these ideas, visual imaging activities were

one of the most challenging for students because of its use ofincorporated into both the ‘before’ and ‘during’ sections of the

Pakistani and Northern English dialect and accents, as well as theshort story worksheets. This worked particularly well with

unfamiliar setting. However, the film uses themes of culturalcharacterisation as students were asked to draw a picture of theidentity, racism, family, and self-acceptance which students weremain character as they read the story and then annotate it withable to identify, analyse and discuss in depth.

descriptive adjectives (Appendix C).

Activities outside the classroom

The ‘during’ activities also allowed students to consider
the texts with their associated topics in mind. For example, as

Homework comprised of watching or reading the week’s text
whilst completing a corresponding worksheet. Each worksheet
was broken up into three sections (‘before’, ‘during’ and ‘after’)each with different goals and emphasis. Some examples of theworksheet activities are shown in the appendices.

students watched Psycho, they were asked to write down
descriptions of anything they saw related to the prevalent
symbolism of birds, mirrors, and eyes. After, they were asked toreflect on what each symbol meant. ‘After’ activities were
designed to accomplish two things: a) provide a chance for

The ‘before’ activities were intended to help students

students to reflect critically on the text and b) consolidate students’

activate schemata through context, allowing students theunderstanding of the text and prepare them for the in-classopportunity to mentally prepare for the text by engaging with thediscussion.

themes, settings and ideas. This was achieved through a varietyof activities, such as self-directed research into themes and
The PanSIG Journal 2020 73

Activities inside the classroom

Student Feedback

As previously mentioned with reference to the flipped classroom

At the end of the semester, students were given a post-course

model, the goals of the in-class activities were to checksurvey in order to provide feedback on the course. 14 students

comprehension of the texts as well as share and discuss the(20%) said that they preferred studying films over short stories,

aspects of film and literature considered in the homeworkwith explanatory comments such as “My reading skill is not reallyassignments. Some in-class activities included group and classgood to understand [the] entire content of the stories, but when I

mindwatch the film it’s easier to imagine” and “Films have sound andmapping,

text/scene

analysis,andmini-student

presentations.

movement that can help me understand more than reading short

The group mind mapping allowed students to share anddiscuss ideas informally whilst also helping to peer-checkcomprehension. This was used successfully when discussing
characterisation in Gladiator and Lamb to the Slaughter. Students
collectively drew big mind maps on the blackboard comprised ofdescriptive adjectives, reasons why, and how the text conveyedstories”. Conversely, 6 students preferred short stories, one
student commenting that “stories are easier because I could readat my own speed and read parts many times.” It is therefore
evident that film and short stories presented different challenges,
which students responded to differently, but also provided avariety of opportunities for learning which appealed to different
interests and abilities. The students’ positive feedback towards

the characteristics (for example, through speech, actions, looks,
film concurs with a recent study by Ramazan (2017), who reportedetc.). This gave students the opportunity to step back and view thecomplexity of a single character and, with Lamb to the Slaughter,compare the predictions made in the visual imaging activities with
their classmates.

80% of students ‘strongly agreed’ that “watching movies in English
has a beneficial effect on improving [their] English” (p.123).
When asked about the texts, Psycho was the most

Text and scene analysis gave students the opportunity
to analyse a short excerpt in detail, and focus on aspects such as
language, body language, camera angle and film technique. This
worked particularly when discussing imagery and symbolism in
Psycho, through which students were able to dissect the use ofeach symbol in the film and were guided to their own

popular film followed by Gladiator. Positive comments for Psycho
included: “Psycho was my favourite because I watched [an] old
movie for the first time. It was awesome. I want to watch
Hitchcock’s other works” and “It was an amazing film even if it was
black and white. The story and techniques were very new for thattime and the music makes me feel excited.” A positive student
comment regarding Gladiator was “I enjoyed Gladiator the mostinterpretations. With setting in Lost in Translation, students rebecause it had an ancient theme and through several settings
watched in class the scene in which Charlotte travels to Kyoto
alone. As they watched, the students were asked to compare how

made the characterisation appealing”.

Kyoto is portrayed in the film with Tokyo, and to consider the

On the other hand, students gave the most negative

impact the scene has on Charlotte’s character and the film as areactions to Lost in Translation writing comments such as “there

whole. They were also asked to consider how the scene was shot,

is no climax”, “it shows many wrong things in Japan and I didn’t

it’s camera angles, and what they could or couldn’t hear.

like the plot”, and also “this film only talks about […] bad culture in

Finally,

at

the

end

of

the

semester,student

presentations allowed students to apply the analysis techniqueslearnt in class to a film, book, or short story of their own choice.
Many students expressed their enjoyment in re-watching a film or

Japan, so it’s only one side of Japan.” However, the negative
reactions to the film were also a catalyst to some interesting
discussion in class. For example, when discussing Lost in
Translation, the negative reactions many students had led into
discussion on native versus outsider perspectives of Japan as

re-reading a story analytically and noticing small details of
characterisation or symbolism that they hadn’t seen before.

well as the importance of inambiguous closure in a movie (assome students were dissatisfied with the ending). Anotherexample of this was when students discussed their opinions of

The PanSIG Journal 2020 74

Grimm’s Fairy Tales, some students disliked the sinister plot twists

they may reach a point where graded materials may become too

when compared to Disney iterations, which led to reflection oneasy, predictable and uninteresting. Transitioning from graded to

why the stories were changed.

ungraded materials can then be both challenging and motivationaland care is needed by teachers in doing this. Teachers should

Changes applied for online teaching in
Spring 2020

carefully select texts which are of suitable length, cultural

Given the global pandemic and the subsequent move to online

the text, students can focus on a specific narrative element (suchinstruction, changes needed to be made the following year inas characterisation or setting) so as not to be overwhelmed in theorder for the course to be adapted to a shorter semester, online

class discussions. Finally, teachers should utilise effective

teaching and a large, mixed ability class (of over thirty students).

techniques (such as visual imaging and a reader-response

Therefore, in order to shorten the course, and to make the course

approach) which will allow students to express their thoughts andmore cohesive, the content was adapted to only focus on film, with

opinions on the texts more freely. By using ungraded materials in

students watching one film every two weeks. Choosing film overthis way, students can be exposed to content which is both

short stories seemed a logical choice considering the feedback

engaging and exciting.

relevance, and interest to the students. When reading or watchingfrom the previous year. Since it was imperative all students hadaccess to the texts, and distributing DVDs and screenings on

References

campus weren’t possible, only texts that were available on Netflix

Ali, S. (1994). The reader-response approach: An alternative forwere used. Any student without a Netflix account was given
access to a shared account provided by the teacher. This thenteaching literature in a second language. Journal of Reading,37(4), 288-296.

added flexibility in how the students watched the films and, withthe class being of mixed-ability, students were encouraged toassess their own ability and watch each film without subtitles atfirst, then with English subtitles, or with Japanese subtitles.
Instruction was partly done through an online LMS
platform where the weekly homework assignments were posted
and on which students also had access to an online blog/thread

Alfauzan, A., and Hussain, A. (2017). Attitude towards andPerception of Literature in EFL Setting. English Language
Teaching 10(1), 1-17.
Amer, A. (1992). The effect of story grammar instruction on EFL
students’ comprehension of narrative text. Reading in a
Foreign Language, 8(2) 711-720.

for each film: a space for students to discuss their thoughts andBergmann, J., and Sams, A. (2012). Flip your classroom: Reachideas and peer-check their comprehension in preparation for the

every student in every class every day. London, England:

class. For classroom work, lessons were conducted over Zoom

International Society for Technology in Education.

and for group work and discussion, students were put into
breakout rooms and used a shared whiteboard to present theirideas. This also allowed the teacher to see and question theirideas whilst monitoring the rooms.

Grabe, W. (2009). Reading in a Second Language: Moving from
Theory to Practice. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.
Harlow, L. L., and Muyskens, J. A. (1994). Priorities forIntermediate-Level Language Instruction. The Modern
Language Journal 78(2), 141-154.

Conclusion

Mekheimer, M. (2011). The Impact of Using Videos on Whole
Language learning in EFL Context. AWEJ, 2(2), 5-39.

As mentioned earlier, graded readers and videos are a great way
of introducing students to topics, target vocabulary andgrammatical structures. However, as language learners progress,

Murakami, H. (2007). After Dark, London, England: Harvill
Secker.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 75

Rahman, S., and Arju, S. (2013). Exploiting Short Stories in theSpiegel, D. L. (1998). Reader Response Approaches and the

EFL Classroom. Stamford Journal of English 4, 124-141.

Growth of Readers. Language Arts 76(1), 41-48.

Ramazan, Goctu. (2017). Using Movies in EFL Classrooms. The

Tomlinson, B. (1998). Seeing what they mean: helping L2

European Journal of Language and Literature Studies 3(2),readers to visualise. Materials Development in Language

121-124.

Teaching, 357-378, Cambridge, England: Cambridge

Rouxel-Cubberly, N. (2014). The Film Trailer Project: French
Films as Textbooks. The French Review 88(1), 117–133.
Secules, T., Herron, C., & Tomasello, M. (1992). The Effect ofVideo Context on Foreign Language Learning. Modern

University Press.
Violetta-Irene, K. (2015). The Use of Literature in the Language
Classroom: Methods and Aims. International Journal of
Information and Education Technology 5(1), 74-79.

Language Journal 76(4), 480-90.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 76

Appendix A

The PanSIG Journal 2020 77

Appendix B

The PanSIG Journal 2020 78

Appendix C

The PanSIG Journal 2020 79

Assessing the Effectiveness of a Global Approach in a Japanese University
Tim Andrewartha
The British Council
Calls to prepare students to participate in the global workforce have been increasing, leading to the term global
jinzai (human resources) being stated as a desired goal for Japanese universities. As well as English ability,
understanding other cultures is seen as important. Therefore, it is necessary for English teachers to consider how
to realise this in the classroom. A possible solution is a global approach, combining elements from global Englishes
and intercultural communication, aiming to help Japanese learners communicate with people all over the world.
This study assesses the effectiveness of the approach which was implemented in an English class at a Japanese
university. This was done by assessing the reflective writing done by students after a lesson on English in Singapore
and a lesson on individualism versus collectivism. The results suggest that the approach may be effective inincreasing awareness and respect for global Englishes and cultural differences.

国際的なビジネスパーソンを求める機運の高まりを受けて「グローバル人材の育成」を目標に掲げる日本の大学においては、英語力だけでなく異文化理解能力も重要視されている。よって英語教員には、この能力を授業の中でどう伸ばすかを考究することが求められる。その答えとなり得る 「グローバルアプローチ」は、グローバル諸
英語と異文化間コミュニケーションの要素を組み合わせたものであり、日本人学習者が世界中の人々とコミュニ
ケーションできるよう手助けすることを目的としている。本研究では、日本の大学の英語クラスにおいて実践されたグローバルアプローチの有効性を評価する。この評価は「シンガポールにおける英語」および「個人主義対集団主義」を扱った授業後に学生が書いた課題レポートを基に行った。導き出された結果では、このアプローチ
がグローバル諸英語や文化の違いへの理解・尊重を深めることに有効と思われることが示唆されている。

It is becoming increasingly important for Japanese universities torespect for diverse culture and identity” while Yoshida, Yashiro &prepare students to participate in the global workforce andSuzuki (2013, p. 79) suggest that Japanese learners should

communicate with people from all over the world (Yonezawa,

develop “awareness of themselves as individuals, their own

2014). One reason for this is Japan’s aging society which isculture, and cultural differences”.

making it imperative for Japanese business to expand globally.
This has led to global jinzai (global human resources) becoming a

Global Englishes

popular term and goal in tertiary education in Japan, and since thegovernment’s definition includes the ability to understand othercultures, it is necessary for English teachers to consider how torealise this in the classroom.

Global Englishes includes different varieties of English which havedeveloped in different countries around the world, reflecting theirunique cultural identities, as well as English as a lingua franca(ELF), now the most common use of English, which has a fluid

Global Approach

nature as it is used flexibly depending on the situation (Jenkins,

A global approach, combining global Englishes and interculturalcircle (where English is their first language), the outer circle

communication, has been suggested as a way to help Japanese(including post-colonial countries which use English as an official

learners prepare to communicate with people from all over the

language) and the expanding circle (where English is studied asworld (Andrewartha, 2020). In particular, this approach draws on

a foreign language) (Kachru, 1992) is a popular way to show thesuggestions by Galloway (2017), who has done research about

spread of English (Jenkins, 2015) and understanding the role ofteaching global Englishes in the Japanese university context, asEnglish in Singapore is seen as beneficial to understand thewell as suggestions by Yoshida, Yashiro & Suzuki (2013), whoconnection between varieties of English and cultural identity.

2015). Kachru’s three circle analogy which includes the innerhave done research about teaching intercultural communicationin Japan. Galloway (2017, preface) suggests that English lessons
should “raise awareness of Global Englishes” and “emphasise

The PanSIG Journal 2020 80

English in Singapore

has been becoming more individualistic, there have been

Singapore is a multicultural society which has been praised for thesuggestions that the concept of individualism is perceived

way the different ethnic groups cooperate and live together innegatively in Japanese culture (Ogihara, Uchida & Kusumi, 2014).

harmony (Yeo & Pang, 2017). While there are many different
languages spoken in Singapore, English is one of the official
languages and it is often used, including for communication
between the different ethnic groups. There are two varieties ofEnglish, standard Singaporean English, which is used in formal
situations and is closer to British English, and Singlish, which is acombination of English and the mother tongues of the different
ethnic groups which live in Singapore (Jenkins, 2015). As Singlish
is difficult for people from other countries to understand, thegovernment attempted to stop Singaporeans from using theirunique variety. However, this attempt was met by refusal from thelocal community as they claimed it was an important part of theircultural identity as Singaporeans.

Intercultural Communication

Global Method
A method was designed which could be used to implement the
global approach in the classroom. This involved choosing content
from the global Englishes or intercultural communication literature,a reading text for introducing the content, questions to checkunderstanding and then a discussion. While there are manyvarieties of English such as Jamaican English, Kenyan English
and Indian English which could provide suitable topics, English in
Singapore was chosen. This was because understanding about
the role of Singlish and local resistance to The Speak Good
Movement is a clear way for learners to understand theconnection between varieties of English and cultural identity(Jenkins, 2015). Also, while the other cultural dimensions
proposed by Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov (2010) would also be

While global Englishes looks at the different ways English is usedsuitable topics for understanding other cultures, individualism

around the world, intercultural communication looks more deeply

versus collectivism was chosen because this cultural dimension isat the way culture affects our feelings and behaviour. Hofstede’s

seen as essential in understanding the difference between

cultural dimensions can be used to compare the cultures ofwestern and Asian cultures (Servaes, 2016).

different countries and they include individualism, power distance,long-term orientation, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance andindulgence (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). While there has
been criticism that studying the cultural dimensions could lead toan essentialist view of culture in which people are judged basedon where they come from rather than the way they express
themselves (Holliday, Kullman, & Hyde, 2017), it is felt that as longas they are taught responsibly and learners are made aware that
not everyone from a particular culture will behave in the same way,then learning about the cultural dimensions can provide valuable
insight.

Research Design
In order to assess the effectiveness of implementing the global
approach in the Japanese university context, it was felt that it wasnecessary for research to be conducted which may give an
indication of the thoughts and feelings which the approach has
stimulated in the learners. Qualitative research can help us to geta deeper understanding than quantitative research as it allows thethoughts and feelings of participants to be revealed more naturally
and one way this can be done is through analysing the writing ofparticipants (Dörnyei, 2007). Therefore, it was felt that asking
students to do some reflective writing in English after the lessons

Individualism Versus Collectivism

may provide valuable data into the effectiveness of the global

In particular, it has been suggested that understanding

approach.

individualism versus collectivism is essential in understanding the

Research Questions

difference between western and Asian cultures (Servaes, 2016).
In individualistic cultures people put priority on looking after
themselves and their immediate family whereas in collectivistic
cultures people are loyal to larger groups such as the extended
family or the local community. In individualistic cultures,
communication is direct and it is important to have your own
opinion which you express whereas in collectivistic culturescommunication is indirect and harmony within the in-group isimportant (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). According toWhat kind of awareness and attitudes do learners show towards
globalEnglishes

after

the

globalapproach

has

been

implemented?
What kind of awareness and attitudes do learners show towards
cultural differences after the global approach has been
implemented?

Methods

Hofstede’s research, Japanese culture is more collectivistic thanThe study consisted of seventeen first-year students from thewestern countries, but more individualistic than some Asiansame intermediate level English for academic purposes class at acountries and while it has been reported that Japanese culture

Japanese university. They received two lessons in which the

The PanSIG Journal 2020 81

global approach was implemented. One of them mainly focused

and understood in Tokyo and other parts of Japan, saying “moston English in Singapore as well as introducing Kachru’s circleof them like their dialect, they still use it after they move to Tokyo

analogy (Kachru, 1992) and ELF. The other lesson focused onor other places in Japan. Nevertheless, we can communicate withindividualism versus collectivism and how this cultural dimension

them and few people think that using the Osaka dialect is bad.”can affect communication (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010).

It was also suggested that while inner circle English

After discussing the topics in the lesson, the students were given

should be used for communication with people from othersome questions and asked to do some reflective writing in English

countries, it was OK to use it in their own way locally, suggesting

to post on the website Edmodo where the other students and the

local uses of English in Japan and South Korea as well as inteacher would be able to read them. Their posts were then coded

Singapore. One student wrote that “To compel them to change

and analysed to assess the effectiveness of the global approach.

their language may seems to ignore their identity. Therefore,
people in the outer and expanding circles don’t have to correct

Results

their English unless they talk with other people from different
country using English as a common language.”

Global Englishes
After discussing about English in Singapore, the students thenStudents that disagreed or partly disagreed

moved onto Kachru’s three circle analogy (Kachru, 1992) and the

Out of the 17 students, twelve disagreed and one partly disagreed

following question which, after discussing it in the lesson, is whatthat people in the outer and expanding circles should speak

they needed to write about for homework: Do you agree that

English like people in the inner circle.

people in the outer and expanding circles should speak English in

In their posts, it was pointed out that “it is almost
impossible for the outer and expanding circles to speak English in

the same way as people in the inner circle?

the very same way as people in the inner circle” and their “mother
Table 1 Global Englishes
People in the outer and expanding circles

tongue affect their English” so their pronunciation is “similar totheir first languages” and since “recognizing it is very difficult” thenshould speak English like people in the inner“trying to change it is not necessary”. Furthermore, it wascircle.
n

17

agree

1

partly agree3partly disagree1disagree12

mentioned that “the number of people who in the outer circles arelarger than the number of people who in the inner circle” meaning“that it has been common to speak English in the different ways
from the way of the inner circle.”
They also stated that the main aim was ELF, so the mostimportant thing was for them to be understood. One student said
that “a few differences in pronunciation or grammar between themStudents that agreed or partly agreed

is not worth questioning” while another student said “we can

Out of the 17 students, only one agreed and three partly agreed

communicate with each other by using English, although the waythat people in the outer and expanding circles should speakof speaking English is different”. Instead of trying to sound like

English like people in the inner circle.

someone from the inner circle, it was argued that they “should not

In their posts, it was said that the “main purpose of using
English is to communicate with people around the world” so theyturn consciousness to perfect accuracy of English but justconveying their opinions in some way”.

“should speak in accurate English when they talk with others from

While it was said that “If people all around the world

different countries if their common language is English” otherwise

spoke English in the same way, the communication would be“English won’t play its role as a lingua franca”. An example wassmoother” it was argued that the different varieties showed theirgiven of a Brit and a Singaporean, claiming that “The former may

identity, and since “Life and culture vary from country to country”

not be able to understand what the latter says because each ofand, therefore, “the words which is used are different depending

them speak English but a little different from each other.”on the place people live” meaning it was natural for them to create

The issue of Japanese dialects was also mentioned as

unique expressions for their situations (such as in the case of

a comparison with different varieties of English, with one student

Singlish) and that these expressions were “beautiful or funny” sostating that although there are many regional dialects, standard“they should cherish them.”

Japanese is used for smooth communication, and, therefore,

Therefore, it was argued that they had the right to use

claiming “dialects are similar to English spoken in the outer andEnglish in their own way, as “languages are deeply rooted in

expanding circle and the same is true of the English.” However,people's lives and form each culture” otherwise if they were forced

another student claimed that the Osaka dialect is actually used

“to use ‘correct’ English” it could “lead to a loss of cultural diversity”

The PanSIG Journal 2020 82

as “language forms our sensitivity” and “we use different

individualism” while another student wrote “the idea of lifetime

emotional expressions depending on the language we speak …

employment is disappearing, and many people change their job a

And if our sensitivity becomes similar, many cultures may be

few times.”

standardized.”

How might this affect communication with people from

Cultural Differences

other countries?

The following questions were discussed first in the lesson andIn the posts that stated that Japanese culture was morethen the students were asked to write about them for homework:collectivistic, it was suggested that “we are likely to agree with

Do you think Japanese culture is more individualistic ortheir opinions without saying our opinions” which “won't lead tocollectivistic? Why? How might this affect communication withconstructive discussion” and “high-context communication canpeople from other countries? What can be done to makecause some problem when Japanese have a conversation with

communication smoother?

people from overseas, because who are familiar with low-context
will be upset that they cannot understand what Japanese people

Table 2 Cultural Differences
Do you think Japanese culture is more

are truly thinking.”
Furthermore, it was pointed out that Japanese people

individualistic or collectivistic?
n

17

It is more collectivistic

14

It has become more individualistic

3

Do you think Japanese culture is more individualistic orcollectivistic?

might feel uncomfortable when someone says their opinion clearly.
Also, one student wrote “people from individualistic countries canfeel annoying if we don't say our opinions” while another wrote“they may feel we lack independence.” Another student wrote “Bythese actions, people from other countries cannot catch theirideas. They sometimes feel doubtful and Japanese people andpeople from other countries cannot sometimes make agreement.”

While 14 students said Japanese culture is more collectivistic,
three students said it has become more individualistic.

It was also mentioned that Japanese people treat people
from other countries differently from other Japanese people. One

Reasons why they thought it was collectivistic included

student wrote “Japanese people regard them as different people

the importance of harmony and a tendency not to say their own

from us. In fact, when a student came to our class in myopinions. One student wrote that “most of us think of ourselves as

elementary school, we communicated with him in unusual way. I

a part of a group” while another student wrote “we have had

think it was more difficult to make friends with individualisticcollective responsibility and a sense of solidarity with not only ourpeople than collectivistic people.” Also, it was mentioned thatfamily members but also classmates, co-workers and local

collectivism stops them from expressing who they really are as

residents”. Therefore, “Japanese are good at working with others”

they need to say what has been decided by their group. “It can getand “they think it is good to protect the harmony of the groups”.

difficult to communicate who I am. Communication are likely to

However, since they “have been required by adults to conform

become formal. Collectivism forces us to hold down ourwith others and not to stress our unique characters” it was argued

personality and to communicate only what is already decided tothat “Japanese people often hesitate to talk directly” because theysay.”“tend to feel pressure to conform to others” and “even though they
have their own opinion that is different from others’, they tend to

However, in the posts that stated Japanese culture has
become more individualistic, while there was a belief that thisadjust to people around”. It was written that this leads to not

would generally help, with one student writing “it might have a

speaking out in class or giving their group’s opinion as their own.

good effect on communication with people from other countries”,

Since there is a tendency not to say opinions directly, it was

it was also pointed out that “individualism in Japan may beargued that “reading situation is important in order to make good

selfishness in other countries. So we have to understand the real

relationship with others in Japan”.

meaning of individualism.”

Reasons why some students thought Japanese culture
to insist their opinion more clearly than before. That will be

What can be done to make communicationsmoother?

because more Japanese come together with foreign people and

There was a belief that if they do not know about cultural

they have noticed its importance.” Other reasons given weredifferences, they will just behave naturally without adapting to therelated to business and employment, with one student writing thatsituation. One student wrote “we can try to understand their“a lot of post-war institutions are influenced by American ones”

cultureand “the US is the country which is seen as the token of“understanding may be difficult, but knowing depends on personalhas become more individualistic included that “Japanese comesandbackground”

while

another

student

The PanSIG Journal 2020 83

wrote

efforts and can be done.” Another student wrote “the knowledge

ELF as this would help students adapt to the situation while alsoof other culture can make communication smoother. If theyexpressing their identity in future ELF encounters.

understand the difference of culture, they won't have conflict.
Instead, they will respect each culture”.

Cultural Differences

It was suggested that they need to make an effort to

According to Yoshida, Yashiro and Suzuki, learners should

communicate, with one student writing “it is natural thatdevelop: “awareness of themselves as individuals, their own

communication does not go well, so you should communicate with

culture, and cultural differences” (2013, p. 79) and in their posts

other people a lot even if the communication is not smooth. It is

the students showed awareness of these. Although a few of themgetting a lot of experiences throughout many communications that

did express the view that Japanese culture has become more

makes communication smoother.” It was also suggested that byindividualistic, most of them considered that Japanese culture wastalking freely and showing their feelings and responding properly,collectivistic. In particular, many of them said that there was athey can build good relationships. While they should not argue,tendency to avoid giving their opinions and that it was importantthey should not be afraid to show their opinions clearly. One

to read the air in order to infer what was implied. While they statedstudent wrote “we should not be scared to be different from otherthat this was in order to maintain harmony, they expressed aand should make effort to communicate our own opinion to others

concern that this might cause problems when communicating withclearly” while another student wrote “balance is the best”

people from more individualistic cultures, so they should try to

explaining that even though “they want to avoid arguing because

express their ideas more clearly. While this showed they had

it can make the situation more complex” that “it might bring aboutdeveloped some cultural awareness, most of them focused ona hassle if they do not argue” and therefore it is important to “givecommunicating with people from more individualistic cultures, withthe sign to other people about what you think” because “others

even those who believed Japanese culture has become morecannot know what people think unless they give the sign” so they

individualistic generally seeing this as a good thing which would

need to “be assertive.”

help

interculturalcommunication,although

there

was

acknowledgement that this could be seen as selfishness. This

Discussion

suggests that some students may be unaware that other cultures
are collectivistic and there may be problems when communicating

Global Englisheswith people from these cultures. Therefore, in future lessons it

According to Galloway (2017, preface), lessons should “raise

would be beneficial to encourage them to consider that whileawareness of Global Englishes” and “emphasise respect forsome cultures may be more individualistic than Japanese culture,

diverse culture and identity” and in their posts the students

some cultures may be more collectivistic, and, in fact, as statedshowed awareness of both of these. The students acknowledgedby Hofstede, et al. (2010) collectivism is the norm around thethat there are different varieties of English in the outer andworld, rather than individualism. However, it would also be

expanding circles and that the different varieties of English

important to make sure students are aware that, as argued byexpress the culture and identity of the speakers. While it was

Holliday, et al. (2017), they should be careful not to judge

acknowledged that ELF was the most common use of English, so

individuals based on the cultures they come from, but that they

being able to communicate and be understood was a moreshould keep an open mind and treat them based on the way they

important goal than speaking English like people in the inner circle,

choose to express their cultural identities.

it also seemed that there was some belief that using English in thesame way as people in the inner circle would lead tocommunication being smoother. This suggested they were
unaware that, as stated by Jenkins (2015), ELF is used in different
ways from inner circle English and, in fact, it is difficult for people
in the inner circle to use English in this way, suggesting that using
English like people in the inner circle would not lead to smoothercommunication. However, the majority of the students expresseda belief that everyone should be able to use English in their own
way, with the expression of cultural identity being seen as a key
factor. Therefore, it seems that focusing on Singlish was a good
way for the students to understand the connection between
varieties of English and cultural identity, but in future lessons there
may need to be more of a focus on the fluid and flexible nature ofConclusion
This study analysed the reflective writing by a class of university
students after they received lessons in which a global approach,combining elements from global Englishes and interculturalcommunication, was implemented, in order to assess theeffectiveness of using the approach in university English classes
in Japan. While this study was conducted over a short time framewith a small number of participants, and there was no control
group to compare them with, it is felt that this study has given
some insight into the attitudes and awareness of the students,suggesting that this approach may be useful in preparing
university students in Japan to communicate with people from all

The PanSIG Journal 2020 84

over the world. Therefore, it is recommended that more researchshould be carried out to assess the effectiveness of the approach

Jenkins, J. (2015) Global Englishes: A Resource Book forStudents. London, England, & New York, NY: Routledge.

further.
Kachru, B.B. (ed.) (1992) The Other Tongue: English Across

References
Andrewartha, T.J. (2020) Learner attitudes towards a global
approach in eikaiwa PanSIG Journal 2019, 6-13.
Dörnyei, Z. (2007) Research methods in applied linguistics:
Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methodologies. Oxford,
England: Oxford University Press.
Galloway, N. (2017) Global Englishes and Change in English
Language Teaching: Attitudes and Impact. London, England,& New York, NY: Routledge.
Hofstede, G. Hofstede, G, J. & Minkov, M. (2010) Cultures andOrganizations: Software of the Mind (3rd edition). McGrawHill.
Holliday, A. Kullman, J. & Hyde, M. (2017) Intercultural
Communication: An Advanced Resource Book for Students.
London, England, & New York, NY: Routledge.

Cultures. Urbana, Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
Ogihara, Y. Uchida, Y. & Kusumi, T. (2014) How do Japanesepeople perceive individualism? Examination of the meaningof individualism in Japan. Psychologia, 57, 213-223.
Servaes, J. (2016) Guanxi in intercultural communication andpublic relations. Public Relations Review 42 459-464.
Yonezawa, A. (2014) Japan’s challenge for fostering “global
human resources” policy debates and practices. Japan Labor
Review, 11, (2) 37-52.
Yeo, S.L. & Pang, A. (2017) Asian multiculturalism incommunication: Impact of culture in the practice of public
relations in Singapore. Public Relations Review 43 112-122.
Yoshida, T. Yashiro, K. & Suzuki, Y. (2013) Interculturalcommunication skills: What Japanese businesses today
need. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 37, 7285

The PanSIG Journal 2020 85

Pre-/Post-Study Abroad Learning in the Local Community

Toshiko Oda
Tokyo Keizai University
Pre-/post-study abroad learning for college students does not have to limit itself to classrooms. Given the current
situation in Japan, with an expanding foreign resident population, a new opportunity has arisen, namely language
exchange between college students and foreign residents in the local community. A preliminary trial called
Kokubunji Local was conducted in Kokubunji, Tokyo. It is a weekly Japanese-English language exchange meeting
among people in the Kokubunji area that includes college students. Kokubunji Local provides Japanese college
students with opportunities to talk to people in the local community from various regions of the world, many of whom
speak fluent English. It helps promote language awareness and career perspectives of Japanese college students
as it resembles a study abroad environment. It also provides a vital option for students who do not have enoughopportunities on campus. Possible challenges for similar trials would be to find a right venue and organizers.

留学を志す大学生のための留学の事前・事後学習の場所は教室だけにとどまらない。近年，日本の各地において外国人住民が増加しているため，大学生が地域の外国人住民と交流しながら外国語を学ぶチャンスが生まれている。本稿では「国分寺ローカル」の実践を取り上げる。国分寺ローカルは東京都国分寺市で毎週行われている日
本語と英語による交流会である。参加者は大学生を含む地元住民である。国分寺ローカルの活動は，言語に対する意識を高め，国際的なキャリアについて考える機会を提供するため，大学生の留学の事前・事後学習の一環として機能する。特に、キャンパス内での事前・事後学習の機会が不足している学生にとっての選択肢となり得る。
同様の会を催す際の主な課題は，適切な場所やオーガナイザーを確保することである。

Pre-/post-study abroad learning is important for having adifficult for universities to provide organized options for pre-/post-

successful study abroad experience. Many pre-/post-study

study abroad learning. The third section describes current

opportunities are provided on campus, where students have

demographic changes in Japan. Japan’s population has been

options, such as taking designated language courses andmore diverse than ever, and this applies to the city of Kokubunji,

practicing conversation at language lounges. However, not every

Tokyo as well. This provides a new opportunity for college

university can provide enough opportunities on campus due to a

students to learn languages and culture with foreign residents inlack of resources. The purpose of this paper is to describe athe local area. The fourth section describes the activities ofpreliminary trial of Kokubunji Local, a language exchange group

Kokubunji Local, a language exchange group in the city ofamong locals that includes college students. Kokubunji Local has

Kokubunji. The fifth section contains a list of suggestions based

provided opportunities for Japanese college students to prepareon the experience of Kokubunji Local for similar trials.

for their study abroad as well as enhance their learning upon

Problems
Learning

return.
The paper is organized as follows. The second section
discusses the problems of pre-/post-study abroad learning on
campus. When a limited number of students go study abroad, it isofPre-/Post-Study

AbroadLack of Pre-/Post-Study Abroad Learning
Although the number of college students studying abroad has
been increasing, students do not experience enough pre-/postThe PanSIG Journal 2020 86

study abroad learning. The problem especially concerns short-

Cotopatio, a language lounge where students can practiceterm programs (Yokota et al. 2018 among others). This is partly

English conversation with native speakers. However, it is not easy

because significant pre-/post-study abroad learning is difficult tofor students to find services that match their needs. Commonlyschedule unless one has a long-term plan. The Japanese Student

expressed comments are: “The content of regular English courses

Services Organization (JASSO) (2020) reports that about 50% of

does not match what I need for my study abroad” (third year

Japanese college students who participate in study abroad

student, p.c. in June 2020) and “Cotopatio is always crowded

programs organized by their institutions choose short-term

when I go there. I know it is less crowded in the morning, but I

programs of less than three months.

need to go to class then” (second year student, p.c. in December

The benefits of such short-term programs may be limited
unlessaccompaniedbypre-/post-study abroad2019).

learning.

What could be the option for those who need more

Kobayashi (2017) points out that the only visible effect of shortopportunities for their pre-/post-study abroad learning? In the

study abroad programs for Japanese college students is tosection after the next, I will introduce a trial of language exchange

increase motivation for foreign language learning. In order toamong people in the local community that includes students at

obtain considerable results, it is essential to incorporate pre- as

Tokyo Keizai University.

well as post-study abroad learning. Yamauchi (2015) gives
exemplary descriptions of activities for pre-/post-study abroad
learning, arguing that various pre-/post-study abroad learning had

Increasing
Community

Diversity

in

the

Local

some visible effects on students’ TOEIC scores. Ohta, a scholar

Changing Population in Japanof international education in Japan, published an opinion article

In this paper, I argue that pre-/post-study abroad learning does noton Nikkei in May 2020 and argued that it is time to re-consider thehave to limit itself on campus. Japan’s population is more diverserole of studying abroad, and that it is essential to provide effective

than ever. According to the Ministry of Justice (October 25, 2019),

pre-/post-study abroad learning opportunities.

the number of foreign residents in Japan in June 2019 is about 2.5
million—an increase of 3.6% from 2018. It is the highest number

Limited Resources on Campus
Theabovementioned limitationofpre-/post-study abroad

opportunities applies to Tokyo Keizai University, the author’s
affiliation. During the academic year 2019, 299 students at Tokyo
Keizai University participated in study abroad programs madeavailable by the institution, and 63.5% chose programs that were
one month or less. Some programs with 20–30 participants comewith some pre-study abroad sessions. The two-week MarionFlinders Community Exchange Program comes with a four-day
pre-study abroad session on campus conducted by native
speakers of English. The five-month Global Career Program
comes with designated pre-/post-study abroad courses with

ever, and it corresponds to about 2% of the total population ofJapan. The top five home counties of foreign residents are listed
in Table 1.
This demographic change gives rise to a newopportunity, namely language exchanges between Japanese
residents and foreign residents. In what follows I will briefly
mention some examples of language learning activities between
Japanese residents and foreign residents. However, to myknowledge, the documented examples of language learning
activities between Japanese college students and foreign
residents are scarce.

credits. For other programs on campus, no significant pre-/poststudy abroad sessions are held other than a short workshop on
travel tips and safety issues.
Most of the students at Tokyo Keizai University whostudy abroad are left on their own, and they normally seek oncampus resources. The two main options are English courses and

The PanSIG Journal 2020 87

Table 1. Top five home countries of foreign residents in Japan in

as a commuter town. According to the statistics by the city of2019

Kokubunji, the number of foreign residents in the city is 2,564,

Home country

numberratio

1. China

786,241

27.8%

2. South Korea

451,543

16.0%

3. Vietnam

371,755

13.1%

4. Republic of the Philippines

277,4099.8%

5. Brazil

206,886

7.3%

Source: Ministry of Justice (2019)about 2% of its population, as of August 1, 2020. The Kokubunji
International Association (2020) reports that they are from 65
nations and regions. The top five home countries are listed inTable 2 blow.

Table 2. Top five home counties of foreign residents in Kokubunjiin January 2020

A well-known example of language exchange is Xingqiri

Home country

numberratio

hanyu jiao (“Sunday Chinese on the corner”) organized by

1. China

1,173

45.6%

Yuezhong Duan. According to its website, Xingqiri hanyu jiao

2. South Korea

387

15.0%

started in 2007, and it had held 629 meetings by February 9, 2020.

3. Nepal

202

7.9%

4. Vietnam

121

4.7%

5. Republic of the Philippines

106

4.1%

The purpose of this activity is to promote mutual understanding
between Chinese and Japanese people. Participants get together

Source: Kokubunji International Association (2020)

at a park in Ikebukuro and have conversations in Chinese andJapanese. Interested readers can refer to a newspaper article byDuan (November 4, 2010) on Nikkei. To my knowledge, suchmutual language exchanges are relatively minor. Major forms oflanguage learning activities between local Japanese people andforeign residents are represented by Japanese classes often
organized by local international associations. The Agency for
Cultural Affairs (2019) reports that out of 579 organizations thatoffer Japanese language lessons, 23.5% are international
associations, and 19.5% are voluntary groups.

In Kokubunji, the Kokubunji International Association has been
taking a leading role in promoting mutual understanding between
Japanese and foreign residents. According to its website (n.d.),the association was established in 1991, and Japanese language
classes run by local volunteers have been its major activities.
Students at Tokyo Keizai University in the city of Kokubunji haveoccasionally been involved in the events promoted by the
Kokubunji

International

Association.

However,long-term

participation has not been reported.

One example worth mentioning is the Shibazono
Kakehashi Project, an organization mainly run by college students
in Kawaguchi, Saitama Prefecture. In the town of Shibazono,
foreign residents have outnumbered Japanese residents since2016, according to the Shibazono Kakehashi Project (n.d.). The
Shibazono Kakehashi Project has been run mainly by college
students to promote communication among the residents of thetown, and their activities are not limited to language learning.
Nevertheless, it is a good example where Japanese college
students are involved in activities with foreign residents in the local
community and raise cultural and language awareness.

Kokubunji City

Kokubunji Local
History and Members
Kokubunji Local launched in July 2019 as a Japanese and English
language exchange group among people in the Kokubunji area.
Its original members attended the Japanese language classes run
by the Kokubunji International Association. The author herself isalso an original member. The group then started inviting more
people, including students at Tokyo Keizai University. Kokubunji
Local provides valuable opportunities for the students, especiallythose who plan to study abroad or have returned to Japan after
their study abroad programs.
During an organization meeting of Kokubunji Local, a

The number of foreign residents has also increased in Kokubunji,
a city located in the western part of Tokyo Prefecture and known

question was raised as to whether it would be a good idea to set
Japanese and English language exchanges as the purpose of

The PanSIG Journal 2020 88

their activities because, for many of the members, neither

Activities

language was a native language. However, the initial members

The activities of Kokubunji Local are organized in the following

agreed that Japanese was their common language, and English

manner. Members get together at a café called Café Local near

was a language that everyone was interested in; thus, the two

the Kokubuji Station of the JR Chuo Line once a week for one hour

languages would be beneficial to everyone.

(Zoom meetings have been held during the coronavirus

As of August 2020, the Kokubunji Local has 35 members

pandemic.) The group has two organizers, one of whom is thefrom 11 countries and regions; 15 members are from Japan,

author of this paper. The organizers of the day divide participants

including eight students from Tokyo Keizai University, and 20 are

into small tables with three to four people, and time is divided into

foreign residents. The members are native or near-native

two 30-minute sessions. The first session is used to practice either

speakers of at least 12 languages, which are listed in Table 3.

English or Japanese, switching language for the second session.

Notice that for non-native speakers of Japanese, English may not

As the organization is quite simple, anyone can act as organizer.

be their native language.

As of July 2020, 32 meetings (including eight online
meetings) have been conducted with a total of 207 participants—

Table 3. Languages that members of Kokubuji Local speak as

an average of 6.5 participants per meeting. Meetings are held

native or near-native speakers

during semesters and paused during long breaks because theLanguage

number of native/near-native speakers

venue is located near Tokyo Keizai University, which is often far

Japanese15

from home for the students of Tokyo Keizai University.

English12

Mandarin Chinese

4

Spanish

2

Hindi

2

Mongolian

1

Slovak1

Italian1

Min'nan Chinese

1

Tagalog

1

Indonesian1

Finish1

Benefits for Japanese College Students
Kokubunji Local provides Japanese college students with
opportunities to learn many things that they are unlikely to comeacross on campus. First, it creates situations that are somewhat
similar to study abroad circumstances. For instance, participants
speak English with accents as it is a foreign language for many ofthem; they also use much more casual English compared to thatspoken in English courses on campus. This is particularly usefulfor students who plan to study abroad as they are likely to
encounter similar situations. For most of the participants from
Tokyo Keizai University, Kokubunji Local is the only place where

As shown in Table 3, Kokubuji Local has a relatively
large number of English speakers. This is because many nonJapanese members are computer engineers and use English as
their working language. They work for high-tech firms in Kokubuji
and its neighboring areas, such as Hitachi, Renesas Electronics,
and the National Institute of Information and Communications
Technology. Another group of English speakers among themembers comprises English teachers working in high schools anduniversities. Note that even if the members do not include manynative speakers of English, that is unlikely to be a major challenge,
as English is widely spoken by a great number of people otherthey have a chance to practice English with someone who is not
an English teacher. This is important because students generally
wish to practice English with friends rather than with teachers.
Second,Japanesecollegestudents

have

the

opportunity to hear exchange students of their age speak English.
Among the members, a college student from China and anotherstudent at a Japanese language school from Mongolia speak
English fluently. Neither of them has studied in English-speaking
areas, and they both learned English through school education
only. They set a good example and give extra motivation to
Japanese college students.

than native speakers.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 89

Third, Japanese college students have the opportunity

Unless a meeting is exceptionally large, a corner on a college

to interact with people who speak English and work across

campus or a spacious café serves as a venue. More importantly,

countries. For instance, among the members, an IT engineer fromthe selected venue should have good access to public

Indonesia who studied in Malaysia and speaks fluent English

transportation. For students, it is best to find a place with no cost;came to Japan to work for an IT firm. Although her Japanese is

if it is difficult to find a free space, a café with a cup of coffee canstill limited, it is not a major obstacle for her to work in Japan. She

be acceptable for students. As far as I have determined, weekday

came to Japan to experience the culture, but she would like to go

evenings suit college students the best as they do not come toto Europe when given the chance. More or less similarschool when they do not have classes to attend. For this reason,

circumstances apply to other participants with good IT skills. One

Kokubunji Local pauses its activities during long breaks.

Japanese college student says, “I want to work globally as theydo. They are my dreams come true.”
Needless to say, Kokubunji Local has its limits.
Language exchange for one hour per week is not enough to bringany significant improvement in terms of proficiency. It should thenbe considered as a measure to help develop language awareness.

Carrying Conversation
To carry out meaningful conversation, it is important to encourage
long-term participation. When the group started in July 2019,
participants spent most of the time introducing themselves to one
another. However, as they got to know each other more, theyfound common interests such as anime, books, travels, etc.,

Benefits for Non-Student Participants

allowing the conversation to become much more fruitful. As it can

Non-student participants also benefit from the activities ofbe difficult for participants to find topics to talk about, organizers

Kokubunji Local. For those who came to Japan, Kokubunji Local

may set a topic for each meeting. Alternatively, they may prepare

is a place to practice casual conversations in Japanese. Manya box with topics written on small strips of paper, and participants

members who are IT engineers or English instructors mention that

may randomly draw one in each session.

they do not have many opportunities to improve their Japaneseskills at their workplaces. They also say that it is quite interestingfor them to learn about the lifestyles of Japanese college students
in detail, which are quite different from what they experienced intheir home countries.
For non-student participants from Japan, Kokubunji
Local serves as a place to brush up their English as well as makefriends in the local community. Four of them have received formal

If possible, it is beneficial to have a language teacher at
each table as they generally know how to get all the participants
involved in the conversation. In Kokubunji Local, eight members
have experience as language teachers of either English or
Japanese. College students are also encouraged to volunteer toorganize meetings and post reminders to the members. They canalso play an active role in keeping Facebook and other social
networking sites.

or informal training in teaching Japanese as a foreign language
and are willing to help participants with limited Japanese skills.

Involvement of Instructors
As an instructor of English at Tokyo Keizai University as well as

Suggestions for Further Trial
How to Get Started
One option is to advertise through local international associations
to draw initial members, if one wishes to be conservative.
Advertising via social media is, of course, an option, though it may
be associated with some risk. Kokubunji Local started among
members of the Kokubunji International Association and invites
new members upon referral from current members.

one of the co-organizers of Kokubunji Local, I have attended mostof its meetings. Based on my experience, I suggest instructors joinmeetings at least for the first few times, so that students with low
proficiency in English feel safe. Once students are used toattending meetings,

this may be discontinued,

althoughoccasional participation could be useful. Some involvement ofcollege instructors also gives non-student members a sense of
security.

Venue and TimeThe PanSIG Journal 2020 90

It should be pointed out that not every instructor would
be willing to volunteer to be involved in off campus activities forfree. What would be the benefit for instructors? Activities in local
areas provide instructors an access to recourses for potential

https://www.jasso.go.jp/about/statistics/intl_student_s/__icsFil
es/afieldfile/2020/04/21/datar01n.pdf
Kobayashi, C. (2017). Effect of short-term study abroad on L2
motivation. Tenri University Journal, 68(2), 1-19.

international activities/guest lectures on campus. I myself

Kokubunji City. (August 1, 2020). Jyuumin kihon daityoo jinkoo

benefitted much from Kokubunji Local, and I have invited someoyobi setai tsukibetu suii [Residents registration and monthly

members as guest speakers to my linguistics courses and English

household numbers]. Retrieved August 8, 2020 fromcourses.

http://www.city.kokubunji.tokyo.jp/smp/_res/projects/default_p
roject/_page_/001/007/316/setitukibetusuii20200801.pdf

Conclusion

Kokubunji International Association. (n.d.) Kokubunji

This paper documents a relatively rare example of language

International Association. Retrieved August 8, 2020 fromexchange called Kokubunji Local among people in the Kokubunji

https://www.1991kia.jp/

area, which includes Japanese college students. Kokubunji Local

Kokubunji International Association. (2020). Gaikoku ni ruutsu no

has been providing a study abroad-like environment, serving as

aru jidoo seito no nihongo gakusyuu sapootaa yousei kouza

an additional pre-/post-study abroad learning opportunity. At[workshop of Japanese language supporters for students

present, Kokubunji Local remains a small trial. However, it has thewho have international background].

potential to become a leading place for mutual understanding in

Ohta, H. (May 3, 2020) . Korona de kiki no kokusai kyoiku

the diverse local community that Japanese college students cankooryuu: ryuugaku no igi toiaoshi o [International education in

be part of.

crisis under pandemic: re-think the meaning of study abroad].
Nihon Keizai Shimbun. Retrieved August 8, 2020 from

Acknowledgments

https://r.nikkei.com/article/DGXMZO58763460S0A500

I would like to express my gratitude to the members of Kokubunji

C2CK8000

Local. I also thank the audience of PanSig2020 for their valuablecomments and suggestions on the earlier version of this paper.

Shibazonodanchi Kakehashi Project. (n.d.) Shibazonodanchi
Kakehashi Project. Retrieved August 8, 2020 fromhttps://shibazonokakehashi.org/

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The PanSIG Journal 2020 91

Can the LMS promote self-regulated learning and cooperative learning?
Students’ Perception about the LMS in an English Course at a University

Yukie Saito
Chuo University
The spread of Covid-19 required many university English classes to be offered online, which has increased theneed for Learning Management Systems (LMS) because students can access important information for a course,manage and submit assignments, and interact with a teacher and among students. In 2019, a learning management
system (LMS) called Manaba was used to promote students’ self-regulated learning and cooperative learning in afour-skill-integrated English course for first-year university students. The LMS was used to share PowerPoint slides
for every class and assign grammar questions, writing tasks, and group presentations. A questionnaire survey anda focus group interview were conducted to investigate whether the LMS use helped them manage their learningand work cooperatively with classmates. The questionnaire and interview results showed that the LMS helped
manage their learning and work cooperatively with classmates. The study was conducted before Covid-19, but it
showed the use of the LMS for their learning management and cooperative learning helped the students be readyfor sudden changes to online classes.

Covid-19 の拡大により多くの大学の英語授業がオンラインで提供されるようになったことで、学生がコースの重要な情報にアクセス、課題を管理・提出、教師や学生間の交流ができることから、学習管理システム（LMS）の必要性が高まった。2019 年に、大学 1 年生を対象とした 4 技能統合英語コースにおいて、学生の自己調整学習や協働学習を促進するために Manaba と呼ばれる学習管理システム（LMS）を活用した。この LMS を用いて、毎回の授業のパワーポイントスライドを共有し、文法問題、ライティング課題、グループプレゼンテーションの課題を課した。LMS の利用が学習管理やクラスメートとの協働学習に役立っているかどうかを調査するために、アンケート調
査とフォーカスグループインタビューを実施した。アンケート調査とインタビューの結果、LMS は学習管理やクラスメートとの協働学習に役立っていることが示された。本研究は Covid-19 以前に実施されたものであるが、LMS を利用した学習管理や協働学習が、急なオンライン授業へ変更への準備に役立ったことが示された。

The importance of integrating technology in education to promotetools to manage documents (Kasim & Khalid, 2016). Thus, the use

effective learning has been emphasized recently. One of theof LMS is expected to promote students’ self-regulated learningtechnologies widely used in universities in Japan is Learningand cooperative learning. Self-regulated learners are defined as

Management Systems (LMS). The spread of Covid-19 required“metacognitively,

many university English classes to be offered online, which has

participants in their own learning” (Zimmerman, 1986, p.308)”.

increased the need for LMS because students can accessSelf-regulated learners metacognitively can plan, organize,

important information for a course, manage and submit

monitor and organize their learning, motivationally can perceive

assignments, and interact with a teacher and among students.

themselves as competent, self-efficacious, and autonomous, andThree main functions of LMS are learning skill tools to assign

behaviorally can select, structure, and create environments toquizzes and presentations, communication tools to help students

optimize their learning (Zimmerman, 1986). Cooperative learninginteract with a lecturer and between students, and productivity

emphasizes students’ social aspects in a heterogenous group andmotivationally,

andbehaviorally

The PanSIG Journal 2020 92

activeaims to improve student performance by working together in small
groups to complete a task (Nilakusmawati et. al., 2021). It is

Participants in the Course and the LMS for the
Coursereported that the use of LMS can increase students’ self-

Participants of the study were 20 first-year students in a four-skill

regulation by increasing students’ academic outcomes, reducing

integrated English course, and their English proficiency was about

dropout rates, and giving more learning opportunities (Mtshali,
Maistry & Governder, 2015) and help students set goals(Kitsantas & Dabbagh, 2004). LMS use can also promote
cooperative learning and develop social skills and achieve
academic tasks while working cooperatively (Nilakusmawati, et.
al., 2021). Helping students be self-regulated learners and learn
cooperatively with other students in English classes is importantbecause skills for self-regulated learning and cooperative learning
can be applied to other areas of education and even to their future

700 points on TOEIC Listening and Reading. The university I work
for introduces an LMS, Manaba. Manaba is a convenient anduseful LMS because students can work on quizzes, reports, andprojects set on Manaba by an instructor. Thus, it is expected theuse of the LMS can help students manage their learning
effectively. Students can also work cooperatively with otherstudents and prepare for their group slides on the LMS when they
make a group presentation.

careers. Therefore, it will be meaningful to investigate whether an

The Use of the LMS for Self-Regulated Learning
and Cooperative Learning in the Course

LMS use can help students promote their self-regulated learning

In this course, in order to help the students to manage theirand work cooperatively with classmates. This study aims tolearning and work cooperatively, the LMS was used to shareinvestigate whether students think an LMS used for a course

PowerPoint slides for every class, and assign grammar questions,helped manage their learning and work cooperatively with otherwriting tasks, and group presentations. In the spring semester, I

classmates. The research questions of this study are thehanded the copied PowerPoint slides. However, in the fall

followings.

semester, I shared them on the LMS to have the students accessclass materials before a class and review them after the class

1. Whether students think the LMS helped manage their learning?
easily.
2. Whether students think the LMS helped work cooperatively withother classmates?

PowerPoint slides with detailed explanations ofgrammatical points and questions related to grammatical points
were also assigned on the LMS. One of the main reasons for
assigning grammar questions on the LMS was to study grammar

Methods
A questionnaire survey and a focus group interview wereconducted to answer the research questions. In this section, first,
participants in the course and an LMS used in the course will be
explained. Following that, the information about how the LMS wasused to promote self-regulated learning and cooperative learning
will be provided. Then, the questionnaire respondents and thedata collection and analysis of the questionnaire are explained.
Finally, the information about the interview participants and thedata collection and analysis of the interview are presented.

on their own at home and have more communication time in
English in the class.
Writing assignments were also shared on the LMS.
Examples of writing assignments were to describe theneighborhood where they live and to write a message to a partner
to get advice about their worry or concern. They worked on theassignments individually at home and they read a partner’s writing
and had the partner read their writing on the LMS in the class andgive and receive feedback in the class.
A group presentation project was assigned on the LMS
for the students to work cooperatively with other members. On the
LMS, different groups can be created for one project; thus, 20
students were divided into five groups for the group presentation
project. They communicated with other students by writing

The PanSIG Journal 2020 93

comments on the project part of the LMS while they wereinterview was conducted. Interview questions prepared werepreparing for PowerPoint slides.

related to whether setting assignments on the LMS helped them
manage their learning and work cooperatively with classmates.

Questionnaire of Students’ Perception about theUse of the LMS

The interview was conducted in Japanese, the interview data
were transcribed, and the data were coded and analyzed using

To investigate students’ perceptions about using the LMS, I

content analysis. Coding is a technique for identifying statements

conducted a questionnaire survey after the final class in theby attaching one or more keywords to a text (Kvale & Brinkmann,academic year of 2019. For the questionnaire survey, 19 students2009). The coding I used was based on self-regulated learning

among the 20 students responded to it. Questions were Do you

and cooperative learning. For self-regulated learning, Online Self-

prefer to have PowerPoint slides shared on paper or Manaba?

Regulated Learning Questionnaire (OSLQ) was used as a(Q1), Was sharing PowerPoint slides useful for preparing for andreference (Barnard et al., 2009). For example, if utterances werereviewing classes? (Q2), Was submitting assignments on Manaba

related to goal setting, environmental structuring, task strategies,

helpful in managing your learning? (Q3), Were the grammar

and time management,

assignments on Manaba helpful in reviewing and learningtranscription and coded (GS), (ES), (TS), and (TM) respectively. I

grammar? (Q4), Was sharing the writing assignments on Manaba

added a coding of (LM) for learning management inductively. As

helpful in communicating with classmates in English? (Q5) andfor cooperative learning, I underlined sentences on theWas preparing for a presentation on Manaba helpful fortranscription and coded (CL). Coded sentenced were translated

collaborative work? (Q6). Q1 was to ask their preference aboutfrom Japanese to English.

I

underlined sentences on thethe distribution method of PowerPoint slides, Q2, Q3, and Q4 are
related to whether the LMS was helpful for managing their learning

Resultsand Q5 and Q6 are related to whether the LMS was helpful for

Results of the Questionnairelearning cooperatively. For Q1, answer choices were on paper or

Figure 1 shows results of the questionnaire survey about the use

Manaba. An open question to ask the reason for their preferenceof the LMS. As shown in Figure 2, nearly 90 % of the students

was added after Q1. Answer choices from Q2 to Q6 were very

preferred to have PowerPoint slides on the LMS, Manaba. To thehelpful, a little helpful, not so helpful, and not helpful at all.

open question about the preference, among the students who
preferred to have PowerPoint slides on the LMS, there wereanswers such as I don’t have to be worried about losing it., Having

Interview of Students’ Perception about the Use of
the LMS

data is easy to manage. , If I have a cellphone at hand, I can look

A focus group and semi-structured interview using ZOOM were

trouble of managing the materials and look at it anytime. For many

also conducted to investigate students’ perception of using thestudents, having PowerPoint slides’ data on the LMS helped

LMS in the course. It was conducted in June in 2020, five months

manage the class materials. The result infers that simply changing

after the course. Two male (Student A, Student B) and two female

the distribution methods from paper-based materials to the LMS-

students (Student C and Student D) were the interview

based materials helped the students access the materials easily

participants. The students were the first-year students while taking

and manage them effectively.

at it (PP slides on Manaba) and it’s more useful. , I can save thethe course, and they became the second-year students when the

The PanSIG Journal 2020 94

Q1

Q2

5%

5%

11%
16%

74%
89%

ManabaVery helpful

A little helpful

Not so helpful

Not helpful at all

Q3

5%

Q4

5%

10%

11%

37%

16%

79%

37%

Very helpful

A little helpful

Very helpful

A little helpful

Not so helpful

Not helpful at all

Not so helpful

Not helpful at all

Q5

0%

Q6

5%

5%

10%
16%
37%

53%
74%

Very helpful

A little helpful

Very helpful

A little helpful

Not so helpful

Not helpful at all

Not so helpful

Not helpful at all

Figure 1. Students’ Perception about the Use of the LMS

The PanSIG Journal 2020 95

As shown in Figure 2, most of the students found that sharing

プロジェクトをやりましょうっていうふうに提示されることで、PowerPoint slides on the LMS was useful for preparing andreviewing classes. While I was distributing paper-based handouts,

自分たちでやっていこうという動機付けになった。”(A project in

I gave them the handouts after a class began. However, the use

a group being presented (on the LMS), we were motivated to doof the LMS enabled me to share class materials before a class.

it on our own). As the utterance shows, the group project assigned

As a result, the students were able to prepare for the class. At theon the LMS motivated them and helped them take the initiative ofsame time, sharing the class materials on the LMS may havetheir learning and move forward to the same goal.

increased their time to review the class contents as in the one
student’s comment about easy accessibility to the materials on the
LMS.
As for the grammar assignments, more than 70 % of thestudents found it very helpful or a little helpful, while more than

Regardingenvironmental

structuring,Students B

commented: ‟ラーニングコモンズだったりだとか、そういった施設の利用の仕方を覚えていたっりだとか、そうゆう学部の利用の仕方について、すごい理解が深まった.” (I learned how to

one-fourth of the students found it not so helpful or not helpful atall. Although I shared PowerPoint slides with detailed explanations

use the Learning Commons and other facilities, and I gained aof grammatical points and quizzes related to grammatical points,

deeper understanding of how to use such facilities). The Learning

many students found it not helpful. This implies that for students

Commons is the facility at the campus where students can work

to learn grammar and work on quizzes on the LMS, improvements

together such as practicing a presentation. The student was ain assigning quizzes may be needed.

first-year student then, and his comment infers that the group

Ninety percent of the students think that sharing thewriting assignments on the LMS was very helpful or a little helpfulproject allowed the student to look for an environment at thecampus to prepare for the project.

in communicating with classmates in English. For the writing

It was also helpful for learning management as one

assignments, the students opened their PCs, read one student’s

student mentioned that all group members could obtain the samewriting on the LMS, and gave feedback on it in the class. The use

data on the LMS, which saved the trouble of sharing the data. Also,of the LMS made it easier for the students to access thestudent C mentioned sharing the course data was helpful because

classmates’ writing. Although writing assignments were not groupshe could check the data on the LMS with her PC easily. She also

work but pair work, it seemed helpful in communicating withcommented that the LMS function for students to receive emails

classmates in English.

after a task is assigned became a reminder, which helped him

About preparing for a group presentation on the LMS,

manage assignments.

90% of the students found it very helpful or a little helpful forcollaborative work. In fact, after the project of the grouppresentation was set, the students were interacting with othermembers by writing messages on the project page of the LMS and

The use of the LMS seemed helpful in time management
as Student A mentioned: ‟レポートの提出期限が載っているので、きっちりスケジュール管理をしなくてもなんとなく、いつ何をsome groups resubmitted PowerPoint slides several times afterrevisions reflecting comments through the interaction.

出せばいいのかっていうのが分かりやすかった.” (The due dates
for the reports are listed (on the LMS), so it was easy for me toknow when and what I should submit without having to keep a

Results of the Interview
In this section, the results of the interview based on the coding arestrict schedule). Student D also added the convenience of the
LMS’s integration with Google Calendar in terms of timepresented with original Japanese utterances and their translation
management.
in brackets.The results of the interview showed the use of the LMS
was helpful in goal setting as Student B mentioned, “グループで

The group project assigned on the LMS also helped
them work cooperatively with other students as Student C
The PanSIG Journal 2020 96

commented: ‟あの manaba 上での資料配布からのグループワー

Kitsantas & Dabbagh, 2004). LMS can increase students’ selfregulation by increasing students’ academic outcomes, reducing

クみたいなのは、割と私にとっては、グループワークって結構、
おっきな、大変なプロジェクトっていうイメージだったんです
けど、結構やりやすくて、その点はすごい良かったです.”dropout rates, and giving more learning opportunities (Mtshali,
Maistry, & Governder, 2015), and help students set goals(Kitsantas & Dabbagh, 2004). In this study, the students perceived
the use of the LMS helped prepare for and review a class, work

(I had an image of group work as a big and difficult project, but it
was quite easy to do, which was a good point) .

on assignments keeping deadlines in mind, move forward toachieve a goal of making a group presentation, and look for anenvironment to work on the group presentation efficiently. In the

Another comment by Student D also shows that theinterview, one student said that she used the reminder function by

project promoted cooperation among the members: ‟どうやってreceiving emails not to forget the deadlines. Using the calendar

共有するのか、みんなでスライドを共有して作るのかっていう、feature of LMS to provide automated reminders about project
dues is recommended (Terry & Doolittle, 2006). The student’s

そういうところも自分たちで工夫しながらとか、みんなで話す
機 会 が 増 え た な と は 思 い ま す .” (I think we have more

remark implies that the use of the LSM helped her be a selfregulated learner and made her think of finding a more efficient
way to manage her learning while she was using the LMS.

opportunities to talk about sharing and creating slides together
and devising our own ideas).

One of the main functions of LMS is to help students
interact with a lecturer and between students (Kasim & Khalid,

In this course, PowerPoint slides to explain important
2016). The past study (Nilakusmawati et. al., 2021) showed thatgrammar points, and grammar quizzes were shared on the LMSLMS could also promote cooperative learning, develop social
to maximize class time for communicative activities. Student D
skills, and achieve academic tasks. The questionnaire and thecommented about working grammar quizzes as an assignment: ‟interview results showed that the use of the LMS helped motivate
自分たちでできることは自分たちで学んで、課題としてあればやるので大丈夫だと思います。授業なので、皆さん、せっかく

them to move forward to the same goal, prepare and review theclass contents, increase interactions with the group members andeven reduce pressure to do the group project.

時間をつくって参加してるってことなので、積極的に双方向のIn order to create more interaction time in classes, I
時間になれたらなと思います.”（I think it’s okay for us to learn

intentionally introduced flipped learning, a type of blended

what we can do and to do it as an assignment on our own. Since

learning in which class time is typically reserved for discussion

this is a class and everyone has taken the time to participate, I

related to the contents covered in assignments outside of classhope we can make (the class time) a positive interactive time).

(Shine & Heath, 2020) and had them work on the grammar

Her comments infer that she thinks the grammar assignments on

assignments outside of class. Students’ favorable opinions aboutthe LMS was helpful for them to learn on their own and to increase

MOOC-based flipped learning were reported in the study by Wanginteractive time in classes.

and Chang (2019). Although more than one-fourth of the students
found the grammar assignments on the LMS not so helpful or not
helpful at all, one student in the interview mentioned that theDiscussions and Implications
This study investigated whether students think the LMS was
helpful in managing their learning and working cooperatively withgrammar assignments on the LMS meaningful because she thinksthat they can have more interactive time in classes by doing thegrammar assignments on their own. However, more connection
with grammar assignments that they do on the LMS andother classmates. The past studies showed that technology could
promote students’ self-regulated learning (Hu& Gramling, 2009;

communicative interactions using the grammar might be needed.
The rationale for having grammar assignments on the LSM to
The PanSIG Journal 2020 97

create more interaction time in classes may need to be explained

To maximize online or blended learning, effective use of LMS will

explicitly to students.

be essential. Though limited functions of the LMS were used inthis course; however, to promote self-regulated learning andConclusion

cooperative learning, multiple functions of LMS may need to beThis study investigated whether the first-year university students

used by instructors, and benefits of using different functions may

perceived using the LMS in the English course was useful foralso need to be investigated.

managing their learning and working cooperatively withclassmates. The results of the questionnaire survey and theReferencesinterview showed that the LMS helped them prepare for andBarnard, L., Lan, W. Y., To, Y. M., Paton, V. O., & Lai, S.-L.

review a class, work on assignments, achieve a goal, and look for(2009). Measuring self-regulation in online and blended

an environment to prepare for the group project efficiently. In

learning environments. The Internet and Higher

terms of that, the use of the LMS promoted their self-regulated

Education, 12(1), 1-6.

learning. The results also showed that the LMS enabled theKasim, N.N.M., & Khalid. F. (2016). Choosing the right learning

students to motivate them to move forward to the same goal,

management system (LMS) for the higher education

prepare for and review PowerPoint slides for the group project andinstitution context: A systematic review. International

interact with the group members. Therefore, using the LMS was

Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 11(6),helpful for them to work cooperatively.

55-61.

However, this study did not investigate whether the useof the LSM helped them be self-regulated learners. Therefore, aquestionnaire survey about self-regulated learning can be
conducted before and after a course where the LMS is integrated.
In addition, a weekly journal related to self-regulated learning after
each class can be added to investigate changes in their selflearning behaviors. Regarding cooperative learning, one student
commented that the group project enabled her to work on groupprojects in other classes effectively, which shows the applicationof cooperative learning to other classes. Therefore, what effects
of group work projects assigned on the LMS may have on
students’ learning outcome needs to be investigated.

Kitsantas, A., & Dabbagh, N .(2004). Promoting self-regulation in
distributed learning environments with web-based
pedagogical tools: An exploratory study. Journal on
Excellence in College Teaching, 15(1&2), 119-142.
Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). Interviews: Learning the craftof qualitative research interviewing. Sage.
Mtshali, M.A., Maistry, S.M.,& Governder, D.M.(2015). Online
chats: A strategy to enhance learning in large classes.
South African Journal of Education, 35(4), 1-9.
Nilakusmawati, D.P.E., Suprapti, N.W.S. Darmawan, I. D.M.B.A.,
Raharja, M.A. (2021). Analysis of student interaction
with learning objects on blended learning course
applying cooperative learning together method on

The spread of Covid-19 forced many university
students to take online classes. In the interview, one student
mentioned that he has been able to adapt to online classes to a

Moodle learning management system. Journal of
Physics, 1722. 1-8.
Shine, B., & Heath, S. (2020). Techniques for fostering self-large degree because he was used to using the LMS. Sudden

regulated learning via learning management systems inchanges to online teaching and learning have made the use of

on-campus and online courses. Journal of Teaching

technology inevitable in implementing English classes. In addition,and Learning with Technology, 9(1), 119-126.

LMS has become an essential tool for students to access
important information for a course, manage and submit

Terry, K.P., & Doolittle, P. (2006). Fostering self-regulation in
distributed learning. College Quarterly, 9(1).1-8.

assignments, and interact with a teacher and other students in

Wang, K.,& Chang, Z. (2019). MOOC-based flipped learning in

online classes. Even after Covid-19, universities may continue tohigher education: Students’ participation, experienceoffer online or blended learning courses considering their benefits.

and learning performance. International Journal of

The PanSIG Journal 2020 98

Educational Technology in Higher Education, 16(33), 118.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1986). Becoming a self-regulated learner:
Which are the key subprocesse?. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 11, 307-313.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 99

JALT Special Interest Groups & the PanSIG
Conference
Bilingualism
Our group provides support to families who are bringing up children in two or more languages in Japanese contexts. Our newsletter,
Bilingual Japan, includes practical information about bilingual parenting, as well as academic and theoretical issues. The SIG’s annual
forum and banquet at the national conference provide an opportunity for members to network with other bilingual families. Further
information can be found at www.bsig.org.

Business Communication
The JALT Business Communication (BizCom or BC) SIG represents a group of like-minded teachers intended to develop the disciplineof teaching English conducive to participation in the world business community in Japan. To facilitate this, we aim to provide instructors
in this field with a means of collaboration and sharing best teaching practices.

CEFR and Language Portfolio
CEFR & LP SIG wants to discuss the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) and European Language Portfolio (ELP), andother similar frameworks andtheir relevance for Japan. There is an emphasis on developing materials to support educators who would
like to use these pedagogic tools; the bilingual Language Portfolio for Japanese University is available on the SIG website.

College and University Educators
Our goal is to provide a forum for the presentation and discussion of educational activities, ideas and research of broad interest to college
and university educators in Japan. If you are involved in tertiary education and are committed to professional development, you are CUE
too.

Computer Assisted Language Learning
The CALL SIG serves the interests of language teaching professionals who are interested in bringing together knowledge and skills oftechnology and language learning. CALL practitioners work in a variety of educational settings: private language schools, elementary andsecondary schools as well as colleges and universities.

Critical Thinking
The Critical Thinking (CT) SIG was established for the purpose of providing a clear but ever-reforming definition of critical thinking; toprovide a forum for the discussion of critical thinking and praxis; to provide research opportunities to language educators interested inpromoting critical thinking; and to provide an area where language teachers can enjoy friendly, professional and engaging examinationof the rationale, validity and, furthermore, the critical importance of its instruction in various environments.

Extensive Reading
The ER SIG exists to help promote extensive reading (ER) in Japan. Through our website, our newsletter, the ERJ Journal, andpresentations throughout Japan we aim to help teachers set up and make the most of their ER programmes.

Gender Awareness in Language Education
The purpose of the GALE SIG is to research gender and its implications for language learning, teaching, and training. We welcome
submissions for our newsletter (spring, summer, and fall issues) on topics, both theoretical and practical, related to the SIG's aims. Book
reviews, lesson plans, think pieces, poetry -- basically anything related to gender and language teaching is welcomed. To see our past
newsletters, please visit our website at www.gale-sig.org.

The PanSIG Journal 2020 100

Global Issues in Language Education
GILE aims to promote global awareness, international understanding, and action to solve world problems through content-based language
teaching, drawing from fields such as global education, peace education, environmental education, and human rights education. The SIG
produces a quarterly newsletter, organizes presentations for local, national, and international conferences, and maintains contacts withgroups ranging from Amnesty International to Educators for Social Responsibility to UNESCO.

Intercultural Communication in Language Education
This SIG aims to explore various ways language teachers could help shape their students’ intercultural minds, raise their students’ cultural
self-awareness, and educate for intercultural understanding. It promotes discussion about various approaches to teaching interculturalcommunication in a language classroom, allowing educators to become better informed about language intercultural education theory.
We also promote the development of resources appropriate to a foreign language teaching environment while considering the practicalchallenges of taking culture into account in the language classroom.

Japanese as a Second Language
日本語教育研究部会（JSL SIG）の役割は、第二言語としての日本語指導、日本語学習、日本語教育研究の向上を目指し、指導、学習、研究のための資料や情報を与えることです。日本語の指導者、学習者、研究者の皆様加入大歓迎です。発表の援助をし、ニュースレタ
ーと論文集を発行するので論文・記事の寄稿を歓迎します。
The mission of the Japanese as a Second Language (JSL) SIG is to serve as a resource for promoting JSL teaching, learning andresearch. We welcome JSL teachers, learners, and researchers to join and take an active role in our SIG.

Learner Development
The Learner Development SIG is an active and supportive community of individuals with a broad range of personal and professional
experiences, all sharing an interest in exploring learner (and educator) development. We encourage anyone with similar interests to join
us. To find out more, please visit our SIG's website, ld-sig.org.

Lifelong Language Learning
We offer a bright future to our aging society. The energy of older learners who wish to lead active lives is flowing all over Japan. LLL (LifeLong Learning) is willing to help these older learners enrich their lives through language learning. LLL also provides resources andinformation for teachers who teach English to older learners by holding events and publishing online newsletters.

Literature in Language Teaching
Hi! A hearty welcome to the Literature in Language Teaching SIG. We started up this group to encourage and promote the use of literaturein the language classroom. Literature provides real content to engage and to motivate our EFL students.

Materials Writers
The MW SIG was established for the purpose of helping members to turn fresh teaching ideas into useful classroom materials. We try to
be a mutual assistance network, offering information regarding copyright law, sharing practical advice on publishing practices, including
self-publication, and suggesting ways to create better language learning materials for general consumption or for individual classroomuse.
教材開発研究部会 (MW) は、メンバーが日々の教育の場で得た新しいアイディアを教材にしていく助けとなることを目的に設立されました。著作権に関すること、自費出版を含めた出版に関する実践的なアドバイス、広く一般学習者または特定の授業のためにどうしたらより良い語学教材が作れるか、といったことに関するアイディアを共有しお互いを高め合える部会であることが願いです。教材開発についてもっと知りたい、自分のアイディアを形にしたいという方、入会大歓迎です。一緒に活動しませんか。

The PanSIG Journal 2020 101

Mind, Brain, and Education
The Mind, Brain, and Education SIG is a forum for language educators and researchers to share insights in neuroscience. We hope tobe a driving force in bringing relevant new discoveries in psychology, cognitive neuroscience and neurolinguistics into language teachingin Japan.

Mixed, Augmented, and Virtual Realities
Mixed, Augmented and Virtual Realities (MAVR) is not a new concept or area of study, but it an area that is beginning to be implemented
at a larger scale in many other fields. There are those of us working in this area connected to education here in Japan and more specificallylanguage education in Japan. Our SIG is not just about the technology, it is also looking into what these technologies mean for how wecommunicate and learn as we create and augment our own reality.

Other Language Educators
Hello; dobr denj; kalimera; ni hao; guten tag; anyong hashimnikka; bonjour, buenos dias; hyvää päivää; bom dia; haisai; konnichiwa!
In a time when we can easily understand where and how other people live, there is still only one surefire way to find out what they think
individually or as a culture: to learn their language. As every culture contains specific patterns of thought and mindsets which cannot
always be put into English or translated easily from one language to another, learning its language opens the door to that culture and thecountries using it. The purpose of the OLE SIG is to serve the special needs of such learners and teachers.

Performance in Education
The mission of the Performance in Education (PIE) SIG is to provide a forum for teachers and academics to discuss, research, andimplement oral interpretation, speech, debate, and drama in language education. The main activities are creation of a newsletter andsponsoring a National Speech, Drama, and Debate Contest. Future activities may be the sponsoring of workshops and conferences, andsupporting local and regional speech, drama, and debate contests or festivals.

Pragmatics
The Pragmatics SIG welcomes members who are interested in both research and practical teaching issues related to "how people dothings with words." The group's newsletter, Pragmatic Matters, is published electronically three times a year. Our Pragmatics Resources
series offers practical and theoretical papers on language in use. If you do anything with language, you are using pragmatics! So, comejoin us!

School Owners
Language School owners have always played a significant role in JALT both at national & local levels. The SO SIG is where owners canshare ideas, experiences, and solutions to the academic and commercial challenges they face which cannot be addressed through other
SIGs. If you have questions or would like to learn more about what the SIG provides, please contact us at so@jalt.org or visit our
website at https://jaltsosig.wixsite.com/home .

Study Abroad
The Study Abroad SIG welcomes anyone interested into its wide membership, domestically and overseas. The aim is to facilitate an
active and working network of faculty, staff, and students who can share and exchange experiences, knowledge, and knowhow on how
to plan, prepare, implement, and evaluate different study abroad programs/experiences. Study abroad includes all categories of inboundand outbound, one-way study abroad, exchange, internships, experience, and cultural programs. The goal for many SIG members is to
network, to collect and share data and information for future collaboration, research, presentations, and papers in the area of study abroad.

Task-Based Learning
The JALT Task-Based Learning (TBL) SIG is a Special Interest Group aimed at teachers who currently use, or are interested in using,task-based approaches in the classroom. The SIG focuses in particular on issues related to Task-Based Language teaching and learningin the Asian EFL context, where TBLT has yet to enter the mainstream of language pedagogy. We hope that the SIG will serve as a usefulforum for the exchange of practical teaching ideas, theoretical discussion, and academic studies of TBLT issues.

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Teacher Development
The Teacher Development SIG is a group committed to helping ourselves and our peers to become more effective language teachers inorder to better serve learners. As such, our varied activities and interests include forums, conferences, and journals about professional
development, practitioner research, and reflective practice. Our SIG offers opportunities for teachers from different educational settings
to come together for careful and critical reflections and explorations of their practice, with a view to developing as professionals. The TD
SIG is a flexible group, open to new ideas and potential collaborations.

Teachers Helping Teachers
The THT SIG began from the charity work of the late Bill Balsamo and we organize 4 overseas conferences in Laos (Feb/Mar), Vietnam(Early August), Kyrygystan and Bangladesh (Sept, date depends on Ramadan) as well as work to develop overseas volunteer
opportunities. Participants pay their own way, and are asked to prepare 2-3 presentations (practical presentations are most welcome)that they may present multiple times to organize and fill out the conference schedule. For more information, please contact

thtjalt@gmail.com .

Teaching Younger Learners
The TYL SIG is for teachers of younger learners. This SIG was formed by the merger of the JALT Teaching Children SIG and the Junior
Senior High SIG in February 2015. The goal of the TYL SIG is to support those involved with or simply interested in the teaching of
languages to learners aged 0-18. We publish a bilingual newsletter with columns by many of the leading teachers in the field.

Testing and Evaluation
The Testing and Evaluation SIG aims to provide avenues for research, information, and discussion related to foreign language testingand evaluation both from within JALT membership and with other professional organizations which have common interests and goals.
Please visit our website at www.jalt.org/test.

Vocabulary
The Vocabulary Special Interest Group (Vocab SIG) provides a forum for focused research and discussion in specific regard to vocabularyacquisition. We offer both teachers and researchers a place to connect regarding how learners improve vocabulary knowledge, how totest their knowledge, and how these theoretical aspects connect to classroom practice. The Vocabulary SIG aims to be a driving force
for both current and future research in the field of how vocabulary can be taught, learned, and tested in an increasingly global context.

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PanSIG Journal 2020
ISBN# 978-4-901352-57-4
Patrick Conaway –Editor-in-Chief
Duncan Iske –Associate Editor
PanSIG Journal 2020
Selected articles from the 2020 PanSIG Conference

JALT Central OfficeUrban Edge Bldg. 5F, 1-37-9 Taito, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-0016, Japan
http://jalt.org/
http://www.pansig.org/

The PanSIG Journal 2020 104

PanSIG Journal 2020

ISBN# 978-4-901352-57-4
Created and Edited by Patrick Conaway and Duncan Iske

The PanSIG Journal 2020 105

PanSIG is a yearly conference held by the Special Interest Groups in
the Japan Association of Language Teachers.