The Japanese Journal of American Studies, No. 11 (2000)

Postmodern Motherhood and Ethnicity:
Maternal Discourse in Late Twentieth-Century
American Literature
Naoko SUGIYAMAI INTRODUCTION: POSTMODERNISM, ETHNICITY, AND MOTHERHOOD
It has been more than a quarter of the century since a large number ofwomen of color have emerged as productive and innovative writers in
the United States. African Americans such as Toni Morrison and Alice
Walker, Asian Americans such as Maxine Hong Kingston and Amy Tan,
Native Americans such as Leslie Silko and Louise Erdrich, just to namea few, immediately come to mind. Their works have often been read as
the expression of lived experiences or as documentation of speciﬁc cultures useful for sociological analysis but not for theoretical or philosophical insights which are relevant to the larger society.1 However, it
is more and more obvious that their works embody the fragmented anddecentered self that are often attributed only to white male postmodern
theorists and creative writers. In fact, ﬁctional works by women of color,and especially their ﬁctional representation of motherhood, can even be
viewed as the most ambitious and representative examples of postmodern American literature in the last two decades. While we tend to look
for typical examples of literary postmodernism in such authors as John
Barth, Thomas Pynchon, and Donald Barthelme, some critics claim that
postmodernism and postmodern theory have much to contribute to andgain from the discourses of marginalized cultures, such as those of ethnic minorities, the working classes, and women.
Copyright © 2000 Naoko Sugiyama. All rights reserved. This work may be used,with this notice included, for noncommercial purposes. No copies of this work
may be distributed, electronically or otherwise, in whole or in part, without permission from the author.
71

72

NAOKO SUGIYAMAFor example, in her essay “Postmodern Blackness,” bell hooks advocates the importance of postmodern theory, but claims that while postmodern theorists are concerned with “difference” and “Otherness,” theyignore the existence and contribution of African Americans, especially
black women. hooks claims that not only is postmodern theory relevant
to African American experiences and culture, but “the overall impact of
postmodernism is that many other groups now share with black folks asense of deep alienation, despair, uncertainty, loss of a sense of grounding even if it is not informed by shared circumstance” (27). She criticizes white male postmodern theorists who “speak to and about one
another with coded familiarity” (24), and proposes an alternative radical postmodernist practice, which will “incorporate the voices of displaced, marginalized, exploited, and oppressed black people” (25).
In accordance with hooks, Phillip Harper, in his Framing the Margins:
The Social Logic of Postmodern Culture, focuses on race, class and gender as crucial elements in comprehending postmodern literary discourse.
He demonstrates that so-called postmodern characteristics, such as fragmentation and decenteredness, have been severely felt, and in fact acutely represented, by white women writers such as Anaïs Nin and African
American male and female writers such as Ralph Ellison and Gwendolyn
Brooks. As Harper states in his analysis of Gwendolyn Brooks’ poem
“Mississippi Mother Burns Bacon, While Brownsville Mother Loiters”
and her novel Maude Martha, black motherhood represented in theseworks does not show, as some critics have claimed, the universality ofmaternal feelings and the possibility of black and white women’s solidarity through their common maternal identity. Rather, in “Mississippi
Mother,” Brooks’ juxtaposition of a white and a black mother succeeds
in illustrating the “variety and speciﬁcity of experiences that constitutethe array of subjectivities in the social body of the United States” and in
exposing the falseness of an ostensible universality of maternal experience (103). In Maude Martha as well, the protagonist’s anger seems tobe presented as universally maternal, since it is articulated most explicitly as a mother’s anger over her child being ignored by Santa Claus ina department store. Harper points out that Maude’s anger is maternal but
also racial as well because Santa Claus is friendly and attentive to whitechildren. He suggests that Maude’s subjectivity is fragmented because
it is maternal, since it is materialized “only when she projects it awayfrom herself and into the context of another’s experience” (114). He also
points out, however, that this fragmented anger is racially speciﬁc, since

POSTMODERN MOTHERHOOD AND ETHNICITY73

her anger is expressed only in the least threatening form to the existingsocial structure, namely, desire to participate in the “mainstream” economy as a consumer (115).
In this essay I intend to demonstrate the ways that literary representations of motherhood by women of ethnic minority groups are representative of postmodern creativity. For this purpose, I will ﬁrst present a
brief overview of the development of feminist theories of motherhoodand show how women of color’s maternal discourse may be crucial in
examining both postmodern realities and theories of postmodernism. I
will then demonstrate brieﬂy how ethnic women authors such as Toni
Morrison, Leslie Marmon Silko, and Maxine Hong Kingston make useof the concept of motherhood and of various strategies of maternal discourses to represent not only their realities but also U.S. society as awhole.
II FEMINIST MOTHERHOOD THEORIES FROM 1970S TO THE PRESENT
What is the relationship between motherhood and creativity? Whatkind of mechanism is working when a mother writes and speaks as a subject? These have been major concerns of feminist scholars in general andfeminist literary critics in particular. Feminist scholarship on mother ﬁgures and maternal discourse has been inﬂuenced by Freudian psychoanalytic theory, while shifting the focus of attention from the oedipal
father-child relationship to the pre-oedipal mother-child relationship.
This can be seen, for example, in Nancy Chodorow’s inﬂuential
Reproduction of Mothering. Adrienne Rich, in her Of Woman Born:
Motherhood as Institution and Experience and other essays, has emphasized the importance of mother-daughter relationships as the prototype
of women-to-women nurturing and affectionate relationships and, thus,
the source of female creativity. Those who are generally called “Frenchfeminists,” namely Julia Kristeva, Helene Cixous, and Luce Irigaray,
who draw from Freudian and Lacanian psychoanalytical and linguistic
theories, also emphasize the importance of the pre-oedipal mother-childrelationship and have been inﬂuential in American feminist scholarship.
Julia Kristeva has been especially attractive to those who focus on motherhood and discourse since she presents the maternal as the source of
poetic language and subversive power.
In the 1980s, feminists’ interests in mothers as subjects grew, and they
began to explore the representation of motherhood from a mother’s point

74

NAOKO SUGIYAMA

of view. Marianne Hirsch, in her Mother/Daughter Plot: Narrative,
Psychoanalysis, Feminism, questions why mothers’ stories (such as
Oedipus’ mother Jocasta’s) are seldom told from the mothers’ point ofview. Hirsch points out that women, including feminists, tend to speak
and write as daughters more than they do as mothers. What Hirsch calls“maternal discourse” has indeed been scarce among literary works andfeminist scholarship. Existing theories on motherhood and motherdaughter relationships are mostly written from a daughter’s point ofview, and reﬂect the feminist daughter’s ambivalence and sometimes
resentment and hatred toward her mother and mother ﬁgures. Many theorists such as Susan Rubin Suleiman point out that when a woman speaks
as a mother, her narrative tends to split in two: herself as a mother, andalso as a daughter of her mother (Suleiman, 22). One of the best examples of this split subjectivity of a mother is Kim Chernin’s The Woman
Who Gave Birth to Her Mother. As the title shows, the women in thisbook, including the narrator herself, present themselves as daughterseven when they talk about their parenting experiences or about “giving
birth.”
Moreover, while women writers have started to write in what Hirsch
calls “maternal discourse,” it does not mean that they are writing as a
uniﬁed entity. I do not agree with Suleiman’s statement in her Risking
Who One Is: Encounters with Contemporary Art and Literature thatmothers, regardless of their class, ethnic, or national backgrounds, sharecertain common experiences (55–63). On the contrary, their maternal
voices have demonstrated the postmodernity played out in one of the
supposedly most stable identities that women have had. It may be
because, as Hirsch and others point out, that we are all daughters, but not
all of us are mothers. Or it may be that as Barbara Johnson argues in“Apostrophe, Animation, Abortion,” that all human discourse originates
in an infant’s call to its mother, and, thus, it is far easier and common
to write as a child than as a mother (706). Hirsch argues that mothers’
voices in literature, such as in Toni Morrison’s Beloved and in Alice
Walker’s “Everyday Use,” should be listened to more closely in orderfor us to be liberated out of the Freudian framework and from the binary pattern of attachment and domination in human relationships. Her critique of daughter(child)-centric psychoanalytical theory and her urge to
go beyond that framework and to take historical and political aspects ofmotherhood into consideration are shared by many contemporary feminist theorists and literary critics. For example, Sandra Gilbert and Susan

POSTMODERN MOTHERHOOD AND ETHNICITY

75

Gubar in No Man’s Land Volume 3: Letters from the Front, point out the
emergence of “mother writers” in contemporary literature in a historically unprecedented way. Suleiman in Risking Who One Is and Susanna
Walters in her Lives Together, Worlds Apart, which is concerned withmother-daughter relationships in ﬁlms, also argue for focusing on mothers as subjects and for going beyond the psychoanalytical framework.
Still others pay attention to the possibility that technological changes
in reproductive practices, which have made artiﬁcial insemination, surrogate motherhood, and even cloning possible, may alter the discourseof gender and the discourse of motherhood in particular. While themajority of feminists today seem to dismiss Shulamith Firestone’s theory that technological reproduction would be a step toward gender equality by liberating women from the burden of pregnancy and birthing,
today’s swift and drastic bio-technological, gynecological, and legal
changes seem to have materialized Firestone’s vision of non-motherhood, at least on a hypothetical level. Motherhood today is being fragmented into “biological mother,” “egg donor,” “surrogate mother,”“contract mother,” “nurturing mother,” “legal mother,” and so on.2
Judith Roof, for example, argues in her Reproductions of Reproduction:
Imaging Symbolic Change, that new biotechnological practices, including DNA testing, carry the possibility of subverting the metaphorical“Law-of-the-Name-of-the-Father.” While Roof is mainly concernedwith representations of fathers in popular culture and literature, her argument that connects changes in reproductive practices with linguistic andrepresentational practices in the domain of the Symbolic might prove
useful in understanding motherhood and maternal voices in literature.
But as Valerie Hartuouni suggests in her “Reproductive Technologies
and the Negotiation of Public Meanings: The Case of Baby M,” this postmodern reality of motherhood has often worked against women. It
seems, as the much publicized Baby M case illustrates, when “the mother” is not a stable, uniﬁed concept but is split into fragmented entities,
the power to decide which mother is most legitimate or most suitable isgiven to the patriarchal power structure.
Not only is the maternal voice split in many cases, but also it shows
the variety of what once had been regarded as a monolithic identity. The
maternal voice is overdetermined by not only the woman’s relationshipwith the baby’s father, but also by her race, ethnicity, class, and often
nationality. Hartuouni demonstrates that when the court made a decision
about which woman should be Baby M’s mother, class elements were

76

NAOKO SUGIYAMA

obviously one of the most important determinants. The surrogate mother’s working class background and her family income were the determining factors in comparison with the biological father’s medical
profession and upper-middle-class income. As Elizabeth Tobin points
out in “Imagining Mother’s Text: Toni Morrison’s Beloved andContemporary Law,” how motherhood is deﬁned and prescribed differsin legal practice according to women’s race, class, and ethnicity.
III

ETHNICITY AND MATERNAL DISCOURSES

What do we ﬁnd in maternal discourse by women who are neither
white nor middle-class? Hirsch presents Toni Morrison’s Beloved andAlice Walker’s short story “Everyday Use” as examples of maternal discourse, but she does not explore the reason why her examples are both
written by African American women. It may be that, as Mary Helen
Washington argues in “I Sign My Mother’s Name: Alice Walker,
Dorothy West, Paule Marshall,” African American women have a matrilineal tradition that encourages women’s creativity. But at the same time,
it is possible that their experiences and sensitivity as African American
women, as can be seen in Gwendolyn Brooks’ works, may appropriately be represented by maternal discourse. As Sara Ruddick points out
in her Maternal Thinking: Toward a Politics of Peace, being a motherin itself includes various activities and variations of emotions, just as
postmodern experiences may be fragmented and multi-faceted. By
employing maternal discourse, one may explore a variety of maternal
experiences and subjectivities which are typical of mothers of racial
minorities; by doing this, one may also represent a reality that is sharedby the majority and may be conceived as “postmodern”. Women of color
in the US, when writing in maternal discourse, theorize and depict themost avant-garde situations that are becoming more common throughout the world. They do so by revising and subverting the existing discourse on motherhood: dualistic images of mothers as self-effacing, allembracing, nurturing and affectionate, and/or all-powerful, devouring,and domineering still prevail not only in anti-feminist literature and themass media, but feminist discourse as well. Women of color use maternal discourse as an alternative grand narrative. Fragmented and de-centered but still written by a “core agency,” maternal discourse may be used
as a way to present an alternative to postmodern nihilism.3
In the remainder of this essay I will brieﬂy examine three novels, Toni

POSTMODERN MOTHERHOOD AND ETHNICITY

77

Morrison’s Paradise, Leslie Marmon Silko’s Almanac of the Dead, andMaxine Hong Kingston’s Tripmaster Monkey: His Fake Book. Theirstyles, plots, and cultural and historical backgrounds are diverse, but allof them employ maternal discourse. Here I will use the word “maternal
discourse” in two ways.
Firstly, maternal discourse is a narrative about a mother written froma mother’s point of view. This makes it possible to present a variety ofmaternal realities, including such acts as abuse and desertion, without
falling back on the monolithic condemnation of less-than-ideal mothers
as morally “bad” or psychologically “sick.” Since maternal behaviors
may be overdetermined by cultural, historical, and political speciﬁcities,
along with the subject’s psychological inclinations and personal traits,presenting various mothers’ stories in itself may powerfully portray thefragmentation and decenteredness of today’s society.
Secondly, maternal discourse refers to a narrative that uniﬁes fragmented and de-centered small narrative parts into a larger whole. Just as
maternal subjectivity is fragmented but still embodies agency, maternal
discourse may be used as a narrative strategy that uniﬁes fragmented
aspects of reality into a whole picture without glossing over or suppressing them into a linear master narrative.
I will demonstrate how the three authors exploit both aspects of maternal discourse, present fragmented contemporary realities, and succeedin creating a totalizing effect. Morrison presents an alternative to astraightforwardly linear patriarchal narrative, Silko draws parallels
between maternal discourse and matrilineal, matriarchal Native American traditions, and Kingston employs a narrator who, according toChinese American cultural tradition, is both maternal and authoritative.
Toni Morrison’s Beloved, the story of an ex-slave woman Sethe, isconsidered as one of the ﬁnest examples of maternal discourse in contemporary American literature. In Paradise (1998), Morrison’s ﬁrst
novel since receiving the Nobel Prize in 1993, mothers are again represented in extreme situations, but Paradise goes further by creating notjust one maternal voice, but a plurality of maternal discourses centeredon racially and economically diverse women. As the New Yorker reviewer Louis Menard suggests with his title “The War between Men and
Women,” Paradise seems to be structured upon the didactic dichotomyof men and women, or of patriarchy and feminism. The maternal
discourses in the novel, however, challenge and deconstruct these

78

NAOKO SUGIYAMA

dichotomies and the concept of “maternal” itself. In doing so, however,they also paradoxically, suggest their potential to replace the patriarchal
grand narrative as representations of an all-inclusive reality.
Beginning with the shocking sentence, “They shoot the white girlﬁrst,” the novel juxtaposes the histories of two contrasting communities,
from this disastrous moment in 1976 to the year 1890. One community
is the small, all-black, rural town of Ruby, Oklahoma, to which “They”
in the ﬁrst sentence belong (3). The other is “the Convent,” seventeen
miles from Ruby. This old mansion that used to be a boarding school for
Indian girls is now home to a Catholic nun called “Mother,” her maidand companion Consolata, and four other women of various ages andbackgrounds. One of them is “the white girl” of the ﬁrst sentence, butthere is no deﬁnite information about which one of them it is. The novel
traces Ruby’s history along with the Convent women’s life histories,
starting from the ending when Ruby’s men, blaming the Convent womenfor the deterioration and corruption of their town, raid the Convent andmurder all the women. Each chapter, named after a female character,presents her point of view along with third-person historical accounts ofRuby and its inhabitants. These voices present diverse maternal discourses. Since we do not know which one of the Convent women iswhite, we are forced to imagine two versions in each of the women’s
narratives. In spite of the author’s claim that “[the women’s] race did not
matter,” the ambiguity of the women’s race make us realize that the same
course of events may have different meanings according to the characters’ race.4
Among the women, Mavis’ voice is the most ostensibly maternal. Like
Sethe in Beloved, Mavis “kills” her children, although in her case by
accident and not intentionally. She goes grocery shopping for her husband’s dinner, and while she is in the store, her baby twins suffocate to
death in the locked car. Mavis feels that her husband and other children
blame her for the death of the twins, and suspects that they want to kill
her in revenge. Panic stricken, Mavis takes her husband’s car, drives
away from her home in Maryland, and heads for California. She gets lostand asks for gasoline and directions at the Convent, where she ends up
staying for years.
This maternal narrative of violence, fear, and desertion also includes
Mavis’ expression of her love for the twins. She claims that the twins
linger in the Convent and she secretly visits her hometown to see herother children from a distance. What is most striking, however, is the

POSTMODERN MOTHERHOOD AND ETHNICITY

79fact that she does not express any maternal guilt. Immediately after theaccident, a journalist visits Mavis for an interview. But while the journalist tries to extract a stereotypical motherly narrative from Mavis,
which may erase her and her family’s individuality and categorize her
as a mother blaming herself for her children’s death, Mavis fails to provide it. For example, when the journalist says “This must be terrible foryou,” Mavis responds, “Yes, m’am. It’s terrible for all of us” (21).
Interpreting the journalist’s “you” as plural, she refuses the notion thata mother feels differently from the other members of the family about
the loss of two children. When the journalist pushes further—“Is there
something you want other mothers to know... Something to warn them,caution them about negligence. . . So some good can come out of thisawful tragedy?”—Mavis repeatedly answers that she doesn’t “have nothing to say to strangers” (22). As Barbara Johnson argues in “Apostrophe,
Animation, and Abortion,” “any death of a child is perceived as a crimecommitted by the mother, something a mother ought by deﬁnition to beable to prevent” (705, emphasis original). In this context, Mavis’ seeming calmness with no expression of guilt and self-reproach leave readers as uneasy as it does the reporter.
This effect of uneasiness is intensiﬁed because the accidental death of
the twins reminds us of the much publicized Susan Smith case in 1994.
Smith killed her two sons (though not twins), rolled the car into the lakewith their corpses, and then claimed that an African American man stole
her car and kidnapped the children. Smith’s crime was severely criticized not only because she intentionally murdered her own children, butalso because she, a Southern white woman, tried to take advantage of a
racist stereotype in order to cover up her crime. The Smith case represents the image of the abnormal mother who destroys her own children,
and Smith’s use of the stereotypical image of African American criminal men has had the effect of emphasizing the fact that this murderous
mother is a white woman. With this case in mind, the ambiguity ofMavis’ racial identity makes our uneasiness even more intense. We are
made to realize that it makes a signiﬁcant difference if Mavis is white or
black. We are forced to notice that the maternal discourse, far from being“universal” and beyond ethnicity, is in fact ethnically speciﬁc anddiverse.
Although she is not a biological mother, Consolata has characteristics
which may justify identifying her as the most “maternal.” Except for the“Mother,” she is the oldest in the Convent. She is seen as a mother ﬁg-

80

NAOKO SUGIYAMA

ure both by the Convent women and by the women of Ruby. She makes
her living by growing and selling garden products and homemade breadand pies, and even has power to heal fatal wounds and illnesses. She
accepts troubled women who need a refuge without much questioning.
Thus, she offers an alternative to Ruby’s patriarchal order, whose symbol is the “Oven” that the original members of the town carried andreassembled but is not put to everyday use to bake bread any more. At
the same time, she declares to the Convent women, “I call myself
Consolata Sosa. If you want to be here you do what I say. Eat how I say.
Sleep when I say. And I will teach you what you are hungry for” (216).
Thus, she makes it clear that she is not a stereotypical, self-sacriﬁcing
nurturer nor a devouring, domineering monster, but a matriarchal, spiritual authority of the group. The women are taken by surprise with
Consolata’s authoritative attitude;
This sweet, unthreatening old lady who seemed to love each one of them best;
who never criticized, who shared everything but needed little or no care;required no emotional investment; who listened; who locked no doors andaccepted each as she was. . . this ideal parent, friend, companion in whose
company they were safe from harm? This perfect landlord who charged nothing and welcomed anybody; this granny goose who could be conﬁded in or
ignored, lied to or suborned; this play mother who could be hugged or walked
out on, depending on the whim of the child? (262)Thus, Consolata’s maternal declaration highlights the childish egotism of the other women who ask too much from her on the assumptionthat she is “maternal” in a patriarchal context.
Moreover, while she plays a maternal role in relation to the other
women, Consolata does not consider herself as a mother but rather as adaughter. Her “Mother,” older than Consolata and mostly bed-ridden,
does no “motherly” activities such as feeding, washing, or emotional
consolation, as Consolata does. While Consolata takes care of Mother,and not the other way around, she feels protected by the Mother’s presence. The Mother, rather than a human character, is a symbol of matriarchal order, under which Consolata administers the other women.
The other three women at the Convent, Seneca, Gigi, and Pallas, aremostly presented as daughter ﬁgures, younger than Mavis and never having had a child of their own. Each of them has had a traumatic relationship (or rather, a non-relationship) with their mother, and their coming
to the Convent is in one way or another their escape from trauma andsearch for a place to heal.

POSTMODERN MOTHERHOOD AND ETHNICITY

81

Seneca’s mother Jean abandons her when she is ﬁve years old. Jean,a single teenager, pretends to be Seneca’s sister and one day leaves her
in their government housing apartment. Other women in Seneca’s life
do not provide her with the nurturing or affection she needs. When
Seneca visits her boyfriend’s mother, Mrs. Turtle, her request for bailmoney is denied and she is not offered food or a place to stay. Another
older woman, Norma Keene Fox, takes sexual advantage of her insteadof giving her affectionate care, picking her up at the airport, keeping her
for ﬁve weeks, then dismissing her before her husband returns from atrip abroad.
Pallas is a teenage daughter of a wealthy lawyer and an artist mother.
She ﬁnds out that her boyfriend is having an affair with her mother, andwhile desperately running from the scene she is gang-raped and becomes
pregnant. She refuses to use her original name, Divine, given to her by
her mother. By calling herself Pallas, another name for the Greek
Goddess Athena, she denies her mother and declares as Apollo did on
the basis of Athena’s birth out of the head of Zeus, that “the active regenerating function is exclusively male,” and “[t]he mother is no parent ofthat which is called her child, but only nurse of the new-planted seed thatgrows.”5 Gigi also refuses to be called by the same name as her mother,“Grace,” and while her narrative is mostly about her heterosexual relationships, it is suggested that her childhood relationship with her mother was also an unfortunate one.
In the short and supernatural epilogue, Ruby’s people fail to ﬁnd thewomen’s corpses, and it is suggested that the women survived the gunshots and escaped through “a door” or “a window” into another time orspace. Each of the women appears brieﬂy to her family members. Jean,after having tried to ﬁnd her daughter to no avail, comes across Seneca
who, though not resentful or hostile, refuses to recognize her. The other
woman, probably Gigi, also tells Jean to leave, saying, “Lady, your old
man is calling you” (317). When Jean, giving up, says, “I thought you
were someone I knew from Woodlawn [street],” Seneca smiles and saysthat “everybody makes mistakes” (317). Seneca thus understands andforgives her teenage mother’s act of abandoning her, probably for a man
as she does now, but chooses not to be reconciled into a mother-daughter reunion and reconstruction of their relationship. Mavis appears to her
eldest daughter Sal, Pallas to her mother, and Gigi to her grandfather.
Their appearances are all short and rather detached, but not bitter or
resentful.

82

NAOKO SUGIYAMAThe epilogue presents the possibility of keeping affectionate feelingsfor one’s biological kin, especially between mothers and daughters,
without being entangled in an intense love-hate relationship. It showsthat the dichotomy of self-effacing devotion and resentment/ hate canand should be false. The epilogue points to a matriarchal narrative that
may replace a patriarchal narrative of confrontation and linear succession of authority. The matriarchal narrative of Paradise entertains
diverse maternal discourses yet keeps diverse women together under its
authority.
The most ambitious and voluminous novel that Leslie Marmon Silko
has produced so far, Almanac of the Dead, deals with characters of various ethnic, class, and national backgrounds who live in and travel
between San Diego, Tucson, Alaska, and Mexico. It can be read as a representation of postmodern fragmentation, decenteredness, and late capitalist cultural logic at its gloomiest.6 The whole novel is divided into six
parts, each of which is divided into “books,” which are then divided into
smaller parts introducing and developing numerous viewpoints and subplots. In these unchronologically placed small parts, Silko sarcasticallyand harshly depicts the Americas, as for example in her description of
the corruption and violence of law enforcement on both sides of theAmerican-Mexican border.
Like Paradise, Almanac presents maternal discourses on two levels.
First, there are stories of various mothers who are ethnically, economically, and culturally diverse and deviate from the norm of white middleclass North America. The mothers’ stories represent postmodern reality
in which one’s identity is fragmented and decentered. At the same time,
the whole novel’s structure and plot both depend on aspects of Native
American traditional culture that are matriarchal and matrilineal.7 All thesubplots and characters are united together as a whole by the existenceof the sacred Almanac, which is created, inherited and revised by thefemale characters. The structure of the novel is thus based on the matriarchal culture and mythology of Native American peoples, especially the
Laguna culture which attributes creative power to mothers.
The narrative, although complicated and branching into many subplots, mainly revolves around the Native American twin sisters, Lecha
and Zeta, and Lecha’s secretary Seese. Lecha works as a psychic who
specializes in ﬁnding missing corpses, and Zeta, together with Lecha’sson Ferro, smuggles drugs and weapons across the U.S.-Mexican bor-

POSTMODERN MOTHERHOOD AND ETHNICITY

83

der. The twin sisters possess a manuscript of the sacred text called the
Almanac, which they inherited from their Yaqui grandmother Yoeme.
This sacred Almanac to which the title of the novel refers is a productof a matriarchal myth. It is a book of prophecy, in which the fate of theAmericas, including invasion and destruction by Europeans and theireventual disappearance, are all predicted. Although fragmented and scattered because of the hardships of the tribal people, and written in a tribal language that no one really understands, the Almanac is inherited by
Yoeme, who copies the original into a notebook. She then passes it on
to her twin granddaughters, Lecha and Zeta. Lecha employs a white
woman Seese to type the manuscript using a word processor. As the fragmented manuscript is transcribed in English by Yoeme in a notebook,and is then recorded by a word processor, the Almanac constantly
changes not only its forms but also its contents. The keepers add newpieces and revise the existing ones. This history of possession and revision makes the Almanac a matrilineal text, one which is inherited by
Yoeme, Zeta and Lecha, and then Seese.
Yoeme and her twin granddaughters are obviously modeled after the
Laguna mythological Goddess Ts’its’tsi’nako, the Thought Woman who
creates the World, and her twin daughters, Uretsete and Naotsete.8 Thisreference to Laguna mythology, along with the emphasis on the importance of the land and the Earth, gives the novel a mythical structure, as
well as a matriarchal world view, in which the Mother God creates theworld. We should note that this view should not be confused with versions of biological essentialism that identify women with nature. In her
The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian
Tradition, Paula Gunn Allen explains that “Thought Woman, with powerof intelligence, creates thoughts before she creates the world, is central
to the Laguna Pueblo mythology” (13). According to Allen, in this cultural context motherhood means power, and the word “mothers” doesnot “imply slaves, drudges, drones who are required to live only for others rather than for themselves as it does so tragically for many modern
women” (27). Another important female character, Angelita, a Mexican
revolutionary, also ﬁts this tradition of matriarchal power that creates
thoughts to create a world. While Angelita learns European theories such
as Marxism, she refuses to obey the Cuban leftist political leadership.
Instead, she persuades her people with the power of her intelligence andeloquence and creates a political movement to return the land to indigenous peoples.

84

NAOKO SUGIYAMA

On the other hand, fragments of the narrative deconstruct the stereotypical image of motherhood. None of the mothers in the novel ﬁts thewhite, middle-class norm of the mother as a devoted, self-sacriﬁcing nurturer. According to the norm, all of them have dysfunctional relationships with their children.
Yoeme, the keeper of the Almanac, marries a white man so that hewill make other white people keep a political agreement with her people. When she sees that he fails to stand up against other white men andabuses Indian workers, Yoeme leaves her husband and her “children
from such a man” (116). Yoeme says that her children are all too weak,
but she likes Zeta and Lecha and appoints them as the inheritors of the
Almanac. Lecha’s relationship with her son, Ferro, is also unusual. Lecha
leaves her newborn son in her twin sister’s care, “traveling, from lover
to lover and city to city” (125). When Lecha comes back brieﬂy after ayear, she casually asks, “Oh, the baby! . . . Where is he? What do you
call him?” without showing any sign of regret or guilt (125). Seese is the
only woman who expresses maternal love for her son, but she is also far
from the image of an ideal mother; she is a drug addict when she is pregnant, and when the baby is kidnapped, she is too intoxicated to protect
him.
Lear Blue, the wife of Maﬁa gangster Max Blue, is another motherﬁgure who deviates from the norm. She has two sons, but she devotes
her attention, time, and energy to a real-estate development project called
Venice, Arizona. Her scheme of creating a community full of water andgreen plants in the middle of the desert can be seen as a grotesque parody of ideal maternal nurturing.9 Aiming to produce an upper-classneighborhood decorated by green lawns, gardens, and water fountains
in the desert, her plan requires a huge amount of water to be sucked fromthe deep underground that will inevitably lead to destruction of the natural environment.
These mothers’ stories may be interpreted as signs of the chaotic
decomposition of the ideals and structures of family and society. The
narrative does not present these behaviors of the mothers as heroic,courageous, or acceptable. Yoeme’s children and Ferro all resent theirmothers’ abandonment of them. Yoeme’s children refuse to let her intheir houses, and Ferro refuses to be reconciled with Lecha.
However, Yoeme watches her children and grandchildren, andchooses the twin sisters as her heirs, and Lecha, by hiring Seese as a secretary, chooses her as the inheritor of the Almanac. These acts support

POSTMODERN MOTHERHOOD AND ETHNICITY

85

a view of the mother as a creator and inheritor of cultural myths and adecision maker, a matriarch who has power and ability to choose her heirregardless of her biological connections, not someone who is a domestic caretaker devoted to her children.
The reality that Silko depicts in Almanac—the Americas controlled
by greed, racism, and sexism, by the most blunt and cruel forms of capitalism, by upper class white males—is close to what may be called postmodern nihilism. The world has no center, reality is fragmented, andthere is no stable subjectivity except as a consumer. However, the main
characters do not fall into nihilism because of the Almanac and its
prophecy that indigenous peoples will regain the American lands. As in
Morrison’s Paradise, the viewpoints of the unusual mothers and the novel’s matrilineal text represent and organize chaotic and fragmented realities into a positive vision for the future.
Maxine Hong Kingston’s Tripmaster Monkey, His Fake Book, set
in 1960s San Francisco, represents postmodern realities at their mosthilariously playful. The protagonist, Wittman Ah Sing, is a ﬁfth generation Chinese-American. He is a Berkeley graduate, would-be poet anddramatist, and unemployed paciﬁstic draft dodger. Besides his namesake
Walt Whitman, he identiﬁes himself with Malte Laurids Brigge and with
Monkey, the trickster hero of the Chinese Classic Monkey. He plans andproduces a play that is based on Monkey, The Romance of The Three
Kingdoms, and The Outlaws of the Marsh, which eventually ends up
involving people of various ethnic, class, and national backgrounds.
Diversity within the Chinese American community in California as wellas outside of it is emphasized. Wittman’s mother is a former vaudevillestar dancer, Ruby Long Legs, and his father, a former vaudeville MC,
Zeppelin Ah Sing, now publishes a magazine called Find Treasure, towhich six people subscribe. His grandmother, Popo, may or may not be
his real grandmother; there is even a possibility that Popo is not Chinese,
but Japanese. In fact, when Wittman’s parents become tired of taking
care of Popo, they take her to Reno and leave her in the mountains.
Wittman is irritated by the unsophisticated manners and shabby
clothes of recent immigrants, and is angered by the racism of American
society that automatically categorizes him as “Chinese” and “notAmerican.” He quotes freely from American popular culture andAmerican and European literary works as well as Chinese classics.
As in Paradise and Almanac, mothers deviate substantially from the86

NAOKO SUGIYAMA

American white middle-class norm. Wittman’s mother, Ruby Long
Legs, conspires with her husband to abandon Popo in the mountain. She
plays mahjong with the former Flora-Dora girls, with whom she worked
on stage, neither cooks nor serves food to Wittman when he visits her
with his bride, Tana, and does not even notice when Wittman shaved his
beard off (195). Popo, his alleged grandmother, likes gambling as well,and after she is abandoned in the mountains by Wittman’s parents, shemeets an old Chinese-American businessman who proposes and marries
her immediately. She refuses to introduce her family to her husband
because she is afraid that they will ask her rich husband for money (266,67). Moreover, when Wittman tells her about his stage project, she tells
him that she wants to play “the princess with eighty-seven attendantfaeries” (267).
But while Kingston challenges the white middle-class norm of motherhood by presenting these hilariously unusual mothers, she makes useof the maternal voice to organize the chaotic reality that Wittman confronts and creates. It is important that Kingston chooses two texts toround out the multi-ethnic, multi-national, multi-cultural playful chaos.
One is Monkey, the dominant text of the three classics on which
Wittman’s play is based. It is a story of a sub-and superhuman trickster,
Monkey King who, along with the Pig and the Sandman, accompanies
the Buddhist monk Tripikata to India to acquire a sacred text. While
he is basically virtuous and devoted to Tripikata, Monkey King is often
mischievous, arrogant, and disrespectful, and has to be punished by
Tripitaka and by Kuan Yin, who watches over them throughout the trip.
As Kingston mentions in her interview with Marilyn Chin, the omniscient narrator in her novel is Kuan Yin, the guardian goddess of theMonkey in the original (Chin, 89). Kuan Yin, as the Goddess of Mercy,
is supposed to be androgynous, but in Chinese and other East Asian countries, she is usually imagined as feminine and is often seen as maternalbecause of her compassion for and nurturing of human beings.10 The narrator addresses Wittman as a mother addresses a child: her voice is educational, instructional, and sometimes scolding, but never severely
judgmental or condemning. It is often chiding when Wittman, becaus of
his false self-conﬁdence and male-centeredness, makes a foolish or condescending comment. For example, when Wittman talks to his formerclassmate, Nanci Lee, the narrator makes a critical comment, “You are. . . not the only one to talk. She had to talk too, make this a conversation” (17). And when Wittman becomes a paciﬁst, she makes a playful
but encouraging comment, “Dear American Monkey, don’t be afraid.

POSTMODERN MOTHERHOOD AND ETHNICITY

87

Here, let us tweak your ear, and kiss your other ear” (340).
Another important reference is Rilke’s The Notebooks of Malte Laurid
Brigge, from which Wittman often quotes. The Notebooks begins with
Malte’s fascinated gaze upon a pregnant woman visiting a “maison d’accouchement” to deliver a baby, and ends with a version of a parable of
the Prodigal Son, who is not yet reconciled with the Father. Throughout
the novel, the young poet’s oscillation between the maternal and thepaternal is highlighted. As Michael F. Davis demonstrates in “Writing
the Mother in The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge: The Rhetoric of
Abjection,” The Notebooks records many moments of Malte’s willingsurrender to the maternal narrative, which is deﬁned as fragmented, nonlinear, and de-centered. When Wittman reads from The Notebooks to his
fellow passengers in a bus, he chooses the part in which Christine Brahe’s
ghost enters the family dining room and Malte’s father is infuriated bythis intrusion. It is signiﬁcant that Wittman chooses one of the most memorable parts of The Notebooks, in which the patriarchal order of the dinner table is subverted by the maternal, and evaluates it as “the good part”(9). Just as Malte is transformed into a girl, “Sophie,” when he surrenders to the maternal narrative (The Notebooks, 99), Wittman is called“my honey girl” by Popo (263). Wittman’s identiﬁcation with Malte suggests that while Wittman presents himself rather as a “macho spirit” ofthe pre-feminist era, he is drawn into the fragmented and non-linear
maternal narrative that deviates from the patriarchal order (Chin, 89).
The maternal discourse of Kuan Yin, combined with rejection of thepatriarchal order as is expressed in The Notebooks, results in the ﬁnal
uniﬁcation of the novel: Wittman’s conclusive speech at the end of hisplay and his determination to become a paciﬁst at the end of the novel.
Tripmaster Monkey’s maternal discourses parallel the fragmented anddiverse postmodern reality they describe, and present a unifying structure for it.
IV CONCLUSIONAs Sojourner Truth powerfully claimed in 1845 in Akron, Ohio at asuffragist convention, her motherhood was the same and not the same aswhite women’s. By eloquently stating her experiences as a slave woman
and mother, whose hard labor had been exploited and whose children
had been sold away from her, she demonstrated that the categories“woman” and “mother” are not in any way monolithic or biologicallydetermined, but have the possibility of politically uniting women who

88

NAOKO SUGIYAMA

each have diverse experiences both as a woman and as a mother. Truth’s
rhetorical question, “Ain’t I A Woman?,” does not suppress but highlights differences between black and white mothers in the United States
under slavery, but at the same time it has the power to unite women ofboth races and to bring forth political change. Similarly, postmodernism
represented through maternal voices does not necessarily become as apolitical or nihilistic as some critics such as Terry Eagleton may claim.11
A certain text being “postmodern” does not necessarily mean that it isliberatory, nor does it mean that it is inevitably conservative or nihilistic.
Such texts, at their most insightful, may represent the world and people’s
subjectivity as fragmented, decentered, and saturated in post-industrial
consumer capitalism, not in order to reﬂect it passively but to organize
it in a politically meaningful way. Critics such as hooks who view postmodern culture positively see it as a space where old ties are severed andwhich provides possibilities for new forms of bonding and oppositional
practices (hooks 31). Their faith is borne out in the kind of maternal discourses written by Morrison, Silko, and Kingston that I have just brieﬂy
analyzed. Their novels not only offer new insights into feminist theories
on maternal subjectivity, and make use of maternal discourse in order toilluminate postmodern reality, but also offer a radical alternative visionof our present reality and our future as well.
WORKS CITED
Abel, Elizabeth. “Black Writing, White Reading: Race and The Politics of
Feminist Interpretation.” Warhol, Feminisms. 827–52.
Allen, Paula Gunn. The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American
Indian Traditions. Boston: Beacon, 1992.
Chernin, Kim. The Woman Who Gave Birth to Her Mother. New York: Viking,
1998.
Chin, Marilyn. “Writing the Other: A Conversation with Maxine Hong
Kingston.” Paul Skenazy and Tera Martin eds. Conversations with Maxine
Hong Kingston. Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 1998.
Chodorow, Nancy. Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and theSociology of Gender. Berkeley: U of Berkeley P., 1978.
Davis, Michael F. “Writing the Mother in The Notebooks of Malte Laurids
Brigge: The Rhetoric of Abjection.” The Germanic Review 68. 4 (1993):
156–165.
Edelstein, Marilyn. “Resisting Postmodernism; or, ‘A Postmodernism ofResistance.’” Ed. Sandra Kumamoto Stanley. Other Sisterhoods: Literary
Theory and U.S. Women of Color. Urabana: U of Ilinois P., 1998. 86–118.
Firestone, Shulamith. The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution.
New York: Bantam, 1971.

POSTMODERN MOTHERHOOD AND ETHNICITY

89

Flax, Jane. Thinking Fragments: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, & PostModernism in the Contemporary West. Berkeley: U of California P. 1990.
Gilbart, Sandra and Susan Gubar. No Man’s Land: Volume 3: Letters from the
Front. New Haven: Yale UP, 1994.
Gray, David.. “Paradise Found.” Time 19 Jan. 1996: 62–68.
Harper, Phillip Brian. Framing the Margins: The Social Logic of Postmodern
Culture. New York: Oxford UP, 1994.
Hartuouni, Valerie. “Reproductive Technologies and the Negotiation of Public
Meanings: The Case of Baby M.” Ed. Judith Kegan Gardinar. Provoking
Agents: Gender and Agency in Theory and Practice. Urbana: U. of Illinois
P, 1995. 115–132.
Hirsch, Marianne. The Mother/Daughter Plot: Narrative, Psychoanalysis,
Feminism. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1989.
Homans, Margaret. “‘Women of Color’: Writers and Feminist Theory,” New
Literary History 25 (1994): 73–94.
Hooks, bell. “Postmodern Blackness.” Yearning: Race, Gender, and Cultural
Politics. Boston: South End P., 1990. 23–31
Johnson, Barbara. “Apostrophe, Animation, and Abortion.” Warhol,
Feminisms. 694–707.
Kingston, Maxine Hong. Tripmaster Monkey: His Fake Book. 1989. New York:
Vintage, 1990.
Kolodny, Annette. The Lay of the Land:Metaphor as Experience and History
in American Life and Letters. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina P, 1975.
Menard, Louis. “The War between Men and Women.” New Yorker 12 Jan.1998:
78.
Morrison, Toni. Beloved. New York: Knopf, 1987.
—. Paradise. New York: Random House, 1998.
Nagata, Eriko. Dotokuha Feminisuto Sengen. Tokyo: Keiso-Shobo, 1997.
Rich, Andrienne. Of Woman Born; Motherhood as Experience and Institution.
New York: Norton, 1976.
Rilke, Rainer Maria. The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge. Trans. Stephen
Mitchell. New York: Vintage, 1990
Roof, Judith. Reproductions of Reproduction: Imaging Symbolic Change. New
York: Routledge, 1996.
Ruddick, Sara. Maternal Thinking: Toward a Politics of Peace. Boston: Beacon
Press, 1995.
Silko, Leslie Marmon. Almanac of the Dead. 1991. New York: Penguin, 1992.
—. Ceremony. New York: Viking, 1977.
Suleiman, Susan Rubin. Risking Who One Is: Encounters with Contemporary
Art and Literature. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1994.
Tobin, Elizabeth. “Imagining the Mother’s Text: Toni Morrison’s Beloved And
Contemporary Law.” Beyond Portia: Women, Law, and Literature in the
United States. Eds. Jacqueline St. Joan and Annette Bennington McElhiney.
Boston: Northeastern UP, 1997. 140–174.
Truth, Sojourner. “Ain’t I A Woman?” The Norton Anthology of Literature by
Women. 2d. ed. Eds. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar. New York: Norton,
1996. 370.

90

NAOKO SUGIYAMA

Vernant, Jean-Pierre. Myth and Thought among the Greeks. London: Routledge,
1983.
Walters, Suzanna Danuta. Lives Together, Worlds Apart: Mothers andDaughters in Popular Culture. Berkeley: U of California P, 1992.
Warhol, Robyn R. and Diane Price Herndl, eds. Feminisms: An Anthology of
Literary Theory and Criticism. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers UP,
1997.
Washington, Mary Helen. “I Sign My Mother’s Name: Alice Walker, Dorothy
West, Paule Marshall.” Mothering the Mind: Twelve Studies of Writers andTheir Silent Partners. Eds. Ruth Perry and Martine Watson Brownley. New
York: Holms & Meier, 1984.
Wu, Ch’eng-en. Monkey. Trans. Arthur Waley. New York: The John
Day Company, 1943.

NOTES
1
See, for example, Margaret Homans’ “‘Women of Color’ Writers and Feminist
Theory”2
It is ironic that reproductive technologies, which are at least partially responsible
for this fragmentation of motherhood, have developed in order to beneﬁt those who wanta child “of their own” rather than adopting a biological stranger. Here, as Eriko Nagata
points out in Dotokuha Feministo Sengen, biological essentialism and fragmentation of“motherhood” have a complicated relationship (238–256).
3
For a critique of postmodernist dismissal of subjectivity and the alternative conceptof the core self, which is different from the “uniﬁed self,” see Jane Flax’s Thinking
Fragments: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, & Post-Modernism in the Contemporary West,especially p. 210.
4Paul Gray, “Paradise Found,” Time, Jan. 1996, 62–68.
About the ambiguity of the characters’ race that makes different readings possible, see
Elizabeth Abel’s “Black Writing, White Reading: Race and the Politics of Feminist
Interpretation,” which offers a close reading of Morrison’s short story “Recitatif.”
5
Jean-Pierre Vernant, Myth and Thought among the Greeks, 134.
6
About this concept of late capitalist logic, see Phillip Brian Harper’s Framing the
Margins (10).
7
In this essay’s context, it does not matter whether Native American tribes were “actually” matriarchal or matrilineal, and if so, to what extent. What is important is that the
belief exists and that Silko, along with some other Native American writers, chooses it
as part of their tradition which should be revived and passed on.
8
About the Laguna myth of Thought Woman and her twin daughters, see The Sacred
Hoop, p.13–21. Silko’s ﬁrst novel, Ceremony, also refers to these mythological ﬁgures.
9
For a Western version of this “Mother Earth” image, see Annette Kolodny’s The
Lay of the Land: Metaphor as Experience and History in American Life and Letters.
10
Kingston perceives Kuan Yin as female, as her use of the word “Goddess” clearly
indicates (Marilyn Chin, 89).
11
Marilyn Edelstein reviews critiques of postmodernism in her “Resisting
Postmodernism; or, ‘A Postmodernism of Resistance’: bell hooks and the Theory
Debates.”