Open Research Online
Citation
Worth, Piers J. (2000). 'Localised creativity: a life span perspective'. PhD thesis The Open
University.
URL
https://oro.open.ac.uk/19857/
LicenseNone Specified
PolicyThis document has been downloaded from Open Research Online, The Open University's
repository of research publications. This version is being made available in accordancewith Open Research Online policies available from Open Research Online (ORO) Policies
Versions
If this document is identified as the Author Accepted Manuscript it is the version after peer
review but before type setting, copy editing or publisher branding

“Localised Creativity: A Life Span Perspective”

Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
in Developmental Psychology

lothNovember 2000

Piers J. Worth M.Sc.

The Institute of Educational Technology
The Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom

Table of Contents
AcknowledgementsiAbstract

11

Chapter 1< <- Introduction

1.1

Introduction

1.2

Research Area

1.3

Why is this an appropriate area of study?

1.4

The original contribution of this thesis

1.5

Thesis structure

Chapter 2 - Literature Review
2.1

Introduction

12Part 1 Creativity

15

2.2

Definitions of Creativity

15

2.2.1

Characteristics of Creativity

15

2.2.2

Areas of Creative Work

18

2.2.3

Types of Creative Person

18

2.2.4

The Social System of Creativity

19

2.2.5

Is Creativity Available to All?

24

-

-

Part 2 Theories of General Life Span Development

28

2.3

28

Theories of Life Span Development
2.3.1

Erik Erikson -The Life Cycle

29

2.3.2

Daniel Levinson - The Seasons of a Man’s and a Woman’s

35

Life

2.3.3

Roger Gould (1978) - “Transformations”

44

2.3.4

George Vaillant (1977) - “Adaptation to Life”

45

Part 3 - Theories of Life Span Development of the Exceptional Creative

48

Individual
2.4

The Early Years: Childhood and Adolescence

49

2.4.1

Early Roots or Signs of Later Creative Work

50

2.4.2

Parental Background and Social Class

51

2.4.3

Birth Order

52

2.4.4

Home Background and Environment

53

2.4.5

Schooling and Teachers

55

2.4.6

Influential Adults - Role Models - Mentors

58

2.4.7

Bereavement

59

2.4.8

I11ness60

2.4.9

Interpreting the Contribution of the Childhood and Adolescent

60

Years

2.5

2.6

2.7

Early Adulthood

63

2.5.1

The Choice of Work Focus and Career

63

2.5.2

The Componential Theory of Creativity

65

2.5.3

Patterns of Learning a Domain

61

2.5.4

Influential Adults and Role Models

68

2.5.5

Productivity and Recognition

70

The Midlife Decade (35 - 45 years old)

74

2.6.1

The Characteristics of the Midlife Transition

75

2.6.2

Evaluation and Evidence of the Midlife Transition

83

Middle Age

86

2.7.1

86

The Quantity and Quality of Creative Work in Middle Age2.7.2

The Late Life Style

88

2.7.3

Further Indications from Self-Report and Biographic Study

92

2.7.4

Conclusions from a Review of Middle Age Creative Activity

94

Part 4 - Additional Contributing Theories
2.8

The Relationship of Creativity to Other Theories

95

2.8.1

Self-Actualisation

96

2.8.2

Flow

99

2.8.3

Creativity, Flow and Self-Actualisation

102

2.8.4

Creativity as “Health”

103

Part 5 - Research Questions
2.9

95

Research Questions and Focus of Analysis

Chapter 3

106
106- Research Methodology

3.1

Introduction

1I4

3.2

The Research Paradigm

114

3.3

The Use of Interviewing as a Research Method

116

3.4

Research Design

119

3.4.1

Aims

119

3.4.2

Interviews

120

3.4.3

The Myers Briggs Type Indicator

122

3.4.4

Analysis

123

3.4.5

Participant Population

125

3.4.6

Ethics129

3.4.7

Verification of Data

134

3.4.8

The Position of the Researcher

139

Chapter 4- Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

4.1

Introduction

146

4.2

The Interviews

148

4.3

4.2.1

The First Four Interviews

153

4.2.2

Ten Interviews

158

4.2.3

Fifteen Interviews

167

4.2.4

Thirty Intcrvicws

173

4.2.5

Forty Interviews

175

Overview of Results
4.3.1

The Two Core Stones

177
177

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence (up to 18 years old)
5.1

Introduction

181

5.2

Early Roots of Later Creativity

183

5.3

Social Class and Occupational Background of Parents

189

5.4

Birth Order

191

5.5

Parental Influence

194

5.6

Disability and Illness

20 1

5.7

Bereavement

203

5.8

Schooling and Education

205

5.9

Role Models, Mentors or Influential Adults

212

5.10

The Experiences of Female Participants

216

5.11

Observations Drawn from Life Span Developmental Theory

217

5.12

Developmental Patterns of Creativity

218

5.13

Entry into the “Early Adult Transition”

224aChapter 6 - Early Adulthood (18 - 35 years old)
6.1

Introduction

226

6.2

The Twenties

227

6.3

6.4

6.5

6.2.1

The Early Adult Transition (18 - 22 years old)

227

6.2.2

The Life Structure

23 1

6.2.3

The Work Trajectory

235

6.2.4

A Componential Theory of Creativity

24 1

The Thirties, to the Start of the Midlife Decade

246

6.3.1

The Life Structure

246

6.3.2

Work Trajectory and Experiences

248

6.3.3

A Componential Theory of Creativity

253

Other Analytical Perspectives

256

6.4.1

The Contribution of Influential Adults in Early Adulthood

256

6.4.2

The Experiences of Female Participants

258

6.4.3

Pre-Midlife Relationship to ‘Domain’ and ‘Field’260

Research Questions and Summary of Results

264

Chapter 7 - The Midlife Period (from 35 - 45 years old)
7.1

Introduction

272

7.2

Midlife Experiences

273

7.2.1

The ‘External’ Experiences of the Midlife Decade

275

7.2.2

The ‘Internal’ Experiences of the Midlife Decade

279

7.2.3

Anticipating the Midlife

282

7.2.4

Conclusions on the Experiences of the Midlife Decade

284

7.3

Changes to Creative Activity as a Result of Midlife Experience

286

7.4

Experiences of Female Participants

29 1

7.5

Conclusions to the Review of the Midlife Period

Chapter 8

293- Middle Age (45 - 60 years old)

8.1

Introduction

297

8.2

Repotted Changes to Creative Activity in Middle Age

298

8.2.1

Changes Internal to the Individual

300

8.2.2

Changes External to the Individual

302

8.3

Changes in Contrast to Earlier Ways of Working

305

8.4

The Future - Anticipated and Planned Changes in Work

309

8.5

The Life in Retrospect

317

8.6

The Experiences of Female Participants

‘319

8.7

‘Decline’ in Activity in Middle Age

319

8.8

Conclusions

322

Chapter 9 - Other Factors
9.1

Introduction

326

9.2

Occupational and Organisational Influences

327

9.2.1

Occupations

327

9.2.2

When Might An ‘Influencer’ Become An ‘Influencer’

329

9.2.3

Organisational Issues and Their Contribution to Development

330

9.2.4

Patterns in the Work of Enduringly Successful Individuals

331

9.3

Gender332

9.4

Differences Within The Participant Age Range

333

9.5

The Influence of Disability in Shaping Creative Ability

335

9.6

Conclusions

331

Chapter 10- “Localised Creativity”

10.1

Introduction

339

10.2

The Relationship of Research results to Other Theories

340

10.2.1 Positive Psychological Functioning

34 1

10.2.2 Self-Actualisation344

10.2.3 “Flow”

346

10.2.4 Giftedness348

10.2.5 Self-Image of Creative Ability

356

10.3

Characteristics of “Localised Creativity”

358

10.4

Conclusions

365

Chapter 11 - Conclusions
1I , I

Introduction

11.2

Overview of Research Findings

368

’

368

11.2.1 Methodological Approach

368

11.2.2 Childhood and Adolescence

37 1

11.2.3 Early Adulthood373

11.2.4 Midlife

377

11.2.5 Middle Age378

11.2.6 Additional Perspectives

379

11.3

Limitations of This Research

380

11.4

Further Research

383

11.5

Originality of This Thesis

385

Appendix 1

References

386

Appendix 2

Description of Participants414Appendix 3

422

Data and Analysis of the Myers Briggs Type Indicator

1

Introduction

422

2

Background to the MBTI

422

3

Data from Participants

423

4

MBTI Data Across Groups 1 and 2

428

5Intuitive Types

432

6

Intuitive Feeling Types

433

7

Different ‘Styles’ of Creativity Across Type

435

8

MBTI Results Across The Three Broad Occupational Categories

437

List of Tables
Table 2.1

Erikson’s Life Cycle Stages

Table 2.2

A Summary of Erikson’s Life Stages

Table 2.3

The Eras of the life cycle and the developmental

30
,

32
38

periods within them.
Table 2.4

A summary of Levinson’s Era’s and developmental periods

40

Table 2.5

Characterisitics of the “Flow” Experience

101

Table 2.6

“External” Midlife Experiences

110

Table 2.7

“Internai” Midlife Experiences

110

Table 2.8

Midlife characteristics in the personalhackground context

111

Table 2.9

Predicted changes to creative work following midlife

111experiences

Table 4. I

Overview of exploration and development of empirical work

146

Table 4.2

Participant data by gender, age and occupation

149

Table 4.3

Gender151

Table 4.4

Age distribution

151

Table 4.5

Sample, by broad occupational category, and numbers by152

specific occupations
Table 4.6

Source of contact

153

Table 4.7

Participant data by gender, age and occupation - first four154

interviews
Table 4.8

Interview structure at the start of the research project

156

Table 4.9

Participant data by gender, age and occupation - interviews 5

159

- 10

Table 4.10

.160

Further explanatory questions included in the interview
structure

Table 4.1 1

168Participant data by gender, age and occupation -interviews
11 - 15,

Table 4.12

Further additions to standard interview ‘open’ questions

168

Table 4.13

Interview analysis categories and sub categories

171

Table 4.14

Participant data by gender, age and occupation - interviews

173

16 - 30
Table 4.15

Participant data by gender, age and occupation - interviews

176

31 - 4 1

Table 5.1

The described antecedents of creative work in childhood

183

Table 5.2

Social class and occupation of parent

190

Table 5.3

Birth order of participants

192

Table 5.4

Examples of parental or family influence described by

195

participantsTable 5.5

The incidence of disability or illness in the participant groups

201

Table 5.6

Bereavement experienced by participants

204

Table 5.7

Level and limit of education undertaken

206

Table 5.8

Experiences of schooling described by participants

207

Table 5.9

Role models, mentors or influential adults

212

Table 5.10

The female participants in group I and group 2

216

Table 5.11

Presence of overall patterns described by Ochse (1990)

220

Table 5.12

The presence of supportive experiences cited by Bloom

222(1985)
Table 5.13

Clarity of directionhotivation at approximately 18 years old

224

Table 6.1

Clarity of direction and motivation at approximately 22 years

228

old
Table 6.2

The impact or contribution of parents at this time in adult life

230

Table 6.3

Life structure priorities - decade of the twenties

232

Table 6.4

Domain, motivation and change-orientation during the late243

twenties
Table 6.5

Life structure priorities - age 30 - 35

247

Table 6.6

Summary of participants work trajectory at this time

249

Table 6.7

Domain, motivation and change-orientation during the early253

thirties
Table 6.8

The contribution of role models and influential adults in early256

adulthood
Table 6.9

Patterns of movement in domains and fields of work

262

Table 7.1

“External” midlife experiences273

Table 7.2“Internal” midlife experiences

273

Table 7.3

Anticipating the midlife

274

Table 7.4

External midlife experiences of participants

275

Table 7.5

“Internal” midlife experiences of participants

279

Table 7.6

Anticipating the midlife

283

Table 7.7

Employment patterns of participants

284

Table 7.8

Predicted changes to creative work following midlife

287experiences
Table 7.9

Changes to creative activity in the midlife period

287

Table 8.1

Described changes to creative activity in middle age

298

Table 8.2

Contrasts between their current and previous ways of306

working.
‘ 309

Table 8.3

Future changes planned or anticipated in work

Table 8.4

The challenges anticipated in future work

311

Table 8.5

Of what are these individuals most proud?

317

Table 9.1

Sample by 3 broad occupational categories and numbers in

327

specific occupations
Table 9.2

The balance of males and females between group 1 and 2

333

Table 9.3

The spread of males across three age groups

333

Table 9.4

The spread of females across three age groups

334

Table 10.1

Measures of well-being and positive psychological342

functioning in middle age
Table 10.2

Selected measures of self-actualisation

344

Table 10.3

The structure and characteristics of the “flow” experience

341

Table 10.4

Near-adult levels of skills in childhood

350

Table 10.5

Intrinsic motivation in childhood

35 1

Table 10.6

Participants who viewed themselves or their work as creative

351

Table 10.7

A continuum of creativity

360

Table A3.1

MBTI Scores and Types

423

Table A3.2

Overall participant Type tabulated by MBTI Type table

426

Table A3.3

MBTI - estimated percentage, by Type, within the UK

427

population
Table A3.4

Group 1 -The ‘Early Starters’ - by MBTI Type Table

429

Table A3.5

Group 2 -The ‘Later Starters’ - by MBTI Type Table

430

Table A3.6

Analysis of MBTI results in different function combinations

43 1

Table A3.7

Priorities likely to be displayed by the different Type436

quadrants
Table A3.8

MBTI analysis across the three broad occupational categories

437

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my supervisors, Jane Henry and John Martin for their support in an
exploratory research project that has changed its nature over time. I am indebted to them forthe flexibility and creativity that has involved and for what I have learnt from them about theprocess of research and writing. I would also like to express my thanks to the Faculty of theInstitute of Educational Technology for the opportunity to follow full-time post graduate study
as a ‘mature’ student.

The direction and broad questions associated with this research grew from my knowing andworking with Ron Long, Colin Selby and Catherine Yarrow - three of the most profoundly
creative people 1 have ever met. Knowing them has changed me and their positive influence,the questions they inspired me to ask are behind every page in this thesis along with almost
any other work I undertake.

I would like to thank the participants in this research project. They were promised .
confidentiality so their names remain private. They gave me time, shared details of theirstories, and taught me so much - individually and collectively.
Friends have contributed many things over the duration of this research project and supported
me in its growth and development. They have added in different ways to its creation and any
richness it shows. I want to express my thanks (alphabetically, by surname) to Jane Barnard,
Mel Ephgrave, Sue Fenwick, Lois Graessle, Tommy Jackson, Andrew Machon, Erica Morris,
Judy Schneider, Sherry1 and Peter Scott and Jerry Walker. In addition, I owe Penny Gill,
Paddy and David Lilley more than I can express for their support with the very real challengesof post graduate study - without their presence and friendship over time this thesis would,
quite simply, never have been finished.

I would like to dedicate this work to Tommy Jackson, who died on 41hMay 2000. He was afriend throughout the time of this project. My hope would be that an act of creativity would
contrast with the unnecessary and temble loss of his life.

iAbstract
This thesis is based around a biographic study of the lives of 40 individuals (24 men and 16
women) with a reputation for creative work in a localised context (such as an organisation).
The study examines life span development patterns from birth to middle age (45 - 60 years ofage) with data gained by biographic interview and thematic analysis. Participants selected forthis study are creative in that they have a reputation for producing new, novel and useful orappropriate contributions in their ‘local’ setting.

The study identifies two main paths to “local” creativity within this sample. First,
participants who found and related to a particular area during childhood and adolescence anddeveloped this relationship and work from that time through their adult lives. Second,participants who, although they generally demonstrated an interest in their subsequent creative
work in early life did not understand this until some later time, and consequently started
developing this area later. On the whole these two groups present different patterns ofchildhood experience, ways of locating their domain of work, association with influential
adults or role models, and changes between domains and fields of work. Their midlife
experiences are similar. From midlife and middle age there are fewer differences. The
findings also serve to illustrate the contribution of support received from parents and teachersin early life to creative development. They also indicate that even if a young person does not
identify a domain of work activity in early life this can be found later - and that support forwork in this area is usually received from influential adults and role models in their work andlearning environment. Various other factors have also been considered.

.<

11

\

Chapter I - Introduction

Chapter 1 - Introduction
1.1

Introduction

This chapter:

1.2 Introduces the research area and questions of this thesis.
1.3 Considers the reasons why this is an appropriate subject for research andevaluation.
1.4 Describes the way in which this research is original.

1.5 Presents an outline structure of this thesis.

1.2

Research Area

Much of the existing research on the development of creativity over the individual life span
has focused on the genius, exceptional and eminent individual - i.e. individuals defined as
exceptionally creative by their peers, those who received exceptional honours, madeextraordinary breakthroughs, or who had gained widespread social acknoyledgement(Kastenbaum 1992: p287). This project has turned to examine the life span developmental
patterns of individuals with a reputation or acknowledgement for creative output within alocalised context, such as a workplace, an organisation or a region (as opposed‘to anational or international context, or across an entire domain of activity) from childhood,through to middle age, and up to 60 years old. In this thesis the term ‘ordinary’ or‘localised’ creativity has been used to describe the creative output of the participants astheir work has only been recognised in a localised context, as opposed to individuals who
have been singled out for their peak or exceptional achievement by the publicacknowledgement they have received nationally or international1y. The terms ‘ordinary’and ‘localised’ creativity are used - to contrast with the rare, exceptional, nationally andinternationally acknowledged achievement. This thesis contrasts the life span
1

Chapter 1 -introduction

development of these everyday and local creatives with what is known of the developmentof the exceptional creative individual.
This research was originally conceived to examine the impact of mid-life
experiences on creativity, and the nature of subsequent changes in creative activity, if any,
which may occur in the following years. The focus on ‘everyday creativity’ arose from
exploratory empirical work (described in chapter 4) that highlighted two other issues.
First, in the search for appropriate participants, people working creatively in an everyday
context were more readily available than the exceptional individuais - a point made by
Amabile (1996: p40).

Secondly, in assessing existing research, and obtaining feedback

via conference presentations there appeared little or no prior work available on thedevelopment of creativity in “ordinary” or “everyday” individuals’ over the life span.
Thirdly, from exploratory interviews conducted with participants there were strong
indications that the experiences of the mid-life period, and after, could only be separated
from earlier life, the development of creative activity and a career with difficulty and at therisk of losing important aspects of individuals’ stories. (This view is endorsed inI

Whitbourne and Connolly 1999: p40.) The development of creativity is embedded in theexperiences of earlier life and the experiences of the second half of life may notrealistically be examined separately from this. It was in this way that this researchacquired a focus on the ‘whole’ life span and on ‘everyday creativity’.
The research method used in this work is biographic interview. The use of
biographic data, obtained from published biographies and other sources, to achieve an
understanding of the creative and eminent individual has a lineage extending from Cox(1926) to Goertzel et al (1962 and 1978), Gardner (1993, 1997), and Gruber (e.g. 1988,
1989) and others. Examples of using personal interviews to obtain information have been
seen in Roe (1951a), Bloom (1985) and Csikszentmihalyi (1996). Mayer (1999: p451-3)’ In contrast to the research that exists on the development of the exceptional creative individual, or genius.
LChapter I - Introduction

describes biographical methods as being one of the principal methods utilized to study
creativity.’ Biographical studies are normally considered as appropriate to the study of the
impact of the life course on individual creativity (Gedo and Gedo 1990: p9).
A literature search and exploratory empirical work have influenced the path tospecific research questions. This will be described in greater detail in chapters 2 and 4. It
is also appropriate, however, to acknowledge the different sources of theory on thedevelopment of an individual life over time.
An examination of the development of creativity across the entire life span increative people has rarely been undertaken as a single piece of work; exceptions include

Roe (1953) and Csikszentmihalyi (1996). For this reason, the extent and sources ofexisting research information against which to examine or contrast data from this study
will change with each life period.

Childhood and Schooling
There is a substantial body of literature on the development patterns of “exceptional”
gifted and creative individuals in their childhood and teenage years (e.g. Goertzeld andGoertzels 1962). This enables a detailed contrast to be made between the “ordinary”
participants in this study and “exceptional” creative individuais in this age range.

Early Adulthood: Post-schooling to the onset of the mid-life period
The pattern of experience of “exceptional” creative individuals in this period has to beinferred from case study research and work examining the quality and quantity of creative
work over time. There are a small number of longitudinal studies of gifted individuals
that also allow us to infer the nature of experiences that may be encountered. Different

2

The other methods named are psychometric, psychological, biological, computational and contextual.
3

Chapter I -Introduction

empirical studies and theories have been assembled to examine the range of experiencesthat may be found in work development in this time period.

The Mid-Life Period (35 - 45 years of age)
Empirical research data on the nature and effects of the mid-life period is limited ingeneral, and for creative individuals in particular. For this reason, this thesis will exsmine

the experience of this research group against structures drawn from this limited data andtheory.

The Middle Age Period, to 60 years old
Similarly, empirical research data on the character and effects of the post mid-life period islimited in general and for creative individuals in particular. For this reason two
perspectives have been adopted. First, this research seeks emerging patterns of behaviour
and activity in this time period within the “ordinary” creative participants. Second, a
relatively new focus of research has been chosen for exploration -that of the “late life
~ t y l e ” ~This. offers indications of what may happen in the practice of the arts, music andliterature in later life. This project also considers whether this can be seen in theexperiences of “ordinary” creative individuals.

1.3 Why Is This An Appropriate Area Of Study?

This section considers the reasons that exist for the research in this thesis in the broad
context of creativity research, and other areas related to this thesis. The question posed by
the thesis must be considered from several perspectives.

’

The late life style has also been called the “old age style”, or the “swan song effect” in different pieces ofresearch. Work to-date has been focused on an age range over 60 years old. Yet some speculate (CohenShalev 1989) whether the late life style may also be found in those working in their middle age years.
4Chapter I -Introduction

1. The field of creativity research: A number of scholars, e.g. Feist and Runco (1993:p271), Stemberg and Lubart (1999: p3), Feldman (1999: p160) and Mayer (1999:
p458/9) have concluded that the volume of creativity research significantly lags behind
other areas of mainstream psychology. In a twenty year period Stemberg and Lubart(1999) found creativity entries represented only 0.5% of the Psycinfo database entries- whereas references to reading, for example, represented three times that amount.

Feist and Runco (1993: p278) concluded that the amount of empirical research increativity was not increasing, though theoretical work was. This thesis provides
additional empirical work in the field of creativity research.

2. Expanding the understanding and studv of creativitv into new areas of the population:
Torrance (1995: p21) argues that creativity is a universal attribute that is capable ofdevelopment. This thesis considers definitions of creativity usually applied to theeminent in more localised contexts, here termed ‘ordinary’ or ‘everyday’ creativity
found in people at work. Perlmutter (1991: pviii) proposes that most people operatewith latent or under-used capacity - and that their skills and performance are open tointervention and change. This view is echoed by Csikszentmihalyi et al (1993: pi).
Expanding a search for creativity into everyday contexts and over the life span ispotentially useful and the patterns found can be contrasted with what is known of the
exceptional creative individual.

3. Providing a balance to a product-centred view-point: A significant focus of research
examining the links between creativity and aging (by volume of material produced) has
been into the patterns of productivity and achievement over time (e.g. Lehman 1953,
Dennis 1966). This latter research presents the reader with an articulate view of when,5Chapter I - Introduction

and how much work is produced, and the times at which the work may be expected toachieve a peak in social recognition. In this thesis, however, it will be argued that thisalone is a limited perspective. The patterns of development in creativity over time how individuals acquire skill and motivation, and convert these into active careers what changes occur in the nature and reason for work and how this is perceived andexperienced by those involved - all provide further perspectives from which to
examine creativity in the context of an individual life (Freeman 1993: p19). This
thesis offers the opportunity for an examination of creativity from the perspective of
the individual life span, and the ways and paths through which it is operationalised andaffected over time.

4. Learning when and how a ‘gift’ becomes active: The development of a career based on
creativity is often assumed to involve developmental milestones, for example, thedevelopment of a cognitive ‘gift’ or talent into creative ability, and from there
acquiring a lifestyle of the characteristics that will deliver creative activity (Albert
1990b: p174; Freeman 1993: p14). It is acknowledged that a key question in theunderstanding of a creative life is when and how an individual gift become active(Gmber 1986). Conversely, it is also acknowledged that potential talent in many
young people is not converted into an active gift, (Albert 1980b: p174, andCsikszentmihalyi et al 1993: p l and 33) and that this represents in a large part a failure
within the education system. This study provides an opportunity to examine the ways
and times at which a potential in ordinary individuals is activatedin the context of theirchildhood, youth and career and how it may change over time. Simonton (1983a:p150) argues that any theory of creativity which fails to reach an understanding of thistransition will be judged as inadequate.

6

Chapter 1 - Introduction

5. Adding to an understanding of creativitv. aging and the elderly: The proportion ofelderly people in the population is changing. Sheehy (1995: p8 and 64)points out thatthe percentage of the UK population aged between 45 and 59 years will expand by

17% by the year 2001. By the year 2020 people over 50 years of age will be thelargest percentage of the UK population. In the USA 80 million people, or a 72%
increase, will reach "middle age" by 2015 (Willis and Reid 1999: p.xv). Additionally,in the last fifty years, life expectancy has increased by ten years. This increasing
proportion of elderly people in society requires an increased understanding of adultdevelopment in these later years (Reid and Willis 1999: p275). Yet there is abackground of cultural discomfort with aging and being old (Levinson 1978; Sheehy1995). Interest in creativity in later life is being mentioned more frequently in thecontext of this aging population, with both increased numbers and a longer life span(e.g. Sheehy 1995: p145). Paul Torrance (1995: p101 and 103) suggests creativeskills and behaviour in later years allow the elderly to hold on to and increase thequality of their life. He suggests any understanding that allows the elderly to hold on
to and increase a quality of life gained through creative skills and behaviour is to be
advocated. Additionally, he equates creativity with flexibility and sees it as a central
skill to support the aging and the elderly in coping with huge levels of change within
existing society. Cropley (1997: p241/2) reports on four studies where the health andperformance of the elderly were seen to increase through the teaching of creativeskills. Munsterberg (1984) and Gedo (1990) also describe case studies to illustrate

why the application of creativity and creative skills can provide means through which
an individual can change and integrate their understandings of later life and healthdifficulties. This thesis examines creativity in the context of the life span to provide
illustrations of how its contribution to a life changes over time.

7Chapter 1 -Introduction

6 . Offerine opportunities for intervention and change: If the developmental patterns andexperiences of creative individuals can be identified, then this presents an opportunity
for considering whether potential intervention and change is achievable in the lives ofothers, or at least a broader understanding of ways of living that offer alternatives.
(Goertzel et al 1978: p78; Simonton 1987: p132; and Csikszentmihalyi 1996: p15i.)
This thesis examines areas in the individuai life span that may suggest potential points
of intervention

1.4

The Original Contribution Of This Thesis

The original contribution of this thesis will be considered in detail in the final chapter. In
summary, its originality comes from being a study intended to determine developmental
patterns of “localised” creativity within a specific population group over the life span (withno prior research in this field traced by the researcher). It then compares these results with
developmental patterns of creativity found in exceptional creative individuais and, where
possible, with gifted individuals. Another original contribution includes the use and thetesting of Jaques’s (1965) proposed changes to creative activity after the midlife in a new
population group.

1.5

Thesis Structure

A summary of each chapter is as follows:

Chapter 2 -The Literature Review:
The review examines literature contributing to an understanding of ordinary creativity. It
examines three primary sources of literature.

8

Chapter I -Introduction

First, research focused on creativity, and what is known about the development of thelife of eminent creative individuals. This will offer an important source of matters tocontrast with the experiences of the ‘ordinary’ and the exceptional individual, and may
be expected to highlight key differences in experience.
Second, general life span development theories. This will allow a consideration of theways in which the experiences of the participant group are either like or unlike those
expected generally within life.
Third, some other perspectives. For example, the theories of successful development
across the life span, self-actualization and flow, and the contribution of research into
gifted individuals.
This review concludes by considering specific ways in which this literature can be used toask questions of the research data in order to explore this subject area.

Chapter 3 - Research Methodology
This chapter will review:
Why a research approach which draws on grounded theory and contrasting existing
theory can contribute to an understanding of this subject.
The contribution of biographic study to creativity theory.
Interview structure and analysis.

The choice of this participant sample.

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work
This chapter will describe the development of the empirical work, and how that hascontributed to the underlying structure and questions considered. It will also describe the9Chapter 1 - Introduction

pattern of interview development over discrete groups of participants, and the way inwhich that has contributed to the focus of this thesis.

Chapters 5 to 9 - Main Study Results and Discussion
George Vaillant in his (1977) landmark book describing the results of the longitudinal
Grant Study of 95 men wrote: “their lives were too human for science, too beautiful for
numbers ... and too immortal for bound journals” (pi I). He did this to communicate howdifficult it was to represent the detail and quality of these lives in a defined and relatively
small written space. This thesis faces a similar challenge. The raw data emerging fromthe 40 biographic interviews of this thesis consists of transcripts approximately 2,700
pages in length and ‘Nudist’ analysis of approximately 65 analytical codes amongst these
documents (also numbering in excess of 2,700 pages).

In order to present this in

manageable amounts, and to focus discussion of this information in a way which will bepractical for a reader, data is divided into four separate time periods.
Chapter 5: “Childhood and adolescence”.
Chapter 6: “Early adulthood”, to the commencement of the mid-life period.
Chapter 7: “The Mid-life period”.
Chapter 8: “Middle Age, to 60 years old’.
Study results and discussion will be presented for each time period in the individual
chapters.
Chapter 9: “Other Factors” examines the possible influence of certain factors thatwere independent of these lifespan time frames, e.g. the influence of disability on creative
activity.

IO

Chapter 1 -Introduction-

Chapter 10 “Localised Creativity”
This chapter considers the relationship of “localised creativity” to positive development
and giftedness, and summarises some of the characteristics of localised creativity.

Research questions are used to help structure the data, along with a tabular presentation of
key results. Illustrative quotations will be incorporated to bring out the voice ofparticipants themselves.

Chapter 11 - Conclusions
This chapter will present conclusions from this research and suggest possible further

research arising from this.

Runco and Sakamoto (1999: p62) and Stemberg and Lubart (1999: p10-12) each conclude
that creativity is a multifaceted phenomenon requiring research which focuses on multiple
influences and components which are present when creativity appears. The latter authors
describe such research as a “confluence” approach, and suggest that it offers the possibilityof accounting for the diverse aspects of creativity. The research presented in this thesis
falls within the confluence perspective.

Chapter 2. Literature Review

Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
This thesis is focused on examining the life span development patterns of 40 individuaiswith a reputation for creative influencing in a localised context (e.g. in an organisation).
There is no prior research in this area that the researcher has been able to locate. This,
therefore, immediately raises a question of what literature, theoretical and empirical work
is relevant to developmental patterns that emerge from this research project.

At the outset of this research, the researcher was psychodynamically oriented andassumed creativity to reside in an individual’s head.

As he progressed reading thecreativity and related literatures his views changed radically. He came first to understandthe importance of experience and cognition in the development of knowledge and potential
for creativity through reading the likes of Stemberg. After reading Csikszentmihalyi andGardner he came to understand the interrelationship of domain and field with theindividual characteristics in creative endeavour and began to appreciate the importance ofa systems perspective. Reading the depth and extent of biographic studies of the eminentand exceptionally creative individuals also provided detailed indications of the ways inwhich their early life experience may have been distinctive. Throughout, his focus has!

been on elaborating the processes by which creativity develops and unfolds throughmidlife and subsequently across the lifespan as a whole. He believes this research project
has contributed to the literature on creative development by focusing on the impact ofcertain relational and environmental factors on the development of localised creativity.
But the immediate challenge remains to determine what theoretical perspectives andexisting literature are relevant to the unfolding of creativity in a sample known for
localised creativity. Roe (1953), in a classic study on the developmental influences ofscientists, argued that, when a researcher was examining questions where the results were
unclear or simply not known, then multiple theoretical perspectives behind data-gathering

12Chapter 2 - Literature Review

would be appropriate. This perspective is endorsed in literature on qualitative researchmethods (Lincoln and Guba 1985). Four literatures available that are potentially relevant

are: theories associated with creativity in the social systemícontext; the lifespandevelopment theories which provide data on the development of normal individuals;
literature on the exceptional creative and gifted groups; and literature on particularly welladjusted individuals such as self-actualisers. Since there is very little literature on thedevelopment of everyday and localised creativity, the researcher has decided to draw on allof these literatures in the examination of creative development in this sample. By
examining creativity in the context of the social system it will be possible to consider
certain influences in the surrounding environment. By using normal lifespan development
literatures he will be well placed to see whether his sample of localised creatives isdeveloping normally, or not. By looking at the literature on the development of the
exceptionally creative and gifted populations it should be possible to see if the patterns thatare associated with creative development there are also found with a sample of localised
creatives. The examination of successful life development theories allows a brief
consideration of the extent to which localised creativity may be a normal outcome incertain healthy well-adjusted populations. To this end, this chapter introduces the four
distinct areas of literature, plus a fifth part dealing with research questions. These cover
the following:Pari 1 - Creativity: Definitions of creativity - types of creativity - types of creative
persons - creativity in the social contextlsystem - and the presence of creativity in‘everyday life’ (in contrast to the work of the exceptional creative individual.) This
will introduce what the researcher means by ‘creativity’, and how this may be present
in this research sample. The perspective of creativity in the social system provides aframework through which to examine individual’s life events in the external world, e.g.
the choice of a work domain and the nature of influence of the field, such as parents or
an organisation they work in.

13

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Part 2 -Theories of General Life Span Development: This part examines 4 principal
theories of life span development in order to provide a context to understand the life
development experiences of research participants. This will allow us to consider
whether research results on the lifespan development of an individual with a reputation
for creativity in a localised context are ‘normal’, or in some way different.
Part 3 -Theories of Life Span Development of the Exceptional Creative Individual:This part will present a composite picture of what is known about the creative
development of the exceptional creative individual from childhood to middle age.
This will also draw on literature indicating the experiences of gifted individuals. This
literature will provide a further basis for considering the developmental experiences ofthe ‘localised’ creative individual. For example, do the experiences of ‘localised’creative individuals reflect those of the exceptional creative individual - might theirdevelopmental experiences be similar? If not, in what ways are they different?

Part 4 -Additional Contributing Theories: This part considers other theories Òn
successful life development and optimal experience, such as Self-actualisation andflow, and in what way the examination of ‘localised creativity’ may overlap with orcomplement these phenomena.

Pari 5 -Research Questions: The literature review closes with a description of researchquestions and an indicator of how the contributing literature is used to examine theresearch data.

There is a potential tension in using four discrete areas of theory and research tounderstand the lifespan development of this particular participant group. The material is
produced from individual accounts and from a broader collective or social perspective.
The researcher aims to draw on factors identified in the lifespan, creative and gifted
literatures (such as parental support, the role of mentors, the extent to which anorganisation expects and accepts change) to elucidate how members of this sample develop

14Chapter 2 - Literature Review

their creativity over time in the social system of which they are part. As will be explainedin chapter 3, the lifespan development influences in this research area are not necessarily
known or understood. Therefore adopting a broad theoretical and research perspective
raises the potential for identifying key contributory developmental factors and has aprecedent in the classic biographical study of Roe (1953).

It is important to note that the amount of literature that considers creativity, thedevelopment of the exceptional creative individual, giftedness and life span development(as well as Self-actualisation and 'flow') is substantial. The principal focus of this thesisis the life span development of creative individuals. This literature review, therefore,
deliberately only summarises key arguments and contributions in these two areas - life
span and creativity - while drawing on literature under certain related headings such as
giftedness. While critical examination is offered in this review, the use of these,
theoretical and empirical research perspectives has a lineage in understanding the lifespandevelopment of these individuals (e.g. Roe 1953, Ochse 1990, and Csikszentmihalyi
1996). The purpose of making this statement at this point in the literature review is tomake the presentation of the literature achievable in the space allowed for this thesis.

Part 1 - Creativity
2.2 Definitions of Creativity
2.2.1 Characteristics of Creativity
A common starting point for defining creativity is to examine its characteristics. The

different definitions share similar features, as the following range of examples illustrates:

Gruber & Wallace (1999: p94)"The creative product must be new and must be given value
according to some external criteria".

15

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Martindale (1999: p137)"A creative idea is one that is both original and appropriate
for the situation in which it occurs".

Lumsden (1999: p153)"Creativity is a kind of capacity to think up something newthat people find significant".

Feist (1999: p274)"... novel and adaptive solutions to problems"

Lubart (1999: p339)"... the ability to produce work that is novel andappropriate".

Boden (1999: p351)"... the generation of ideas that are both novel and valuable".

Feldman et al (1994: p i )"... the achievement of something remarkable and new,something which transforms and changes a field of
endeavour in a significant way".

Amabile (1996: p35)"... it is both a novel and appropriate, useful, comect orvaluable response to the task at hand".

The phrasing of a majority of these definitions could apply to many settings yet the focusof these authors is generally on exceptional acts. The common theme within thesedefinitions is novelty or originality and utility or usefulness. These definitions also reflecta pattern of defining creativity by products, the characteristics of the outcome, whether an
object or an idea - but not exclusively so. Many researchers have also focused on the
person, process and press, (after Rhodes 1961) i.e. the "creative person", the "creative
process" andor the "creative press" or environments that originated the creative product or

16

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

outcome. Barron (1988: p80) illustrates how the person, process and product havebecome used in providing definitions of creativity. He writes:"Creativity is the ability to respond adaptively to the needs for new approaches andnew products. It is essentially the ability to bring something new into existence
purposefully, though the process may have unconscious, or subliminally coiiscious,

as well as fully conscious components. ... The "something new" is usually a
produci resulting from aprocess initiated by a person.

These are therefore thethree modes in which creativity may most easily be studied. The defining
properties of these new products, processes, and persons are their originality, theiraptness, their validity, their adequacy in meeting a need."

While these definitions have generally been used for the study of creativity in thoseindividuals acknowledged for exceptional domain-changing achievement, the researcher
will argue in section 2.2.5 that these characteristics may also be used for examining thework of those with a reputation for creativity in a localised context.
How can creativity be studied? In reviewing 30 authors contributing to Stemberg(1999), Mayer (1999: p 451-459) suggests that the commonest approaches reflect the "4Ps" (person, process, product and 'press' or environment). He cites six research
approaches or paradigms as being used: psychometric, psychological, biographical(including histonometnc), biological, computational and contextual. Mayer argues thatpsychometric approaches have been most widely used over the last 50 years. In looking tofuture work Mayer advocates further research, more use of the other methods, and greater
discipline or structure being introduced into empirical methods. The researcher seeks to1

contribute to the study of creativity via the use of biographic research methods.

17Chapter 2 - Literature Review

The definitions of creativity outlined above can be enhanced in three important
aspects - (a) areas of creative work - (b) types of creative person - and (c) the social
system or context of creativity.

2.2.2 Areas of Creative Work
The work of Howard Gardner (1993: p313/4) and Policastro and Gardner (1999: p220/1)
has widened and refined the definition of creativity by proposing the areas in which
creative work may be found. They propose and define five areas of creative work:
Solution of problems: e.g. the proof of Fermat's last theorem.
Theory building: e.g. Einstein's or Freud's work constructing concepts to account fordata.
The creation of a permanent work in a symbolic system: e.g. Eliot's poem the Waste
Land, or Picasso's Guernica.
Performance of a ritualised work: e.g. the dance performances of Martha Graham.
High-stake performances: e.g. Gandhi, who canied out a series of actions in public inorder to achieve social change.

2.2.3 Type of Creative Person
Policastro and Gardner have taken this further in defining four different types ofrelationship aperson may have with a domain of knowledge and activity - what the
researcher considers 'types' of creative persons.
A Master: is an individual who has achieved "complete mastery over one or moredomains of accomplishment; his or her innovation occurs within established practice",(E.g. Mozart, Rembrandt, George Elliot.)

A Maker: crqates a new domain. E.g. Freud and psychoanalysis.
An Introspector: is an individual concerned with "exploration of his or her inner life:
daily experiences, potent needs and fears, the operation of consciousness (both that of18

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

the particular individual and that or individuals more generally)”. E.g. Virginia
Woolf, Annais Nin, James Joyce.
An Influencer: “also explores the personal world, but directs his or her creative
capacities towards affecting other individuals”. E.g. Gandhi, Eleanor Roosevelt,
Nelson Mandela.
(Gardner 1997: p10-13; Policastro and Gardner 1999: p221/2)

Gardner suggests these are the “four major forms of extraordinariness” in an individual,(1997: p12). He also explains that the boundaries between these categories can overlap:
e.g. Freud mastered neurology prior to ‘making’psychoanalysis, and introspecting aspectsof his own life - though he is remembered for his work as a “maker”.

Application to this thesis: The research participants involved in this thesis come from a

range of occupations and may be defined as creative “influencers” (after Gardner 1993,1997) who conduct influencing work in a localised context. They have a reputation for
novelty, originality and usefulness in that context; in many cases this is a particularorganisation. Both creative influencers and ‘local’ creativity are aspects of creative workthat have received very little attention to-date as most research in the area of creativity
focuses on people who produce tangible products, or on creative ability, or on studies of
exceptionally creative people and geniuses. The researcher is, therefore, arguing that it istimely and appropriate to expand research attention into these areas, i.e. localised creativity
in a population of creative influencers.

2.2.4 The Social System of Creativity
A further debate in the creativity literature involves examining whether creativity is apersonal or a social phenomenon. At the start of this research the researcher shared anearlier belief described by Csikszentmihalyi (1999: p313) - that creativity originated within

19Chapter 2 - Literature Review

the person, that it was an intrapsychic process. It is increasingly common to findresearchers arguing that qualities and traits of the individuai are “necessary” but not“sufficient” for the achievement of creativity (e.g. Freeman 1993: p10, Winner 2000.)
Through his research Csikszentmihalyi was prompted to consider not only the “what” ofcreativity, but also the “where” and the “how”, (e.g. 1988). This involved the perspectivethat multiple components are present, operating as a system, when creativity occurs; this isoften now termed a “confluence” approach to the study of creativity. Stemberg andLubart (1999: p12) suggest that it is thezonfluence perspective that allows the researcher
to take account of diverse aspects of creativity.

A systems perspective on the study of creativity has been put forward and used by
Feldman, Gardner and Csikszentmihalyi (writing collectively in 1994, and individually inother sources, e.g. Csikszentmihalyi 1988, 1999; Gardner 1993). It moves the debate on
defining creativity from “what” it is, to “where” it is, or the contextual factors present when
it occurs.
The perspective of the system and the social context suggests that the newness of athought, act or product and its value can only be judged through social evaluation(Csikszentmihalyi 1996: p23). Further, by implication, creativity is relative - therecognition and acknowledgement of creative work occur in a social context - it isexamined and recognised through the interaction between the producer of the work and thecontext or ‘audience’(Csikszentmihalyi 1999: p314).

This argument also suggests thatthe “level” of creativity equates to and is synonymous with the recognition and eminence
accorded by the field, the social context of the ‘creator’ (Simonton 1983a: p150; Albert
1992a: p7).

For that reason, creativity “with a capital C”, the kind that influences andchanges a culture or context, cannot be solely in the mind and work of an individual
person. It must be communicated to others in a manner they understand, which can thenbe assessed and accepted by them (Csikszentmihalyi 1996: p27).

20

=..

..

~

In the light of this background, a focus on the individual and his or her genetics are
not enough to explain fluctuations and differences in creativity. Advances in creativity
must involve the accumulation of knowledge in a domain, role models to indicate
standards and directions and the social communication of values, knowledge and skill(Csikszentmihalyi 1988: p326 and Ochse 1990: p57).
The systems model proposed by Csikszentmihalyi, Gardner and Feldman has threecomponents, the individual, domain and field. Csikszentmihalyi argues that creativity canbe observed only at the intersection where these three components interact (see below 1999: p314).

The reiationships between the three parts of this model, the domain, field andindividual are dynamic -each affects the others, and is affected by them. There is,therefore, no set starting point in reviewing this system. Csikszentmihalyi argues that
there is a spirai of influence between the domain, the person and the field, and then back to
the domain in a generative cycle, (1988: p329 and 333) as explained below.

DomainA domain is defined as the structure and organisation of a body of knowledge about asingle topic. It exists independently of the individual and has a history and skills that canbe learnt. It will involve a representational system (or “symbol system”) through which

the domain’s knowledge will be communicated -its rules and procedures (Feldman 1994:
p20 and 22; Csikszentmihalyi 1996: p27).

21

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Without the existence of a domain there will be no creativity. For example, aperson cannot contribute to music without access to and leaming some part of the domainof music. Csikszentmihalyi argues that “creativity occurs when a person makes a change
in a domain that will be transmitted through time” (Csikszentmihalyi 1988: p330 and 1999:p315). Access to and work within a domain is a way of earning a living for most people but is a much stronger calling for others, particularly creative individuals(Csikszentmihalyi 1996: p37).

The Individual
Feldman (1994: p16) describes the individual as “the site of the acquisition andtransformation of knowledge that has the possibility of changing domains and fields”.
The role of the individual is to produce some variation or change in the information orsymbol system that constitutes the domain. In the context of this system, creativity occurs
when the individual produces that novel change, and when it is then accepted by others, i.e.

the field, and given utility and use, by its subsequent incorporation back into the structureof the domain (Csikszentmihalyi 1988: p330 and 1996: p28).

The Field
The field is defined as the social and cultural organisation of a profession, craft orjob thatallows or obstructs the development of work (the creation of ‘products’) and therecognition of “creative” works. The field consists of “entities” that mediate the access or
influence to the domain. In the early life or career of the individuai it is likely to consistof family, relatives and/or friends that decide the acceptability of access to a particularskill, way of working or knowledge. There must usually be sufficient available energy

and willingness from these entities, e.g. support from parents, to introduce a child to adomain, and connect the child with the field in the shape of teachers or mentors. The field
will extend to educational institutions and work places in which the individual apprentices

22Chapter 2 - Literature Review

him or herself to learn - and eventually the teachers, critics, opinion-makers, gatekeepers
or leaders in a context, or in some cases the general public (Gardner and Wolf 1994: p57/8;
Feldman 1994: p16; Csikszentmihalyi 1998: p331, 1996: p28 and 1999: ~ 3 1 5 , 3 2 8and
329). The Field will provide and even encompass the domain with ‘‘sources of support,socialisation, tradition, evaluation and recognition” (Feldman 1994: p36). The
characteristics of the field will affect the rate of creativity that takes place, and therecognition it receives (Csikszentmihalyi 1999: p322,3 and 7).
Alternatively the recognition and acceptance of a creative change takes time -forthe “field” to acknowledge and accept the work of the individual, and then to communicate
this change into the subsequent performance and conduct of the “domain”. The newcontents of the domain become part of subsequent influence or input to individuals that
follow.

The Dynamics of the System

If we accept that creativity occurs “enmeshed” in the interaction of this system, then acreative individual faces learning the content of a domain as well as the criteria and theway in which a field selects acceptable change, i.e. the individual must learn andinternalise the working and ‘rules’ of the system (Freeman 1993: p10; Csikszentmihalyi
1996: p47, and 1999: p332). This framework also implies and offers an analyticalstructure through which creativity may be studied. Feldman (1994: p25) suggests that thethree areas need to be studied individually as well as in their relationship to each other.
Csikszentmihalyi (1999) portrays the system from the perspective of “Big C”
creativity, and how the system works for large-scale and/or socially acclaimed creative acts

to be recognised by and integrated into a culture. The researcher argues that this is not thesole perspective from which the systems model can add to our understanding of thedevelopment of creativity - that it can be used to study creativity in other contexts,

23Chapter 2 - Literature Review

specifically more localised areas. This point of view is implied by Feldman (1994:
Chapter 1).

The application to this thesis: Historically creativity and lifespan studies have tended tofocus on the individual, emphasising the tole of personal characteristics, skills and traits.

A systems perspective on creativity takes a less individualistic view. Though this thesis
focuses on the development of individual creativity across time it takes account ofinterpersonal and environmental influences on creativity (such as parents, mentors andorganisational climate). In this way it seeks to elucidate how social systems affect thedevelopment of creativity in individuals.

Freeman (1993) has used the systems model

concepts in a follow-up study of the participants involved in Csikszentmihalyi and Getzel’s(1976) work published as “Creative Vision”. Freeman’s study reviewed the experiencesof those who had not achieved widespread social acclaim for their work. This researcher
proposes to draw on the systems perspective to understand creative development in a
localised context. The details of this are expanded upon below in section 2.2.5.

2.2.5 Is Creativity Available to All?
So far this literature review has drawn on research focused primarily on creativity

associated with acclaimed acts, e.g. those that change a culture, even though some of thedefinitions used imply that creativity may be defined in other ways or settings.

“Big C”

creativity is seen as a contribution or product that changes a complete domain ofknowledge or endeavour, and is accorded recognition or social acclaim by the “field”ofjudges (Feldman 1994: p2; Albert 1975/1992: p60). This tradition or approach focusespotentially limited research resources on major manifestations of creativity and could havethe implication and consequence of suggesting that “creativity is a limited and narrowly
available resource” (Isaksen and Dorval 1993: p310).

24

But is creativity available in theChapter 2 - Literature Review

general population, to “ordinary people”, or is it solely available to the exceptional
individual?
Amabile (interviewed in Goleman et al 1992: p28) argues that this perspective on‘Big C’ creativity is “rarefied” and that creativity can be displayed in simpler, everyday
settings (e.g. cooking and bricklaying). Given the position that creativity is not only
associated with exceptional and culture-changing acts, what other definition may be
relevant?
Maslow’s work on self-actualisers’ is a well-known exploration of creative people
who hadn’t achieved national or international recognition. He described creativity in thecontext of activities, processes, attitudes and products. He was unequivocal: there is a“more widespread kind of creativeness” (1970: p159) that is “a fundamental characteristic,
inherent in human nature, a potentiality given to all or most beings at birth, which is mostoften lost or buried or inhibited as the person gets enculturated’ (1970: p161). He saw thiscreativity as applicable to many products over and above those conventionally expected,
like the arts - he gave examples applying to housework, medicine and psychiatry. Thisimplies that the characteristics of creative work described earlier (novelty, originality anduse) could be applied to many areas.
Craft (2000: p3-10) offers a range of descriptions of everyday creativity thatperhaps make it more recognisable. “Being imaginative”, “possibility thinking”, “going
beyond the obvious”, “seeing more than is initially apparent or interpreting something in a
way that is unusual”. Any of these which have an aspect of originality for the creative
person - as well as “some kind of outcome ... a public indication to show for it ...” and it“... is of value ... it has some use in their life .. . it can be held in esteem in an appropriate

context” - would be considered creative.

I Self-actualisation as a concept involved in life span development will be examined later in this literature
review.

25

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Goleman et al (1992: p24-29) say very directly that the act of achieving something"novel and appropriate" can be found and developed in many ordinary settings - that"daily life is a major arena for innovation and problem solving".
Runco and Richards (1997: pix) describe ordinary creativity as a "general style ofthinking, even of living. Of ... originality brought to the tasks of everyday life ... as an
essential tool for adaptation to our environment and, .,. to a changing world', Torrance(1995: p73) echoes this view. He argues that when definitions of creativity involve
constructive responses to new situations, rather than merely adaptation, it places creativity
in the realms of everyday living. Feldman (1994: p2) describes "small creativity" as a"tendency to bring a fresh and lively interpretation to any endeavour, whether humble orexalted".

Ripple (1989) defines this type of creativity as ordinary people thinking in

identifiably unique ways when they meet problems in real life situations.
Amabile (1996: p38) refines this approach when she applies a conventional
definition, a product focus of creativity, to an everyday setting. She suggests that ordinary
individuals can do "everyday things" in ways that are novel, original and appropriate totheir circumstances. As indicated in section 2.2.1, this thesis is using this definition ofcreativity within this research in localised contexts.
Taking the position that all people have the potential to be creative and defining it
as outlined above has two immediate consequences. First, it moves research questions
away from a concentration on the level of creativity possessed by an individual into areas
where we examine different forms, types or styles of creativity (Isaksen and Domal 1993:
p3 10). Second, it implies that a continuum of creativity exists, from the exceptional
individuals and acts that receive widespread social acclaim, through to "ordinary"
individuals using a creative approach to any aspect of everyday life including their work
(Amabile 1996: p 38). (This perspective will be further explored and defined in the results
chapter 10, section 10.3.)

26Chapter 2 - Literature Review

There are several implications of assuming this stance. If the systems concept ofcreativity is used to examine 'ordinary' or 'localised' creativity it requires the adjustment of
the definition of the "domain" and "field' to a localised context. For example, in
examining the work of a particular scientist or manager in an organisational context, thereis the practical task of defining the "field' as the organisation or professional body, and the"domain" as the use and application of a particular body of knowledge in that localised
field. This provides a means to examine the dynamics of 'localised creativity', rather thansolely that of receiving recognition in all of society or a particular branch of science.
Amabile (1996: p38) has also addressed creativity in a localised and 'everyday'
context. If this approach is combined with her definition of ordinary creativity, it would
appear to support the view adopted in this thesis that we can examine ordinary creativity
by looking at creative activity in a localised context.
The use of the concept of a continuum of creativity (from 'exceptional' to 'ordinary')
can also help in understanding the characteristics which may be present in a localised
situation. If we turn to the theories of Feldman et al (1994), where "big" creativity implies
those contributions in receipt of public acclaim and social recognition, and work down that
continuum (see below) arguably we would find those individuals in receipt of localised,rather than national acclaim, and further down still, those individuals working creatively,
who are working skilfully, and as yet have received no recognition for it.

"Social acclaim" - ..- - - .- - "Local acclaim" - - - - .- - - .

"Unacknowledged
practice 1 activity"

The position in this thesis, following the lead of Goleman et al (1992), Amabile(1996) and Craft (2000) described above, is that terms and definitions such as domain andfield used to study "big" creativity can be applied in a local context. Doing this would
expand the potential for the study of creativity in ordinary people.

21

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

The researcher believes accepting a continuum that includes “ordinary” or localised
creativity is valuable. Amabile (1996: p40)takes a practical view: that to achieve an
understanding of the social psychological conditions that foster creativity it may be more
relevant and practical to study creativity at a “modest” level. She concludes that there ismore of ordinary creativity available to the researcher for study, and that the eminent or
those with high levels of talent may be absent, or harder to find. Additionally, a shift in
focus to ‘style’of creativity may, according to Isaksen and Dorval(l993: p31 i), help
individuals to understand and accept the ways they are personally creative, rather thanperhaps asserting they are “not creative”.
A number of authors have suggested that creativity is a fundamental attribute tohelp and support us all in adapting and responding to a fast-changing and sometimes
dangerous world (e.g. Ripple 1989: p199; Barron 1988: p77; Gruber 1989: p278; Craft

2000: p21 and 168; Henry 1991). Moving the definition, study and use of creativity into
ordinary and localised life may be part of achieving this aim.

The application to this thesis:

In summary, this thesis is working from the position that creativity can be displayed ineveryday settings (e.g. cooking and bricklaying) and localised settings (such asorganisations) and that ordinary individuals can do work in ways that are novel, originai
and appropriate to their circumstances (Amabile 1996, and quoted in Goleman et al 1992).

Part 2 - Theories of General Life Span Development
2.3 Theories of Life Span Development

This literature review moves now to examine theories of general life span development.
These theories offer frameworks for understanding and interpreting the life stories
collected in this research project. Of additional potential interest is the contrast between

28

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

the general adult life span development and the experiences of the exceptional individual and how they complement and differ from each other.
Two classic general life span theories in particular will be examined, those of Erik
Erikson and Daniel Levinson and with subsidiary reference to the work of Roger Gould
and George Vaillant. Erikson and Levinson not only contain within their theories, by
implication, references to the development of creativity, but a number of sources cite theseworks as the primary theories relevant to the examination of life span development(Atkinson 1998, Perlmutter and Hall 1992, Stemberg 1995, Stevens 1985, Ryff 1984).
Levinson, Gould and Vaillant each draw substantially on self-report descriptions oflife experience in order to propose underlying structures and theories of this development.
Erikson, Levinson and Gould each assume that the individual progresses through a seriesof stages during life in which the structure of personality will change according to theissues being experienced and addressed at the time. Additionally, they propose that
personality is shaped, developed and influenced by interactions with society over time.
They look at the psychosocial experience of the life span.

2.3.1 Erik Erikson -The Life Cycle
Erikson’s theory of the life cycle is the most comprehensive of the life span theories incovering childhood through to old age. His theory originated through his psychoanalytic
work, his work with healthy adolescents and with the Sioux and Yurok American Indian
tribes. It is a theory that is meant to encompass both sexes and to he cross-cultural.
Possible criticisms of this theory will be examined later in this section.
Erikson saw the life cycle as containing eight discrete and sequential stages throughwhich eight basic strengths may emerge “each the outgrowth of a time-specificdevelopmental confrontation” (Erikson 1988: p74). Each stage is characterised as a“crisis” that comes from the conflict of two opposing forces or trends at that particular timeof life. A positive outcome to the crisis led, in Erikson’s view, to the development of a29

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

virtue, or strength. His use of the word crisis did not imply a possible disaster - but aturning point, an opportunity, and that the resolution of the conflict of the two opposing
forces could direct individual development in positive or negative directions. The natureof the resolution achieved, or the failure to confront its needs, will affect each subsequent
life stage (Perlmutter and Hall 1992: p291). Erikson conceived of growth anddevelopment as occurring through integration of the conflicting forces at each stage, andnot succumbing to alienation (Roazen 1976: p109/110). He believed that each person
would interpret and experience this pattern through their own particular traits andcharacter. A key practical part of this theory is that the individual faces holding thetension between the two opposing forces from that point on through life, with the goal
being that the positive tendency or force is primary. Joan Erikson made clear that a failure
to achieve balance, or the favouring of the negative tendency, could be redressed later inlife (Erikson 1988: p75 - 77).2 Erik Erikson portrays the eight stages in the following
chart:
Table 2.1: Erikson’s Life Stages (1980: p245.)

Please note this is the work of Joan Erikson. Joan was the co-worker and collaborator of EHE throughout

30Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Erikson, through the epigenetic principle, saw each stage as emerging from anddependent on its predecessor. Each stage is seen as “grounded” in all the ones preceding
it, and the achievement of the emerging strength is expected to give new connotations to
all the ones that had been experienced to-date (Erikson 1982: p59; Stevens 1983: p17.)
The timing of each stage was, according to Erikson, based on the earliest practical time it

could be developmentally experienced, and the latest moment it would need to give way or
yield to the next crisis and strength (Erikson 1982: p66).
Joan Erikson (1997) wrote up the work of her husband and herself and extended theLife Cycle into a ninth and unnamed stage prompted by increasing life spans andlongevity. The Eriksons had developed these theories from clinical and research work andthen elaborated their theory though their experience of living through a particular stage ofthe life cycle. Acknowledging the extension to longevity experienced in both their lives(writing at the age of 97), Joan Erikson described the ninth stage as the experience ofliving a simple, sometimes limited life in the physical frailty of advanced years. It
brought with it “new demands, re-evaluation, and daily difficulties” ( ~ 1 0 5 ) .It involved
living with uncertainties as “it is impossible to know what emergencies and losses ofphysical ability are imminent” (p105/6). In contrast to the other eight stages, the ninth has
the negative possibilities placed first. She described a process of review again of each of
the prior stages, and a re-evaluating and experiencing their qualities through the physicalfrailties and limitations of advanced age.
The proposed nature and content of each stage is summarised in the following table(instead of text, for the purposes of brevity and simplicity of presentation) and includes
references to the supporting literature:

his life.

31

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Table 2.2: A summarv of Erikson’s life stages
Title

Age

Description

Reference

Stage 1: Basic Trust
vs. Mistrust.

O - 12/18

This stage is influenced by and focused onprovidinglgratifying the baby’s needs via foodand support from the mother. It is to do withquantity and quality of care. The mother’s
personal experiences and feelings will influence
this stage. If the “balance of care is sympathetic
and loving’’ basic trust will result. The infant
will expect the world to care and respond.
Erratic or harsh care would lead to mistrust.

Erikson 1980
p57 - 63.

monthsapprox.

(Hope)

12/18m Stage 2: Autonomy
3
years oldvs. shame and doubt.
approx.

(Will)

Stage 3: Initiative
vs. guilt.

3 - 5 years
oldapprox.

[Purpose)Stage 4:Industry vs.
inferiority.
[Competence)

6 - 12
years old

Berk 1998:
p177.
Bee 1998:
p30/1

Occurring at a time when the child is
experiencing early maturation of muscle use andis becoming mobile and seeking to explore andexercise choice, it is centred on whether parents
will provide the child with guidance and choice.
The positive outcome occurs when the child is
supported and allowed choice. In the negative,
the child is thought to feel forced or shamed into
what helshe can or can’t do and to question
hidher own autonomy or self control.

Erikson 1980:~7516.

At this time the child is experiencing increased

Erikson 1980:
p77.

freedom of movement, developing language
skills, and a growth of imagination brought on bya capacity to explore and experience a wider
space than hitherto. As the child enters school
he/she must contend with restrictions andsocializations to their developing imagination andexploration. Guilt emerges when a sense of“badness” is learnt - initiative when a childacquires a sense of purpose or direction.
This phase focuses on an ‘industry’ associatedwith learning and developing “competence at
useful skills and tasks”. Inferiority is associatedwith failures in this area and a growing belied in
the child that hdshe may never be ‘good atanything’. It occurs in the early stage ofschooling and alongside the learning of social andcultural norms. The child gains recognition forlearning, task completed and outcomes - which
Erikson conceivedídescribed as “I am what I
learn”.

32

Berk 1988:
p177.
Bee 1998:
p30.

Berk 1998:
p247.

Erikson 1980:
p93.
Berk 1998:
p319.
Bee 1998:
p30.

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Title

Age

Description

Reference

Stage 5: Identity vs.
identity confusion.

Adolescence.

The child is experiencing the inadequacy of thechildhood sense of self or identity and the need to
re-form it.

Jerlmutter
ind Hall1992: p292.

Identity is described as a “stable sense of self
confirmed by experience”. It may take years toachieve and involve false starts and painful
experiences. It involves decisions over “whatand who one is to be within the social milieu(and) about what ideas and convictions one will
stand up for and defend with loyalty and fidelity”.
(Erikson 1988: p96.) This formation of identity
is the basis for the individual’s “fit within thewider social world”. Where an identity isestablished the resulting “Fidelity” allows him or
her to “commit his or her loyalty to some cause orgoal”. This commitment may be ideological,
personal, as well as occupational.

3ee 1998:(Fidelity)

13-18
years old.

,303.
3rikson 1988:
196.

The outcome, it is argued, can be a clear sense ofidentity achievement; a failure to commit to asense of identity; ‘foreclosure’ where the childdoes not confront this issue and takes on parental
and cultural norms: or ‘diffusion’ where no senseof self or identity is reached.

Stage 6 : Intimacy vs.
isolation(Authors(Love.)

this stage.

quote

different age
ranges far

Approx.
19120-40
years old.)This is a time of early working life, career,sociability and partners that go beyond the family
or original home context. This stage centres on ayoung adult’s thoughts and feelings about relating
to and committing to an intimate partner. Some
independence would be surrendered and identity
becomes experienced in terms of two people.
Erikson describes this as the “ability to fuse youridentity with someone else’s without fear that you
are going to lose something yourself’. It isargued that this forms the security or basis onwhich the young adult proceeds safely into theworld.

3erk 1998:,452 - 5.
3ee 1998:
1360.

Failure to achieve this results, according to
Erikson, in loneliness and self-absorption.
The achievement of intimacy is also a
fundamental preparation for the 7” stage,
involving generativity, or a care for others insociety. This is, it must be acknowledged, a verybroad picture of this period of adulthood and isdeveloped further by the theories of Levinson and
Gould.

Stage 7:
Senerativity vs.
Stagnation.
[Care.)

10 - 60t.5.

Commitment and care are offered. and extended
beyond the individual and family to that of awider group, e.g. society. Personal objectives
become extended to this wider context - thatwhich will outlive or survive the life of theindividual, into the next generation. The focus at
this time can be on people (the next generation) or
creative products.

3erk 1998:,518.
3ee 1998:d33.
3ikson 1988:
1100.

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

===Y=
Title

Description

Reference

The negative outcome of this stage is selfcentredness and self-indulgence.

60/5 iStage 8: Ego
Integrity vs. Despair.

This stage involves coming to terms with one’s
life as it is, its “inalterability”. Arriving at asense of wholeness - the capacity to see life
events as part of a larger whole. Responsibility
is taken for the life lived.

Berk 1998:
p588.

Despair is described as a fear of death, often
unconscious, and a wish, a search for anotherchance to experience life - accompanied by arecognition that time remaining is short.

Erikson 1 9 8 0
p104.

Bee 1998:
p433.

(Wisdom.)(Please note that age ranges are approximate. Erikson was unclear in some cases,
and this has led to some differences and disagreements between authors on what ages
apply, particularly to the adult stages.)
Erikson’s theories are hard to evaluate, and have been criticised. The complexity
and time encompassed by Erikson’s theory make it very hard to test. For example, theearly non-verbal stages of life are probably beyond verification or refutation (Roazen
1976: p112). Neither the terms used nor the concepts employed are precisely defined by
Erikson, a situation that may lead to ambiguity in using the framework in a study such as
this (Roazen 1976: pix; Perlmutter and Hall 1992: p295; Bee 1998: p33).
Erikson puts forward his theory as cross-cultural and universal; yet others, (e.g.
Perlmutter and Hall 1992: p295/6; Stevens 1983: p148/9) acknowledge that its focus on
individualism make it oriented to western culture and the generality of the research which
originated these theories makes such claims at best still unproven.

In considering the applicability of these theories to women, there is somequestioning, for example, whether the stage of intimacy (the sixth stage) would precede thestage of identity (e.g. Stevens 1985: ~ 1 4 8 ) .Erikson discussed these questions in later life
(e.g. Erikson and Erikson 1981). His perspective remained that these theories were: “onlya tool to think with, and cannot be a prescription to abide by” (Erikson 1980: p243) therefore not an absolute definition, but a tool through which to explore.

34

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

The application of aspects of Erikson’s theories to this thesis is examined together withother life span theorists at the end of the section on life span development theories,

2.3.2 Daniel Levinson - “The Seasons of a Man’s and a Woman’s Life”
Levinson’s works were different to those of Erikson’s in that they were empirically (rather
than clinically) derived. Levinson’s theories were generalisations formed from in-depth
biographical interviews with forty men and forty five women and provide detailed
descriptions of development from late adolescence through to middle age (“early
adulthood”) - with theoretical perspectives added for the years following this period. The
articulation offered by Levinson of some of the adult years provides a more detailed
resource for evaluating the biographies of research participants. Levinson’s studies wereconducted over two periods of approximately 13/14 years - the men’s study between 1965
and 1978, the women’s study between 1979 and 1994. In both cases interviews wereconducted in the early part of the study. The remaining time was devoted to analysis andwriting.
The men represented four occupational groups (executives, biologists, factory
workers and novelists) and were 35 - 45 years old at the time of interviews in 1968. They
were of varied socio-economic, educational and religious backgrounds. Thirty-five of themen were white, and five were black. The women came from three groups (traditional
homemakers, academics and corporate-financial organisations), but were presented as twogroups for the purposes of the study - traditional homemakers and career women. The
women were aged 30 - 45 years old at the time of interview. Further data was gatheredfrom analysing biographies, fiction, drama and poetry in the men’s study andquestionnaires to other groups in the women’s study.3

Fourteen biographies and six fictional sources were named as examples in Levinson 1978: p16.

35

Chapter 2 -Literature Review

Levinson (1996: p12) accepted these were not representative or statistical samples.
Yet they were detailed studies which he argued contributed to an overall understanding ofadult development, a view which appears to be borne out by the extent to which his studies
are referred to in other literature.
The following descriptions of adult development represent material from the men’s
and women’s studies. Levinson updated some of his earlier findings (e.g. descriptions fordevelopmental periods) on the basis of experience gained in the women’s study. Levinson
presented three primary findings:
Eras which form the underlying structure of the human life course.
Developmental periods which are the structure of each era.
The individual “life structure” within these eras and periods, based on the choices andpriorities of the person.
(The eras and developmental periods are portrayed in the chart overleaf.)
The finding of eras within the human life was described by Levinson as: “. .. ahuman life cycle - an underlying order in the human life course, a sequence of seasons
through which our lives must pass . . .” This order, flow or sequence does, however,
permit a “myriad variations related to gender, class, race, culture, historical epoch, specificcircumstances and genetics” (1996: p5). Levinson and his colleagues reported the life
cycle as a “sequence of eras each lasting approximately 25 years”. The eras overlap so as
one ends the next is starting - and this ending and beginning are embraced in atransitionary period (Levinson et al 1978: p18). The eras are the broad structure of the life
cycle, and within them are contained developmental periods. Each era was seen as having
its own biological, psychological and social character that added to the overall
development in the life cycle (Levinson 1996: p17). The sequence was found to be thesame for men and women.
Each era had within it developmental periods - an alternating pattern of periods ofbuilding and maintaining a life structure and periods of transition in which aspects of a life

36

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

structure are terminated and individuals move towards a new one. Developmental tasks
and goals applying to each age period were pursued within the life structure chosen andconstructed - with outcomes questioned and new choices made during the periods oftransition (Perlmutter and Hall 1992: p297).
Levinson saw a further primary contribution of this work as providing a languageand detail to the nature and structure of this experience and age in adulthood (1996: p14) acontribution valued and used extensively in this research project. Even at that relatively
recent time of writing (1996) he argued that adulthood is still the least understood period oflife development, in contrast with childhood and old age. A chart portraying the eras ofthe lifecycle and the development periods is portrayed overleaf.

31Chapter 2 Literature Review~

Table 2.3: The eras of the life cycle, and the developmental period within them

65
LATE ADULT TRANSITION
60

I

Culminating Life
Structure forMiddleAdulthood55
Age 50 Transition

MiddleA d d thood(40- 65 yrs)

50
Entry Life
Shucture forMiddleAdulthood45
MIDLiFE TRANSITION
40

Culminating Life
Structure for
Early Adulthood33
Age 30 transition

Early
Adulthood(17 - 45 yrs)

28

Entry Life
Structure for
Early Adulthood
EARLY ADULT TRANSITION(Childhood andadolescence)(Note: this chart uses terminology drawn from Levinson 1996: p18. Levinson madechanges to the structure published in 1978 on the basis of the work of the women’s study.

He described the chart as reflecting both men and women. He reported, however, that themeanings of the eras and phases described in the earlier study remained the same.)

38

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Levinson found that the eras and the developmental periods began at an averageage (shown on the above chart), with a range of variation two years above and below thisaverage. The era of childhood, or “pre-adulthood” was not covered as part of thesestudies.
The concept of the “life structure” was also central to Levinson’s findings. He
defined it as the “underlying pattern or design of a person’s life at a given time”(1978:p41; 1996: p22). He saw a person’s life as having many components (e.g.
occupation, relationships, marriage and family, relationship to self and roles in social
contexts). The choices and decisions associated with these components and the balance
between them change through time, reflecting the importance accorded to them by theindividual. These components and the decisions about them formed the “fabric of one’slife” and the relationships between the self and the surrounding world. (1978: p42.) “Thecentral components have the greatest significance for the self and the evolving life course”(1978: p44). When one or more components of the life structure are given priority
Levinson argued, by implication, other aspects of life would not receive so much attention
and may eventually be perceived as unfulfilled (1996: p23). Additionally, the choices
made in a life structure would inevitably have flaws, and dissatisfaction would be felt withthem (1996: p28/9). The choices made, experiences of their effects, and personal wishes
for change or difference form the focus for any alteration to the life structure. The

concept of the life structure and the changes in personal emphasis or choice found within it
will be examined biographically through time in this research project.

The life structure, he proposed, would evolve and change through the orderly
sequence of eras and developmental periods in the adult years (1978: p49; 1996: p24).
The following table presents an overview of the eras and developmental periods
described in Levinson 1978 and 1996. (A table has been used instead of text for the
purposes of summary and brevity in presentation.):39

Chapter 2 -Literature Review

Table 2.4: A summary of Levinson’s eras and developmental period
Title

Age

Era: Early Adulthood

17-45

The Developmental Per

Is:

Early adult transition

11-22

The entry life structure

22 - 28

for early adulthood.

I

Description

I
I

Reference

The era of greatest energy, contradictions andstress. The biological peak occurs in the 20s and30s. The main task is to find a place in society,an occupation and raising a family. The
individual is “...buffeted by our own passions andambitions from within and by the demands offamily, community and society from without”.

Levinson
1996: p19/20

The cross-era transition between childhood andearly adulthood. Its task is the termination ofchildhood and the start of early adulthood.

1996: p25.

The ‘dream’ takes shape in this period - a vague
sense of self in the adult world”.

Curth 1990:
119.

The task is to make key choices, especiallyregarding love, marriage. family, occupation,
separation from the family of origin and personal
lifestyle. The individual must organise him or
herself as a young adult, and form a provisional
life structure. There is commonly a relationshipwith a mentor - a person able to guide andsponsor the activity and development of theyounger person.

Ainson1996: p25.

The ‘dream’ becomes more focused andintegrated in this and the subsequent period
Age 30 Transition

28 - 33

This forms the middle of the era of early
adulthood. It is an opportunity to reappraise theentry life structure, to work on its failing or flaws
and explore new possibilities out of which achanged life structure can be formed.

1996: p25

The culminating life
itructure for early
3dulthood.

33-40

The task is to form a structure within which we
can try to establish a more secure place forourselves in society and to accomplish ouryouthful dreams and goals.

1996: p26.

The Midlife Transition

40 - 45

This forms a bridge between early and middle
adulthood, and is part of both eras. It terminates
the life structure of the thirties - is the “end ofyouth” and involves the creation of a life structure
where we can be young-and-old in middle
adulthood. Individuation is of major importancein this time-out of this a modified self and life
comes for the rest of this era.

I 9 9 6 p26.

It is a time of reappraisal - of long-heldperspectives and ways in which to use theremaining time in one’s life.

40

Chapter 2 -Literature Review
Title
Era: Middle AdulthoodAge
40 - 65

Description
The biological peak of the individual is passed
and a slow decline has begun. The individual istaking his or her place as “senior members” in ourworld. “It is possible in this era to become morematurely creative, more responsible for self andothers, more universal in outlook and less tied tonarrow tribal values, more dispassionately
purposeful, more capable of intimacy ... than everbefore”.

Reference
1996: p20

The Developmental Peri Is:
The Entry Life Structure
for Middle Adulthood

45 - 5 0

The task is to create a life structure for the start of
middle adulthood. This involves making choices
and determining personal priorities on which tobuild a life in this period.

1996: p26.

The Age 50 Transition

50 - 55

This forms an opportunity to reappraise the entry
life structure of Middle Adulthood, to further
explore the self and the world, and to adapt andform the basis of a life structure in the following
period. Crises are common for people who havemade few or inappropriate changes in theprevious 10 - 15 years.

1996: p26

The Culminating Life
Structure for Middle
Adulthood

55 - 6 0

This is a life structure that provides a vehicle forthe realisation of the era’s major aspirations andgoals.

1996: p26

The Late Adult
Transition

60 - 65

This concludes the era of Middle Adulthood andinitiates the ear of Late Adulthood. It involves a
profound reappraisal of the past and a shift to a
new era. It creates the basis for building a life
structure in Late Adulthood.

1996: p26.

Era: Late Adulthood

6%(Not explored in this research, nor well articulated
by Levinson.)Note: The descriptions in the table above have been adapted or quoted from Levinson
1996.
Levinson reports a core aspect and development of these phases as being the“individuation” of the person. He described this: “. . . we have a clearer sense of who weare and what we want. We draw more fully on our inner resources (desires, values,
talents, archetypal potentials). We are more autonomous, self-generating, selfresponsible” (1996: p32). He made a point, however, of saying that this was not a41

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

description of what happened within the individual -that it was a process that occurred inrelationship and in contact with the world in which the individual existed.
The descriptions provided above are generalised comments on the experiences ofboth men and women. However, Levinson used the theoretical concept of “gender
splitting” to explore the meaning of gender and its influence on the lives of women andmen. He used this term deliberately to communicate what he saw as “a splitting asunder the creation of a rigid definition between male and female, masculine and feminine inhuman life” (1996: p38). Gender splitting was described in four categories:“The splitting of the domestic sphere and the public sphere as social domains for
women and men.”“The Traditional Marriage Enterprise and the split it creates between the female
homemaker and the male provisioner.”“The splitting of “women’s work” and “men’s work”.”“The splitting of feminine and masculine in the individual psyche.”
Levinson described the public (or occupational) sphere of life as the place where
men’s lives have been traditionally centred “which is their temtory and under theircontrol” (1996: p39). This is reflected in how much of the study of men’s lives deals withoccupational questions and the forefront these take in the developmental period. The
domestic sphere, in virtually all societies and over time, has been the focus of women’s
lives. It consists of the family and related social world. The domestic sphere, in contrast

to the public, is seen as more private.
Levinson reported that the “marriage enterprise” was commonly not solely to dowith love or emotional relationship - a definition he found surprising. He defined it

simply as: “about building an enterprise in which partners can have a good life, according
to their lights’’ (Ibid.: p39). The women who focused their life structures on the traditional
marriage enterprise saw “its goal is to have children, to create a certain kind of family life,
and to continue (with some improvements) the basic traditions of the family of origin”.

42Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Against this background, where women have held jobs they have often been inunskilled or semiskilled jobs, or occupations traditionally occupied by women, like nursing
and teaching - though this is less true nowadays.
Some of the experiences and consequences of gender-splitting will be examined in
the descriptions of female participants in this research project.
Levinson is far less clear, however, about what he means in suggesting the split of
the feminine and masculine in the individual psyche. He describes how some of thewomen in the sample have to manage, to find ways of living with internalised figures
which represent a traditionally home-making female figure, and a public, working andprofessionally skilled alternative in order to achieve their life structure goals.
Roberts and Newton (1987) published work (during Levinson’s final study) which
examined 39 biographies of women presented in 4 unpublished dissertations and usedsimilar methods to Levinson. Roberts and Newton reported that women experience thesame developmental periods and tasks as men, while their ways of working on them werevery different. One of the principal reasons for this was the contrast between “lifedreams” or goals of men and women formed in the late teens and early twenties. Men
tended to form an “individualistic dream” which was focused on self in an occupation,
whereas women formed a “relational dream” with the image of themselves in a world in
relation to others, work and career (1987: p157). Women’s dreams were described as
more “complex and complicated” and harder to balance over time, e.g. women werecommonly taking longer to work towards career goals as a result of balancing relationships
and families as well as the world of work.
Levinson’s work has obvious limitations.

He is clear that his studies involved

relatively small numbers of people in geographically defined areas, and that they capture
information at a point in time for the individuais and the culture in which they are found.
Culturally at least, given that the men were interviewed in the 1960’s and the women in the
1980’s, the influences on them have almost certainly changed since these dates. Levinson,

43Chapter 2 -Literature Review

however, proposes a universality of these results. Levinson backed-up the informationfrom participants with data from biographies and questionnaires so he will have taken into
account other factors. It needs to be acknowledged, however, that the universality has notbeen much tested in other times and cultures. The work does, however, offer a level ofdetail on early and middle adulthood absent from Erikson’s sixth and seventh stages
covering the same period (1996: p17) and is therefore particularly valuable inunderstanding the reported experience of participants in this research project. Levinson’s
work also reflects and reinforces the conclusions of Erikson’s sixth and seventh stages, e.g.
attention to family formation, intimacy etc (stage six) and subsequently moving on to focus
on the development of the next generation (stage seven).
The work of Gould (1978) and Vaillant (1977), to be reviewed next, provide
endorsement for Levinson’s findings from different study groups, using different researchmethods. If, as Levinson asserts in the 1996 study, there are still comparatively few
studies on adult development then his work offers a language and a structure throughwhich to anticipate and examine the experience of adulthood.

2.3.3 Roger Gould (1978) - “Transformations”
Gould was a Californian-based psychiatrist who proposed that adult consciousness went
through a series of transformations as childhood consciousness, beliefs and illusions were
progressively confronted and changed during adulthood.
Could’s work was a cross-sectional questionnaire study of 524 “healthy”
individuais, and followed an earlier study of a similar structure involving psychiatricoutpatients. The individuals were grouped into age ranges between 16 and 50 years old,
(16 - 22,22 - 28, 28 - 34, 34 - 45, and 45 - 50 years old.) They were asked to rank

descriptions that were based on preoccupations of the specific age groups according topersonal applicability. The descriptions presented described concerns that wereconsidered common to all age groups, and also individuai patterns (1978: p.13). Gould

44

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

found that patients and non-patients shared the same “concerns about living”, andportrayed a “march of concerns and changing patterns of self-awareness between 16 and50 for men and women” (1978: p14).
Gould’s work adds to the understanding of adult development achieved via Eriksonand Levinson’s theories. Much of Gould’s structure of time periods and adult concerns
directly compares with those used by Levinson, but is more general in comparison with
Erikson. For example, the time period 16 - 22 years old examined in Gould’s work
matches Levinson’s early adult transition. It observes the same goal, “we stop being ourparents’ child and start constructing an adult identity” (1978: p44). A similar comparison
between Gould and Levinson can be seen in the age period 22 - 28 years old, and in thetime period 28 - 34 years old, like Levinson, represents that age 30 transition. However,there are different emphases. For Gould, much of the life structure built up till this time
will reflect parental and society values. Gould sees this time as one where the individual
will start to ask about a life structwe and path that they want from the “inside” (1978:~1591161.) Choices are then made from a more personal or internally referenced
perspective, as well as the experience and realism gained in the 20s.
Gould’s work was undertaken at the same time as Levinson’s 1978 work, by adifferent research method, and in a different geographical area. He used a larger sample
base, in discrete age groups and balanced between men and women. Results appear tosustain or reflect many of Levinson’s findings, albeit achieved by different methods.

2.3.4 George Vaillant (1977) - “Adaptation to Life”
Vaillant’s work represented a culmination of a longitudinal study that had originated in1937 of men “who are well and do well” as assessed by clinicians, psychologists andacademic staff. These men were followed, via questionnaires, for a period of 35 years
from their college days. They were men perceived as physically healthy, to be of
independent attitude and of good academic standing located within a competitive liberal

45

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

arts college in the USA. The participant group was 268 males chosen from college classes
between 1939 and 1944 (1977: p30/1.) Vaillant’s work represents a detailed examinationof 95 of the participants following personal interviews of 2 hours duration (and data
accumulated during the study).
Vaillant, like Gould, is a psychiatrist and his work often demonstrates thatperspective. He noted that after nearly four decades of study “ ... there is not one of themen who had only clear sailing. Thus ... the focus of the Grant Study became how men
adapt to life” (p4). Vaillant recognised the difficulty of defining what “health” meant in
the context of the participants, and life generally. For him, “soundness is a way ofreacting to problems, not an absence of them” (p6). For this reason, defence mechanismsof psychoanalytical theory seen as “coping or adapting mechanisms” to the circumstancesof life (p7) became the primary structure for this book.
Vaillant used the lens of Freudian ego defences as the basis to examine the life
stories of these men. This level of detail and technicality does not contribute to thepresent research study and therefore will not be described or used. It does, however,provide further information through which to examine the life cycle through Vaillant’s
own relating of his data to Erikson’s work.
Vaillant, writing before the publication of Levinson’s 1978 study, said that the
Grant Study data tended to confirm the adult life patterns proposed by Erik Erikson.
Vaillant’s results confirmed Erikson’s suggestion that life stages had to be passed insequence, and that a life stage is rarely achieved unless its predecessor had been mastered.
Yet within the Grant Study results, Vaillant suggested that the step between Erikson’s sixthand seventh life cycle stages, intimacy and generativity, was too wide. A significant focus
of work in between, for these men, was on career consolidation - a finding reflected in
Levinson’s book (1977: p202). Vaillant strongly indicated that new relationships outside
the family of origin had to be found and “cemented” before career development was free tooccur (1977: p215/6). In the follow-up period of work on early adulthood, Vaillant

46

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

confirmed a finding of Gould, that the men “became lost in conformity” (1977: p217), i.e.
for all their new found freedom in adulthood, these men used their energy to follow thenorms of others, particularly employers. Also echoing research on the exceptional
creative individual, and Levinson’s (1978) study - the location of and relationship with amentor in this period tended to make a central contribution to an individual’s success(1977: p219 and 339).
Vaillant, like Gould and Levinson, reported that the decade of the forties became adecade where energy focus shifted from hectic work activity to an exploration of “theworld within” (p220). Vaillant believed that the suggestion this may arise from anawareness of personal mortality was too simplistic. He argued that it became a time whenthe men “put aside the preconceptions and narrow establishment aims of the their thirties”(p222) and began to be uncertain of themselves again. He suggested that this decade wasa transition period through which new and personal answers (rather than externallydictated ones) must be found. It remained, as echoed by Gould, a period whereindividuals continued to pull themselves from parental and external restrictions (1977:p224).
Vaillant acknowledged (in a similar way to other researchers’ quoted) that thisstudy, based on a male, healthy, academically-able group of individuals from socioeconomically privileged backgrounds, was not representative. He suggested that the
sample equated to Terman’s longitudinal study of 1000 gifted children from California
schools. Like Levinson, Vaillant argued that so little, relatively, was known of the periodof adult development that the use of a specific group to explore this field was an
appropriate contribution to knowledge.

The application to this thesis:
The studies described in part 2 are almost exclusively conducted in the USA, in middle
class populations on the east and west coasts. Their authors, Levinson in particular,

41

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

acknowledge that their research is placed in a country, class and time period. Levinson(1996) believed that his results applied both generally and widely, over time andgeographically. However he acknowledged (like Vaillant) that knowledge on adult
lifespan development was limited and argued it was appropriate to use these results to
examine and explore other research settings, a view shared by the researcher.

These lifespan studies suggest certain developmental periods that may be experienced by
the thesis research participants. The periods and experiences proposed by Erikson’s andLevinson’s theories of life span development may be used to see whether similar
development patterns occur in the participant group -and whether a group acknowledged
for creative activity presents a different developmental pattern. For example:

Age Period:

6 - 12 years old.
f 16 years old.

I 8 - 22 years old.

I

Focus:
Theorisi/Auihor
The develouneni of
I Eriksoncompetencdability.
Identity: focus on “whai and Erikson.
who one is to be wiihin thesocial milieu (and) aboutideas and convictions one
will stand up for and defend
with loyalty andfidelity”.
A transitionary period on
Erikson, Levinson.
entering adulihood. Choiceof career. Initiation ofrelaiionships.

Part 3 - Theories of Life Span Development of the Exceptional Creative
IndividualThis part examines the theoretical predictions and research findings on the life spandevelopment of the exceptional creative individual. It will also draw on literature
considering the eminent and gifted individual. This is a detailed and long standing part ofthe literature that has provided considerable illumination on the lifespan developmental
48

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

experiences of these individuals. It must be said that much of this data is historical andwill reflect patterns which may not apply to the context and time of this research sample.
The purpose of drawing on this area of literature will be to illustrate and examine thesimilarities between lifespan developmental experiences of the exceptional and ‘localised’creative individuals. This literature draws on many different domains of creative workand these are often shown to involve different developmental influences (e.g. Roe 1953).
These developmental influences are potentially quite different to the ‘localised’ creative
individual. However, it does offer an account of what contributes to the development of
exceptional creative talent, which may offer parallels in the experience of the ordinary or
localised creatives. Given that they are different sample groups further research would be
required to confirm any similarities found.

2.4

The Early Years: Childhood and AdolescenceThis section focuses on two distinct areas of research which have contributed to ourunderstanding of the early years of those with high and exceptional abilities; first,
biographic studies of those who have achieved eminence; second, studies of thedevelopment of talent in young people acknowledged as gifted or of high ability. While
there are differences, there are areas of commonality in the findings and they provide a
sharp insight into the early experiences of these individuals. Data has commonly beenpresented under the following headings:
Early roots or signs of later creativity
Parental background / social class
Birth orderHome background I environment
Schooling and teachers
Influential adults
Bereavement / illness
49

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

These background factors suggest that a large variety of influences can contribute tocreative work and eminence (Csikszentmihalyi 1996: p181). The factors above represent
components of the family and social environment. The growth of creativity in a young
person suggests the effects of powerful nurturing and support. The experiences of earlylife are indicators rather than predictions of what may follow (Walberg et al 1980: p225,
and Csikszentmihalyi et al 1993). Even the absence of indicators in this time period does
not rule out development that may follow (Albert 1992a: p i i ) . While the 'starting point'of creative work may be hereditary, genetic, or physical components in the potential that itprovides the individual (including the psychological capability), the contribution of theearly environment to creative work is crucial, and usually combines with this background(Cox 1926: p56-8; Simonton 1978: p187; 1983a: p156; Albert & Runco 1985: p339;
Simonton 1991: p270; Csikszentmihalyi et al 1993: p2; Csikszentmihalyi 1996: p53).
Many of the most influential environmental factors examined by these authors are includedin the list of headings given above. These factors appear to have the effect of supportingor potentially blocking the transformation of a 'gift' into an active ability (Albert 1980b:

p174; Albert & Runco 1985: p333; Albert 1992a: p10). For example, Albert (1980b:p174) writes: "Most of the explanations for differences between promise and fulfilment
point to substantial differences in the early facilitating environments, family factors, andeducational-career opportunities". While some authors argue that prodigious talent is thenorm for exceptional individuals in these early years, others conclude that what is actuallyseen is the development of talent and ability into something which the individual can thenuse creatively in subsequent work (Bloom 1985; Csikszentmihalyi 1996: p155).

2.4.1 Early Roots or Signs of Later Creative WorkThe earliest sources of investigation into the lives of exceptional creative individuals(which are generally based on historical and biographical sources) propose that theirinterest in a particular area and talent was commonly evident, if not prodigiously so, in the50

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

childhood years (Teman 1954: p225; Lehman 1953; Roe 1951a; Simonton 1984). Ochse(1990: ~ 6 9 )Bloom.
(1985) and Delcourt (1993: p26) all add a further perspective on this that the talent was often reflected in, and supported by, the interests of some other memberof the family, commonly the father. This interest, which often becomes a 'love' or a'passion' is also described as a positive indicator of subsequent later achievement (Delcourt
1993: p26). While this appears to be a dominant view within the literature,
Csikszentmihalyi (1996: p178-9) reports a contrasting position. In his study of the lives of
91 living exceptional individuals he wrote: "for every seamless unfolding from childhood
into old age there is another whose later career seems to be the product of chance or of aninterest that appears strongly out of nowhere long after the early years are past".

The application to this thesis:

To investigate whether and in what ways do the early signs of later creativity appear in thisparticipant group? For example, does prodigious talent emerge early, or later in life?

2.4.2 Parental Background and Social ClassA large amount of data on parental background and social class comes from the Galton(1869) and Cox (1926) studies. Due to its historical nature, and the changed social
conditions some element of caution is in order. The data from these studies has been
subject to more recent scrutiny, and is summarised in Simonton (1976: p219) and Ochse(1990: p57). Additionally, Csikszentmihalyi et al (1993: p70), Goertzel et al (1978: p 80)
and Delcout (1993: p26) all reach the same conclusion - that the largest proportion of thesefamiles were from middle and upper classes. They conclude that the advantages of thisposition and the associated income undoubtedly smoothed the path into education andopportunity. However, in Csikszentmihalyi's (1996: p171) more recent work4 30% of theparents of the 91 individuals in his study were of immigrant or blue-collar origin,

Covering a wide range of domains, including sciences, writers - authors and poets, teachers, artists,
composers, the media and performers.
51

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

suggesting that the social background of individuals in more recent times does not) Ochse (1990: p61)
necessarily exclude access to education. Zuckerman (1977: ~ 1 5 7 5andpropose that it is the professional rather than the economic status of the parent thatprovides the powerful influence - an environmental role model of interests and working
practices, which will be discussed below.

The application to this thesis:
What are the social class and occupational background of parents of research participants?
How do they contrast with those of the exceptional creative individual?

2.4.3

Birth Order

One of the most enduring conclusions of the study of biographies of those who haveachieved eminence is that there is an over-representation of those who were first-bom, or
only children. (This i s also reflected in studies of the gifted, e.g. Albert 1994: p293.)
Studies as early as Galton (1869) raise this issue. Of the 306 biographies of historicallyeminent individuals studied by Goertzels et al (1978: p85) 47% of subjects (143) were
either only children (51) or the first bom (92). Additionally, they propose that whenchildren are widely spaced by birth within the family, then each child shares some of theadvantages of being first bom (p87). There is an unresolved debate over what the gains
received by the child actually are. One suggested is the level of attention and stimulationfrom adults is as yet undiluted by the presence of younger children (e.g. McCurdy 1957:~45112). Simonton (1987: p136-8) suggests that the number of influencing variables are
too large to be conclusive, and that all we can know is that birth order is influential. He
also indicates the incidence of birth order changing in different areas of occupation andachievement, e.g. creativity vs. leadership, where first-boms were less in evidence.

Reprinted in Albert 1992a52

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

The application to this thesis:
What is the relationship between birth order patterns and creativity in this participantgroup?

2.4.4 Home Background and Environment
John Dacey and colleagues (1989a) argue that the family lives of creative people differ
from those experienced by others. Other authors echo this work, e.g. Albert (1996a).
However, literature in this area is not consistent, and presents something of a paradox.
Studies of the development of creative and eminent individuals, and those of thedevelopment of talented teenagers suggest that the home background provides focused anddetailed support during the young person's development. Studies of the exceptional
creative individuals also suggest that this home background may be far from settled andhappy.
These homes were commonly places where there was a love of learning and space
allowed for support of it (Goertzel and Goertzel 1962: p3; Goertzel et ai 1978: p13; Ochse
1990: p64; Dacey and Lennon 1998: p53), where children were stimulated and encouraged
into exploring and learning activities (Domino 1979: p819-825; Walberg et al 1980: p231;
Bloom 1985: p440; Albert 1992: p175; Csikszentmihalyi et al 1993: p7; Csikszentmihalyi
1996: ~ 1 6 1 ) . Studies cited below offer practical descriptions and specific details.
Bloom (1985). in a widely quoted study of 125 individuais who achieved eminence
across 6 domains, described in some detail the actions of these parents in encouraging andnurturing growth in their children.
Parents were child-focused, or child-centred, devoting both time and energy to theneeds of the talented child.
They modelled a strong work ethic, a productive use of time, the setting of highstandards, and an interest in creative activities, e.g. arts and sciences.

53

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

They located and organised teachers for the talented child when their interest became
clear. The teachers were of progressively higher skills, to match the child'sdevelopment, and combined with the parents, made the process of learning enjoyable,
challenging and safe.
Areas within the home were set aside for the child's work, practice and development and they were commonly excused from finding work outside the home.
These young people were commonly given the freedom to explore and find their own
interests (Delcourt 1993: p26) and parents placed strong emphasis on building anddeveloping the child's chosen interest (Goertzel and Goertzel 1962: p6). These findings
are echoed by Dacey and Lennon (1998: p55). In the absence of a network of support andencouragement the young people commonly reported lower qualities of experience andperformance in their skill development (Csikszentmihaiyi et al 1993: p173). Where theparental focus was on academic grades, rather than learning, the young person reported
perceptions of pressure rather than encouragement. In a home of a lower social classparental influence and encouragement was seen as particularly necessary to support thechild's development against a poor or socially marginal background (Csikszentmihalyi
1996: p163).
These descriptions may suggest a harmonious home background. This was by nomeans necessarily the case. Biographies of historical genius' and creative achievers
suggest that it was common for these individuals to be sternly and even cruelly raised,(Ochse 1990: p77-8). Home life was described as "more correct than warm", with close
ties or intimacy conditioned on achievement (Gardner 1993: p361/7). While the 'facts'
may not be available to check, it is clear that this was the perception of many of these
individuals. Mackinnon (1960/19926) writes: "persons of the most extraordinary
effectiveness had life histories marked by severe frustrations, deprivations and traumatic
experiences". Goertzel and Goertzel(l962: pgs 30-55-130) describe imtable, explosive

Reprinted in Albert 1992a54

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

and changeable environments, with opinionative, often failure-prone parents in over 50%
of all cases they reviewed.
What are the consequences of these negative experiences? Goertzel and Goertzel(1962: p132) suggested that the home experiences were often reflected in, and became partof the type of creativity produced, e.g. in actors and writers drawing on the conflicts foundin their home. The experience and witnessing of this environment, and often parental
failure, they suggest may free the creative individual from fears of failure they mightotherwise have developed (p79, and Goertzel et al 1978: p37).

The application to this thesis:
The home background and experiences of participants will be examined to see to what
extent parents in this participant group model working practices and personal interests fortheir offspring, and support the young person in finding and learning their interests.

2.4.5 Schooling and Teachers
What levei, and how much education have creative and eminent individuais received?
McCurdy (1957: p4.51) reports that the quality of education available to the exceptional
creative individual, or genius, tended to be high.

Re-examining Cox's (1926) data,

Simonton (1983a: p151) found that this changed with discipline, yet commonly terminatedat the equivalent of first-degree level, or immediately below this 7 (i.e. the second of threeplanned years at University). Additionally he found that the more education and training
received by an individuai in this group the less likely they were to achieve eminence. He
speculated why this might be the case and concluded that the highest levels of training andeducation might prompt a reduced level of flexibility, or increased level of dogmatism nototherwise associated with creative work (Simonton 1987: p148/9). Yet a later study(Simonton 1992) reviewing key figures in American psychology would appear to

For scientists, philosophers, writers, artists and composers within this group (p152).
55

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

contradict that view. Simonton found that higher degrees were achieved earlier andgenerally from prestigious institutions amongst this group. There are, therefore, no
proven links between education and achieved creative eminence. Additionally, there are
well-known examples of eminent individuals who were poor students, e.g. Albert Einsteinand Bill Gates.
Both historical studies of eminent individuals and more recent studies of thedevelopment of talented children illustrate a common and significant disaffection in theirexperience of school and the classroom (e.g. Goertzel and Goertzel 1962; Ochse 1990:
p88; Dacey and Lennon 1998: ch4.) A range of problems are mentioned: boring
cumculum, dull or cruel teachers, bullying (Goertzel and Goertzel 1962:p241-4); asignificant estrangement between creative pupils and their teachers (Torrance 1963: p12); awish by the teenagers not to be doing what they were doing (Csikszentmihalyi et al 1993:
p180-1); there being no perceived effect of school, even high school, on the individuals(Csikszentmihalyi 1996: p173); and that teachers personally and occupationally facepractical difficulties in altering these circumstances (Dacey and Lennon 1998: p75/6). A
number of authors (Albert 1992a: p12-3; Goertzel and Goertzel 1962: p246; Goertzel et al
1978: p-337; Csikszentmihalyi 1996: p173) imply or speculate directly that schoolingappears to seek to level-down students to a common group, that the performances theyseek and accept are limited - and in the act of doing this they threaten or limit thedevelopmental opportunities and potentials of talented and gifted individuals.
The positive effects of schooling are consistently found in the contact with a certain
type of teacher or mentor. The teacher who proves a major influence on development
will move beyond an institutional 'role', and into a more direct, personal approach toteaching (Roe 1951, 1951~1,1953; Walberg et al 1980; Csikszentmihalyi et al 1993: p1801; Csikszentmihalyi 1996: p173-4). These teachers often 'role modelled a level of interestin a subject that may otherwise appear without purpose, or as boring, and did so in a way
which proved inspiring to the younger person. They engaged children actively by their56

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

teaching style, and were respectful of the results achieved by them (Torrance 1983: p7278). The challenges provided by the teachers were carefully paced with the skill levelalready achieved by the young person (Csikszentmihalyi et al 1993: p184-5). The
influential teacher demonstrated an individual concern and caring for the young person,
providing additional activities which allowed a development of skill (Torrance 1981: pS5;
Csikszentmihalyi et al 1993: p188; Csikszentmihalyi 1996: p173-4). A common theme
that ran through this work is that the teachers "recognised" a talent in the young person,
and, with these other factors, drew out that ability (Torrance 1986: pl12).
The power and contribution of these teachers was seen as crucial. Walberg et al(1980: p226-7), in a review of 282 historical figures, found 63% significantly influenced
by a teacher. Csikszentmihalyi et al (1993: p177) sees the Contribution of the teacher as
an inevitable and essential practicality - the young person's ability must be guided byadults "greatly gifted in the ability to catalyse potential into durable achievement".
Csikszentmihalyi (1992: p29) states this even more directly: "talented children can growinto talented adults only by metabolising the attention of parents, teachers, coaches,
mentors ....". Albert (1992a: PIS) describes the impact of teachers on the exceptional
individual: working with these individuals opens them to the "crystalizing experience", theexperience that leads to a commitment to a particular type of work and career - which
provides them with support to sustain their aspirations and involvement in this work - andwhich through this relationship creates a "reality-based sense of identity and competence".
The contribution of teachers is also reflected in that of other influential adults and rolemodels.

The application to this thesis:
To investigate the level of education these participants reached, their experience ofschooling and teachers and the relationship between these factors of creative development.

Chapter 2 - Literature Review--

2.4.6 Influential Adults Role models Mentors
The contribution provided by teachers is also found in and extended by other adults. In
research sources they are described as influential adults, role models, or mentors.
Encounters with such adults often occur in the lives of eminent and talented
individuals. Walberg et al (1980: p228-9) highlights the different types of adults who act
in this role, which they found in over 60% of the lives of their eminent individuals. Ochse(1990: p71) and McCurdy (1957: p458) highlights that there was a "plentiful supply" ofadults who acted as role models, commonly occupying "prominent and responsible
positions in the community". Simonton (1978: p189 and 1983: p354) argues that thelarger the number of role models for "possible imitation" the greater the impact on creative
development. Torrance (1961, 1983 and 1995) describes the frequency with which
mentors are found (46% of participants in a study), and how this proved one variablewhich correlated with creative achievement. Also using the term "sponsor" or "patron",
he described their contribution as: "Regardless of their own views, (they) encourage andsupport talented individuals in expressing and testing their ideas .... They protect
individuals from the counter-reactions of their peers long enough to permit them to try out
some of their ideas. They keep the structure of the situation open enough so that theoriginality can occur"
Walters and Gardner (1986: p137) describe the contact with such individuals as
often the source of the "crystalizing experience" which relates the young person to theirarea of talent and provides the basis, the motivation, for further developmental work.

The application to this thesis:
Were influential adults and role models present for this group of participants? What was

the contribution they made?

58

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

2.4.7 Bereavement
A further factor often found within the lives of the genius and exceptional creative
individual is the experience of bereavement in the childhood and adolescent years.
Eisenstadt (1978) is the commonly quoted source of this data from his study of thebiographies of over 500 eminent individuals. He defines "orphanhood" as the loss of one

or both parents by death. These findings reveal a loss of a parent at an early age for an
acknowledged creative individual was 2 - 3 times more common than in the general
population. For example, in a group where exact information on parental death existed,
28% of individuals lost a father by 10 years old, and 34% lost a mother (p 214). Eisenstadt
was examining historical data so he also checked as far as possible whether thesepercentages remained accurate with changing mortality rates over time (i.e. against abackground of increasing life expectancy). He found that with the data available to him,these estimates remained unchanged. Csikszentmihalyi (1996: p167) reports similar
percentages in his study of living creative individuals.
Two theoretical positions are offered to explain the effects of bereavement. The
first suggests that the young person has to face and struggle with feelings of loss andinsecurity. For some, these difficult experiences will lead to compensatory energy being
channelled into efforts of achievement and mastery - in an effort to stabilise an insecureand unclear environment the individual may also put effort into the performance of a skill
and creative task. This struggle to cope with loss, and to resolve gaps, tension anddiscontinuities to the point where a new 'order' is reached is, conceivably, a creative
experience (Eisenstadt 1978: p220/1, Albert 1996: p46/7).

The second position offers a

related yet alternative view. The loss of a parent presents circumstances where the young
person may take on new responsibilities within the family environment, and possibly
experience freedom to be and act in ways not previously open to him or her (Eisendsadt
1978: p220, Ochse 1990: p77, and Csikszentmihalyi 1996: p167).

59

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

The application to this thesis:
What was the experience of bereavement in this group of participants and what was its
perceived impact?

2.4.8 Illness

In addition to bereavement, eminent individuals also commonly experience significant
levels of illness in their early years. Within the biographic samples examined by Goertzel
and Goertzel(l962) and Goertzel et al (1978: ~ 1 2 7approximately)~
25% of the groupsuffered serious or chronic illness in their childhood years. They theorise that these young
people were “necessarily isolated from their peers, at least for considerable lengths of time,and spent more time alone, which meant they had more time for reading and introspection
and often had close associations with intellectually stimulating adults” (1978: p127).

The application to this thesis:
What was the experience of illness in this group of participants and what was its perceived
impact?

2.4.9 Interpreting the Contribution of the Childhood and Adolescent Years
There is disagreement in the literature on whether the development of talent actuallywitnessed in the childhood years is that of ‘‘creativity”. Csikszentmihalyi (e.g. 1996)
would argue that since creativity is socially-acknowledged achievement of novel andappropriate change, then what occurs in the childhood years is actually the development ofskill and talent, which may later be converted or developed into creative action. Keegan(1996: p58) reflects theories from Weisberg (1993 and 1988) by suggesting that creativity
emerges from a developed skill and normal thought processes - and against thatbackground the development achieved in the early years cannot be separated from the714 biographies in total.
60

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

overall development of creativity, even if creativity appears subsequently. Whatever it is,part of the time, which goes to learning knowledge and skills of the domain, in childhood
and adolescence is a necessary period of apprenticeship towards creative achievement(Gardner 1993: p369-372).
There are a limited number of variables within the early years that are known tofacilitate the development of talent and creativity. Crucial amongst these appear to besocio-economic status, certain parental characteristics, the quality of relationships withparents, and relationships with influential adults or role models (Albert 1996: p44,
Csikszentmihalyi 1993: ch 12).
The standards of education, and the pressure to achieve a conformity or norm,
generally a low one, within the school environment are thought to inhibit the translation ofa gift into an active talent and creativity (Goertzel 1978: chapter 12; Albert 1996: p44).
Three theoretical/research may act as a framework through which to examine
research results.
First, in her extensive review of existing research on the life backgrounds of the genius
and exceptional creative individual, Ochse (1990: p160/1) proposes a model of factors
forming a developmental pattern for creative individuais which integrates a number of thefactors cited above:

The acquisition of values related to intellectual achievement (coming via parents,
school, society, history andíor fictional heroes).

plus
Precocious development of intellectual ability or a talent (via genetic endowment andintellectual stimulation).
plus

Stress - caused through such factors as bereavement, physical disability,
psychopathology, loneliness, rejection or insecurity.

61

Chapter 2 - Literature Review(She su.e.eests these combine:)

Leading to persistent independent intellectual ability, and a desire to excel.
Resulting in a wide-ranging knowledge and skill in a particular domain.

Second, Bloom (1985) in his study of the early years of individuals who had gone on toachieve eminence described factors which accord with the systems theory described earlie1(e.g. Csikszentmihalyi 1988, 1999).
He proposed:
Parents provide a model or example to a child by following their own interests, by theworking practices they adopt and/or by the experiences they expose the child to.
(Stimulation from the “field” in which the child finds itself.)
Where a child is attracted to a domain of skill, the parents then provide emotional andpractical support in the form of encouragement, transportation and time to provide thisdevelopment to the child. The parent will commonly locate a teacher able to stimulate
the child at that point in their development. Emphasis will be on fun, work anddiscipline in their exploration of the domain. Yet the child will commonly outgrow
the teacher - and the parents maintain their support via the location of further teachers

who can keep pace with the young person’s stage of skill and personal development.

Third, HeIson (1987) speculates that before the young person can develop creative ability
they need to arrive at an identity that is clearly separate from the parents - and that thechild must be supported in this separate identity. The above structures will be used to
examine the experiences of participants in this study.
Each of the above three perspectives will be used to consider and analyse theresults of research data. This completes the review of childhood and adolescence - thefirst of four life stages to be considered. Section 2.5 below moves on to the second life
stage - early adulthood.

62

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

2.5

Early Adulthood

This section reviews literature describing the pattern of development found in the lives ofthe exceptional creative individual during the early adult years (approximately 18 - 35

years old). It will draw on a range of theoretical sources including:biographic research (e.g. Gardner 1993, Roe 1953);
research into the contribution of role models (e.g. Zuckerman 1977);
theories and research on motivation and creativity (e.g. Amabile 1996 and 1997);
research on the patterns of productivity - the quality and quantity of output (e.g.
Lehman 1953);
and patterns of recognition and achievement (e.g. Gardner 1993 and 1999; Feldman1999).
Therefore, unlike the review of childhood and adolescence period which had a large
amount of material drawn from a relatively small number of sources, this section on
adulthood and work draws upon a composite of theories and sources in order to achieve aperspective on the events of this period. The review will cover:
The choice of work focus and career.
The Componential Theory of Individual Creativity.
Patterns of learning a domain.
Role models and influential adults.
Productivity and recognition.

2.5.1 The Choice of Work Focus and Career
Around what time might the creative individual in a localised context choose or relate totheir area of work? The common, even stereotyped view is that the exceptional creative
individual will locate and start working in their chosen work area during the childhood andadolescent years (Ochse 1990: p94/5; Simonton 1992: p81; Gardner 1993: p361;
63

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Csikszentmihalyi et al 1993: p200). Will it be the same for this research sample? With
the exception of the last author cited, all the referenced material refers to historical data.
The choice of creative domain is portrayed as precocity, an early displayed ability.
Csikszentmihalyi (1996), in his study of living creative individuals, presents a more mixed
view. He suggests that for every individual who found their area of interest early in life
there were others who found it much later. Roe (e.g. 1951a) also portrays different
patterns through which an individual’s work is discovered. She found individuals whochanged subjects studied and work direction at university under the influence of strong andpowerful teachers. For some, Csikszentmihalyi found, the confirming or pivotal
experience is college and university education where they confirm their personal
preferences and make a choice of vocation (1996: p182). So, while a choice of work area
may be made in childhood and adolescence, it is by no means the only route.
Viewing this question through the framework of Gardner’s different types ofcreative behaviour, we are also looking at how individuals gravitate towards different
domains and symbol systems (1993: p373/4 and 1999: p220 - 222). As an example of an“influencer” pattern: Gandhi’s use of “texts and talks represented an effort to paint a
convincing picture of the experiences of a group of people: he built a model of current
beliefs and behaviours within a group, as well as a model of how to change them throughthe mounting of certain pivotal performances ranging from ritual to high stake” (1993:p373).
With the choice of a work area made, generally by the early twenties, it is possible
to examine what the literature tells us then occurs on the path to recognition for creative
work.

64

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

2.5.2 The Componential Theory of Individual Creativity
What happens both in the social context and in the individual in order for creative work to
be produced? In particular, what may have triggered the choice of domain, and what elsemust be present for creative work to result?
The systems model, described earlier in this review (section 2.3) provides an
overview of what happens in the social environment. Teresa Amabile (1983, 1996, 1997)
has proposed a well-known three part componential model of individual creativity
suggesting three factors need to be present for creativity to occur in the creative individuai,
whether it is in the “ordinary” or the exceptional. This theory is seen in the work ofRenzulli (1986). It is also embraced within the larger framework proposed by Stemberg
and Lubart (1991). The researcher has drawn on ideas from the componential theory to
elucidate what we might expect to see develop in the individual over a passage of time.
Amabile’s theory proposes three components need to be present for creativity tooccur in any domain (1997: p42/3):

1.

Expertise (also called domain relevant skills).

2.

Creativity skills.

3.

Task motivation.
Expertise comprises the factual knowledge and technical skills of the domainreflected in the thinking patterns and behaviour of the individual (1996: p85; 1997: p42)
Creative thinking reflects “skills (which) include a cognitive style favourable totaking new perspectives on problems, an application of techniques (andor “heuristics”) forthe exploration of new cognitive pathways, and a working style conducive to persistent,energetic pursuit of one’s work” (1997: p43).
Amabile proposes that it is the first two components that determine what a person
is capable of doing. It is task motivation, the third component, which determines what theindividual will actually do. She differentiates between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation is characterised by being driven by “deep interest and involvement in

65

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

the work, by curiosity, enjoyment or a personal sense of challenge”. Extrinsic motivation
is “driven by the desire to attain some goal that is apart from the work itself’ (1996: p115).

Amabile’s original conception of the role of motivation was “the intrinsicallymotivated state is conducive to creativity, whereas the extrinsically motivated state is
detrimental” (1983: p91). While her research and experiments have convinced her of the
key place and influence of intrinsic motivation she now recognises that some extrinsic
motivators can act synergistically with intrinsic motivation rather than being controllinginfluences which may stifle it. For example, clearly defined project goals, frequent
constructive feedback and reward and recognition for creative ideas (1996: p117) are seen
as extrinsic motivators which support intrinsic motivation. These are responses from theexternal environment which confirm or focus competence without being seen as
controlling. Amabile terms these synergistic elements as “extrinsics in the service of
intrinsics” (1996: pl18).
This model proposes that “the levels of the three components for an individual’s
attempt at a given task determine that individual’s overall level of creativity on that task”(1983/1996: p95). If any component was not present, or only present at low levels, thenAmabile predicts that the outcome will either not be creative or only so at low levels. If
all components are present at high levels then the outcome may be expected to be creative.
Amabile suggests that motivation must come first to initiate action in each case (1996:p113).
The researcher proposes to assess whether and in what way aspects of each of thesecomponents emerge in a participant’s life story as a career develops - specifically to lookat domain expertise, motivation and work-based creativity and change skills to see at what
point participants start working in the domain for which they subsequently show creativity,
what the nature of their motivation for this work is (i.e. intrinsic/extrinsic) and at what age
they start demonstrating creativitykhange s k i l l s in this domain. This is not a test of
Amabile’s theory, but a use of its conceptual structure to explore the unfolding of creative66

Chapter 2 -Literature Review

work in an individual life. The researcher hopes to examine how an individual relates toand works in a domain within the systems model of creativity - and how that relationshipis influenced (positively or negatively) by the "field". (For example, how an individual
gains access to a domain, and in what way they may develop the relevant domain andcreativity skills.)
The literature review now examines what would be seen occurring within theindividual work in more practical terms.

2.5.3 Patterns of Learning a Domain
Generally after entry to a domain of work, a concentrated period of learning will follow
where the focus is on acquiring domain-relevant skills. Each domain of work will have its
own structure for learning, teaching, coaching and evaluating work. The characteristics ofdomain knowledge will vary and have a consequent impact on the method and process forknowledge acquisition (Simonton 1991a: p831; Csikszentmihalyi et al 1993: p103 - 113).
There will, therefore, be distinct patterns for this research group of creative influencers thatmust be observed and identified.
Gardner (1993: p364 and 1999: p216) and Feldman (1999: p173) argue that it takes
approximately ten years of leaming to acquire domain-relevant expertise that reflects
mastery, and up to another ten years for a creative breakthrough to occur. Therefore, inconsidering the achievement of recognition and eminence, the question is when did theircareer commence, and therefore at what point could mastery and creative work be
considered likely to be evident? For individuals with a reputation for creativity in a
localised context the time scales may be expected to be different than those described by
Gardner and Feldman. A research task will involve identifying in what way.

Part of the process of learning domain-relevant skills will involve the developmentof a personal working style. The exceptional creative individual is characterised by hard
work and an obsessive commitment to work that may be at the cost of friendships and67

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

family relationships (Gardner 1993: p364/5). Other characteristics of a working style may
include energy, commitment, focus, and perseverance in order to produce great work. It is
predicted that the level of these characteristics would be influenced by personal motivation
for the task (Feldman 1999: ~ 1 7 5 ) .Csikszentmihalyi (e.g. 1996) views this level ofcommitment in a different manner - he sees it as a function of the apportioning or
allocation of attention. He argues that the individual only has so much attention available
to allocate in daily life, and that areas that are cared about will attract higher allocations ofattention. This research project will examine patterns of learning in a sample of localised
creative individuals, and the characteristics of their personal working style.

2.5.4 Influential Adults and Role Models
The earlier findings reported in section 2.4 (childhood and adolescence section) saw that
influential adults (in the “field”) play a key part in the development of the exceptional
creative individual. The same applies to early adulthood.

To learn a skill and capitalise on a talent, some form of support from others in thecontext is necessary for purposes like instruction, encouragement and mentoring (Albert
1992: p126). The nature of the contribution of these influential adults is varied.
Zuckerman’s (1977) frequently cited work on scientific Nobel laureates provides a detailed
articulation both of the contexts and contribution of the role model and influential adult.
She makes clear that these eventual laureates knew enough of their domain of work to seekout both the institution and person with whom they wished to work and study - that they
“had a discriminating eye for the masters of their craft as well as for the major universities... doing work at the frontiers of the field” ( ~ 1 5 9 ) . Their role model, in turn, actively
sought out bright and able individuals to join them in their work. The future laureates not
only gained detailed knowledge from their “master”, they acquired a socialisation.

This

included “more than is ordinarily understood by education or by training: it involves
acquiring norms and standards, the values and attitudes, as well as the knowledge, skills

68Chapter 2 -Literature Review

and behaviour patterns associated with particular statuses and roles” (p163). Through thisthe future laureates gained the ability to assess their own work to demanding standards,
and became “even more confident of their own abilities than before” (p167). Subotnik
and Steiner (1994: p54) summarise the contribution of the influential adult as moving theyounger person from being “the novice to expert”.
Gardner (1993: p384/5) proposes both affective and cognitive influences in the
shape of another person able to act as a “confidant”. This would be someone who would
offer unconditional support (affective) and an understanding (cognitive) that explored andgave feedback on the nature of their work.
Two studies by Dean Simonton (1983b, 1984c) provide further indications, albeit
tentative, of the influence of older adults in the context of the younger person. In a studyof 772 artists Simonton (1984~)evaluated the influence of a range of relationships found in
the social context - these being “paragons, masters, parents, rivals, collaborators,
associates, friends, co-pupils, siblings, apprentices and admirers”. Paragons (“thosewhom the artist admired, imitated, emulated, copied, idolised or was otherwise influencedby”) and associates (“acquaintances, contacts, fellow members of movements or societies
but who could not be considered rivals, collaborators, co-pupils, friends or siblings”
emerged as the most influential on the eminence of the artist ( 1 9 8 4 ~~: 1 2 7 5 ) .In the caseof the paragons it does raise the implication that an eminent person can be influenced byindividuals they have not had direct contact with. In a study of intergenerational
influences on 342 hereditary monarchs Simonton (1983b: p361) found clear signs of arole-modelling effect where behaviours were drawn from influences, such as the father andthe grandfather.
This literature review describes a range of potential contributions made by an
influential adult and role model to the creative individual. This research project will
examine the presence and contribution of such adults to the creative influencers in thissample.

69

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

2.5.5 Productivity and Recognition
We now examine patterns of productivity in work, and subsequent recognition in the life ofan exceptional creative individual.
The productivity in a creative career has generally been represented through threeprincipal issues. First, a graphical representation indicating how creative output may
develop and change over the course of a career. Second, how productive precocity,
longevity and the volume of output may be linked. Third, the potential links that exists
between the quantity and quality of output, i.e. between productivity and creativity.
One of the most enduring results of research into the relationship between creative
output and age is that this is represented by an inverted, backward, 'Y-shaped graphicalcurve, illustrated here.

Age

"O
20

10
30

20
40

30
50

40

50

60

60

70

80

This curve rises rapidly at the start of the career of an exceptional creative individual,

rising to a career peak at some point in the second decade (early thirties to early forties),
then reducing gradually until output represents approximately half the rate that existed at70

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

the peak (e.g. Lehman 1953; Simonton 1984, 1994). The location of the career peak andthe extent of the subsequent decline will vary with the domain of achievement (e.g.
Lehman 1953, Lindauer 1992 and 1993). These interdisciplinary or inter-domain
contrasts appear to hold historically, and cross-culturally (Lehman 1962). The volume ofliterature presenting these characteristics and the extent to which these conclusions havebeen checked in various pieces of research argues powerfully for the existence of thispattern. Simonton proposes (1988: p2.52) that the enduring nature of this pattern inresearch suggests the influence of psychological and social “universals” affecting thiscreative work, such as patterns of information processing, ideation and elaboration, rather
than other determinants.
However, other influences on patterns of output and recognition over time will now
be considered. It is widely acknowledged that patterns of output amongst contributors to adomain are heavily skewed - that a small percentage of contributors will be responsible fora major part of the work (Simonton 1988: p253, 1988a: p405). For example, the top 10%of contributors will be credited with approximately 50% of ail major contributions,whereas the bottom 50% will be credited with approximately 1.5% of the work. Those thatmake the most contribution will generally start production when young, produce into oldage, and produce at above average rates, i.e. those who start early, persist over time andproduce at high rates will be those who produce most.
The link between the quantity of output and quality has also been examined. The
research and arguments of Lehman (1953) and Dennis (1966), two of the classic pieces ofresearch in this area, suggested they are very different, and that comparing quantity andquality was not comparing ‘like with like’. Yet Simonton has argued consistently for anumber of years that the age curves for the quantity and quality of work are identical (e.g.
1988: p254, and 1994: p184). Simonton constructed these arguments based on
examination of the production patterns of major and minor works in short blocks of time,e.g. 5 year periods of an individual’s career. He proposes that the more a creator produces

71Chapter 2 - Literature Review

the more chance that the creator will produce a major work: “ ... the period in a creator’slife which sees the most masterpieces also witnesses the greatest number of forgotten
productions” (1988: p254). Following Dennis (1966), Simonton has termed this the“constant-probability-of-success” model, e.g. (1977: p797; 1988a: p410; 1991b: p120).
Simonton’s writing claims a clear link between quantity and quality of production. His
correlation figures vary, however, and his research suggests it is a “probabilistic link”, aterm Simonton also uses.
Age is another key landmark associated with productivity and the exceptional
creative individual. Simonton (1991a: p829) proposes that the age at which a career
associated with a domain of work starts, is the date at which the creative process begins
As an additional model to capture what is underlying this activity, he also proposes thatwhat is involved is a two-step information processing model of ideation and elaboration developing creative ideas, and the work necessary to move those ideas into creative
products. If the constant-probability-of-success model holds, then the faster works areproduced at the beginning of a career, the earlier a “hit” may be expected to appear.
(1991a: p830). Viewed in this way, Simonton has started to move the debate away fromchronological age to career age. Through this he argues that, in addition to the date at
which a career begins, and the rate of production, the nature of the domain and the creative
potential of the individual will influence the pattern of work and development that follows.
The question is whether any of the criteria associated with productivity andrecognition will transfer into the careers of individuals creative in a “localised” context.
Since the size of the productivity curve (and implicitly that of recognition) is associatedwith output, a reduced level of creative potential, (in contrast to the exceptional creative
individual), would suggest a lower rate of contribution, a shallower curve, and a lower andslower level of recognition received overall. Simonton, (e.g. 1994) is the only author
traced by the researcher of this thesis who examines output curves for “low potential”
creators. The source of Simonton’s calculations in presenting these potential output

12

Chapter 2 Literature Review~

curves is unclear. Yet they argue for a slower or more gradual start to the career - theneed for a period of skill development and consolidation - a longer period by virtue oflower productivity to reach the notable first creative work. He proposes that the career
peak is still broadly in the same age range as with exceptional individuals, yet the decline
post-peak is more gradual in contrast to the exceptional creative individual. Given theapparent low level of examination of patterns of productivity and recognition in samples
other than exceptionally creative individuals this research project will seek to establish
data in these areas.

The application to this thesis:
Career choice and commencement: Around what time did the creative individual locateand chose their domain of work? What was the role of factors in childhood andadolescence, or university-level education period?
A componential theory of creativity: What is the role of motivation, domain relevant
knowledge and skills, and creativekhange skills in the development of this sample? Can
this thesis illuminate anything about the emergence and interaction of these threecomponents over time/the life span (domain-relevant skills, intrinsic motivation andchange skills)?
Learning the domain: After entry to a domain of work what patterns of learning domainrelevant skills are apparent?
Influential adults: Are influential adults present in the narratives of participants? What istheir contribution to the work development of these individuals?
Productivity and recognition: What patterns of productivity in work, and subsequent
recognition, may been seen in the life of these participants?

Having examined the first two of the four life stages, the next section moves on to consider
the midlife decade.

73

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

2.6

The Midlife Decade (35 - 45 years old)

The midlife decade and the transition seen within it have emerged as a recognised periodof adult development (Levinson 1978, 1996; Vaillant 1977; Gould 1977; Roazen 1976). It
was the characteristics of this decade and Jaques’s (1965) research paper on changes tocreative activity that first attracted the researcher to this subject area. The interest andresearch in the midlife period dates from the 1960s approximately, with a peak of interest
demonstrated in the literature occurring between 1965 and 1980. However, Willis andReid (1999: p.xv) suggest that there are few scholarly examinations of this subject.

The

relative recency of this interest in this area can be understood in the context of a life
expectancy in 1900 being 50 years old, compared to 70 years for males in 1980 and 78 forfemales (Hunter and Sundel 1989: p8). The interest in the midlife period can also be seen
as an evolution of the work of Sigmund Freud in childhood, and Anna Freud and Erik

Erikson on youth and adolescence. In the early 1970s, there were relatively few
conceptualisations of development in adulthood. Neugarten and Gould argue there was an
assumption that the issues salient to childhood were projected forward into this time
(Neugarten 1969: p121, Gould 1979: p2). This section of the literature review will
examine earlier literature on the midlife period, update it with more recent work, andconsider the potential impact on creative work in this time period.
Levinson (e.g. 1978 and 1996) argued the midlife transition was a five-year period
from 40 - 45 years old, with a small variance in the ages at which midlife was experienced.
However, others argue for a longer period of focus (e.g. Moen and Wethington 1999: p4;

Oles 1999: ~ 1 0 5 9 ) .This section will therefore look at a full decade (35 - 45 years old) toembrace these wider views.

A number of general adult development studies have considered the role ofcreativity.

One of the earliest articles concerning the midlife (Jaques 1965) examined it

14

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

from the standpoint of the impact on the creative lives of artists. The work of Levinson etal (1978) also comments on the potential impact of midlife on creative work.

It is a period called a “transition” by some, a “crisis” by others. The perspective ofa crisis occurring in this period has undoubtedly come from some of the journalistic
publications of the work on this period, which appears to have slanted the understanding of
the meaning of this life period (e.g. Reid and Willis 1999: p277). This review focuses on
this period as a transition. A transition is defined as: “ ... a change which moves the

person from one position or stage to another” (Brim 1976: p4), which may involve various
psychological and social adaptations (Hunter and Sundel 1989: p19). For Levinson (1996:p69) it also included elements of ending and beginning, or initiation with an underlying
move towards “individuation”. While the principle theorists use the word “transition”
they also acknowledge that a crisis can occur within a transition. There is a debate, which
will be reviewed later in this section, on whether the midlife transition is a phenomenon orphase experienced by everyone. A classic influential article on this subject (Jaques 1965:p506) suggests that it is an experience “which manifests in some form with everyone”.

2.6.1 The Characteristics of the Midlife Transition
This period is described as containing a range of possible experiences that are physical,
psychological and social in origin. There is a high degree of commonality of thedescriptions contained in the earlier and more recent literature, e.g. Oles 1999: p1059. No
single event or occurrence is recognised as the starting point of the transition, and they
may be experienced in any order. While these characteristics represent the way theexperience of the midlife transition is reported, more recently (e.g. Moen and Wethington
1999: p21) they are being written of as reflecting the “multiple meanings of age” - theways in which it will be encountered and experienced. A range of possible midlife
characteristics will be looked for in this thesis sample.

Chapter 2 -Literature Review

Physical:The period of this decade marks a peak of physical maturity and strength that is passed anda progressive loss commences, albeit small. Signs of ageing appear, such as wrinkles,
grey hair, weight gain and changes in the sexual drive. These changes may be noticed by
the individual with the realisation that “we are no longer young” and that there is a limit to
the future of their body (Neugarten 1969: p121/2; Kets de Vries 1978: p47; Gould 1979:
p2; McIlroy 1984: p625; Quadri0 1986: p34/5; McAdams 1993: p198; Dunn 1999).
Also at this time increased incidences of stress, alcoholism, addictions,

psychosomatic illnesses and a hypochondrical concern over health have been reported bydifferent authors (e.g. Jaques 1965: p511; Rosenberg and Farrell 1976: p153; McIlroy

1984: p625). The incidence of serious medical conditions begins to rise at this time,
particularly in men. Individuals’ health and experience of health will impact thetransitions and decisions that occur in this period (Moen and Wethington 1999: p8).

Social:An acknowledgement of the changing social dimension of the midlife decade in an
individual life (e.g. the impact of growing and increasingly independent children) mustalso take account of changing social experiences over time. For example, authors such as
Butler and Neugarten were writing about ageing in the 1960s’ from a perspective of ill
health and the management of difficulties. In contrast, Sheehy (1995) writes from theperspective of health and added life span. Wills and Reid (1999: p.xv) acknowledge thatthe “baby boomers” entering the midlife decade and middle age represent the best educatedgeneration in history to-date. These factors will shift the social elements of the midlife
decade over time. There are also core social experiences which authors suggest staycommon. These are reviewed below.
The midlife transition is a period involving potential social and relationship change.
For example, it is a time when an individual’s parents will be ageing and may be moving

76

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

into a period of dependency or dying. Such experiences raise demands on the individualin the midlife decade, or can provide ‘models’ of the ageing process which may influencesubsequent decisions (Brim 1976: p6; Moen and Wethington 1999: p9). Children will beentering a period of increasing independence or distance from parents through adolescenceor leaving home (Jaques 1965: p506; Neugarten 1969: p121/1 and 1979: p890; Gould
1979: p2; McIlroy 1984: p625; Quadri0 1986: p34/5; McAdams 1993: p198; Levinson
1996: p385; Moen and Wethington 1999: p7; Whitbome and Connolly 1999: p36/7;
Rosenberg et al 1999: p58; Reid and Willis 1999: p278). These authors suggest these
events and experiences influence and/or limit the decisions available to an individual,
potentially negatively, in developing their life from this point.
Neugarten theorises that a significant part of the midlife transition experiences aresocially influenced - that an individual’s social context provides messages, signs ormeasures of the “time” by which certain things are expected and anticipated within aperson’s life. These messages are a natural part of the social context. She proposes thatone source of midlife tension is the comparison of actual life with what society
communicates as expected at this time - is the individual in an age-appropriate category of
behaviour and stage of life? For example, expectations could include the points that anindividual is expected to reach in a career, earning power, or peak productivity (Neugarten
1968: p146 and 1969: ~12112;Bardwick 1978: p132; Kets de Vries 1978: p50/1; McIlroy
1984: p625; Moen and Wethington 1999: p4).

Psychological:
Many of the most cited characteristics of the midlife transition in literature are
psychological or internally experienced. The focus on psychological characteristics andexperience is a part of the life course or life cycle perspective on adult development (Moenand Wethington 1999: p13). The physical and the psychological characteristics aretheorised as interacting (Rosenberg et al 1999: p56).

Chapter 2 -Literature Review

The midlife transition is commonly described as a period of re-evaluation. It has anumber of potential sources. There is often a practical recognition of what has been
described as the “aspirations - achievements gap” (Brim 1976: p5). The hopes and plansfrom early adult life and career are weighed against what has actually been achieved. For
many individuals there is a gap between the two which has two implications. First, therealisation of what has been achieved compared with what the individual hoped and was
possible. There might have been a failure to reach aspirations despite their efforts, or a
failure to attempt or risk what is necessary to attain them. Second, what opportunities, ifany, exist for closing the gap between aspirations and achievement in the time remaining to
the individual (Levinson 1978: p192; Gould 1979: p2; Kets de Vries 1978: p45; McIlroy
1984: p625; Quadno 1986: p37; McAdams 1993: p198; Levinson 1996: p377)?
A number of authors (e.g. Brim 1976: p5; Levinson et al 1978: p200; Kets de vries
1978: p48) also refer to the realisation in the individual that some parts of their selves havenot been ‘lived-out’ as a consequence of the life chosen to-date. The causes may bepractical, such as the demands of career or family, or social such as following of traditions
or restrictions that exist in the individual’s context. “Some parts of oneself have been
neglected in the maturation process and some parts may never be fulfilled’’ (McIlroy 1984:p625). Whatever the cause, there is a possible weighing-up or comparison of the person
they have become in comparison with the individual they dreamed of being earlier in adultlife.
Erikson’s seventh stage of adult life (Generativity vs. Stagnation) is also describedas spanning this period. The experience of this stage is suggested by Erikson to provide
an impetus or questioning for how the individual might nurture or develop the next
generation. This may take the form of the development of individuals that form the next
generation or creative products or work that may influence them (Kets de Vries 1978: p48;
McAdams 1993: p202/3).

Neugarten (1969: p121/2) uses an unusual expression indescribing the task as also involving the “creation of social heirs”.

78

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Of a more direct and difficult nature is an experience or realisation that death has
become a personal reality to the individual. Elliot Jaques (1965: p506) discusses one ofthe paradoxical experiences of the midlife in describing the recognition that as we enter
what in many respects may be a “prime” of life, “. , , the prime and fulfilment are dated.
Death lies beyond _..”. Could (1972: p530 and 1979: p4) suggests that the awareness andacknowledgement of personal mortality will confront and alter belief systems about safety,
particularly those behaviours which we believe will create it, (e.g. if I am successful, orinvest work in certain relationships I will never feel helpless again).

Death has changed

from being a “concept” to a personal matter (Neugarten 1969: p121/2; McIlroy 1984:
p625; Quadno 1986: p34/5).
With or without a more personal experience of death, one of the commonest
reported experiences of the midlife transition is a changing orientation to time. As theindividual reaches a time approximating to an anticipated midpoint in life, time isrestructured into a sense of time-left-to-live rather than a time since birth. Another way inwhich it has been stated is “there is only as much time left in the future as there is time in
the past” (Could 1979: p2/3). One of the consequences of this in the individual is arecognition that not all that had been hoped-for in the life span will be accomplished, that
only a finite amount can be achieved and that much may have to remain unfinished andunrealised. This is described as a creating a sense of time-urgency (Jaques 1965: p507;
Neugarten 1968: p97; Brim 1976: p5; Kets de Vries 1978: p47; McIlroy 1984: p625;
McAdams 1993: p198).
The awareness of death also relates to one of the other commonest reported
experiences - an awareness of the polarities that exist in life. For example, Jaques (1965:p512) describes it as a realisation that life and mortality exist together, and that this can be
mitigated by the positive element of the polarity, by the will to live life. A further
perspective that he describes is: “beliefs in the inherent goodness of man are replaced by arecognition and acceptance of the fact that inherent goodness is accompanied by hate and79

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

destructive forces within, which contribute to man’s own misery and tragedy” (p505).
McAdams (1993: p200) also describes a shift from a belief in “absolute truths” to truths
that are situationally specific.
Several authors describe a change in personal priorities as occurring at this time.
Kets de Vnes (1978: p47) talks of an increased preoccupation with the inner life,
introspection, reflection and self-evaluation. For McIlroy (1984: p625) it is an existential
questioning of the self, values and life itself. In practical terms it is a taking stock, aseeing of one’s self in realistic terms - and depression sometimes results because of
shortfalls and disappointments (Gould 1972: p530; Quadno 1986: p34/5; Reid and Willis
1999: p277).
The work of the midlife transition is the personal facing, confrontation andaccommodation of some or all of the experiences described above. These experiences
constitute potential “psychological turning points” - defined by Moen and Wethington(1999: p14), after Clausen, as “a new insight into one’s self, a significant other orimportant life situation; this insight becomes a motive that leads to redirecting, changing or
improving one’s life”. This, also, was one of the characteristics of this period that drew
the researcher to this subject area, and is examined in research data. The turning points
take place against a background of a changed sense of reality, of time ahead, and personalmortality (Levinson 1978: p192). Levinson also argues that these experiences constitute“individuation”, a growing exploration and sense of who the individual is as a person, what

they want, as well as what the realities of the world and life are really like. The midlife
transition is the process of reconciliation of gaps in the life structure, and the actions thatare needed to close them.

Outcomes of the midlife transition and impact on creative work:

Different authors write about the way in which the midlife transition experiences“...

challenge us to recreate our identities in ways that enhance our sense of unity and purpose

80

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

in life” (McAdams 1993: p202). This involves the individual working throughunresolved problems of earlier life (Jaques 1965: p511) or revising beliefs and goals forthe future (Pankey 1998). Jaques (1965: p506) makes a sweeping statement of what heconsiders the outcome of the midlife transition to be: “the achievement of mature
independent adulthood presents itself as the main psychological task”. What does thismean?
This means that the re-evaluation and assessments described create a confrontation
with aspects of the life structure not serving the direction desired by the individual and theopportunities that may exist to change. These can be parts of the life structure, such as job
or relationships, or attitudes and values that have been developed or taken-on in adult life
(Gouid 1979: p3). Gould also suggests that working on these issues is the quality of“heaviness” that can characterise the midlife transition; the results or subsequent decisions
can represent its associated growth or ‘flowering’.
The common themes that emerge from reported experiences of the mid-life periodare:
A personal questioning and re-evaluation, and changes in the individual’ssense of self.
(Jung 1933, Erikson 1958, Levinson 1978,1986, 1996; Quadrio 1986, Neugarten 1969,1976).

A recognition or awareness of the commencement of physical decline. (Jung 1933,
Enkson 1958, Levinson 1978, 1986, 1996).

A recognition of personal mortality - or the ceasing of its denial. (Jung 1933, Erikson
1958, Levinson 1978, 1986, 1996).

81

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

A recognition of personal needs, hopes and ambitions in contrast to those which have

hitherto been ‘imposed’in some way externally. (Levinson 1978, 1986, 1996; Stein
1983, Corlett and Milner 1993; Quenk 1993, 1996).

A new sense of ‘time’being limited, and of work or actions the individual seeks toaccomplish in the time remaining to himíher. (Wolf 1991)

A questioning of what form living may take in the time remaining, of what action or
behaviours to devote oneself to, and attempts to reshape or redirect one’s life
accordingly. (Erikson 1958, Levinson 1978, 1986, 1996, Stein 1983, Corlett andMilner 1993; Quenk 1993,1996).

So far, this review has examined general midlife changes. There are a number ofoutcomes that may be seen in creative work. Jaques’ (1965) paper makes several
proposals. He suggests:
a creative career may come to an abrupt end, for example in the drying up of work;

creative capacity may show itself for the first time;

there may be a decisive change in the quality and content of creativeness. (p502.)

changes are characterised or seen in either the mode or method of work, or its content.

(p503.) He suggests that the style of work involves a switch to a “sculpting approach”
involving a working and reworking of activity, creating a bigger step between the firstinspiration and the finished product. This is rather than the intense and spontaneouswork that occurs in earlier adulthood.

82

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

He also suggests that the emerging sense of death and the tragic in the individual will

be reflected in the work, in place of the “lyrical” work of earlier life. (p504.)

The application to this thesis:
Research data will be analysed to determine whether and in what way creativity is affectedby the midlife and which of the factors described above appear relevant to this sample.

2.6.2 Evaluation and Evidence of the Midlife Transition
The description and theorising of a midlife transition is based on empirical evidence, albeit
limited. For example, Levinson’s theories, while extensively quoted, are based on only 39of the 85 men and women in his two studies. However detailed Levinson’s data were, thisis still a small sample for the extent of his claims. Levinson and Jaques both indicatedthey made extensive use of biographic material in building and supplementing their
theories. The empirical work is largely focused on white middle class Americans livingon the east and west coasts, and in distinct periods of time. The empirical work is varied
in its nature, and authors disagree on the exact type of these experiences. It needs to beacknowledged that some authors continue to question the existence of the midlife
transition, and suggest it is a reflection of the personal construction and presentation of thelife narrative (e.g. Rosenberg et al 1999: p47). (The researcher accepts the arguments forthe existence of the midlife transition and will be examining evidence in research reports
from participants to test this view.) Research into the interplay of these midlife
characteristic experiences described in this review is relatively uncommon (Moen andWethington 1999: p9). Willis and Reid (1999: p.xvi) and Rosenberg et al (1999: p55)
propose that no specific transitionary path can be laid out. An individual’s experience will
be a function of the interaction of biological, psychological, cultural, social and historicalfactors. They also write that it is this very interaction of factors that makes the midlife an
important and challenging area of research.
83Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Despite the doubts or questions raised above, in Jaques’ (1965) study of thebiographies of 316 painters, composers, poets, writers and sculptors he wrote that there
were “few in whom a decisive change cannot be seen in the quality of their work”, i.e. in
whose work the experience of this crisis could not be seen ( ~ 5 0 3 ) .
Gould’s work (e.g. 1972 and 1979) examining the life span, including the midlife
transition, focused initially on hospital psychiatric patients, but moved from there to aquestionnaire study of the experiences of 524 healthy people. He acknowledged that his
results pictured development at a particular point in time, and that his results might shift
with both time and social context (1972: p53I).
Kets de Vries (1978: p48) describes a study of Californian managers where over

80% reported an intense crisis as occumng for them in this period of time.
Helson and Moane (1987: p177) in a longitudinal study of 140 women from college
though to middle age used a range of psychometric measures of personality to gauge theextent of changes occumng over time. They reported evidence of changes predicted inlife stage theory and development and midlife, e.g. decreases in certain measures offemininity and increases in masculinity of interests. They argued that it presented astrong case for patterns of personality change from early to middle adulthood (p185) thatwere consistent and predictable.

A major trend within the midlife literature is the amount of introspection andreevaluation undertaken by individuals experiencing the midlife transition. Butler (1963:p166) in an influential and frequently quoted paper argues that: “life review is a naturally
occurring universal mental process characterised by progressive return to consciousness ofpast experiences and, particularly, the resurgence of unresolved conflicts” and that theseconflicts “can be surveyed and integrated”. He argues that the life review at this time isparticularly a response to the acknowledgement of the biological and psychological fact ofdeath (p66) and that in its extreme forms can be associated with feelings of guilt, anxiety
and despair (p68).

84

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

McAdams (1993: p196) argues that whatever the evidence that exists for the
midlife transition there are undoubtedly men and women who move through this period
either with ease, or without the marked symptoms described in this literature. The
research of Keyes and Ryff (e.g. 1999: p161) presents a range of measures ofpsychological well-being in the midlife years (based on interview research with 316
participants) which endorse McAdams’ conclusions that this need not be a painful period.
Their research suggests possible increases in self-determination, environmental mastery,
choice over purpose in life and a continued desire for growth.
Whatever the results of these studies and the characteristics currently proposed forthe midlife transition it needs to be acknowledged that this is a relatively new area of
research interest, with comparatively few research studies on which to base the claims of auniversal midlife transition. There is a heavy reliance on interview data, and limited
amounts of data from other sources. Many of the authors involved acknowledge theinfluences of gender, social context and class, beliefs, goals and social values (Hunter andSundel 1989: p15). Women have been under-researched compared with men (Reid andWillis 1999: p279).
Quadno describes the midlife transition as a contemporary phenomenon influenced
by education and disposition - and argues that many will not be inclined to the reflective
thought in these experiences (1986: p37). Yet Sheehy (1995: p191) described
questionnaire-based research she conducted with 1024 working class respondents. She isunequivocal in her conclusions: all levels of society encounter the midlife experiences education and income do not ‘create’ the experiences, they give individuals choices about
how to respond to them. Reid and Willis (1999: p279) in a major review of recent
research, argue for the possibility of intervening constructively and changing the nature of
the midlife experiences described in this section. The researcher had intended to makemidlife a major focus of his study but exploratory work revealed that a life span

85

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

perspective was likely to be more fruitful. The midlife transition remains within the
research focus of this project and the characteristics will be examined from data collected.

This review now turns to examine middle age, the fourth and final life stage examined inthis review.

2.7

Middle AgeThis section reviews what is known of the experiences of the exceptional creative
individual after the midlife period. The age span being considered in this research projectis 45 - 60 years old. The literature examined commonly embraces this period and old age

as well. The distinctions between them will be brought out as the review is presented.
The sources of the theories presented in this section vary. The largest body ofavailable evidence is product-centred and provides a perspective on how productivity andacclaim for creative work is expected to decline after the midlife period. Beyond the
product-centred theory, there are a small number of studies and theoretical examinations
which attempt to add further definition to what other ‘meanings’ can be attributed tocreative work other than product output and social acclaim in this time of life. Thissection will also draw on the changes indicated in the midlife literature and how these are
anticipated as continuing and influencing work in this latter period.

2.7.1 The Quantity and Quality of Creative Work in Middle Age
The dominant message contained in product-centred literature and theories is an age-

related decline following the midlife decade. It is commonly portrayed as an inverted-Jshaped curve.
The literature on creativity produced in the period 1950 - 1980 appears to havecreated a potentially stereotypical message that “creativity declines with age”. Even if
there is a stereotype the evidence that “creative achievement becomes more infrequent86

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

with advancing adult age cannot be ignored” (Kastenbaum 1992: p291).

However, thecontents and meaning of the earlier literature has now been considered in more depth andproves more complex than this simple conclusion.
The age-related curve described is an average of the patterns found in many
disciplines (Lehman 1953. Simonton 1990, 1990a, 1990b, 1991, 1994, Lindauer 1993).
This being the case, there will be some disciplines where the peak and decline is earlier,some later. Lindauer’s (1992, 1993) work on artists, for example, portrays a peak to thecurve in this field that potentially occurs in the mid-forties or later. Simonton (1990b:p629) argues that for some individuals the curve will not decline at all. Therefore global
statements about peaks occurring at a certain age range are misleading. This research
project looks for data on the quality and quantity of creative work in middle age in thisgroup of creative influencers.
Simonton (e.g. 1984, 1991) has taken the exploration of the potential meanings ofthis curve further by using a mathematical perspective. By calculating the area under the
curve he argues that the post-peak period of work represents over half of that available tothe individual in the span of their career. The declining curve does not, for example,
remove creativity - the decline in creativity will not make the creative person uncreative ample scope for work remains (1990: p103). In the seventh decade work output is still
approximately 50% of the peak, and exceeding that of the first decade of work, thetwenties. Therefore, any age decline does not make a person devoid of creativity (1990b:p627). As the curve represents an average this will of course conceal very wide individual
variations and individual creators may show very different patterns. Simonton
acknowledges there will be many examples available which prove an exception to theseprinciples (1991: p14). Therefore we are not considering the possible presence or absenceof creativity in this time period, but the characteristics of change that may occur to creative
activity in this age range.

87Chapter 2 - Literature Review

There are, however, further patterns within output and achievement to beacknowledged, Three common patterns occur within output of the exceptional creative
individual - starting work early, i.e. prodigiousness in childhood, production at
extraordinary rates during the career, and working until late in life (e.g. Dennis 1954).
Therefore late life potential and activity is heavily associated with early potential(Simonton 1990: p103; 1990a: p324). Simonton also argues that output and achievement
are linked. “Quality of output is strongly associated with quantity, i.e. most productive
periods are, on average, the same periods in which the most successful pieces emerge”(Simonton 1990a: p323; 1991: p15; 1994: p203). Simonton charted the work curves
associated with major and minor work and suggested that “they are basically identical -the period of most masterpieces will also see the most easily forgotten work”. For thisreason, he argues that continuing output and potential can still lead to significant
achievement in later years. This research project will, therefore, examine patterns of theearly appearance of work, the involvement in this activity over time, and the ways it may
be maintained in later life.
One of the principal reasons proposed for declining achievement and output withage is that of ill health. Nowadays, interference of extrinsic factors can be mitigated withadvances in modem medicine (Simonton 1990: p103; 1990b: p627).
There is also some evidence that in certain cases productivity can undergo arenaissance in the later years (Simonton 1990b: p630; 1991: p16). This work does nottake output and achievement back to midlife levels, but it does indicate and argue for apotential in later life even when not evidenced by output.

2.7.2 The Late Life Style
The product-centred view offers many perspectives of this age period. There are,however, other bodies of work worthy of examination that are both theoretical andempirical in origin and oriented towards the latter end of middle age and old age.

88

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

From a largely theoretical (rather than empirical) position, focused on the work ofartists, Cohen-Shalev (1986 and 1989) argued for an examination of what she described as
the late life style or the old age style. She proposes that to focus on the quantity of work,or peak and decline, in later life as a measure of what happens to creativity is inadequate.
Some other approach is needed which considers the intrinsic features of the experience ofageing, e.g. the content, form, language, style and variation of work in this time period(1986: pi). A primary focus on achievement and social acclaim means aspects ofcreativity will go unexamined (Kastenbaum 1992: p292). Cohen-Shalev argued for an
examination of the “primary aspects” of artistic work “such as themes, formal structure,technique and imagery” in order to go beyond the product-centred perspective of an
average of the best years of work (1989: p30). These recommendations also reflect thework of Jaques (1965) in suggesting that work may appear, decline, change content or
direction in this period.
Cohen-Shalev acknowledged at the time of writing these articles that the empiricalimplications of these suggestions needed further exploration. Yet she also argued that the
failure to examine the changes that occurred in later life represented a prejudice against
ageing and the older individual (1989: p24).
She made initial steps at defining shifts in artistic style later in life - but these lacka level of definition that would support empirical work. She wrote, in a manner thatreflects the conclusions of midlife researchers, of an increased focus on the interior life,
and a withdrawal into “inner circles of experience”, and ‘‘an increased occupation with theartistic self and the reconsideration of the meaning of art for one’s life and humanity atlarge” (1989: p33).
Lindauer (1992) extended the examination of late-life concept empirically, again
with artists. While acknowledging his findings were not observed in ail the artists he
examined, he observed three general patterns in late life work: declining reputations,achieving recognition in old age, and artists reputed to have done their best work in old age

89

Chapter 2 - Literature Review(p215). Specifically, he found a number of well known artists (e.g. Rembrandt,
Michaelangelo, Titian, Goya, and Cézanne) drastically changed their style in later life,
with shifts in technique, composition, subject matter and affective tone (p216).
In reviewing the literature of other researchers Lindauer (1992) found othercontributory definitions to the late life style (p217). “A shift from the dramatic, physical,
busy, to the more tranquil, inner-directed and darker visions of the older artist. There is a
shift to looser, diffuse, less literal understandings.” And: “An inner directed andintrospective focus rather than action-oriented because of a withdrawal to the inner worldof experience.” These words suggest, again, a change in focus or process on the part ofthe creative individual.
Lindauer speculated on potential reasons for this stylistic shift. Recognising thatno single reason was likely to explain this change, he suggested it may be a reflection oflife stage, decreased concern with success or failure, material ambitions, and/or a reflectionof physical, biological or mental breakdowns which influence the perceptions of sight andcolour used by artists. He also supported Simonton in the view that it could, potentially,reflect the artist’s understanding of declining years and impending death, and a personalportrayal and working out of these experiences.
Munsterberg (1984) in a book that is art-historical, yet quoted in creativity
literature, presented a series of case studies which examine the changes to the work ofartists that occurred in later life. He described cases where acclaimed work has been
produced in old age, as well as the stylistic shifts that can occur in this time. For example,
in a study of Michaelangelo’s work, he proposed a reason for the style changes: “the artist
transcends artistic conventions and gives expression to his most profound and personalsentiments” (p18). He argued strongly, for example, that the experience of ageing was asource of creative inspiration and material to Michaelangelo. (This possibility andprinciple is also suggested generally by Wyatt-Brown 1992: p339). In several other casestudies Munsterberg described work changes that are indicative of changed priorities on90

Chapter 2 -Literature Review

the part of the artist, demonstrate on-going practical and emotional support, and theacknowledgement received in these later years. Simonton (1990b: p627) also proposedthat even in the face of illness and difficulty, creative individuals like Bach or Handel
would persist in creative work in old age. He called this a “self-actualizing process” that
motivates creative workers to overcome the infirmities of age. There is also evidence that
not only can a creative person push through the restrictions of illness in later years, but it
can also be a source of creative output, (e.g. the work of Goya in later life, examined by

Gedo and Gedo 1992: p27).
Munsterberg’s studies also concur with the work of Simonton (described earlier) those who worked well in later life were, generally, but not exclusively, those who started
their career early.
Simonton adds two further understandings to the characteristics of creative work inlater life, in connection with playwrights and musicians. In a 1983 study of 81 Athenianand Shakespearean plays he proposed that the content of plays reflected the age of theauthors. Later plays were found to be more concerned with religious or mysticalexperiences and the role of God in human affairs. “In the dramatist’s later years heevidently becomes less concerned with material goods and more committed to spiritualquestions” (pi 19). He concluded: “it is almost as if the dramatist, through literarycreativity, is working out the big questions that all of us must encounter as the end of ourlives draw near” ( ~ 1 2 1 ) .
In a later (1994) study of 1919 works of 172 classical composers Simonton
reported that the work of the end of life (a) had shorter playing times, (b) lower melodic
originality, and (c) enjoyed higher popularity in classical repertories and were rated as
more profound by musicologists. In Simonton’s expression composers were saying “morewith less” (p209). Simonton speculated on the source of this change in style. He
suggested that, aware of advancing age and their musical hopes in comparison with theirachievements, they were seeking “a last artistic testament”. “This final creation must

91

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

wrap up all the loose ends of an all-to-brief existence. The last work must encapsulate theintent of an entire career” (~210). This conclusion was echoed by Cohen-Shalev (1989:p28): “works of elderly artists are frequently described as “last utterances”, attempts “tosolve the enigma of life”, and similarly by Kastenbaum (1992: p299).
Storr (1988: p169 and 1989: p147) links these late life changes in creative style andapproach to life span development. He suggested that a creative individual will enter a“third period” of production in the fifties and sixties. (The first period is Characterised bylearning the craft, and the second by socially influenced production). Working from theperspective that creative work reflects life experiences Storr describes the third period as
more inner-directed, or inner-focused. He suggested a number of characteristics seen in
many musical, artistic and literary examples:“They are often unconventional in form and (. ..) striving to achieve a new kind ofunity between elements (. . .)”.
“They are characterised by an absence of rhetoric and any need to convince”.
“They seem to be exploring remote areas of experience which are intrapersonal or
suprapersonal rather than interpersonal” (1988: p174).

The literature described in this section is indicative of the difficulties of portraying the latelife style in enough precision to support empirical examination. This research project does,
however, seek data on changes to creative activity in this middle age period (45 - 60 years
old) and examine it for characteristics of the iate life style.

2.7.3 Further Indications from Self-reportlBiographicStudy
Csikszentmihalyi’s (1996) study of 91 living creative individuals has been referred to in
the literature review. This study also reports on the experiences of these individuals in“the later years”.
Csikszentmihalyi supported questioning the perception of a decline in creative
activity over time described earlier and reported that the productivity of his sample did not92

Chapter 2 . Literature Review

decline with age, and that if anything it increased. He also concluded that the capacity for
quality to be retained with quantity was present and that memorable work may be
produced in later life ( ~ 2 1 1 ) .
The perception of his participants was that their ability to work was largely
unimpaired as they aged, and that their goals remained as significant as they had been in
earlier life. Complaints about health or well-being were largely absent from his interviewsof participants. Their attitudes to their physical health were largely positive, despite
reports of energy loss and the need to slow down. Twice as many reported positivechanges as negative ones (p212/5). Abilities associated with crystallised intelligence wereperceived as increasing, e.g. “making sensible judgements, recognising similarities acrossdifferent categories, using induction and logical reasoning” ( ~ 2 1 3 ) .
A significant positive development in personal traits was reported as “diminishedanxiety over performance, being less driven, exhibiting more courage, confidence and risktaking” (p215). Women reported twice as many positive outcomes as men ( ~ 2 1 7 ) .
Comments from these participants concerning their relationship to domains of
performance were uniformly positive. “It seems the promise of more and different
knowledge never lets us down (. ..) symbolic domains remain always accessible and theirrewards remain fresh till the end of life” (p218). Csikszentmihalyi acknowledged acontradiction. These individuals were actively and deeply engaged in work they foundexciting until very late in life (the eighties and nineties for some participants). Yet thefulfilment of the work many were engaged in would be unattainable to them in the timeremaining. He suggested “these people never run out of exciting goals” (p220). “. . .
there was very little (. ..) dwelling on past success (. ..) everyone’s energies were focusedon tasks still to be accomplished” (p221).
Lindauer et al (1997) have made an important contribution to articulating what else
may be happening to the experience and performance of creativity in later years. In aquestionnaire survey they asked 88 prominent graphic artists in the age range 60s - 80s to93

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

review the performance and characteristics of their work over time. There were consistentreports of positive changes to the quality, quantity and content of creative work well into
the 60s, with only marginal declines beyond that time. The primary reasons described
included increased skill and improved techniques that came from on-going learning andthe discovery of new working materials (p134 - 136); and increase in time available tothem due to a decline in family and responsibilities; and an increased “acceptance ofthemselves, their work and their abilities” - and an acceptance of others. A “reduced
concern with other people’s criticisms or evaluations” was also reported as a source ofwork - the freedom to attempt work they may have previously have been deterred fromtrying ( ~ 1 3 9 ) . This presents an important contrasting perspective to the recognised peakof social acclaim that occurs commonly in the first half of the 40s. This research by
Lindauer et al could suggest that social acclaim is less of a priority creatively than before and that other priorities have emerged.
The research data from this research project will also be examined for participants’
perceptions of their work in this time period, in contrast to earlier periods of their life.

2.7.4 Conclusions From a Review of Middle Age Creative Activity
These theoretical sources argue that a focus in this time period on productive output andsocial acclaim is inadequate to portray and understand the events occumng within creative
work and the creative process. This time period in the creative adult life is under-exploredtheoretically compared with childhood and adolescence, and early adulthood. Thesesources suggest that attention to the characteristics of creative work in this time period, andthat the phenomenology of creative work indicative of the experience of ageing would
yield new understandings of creative activity. These are views accepted by the researcher
and have shaped the manner in which data is interrogated to learn of participants’experiences in this time period.

94

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

The applications to this thesis:
The quality and quantity of creative work: What evidence is there, if any, that research
participants changed and/or maintained the quality and quantity of their creative workthrough this time period? What are the changes, if any, in contrast to earlier life periods?

The Late Life Style: Research data will be examined for indications of work that attempts
to encapsulate the intent of a career, e.g. participants becoming inner focusedídirected and less concerned with social recognition.

Part 4 -Additional Contributing Theories
This section of the literature review will focus on a range of other theories that could,
potentially, explain behaviour otherwise considered “creative”. There is the possibility
that local creativity is associated with normal and healthy development of individuals or areflection of other phenomena, or both. Because the primary focus of this thesis iscreativity, the focus on these theories will be limited, with the intention of providing somealternative measures of the data encountered from the biographies of participants.

2.8

The Relationship of Creativity to Other Theories

It is appropriate, however, to consider in what ways creativity may be viewed by or evenpart of other theories. Two in particular provide relevant information: Self-actualisationand flow.

95

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

2.8.1 Self-actualisation
Self-actualisation features in the humanistic tradition of psychology and was introduced byAbraham Maslow (e.g. 1970). For Maslow, self-actualisation was the “ultimate goal of
human life”. It appears at a peak of his hierarchy of needs or motives. These covered
two groups, ‘deficiency motives’ and ‘being motives’. These are (from base to peak):

1. Physiological needs (hunger and thirst).
2. Safety needs (a stable and predictable environment)
3. Love and belongingness needs (affection from others; need to be with others rather
than alone).
4. Esteem needs (superiority, respect, self-respect).

5. Self-actualisation.
Maslow’s view was that until an individual’s base needs were-met the higher needs would

not be prominent (Bee 1998: p33/4).
Due to the emergent nature of needs depending on prior level satisfaction, Maslow
saw Self-actualisation as a motive emerging later in life. The needs are organised in a“relative potency” - the stronger needs appear earlier (Maslow 1970: p56).
The task of defining self-actualisation is difficult, as Maslow’s theories werephrased in a wide range of broad and often imprecise terms. Self-actualisation happens as
the individual moves towards “actualization of potentialities, full potentialities, towards
peak experiences” (ibid.: p61). “.._the full use and exploitation of talents, capabilities
and potentialities” (ibid.: p126). While this writing seems to imply human perfection,
Maslow acknowledged that no subject was perfect (ibid.: p127). Maslow considered anempirical case had been made “for the presence within the human being of a tendency
toward, or need for growing in a direction that can be summarised in general as selfactualisation or psychological health” (Maslow 1968: ~ 1 5 5 ) .Maslow wrote that selfactualising people are distinguished by “the frequency and intensity’’ of peak experiences.

96

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

In peak experiences he believed the individual would be most fully their identity orthemselves (1968: p103).

He saw self-actualisation as a matter of “degree” rather than an“all-or-none” condition, which he felt allowed a researcher to search biographies orcreative or any other individual for episodes of self-actualisation through these peak or
growth experiences (Maslow 1968: p97/8).
The words and phrases used by Maslow to describe self-actualisation include
problem-centring, autonomy, peak experiences and creativity (Maslow 1970: p128). He
appears to have considered that all self-actualised subjects were creative.
Maslow wrote “creativity is a universal characteristic of all people studied andobserved”, “ ...a fundamental characteristic of human nature”, “the creativeness appears insome of our subjects not in the usual forms of writing books, composing music or
producing artistic objects, but rather may be much more humble.” It is an expression of ahealthy personality. It “is projected out upon the world or touches whatever activity the
person is engaged in”. “Whatever one does can be done with a certain attitude, a certain
spirit that arises out of the nature of the character of the person performing the act.” “Ilearned to apply the word creative ... not only to products but also to people in acharacterological way, and to activities and process and attitudes. And further more I
have come to apply the word creative to many products others than the standard
conventionally accepted’ (ibid.: p142).
Maslow proceeded to define creativity in two separate ways.

... I found it“

necessary to distinguish “special talent creativeness” from “self-actualising creativeness”
which sprang much more directly from the personality, which showed itself widely in theordinary affairs of life ...” (ibid.: ~1.59). It will be necessary to consider whether thisresearch sample represents one or both of these types of creativity.
Other writers, following Maslow, have added other perspectives and definitions to
self-actualisation. Murphy et al (1976: p39) saw self-actualisation “as being identified
with integration, psychological health, individuation, autonomy, creativity and91

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

productivity. Self-actualisation is the ultimate goal of man who constantly tends towards
growth”. These authors perceived Maslow as describing creativity “as one way of
expressing self-actualisation”. Murphy et al (1976: p40) quoted Shostrom (1967) as
describing creativity as actualizing behaviour. This is a perspective reflected in Craft(2000) - self-actualisation as a means of bringing one’s own ideas and potentiality intoanother form, e.g. via creative activity. The researcher will also propose and use means of
examining some of these areas of experience within the research population.
Manheim (1998: p101) saw “the distinguishing mark of the self-actualizing personis that shehe has more frequent and more intense experiences of peak moments than the
average person”. Maslow saw creativity as a route or gateway to peak experiences.
Manheim’s qualitative research with 65 art students argued strongly for the contribution ofart as a form of creativity as “. . . instrumental in improving life on a daily basis” (~104).
Brennan and Piechowski (1991) attempted to assess self-actualisation in living
individuals via depth interviews working on the assumption that self-actualisation related
to Dabrowski’s structure of personality and emotional development. (Their assumption
was that the two theories reflected different constructs of the same underlying phenomena.)
The emergent themes or signs of self-actualisation in their view involve a focus on workthat benefited humankind, a philosophy of life, working towards personal growth (p53 58).

It is important, however, to consider the potential criticisms of Maslow’s selfactualisation theory.

Maslow’s theories were stated in general terms, and consequently

are hard to evaluate in a precise manner (Bee 1998: p34). The range of descriptive words
used for self-actualisation is vast as well as general and this raises the practical question of
how measures can be developed (Cangemi 1976). Brennan and Piechowski (1991: p60)
claim Maslow left no case studies of self-actualising people, and no instruments have beendeveloped from individuals that can be judged as self-actualising. These limitations
present a major difficulty to the evaluation of self actualisation in this research sample.

98Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Landau and Moaz (1978) have researched the link between creativity and selfactualisation via interviews with elderly people. They operationalized a definition ofcreativity as “flexibility and originality in responses”, and self-actualisation as “making
real one’s potential”. They argued, on the basis of these interviews that there was a link
between the two areas and that this was reflected in the approaches taken towards living,and impending death in old age.
There have been some attempts to measure links between self-actualisation andcreativity with psychometric measures over the last twenty-five years, e.g. Yonge 1975,
Murphy et al 1976. These have met with limited success, possibly because creativity
measures were not “sensitive to the unique character of self-actualising individuals”(Runco, Ebersole and Mraz 1991: p60). Using three carefully chosen psychometricmeasures these authors got strong positive correlations between creativity and selfactualisation supporting Maslow’s view of a link between the two areas. The authors
acknowledged, however, that the correlations “were significant (but) they do not indicate
causality” and that the nature of the link remains unclear.

2.8.2 Flow
The theories associated with ‘flow’ originated in research conducted at the University of
Chicago into the phenomenology of happiness and happy experiences “here and now ... asan on-going process which provides rewarding experiences in the present”(Csikszentmihalyi 1975: p9).

Research in this area has subsequently been conducted inother countries, e.g. Germany, Canada, Italy, Japan and Australia. The activities studied
in the early work included athletes, artists, musicians, chess masters and surgeons,(Csikszentmihalyi 1990: p4). Csikszentmihalyi is specific that the underlying structure of
the flow experience (described below) has been found in thousands of interview reports
compiled in studies that have included “ordinary people” (p48). “in sum, optimal

99

Chapter 2 -Literature Review

experience, and the psychological conditions that make it possible seem to be the same theworld over” (p48).
The researchers found quickly that the intrinsic motivation for participating in an
activity rated more highly than extrinsic motivation. These included the enjoyment of theexperience of the activity, the use of and development of skill “allowing the participant torefine his abilities in a particular area, to increase his control of a given aspect of theenvironment” (1975: p14 - 16).
This research found that the importance of intrinsic motivation was related to age(i.e. increased with age), and with higher socio-economic groups and education. They
recognised this as fitting Maslow’s theories (p18 - 20).

A surprise to the early researchers was the range of activities that induced these
happy experiences - subsequently termed “flow”. The activities included friendship andrelaxation, risk and chance, competition, and the creative dimension (“designing or
discovering something new”) (p27).
The words used to describe these activities very quickly began to relate to thosecommonly used to describe creativity. For example: “the underlying similarity that cuts
across these (intrinsically motivated) activities, regardless of their formal differences isthat they give participants a sense of discovery, exploration, problem-solving, in otherwords a feeling of novelty and challenge”.

“... (these activities) are all exploring thelimits of their abilities and trying to expand them.” One of the most important elements ofthese activities is “the challenge of the unknown, which leads to discovery, exploration,
problem-solving ... and which is essential to activities like composing, dancing (andothers)” (p30). “Discovery and exploration imply transcendence - a going beyond the
known, stretching of one’s self towards new dimensions of skill and competence”.
Csikszentmihalyi argues that “in a variety of human contexts ... one finds aremarkably similar inner state, which is so enjoyable that people are sometimes willing to

I O0

Chapter 2 -Literature Review

forsake a comfortable life for its sake” (1975: p37). Csikszentmihalyi’s writings (1975,
1990, 1997) suggest seven characteristics:

Characteristics of “Flow”:
Presence of a Goal:
Achievement of a goal
Goal directed - and a need for appropriate responses.

Source:1975: p38
1990: p48; 1997:p28.

Äctionaid Awareness (Concentration)
There is a loss of ego/self-forgetfulnessexperienced.
A loss of self-consciousness.

1975: p42
1975: p42; 1990:

A sense of control.
A lack of worry over losing control.
The possibility of control rather than its actuality.

1990: p59
1990: p59
1990: p60.

Sense of Time
Transformation of time.
Time no longer seems to pass in the way it ordinarily does.

1990: p66.
1990: p66.

101

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

The potential relationship between creativity and flow make it important to attempt

to assess the presence of flow experience in the research data. This will be described inchapter 10 of the research results.

2.8.3 Creativity, Flow and Self-actualisation
Maslow writes in a manner that argues that Self-actualisation involves and possibly
embraces creativity. We have to consider the possibility that Self-actualisation andcreativity are synonymous. Csikszentmihalyi acknowledges ‘flow’ is found in the workand experiences of creative individuals. Therefore can it be asked whether Selfactualisation is also synonymous with flow? This section will examine ways in whichthese theories overlap in their nature and definition.
Csikszentmihalyi and Maslow both write in terms that in many ways almost equate
their respective theories with the act and experience of creativity.
Both Csikszentmihalyi and Maslow cite Ghislen (1952), a classic book on thecreative process, as a source of descriptions of their respective theories.
(Csikszentmihalyi 1975: p37; Maslow 1970: p163).

Csikszentmihalyi argues strongly

that “almost any description of creative experience includes experiential accounts that are
in important respects analogous to those obtained from people at play” - and that theexperience of ‘play’ is central to his examination of ‘flow’ (1975: p37). Maslow equates
Self-actualisation and creativity and points out that boundaries between work and play
becoming blurred (Maslow 1970: p162). When reviewing the experience of ‘flow’Csikszentmihalyi was explicit that the same experiences are reported by individuals
engaged in creative activities (1975: p44; 1997: p39).
There is a clear theme running through theories associated with each of these areas
acknowledging the presence and positive influence of intrinsic motivation (e.g. Amabile

1983, 1996; Maslow 1970: p60 and 136; Csikszentmihalyi 1990: p3, 1997: p121).

102

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

A central part of self-actualisation theory is the aspect of peak experiences.

Maslow writes of peak experiences in terms that are reminiscent of certain comments on
flow. For example: peak experiences involve “the loss of placing in time and space”(Masiow 1970: p137). Whatever the nature of the peak experience “the subjective
experience is described in the same way” (Maslow 1970 p163). “An essential part of thepeak experience is integration within the person, and therefore between the person and theworld” (ibid: p163). “Everything that then can be done with unusual ease and lack ofeffort. Inhibition, doubt, control, self-criticism diminish towards a zero point and hebecomes the spontaneous co-ordinated efficient organism ...” (ibid.: p164).
The researcher believes that creative activity is related to self -actualisation andflow. Maslow makes a useful distinction in defining creativity. He suggests ‘genius’ or‘eminent’ creativity is more commonly associated with “special talent creativeness”
relating to a domain of performance whereas “self-actualizing creativeness’’ shows “itself
widely in the ordinary affairs of life” (1970: ~ 1 5 9 ) . Maslow proposed that selfactualizing creativeness could be expressed in a diversity of domains, including
motherhood, psychiatry, cooking etc, (Maslow 1970 p46; Mittleman 1991: pl15). The
work, reputation and contribution of this research sample relates to a domain of activity ina localised setting. It suggests, therefore, that this form of creativity may reflect lower
levels or early development of special-talent creativeness.
Chapter 10 of the research results will examine whether in addition to creativity the
biographies of the research participants can be related to theories of self-actualisation or
experiences of flow.

2.8.4 Creativity as “Health”
A further perspective on the nature of creativity considers it as a naturally occurring state

within all individuals which is associated or equated with “health”- i.e. creativity isexperienced in psychologically healthy individuals, and its absence would signify at least

I03

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

an undeveloped individual. Maslow's theories considered Self-actualisation to be an
expression of psychological health. By implication creativity is then considered by
Maslow to be an expression of health as well.
Rogers (1961: p351) considered creativity to come from the same force or energy
within individuais which constituted health and personal wholeness - "man's tendency toactualise himself, to become his potentialities". He described this further as the"directional trend which is evident in ail organic and human life - the urge to expand,extend, develop, mature - the tendency to express and activate all the capacities of theorganism, or the self".
The characteristics or conditions within an individual which produced or allowed acreative act were, according to Rogers, openness to experience, an internal locus ofevaluation, and the ability to toy with elements and concepts (p353/4).
Rogers (1961) and Winnicott (1980)9 both suggested that natural creativity may be
inhibited by adverse experiences. Rogers wrote: "This tendency may become deeply
buried under layer after layer of encrusted psychological defence; it may be hidden behindelaborate facades which deny its existence; it is my belief, however, based on myexperience, that it exists in every individual, and awaits only the proper conditions to bereleased and expressed (~3.51).
If creativity is a natural result of health, is it possible to turn this connection around,and ask what impact creativity will have on health? In a study of 25 elderly individuals
indicated a correlation between creative attitude, and positive coping with the phenomenaof ageing (Landau and Maoz 1978). The skills and use of psychodrama were assessed as
relieving depression in a study group of elderly psychiatric patients, and supporting theirresolution of old problems (Carman and Nordin 1984). Lorenzen-Huber (1991) proposed,from a study of 20 elderly individuals, that continued use of creative skills supported anexperience of satisfaction and meaning in life, and the achievement of developmental

Quoted in Martin 1991.
104

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

tasks. Further studies offering similar conclusions include Smith and Andersson (1989),
Smith and Van-der-Meer (1990), Dudek and Hall (1991).
Carol Ryff and her colleagues have been examining definitions of psychologicalhealth over an 18 year period (e.g. Ryff 1982, Ryff and Heincke 1983, Ryff 1984, Ryff
1989, Ryff 1991, Ryff and Essex 1992, and Keyes and Ryff 1999).
Ryff has made two significant steps. First she has attempted to offer ‘operational’
definitions of how theories of writers such as Maslow, Rogers, Jung and Erikson may
appear in human behaviour. Second, she has constructed research that has elicited
participants’ own definitions of psychological well-being and healthy ageing. (Herparticipant group, over time, in this work has numbered well in excess of 1000 people.)

One of her interview-based studies provided examples of these theories. Ryff
(1989) obtained a range of data from 171 participants including positive past experiences
and conceptions of positive functioning in middle and old age. Experiences associatedwith marriage, family and education were rated top in considering positive pastexperiences in middle age, yet with work and career-related matters were also often
mentioned (by 40% of respondents). The respondents’ conceptions of well-being and what
it means to be “well-adjusted‘’ in middle and old age gave most emphasis to being othersoriented, confident, assertive, self-accepting and self-knowledge.
In a more recent piece of research (Keyes and Ryff 1999) a “multidimensional
formulation of well-being’’ is proposed which incorporates elements of Erikson’s and
Maslow’s theories and research mentioned above. It has six categories: self-acceptance,
positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, andpersonal growth.10 These dimensions were developed into self-report scales and tested for“internal consistency, stability over time, and convergent and discriminant validity”,( ~ 1 6 6 ) . The data gathered from several studies using these scales indicated an increase in
the percentage experiencing these categories from youth to middle age where a high-point‘O

These categories will be defined in full in the final results chapter.

105

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

of experience was recorded. The path from middle to old age, as pictured by these scales,differed slightly with some of the studies Ryff conducted. While some studies indicatedstability in the level of experience between middle and old age, others indicated decline with the exception of ‘self-acceptance’ which held or continued to grow. Keys and Ryff‘sfactors will be used to examine research data in chapter 10, given their potential
relationship to health and self-actualisation.
It is appropriate to acknowledge that there is a wide body of literature thatconsiders and even claims that creativity is associated with ill-health (notably bi-polar
disorder as a constructive response to repression). For example, Runco and Richards(1997) offer a wide range of papers that illustrate the potential association of these two
factors. Within the context of this thesis it has not been possible to use any direct
measures or search for illustrations of ill-health in participants.

The application to this thesis: The categories proposed by Keyes and Ryff (self-acceptance,
positive relations, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life and personal growth)will be used to evaluate the interview responses of research participants to examine
whether the experiences of middle age may relate to healthy ageing and self-actualisation
as well as creativity.

Part 5 - Research Questions
2.9

Research Questions and Focus of Analysis

The literature review influenced the research questions now asked. The contribution of
exploratory empirical work to shaping research questions will be described in greater detailin chapter 4. However, questions explored in this thesis are described below in order toprovide the reader with an initial understanding of focus and direction.
In summary:

I06

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

The research participants have a reputation for creativity (novelty, originality andusefulness) in their work in a localised context (e.g. an organisation).
These participants come from a range of occupations, but may be defined as“influencers” in Howard Gardner’s conception of this term. This is an aspect of
creative work that has received very little attention to-date as most research in the areaof creativity focuses on people who produce tangible products.

The study of the development of creativity across the life span presents animmediate challenge in understanding the emerging research data. Examinations of living
creative people across the life span are relatively rare, e.g. Roe (1951, 1951a, 1953) andCsikszentmihalyi (1996). For this reason the extent and sources of existing research
information against which to examine or contrast data from this study will change witheach life period.

A General Life Span Developmental and Social Systems Perspective
The periods and experiences proposed by theories of life span development will be used toassess whether or not these occur in the participant group - and whether they may bedifferent for a group acknowledged for creative activity. For example: do Enkson’s 4”
and 5thstages, concerning competence and identity, appear? Do the transitionary periods
proposed by Levinson appear? How is the early adult life structure different between‘ordinary’ and ‘exceptional’ individuals?

In addition, the author proposes to use the social systems perspective in a localised
context - to examine when and in what way participants locate their domain of activity,and in what way they can be said to impact or change their ‘field’ of work.

I07

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

The Earlv Years - Childhood and Adolescence

There is a substantial body of existing research data on the development patterns of“exceptional” creative individuals in their childhood and teenage years. This enables adetailed contrast to be made between “ordinary” and “exceptional” individuals. Thus one
set of research questions concerns:

1 (a) What early development patterns seem significant in ordinary creative individuals?
(b) How is this different from those found in normal life span development andexceptional creative individuals?

Specifically:

In what ways do the early signs of later creativity appear in this participant group?
What are the parental backgrounds and social class of participants in this research?
What are the birth order patterns in this participant group?
What are the home backgrounds and experiences of participants? To what extent doparents in this participant group model working practices, model personal interests, andsupport the young person in finding and learning their interests?
What level of education did these participants reach? What was the experience of
these participants of schooling and teachers?
Were influential adults and role models present for this group of participants? What
was the contribution they made?
What was the experience of bereavement in this group of participants? What was its
perceived impact?
What was the experience of illness in this group of participants? What was its
perceived impact?

In each case, how does this compare with the experience of the exceptional creative
individual?
108

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Earlv Adulthood: Post-schoolinn to the on-set o f the midlife Deriod
The pattern of experience of “exceptional” creative individuals in this period has to beinferred from case study research and research work examining the quality and quantity ofcreative work over time.

2(a) How did “ordinary” creative individuals locate and develop a domain ofcreative activity in early adulthood?
(b) How does this compare with the practices of “exceptional” creative
individuals and normal life span development?

Specifically:
Career choice and commencement: When did the creative individual locate and choose
their domain of work? Was this in childhood and adolescence, or in the period of
university-level education?
Influential adults: Do the narratives of participants suggest the presence of influential
adults? What is their contribution to the work development of these individuals?
Learning the domain: After entry to a domain of work what pattern of learning domainrelevant skills is apparent?
A componential theorv of creativity: How do domain-relevant knowledge and skills,

intrinsic motivation and change skills arise and interact in this group?
Productivity and recognition: What patterns of productivity in work, and subsequent
recognition may been seen in the life of these participants?

109

Chapter 2’ - Literature Review

The Midlife Period (35 - 45 years o f anel
Empirical research data on the character and effects of the mid-life period is limited ingeneral, and for creative individuals in particular. For this reason two generally phrased
research questions have been constructed, rather than implying a direct comparison
between the two types of creative individuals.

3

Will participants experience events predicted in the literature for the mid-life
period?

4

Will individuals alter or change their creative activity as a result of the experiencesof the mid-life period?

Literature data is summarised in the following tables. Research data will be analysedagainst these criteria.

Midlife Characteristic:“External” (Social / family I workplace.)
Relationship changes: (children becoming
more independent, parents becoming
dependent).
Employment:- A decision to change employment.
- The end of one career, the beginning ofanother.
- The loss of a job. The end of job
progression.

Literature Source:
Jaques 1965: p506; Neugarten 1969: p121/1 and
1979: ~ 8 9 0Godd;
1979: P2; MCIlroy 1984: ~ 6 2 5 ;Quadrio 1986: p34/5; McAdams 1993: p198;
Levinson 1996: p385; Moen and Wethington 1999:
p7; Whitborne and Connolly 1999: p36n; Rosenberg
et al 1999: p58; Reid and Willis 1999: p278.
Levinson 1996. Moen and Wethington 1999.
Levinson 1996.
Corlett and Milner 1993.

and Wethington1999.

Continuity or discontinuity with the past.

Midlife Characteristic:“Internal”. (Feelings, the physical.)
Personal questioning and re-evaluation:- Recognizing failures in self-development.
- What actions or behaviours to devote

Literature Source:Jung 1933. Erikson 1958. Levinson 1978, 1986.
1996. Quadrio 1986. Neugarten 1969. Stein 1983.
Corlett and Milner 1993. Ouenk 1993. 1996. Gould
1979. Moen and Wethingcon 1999.
Levinson 1996
Levinson 1996.

I10

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Literature Source:

Midlife Characteristic:“Internal”. (Feelings, the physical.)Jung 1933. Erikson 1958. Levinson 1978,1986,
1996. Quadrio 1986. Neugarten 1969. Gould 1979.
McIlroy 1984. McAdams 1993. Dunn 1999.

Recognition of ageing and physical decline.

- Recognition of personal mortality.

Jung 1933. Levinson 1978,1996. Jacques 1965.
Brim 1976. Neugarten 1968. McAdams 1993.
Jacaues 1965. Wolf 1991.

- A sense of time ahead being limited.
Recognition of the ‘aspirations andachievement’ gap.

Brim 1976. Levinson 1978. 1996.

’Desocialization’. (Recognition of personalneeds, hopes and ambitions in contrast to
those that have been ‘imposed’ or expectedin some way externally.)

Brim 1976. Levinson 1978, 1996. Stein 1983.
Corlett and Milner 1993. Quenk 1993, 1996.

l’dhie 2.8: !$lidlifecharacteristics in the pe ionaybackground context:
Rlidlife Characteristic:
Literature Source:
Personal backgroundlcontext
Ace midlife changes/experiences ‘expected’or ‘unexpected’? (Predictability issuggested as supporting preparation for thetransition. Unexpected changes may prove
harder to respond to.)Moen and Wethington 1999.
Wheaton 1990
White and Edwards 1990

Is there evidence of personal ‘success’ inearlier life? (Assumed to reduce theintensity andor make midlife experiencesmore positive in outcome.)

Moen and Wethington 1999.

Is there evidence of a personal ‘dream’ inearly adulthood? (Assumed to reduce theintensity of midlife experiences.)

Drebing and Gooden 1991

Table 2.9: Predicted changes to creative work following midlife experiences:
Midlife Chararleristic:
1 Literature Source:
Changes to creativity or creative activity. I
I

Erikson 1958

Generativity vs. stagnation. (A focus on the‘legacy’ to the next generation. Nurturing
those that follow. Or an increased focus on
creative products.)
I

Creative workícareer may cease.

Jacques 1965.

Creative capacity may show itself for the111

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

I Midlife Characteristic:

I Literature Source:

Changes to creativity or creative activity.
first time.
A change in the qualitykontent of creative

Jacques 1965.

wnrk~. . -.
...

Jacques 1965.

I A change in work method.

I Jacques 1965.

The Middle Aae Period, to 60 vean old
As with the mid-life period, empirical research data on the character and effects of the post
mid-life period is limited and especially for creative individuals. For this reason two
perspectives have been adopted. First, the search for emerging patterns of behaviour andactivity in this time period. Second, a relatively new focus of research has been chosen
for exploration - that of the “late life style”. This offers indications of what may happen
in later-life in the practice of the arts, music and literature. This project considers whether
these findings are true for “ordinary” creative individuals and if they occur in other fieldsof activities examined as part of this work.

5(a) In what ways will creative activity change in the period of “middle age”?
(b) Do these individuals display any evidence of the “late life style” in thisresearch group?

Drawing on research associated with the exceptional creative individual:
The quality and quantity of creative work: What evidence is there, if any, that research

participants maintained the quality and quantity of their creative work in this time
period?
The Late Life Style: Research data will be examined for indications of work that
attempts to encapsulate the intent of a career - “attempts to solve the enigma of life”

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

participants becoming inner focusedídirected - and less concerned with social
recognition.

Chapter three will describe the research method used to examine these questions.

113

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

Chapter 3
3.1- Research Methodology

Introduction

In summary, this chapter will:
3.2 Describe the characteristics of the research process used in this project.
3.3 Outline the background and use of interviewing as a research method.
3.4 Discuss the research design used in this project including:
3.4.1 The aims of the research design.
3.4.2 The interview structure.
3.4.3 The use of the Myers Briggs Type Indicator.
3.4.4 The process of analysis.
3.4.5 The participant population
3.4.6 The ethical considerations associated with research of this sort.
3.4.7 The verification processes used for interview data.
3.4.8 The place of the researcher and how it may contribute to the outcome of thisresearch.

3.2

The Research Paradigm

The research focus of this thesis is on life span developmental patterns in ‘ordinary’
individuals with a reputation for creative output within their local context. It aims to increase
understanding of the experience of creativity across individual lives, especially creative life in
the later years (i.e. 45 years old plus)’. It goes on to contrast the experiences of theI

Possibly “post-peak” as defined by the theories and research of creative productivity and achieved social
acclaim114

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology“ordinary” individuais in this sample with those found in the development of “exceptional”
creative individual - and life span developmental theories.
The research methods used are qualitative in nature. Miles and Huberman (1994:p253) suggest the “hallmark of qualitative research is that it goes beyond how much there is ofsomething to tell us about its essential qualities”. (Italics are in the original text.) Gruber(1989: p6) argues the study of that uniqueness (those “essential qualities”) is central to aserious study of creativity and many creative researchers have used case studies to examine
these qualities and uniqueness (e.g. Gruber 1989, Gardner 1993). Mitroff (1983: p158)
asserts that the mind attempting to know the mind of another requires a phenomenologicalapproach to research - an approach that underpins certain traditions of qualitative research.
This research uses a phenomenological approach. Drawing on Lang (1996: p156) it:.

Accepts knowledge as individually and socially constructed.

-

Attempts to understand the meaning of social phenomena in the terms of the “actor”
and in their context.
Rejects, through this, the notion of a “single truth”.
Validates ordinary experience.

-

Embraces multiple perspectives, enriched by dialogue, inter-subjectivity andcollaboration.

The research in this thesis examines development patterns and the lived experience of“ordinary” creative individuals through the use of interviews.
An open approach is also necessary because it is uncertain what, if any, the key

developmental factors are for ‘ordinary’ creative individuals. In an earlier, classic study Roe(1951: p i ) states that “since one does not know what factors may prove effective one must try
and observe as many as possible”. She saw a consequence of this as an inherent limit to the115

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

number of participants which can be worked with on such a study, given that most researchers
have limited time.

3.3

The Use of Interviewing as a Research Method

The interview was the main means of gathering data. Interviews have been defined asconversation with a structure and purpose (Dexter 1980, Kvale 1996). In comparison to theconversations of everyday life, “the research interview is characterised by a methodologicalawareness of question forms, a focus on the dynamics of interaction between interviewer andinterviewee, and a critical attention to what is said” (Kvale 1996: p20). The essential purposeof the interview in this research is to understand the biography, the lived world from theperspectives of research participants, and to construct that understanding in the interaction
between interviewer and interviewee. The phenomenological intention is described by
Spradley (1979: p34): “I want to understand the world from your point of view. I want toknow what you know in the way that you know it. I want to understand the meaning of yourexperience, to walk in your shoes, to feel things as you feel them, to explain things as you
explain them. Will you become my teacher and help me understand this?’Stated from a different perspective, Lincoln and Guba (1985: p268) provide a practicaldefinition of the purposes of interviews, which have been applied to the present study. These
purposes are:Here and now constructions: to understand persons, events, activities, organisations,
feelings, motivations, claims and other entities of participants.

Reconstructions of past experiences.
Projections of what they expected to experience in the future.

116

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology
0Triangulation to verify information (constructions, reconstructions and projections)obtained from other sources, human and material.

Member-checking - the verification of constructions developed by the inquirer.
The researcher has used all of the above in interviews in this setting.
Interviews can be characterised by their degree of structure, their degree of overtness,and the quality of the relationship between the interviewer and the participant. An “open”
interview structure has been used in this study. This is where the content of response is left
with the interviewee. Lincoln and Guba (1985: p269) propose that the choice of structure isguided by the extent to which a researcher or interviewer can be confident of knowing thecontent of an outcome. For example, an open interview structure would be used where a
researcher did not know in advance what was significant, and was therefore maintaining an
open stance with respect-to data from interviewees. As this reflects the position from which
this study has developed, an open interview framework has been used in this research project.

In preparing for the interviews, the researcher drew on Kvale’s (1996: p88) seven stage
model for an interview investigation:
1. Thematizing: formulating the purpose and content of the topic to be investigated.

Knowing why and what is to be done, before the “how” is determined.

2. Designing: planning the design of the study, taking into account the needs of all sevenstages, and both the knowledge it is intended to yield, and the ethical implications of its
operation.
3 . interviewing: conducting the interviews, based on an interview structure or guide, and areflective approach to the knowledge sought and obtained.
4. Transcribing: preparing the interview material for analysis, which commonly involves atranscription of the spoken to the written word.

117

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

5. Analyzing: utilizing a method of analysis, based on the purpose of the study and theinterview material.

6. Verifying: determines the qualitative research equivalents of ‘reliability’ and ‘validity’.
7. Reporting: communicating the results of the study in a scientific manner.
Interviews are a common research tool in life span and longitudinal studies. Atkinson(1998: p l I ) argues that the life story narrative obtained in an interview context “may be themost effective means for gaining an understanding of how the self evolves over time - or atleast in seeing the subjective perspective on that”. The use of interviews has a lineage in thistype of research, either as the whole method, or part of it (Terman 1925; Roe 1951, 1951a.
1953; Vaillant 1977; Zuckerman 1977; Bloom 1985; Ryff 1989; Arnold 1994; Moon andFeldhusen 1994; Subotnik and Steiner 1994; Csikszentmihalyi 1996).
Each participant in this project was interviewed separately, almost as if they represented amini-“case study”. Wallace (1989: p26) describes the case study approach as:-

involving one individual being studied;.

where diverse aspects of the individual’s life and work are examined together;-and where emphasis is placed on understanding the development of the work itself.

She writes: “the case study method is aimed at reconstructing the often tortuous path,
including the blind alleys and abandoned ways of the creative work” (p33).
The participants in this study were considered ideographically, (i.e. individually),
based on biographic and work interviews. Results were then combined for this group to bestudied nomothetically ( i s . on the basis of the patterns and trends that exist across theparticipants).
The researcher recognises that any individual’s perspective on life story data willchange over time. - it represents their understanding and representations at a point in time, andthat understanding will be reworked in the light of changed experiences (Vailliant 1977;
118

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

Freeman 1993; Csikszentmihalyi). Cohler (1982 - in Atkinson 1998: p60) echoes this view.
This, coupled with questions over the reliability of memory, represents one of the criticisms ofthis research method. Despite these potential shortcomings, this approach has proved
productive in other creativity studies, (e.g. Roe, 1951a, 1953, in her study of scientists;
Freeman 1993 in his follow-up of artists described by Getzels and Csikszentmihalyi 1976; andCsikszentmihalyi 1996, in his study of 91 individuals acknowledged for their creative
achievements.) The recounting of a personal narrative at a point in time is defended by him
as representing the “most internally consistent interpretation of the way the past, theexperienced present and the anticipated future i s understood by that person”. Vaillant (1977:p213) argued that longitudinal studies had an unexpectedly positive by-product ofretrospection. He suggested that participants in their 40s’ and 50s’ could acknowledge
conflicts and tensions in their earlier life that had not been perceived, or denied earlier in life.
On the other hand Kenyon (1995) suggests that the meaning drawn from a life story is neveractually complete as the person’s life is not yet completed. Even with these potential
shortcomings retrospective reflection is recognised as a source of analysis and theory building(Moon and Feldhusen 1994: p394). Care and attention was paid to potential inconsistencies
through the research project. (This was done during interviews and subsequent analysis
where inconsistencies were noted - or where there were inconsistencies between words used
and the emotional tone of the description, e.g. a participant describing school as cruel andharsh, yet saying shortly after that that he was happy at school, and popular.)

3.4

Research Design

3.4.1 Aims
The researcher’s aim was to establish:
119Chapter 3 - Research Methodology

The life background of an individual and the context within which their creative activity
developed and now takes place.

A detailed description of an example of an individual’s creative activity that will be
indicative of both external and visible activity and work processes involved.

The individual’s plans for future work activity.
The individual’s preferred perceiving and decision-making functions as determined by theMyers Briggs Type Indicator.

3.4.2 Interviews
The researcher used a two-interview structure planned and developed within Kvale’s (1996)
seven-stage model. All interviews were recorded on audio tape. The introduction to theinterviews, and the ethical conduct of them is discussed in section 3.4.6 below. (An overview
of the interview structure and content is contained in Chapter 4, tables 4.9.4.10.and 4.1 1.)Interview 1 (Biography>:
Biographical: the participant’s life history, including stories of how their creative activity
developed. It aimed to piace creativity and creative output in the context of theparticipant’s life structure.

Interview 2 (Creative output):A description of an example of the participant’s creative activity. (Participants wereasked to select a work example of their choice and describe how it came about, what they
did to contribute to its development, and the outcome of the work.)

120

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

A standard range of open questions were used across the participant group drawn partly
from Csikszentmihalyi’s (1996) study. These questions add detail both to the biographic
and work process information. They are described in Chapter 4, Exploratory Empirical
work as their use came from the experience developed from the exploratory interviews.

Generally the two stages were conducted in two separate interviews.

However, thirteen

participants completed the work within a single meeting2 (16, 19, 20, 23, 25, 26,30,31, 35,

36, 38,40,41). The average interview time taken was 1 hour 20 minutes per interview - 2hours 40 minutes in total across the two interviews. The shortest was 1 hour 25 minutes intotal - the longest 3 hours 45 minutes3. The time taken by interviews on this projectapproximates with those of Roe (e.g. 1953). Atkinson (1998: p24) describes this working
length as one in which an effective life story can be told, and much can be learnt about a life
even though some researchers had used significantly longer times (e.g. Levinson 1978).
These timings exceed those of the Csikszentmihalyi 1996 project. Initially, the research plan
involved interview 1 and 2 taking place within a short time scale. A number of factors,
including the availability of participants and the time consuming nature of tape transcription
meant that there were gaps between interviews for some participants.
Interviews were generally conducted in participants’ homes. In nine instances thework place was more convenient to participants, and were used instead; (participants 7, 17,24,

27,31,32,34, 35.40.)
All interviews began with a summary of their purpose by the researcher - both for
ethical reasons and in the interests of creating a relationship in which detailed personal andor
2

The reason for this varied. In eight of the cases it was a result of the location of the participant, and time taken
for travel to them - their preference and that of the researcher was to complete work in one meeting to minimize
further travel.
The initial four interviews took longer as the researcher was gaining experience on the appropriate approach toreach research goals.
121Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

confidential matters could be safely discussed. This is described in more detail in section

3.4.6 below, examining ethical considerations.
Once the study purpose was described, the researcher asked introductory questions tosettle the participants into the interview discussions. After that point, relatively little guidance
was offered and participants structured their own self-report. Further questions within the
biographic and work example sections of the interviews were used to clarify ambiguous data,or where it appeared relevant information was being omitted. A number of open questions
were gradually added, drawn from Csikszentmihalyi’s (1996) interview protocol in order toelicit more biographic data (summarised in chapter 4, tables 4.7 and 4.8).
In an unstructured interview the resulting speech and transcript offers a record of
personal phraseology used by the participant - indicating what has an importance andsignificance for the participant (Roe 1951: p133).

3.4.3 The Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
The thesis was originally conceived to examine changes to the nature of creativity and creative
activity during and after the midlife period (see chapter 1, section 1.2). The Myers Briggs
Type Indicator is the most commonly used personality inventory. It has been used as pari ofcreativity research (e.g. MacKinnon 1965). In the context of this thesis it allowed aninvestigation of the relationships between patterns of creative development, midlife experienceand personality type. The change in the focus of the thesis to a whole-life developmental
perspective, coupled with results that were primarily indicative of a social systems perspective
led the researcher to omit this data from the main results. Ml3TI data and analysis iscontained in Appendix 3 for the purposes of providing additional information and to support
the work of other researchers.
122

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

3.4.4 Analysis
The methods used for interview data analysis were shaped (a) by the need to stay open to thestories and experiences of participants in describing the developments of their individual
creative lives, and (b) by the theoretical literature describing life span development and what
is known about the development of creativity over the life span.

All interviews were transcribed from audio tapes. The first twenty participants’interviews were transcribed in full, including pauses, hesitation and ‘asides’ on unconnected
matters. At that point the analytical categories and structure to be used in this thesis had
become largely established. (The analytical categories are described in chapter 4, section

4.2.2.) Due to time constraints the remaining interview transcripts did not include commentsthat were clearly unrelated to the discussion on life development. The information containedin the interview transcripts was supplemented by notes made before and after these interviews.
Their purpose and structure is described in section 3.4.7 below on the position of theresearcher.
Interviews were analysed using a qualitative data analysis tool called Nudist version 4.
The analytical categories are described fully in Chapter 4, Exploratory Empirical Work. Eachinterview was analysed (a) ‘within case’ as a means for producing analytical categories fromthe reported experience of the individual participant - and (b) against the categories producedby other interviewdparticipants, and the theoretical literature. Interviews 1 - 10 were recoded on the basis of the analytical structure that had emerged from the experience gained
from the first fifteen interviews. The researcher made a practice of coding text ‘generously’,i.e. marking a large block of text, as other researchers had advised on the importance of seeing
and understanding the context from which a particular extract had come. Reports were
produced from the software for each analytical category.

123

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

Qualitative research interpretation is based on the researcher’s own view and there isalways the danger this is biased in some way. To check that the researcher’s presuppositions
had not influenced analysis unduly the researcher asked three individuals (each withexperience of interview analysis) to recode an interview independently - an acknowledged andstandard practice within qualitative interview research. Interview number 40 was chosenbecause it demonstrated a wide range of codes used, and had speech oddities that made coding
one of the least straight-forward, (e.g. the spoken word did not always translate easily into thewritten word as this interview contained half-formed, incomplete or changed thoughts.) The
codes developed by these individuals corresponded approximately to those identified by the
researcher for the participant’s general life span development. The researcher identified
additional categories based on his focus on creativity and developmental factors associatedwith it. No new codes for this study were identified by this independent assessment. Scopefor further independent checking was limited due to cost restrictions involved in this Ph.D.
project.
The reports from each analytical category were examined further and in greater detailin the process of writing-up results chapters and the thesis. The emergence of a more refinedstructure and detailed understanding within the initial analytical categories was achieved by‘paper and pencil’ analysis of software reports. 4
Participants were considered ideographically, (i.e. individually), based on biographic
and work interviews (see description above in section 3.4.2 ). The analytical outcomes forthis research project were based on the patterns and trends accumulated across the participantgroup.

4

This process of building research categories from broad self-report data is illustrated in and similar to the workof Lindauer et al 1997.
124

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

Some researchers have expressed ethical concerns regarding analysis. For example,
Chase (1996: p50) expressed concern that the process of analysis of an individual case within
a broader theoretical and conceptual structure removes a participant’s story from its own
uniqueness -and that the act of doing this may be difficult for the contributor of that narrative.
In each case, the researcher discussed this matter with participants and confirmed that theirindividual data would be examined individually and as part of the patterns found in the wholegroup. Further, that the containment of individual data within the patterns found in the wholestudy was one of the principal means of ensuring personal ,.confidentiality. In doing this,however, Chase acknowledges (p51) that the individual’s story is being handled within the
researcher’s agenda, interests, choices and concerns. Through the careful introduction,‘contracting’ and conduct of the interviews, the researcher believes that this agenda, interest
and concerns were acknowledged with participants to their satisfaction.

3.4.5 Participant Population
The initial intention in this research project was to compare the experiences of individuals incontrasting occupational groups, e.g. artists and organisational managers and, as was describedin Chapter 1, the intention was to examine the experiences and development that occurred
particularly in the second half of life. This focus changed as the research progressed.
Initial analysis of the early exploratory interviews revealed that the sample contained anumber of “influencers” who had received local recognition:
Individuals who were “influencers”, and who undertake activity focused on leading others
to a place of change. The category of influencer was proposed by Howard Gardner (e.g.
1993 and 1997) in his frameworks for understanding the type and range of creative
activity (see literature review sections 2.2.2 and 2.2.3).
125Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

In this sample individuals whose activity had received recognition and had achieved thisin localised contexts, rather than the national social acclaim experienced by “exceptional
creative individuals”.
There has been little research on the life span development of what the researcher hascome to term “ordinary or localised creativity”, i.e. on people who are recognised locally or
regionally, but not nationally or internationally5. Due to the opportunity presented by theseresearch participants a decision was taken by the researcher to re-orientate the planned focusof research to:the examination of the development of these individuals - “influencers” and “ordinary”
creative individuals;
and to contrast the patterns found in these ordinary creatives with what is known about
the development of exceptional creative individuals.

The sample also allowed the contrast of individuals employed within an organisational
context, as against those working independently of organisations (i.e. self-employed), yetcommonly within the context of groups or organisations.
Further opportunities arose during analysis for contrasts within the participant group.
These will be described in Chapter 4,the Exploration and Development of Empirical Work.
The researcher attempted to obtain a sample of individuals who matched the above
characteristics. Three sources were used
People known professionally to the researcher (n = 8).
Individuals not previously known to the researcher, who he had learnt of during
professional work (n = 8).

A search of ‘psycho info’, a computer database, with an open date parameter’ found no such research in the
179 records presented under these and similar key words.
126

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

Individuals referred to the researcher by professional colleagues (n = 24).
The intention was to focus on individuals with established reputations for creative
achievement, In line with the findings of MacKinnon (1992) and Vaillant (1977) it wascommon to find within these life stories descriptions of failure, struggles and difficulties aswell as successes
Since the researcher intended to examine creative activity in the second half of life, thefocus was on individuals not less that 45 years old, and not older than 60 years old. Thisdistinction was made in order to maximize the possibility that individuals experienced the
mid-life experiences and changes described in the literature review section 2.7. This would
also mean that these events would be relatively recent in a participant’s personal history andtherefore available for articulation.
Age, gender and occupational distributions will be presented in Chapter 4, Exploration
and Development of Empirical Work.
Some data was also gathered concerning the participants’ family background. Thiseither emerged from the interview or subsequent clarification of data sought by the researcher.
No structured attempt was made to go into family history in any detail due to the openinterview structure - an approach reflected in the work of Roe (e.g. 1951: p5). Neverthelesssome features of participants’ background deserve comment.
Five participants - 4 female, 1 male - were bom overseas. (Participant numbers: 1,2,

IO, 18 and 22 -an Australian, American, Pole, South African, and a New Zealander.) They
had spent a minimum of 20 years (1 case) and in excess of 30 years (for the remainder) in the

UK culture. This length of time in the UK working environment was used as a guiding point
for inclusion. A decision to include these participants was made on the basis of (a) a similardecision made by Roe (1953: p45) and (b) a careful evaluation of their individual interview
data to be alert to potentially different developmental and experiential patterns
127Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

A further potential cultural influence exists within this group, and is considered by the

researcher to be a reflection of changing work and travel patterns that have arisen globally
since the 1960s. Twenty of the participants have undertaken periods of work of varying
duration overseas from the U.K.

(Participant numbers 1,2,6, 11, 13, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22,

23,26,28,32,33,36,37,39,41.) The shortest was a period of weeks -the longest involved
contracts or domestic circumstances extending to two or more years. The travels of thirteenof this group (2, 11, 13, 16, 19, 20, 23, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39,41) involved activity having a direct
bearing on their creative work, i.e. involved activity for which they were recommended andinvolved in this project. In each case, however, the UK was the primary base of their work
operation and over time involved the focus of their working activity.

.

One participant (5) withdrew from involvement in the project after the first biographic

interview. This is explained further in the following section on ethical implications of thisresearch. Three potential participants declined to become involved on the basis of workpressure. Csikszentmihalyi (1996) describes this as a common form of response from those
involved in creative activity - they achieve their work as a result of a high level of focus, andan unwillingness to be distracted.
Both the researcher and the research sample are white, UK-based, and largely middle
class in origin. This will place the research results in this cultural, social and ethnic context
and in the influences of the time period (i.e. the late 1990s) in which it was conducted. Future
research on these or related questions may therefore produce different results given changes
and developments in the research context. Levinson (1996) while acknowledging the same
limitations nevertheless argued strongly for the value of adult lifespan development research.
He suggested that the volume and nature of theoretical and empirical knowledge achieved inthis subject area is still so low that even contextually and culturally bound information has
value and would provide a basis for developing understanding in this area.
128Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

3.4.6

EthicsThere are several ethical elements to consider in a study of this nature. First, the study has
been conducted in accordance with the principles advocated by the British PsychologicalSociety Code of Conduct for Research on Human Participants, as illustrated below:
The researcher has been alert to the possibility that this study, (as in any study
involving detailed reflection on past and present activities), has the potential to create
unsettling experiences for participants. Banister et ai (1994: p3) go further in suggesting thatthe act of interviewing will change the person and the community. Evidence of this potential
impact occurred with the fifth participant of this study. This person withdrew following thebiographic interview. While initially an enthusiastic volunteer, this person had found that adetailed life review had involved memories of unresolved and painful experiences that wereclearly distressing. The researcher accepted the withdrawal immediately and offered thisparticipant time and support outside the context of this study to examine these issues, and torefer her for independent professional therapeutic support if wanted. This was acknowledged,
but not accepted.
The researcher's concern for participants was reflected in giving the time and attention
to achieving a 'research contract' - the understanding and agreement with each participant on

which they would join the research. This included:a written invitation to join the research, including a briefing on the interview/questionnaire
structure;planned time boundaries for the discussions, and the expected number of visits involved;
undertakings of confidentiality;
the use of tape recordings;
I29

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

a commitment to share I send to them tape transcriptions;and the option for withdrawal from the research at any time up to the time of ‘writing up’of the thesis.
The ‘contract’ was restated and reviewed at the start of each meeting. These principles reflect
the requirements of the British Psychological Society code of ethics on research involving
human participants.
Additionally, the researcher monitored the unfolding of each interview for signs of its
impact on p&icipants.

For example, nineteen out of forty participants talked with a clearly

different voice tone and body language between biographic and work interviews. The former
tended to evoke higher-pitched, nervous, or tremulous speech, with body language thatinvolved minimal eye contact and a body angled away from ‘facing’the researcher. The
latter tended to involve a firmer, louder, authoritative tone, and much higher levels of eye
contact. This suggested and communicated to the researcher a sensitivity and evenvulnerability in discussing issues of life background and story, and a shift to greater comfort
andor confidence in discussing work matters. (To help manage these reactions, particularly
the former, the researcher maintained the open interview format leaving the interview content
to the interviewee. He maintained positive and respectful body language and e n o n verbal responses to assure the interviewee of attentiveness.)
There are additional aspects of research ethics referred to in other literature,
particularly more recent developments in the narrative study of lives.
Roe (1953: p53) explained that she was unexpectedly asked by one of her participants
what would happen to the study data after completion. She had not anticipated that question
and made clear that it required careful consideration, even to the point of what would happen
to the interview and test data after her death. The researcher explained to participants in thisstudy that:130

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

All data would be held confidentially.
Their identity would be concealed from any final study results and from quotations usedwithin the text.
Interview transcripts might be examined by other academics - but an over-riding priority
would the maintenance of participants’ own privacy and security of identity.
Interviews were considered to be based on “shared ownership” - the records, transcripts
and tapes belonged to the researcher - the copyright of the words remained with theparticipant.

In practical terms:

All interview tapes have been retained.
All interview transcripts have been retained in text and electronic form.
All interview analysis has been retained in text reports and electronic form from Nudist v4,
i.e. reports by analytical category or theme, in addition to summaries of coding used inindividual interview transcripts.
A significant number of interviews include personal and commercially confidential

material. For that reason names were not included in transcripts where practical. (Theflow and detail of speech did not always make this possible.)
The above data is only available from the researcher (rather than included in archive orelectronic form) to ensure that any appropriate steps for privacy may be considered in theuse of this material by any other academic. The handling of this data in the event of theresearcher’s unexpected incapacity or death is dealt with in his Will.

131

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

The avoidance of ‘harm’ to participants:
The ethics associated with research based on narrative interviews has been further exploredand challenged in Josselson (1996), with particular attention being paid to the manner inwhich research may affect participants. Bakan (1996: p5) stresses that “the most significant
truths about human beings inhere in the story of their lives. Yet they need protection formaking their stories available to others.” He raises concern for potential violation of privacy,
and mental, legal, social and financial hurt and harm (p3). Additionally, Chase (1996: p45)
argues that “. . . narrative research demands that we pay special attention to participants’vulnerability and analysts’ interpretive authority”.

She takes this position because an

extensive use of individuals’ stories must render these participants more open and vulnerable
to personal exposure - in the telling of the story, and public exposure in its publication -thanmight be the case in other qualitative studies.
In this sample most participants’ data is given privacy by inclusion within broader
patterns found within the overall group. For those individuals quoted to illustrate both their
voice and the events they describe as representative of the group:
care has been taken to exclude any personally identifying statements;
where the identification of an industry or particular form of work might be revealing, thishas been stated generally, rather than naming a specific organisation type.
In addition, a gap of approximately three years between commencing the first thirty interviews
and the presentation of the thesis also has the potential to mitigate this vulnerability due to thetime elapsing between the interview and thesis presentation (Chase 1996: p47).
Bar-On (1996: p9) argues that research, particularly biographical interviewing, is adirect intervention in an individual’s life, one which has unclear boundaries in contrast withtherapeutic or clinical work. The experience of the researcher reflects that of Roe (1953: p3) 132

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

these participants were giving willingly of their time, without any expected gain from theirwork. It was not a function of this study to upset or unsettle them during biographicalreflection on their life and work. Yet, as Roe reports, any good personal study may run thisrisk. The researcher, from training and working experience in psychotherapy, is familiar withhearing the detail and texture of individual life stories. This research was, however, notclinical or therapeutic in its intent, and for this reason the researcher was particularly alert andconcerned towards responses from participants which indicated a clinical need was present
when communicating a narrative.
Many participants communicated levels of detail of their lives that indicated significant
effort had been placed on their part to understanding its pattern, contributing factors andmeaning. Yet strong and often unresolved grief and emotion was expressed in many places
over matters like a relationship with a parent, the death of a parent, the loss of work and statusthrough redundancy and poor personal decision-making and reflection on a life which in many
respects was considered unfulfilled. In any case where this occurred the researcher offered
the opportunity either to defer or stop the work. He also made a professional (althoughprivate) psychotherapeutic assessment on whether or not the participant required other support
beyond the boundaries of the research study6. As stated earlier, one participant withdrew
from the study after the first interview.

In no other case did a participant ask to postpone orstop the research work, despite these experiences.
The commonest reaction to being a participant was that the discussion gave them theopportunity to reconsider the meaning of parts of their lives and work, and as such wassomething from which they themselves learnt in some way. This reaction was also found in
Roe's work (1953: p38).

The researcher is an accredited psychotherapist by the United Kingdom Council for Psychotherapy
133Chapter 3 - Research Methodology

Is the level of concern for ethics in this research over-detailed or out of place in thiscontext? The researcher believes not and, in line with the arguments of Josselson (1996a:p70), considers them an on-going sign of an alertness on the part of a researcher to thepotential of harming research participants, and the steps which may be needed to avoid thisoccurring.

3.4.7 Verification of data
Qualitative research seeks “value” or “credibility”. ‘Reality’ is seen as comprised of many
sets of mental constructions. Therefore the qualitative researcher seeks to conduct the study
in a way that findings will be found credible, to ensure he or she has represented those‘realities’ adequately, and that they are “credible to the constructors of the multiple realities”(Lincoln and Guba 1985: p 295/6).
Six different factors have been used (drawn from the verification framework
recommended by Lincoln and Guba 1985 and Kvale 1996):

1“Prolonped engagement”: the researcher has invested periods of time that allowed him
to be alert to and test for misinformation, discrepancies or misunderstandings existing

within the interview data, and to build trust between the researcher and interviewees(Lincoln and Gruba 1985: p301/2 and Kvale 1996: p243).

Cohler (1982: p207) andAtkinson (1998: p60) advocate examining internal consistency within the
biography/narrative as a means of testing for misinformation, discrepancies or
inaccuracies’. The stories should be consistent within themselves, and the narrative
should have a sense of its own. Bar-On (1996: p12) writes illustratively of how he
could seek internal consistency and accuracy within his participants’ stories, and’The researcher recognises that in other qualitative traditions, e.g. discourse analysis, people are expected to heinconsistent, as they try to achieve different things or different points in their narrative.
I34

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

explore this when found to be inadequate. The researcher used an analytical categoryin Nudist analysis to record examples of discontinuity (contradictions occurring)
within an interview text.
2“Persistent observation”: also reflecting an investment of time sufficient to identify
characteristics and elements that are most relevant to the questions being studied (ibid.
p304). In a research context where some of the relevant issues are not known,
sufficient time must be invested until a range of relevant characteristics emerge. The
point at which they cease to recur in new interviews, or few additional elements appear
is indicative of the amount of effort needed to investigate a given context. As will be
described in Chapter 4, the main structure of the analytical categories that emerged
from the interviews was achieved by 20+ interviews.

3

Triangulation: this practice relates to using multiple sources of information andmethods in order to raise the possibility that the relevant research outcomes are being
reached. While the researcher has focused on interviewing as the main data-gathering
tool, this has been supplemented by a review of a range of work outcomes fromparticipants where possible and available. (E.g. viewing the musicais of thecomposer, visiting an exhibition of the sculptor’s work and reading books produced by
the writers involved. This supplementary examination was possible for 32 out of 40
participants.) Part of this cross-check involved using the second interview to examine
an example of the participant’s work to determine whether novelty, utility andrecognition did in fact apply to this work. The primary source of participants has beenreferral from other parties - cross-checked against the selection criteria for this study(the evolution of which is described in Chapter 4). Three independent analysts havechecked the coding of one representative interview. The nature of the research focus
has resulted in the use of multiple theories to evaluate the research data.
135

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

3

Peer debriefing: involves communicating one’s work to disinterested or independent
peers.

Atkinson (1998: p61) describes this as persuasion - where the story appears“reasonable and convincing to others - possible and plausible that this event orexperience could happen to someone else”. It opens the researcher to searchingquestions, particularly in the areas of potential biases, meanings and interpretations.
Additionally, it provides the opportunity to gain feedback on working hypotheses andpotential next steps in research work (Lincoln and Guba 1985: p308; Kvale 1996:
p246/7). The researcher presented theoretical aspects of this work at two conferences
during 1998 and 1999, preliminary research results in two conferences during 1999
and a further two conferences/educational meetings in 2000. The work in 1999 and2000 involved extended sessions of 90 - 120 minutes duration. The primary feedback
from these sessions involved advice on further ways of analyzing the research findings,
and support for a hypothesis on how individuals choose work in their early twenties.
(These will be further described in Chapters 4 and 6.)
4

Negative case analvsis: Lincoln and Guba (1985: p309) describe this as the process ofrevising hypotheses on the basis of experience in empirical work. Chapter 4, on the
exploration and development of empirical work, will describe the process throughwhich this research moved from one focusing initially on the characteristics ofcreativity in later life, to a ‘whole life’study of the development of “influencers” whose
contributions occur within a localised “field”. The thesis also examines “negative
cases” - cases where outcomes were not as expected.

6Member checks: of data, categories and interpretations (Lincoln and Guba 1985: p314;
Kvale 1996: p246/7). This is described as occurring informally and formally within
the research. “Informal” checks occur continuously during the interview when theinterviewer summarizes understanding or clarifies using further questions. This
136

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

practice has been adopted within these research interviews. “Formal” checks arefocused on sessions conducted subsequent to the research interviews. The researcher
has met 24 participants in follow-up interviews to review the understandings gained
from their specific interviews, and the categories used to analyze the material. Twoparticipants attended a conference described above, and a presentation of preliminary
overall research findings. Generally, reactions have been supportive of the analysis
conducted. On other occasions, the redefinition of the possible meanings e.g. of“parental support” for activities in childhood, have helped advance the researcher’s
understanding of individual experience.
Atkinson (1998: p61) uses the term corroboration for when an interview is transcribed andgiven to the participant to confirm or support what was originally said. Interview transcripts
have been given to each participant with an invitation to amend the information recorded.
Nineteen participants (1, 2, 3 , 4 , 6 , 10, 13, 15, 17, 19,23,24,27,28,30, 31, 35, 37, 39.)
overtly accepted this opportunity in varying levels of detail. Their changes, however, did notalter the original understanding gained from the interviews. In addition, the researcher sought
to confirm chronological details during interviews, and check interpretations of individual
accounts within the research interviews or feedback interviews (which averaged one hour induration). A distinction needs to be made here, however, between confirmation of what wassaid and the researcher’s understanding of the text via various analytical frameworks. Bar-On(1996: p 16) and others (e.g. Chase 1996) debate the extent to which it is appropriate for a
researcher to confirm his or her analytical understanding of an interview text and theoreticalconstructs produced from its analysis with participants. Confirming findings with participants
represents a research style and methodology within feminist research approaches aimed at
equalizing ‘power’ between the researcher and the ‘researched’ participant. In line with
Chase and Bar-On, the researcher decided not to communicate and negotiate that level and
I37

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

detail of understanding with participants. (The two participants who attended conference
presentations did see the researcher’s detailed analysis. The researcher met and talked withboth subsequently to check whether they saw his analysis in any other way. They reported
that they agreed with the researcher.)
As is common with qualitative work verification or validation has been built into theresearch process, rather than treating it as something to be examined at an end point (Kvale
1996: p242).
“External validity” refers to the extent to which the results of a study may begeneralized to other contexts andíor populations. Qualitative researchers have redefined theextent to which findings may be “applicable” or “transferable” to other settings. In the caseof this qualitative research the researcher can only claim to know about the research or‘sending’ context. The role, therefore, of the qualitative researcher is to provide a sufficiently
detailed description of empirical evidence to allow another investigator to determine the scopefor similarity of context or judgements (Lincoln and Guba 1985: ~29718).

“Reliability” is defined, in quantitative research, as where two or more repetitions of asimilar inquiry process, under similar conditions, will result in similar findings.

Atkinson(1998: p58) defines reliability as a position where the same answers will be reached wherever
and whenever questioning is canied out. But, he acknowledges, life story interviews willoften yield individual or unique categories of analysis with a complexity of meaning thatwould extend beyond that which could have been anticipated at the outset of the research. No
two researchers will carry out and record an interview in a completely replicable manner. For
this reason the interview needs to be acknowledged as a personal encounter which will reflect
the quality of the exchange between interviewer and participant. Further, the personal

narrative is not meant to be seen as an exact record of all that has happened. The use of abiography implies a certain perspective or point of view - life stories are told through138

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

interpretive eyes. They give clues as to what a participant values, and how they constructpersonal meaning. The qualitative research equivalents to reliability are focused on
consistency and dependability.

In the context of this research the interviewer has introduced

and conducted interviews consistently across all participants. Where experience has brought
about shifts in question structure this has been carefully noted, and this new perspective has
been followed-up with earlier participants who might not have been asked a question in aparticular manner. The conduct of the researcher as an interviewer is reviewed below in asection examining the piace of the researcher. This will also include a description of aprocess used (advocated by Reason 1981) to keep as many as possible of personal reactions
out of the interview context, and to focus on the meanings being offered and constructed byparticipants.
Roe (1951: p2) also acknowledged the potential subjectivity of the research data she
obtained, and questions that could therefore be raised about reliability and validity. She
described using criteria similar to those of Atkinson (1998) described above - internalconsistency, honesty, and plausibility of these accounts to others.
Lang (1996: p157) acknowledges that there are limits that must be dealt with inadopting a phenomenological perspective in research. He recommends treating results
reflexively. Reflexivity means questioning interpretations, and leaving scope forreinterpretations - and accepting that insights gained are impermanent.

3.4.8 The Position of the Researcher
This chapter describes a research process where the research data is seen as “sociallyconstructed as a result of the interaction occurring between the researcher, and participants.
The results arise from an interaction between the participants and the researcher interviewer.
139

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

Banister et al (1994: p13) make explicit the need to acknowledge and manage this factor.
They write: "research is always carried out from a particular standpoint, and the pretence toneutrality in many quantitative studies in psychology is disingenuous. It is always worth
considering, then, the 'position of the researcher', both with reference to the definition of the
problem to be studied and with regard to the way the researcher interacts with the material toproduce a particular type of sense."
Against this background, it is appropriate to examine two things. First, to makeexplicit perspectives held by the researcher that may have potentially influenced the researchoutcomes. Second, the possibility of 'projection' on the part of the researcher, and its
potential influence on this research.

Perspectives held by the Researcher

The explicit perspectives held by the researcher in approaching this research are as follows:
The researcher adopted a curious, open, and respectful attitude to the 'stories' describedby participants, and sought to communicate this to them, both in words, and in nonverbal body language. (The purpose of this is was to communicate respect for them as
individuals, and their stories, and to help create an atmosphere in which these might bemore fully shared.)e

The researcher assumed, in line with views expressed by Treffinger and Puccio (1997),
that every person is potentially creative, and that the current perspective of wider
creativity research at this time is an examination of "how?" (This research has,
therefore, orientated to the type and use of creativity, rather than seeking to judge,
prove, or disprove its existence.)e

The researcher believes and considers that there are influences on the nature of creative

140

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

activity in later life as yet unexamined in existing research. (This position wasreflected and argued in the literature review - that there has been a bias towards a
product-focused study of creativity and ageing, and that it is relevant to explore
contributing influences within the person and process in a social context.)0

There is the possibility that some of these influences or outcomes on creativity in later

life may be positive in their nature. (As discussed in the literature review - there isevidence that for these post-40-years-old there is not ‘simply’a remorseless decline in
the nature and use of individual creativity - that there may be other more positive
interpretations, experiences and developments of creativity in this period, e.g.
Simonton 1990b, 1991, 2000; Cohen-Shah 1986, 1989; Lindauer 1993, 1993a;
Lindauer at al 1997).

Several indicators suggest that these perspectives have not structured or influenced theresearch in the ‘expected’ manner.

Previous professional working relationships with some (8) participants did not makeinterviewing ‘easy’ or readily accepted. Nervousness from participants was overt, and in

one case, described above, withdrawal occurred. Participation and contribution to theresearch had to be negotiated in all cases as a new working relationship, within definedand agreed boundaries.
Where the researcher knew or knew of a participant before the research prior knowledge
facilitated the interview process. It helped the process of making contact, and anticipating
the direction of the interview content. All interviews where the researcher had priorknowledge of the participant still involved the disclosure and establishment of large

141

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

amounts of information previously unknown to the researcher - indicating an openness towork towards previously unknown material. As a result of this new information gained
the researcher had to remain alert to unexpected developments, such as one participant
who described many ‘negative’ experiences and consequences he associated with creative
work. (Roe 1953 also knew, or knew of, some of her research participants.)
Interviews established negative cases - cases where experiences of creativity and ageing
were not positive, or where a recommendation to the researcher (from a peer) for
participation had proved potentially inaccurate or inappropriate (on the basis of criteria
described in 3.4.5 above).

“Proiection” on the part of the researcher?
A further aspect to consider in a qualitative study of this sort is whether the population chosen
and the results achieved are affected by ‘projection’ on the part of the researcher, i.e. was theresearcher looking for, seeing and reporting some aspect of his ‘hobby-horses’ in this study?
This research group does represent occupations and activities that bear a close
relationship with those performed by the researcher, either personally, or in interests that heholds. His work is also as an ‘influencer’ and, like many of the population he is also an’intuitive-feeling’ type as assessed by the METI.
He has been interested by the development of individuals in this population group, andalso because i t represents a growing occupational group within today’s changing and more
flexible employment patterns. Any researcher faces the practical question of the availabilityof participants that will relate and contribute to his or her research questions. This researcher
chose occupations with which he was familiar.
While the occupations of this group are similar to those of the researcher, in other ways
they are different. These participants work in related areas, but not identical ones to the142Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

researcher. They draw on skills that are similar to those of the researcher but which he also
believes he possesses in a very different (and lower) measure to the research sample. Further,as will be shown in chapter 4, other MBTI types were involved.

Has the researcher’s work been misdirected or led astray by his familiarity with theprimary occupational group? He believes not - because of the use of a reflective processadvocated by Reason (1981). In the conduct of these interviews he followed the work of
Reason (1981: p246) and Bar-On (1996: p l l ) in that a structured process was used to observe,
manage and learn from the personal emotional responses of the researcher prior to, during andafter the interviews. The intent of this process was to ensure wherever possible that the
researcher’s emotions were kept clear of distracting the interview process and the participants
during this research. It involved the use of field notes made prior to and directly after
interviews to observe any personal reactions or emotions on the part of the researcher that
required “management” in this context. it proved a practice that acquired a cumulative effect,in that these responses became clearer and more immediately manageable as interviews
progressed. This method of organised self-reflection focused on the experience of theresearcher and the interviewee, where they overlap, and where they needed to be kept apart,and how this can be used to manage “transference” or “projection”. (A similar process isused in psychotherapeutic work for this express purpose.) in addition a number of researchfindings were not expected by the researcher. (He originally took a view held in the past by
Csikszentmihalyi -that creativity was an intrapsychic phenomenon. The work on this thesis
has moved the researcher to the view that it is a phenomenon that exists within a social anddevelopmental system.) The findings represented by this thesis are primarily social,environmental and relation-oriented in origin and were factors the researcher under-rated prior
to this project.

143

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

The Life Stow Interview
A further potential influence on research outcomes is the role of the interviewer in the life
story interview. Examining these, Atkinson (1998: p40) describes the role of the life story
interviewer as: “helping the person create and convey his or her meaning in life through thestory of what has happened” and that this is an informal approach “eliciting open-ended
responses and in-depth comments”. In this work both the interviewer and the person
recounting the life story are involved in finding and constructing meaning, an active process
which is unavoidably collaborative.
Wallace (1989: p31) suggests that the interviewer has a phenomenological and criticalrole. The phenomenological role involves seeking to ‘enter the mind’ of the participant toreconstruct the meaning of their experience from his or her point of view. The critical rolethen follows, which involves the interviewer ‘standing to one-side’ of the participant toevaluate the data received, and to explain and interpret them.

The researcher used these twofoci of activity in interviews and analysis throughout the thesis.

The researcher has explained that he had known 8 participants professionally prior tothis study. Along with Wallace (1989: p31) he found that this position was advantageous as itprovided an established degree of understanding that is not accessible to other researchers
without this familiarity. Roe (1953: p51) also explained that she had prior knowledge of anumber of her participants. She did not see this as a factor to exclude them from the study only to ensure that all those involved met the criteria for inclusion.
Roe (1953: p53) reported that readers of her work had observed that she was“emotionally involved” with some of those who participated in her work. She went on to say:“this is what a psychologist says when he means that you like someone enough to feel strongly
with him. He was right.” The researcher was alert to the potential for this involvement fromthe earliest stages of this project. His aim was to be personal enough, and respectful enough144

Chapter 3 -Research Methodology

with participants to prompt them into sharing their stories - so they felt secure enough to risk
the sharing of their stories in a confidential environment. Two interviews in particular led toa warmth or rapport being developed between the participants and the researcher - recognised
by Subotnik and Arnold (1994) as a component of a study of this nature. Being a “human
instrument” of research, there were occasions on which the researcher expressed either
surprise or was moved by what participants reported. As a general practice, however, his
intent was to act as another person hearing the story in a respectful manner, and acting in arole where he prompted for further information and clarity.
In some instances the strength and intensity of participants’ stories and emotions ininterview lead the researcher to seek personal discussions with others (e.g. peer-group Ph.D.
research students) to explore and understand his reaction to them. The feedback-interview
phase of work proved emotionally and physically demanding given the intensity of returning
to participants (commonly with two interviews per day for a period) to confirm earlier material
and explore developments subsequent to the original interview.
Chapter 4, the Exploration and Development of Empirical Work turns to describe theearly stages of research used both to gain experience, evaluate the interview as a datagathering tool, and to adjust the interview structure on the basis of this experience.

I45

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

Chapter 4 Exploration and Development of Empirical Work
Introduction

4.1

This chapter will be used to describe the exploration and development of empirical workand present an overview of its results. It will present:
The research activity that took place.
The five phases through which the interview research for this thesis was conducted.
The developments which occurred in:
1. The framework for the interview.
2. The underlying concept of the research.

3. Changes to the research questions.

4. The development of “codes” or categories that emerged from interview analysis.
These details will provide the background to the presentation of research findings anddiscussion that will take place in Chapters 5 - 9.
Table 4.1 provides an overview of the exploration and development of empiricalwork. This has been provided to summarise the unfolding nature of the research over time
and to help the reader navigate and understand these details.
Additionally, due to the volume and complexity of data an overview of researchfindings will be presented at the end of this chapter to help guide the reader through thedetail that will follow in the results chapters.

Table 4.1: Overview of exploration and development of empirical work

1-4

Each participant was previously
known to the researcher.
Each participant had a reputation
for creativity in their context.
An example of their creative
output was seen and examined.
Initial focus of the interviews was
activity in the midlife and after(while also eliciting reports ofInterviews produced detailed life descriptions
and a work example.
Interview aims were practical and achievable in
the allocated time. Productive data weresecured.
Midlife experiences emerged that were predicted
in literature.
Limited evidence emerged of the MBTI ‘inferior
function’.

146

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work
interviews..onclusions and re\ isions to research plans
The researcher proceeded with the next 6
interviews on the basis of this experience.

Research Activity =>earlier life.)
These interviews allowed an
exploration of the extent to which
qualitative research interviews
would provide research data forthis subject area.
Preliminary identification ofthemes and categories emerged
from the interviews.
The logistics of interview
arrangements were tested.
Possible changes to researchquestions were examined.

I

5 - IO

Four out of six participants were
not previously known to theresearcher.
Participant 5 withdrew from thestudy for personal reasons. (Theinterview brought up unresolved
problems in her life that she found
distressing.)
Biographic questions wereincorporated from the interview
protocol of Csikszentmihalyi(1996).
‘Negative cases’ emerged.
Expanded definitions of‘creativity’ emerged (see chapter
Slsection 5.2.)
Further interview themeslcodes
emerged.
Nudist analytical software wasused from this point.

A clear pattern was apparent of participants
being individuals involved in ‘localized’creativity, and ‘influencers’.
Midlife experience predicted in literature
continued to emerge.
Minimal evidence was emerging of midlife andpost-midlife changes predicted by the MBTI.
Preliminary evidence emerged of ‘peak‘organisational achievement during the midlife
period for some participants. (This relates topeak achievement predicted in literature on the
exceptional creative individual.)Interview arrangements were proving practicaland effective.
The researcher decided to focus on ‘influencers’and ‘local’ creatives from this point.

11 - 15

Participant selection criteria wasbased on the ‘influencer’ role anda local creative reputation fromthis point.
Participant sources included
individuals recommended byothers on the basis of selection
criteria from this point.
Further questions were added fromthe interview protocol ofCsikszentmihalyi (1996).
Analytical categorieslthemes
appeared to stabilise - fewer new
categories were emerging frominterview analysis.
Analytical categories in thechildhood and adolescence time
period resembled those found inwork on the exceptional creative
individual.
Two ‘story’ groups were clearly
emerging - those that established arelationship with creative activity
early, and those that took longer to

The researcher decided to continue the focus on‘influencers’ and local or ordinary creativity.
The researcher decided to seek a developmental
comparison between those working inorganisations, and those workinghased outsidethem.
The researcher also concluded that a ‘whole life’
focus was needed from this point, rather than
one on midlife and middle age - given thatcreativity and midlife experiences appeared tobe heavily influenced by earlier life experiences.

147

Chapter 4 - T h e Exploration and Development of Empirical Work
interviews

Conclusions and revisions to research plans

Research Activity =)do this, i.e. in to adulthood.

16 - 30

Research focus was now on whole
life experience and developmental
patterns.
Considerable effort was needed to
examine additional literature to
support a whole life focus.
Interview data appeared to confirm
the two ‘story’ groups describedabove - early starters and later
starters and some of the associateddevelopment patterns.

As part of the broadening of research focus,
early adulthood data was being examined todetermine life structure priorities and thecontribution of the componential theory ofcreativity to life span development.
No evidence was being established for thepredicted ‘late life style’ of creativity in middle
age.
Jaques (1965) predictions for changes tocreative activity in midlife were being used fromthis point.
The researcher decided to attempt a more equalbalance of participants between the two story
groups in remaining research interviews.

31-41

The researcher was directing
research efforts towards an
exploration of the early starter andlater starter development patterns.
The primary focus on participant
selection in this phase was tolocate further ‘early starter’participants in order to moreclosely balance the numbers ofearly starters and later starters.
The researcher was also seeking tolocate further women to interview
to increase the gender balance inselection.

The researcher was reviewing and further
probing the characteristics of group 1 and group2 on the basis of data gained from additional
participants in group 1.
The researcher was also reviewing data to
examine the contribution of organisations to
individuai development, and for indicators of the
middle age ‘late life style’.

4.2

The Interviews

Research interviews were conducted in five phases:

The first four interviews.

-

A further six interviews to give a sample of ten interviews (one of who withdrew

from participation in the research study).
.

A further five interviews to give a sample of fifteen interviews.

-

A further fifteen interviews to give a sample of thirty interviews.

-

A final eleven interviews to give a total of forty-one participants (leaving forty intotal allowing for the participant who withdrew).

148

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical WorkThe results of the interviews were analysed and written up at each of the above phases,
with the implications of these results for the nature and direction of future interviewsreconsidered at each point.

Tables 4.2 - 4.5 provide demographic data on sample background. Table 4.5 identifies
the source of participant contacts.

Table 4.2: Participant Data by Gender, Age and Occupation
Occupation
ComposerWriterlmngt
consultant
Counsellor
Writerlmngt
consultant

Withdrew1
Trainerlmngt
consultant
Snr manager
Trainerlmngt
consultant
WriterYogateacher/writer
Trainerlmngt
consultant
Youth worker
13

55

X

Teacher (Outdoor
plsts.)

14

52

X

Trainerlmngt
consultant

15

16

X
X

53

Trainertwiter

59

Trainerlmngt
consultant'

This participant found a detailed life review reminded her of unresolved matters in her life that wereclearly distressing to her. She therefore withdrew.
149

37

X

38

X

52

Osteopath I trainer

53

Trainedmngt
consultant

39

X

53

Writer

40

X

50

Manager

41

X

58

Trainedmngt
consultant

Note: Participant number 5 , who withdrew, is excluded from the data from this point,
leaving a total of 40 participants.

150

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

Number:

%

Male

24

60

Female

16

40

Area:

Table 4.4: Age distribution:
Age Range:

4.5 - 50

51 - 5.5

56 - 60

Males

9

13

2

Females

5

5

6

Total

14

18

8

%

3.5

45

20

Participant Numbers:

3.6.7, I l , 12, 19,20,

2.4.8,9, 13, 14, 15,

1. 10, 16, 17,22,26,

21,25,27,29,31, 35,

18,23,24,28,30,32,

36.41.

40.

33, 34, 37,38,39.

It can be seen that 60% of the sample were male, and 40 % female. Around a third wereaged 45 - 50 years old, just under half were 51 - 55 years old, and a fifth were 56 - 60
years old.

151

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

Table 4.5: Sample, bv broad occuuational cateeorv, and numbers bv suecific occuoations:
Working for an organisation

Self-employed (hired by

Other (Self-employed, generally(salaried employees):organisations):

working 1:l):

N = 13; % = 32.5

N = 17: ci, = 42.50

N = 10: % = 2 5Manager = l ( 4 0 )Management Consultant andComposer = 1 ( I )Senior manager = 4 (7.32.34.35.1

writer = 2 (2.4)

Artist & sculptor = 1 (18)Youth workerlscout Idr = I ( 1 2 )Management Consultant andCounsellor = 1 (3)Trainer I counsellor = I (17)trainer = 10 (6.8, I I , 14, 16, 19,20,

Psychotherapist = 2 (25,301

Managing Director = I (23)22,38,41)

Writer = 2 (9, 39)

Company Director = 2 (27.31)

Outdoor Pursuits teacher = I (13)Vicar # = I (29)Trainer, writer, architect = 1 (IS) Outplacement I career

NGO Chief Exec. = 1 (33)Trainer I counsellor = 1 (21)consultant = 1 (28)Osteopath I trainer = I (27)Trainer I outplacement

Singer I voice teacher = 1 (36)

Yoga teacher I writer = 1 (IO)

consultant = 2 (24.26)(#Engaged primarily inorganisational work.)

Note: Particjpant numbers are pri ided in brackets beside each occu itional category.)
Participant nos: 7, 12, 17,23,
27,29,31, 32,33,34. 35, 37,40.

Participant nos: 2 , 4 , 6 , 8, 11,
13, 14, 15, 16, 19,20,21,22,
24, 26, 38, 41.

Participant nos: I , 3 , 9 , 10, 18,
25.28.30, 36, 39

Occupational information describes work at the time of the research interviews. The
majority of the sample were trainers or management consultants. It was common to findindividuals working on more than one occupational role. Other occupations include
teachers, a composer, artist and sculptor, managers, chief executives. About a third
worked directly for organisations in a conventional employment capacity. Just under ahalf were self-employed and were hired by organisations in a consulting or training role.
A quarter were self employed and generally worked in some other capacity - mostcommonly 1:l relationships with other individuals. The descriptions of the work of all
152

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Workthese individuals places them in the category of “influencer” described in the literature
review and research method chapter. This relationship will be obvious for roles such as
trainers or consultants. In other cases the influencer role was less obvious. The
composer, for example, described one of her primary motivations as providing a team andconfidence-building experience to young people as they staged musical performances.

Table 4.6: Source of Contact:

I Source of Contact:

I Number of participants:

I Total:Known professionally by the researcher:

1,2,3,4,7,12,17,23.

8

Not previously known, approached directly by

6 , 8 , 9 , 13, 19,21,27,31.

8

10, I l , 14, 15, 16, 18,20,22,24.

24

the researcher:
Recommended by others to the researcher.

25,26,28,29,30, 32, 33, 34,35,
36, 37,38,39,40,41.

The contact of all participants, from whichever source of contact, was made on the basis of
the selection criteria described in this chapter.

4.2.1 The First Four Interviews

As described in Chapter 1 (section 1.2) the initial focus of this research was on changes tocreative activity occurring during and after the mid-life period. This was, therefore, theresearch focus in the opening interviews.

Participants were selected on the basis o f

1. Involvement in an activity stereotypically recognised as creative (e.g. composer).
2. 0:involvement in an activity in which they used creative skills, e.g. writer.

And
3. A reputation for creative activity within a “field”.
153

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

Each of the first four participants was previously known professionally to the researcher atsome point over the last twenty years. In each case he knew of their reputation and theirwork and had, for example, seen the musicals composed and produced by the composer(participant I), and read books written by participants 2 and 4.

Interview No.

Male

FemaleAge

Occupation

I

X

59

Composer2

X

55

Writerlmngt
consultant

3

X

46

Counsellor

4

X

55

Writerlmngt
consultant

In an attempt not to ‘lead’ or shape the responses of participants they were notinitially told that the principal focus of the research was creativity in later life (at thattime). It was simply explained that the research was to examine the development andchange of creativity over time in an individual life. For that reason, and in order to obtainbackground and contextual information, interviews included a request for biographic
information from early life.
The aim of these interviews as perceived at that time was to:
explore the extent to which qualitative research interviews could provide data on
research questions;determine the type of information which may most usefully be established in thiscontext;
identify the categories or themes relating to research questions which might emerge
from the unstructured interviews;
explore and define the logistical arrangements needed to conduct a study via theseroutes;154

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

examine whether and to what extent the research questions may require revision on thebasis of empirical work.

The interviews produced detailed information on the participants’ lives, work backgroundand processes of working. Research data used in this and subsequent interview phases
was drawn from participant life histonesíbiographies and standard interview questions.
The information gathered on a work example proved to be useful in cross-checking therecommendation that the participant was producing new, novel and useful work within alocalized context. However, the level of detail contributed was too great to incorporate
into a thesis focused on a life span perspective and the work example data was not usedfurther.
While three of the participants ( I , 2, and 4)talked beyond the proposed time scale(of 2.5 - 3 hours) for the interviews, the interview with participant three suggested thatdetailed and articulate information could be achieved within the originally planned times
for these interviews. The explanations of the research and the assurances ofconfidentiality appeared to be precise enough to encourage participants to contribute to thiswork.
The interview structure at this stage was simply:
1. a request for a life story in overview to obtain biographic information; and2. the description of the history and experience of an example of their work, chosen by

the participant.
Biographic information unfolded largely chronologically. The structure of the interviews
is summarised in the table below.

155Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

Table 4.8: Interview structure at the start of the research uroiect:

interview

Topic Areas

Sample Questions

3iographicl
Afe History

BirthChildhood memories
Childhood activities
Schooling"Where were you born?"

Entry into work
Types of work
Crossroads / milestones"What activities do you
remember from childhood?'"What do you recall of yourexperiences of school?"

Motivations
promr>ts:"Tell me more about that?""Why was that?"

Work Background

Type of work.

How did you come to choosethat path of work?

Motivation.
"Why do you compose music what does it give you?"?xample of creative work

Participant decides which
example to examine.

have music to be composed?"

Action-by-action"What is that experience like?""How do you know when you

discussion of content.
"What happens then?"

Research questions at this stage were focused on:( i ) the presumed existence of a potentially life-changing midlife period;(2) whether an individual would change activity as a result of the midlife experiences;(3) whether interviews would reveal any useful relationship to the MBTI data, including
the MBTUJungian 'Inferior Function' which is often suggested as emerging post156

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Workmidlife, and;

(4)additional factors illustrating the experience of this time period emerging from data.

Analysis at this stage (focusing on midlife and the time following) revealed many of the
midlife experiences predicted in the literature. Each case suggested a form of ‘‘breaking
out”, an attempt to produce a change in life structure (Levinson 1978: p201), for various
reasons. Participants 1 and 4 took these decisions on the basis of dissatisfaction with thecareer experiences of the midlife decade. Participant 2 perceived her changes in work
direction to be a natural evolution or step from work that had been done previously. For
participant 3, the midlife period had produced “serious failure or decline, occumng withina stable life structure” (ibid.: p201), so an attempt to change and rebuild a life structure
was forced upon him.
Participant I , in the period after the midlife decade, returned to a childhood love ofmusic, and commenced composing. In the context of her earlier life this represented a
new and major change of work direction. Participants 2 and 4 changed the form of theirwork, but built this on a pre-existing skill base, (e.g. writing as a component of earlier
work became a primary activity). Participant 3 commenced a completely new directionof work (counselling).

There was some limited evidence of the MBTI Inferior Function emerging morestrongly from interview reports - enough to maintain this as a goal of research at this time,e.g. the emergence of feeling and relationship values in a person whose MBTI type would
not indicate this as a priority.
However, other data did not seem to match that expected on the basis of existing
creativity literature. The descriptions of early life and origins of creative activity indicateda person’s chosen area of work did not necessarily emerge clearly in childhood oradolescence, i.e. was not necessarily understood by a participant at that time. For
example, participant 2 could see continuity from her childhood to working life. She
157

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

described, as an oldest child, having to take responsibility for her younger siblings, and awish to ensure they got a ‘fair hearing’ as individuals from their parents. She
subsequently described this as a pattern recurring in her work as a management consultant- the wish to care for those who are vulnerable, and create a method by which their voice

may be heard by those in authority.
The life story told by participant 3 was the most harrowing and distressing of anyof the interviews in the entire research project. The researcher experienced distress inhearing it, and a deep concern for the participant in the process of telling it. The
researcher took several occasions within the interview to check whether the participant
wished to proceed, and periodic breaks were taken within the interview time.
The use of a biographic approach, coupled with discussion of creative work had
secured productive data. The researcher took the decision following discussions withcolleagues to proceed with this structure of investigation for the next six interviews, and to
re-examine the position again having completed ten interviews.

4.2.2 Ten Interviews

Participants 5 - 10 were selected on the basis of the criteria outlined in 4.1.1 above. At
this stage the researcher began to approach individuals (a) encountered in his professional
activity and/or (b) not previously known to him (c) and apparently meeting these selection
criteria. The sources of participant contact (covering those previously known to theresearcher, those not previously known but directly approached, and those subsequently
recommended by others) are described in table 4.5 at the beginning of this chapter.

Summary information on participants at this stage is as follows:158

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

Table 4.9: Participant Data bv Gender, Ape and Occupation

At this stage the researcher decided to include a selection of questions from
Csikszentmihalyi’s (1996) study of living creative individuals to add detail to the
biographic and work example information obtained. Csikszentmihalyi’s interviews had
been solely based on questions of this type. These questions were asked at the close of thesecond interview that dealt initially with a work example. The questions are tabulated
below in table 4.10:

159

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

Table 4.10: Further exploratory questions included in the interview structureInterview

ropic Areas

Example Questions

Standard questions:ommon to all

3areer and Life Priorities

Of the things you have done inlife, of what are you mostIarticipants.

proud?

Has there been a particular
project or event that has
significantly influenced the
direction of your career?

Why do you do what you do?
(What is your motivation forthis work?)

lelationships and Family

Has there been a significant
person or persons in your life

who has influenced or
stimulated your thinking andattitudes about work?

In what way(s), if any, do you
think your family backgroundwas special in helping you to
become the person you are?

160

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical WorkInterview

Topic Areas

Example Questions

Working habits / process

Overall, how is the way you go
about your work different now
from the way you worked 10 -15 years ago?

Attentional Structures andDynamics

At present, what task orchallenge do you see as themost important for you?

(Please note: These questions were introduced from interview 6. Note was taken whichquestions had been asked to whom. Where a question had been introduced at a later time
this was asked to earlier participants in a follow-up interview.)

This phase of the interviews brought forward new experiences in the research affecting
both the conduct of interviews and the sensitivity of the researcher to the characteristics ofcreative activity. For example, participant 5 withdrew following the biographic interview
because it brought up for her memories of painful and unresolved conflicts within her
family. (This gave the researcher experience in managing the withdrawal or loss of aparticipant while supporting that person in a distressed state.) Participant 6 startled theresearcher by describing the difficulties he had encountered in bringing his recent creativeideas into a working form in the previous 7 - 8 years - difficulties he continued toexperience. These difficulties had created major personal and financial implications. It
illustrated for the researcher that whatever the ‘reputation’ on which a person wasapproached, it may conceal many more things than an unbroken path of success.
Participant 7 stretched or developed the researcher’s understanding of the origins ofcreative work. Commonly portrayed in literature as an attraction towards and choice of a161

Chapter 4 -The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

specific type of work - this participant was motivated by a capacity to learn something
completely new, and to achieve significant change within it. She moved through manydifferent occupations demonstrating her ability to learn and achieve within them. She wasalso the first participant to make overt and repeated efforts to understand what the
researcher “wanted to know” in order to tailor her responses accordingly. This, andsubsequent participants had to be repeatedly informed until reassured that what the
researcher “wanted’ was their story not a particular outcome. Participant 9, had areputation for authoring a particular form of theatrical entertainment. Yet he repeatedly
made statements within his interviews, based on his own perception of his lack ofintelligence, and on why he did not achieve “more”. Participant 10 illustrated a difficulty
also to be found in participant 21. At the time of the research interview it was unclear
whether the participant had a reputation within a localised field. In the course of thefollow-up interviews (conducted much later) clear indications transpired that a localized
reputation did exist. The pattern of participant 10’s story, while seemingly hugely
different from others to-date, also presented a perspective on creativity which will be
explained later (chapter 9) in the context of subsequent interviews where this pattern also
appeared. (Her perspective involved using ‘creativity’ to influence the memories andafter-effects of difficult life events, while others took the same approach to the effects ofphysical disability.)

The following list summarises the codes or analytical categories emerging from and used
to analyse the interview data at this point:-

Parents
Parents’ story.
Perception of parents.
Parents’ perception of himher?
Parents’ goals.
162Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

Parental relationships.

-

Home and family
Experiences of the early years.
Birth order.
Siblings.
Social status.
Interviewees’ perception of the shaping influence of the family on themselves.
Bereavement.

-Childhood experiences
Activities enjoyed as a child.
Antecedents of creative work.

SchoolExperience of school.
Experience of teachers. Mentors?
Experience of peer group.
Experience of ‘learning’ - subjects favoured or disliked.
Development of skills and talents? Academic progress.
Beliefs about own ability, or lack of it?
Next stepsícareer choice
Choice made?
Reasons.
Experiences of work.
Experiences of further education.
Development of skills.
Reasons for changes.

-

Work Trajectory

Trajectory.
163

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

Contrasts in contentlactions.
Turning points in work experiences.

-

Development Pattern
Development of domain skills.
Changes in domain?
Changes in ‘field’/job?
Causes/reasons.
Further education/training?

-Work Strategies
Planning.
Delivery.
outputs.

Famil y/marriage/relationships.

Mid-life Experiences
Types of experiences.
Questions raised.
New perspectives gained.
Action taken - changes made.
Indicators of ‘peak achievement’ at this time.

-

Motivations
Work.
Other.
General.
Decade of the twenties.
Decade of the thirties.
164

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

Decade of the forties.
Decade of the fifties.
Work changes during and after the mid-life Denod
Types (including single or multiple occupations).
Reasons.
Changes to discipline/domain.
Changes to ‘field’.
.

Work process changes
Reported changes in ways of working.

-

ResDonses to core questions Ksikszentmihalvi 1996)
Proud of?
Biggest obstacle overcome?
Influential event or project?
Influential people? Role models - in childhood, and adulthood?
Motivation? Changes over time?
Family influences on personal development?
Future challenges?
Planned changes in work direction?
Perceived changes in self over time?
Perceived changes in the quality and quantity of work over time?
Sources of ideas.
Organisational context and influences.
(Also examined for indications of the late life siyle.)(Interviewees were subsequently asked what they considered the contribution or
impact of an organisational environment on their work and achievements.)-

Sims of ‘discontinuitv’?
Signs of conflict in the meaningídetail within data supplied by participants.
165

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical WorkThe recognition achieved by these participants within a “field in this sample-was not at

the national or international level of social acclaim commonly achieved by the exceptional
creative individual. These were individuals working generally within a local context.
Additionally, while these participants came from different categories of Gardner’s fourtypes of creative work (i.e. master, maker, introspector and influencer), the researcher
detected a common pattern from interviews - that all of these individuals saw a prime goalof their work to influence others to a new piace or direction. For this reason it was
decided to make these two criteria explicit in subsequent participant selection, i.e.*:1.

Participants had a reputation for creative work in a localized context.

2.

Participants were “influencers” as defined by Gardner’s (1997) work.

(For

example, a composer was an influencer in trying to give performers a particularexperience of teamwork and music, an architect through trying to influence the way
in which people would live, an artist and sculptor through trying to convey aspectsof emotion and relationship to viewers.)

While the focus of research questions remained as described in section 4.3 above, (onactivity and experiences in the midlife and after) the researcher had commenced analysing
data on the antecedents or origins of creative activity, and the pattern of movement that
occurred between “domains” of activity and “fields” of performance and recognition over
the whole life span. Some data on midlife events continued to appear. For example,
reports suggested experiences were in line with MBTI profiles that appeared to suggestthat “extraverts” would describe greater stress on external factors (such as job loss),whereas “introverts” would describe internal experiences (such as felt dissatisfaction).
There were some indications of changes to both domain and field as a result of thoseA potential error in design at this point was not to specify a time reference for these criteria, e.g. a
reputation throughout life. For this reason participants were involved with different duration of reputation,
which provided an underlying development pattern to examine.

166

Chapter 4 -The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

experiences. While some data emerged (e.g. from participant 6) on the MBTI “Inferior
Function”, there was no discernible appearance of it in the other participants (7,8,9, and10). While the researcher continued to review interview texts for this data, this was aclear indication that this research question was unproductive.
Three participants (2,4,6) made direct references in hindsight to peaks oforganisational power and achievement being achieved during the midlife decade, withparticipant 1 implying the same conclusion. This is in line with theories that suggest
individuals achieve peaks of creative productivity and recognition in the midlife decade(e.g. Lehman 1953). In each case the participants described the achievement as contextspecific, to a particular organisation. They also described moving on from thesecircumstances with the clear belief that further work and personal developments were yet
to be achieved, i.e. they didn’t see midlife as a ‘peak’ at that time, or the work in thiscontext the only peak that they would achieve.
The arrangements for interviews -timings, introductions and means of conducting
interviews - appeared to be effective regardless of a participant’s background, and whether
these individuals were previously known to the researcher or not.
The main changes as a result of this initial analysis were to add “influencer” in a
localized context to the criteria for participant selection, and the introduction of additional
interview questions.

4.2.3 Fifteen Interviews
As described above the researcher included an additional selection criterion to the choiceof participants - that they were performing a role that may be defined as “influencer” asdefined by Howard Gardner’s use of that term. Additionally, the source of participants had
tended to be those approached by the researcher directly, although not previously known tohim, and participants recommended by others as meeting these selection criteria. Theirdetails are as follows:167

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

Table 4.1i : Particiuant Data bv Gender. Aee and Occuuation

The participants were those with reputations established in a localized context, rather thenational or social acclaim associated with the exceptional creative individual.
Further additions were made to the standard questions asked in interview 2. These
are shown in bold print in the table below. The questions on ‘obstacles’ and sources ofideas for work are drawn from the Csikszentmihalyi (1996) study. The question on stress
was included at this time to establish whether any further data might emerge on the MBTI
Inferior Function. Inferior function behaviours are claimed to be linked to times when
individuals are under stress.3 The reflective or retrospective question on the quality or
quantity of an individuals’ work was included to determine whether any data could befound to contrast with theories on the decline of both quality and quantity of creative work
after the midlife period.

Table 4.12: Further additions to standard interview ‘open’ Questions
Standard Questions

Of the things you have done incommon to all
prouá?

participants.

1 Of all the obstacles you have
The theory on the IF suggests it may influence work behaviours and by implication creativity. The
possibility of articulating this link led to the researcher continuing to attempt to identify its presence
168Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

interview

Example Questions

Topic Areas

encountered in your life,
which was the hardest to
overcome?

Has there been a particular
project or event that has
significantly influenced the
direction of your career?

Why d o you d o what you d a ?
(What is your motivation forthis work?)

Has this changed across your20s, 30s.40s and beyond?

andHas there been a significant
person or persons in your life

who has influenced or
stimulated your thinking andattitudes about work?

In what way(s), if any, do you
think your family backgroundwas special in helping you to
become the person you are?

Working habits / process

Where d o the ideas for yourwork generally come from?
Overall, how is the way you go
about your work different now
from the way you worked 10 15 years ago?

Attentional Structures andDynamics

At present, what task orchallenge do you see as the mostimportant for you?

What stresses you, if
169Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

Example Questions

Topic Areastnterview

anything. within the context
of your daily life?
Are you planning to make anychanges in how you work?

Are there any comments you
could make to me about thequality and quantity of yourwork now, versus 10 - 15
years ago?
I

The MBTI sample at this stage reflected a clear orientation towards the “Intuitive Feeling”(NF)quadrant of the sixteen “types”. While this information raised a question about thestructure of the participant sample, it is in line with that expected with the occupations
present.

MBTI theory anticipates that an individual’s type will reflect an orientation to aparticular form of work. The “intuitive feeling” types would be sensitive both to people
and to circumstances of potential for change. Therefore it was predictable, within typetheory, that this composition of participants could occur (e.g. Myers and McCauley 1985)
It must be acknowledged that the researcher is also one of the four NF “intuitive feeling”
types and the question must be raised as to whether this has influenced the selection ofparticipants? The researcher initially actively sought out participants with different work
experiences to his own. He subsequently approached individuais he had learnt of by
reputation, but without knowing them personally. He recognised he was more aware ofparticipants with reputations in fields allied to his own. He finally approached individuals
he did not know at all, who had been recommended by others. A number of these were
professionals in allied fields where intuitive feeling types would be expected to
predominate. For these reasons he believes that the factor of comparable type to his own
is an issue of occupational fit.
170

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

The broad structure of information arising from interview analysis had begun tosettle - the ‘higher level’ groups within which sub categories or codes were placed,illustrated in the table below. The more detailed analytical categories are illustrated on
page 162 above.

Table 4.13: Interview analysis categories and sub categories:~

Current Description

Category
1. The first or earliest appearance of the creativ
skill or aptitude.

Ways in which this skill or aptitude was

2. Development Patterns

developed or nurtured.

The components, and balance given to them, by

3. The Life Structure

participants in structuring their life between earlyand mid-adulthood, (e.g. work, family, social
activities.)

The pattern in which the individuals work and/or

4. The ‘trajectory’ of work.

creative activity develops.

5 . The characteristics of WO

in early a>C

Definable characteristics of an individual’s work,
to be contrasted with those after the mid-life
period.

6. Mid-life experiences.

Experiences of participants in the mid-life period,
analysed against a specific structure.

7. The characteristics of work in mid-adulthooi

Definable characteristics of an individual’s work,

to be contrasted with those prior to the mid-life
period.

8. The relationship of mid-life experiences andDid the mid-life experiences affect subsequent

subsequent characteristics of work.

patterns and characteristics of work? How?

9. Other issues

Strategies

171

Category

Current Description
Moti vatiodchanges

The analysis of data from childhood and adolescence offered direct comparisons with thedevelopment found in the exceptional creative individual. Categories of information andanalysis (e.g. antecedents of creative activity - social class -birth order -parental
influence on childhood activities - bereavement and schooling) found in the body ofliterature (e.g. Goertzel and Goertzel 1978) are found in this research data - although thiswas not reviewed until after this point in the research project because later life had been
the primary approach until this time.
The examination of adult life provided indications of life structure and personal
priorities of participants. Patterns were examined which indicated how individuals choose
their work area, and movement between domains and fields of activity. This information
was contrasted with the development of the exceptional creative individual. For example,
this sample demonstrated a higher incidence of movement between domains and fields
than has been found to occur with the exceptional creative individuai. This could indicate
a potential loss of accumulated focus, expertise and acknowledgement in these areas forthe “ordinary” creative individual.
The research questions were subsequently amended to include a fuller focus onearlier life. The examination of the midlife period added further to the data andexperiences gained from earlier interviews. The same pattern of analysis was used at thisstage as at the examination of ten interviews. No new data had emerged on the MBTI
inferior function, or other areas.

Against this background the researcher decided to:continue the focus in subsequent interviews on the “influencers” and the “ordinary”
creative individual;
172

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

attempt an occupational contrast between the influencers being examined, i.e. weredifferent developmental influences to be found for individuals working one-to-one, ingroups or in organisational settings?

4.2.4 Thirty Interviews

The characteristics of the additional participants interviewed at this stage are summarisedin the table below:

consultant
Counsellor

consultant
Trainerlmngt
consultant
Trainerlcounsellor
Trainerlmngt
consultant
Managing
Director
TrainerIOutplacernent
Consultant

Psychotherapist
TraioedOutplacement

Consultant

27

X

45

Company Director

28

X

53

TrainedOutplacemenf
Consultant

29

X

50

C. of E. Vicar

30

X

53

Psychotherapist

From this phase of research the focus was on developmental experiences and influences
across the whole of the life span. The literature focus until that time had been almost
173

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Workexclusively on the second half of life. It required, therefore, a considerable effort toprovide and gain the theoretical background for this additional work on the earlier period.
The researcher found, for example, the childhood and adolescence experiences or
categories emerging directly from the interview texts related to a high degree with thoseused and portrayed in the literature on the exceptional creative individual. (For example,
parental background and behaviours, the antecedents of creative work, the experiences ofschooling.)
The initial focus on participant background in this phase was on the three broad
occupational categories described in table 4.4above - organisationally employed, selfemployed and working one-to-one with others. This was used in the hope or expectationof achieving contrasting data between the three groups. What emerged, however,reinforced the two ‘story’ categories initially identified in the analysis completed of thefirst fifteen interviews. These were of individuals who identified their area of work andsubsequent creative achievement in childhood and adolescence, and those for whom it took
longer, sometimes well into adulthood.. The first ‘story’ was the same as the stereotypicalbackground of the exceptional creative individual commonly described in historical or
biographic literature (e.g. Ochse 1990, Goertzel et al 1978). The suggestion of anotherroute, i.e. the discovery of a work interest in adulthood, was rarely acknowledged in theliterature, although it is present in Csikszentmihalyi’s (1996) research with living
participants. The reported experiences of participants in ‘story I ’ were generally morepositive than those found in ‘story 2’, for example in the nature and specific type of
support they received from parents in childhood and adolescence for their domain ofinterest. The difference between the two stories held into adulthood. For example, inboth childhood and adolescence, the ‘story 1’ participants were influenced by role models
and other influential adults more of the time than the ‘story 2’ participants.
A review of the early adult experiences revealed a pattern of changing both fieldand domain of work that was certainly untypical of the exceptional creative individual. In
174

Chapter 4 - T h e Exploration and Development of Empirical Workthe case of the exceptional creative individual, the ability to work in a novel and original
way is attributed to a specific focus on both domain and field for a sustained period. The
examination of this data also allowed an exploration of the life structure
decisions/priorities chosen by participants, and consideration whether factors adapted from
Amabile’s componential model of creativity could be used to illustrate how and whencontributory factors to creative work had been found over time (e.g. the choice of domainof work, and the presence of intrinsic motivation).
An examination of the midlife period continued to reveal the kind of experiencespredicted by adult development literature on this subject. The use of the MBTI indicatedthat sensing types tended to have more settled and unchanging career paths than intuitive
types, and that in the midlife period the former appeared to manage these experiences moreeasily than the latter. It provided an opportunity to test questions implied in the work of
Jaques (1965) and others on whether work patterns, including creative work, changes inboth form and process during this time period.

A review of the middle-age period did not reveal any evidence of the ‘late life
style’ at this stage. It did, however, continue to provide examples of how an individual’s
work may change and develop as a result of midlife experiences.
Against this background it was decided to attempt to achieve a more equal balanceof participants between ‘story 1’ and ‘story 2’ groups. The first thirty interviews had only
yielded a proportionally smaller group in the first category.

4.2.5 Forty Interviews
The researcher decided, therefore, to make the final interviews centred on increasing thisparticipant group 1 - the early starters - to better understand their background. Where
possible he also attempted to achieve a more even balance between the three occupational
categories, and also to increase the number of women within the participant group. On
receiving a recommendation of a potential participant the researcher attempted to175Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

determine whether their career path had been indicative of a clear choice made in early
adulthood and developed from that time. The researcher used this as a likely indicator ofa ‘group 1’ participant. This was not always successful - and two of the final
interviewees emerged as group 2 participants. The characteristics of the final 11
participants are outlined below.

Table 4.15: Particbant Data by Gender. Age and Occupation

I

I

I

l

The analysis of the sample follows in Chapters 5 - 9:
1. Chapter 5: Childhood and adolescence (up to 18 years old).

2. Chapter 6 : Early adulthood (18 - 35 years old).
3. Chapter 7:The midlife period (35 - 45 years old).

4. Chapter 8: Middle age (45 - 60 years old).
5. Chapter 9: Other Factors.

176

1 consultant

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical Work

Overall, the study migrated from work on the effects of midlife on creativity to a study ofcreative development across the life span on ‘ordinary creatives’ recognised locally for
their creative work in the role of influencer.

4.3 Overview of Results
This thesis reviews the life span development of 40 creative individuals. The data iscompared with research relating to the normal life span development, a systems theory ofcreativity, and the life span development experiences of the gifted and exceptionallycreative individual. The use of these three theoretical frameworks is intended to increase
the possibility of identifying previously unknown contributory developmental influenceson this group of creative influencers. The use of data from biographic studies of
exceptional creative individuals is not, however, intended as a direct comparison given the
differences between the samples. Direct comparison would require further research basedon similar sample groups.

Due to the size of this task, and to support the reader in ‘navigating’ this complexity, an
overview of results follows.

4.3.1 The Two ‘Core Stories’
The primary pattern of analysis and data presentation within this thesis is that of twogroups, or stories, as described in 4.2.5 above. The first group of early starters (n = 18)
identifies with and develops a skill andor motivation in the childhood years, takes this into
adulthood and onwards to middle age. The second, a group of later starters (n = 22)
encountered an activity or experience in the same years, but did not make a choice todevelop that area until later on in life. The life stories of this second group are indicativeof a period of searching and development of their subsequently chosen area of activity
177

Chapter 4 - The Exploration and Development of Empirical WorkThe researcher proposes that these two stories are indicative of two of the primarypatterns or questions in literature on creativity and the gifted. The life stories of the
exceptional creative individual and the gifted individuai commonly, though not
exclusively, indicate a relationship with a domain that develops in childhood and is taken
through and worked on in adult life. Additionally, there are also research findings thatindicate that those individuals who start early, produce earlier and continue throughadulthood will be those who contribute more, and who make notable contributions(Simonton 1988; Albert 1994; Csikszentmihalyi 1996).

The researcher proposes that in

the area of ‘localized’ creativity, a similar development pattern is demonstrated in group 1.
Group 2 may represent a more common pattern among ‘ordinary creative’ activity.
Both groups allow an exploration of the question expressed in literature on thegifted (e.g. Gruber 1986) as to how and why does a gift become ‘active’. A reported
relationship with an area of interest that does not get supported and confirmed in childhoodin group 2 - and the subsequent searching for an activity of their choice - allows fordevelopmental perspectives on this question.
The stories told by these participants suggest a developmental model for creative
activity over the life span period reviewed in this research from these two perspectives.
An overview of the main results gained from these data are presented overleaf indiagrammatic form.

178

Developmental Issue: The receiulîs and tl

For activities and thedevelopment of that activity.

I

H

Contribution oí influential
adults.

J this work choice, or not.

Work Development (21/2 y.0.

- 30 y.n.)Post school:
The support received influences
the relationship with education,and the amount undertaken.

For ‘individuai identity’Group 1:
(The ‘Early
Starters’)

growth of confidence to continue and deve

30 - 35 years old.

A choice of work is made.
The ‘search’ is for ‘where’
rather than ‘what’.

Education which supports andconfirms that choice andrelationship with the domain of
activity.

H

I

More positive exp of schooling.

Early decisions on work
location may be tentative.
The choice is commonly
influenced by a role model
demonstrating the potential of
worWwork practices.

Moves from one
work place (‘field’)to another are
generally tostrengthen
experience.

Finding andreìating to adomain of activity

parents. E.g.“Get good grades’’associated with extrinsic
standards.

Group 2:
(The ‘Later
Starters’)

A choice of work, subsequently
changed.

No perceived suppat.

Fewer influential adults
More negative exp of schooling

A choice of work is made, andremade.

adulthood:Hw

Uncertainty about which choice.
“Drifting”.

I

Or:
There is uncertainty or drifting
commonly based in self-doubt
or negative self-perception.
Or:
A work choice i s made as ameans of finding something
they care about.

I
I-

Early Adulthood (18 35 years old.)Childhood and adolescence (up to 18 years old.)179

A role model
influences theirunderstanding of
who they are as
individuals.
Work changes
reflect searching for‘their’ work.

The MidLife Decade

I_

I I

Middle AgeI

Group 1:

may have eased theseRole and relationshipchanges, e.g. children lessdependent, parents more so.

SharedexperiencesI
reports of
GAUP1 amiGroup 2

Evidence of “generativity vs.
stagnation” (Erikson’s 7”
Stage of Life Cycle.)

H

Continuity and discontinuity
with the past.
Personal re-evaluation.
Psychological turning
points.

A decision to change or

break with employment orwork direction. A newwork direction could becontext - field - changedrole - new customers.

A range of changes
occurring at diff. rates
A broad range of new
within participant group. ~ . g . : work and activities.

H

Evolving newly foundwork.

Increased skill andimprovements to work
methods.

New work methods.
A ‘systemic’ focus to work

activity.
Increased confidence,
interpersonal and emotional
skills.

“Self-ownership” - a‘tone’ of personal
confidence andresponsibility.

Changing beliefs about self
and world.

New perspectives on work.
Learning new work
methods.

Aligning ‘self with work.
Illness and depression.

I

Two thirds consider what
actions to be involved within future

Life Changes

Pattern of ‘reacting’ tochanges, i.e. responding toexternal events.

Work Changes

i“

Individual Changes

Work Changes

P a k i p a n t s talkin a different
way in this time
period. It is as i/lhe ‘heai’or the‘emofian’has
gone out of thestory. They arecalmer, more
reiaxed, more atease with whothey are - or
who they now
know themselves
to be.

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence (to 18 years old)
5.1

Introduction

The focus of this chapter is on the following research question:
Research Question 1: (a) What early developmental patterns seem significant in
ordinary creative individuals? (b) How do these compare with those found in“exceptional” creative individuals and normal life span development?

This chapter will present:
Results from the childhood and adolescence period in the biographies of participants.
The factors include standard demographic factors and those commonly found in
examinations of the lives of exceptional creative individuals. It should be noted,
however, that these categories also emerged from within the analysis of theparticipants’ stones. These are:-

5.2 Early roots of later creativity.

5.3 Social class and occupational background of parents.
.

5.4Birth order.

-

5.5 Parental influence.

5.6 Disability and illness.

-

5.7 Experience of bereavement during childhood and adolescence.
5.8 Schooling and education.

-

5.9 The presence and influence of role models, mentors or influential adults.

Other categories examined include the following:

5.10 The experience of women participants. (This is important as much of researchon creative lives has been based on the experiences of men alone).

181

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence-

5.11 The way, if at all, the biographies of these individuals communicate the lifespan development experiences portrayed by the theories of Daniel Levinson andErik Erikson.

-

5.12 Developmental patterns of creativity.

-

5.13 Clarity of direction and motivation on entry into the Early Adult Transition.

Information for each of these areas will be presented in tabular form, followed byexplanatory comments and quotes from participants where appropriate.

A primary aim of this thesis has become to examine what influences shaped the individual

patterns, in addition to understanding the developmental similarities and differences of thisgroup with exceptional creative individuals. To that end, data will be presented withineach section in the following sequence:-findings from within this participant group supplemented by examples;-comparison with research on the exceptional creative individuai;a consideration of other background factors, such as life span developmental
theories.

Three patterns of creative development were apparent at this early stage of life. These
patterns emerged from the analysis of the participants’ stones. They are:

1. The steady development of a childhood interest or aptitude into an adult work activity,
subsequently recognised as excellent. (Described in the research as ‘group 1’ -the“Early Starters”.)

2. A brief childhood manifestation of an aptitude, a period of ‘ordinariness’, and then alater ‘flowering’ into acknowledged creative activity. (Described in the research as‘group 2’ -the “Later Starters”.)

182Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence3. No evidence of an aptitude in childhood, a period of ‘ordinariness’, and then a later‘flowering into acknowledged creative activity. (This also forms a description of someparticipants in group 2.)

5.2

Early Roots of Later Creativi@.

What was the starting-place or origin of the creative work? Where did the talent or
possibility of creative activity first show itself? The commonest view in the majority ofhistorical literature on this subject is that the talent will appear in childhood andadolescence references. The child will relate to it, and develop it from this point.

The link between childhood interests and adult activity was not addressed directly in thisstudy, with the intention of avoiding or limiting any tendency to ‘lead participants to make
immediate connections. Participants were asked, “what activities do you remember fromchildhood, and/or “what activities gave you pleasure as a child’.

This category emerged as an early and primary differentiation within the research group.
It differentiated into two distinct participant groups and will be a central thread andcontrast in this examination until the 30’s -where the developmental activity of the twogroups, the two stories, appeared to start to converge.

Table 5.1: The described antecedents of creative work in childhood.

I NOS: I %Category

I Participant~os:

Grow 1: The “Early Starters”. A childhood skill, motivation and/or
experiences related directly to adult creativity.
A direct connection to a specific skill found in anddeveloped from childhood.

8

A direct connection to a motivation found in anddeveloped from childhood, and used in one or more
workhkill areas.

5

183

(44%)

(2.6, 13, 15, 18,
29.36,39.)(7, 1 I, 19.24,(28%) 40.1

Chapter 5 - Childhood and AdolescenceCategory

1 NOS: I %I Participant~os:

Experiences in childhood and adolescence that fed an
occupational choice made at university or directly after.

5(31,32,33,35,
41’)

TOTAL

18

I

I

(28%)

(100%)

adolescence.
I

A direct connection with subsequent creative activity,
seen in childhood, yet not practised or developed forsome years after.

An orientation to a skill, or some component of theskill, seen in childhood, yet not practised or developed
for some years.

No visible / reported antecedent in biographic
descriptions of childhood. (Creativity also did not appear10(3,4, 10, 12, 16,
17, 20,23,26,
(45%)
37.)

(8, 14.27.28,(32%) 30,34,38.)

within these biographies for some years after formal education.)

TOTAL(100%)In the first of the two groups illustrated above 18 participants described a direct connection
to a creative activity, motivation or experience originating in the childhood andadolescence years. This pattern of early association with subsequent domains of creative
activity or performance is common in studies of the exceptional creative individual andgifted individuais in a variety of domains (Ochse 1990, Gardner 1993, Winner 1995 ).
However, the results of this research have three further characteristics (described below)
rather than simply relating to a skill or talent.

First, a direct connection to a specific skill found in and developed from childhood. &r
example: For one participant it was sports, played actively as a child, taught as an adult,

184

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescenceand developed subsequently into a medium for teaching other issues such as teamwork.
As a child, he described playing:“. .. non-stop cricket and soccer. Every opportunity I had my clothes off and myshorts on, I was in the gym doing something. (. . .) My father was cricket and soccer
mad, and I had been brought up with this -and I was hopeless at both. (...) And thenI got presented with this oval ball that you could pick up in your hands and run with,bump into people, knock them, a bit of rough and tumble. I loved it! In a lot of ways
rugby saved my life at school, it got me into taking something seriously and into
serious training”.

For another participant, architecture was an interest as a child, along with its implications
for the quality of living for individuals and communities, studied in school, learnt as aprofession, and practiced in many fields. He described:“Sometime around the age of 12 I decided I really loved looking at buildings, drawing
them, and working out how they worked, and how they all got together. And so I
started drawing fantasy buildings. I got involved with an architect called (name) at thetime he was architect for (a major university town), and he encouraged me, and lent mebooks, and gave me books. So I was determined to become an architect”.

The second sub-group included those where a motivation that had appeared in childhood,stayed with them through the adult years. Often, this motivation led them to take up avariety of work in their adult life. For example:“I was an only child, so in a sense was always very independent ... always think foryourself, do things for yourself, don’t rely on others. ... I didn’t get wrapped up
in activities, I’d do lots of things, I’d constantly change. I enjoyed school becauseof doing lots of different things. ... I always got a bigger kick at doing something185

Chapter 5 -Childhood and Adolescenceat school nobody else did. For example, I was the first one ever to learn Russian.

I only did it because nobody else had ever done it.”This participant (7) acknowledged that this pattern of motivation (learning new things andbeing involved in change) had never altered for her and had influenced her work direction
and changes throughout adult life. The researcher has not detected this pattern discussed
in relevant literature on creativity - the pursuit of a motivation rather than a specific workor skill.

The third sub-group described experiences in childhood and adolescence that formed thebasis of a work choice in the early adult transition (18 - 22 years old). For example:“I remember thinking that an awful lot of what happened in my family when I wasa kid was enormously unjust. My father was a man of his time - very cold andemotionally unexpressive. So ... complications for him were very difficult, and so
he would resort to a cane and that sort of stuff. I remember a tremendous feelingof injustice about all that. So I can remember the theme of justice and injustice
being around at the time. The other theme is what I was saying earlier, I remember

the ethos of that family at the time - that concern for other people was out of order!
And that being interested in the wider world was not for us. And that education,
culture, learning, books, was not your lot!”
All of these themes (i.e. justice, concern for others, education) have been seen in thisindividual’s (33) life and integrated into his work since that time. This theme of
discomfort with home life is found in the literature on the exceptional creative individual.
Yet within this participant group they are described as life experiences that influenced
subsequent choices.

The individuals in group one, the “Early Starters” demonstrate some Characteristics that arealso found in the literature on the exceptional creative individual now, and throughout this186

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescencethesis data. During childhood and adolescence an early discovery of an area of interest
develops into an area of work in adulthood.

The remaining twenty two have been grouped into a second group, the “Later Starters”,
where an on-going connection to work is not reported as being operationalised inchildhood and adolescence.

In this second group five participants reported a direct connection with their subsequent
work; they did not recognise it as a career or work choice in these early years. In somecases there was a gap of many years before this link occurred and they returned to work in
an area that interested them as a child.

For example, for two participants (1,9), the interest represented a love for, and leaming ofa core skill involved in subsequent work - for the composer, it was music and for thewriter it was a love for stories, and writing.

The composer described:“. . . as a child, as early as 4 years old, one of my joys was putting on theatre, plays,

particularly musicals for my family. (. ..) They used to have hysterics because I wasa small fat person, playing the Broadway Busby Berkely dancing types”.

The writer said
“l’ve always had the ability to write. I can remember, at school, I loved doing
compositions and essays. (...) The first thing I ever wrote that got published was ‘thestory of the sparrow’. It was in my junior school, in the top class, we were all asked towrite for a book about nature for the younger children. (. ..) I wrote about the housesparrow, and I was the only one that did. Lots of other people wrote individual things
187Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescencethat got published, but mine was the only one about the house sparrow, and it got
published. I still have it in the loft upstairs”.

For ten participants there appeared to be an indirect relationship, an orientation to an area
or a skill described in a childhood activity yet not recognised at the time as a potential
course of work in adult life. It was, therefore, not practised or developed for some years.

For examule: Participant (3), who became a counsellor in his late thirties, had a boyhood
spent on sea coasts and cliffs, watching wildlife and sea life. He said:“I picked up very quickly the relationship between the organism and the environment.

And how it’s no good just railing at the environment if you’re imperiled. There’s
something about moving, to accept what is coming towards you, and move, and shzp toa safer place. It’s no good staying, and being hurt, and being poisoned, and being
polluted.”
He subsequently related this understanding to ways an individual can respond in hisiher
environment, and a need to respond actively in the face of difficulties.

For seven of group 2 there was no discernible link displayed or reported within thestorieshiographies told to the researcher between events, activities and loves of thechildhood or teenage years and the work they subsequently undertake.

In summary, some form of early sign of adult creative work is visible in the childhood
years for 33 of the 40 total participants regardless of what point in life they recognised this,and chose to adopt this work. It applies directly to all participants in group 1, the “Early
Starters”, and partially, or indirectly to participants in group 2, the “Later Starters”.

188Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

There is visible or reported interest in the area of eventual creativity for some participantsin group 2, yet the connection is not made, the talent is not activated at that time. It raises
the question why later, not then, and what were the consequences of this delay. An
examination of this factor will commence later in this chapter, and be one of the themesthat continues through the remainder of the thesis.

Csikszentmihalyi (1996) and Ochse (1990) each report on the experiences of individuals ina variety of work domains. Ochse suggests all creative adults exhibit clear links between
their work and childhood activity. Csikszentmihalyi reported only finding this in half his
sample. The experiences of these ‘ordinary’ participants fall somewhere between thosefound by Ochse and Csikszentmihalyi, with an early association and a pattern of later
finding of an area of interest.
The life cycle theories of Erik Erikson also offer a perspective at this point. The ability of
an individual to relate to a competence, a form of activity with which they chose to moveinto adult life, is an indication of the formation of identity (within his life cycle stages 3
and 4). This would suggest that this measure of creative/work or skill identity formation
occurred more strongly in participant group 1, and possibly less strongly in group 2.
While some reasons for this will be observed as part of this research there may, of course,
be others that did not appear in the interviews. For example, there is a possibility thatgroup 2 participants focused on other priorities than a work activity and did not describe
this in interview, and had clear identities in other areas, e.g. home.

5.3

Social Class / Occupational Background of Parents

In the creativity literature social class and parental occupational background contribute todevelopment through access to role models, and particular values, which are a potential
influence on the creative individual.
189

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

Social class and parental occupation was not addressed directly in interview. The
following information was drawn from participants’ descriptions:

Table 5.2: Social class and occuoation of Darent

I ‘Group 1’
I Nos I %Class:
Upper-middle class. e.g. Company owner/director.

‘Group 2‘

T
7

4

Sea captain. Lawyer. Senior armed forces officer.

Nil(2, 31,35,41.)(3, 8, 17,23,
27.30, 38.)
(7, 11, 13, 15,
18,24,29,32,
33.36, 39.
40.) (1,4,9,
10, 12, 14, 16,
20,21,22,25,
26,28,37.)
(6.).

1

(19.) (34.)

(32%)

(22%)

14

12
Middle class. e.g. Managers. Teachers. Salesman.

(64%)

(67%)

Accounting/administrative/clerical. Armed forces
officer. Publican. Farmer. Engineer.

I

Working- class. e.g.
- Labouring / skilled use ofIl

hands.

Participant
Numbers:

(6%)

(5%)

This sample of participants has a predominantly middle and upper-middle classbackground as measured by parents’ occupation, with no discernable difference between
group 1 and group 2 participants. The social class background of historical creative
individuals in a variety of work domains has been described as having been consistently
one of professional occupations, with 80% of fathers of exceptionally creative individuals
being in professional occupations - and being middle to upper-middle class (Chambers
1964; Zuckerman 1977; Ochse 1990). This, arguably, reflects a historical or ‘dated’
nature of the research reviewed where, for example, individuals in creative occupations in
the last century may have needed to come from a particular social or professional class inorder to achieve access to the education required. Csikszentmihalyi et al (1993),
reviewing a sample of current gifted teenagers, also report that a parental background of
professional occupations was also dominant in that group. But Csikszentmihalyi (1996),
with a living, and more recent sample (also from a variety of work domains) found

190

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescencecircumstances to be more diverse to a far greater degree, reflecting improved access to
education and occupation across social classes.

The sample group in this thesis has a mixed social class background. Whether this is afunction of participant selection or a conttibuting variable in the overall development ofcreativity is unclear. The parents of this participant group were largely “middle class”.
The parents were also individuals who had lived through the 1930s’ depression. Some,
evidently, came from very disadvantaged backgrounds and had moved through ‘class’boundaries in their own occupational work. The results reported by participants whocrossed ‘class boundaries’ were mixed.

For examole: one participant (from Group 1) desctibed her father as a self-taught man in askilledíprofessional occupation. He communicated to her such a love of words andwriting that it had a major impact on her own study and work choice. A male participant(from group 2) desctibed how his father had worked his way up from an unskilled role tothat of a qualified, skilled and very senior professional. The contrast between his work
environment and his social origins appeared to have been an on-going source of stress tohim, and his ptiotity for his son was reflected in strong yet unspecific support for educationand professional qualification - it didn’t matter to him in what. This appeared to bereflected in his son’s own confusion over work choices.

5.4

Birth Order

Birth order reflects the position within the family group, and influences the extent to which
an individual may have received the undivided attention and stimulation of adults, for atleast part of their development.

191

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

Table 5.3: Birth order of uarticiuants:

od as a result of school

Considering the participant group overall, 26 out of 40 (65%) are either the eldest or only
child, or experience similar effects by having a significantly older sibling. Just over half
the total participants (22 out of 40, or 55%) are only or eldest children.

Research on the lives and development of the exceptional creative individual suggests it iscommon to find they are the only or eldest child. This effect is also found in literature on
gifted children, e.g. Albert 1994. The literature also suggests that different areas ofachievement may also relate to different circumstances of birth order (Ochse 1990; Albert
1980; Goertzel et al 1978; Walberg et al 1979; Simonton 1987; Adams 1970). Simonton(1987: p136) reports different birth orders can influence the type of achievement reachedby the individual (e.g. political leaders were commonly not first-bom.) Simonton suggests
literature on this subject is “vast and confusing” (p136), and the actual outcome for theindividual is influenced by many variables. The percentages of ‘first-bom’ varies
significantly with sample groups, with Ochse quoting ranges from 35 - 57% (p64/5) andAlbert (1994: p293) quoting SO%+.

The incidence of ‘first-bonis’ in this overall

participant group parallels that of the highest percentage found in existing research on
192

Chapter 5 -Childhood and Adolescence

exceptional creative individuals in a variety of domains and to some findings for giftedchildren.

The effect of being first-bom was commented on by some participants who recognised an
impact, but no clear conclusions emerged as to what this is. For example: a female
participant in group 1 described:“. .. being the eldest and only child . . . you go forth by yourself. You don’t havebrothers and sisters to tag along with! And if you want to do anything you are on
your own! So I would catch the bus to go into the library (and) make my firstjourneys to school. And I think that is very important in becoming a writer,
because it is taking a risk to find the story.”

A male participant (34) in group 2 described:“Being the oldest means that for all that early part of your life you are ahead ofyour siblings, because you simply know more, you have been around longer, andyou simply have higher skill levels . . . Outside the house ... you are interacting ina more peer environment.”

Research literature has commonly put superior examination performance of first-boms
down to greater parental expectations for first-boms. A similar influence may apply withcreativity and its development. Since the average number of children in most families isclose to 2, the percentage of first bom or only children in this sample may not be thatsignificantly different from chance.

193Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

5.5

Parental Influence

Parental influences include the values communicated, and activities supported by parents,
in addition to the parental style and emotional atmosphere in the home. Within thesystems theory of creativity parents act as one of the primary components of the ‘field’
influencing access to a domain of work (Feldman et al 1994; Csikszentmihalyi 1996).

The influence of parents on the development of a creative life is complex. Nevertheless
three main factors emerge:

1. The communication of certain priorities and values, for example intellectual

achievement.

2. Support for the development of an ability, or at the very least for an intense interest or
curiosity about the world at large.

3. The emotional background or experiences within the home, apart from the two mattersdescribed above, which is commonly described in negative terms.

There is a contrast in circumstances reported in interview between ‘group I’, who haveidentified their aptitude, and are working towards its development, and ‘group 2’. thelarger group who, as yet, have not developed an on-going relationship with an aptitude, or
direction of work.

194

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence‘Group 2’
Nos%‘Group 1’
Nos%

Parental or family influence:

Participant
Numbers:

An introduction or initiation into the area ofinterest or work via the family.

( 2 , Il. 13, I S ,18, 19.29, 31.
32.36, 39. 40.)
(1,21,22,25.)

12

4
(67%)

(18%)

t
A reinforcement of the value of education and1113
a work ethic.

(61%)
I

I

(2, 6. 7. 13, 15,19.29. 31,32,
39,40.) ( I , 4,(59%) 12,20.2l,22.
2 3 , 27. 28, 30,
34, 37.38.)

Apparently ‘ncpiivc’ inilucnces:(6, 33.) (3,9,Alienation from the experience of the family,
one or both parents, or their wishes.

Poor self-image, the experience of significant
self-doubt or lack of self-confidence.

The description of a difficult or strained
emotional environment within the home. (Thismay reflect one or both parents, but commonly
the father.)

30.)

(5%)

(33%)

Participants who describe the home andor
parents as a model of how they choose not tobe/act.

(32%)(2.) (1.3.9,
16. 17.26,
30.)(6, 11, 18,29,(55%) 35, 41.) (I, 3,
9, 10, 16, 17,
21,23,26,30,
34, 37.)(6, I l , 33.) (1,3,9, 10, 14,
16, 17,20,
30.)

The final four out of the six categories above are portrayed as ‘negative’ experiences.
Within group 1, more positive experiences and fewer negative experiences are reported incontrast with group 2. In particular, twelve out of eighteen (67%) from group 1
experienced their parents as having directly and specifically contributed to theirintroduction to what became their area of creative activity.

For example: In the first group, the future sports teacher (13) described living:195

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence“. .. very close to the local grammar school, to which my father went when he wasa lad, and my uncle. And the staff came to our pub to drink every night. My
father was an active member of the Old Boys Association, and used to go up there
every weekend to watch them play cricket, and so on”.

He described an atmosphere in which assumptions had been established that he would
follow a certain level of education, and particular activities as a result of his Father’sbackground.

A female management consultant and writer (2) described her mother:“She trained as a lawyer, (unusual in those days) yet she could never practise. It
meant that even though she was at home with us as kids, she was very active in theworld of volunteering. (...) Because of my Father’s culture he didn’t want her towork. But it meant she never gave a clear message (. . .) that your destiny is to
grow up and get mamed. (. . .) At one point, that got me out of the traditions of
my upbringing, she fought tooth and nail for my Father to let me go to the best
university, even though the local one would have been good enough for him”.

However the experiences in Group 1 were not uniformly positive. For example:
One trainer (6) described:“The family didn’t work for me particularly. It was a lot of things, and I choose notto remember them, the dreadful relationship within the family, it was just awful. I
couldn’t wait to get away from them. It was just awful. And as soon as I left home

I couldn’t wait to get away from them”.
Yet despite this experience, he still acknowledged the influence of his Mother on his
education, and subsequent work:

196

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence‘‘ ... my Mother died in 1990, and my drive declined after that. (. ..) (Throughher) I was driven to do better, energy and drive were important in whatevercontext”.

Another participant (1 1) said:“(My parents) were always fairly alienated people in a way. They both came fromlarge families (in Lancashire) and had come south to run away from the things they
didn’t like about their life “up north”. (. , .) My Mother was a very nervous, very
neurotic woman, which created problems. (Yet) Mum particularly was very, very
powerful in wanting me to have a good education at an intellectual level. They
worked bloody hard for it, they struggled for it, to give me a really good educationand clearly I am a result of that education”.

Group 2 had a more contrasting and varied experience in the family environment andfrequently more ‘negative’.

Discord within the parental relationship andor the family environment is a theme reported
for 12 out of 22 of this group. In some cases this negatively influenced the support
received by the participants - in others the value of education was still communicated.
Also, there were overt references to self-doubt or lack of self-confidence originating inearly family life.

For example: A writer (9) described negative experiences that affected his self-perception

for many years:‘‘ ... home life, when I was younger, wasn’t very harmonious in many respects.

My Mum always had time, and listened, and was aware of, and had a great deal of197

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

empathy for what I was doing. (But) my Dad would find fault with anything I did,which wasn’t easy. (...) he wasn’t easy to get on with - thank god there is moreof my Mum in me than him. He was very dogmatic, very dictatorial, he wasalways right, and anything I did was always laughable or wrong. And it sort of got
you down.”

Other participants reported encouragement. A disabled man (12). with a childhood
heavily defined by physical restrictions, visits to hospital, and consequent periods ofrecovery, said:“My parents, because of my disability, could have wrapped me in cotton wool, andstopped me from doing things, all sorts of things. But they let me loose, and it wasalways Mother who ended up picking up the pieces, which must have been a
traumatic experience for her every time”.

Twelve of these participants (3 from group 1, and 9 from group 2) describe circumstanceswhere at least one, if not both, parents set a pattern of values and behaviour that theparticipant subsequently reacted against. The family background had become a shaping
force that they sought to avoid in their future lives. The reasons were varied. For
example, in two cases (6, 11) it reflected discomfort or discord in the home environment.
Another (33, quoted earlier) reflected a sense of injustice and a conflict with values that heconsidered important. Three of the women (16, 17,20) found themselves either blockedfrom further education because “education is not for girls’’ or with limited choices throughparental perception of what was an appropriate choice for a woman. These experiences
become a source of internal pressure on what to avoid and change in the future.

198

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

Twelve of group 2, the group of twenty-two participants, reported no experience ofdevelopmental support for their aptitude from either schooling or home life. No
participants in group 1 reported this. ( 1 , 3 , 4 , 8 , 9 ,10, 17, 23,26,30, 34,37.)

In contrast

with group 1, the participants in group 2 report a much lower level of expressed parental
support for education and achievement.

The ‘negative’ experiences reported appeared to influence the development of creative
work differently. There were details in group 1 stones where participants described
negative events and continued seemingly ‘regardless’. In group 2 participants described
themselves as blocked or undermined by their experiences, with greater degrees of
uncertainty occurring as a result - reflecting a higher incidence of reported lack of selfconfidence.

There was a continuum of support received from parents described by participants:
1. ‘Identity’ level support: where the parent encouraged the young person to make theirchoice independent of the parent.

2 . ‘Practical’ support received from the parent in following their choice of skill, e.g. intransport to classes.

3. ‘Generalised’ support for the principie of education and ‘good grades’, but not linked
to a particular subject area.

4. No described support.
The experience described in number 1 and 2 above parallel the findings ofCsikszentmihalyi et al (1993) in their study of talented teenagers (where they found parents
had encouraged children to make independent decisions and offered practical support intheir pursuit of these interests).

199

Chapter 5 - Childhood and AdolescenceGroup 1 participants described support in the first two areas (identity level and practicalsupport). Group 2 participants tended to describe support in the third or fourth areas.

This contrasts with research on exceptional creative individuals and gifted individuals in avariety of domains, which tend to report consistent intellectual stimulation received in thehome and elsewhere and a high value placed on learning (Roe 1953; McCurdy 1957;
Goertzel and Goertzel 1962; Ochse 1990; Bloom 1985; Csikszentmihalyi 1996). Parents

are described as playing a pivotal role in the development of values and interests of theirchildren and providing a focused level of support for their development. There is aparadox in that the individuals in these studies also commonly reported perceiving theparental style as both disciplinatian and tyrannical and experienced a difficult emotional
environment (Goertzel and Goertzel 1962; Chambers 1964; Goertzel et al 1978;
Mackinnon 1992; Ochse 1990 ).

In summary, participants in group 1 described a higher level of support, more specific in its
nature, being received from parents, compared with group 2. They described morepositive and fewer negative experiences, and appeared able in some way to push throughthe negatives, or to carry on despite them. Therefore, these participants relate more closelyin this factor to the experiences of the exceptional creative individual. Equally thestrained and non-supportive atmosphere of many of the group 2 homes seems to haveadversely affected their self-image and sense of identity. This may be one reason why
they took longer to settle on a particular work interest.

The degree of support may have practical consequences in the developmental trajectory of
an individual's talent.

Unless there is recognition from the 'field', i.e. the parents andorschooling through which practical and 'gate-keeping' support is received, identification and200

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescencedevelopment of creative activity (the ‘gift’ or the talent) may at least be slowed if notblocked.

In the context of normal life span development it is appropriate to question whether thekind of home background difficulties described here are ‘abnormal’. Levinson’s (1996)
study of female development, where he addressed this question directly, suggests that it is
not uncommon. Some form of struggle and dysfunction within the home environment
was, he believed, common. Therefore reports in this participant group and section are notinterpreted as ‘abnormal’. Works such as Goertzel and Goertzel’s (1962 and 1978) studyof the development of eminent individuals indicated that their experience of family life
might be more extreme in its content of dysfunction and difficulties in many cases.

5.6

Disabil& and Illness

Historical research into the exceptional creative individual indicates a high incidence ofdisability or physical illness being experienced during the years of childhood andadolescence.

Group 1:

Nos.

%

ParticipantGroup 2:

Nos.

%

Numbers:

Illness2

Physical disability

2Participant
Numbers:(24, 36.)

Illness

6(il, 36.)

Physical disability

2

(27%)

(11%)

(3.8, 12,17.23. 37.)
(12, 17.)

(9%)

(11%)

The researcher defined illness as any experience (e.g. broken limbs or rheumatic fever) that
affected the participant for a period of at least several weeks, and interrupted or changed
their pattern of schooling or education.

201

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

The categories of disability and illness are differentiated because the time spans andconsequent impact are different, e.g. disability has a longer-term impact, whereas in thecase of this study illness appears to have a shorter-term impact. Different forms of
disability occurred within the participant group, including sight, limbs and disfigurement.
They affect 9 participants out of 40, 22% of the overall group.

What was the impact of these experiences? Participants 11 and 17 each expressed feelingsof marginality from their experiences of disability. Participant 11 communicated a senseof ‘drivenness’ associated with feeling “not-okay”, an influence that stayed with him into
his midlife decade. He focused on an aptitude for music discovered and developed inchildhood. Participant 17 also had similar early experiences, but did not identify anaptitude at that time to develop in later work. She experienced a significant period ofsearching in early adulthood before relating to a particular form of work.

Participant 12 described periods of enforced inactivity and limited mobility due tohospitalization and operations. He believed this impacted and changed his observation
skills - by being inactive he developed skills for observing others which subsequently wereused in his adult work.

Participants 12, 17,23,36,37each described periods of childhood illness of long enoughduration to influence education for a period of weeks or months, yet it is not clear fromtheir stories whether any adverse impact occurred.

In some cases these experiences affected subsequent choice of work. Three participants(12, 17,36) reported experiences severe enough to influence the choice of work direction -202

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescenceor the direction available to them. There is a higher incidence of childhood illness ingroup 2.

Work on the exceptional creative individual suggest a higher incidence of

illness overall, but that was not found in the overall participant group.

There are psychological as well as physical disabilities. Participant 10 described achildhood containing psychological trauma as a result of time spent as a refugee during theSecond World War and the subsequent time and education in the aftermath to this conflict.
These experiences had shaped her development, limited her education in this life period,
her choice of work, and had left her with a sense of vulnerability.

Existing research on the background of the exceptional creative individual indicates ahigher incidence of illness and disability than appears in the general population. Authors
such as Ochse (1990) and the Goertzels’ (1962 and 1978) speculate upon the impact ofthese experiences. They suggest it may provide an environment of enforced solitude andloneliness that is used as a place of focus and learning of a skill and knowledge by thedeveloping child or adolescent. This is not a pattern identified in this participant group.

In general, no clear influencing pattern is found in the stories of this participant group
describing illness or physical disability (McCurdy 1957; Roe 1951; Goertzel and Goertzel

1962).

5.7

Bereavement

The literature suggests that the impact of death of one or more parents in childhood canshape the direction and way in which creative individuals explored their aptitude or chosen
field of work.

203Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence‘Group 2’‘Group 1’
Nos
%

Nos

1

3

%

Category - Bereavement:
(14%)

(6%)

Bereavement (all fathers) in childhood orteens.
Nil

2

Participant
Numbers:(31.) (1, 10.
22.)(8.9.)(9%)

Bereavement (all mothers) in early twenties.
1

3
(17%)

“Loss” of father from home in childhood e.g.
during war years, and after.
Nil

(5%)

1

(13, 15, 18.)
(17.1

(26.)
(5%)

Adopted.

There was a low level of bereavement experienced in this participant group and lower thanthat experienced in the general population (Simonton 1987: p141; Ochse 1990: p75).

Thebiographies of the bereaved group show no discernable difference to those of otherparticipants. The four individuals who lost their fathers during war time years do,
however, communicate a strength of will and independence in their stories - yet there is noevidence linking that apparent behaviour to this experience. If there is a ‘gain’ from theexperience of bereavement or absence of a parent it is not obvious in this participant group.

Research indicates that it was common for creative individuals to lose a parent, mostusually the father, during childhood. While the exact impact of this is not fully
understood, the literature review suggests two possible outcomes. The first is that theindividual may feel pressed or stressed into mastering an activity and performing
exceptional work as a means of establishing a form of control on an otherwise difficult
world in which major loss has been experienced. The second suggests a more positive
perspective - that the absence of a parent might free the child into making personal choices

204Chapter 5 -Childhood and Adolescence

without the shaping force of a parent’s views (Roe 1953; Eisenstadt 1978; Albert 1980;
Simonton 1987; Ochse 1990; Csikszentmihalyi 1996). These effects were not visible inthis participant group.

5.8

Schooling and Education

The level of education participants received, and how they perceived and experienced
schooling.

In examining schooling and education there are three issues to consider. First, the level of
education undertaken by this sample group. Second, what participants perceived of theexperiences of education, and what outcomes, if any, this developed as they moved into
adult life. Third, the influence of teachers on future direction and activities - which isconsidered under the following heading of influential adults and role models.

The level of education reached by this participant group:

205Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence‘Group 1’
Nos

%

Nil

‘Group 2‘
Nos

6
(0%)

1. State schooling
2

(27%)

2

3

6
(17%)

3. Further education(72%)

4.University level education(50%)

5. Later life study12.)( 7 - 2 4 , 36.) ( I ,8,20,22,26,30.)(2, 11. 13. 15,(41%)

18. 19,29,31,
33, 35. 39, 40,41.) (14,ZI. 23,
25. 27.28,34,
37, 38.)(6, I l , 13, 15,l9.24,29,30,
40.)( ~ 34,, 8,
12. 14, 16. 17.
20. 21, 25, 26,
27, 28. 30, 37,
38.)

17

9

(1.3.9, 10,
16, 17.)

(27%)

9

13

Participant
Numbers:(6,32.) (4,
(9%)

(11%)

2. Technical education

%

(77%)

participants. Row 5 indicates those individuals who returned to some form of educationand training at a later point in their life. Schooling is classified as school education
offered by the state or obtained privately, after which the individual is free to leave andfollow a job or career. Technical education, for example, is an apprenticeship. Further
education, for example, is teacher training or training in social work. University
education, or equivalent, is studying for a degree or, for example, training as an architect.
Examples of later life study include training as a counsellor or psychotherapist, and going
part-time or full-time to university for degree-level study.

Reviewing the patterns between the two groups: in group 1, 100% of participants went
beyond state school education, in comparison with 73% of group 2. Seventy two percent
of group 1 participants went to university in comparison with 41% of group 2. Seventy
seven percent of group 2 participants went into late life study after the normal education
years, in contrast with 50% of group 1. This indicates that more of the participants ingroup 1 received more education at higher level, sooner, than those of group 2. More of
the participants of group 2 were involved in some form of subsequent ‘catching-up’ in theamount of later education they received.

206

Chapter 5 -Childhood and Adolescence

Neither pattern is found in work on the exceptional creative individual. Ochse (1990: p85)
and Simonton (1987: p147) both describe an inverse relationship (an inverse ‘U’ shaped
curve) between education level and achieved eminence, with a peak occurring prior to thebachelor degree-level of education. Why this should be the case is not fully understood.
Ochse reflects Simonton’s work in suggesting that: ‘‘ , .. creative achievers tend to
discontinue their education when they feel they have learned enough to continue on theirown - they may simply become bored with formal instruction, or disenchanted with what
formal institutions have to offer. In other words it may not be a case of ‘increases in
education discourage creativity’, but ‘creativity discourages increases of formal education”(p87). However, this may vary according to professions - Sirnonton’s (1992) work
investigating the career patterns of successful psychologists in the last 100 years contrasts,

even contradicts this conclusion and that suggests the need to examine this area inoccupational terms. He found that peak performers received a Ph.D. from a prestigious
educational institution sooner than their peer group.

We now turn to the experiences and outcomes of schooling among the participant group.
Table 5.8: Experiences of schooling described bv participants:(Note: participants may appear in more than one category.)‘Group 1’

Nos%

Experience of schooling:

Opportunity to develop and learn in their areaof talent and ability.

9

Their performance was positively influenced
by particular teachers (and generally towards
specific subjects).

10

205

‘Group 2’
Nos%

Participant
Numbers:(2.6. 11, 13,(50%)41.) (14,21,(6, 13, 15, 24,(56%)

40.41.) (12,14, 16, 17, 21,
22,25,21,34,
37.)

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence‘Group 2’‘Group 1 ’
Nos

%

Nos

%

Experience of schooling:
Negative experiences:

Participant
Numbers:(18.32.) ( l , 3 ,4, IO, 17.30.)

Bad teaching, or violent teachers (which
generally meant that school experiences wereconsidered ‘wasted’).

Feelings of being a ‘loner’, alone or isolated.

Long-term attendance at one or more boarding
schools, generally from an early age, e.g. 6 - 9years old.)

(6%)

(23%)

(22%)

(15,32,35,
41.)(1.4.20,(37%)
23,26.28,30,
37.)

The experiences of the majority of group 1 participants (13 out of 18) are describedprincipally in positive terms. They had found support in school for their preferences andhad been given the outlets and support to learn and practice their work. ( 2 , 6 , 1 1 , 13, 15,18,

24,33,35,36, 39,40,41.)

For example: A management consultant and trainer (6), who had previously described how
difficult he found the experience of his family, told of how he:“. .. absolutely adored school! I loved it! I have to struggle to think of bad times

at school. (. . .) I just don’t remember it being b a d . He described many
experiences he enjoyed. “I was under a lot of pressure to achieve, but I actually
enjoyed it. I scraped my Il+, and went to a technical high school, grammar schoollevel. And that whole experience was great. I loved it. I can almost smell theblackboards, the desks with that certain wax smell”.

The female senior manager (7) was unusual in describing school in terms of what she
wanted from it. Her memories were of208Chapter 5 -Childhood and Adolescence“Achieving I suppose. Learning. Trying not necessarily to be the best, but thebest at what I did. There was always a need to be at the top, or to try and get to thetop. And not always achieving it. (And) of trying to pick up new things. I
always got a bigger kick at doing something at school that nobody else did. For
example, I was the first one to learn Russian. I only did it because nobody else haddone it”.

A management consultant and trainer, who had described his experiences of a lonely andmarginalised home life, went to a school which allowed a different sort of expexience,drawing on his musical aptitude.

“I went to an all boys grammar school - it had some very negative, controllingaspects to it, and I am negative about some of the experiences. But it was a very
musical school, there was a lot going on. (. ..) I was in concerts, playing theviolin and guitar, you name it, I was doing it. I was in operas, acting in school
drama-type productions. Writing a lot of poetry as well”. Why did he do it?

“.._

there was the thing there about performance. There was the thing there about theadrenaline of getting the production, and then performing it”.

The second group had more contrasting experiences, positive and negative, of schooling.

Example of the positive experiences found in group 2:
Participant 14 described a happy and supported experience of school life:“. .. I went on to (the local) Grammar school, and that was a wonderful schoolbasically. But basically the experience across the seven years when I was there,
was very happy indeed. Very good Head and the school motto was “Honour before
Honours” which is an interesting motto for a grammar school. (...) He ran the209Chapter 5 -Childhood and Adolescenceschool like he meant it. He was more interested and I actually heard him say that he considered the job was about being true to 90 kids in a year, and not to the top

15 or 20 who might be the high flyers. He felt that the job was about doing thewhole job.”
The relationship with the headmaster and the school influenced his choices and actions
well into the period of early adulthood.

Example of negative schooling experiences found in group 2:

The experience of the composer (1) had a direct bearing on her ability to develop musicalwork at that time. She said:“I had a training in music which was very, very bad. Very, very bad teachers.
When I studied music as one of my main subjects I did fairly well. But I came out
very badly bruised. In fact damaged by this rotten teaching, by this tyrannicalteacher who used to hit me over the hands if I played a wrong note, who was one of
the most appalling teachers you could imagine”.

The counsellor (3) had been placed in two different schools run by religious orders. Bothwere abusive in different ways. He described“I did well academically at the beginning. I was reading Dickens, in the original
unabridged form at the age of 7. I must have had an incredibly advanced reading
age, and I was in the top half dozen of the class. (. ..) But the relationship withthe brother, the monk, was abusive, sexually and physically. (Long silent pause.)
My school work started to suffer, and I reached into the world of books. Read, andread, and read. I wouldn’t translate it into anything in an academic field. It waspurely escapism. (Sighs.) I had read most of the major classics by the time I was

16 or 17”.

210

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

The management consultant and writer (4)was sent to boarding school at the age of 8
years. It was clearly a traumatic experience, which he took a long time to come to terms
with. He said

“I was not particularly studious, I was not particularly successful. I always gotvery upset at the thought of returning to school because I had a loving home - myMother, in particular found it very hard to say goodbye to me for those months at atime”.
In what appeared to be an internal struggle with how he wanted to remember theseexperiences, he then described liking and enjoying school, being social, when his mostenjoyable pursuits were solitary. He then turned back to his original style of description:“I should say that these were extremely traditional schools. Caning was rife. Not

just by masters, by prefects. And one was caned for spelling mistakes. It wasquite a violent school. I got punished, but so did everyone else. (...) It washarsh, but we didn’t know that it was any different from any other school”.

Twelve of the overall participant group described attendance at boarding school. Eight ofthis number reported similar negative experiences of the boarding school environment.

The influence of the quantity of education received by exceptional creative individuals is
not clear and subject to debate. Within this research group we know that more of those
who identify their work or area of interest in childhood and adolescence receive moreeducation than those who do not - and that their experiences of schooling are generally
more positive, (i.e. group 1). Thirty four of the overall group of forty participants went
on beyond normal school age to further or higher education. It could be argued that thisgroup constituted might be termed a turning-point generation, one where the availability ofeducation was higher than experienced by their parents. Most of this group experienced
211

Chapter 5 -Childhood and Adolescence

opportunities not available to their parents, which took them beyond the experiences andcircumstances of their parents. The influence of education on the direction of these
individuals will be considered again in a section of the following chapter dealing with theearly adult transition.

The experience of the exceptional creative individual in schooling is variable. The generalreported experience of the exceptional person in school is one of discomfort or struggle,
sometimes described as a sense of being out of place (Goertzel and Goertzel 1962;
Goertzel et al 1978; Simonton 1987; Ochse 1990). Teachers can, however, be valued forthe leadership, influence, excitement/passion and role modeling they provide for specificsubjects (Roe 1953; Goertzel and Goertzel 1962; Simonton 1987; Zuckerman 1977).

5.9

Role Models, Mentors or Influential Adults

The role of influential adults who recognised the 'child' or young person, and the talent
they possessed, andíor in some way supported their development.

Table 5.9: Role models andíor influential adults in childhood:(Note: participants may appear in more than one category.)F"i"'Group 1'

Participant
Numbers:

Role models and/or influential adults:
A generalised influence: support for the
principles of education and development.

7

A 'specific' influence: support for an ability
used or drawn upon in later work, (e.g. skilful

7(2, 6,7. 19,
31,40,41.)(39%)
17,20,28,( I l , 13, 15,teaching which supported the development of theability.)

24,32,39,
(39%)

I
212

21,25,27,34,

37.)

Chapter 5 -Childhood and Adolescence‘Group 1’‘Group 2’

T

Role models andor influential adults:
An experience of being respected, and listened
to as a person, or adult, at an early age.

5

A ‘negative’ influence, i.e. an illustration ofwhat the participant does not want to be.

4

No comments/descriptions made in interview.

1

Numbers:

(28%)

Nil.

(6, I l , 35,41.)

(22%)

(6%)

Fourteen of the eighteen individuals in group 1 with an early identified skill developed in
adulthood, and fifteen of group 2 described a positive childhood role model, or influential
adult, (i.e. the first two categories in table 5.1 1 above).

For example: in group 1, the future outdoor pursuits teacher (13) said
“My most powerful role model at school was my P.E. teacher. I really admiredhim. And when I wanted to go to (college) to train as a P.E. teacher, to be like(him), - (he) can do it, so can i”.

The future architect (15) described how a city architect gave him support, and lent him
books to nurture his growing interest in buildings and architecture.

Influential adults also occur in group 2, the second group - though proportionally to aslightly lesser extent.

213

Chapter S -Childhood and Adolescence

The composer (I) talked of a woman encountered in school who modeled both strength ofcharacter and organising skills -both subsequently developed and shown in thecomposer’s business and musical work. She said
“There was a rather extraordinary woman who came into my life at that point (12years old). (She was) the wife of the ex-governor of (an African country). She
was dedicated to the ‘Girl Guide’ movement. She sponsored the School Company.

I kind of attached myself to her - a remarkable similarity to a number of other quite
powerful women I attached myself to during other stages of my life. She was thefirst one. She and her husband had a huge home with enormous fields where we
could have these marvelous overnight camps, and stay away from the horrors ofboarding school”.

The male disabled youth leader (12) told of another disabled adult:“(He was someone) with a severe disability. I think it was seeing him do things,
and carry on as if it didn’t matter, gave me the drive to imitate him. I could see his
disability was far worse than mine, and I felt if I could be half as successful as him
I would have achieved what I wanted to achieve. I suppose as far as that isconcerned, he was a driver”.

A summary of the roles or influences found in these adults is as follows:
Parents:

With a love for words, writing, poetry, music or art.

Teachers:

With a passion andor excitement for a specific subject.
Who taught them something difficult and helped theparticipant learn.
Who recognised the individuality of the participant sometimes in contrast to the experience of the parent.

214Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

Who modeled a particular way of living (for girls).
A grandparent:

Who listened to and encouraged the participant.

Simonton (1983b, 1984d, and 1987), Ochse (1990), Csikszentmihalyi (1996) and Gardner(1993) are consistent in recognizing the presence of role models in the childhood of
exceptional creative individuals working in a variety of domains. The language used toreflect the impact of these adults is powerful, with descriptions of these individuals“infecting” the younger person with their love of a subject, and the younger person“metabolizing” their attention as a form of encouragement. Simonton (1983b, 1984d, and1987) argues that their presence is a crucial factor in the development of ability in theyounger person.

This tone or level of intensity of a role model or influential adult “infecting” an individual
occurs only in group 1 stories, e.g. a parent with a love of words and writing. An
alternative form of influence found in this overall sample is that of a “doorway” to a
subject - a teacher that supports the participant in learning something they previously
found difficult. There were no significant differences detected in the reports of males or
females as regards influential adults.

The developmental factors explored above are those commonly identified and examined inresearch on the exceptional creative individual. Prior to examining how these factors
might interact to produce creative work this chapter will examine other categories thatemerged in this participant group.

215

The female participants in each participantgroup.

‘Group I’
Nos%‘Group 2’
Nos
%

7

9
(39%)

(41%)

Participant
Numbers:(2.7, 18,36,
39,40,41.)(1,10. 16, 17,20,
25.27.28.

(Note: This tabular information will not be presented in subsequent sections discussing theexperiences of female participants.)

There are broadly similar numbers of women in both group 1, (7) and group 2, (9). The
female participants express two core ‘stories’ at this time.

The first is ‘choice’, in that these individuals were being offered an apparently open andsupported choice in the work they were interested in and the development of their skills.
(2, 7, 18,25, 27, 36,38, 39,40,41.) Seven out of ten of this group were from group 1.

Where parents did not offer ‘choice’, in some instances it was found (e.g. participant 41)
through the influence of teachers. Teachers apparently offered recognition and acceptanceof the individual’s own drives and wishes i n a manner and level of detail that might nothave been found in the home.

The other aspect (albeit with only 6 of the 16 female participants) at this time was an
assumption of a future in a “female” role, an expectation that women will marry, and that
educational and work preparation and experience should be based around that expectation.
There was a heavy influence of the father on participants in this group. For example, thatthe father expected and influenced the daughter to take on education and training thatwould prepare her for ‘female’ occupations (e.g. teaching) that would be available to herduring mamed life and child-rearing. In these cases, the influence of another family

216

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescencemember (e.g. participant 20) going to university was significant in breaking a pattern of
expectations, and allowed the participant to press for her own aspirations. This pattern
may be due to the age of the participants (growing up in the 1950s and 1960s) with parents
preparing them for what they saw in their youth in the 1930s and 1940s, (Helson 1999).

In all cases the work orientation of female participants is to ‘feminine’ occupations as
described by Levinson (1996), i.e. social work, teaching, academic, and service to others.

5.11

Observations Drawn from Life Span Developmental Theory

One of the difficulties making an assessment and observation from life span development
theories at this life stage (childhood and adolescence) are their relative imprecision. One
potential measure, extracted from Erikson’s life cycle theory is that of the development ofcompetence and identity, (stages 3 and 4 in the life cycle). Albert (1992a and 1994)
argues that the development of identity, work and ability proceed in parallel and cometogether in late adolescence (e.g. 1994: p304). Arnold (1994: p26) mirrors this insuggesting identity formation “is closely related to the clarification of vocational purpose”.

The reports of all group 1 participants, and fifteen out of the twenty two group 2participants contains an indication of the development of ‘competence’. The researcher
interprets the identification by the participant of an enduring skill, motivation or
influencing experience occumng in group 1 to be an indication of stronger identity
formation in that group at this time. The patterns in group 2 of not identifying an
enduring area of work and interest in early life are probably indicative of slower identity
formation, in Erikson’s (1958) terms occurring within this group.

217

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

5.12

Developmental Patterns of Creativdy

In this section the interaction of factors that support or hinder the development of creative
activity will be examined.

The data in this chapter have indicated that the majority of participants (33140) related toan area of skill, motivation or experience in the childhood and adolescence years. Somemaintained that relationship into adulthood, some did not.

From the narrative descriptions of these participants the primary difference between thetwo participant groups seems to be the level and nature of support received from parents.
One of the distinguishing features from group 1 was of a higher level and more detailed
support than that described in group 2. In addition, the nature of support received byparticipants in group 2 was described in a more generalized manner. These findings werealso found to be significant in Delcourt (1994: p429) in observing the development of 18
students categorized as “gifted”.

Group 1 were more likely to obtain more education in early life than group 2 participants.

The role of early influence and extent of early education are potentially linked. The levelof support received could have influenced the level of experience, confidence or decisionmaking within the young person. This, in turn, influenced the relationship with education,and the level of education that they seek. This, in turn, may have influenced the ability of
the young person to relate to a potential work activity that would form the basis of an
enduring career.

218

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

The biographic work on the exceptional creative individual suggests that the experience of
bereavement in childhood may place a developmental pressure on the young person tochoose and learn an area of skill or activity. The low level of bereavement experienced in

the overall participant group suggests that any such influence is absent in this group.

If this is the manner in which data within these stones may be interpreted, how does thisrelate to other theories emerging from the lives of the exceptional creative individual?

Theories on the development of the exceptional creative individual in childhood andadolescence provide two models of how these developmental factors might interact toproduce a creative individual and creative work. They will be used to explore and contrast
the experiences of the research group.

In her review of existing research, Ochse (1990: p160/1) proposes a model of factors
forming a developmental pattern for the exceptional creative individual:(Background factors)
The acquisition of values related to intellectual achievement (from parents, school,society, history, andor fictional heroes ).

plus
Precocious development of intellectual ability or a talent (via genetic endowment andintellectual stimulation).

plus
Stress - caused through such factors as bereavement, physical disability,
psychopathology, loneliness, rejection or insecurity.

Combine to create knowledge, skill and working practices

219

Chapter 5 - Childhood and AdolescenceLeading to persistent independent intellectual ability, and a desire to excel.
Resulting in a wide-ranging knowledge and skill in a particular domain

It has to be noted that this is a domain-specific model i.e. relating to the development of aparticular discipline of knowledge and skill, and the owning and development of that inchildhood and adolescence. Few of this participant group present that model. Therefore
it is difficult to match this research group to Ochse’s model, but then Ochse’s evaluation isbased on research that indicates early, focused and prodigious development of talent.

Table 5.11: Presence of overall developmental patterns described bv Ochse (1990):‘Group 1’‘Group 2’

T

Presence of overall developmental patterns
iescribed by Ochse (1990):

Participant
Numbers:

11

The acquisition of values relating tointellectual achievement

15, 19,29,31,(61%)
4. 12.20.21.

Development of an intellectual ability or talent. 8[N.B. no ‘precocious’ development was foundin this participant group.)(23%) 18,29,36,
39.)(1,9,21,
22,25.)

32, 35.36,

7

Stresshllness e.g. bereavement, physicaliisability, psychopathology, loneliness,
rejection or insecurity.

(39%)
12, 17,22,23,(No clear indications found ininterview reports of this group.)

A persistent independent intellectual
ictivity ....
~~

5

(44%)

_._.___.___._..___.....

(2.6.7, 1 1 ,13, 15, 18, 19,13. . . and a desire to excel.

(72%)41.) ( I , 14,21.23.25.

220

Nos

%

Numbers:

Presence of overall developmental patterns
described by Ochse (1990):(2, I l , 13, 15,

1

(5%)

31.) (1.)

Within this overall participant group there is evidence of high levels of ability being
reported (for example, via early reading ages, and examinations being taken and passed for
Oxford and Cambridge universities).

There were no ‘prodigies’ reported. In systemic

terms what was described is the learning of skill and an orientation to a particular form ofwork, rather than ‘creativity’ as such in this period of life.

Csikszentmihalyi’s (1996) study of 91 living individuals and Roe’s (1953) work recognises

this pattern - a prodigious talent may be evident in the young person, or it may not. If it isnot, then their descriptions suggest a highly developed sense of curiosity is the alternate orequivalent state which will, at some point, become focused on a particular domain of work.
This particular factor was present only in a limited manner, (e.g. group I = 6,7, 13, 15.19,31,
33, 35, 36, 39, 41 - 11/18. Group 2 = 1, 14, 20, 21, 22,23, 25, 28. 34 - 9/22.)

A second model, implied in the work of Bloom (1985), provides different measures andindicators for the development of creativity and exceptional performance in early life.
Although this work does not appear to be intentionally systemic in its descriptions, itmirrors the model described by Csikszentmihalyi (e.g. 1988) and his colleagues (e.g.
Gardner 1993, and Feldman et al 1994) and it also embraces a model proposed by Albert(1994) for the development of giftedness.

221

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

Table 5.12: The presence of sumortive experiences cited bv Bloom (1985):

The presence of supportive experiences citedby Bloom (1985).

Participant

Numbers:( 2 , I l , 13, 15,

Parents influence a child via their own
interests, exposure to particular experiences,
working practices or practical support.

12

4

(67%)

í 18%)

18, 19,29,31,
32,36, 39,40.) (1,21,
22,25.):(2,6,7, Il,
15
(83%)

Parents influence a child via their practicalsupport.

(4 190)13, 15, 18, 19,
24,29,31,35,
36, 39.40.) (4,12, 14,21,22,
25.27.37.
38.)

Parents actively seek teachers of an appropriate Not reported or
described in this sample
level of skill and style to pace their child’sgroup.
development and learning.

This table illustrates that group I participants experienced a far higher level of parental
influence and support for their area of interest. ‘Therefore, in this group of “ordinary”
creative individuals the failure to either recognise a talent, or support it in childhood or
schooling appears potentially to lead to a delay in developing creative activity until laterlife.

In addition, eight individuals from group 2 had experiences in childhood that areexperienced negatively, or deflected the individual from appreciating or understanding thetalent they may possess at that time. ( I , 3, 8,9, 10, 16, 17, 30.)

Returning to research question 1 at the conclusion of this review of childhood andadolescence:(a) What early developmental patterns seem significant in ordinary creative
individuals: (b) How are these different from those found in “exceptional” creative222

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

individuals and normal life span development?

1. The analytical categories that emerged from the early biographies of the ‘ordinary’creative individual are broadly the same as those of the exceptional creative individual(e.g. Goertzel and Goertzel 1962, Goertzel et al 1978, Csikszentmihalyi 1996).

2. One of the main similarities between the ordinary creative individual and theexceptional creative individual is that for the majority of these research participants a
connection emerged during childhood and adolescence with their later creative activity.
The difference is that just under half (18/40)built a relationship with that activity that
continued directly through to adulthood. The remainder either ‘lost’ that connection,
andor had to find it later during adulthood. Theories of life span development suggest
the established connection with a competence or motivation relates to a firmer
development of identity at that time as found in group 1. Delays in establishing thisconnection would appear to indicate a slower formation of identity in group 2 (orpriorities given to other factors than work activity, and not reported in interview).

3. While many of the research group are able individuals they did not describe personal
stories that suggest a background of prodigious ability appearing in childhood oradolescence. This is also in contrast to the biographies of the ordinary creative
individual, and the exceptional creative individual.

4. The differentiating factor between those that built and maintained a relationship withan activity or work during childhood and those that lost that relationship at that time
appears to be the level and nature of support received from parents. The more specificthe support received from parents, seemingly the greater the chance of a long term
connection to an activity that later becomes the basis for creative work. This parallels
the findings of Csikszentmihalyi et al (1993) on complex familes.

223

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

5. There is a discernable difference in the level of education obtained in this time period
between the group that identified and related to a creative activity and the group thatlost that connection, to re-establish it in later years. More of those that established andmaintained a connection in these earlier years received more education early in life.

6. The proportion of bereaved in this research group appears quite low (i.e. relative to thatin the exceptional creative groups and that expected in the general population)(Eisenstadt 1978). The potential influence of this is unclear.

5.13

Entry into the “Early Adult Transition”

Early adult transition refers to an age period of about 18+ when participants moved into
university study, or equivalent. One can examine their clarity of direction at this time.

Table 5.13: Claritv of direction/motivation at approximatelv 18 years old:
(Note: participants may appear in more than one category.)

Clarity of direction:
A clear choice of further study and/or work
made. (In the majority of cases this choice is subject‘Group 1’‘Group 2‘

T

EzrK- Participant

1811( 2 , 6 , 7 , I I , 13,
15, 18, 19,24,(50%) 29.31, 32.33,
35.36, 39.40,
41.) ( I . 12, 14,
22,24,25,26,
27, 28,34,38.)

6(3,4, 16, 17,(27%) 20,21.)

Numbers:(100%)

to further evolution, development and/or change.)

A study andor work choice structured by‘tradition’, or options considered normal in thecontext, e.g. “girls move into teaching fromthis school”, or “education is not for girls’’, or“getting work in this town is a lottery - you
can expect to be unemployed.

NilParticipants who are unclear about their choiceof direction, and are still ‘searching’.

Nil

224

-

-

( 3 , 8 , 9 , 10,
17,23,30.
37.)

Chapter 5 - Childhood and Adolescence

Twenty nine participants, all those in group 1, and half those in group 2, described a clear
choice for future study andor work. It is interesting to note that a “clear choice” made at
this time might be subject to change at a later date.

Six participants from group 2

describe a choice explicitly influenced by tradition or context, e.g. ‘‘girls move into
teaching from this school”, or going to work for a specific employer because it was theprimary one in the local area - and was subject to change as they become exposed toalternatives,

The participants in group 1 expressed far higher levels of clarity than those in group 2.
The position of participants in group 2 ranges from clarity on their sense of direction, to asignificant influence imposed by others, and to no sense of direction being experienced.

This thesis now moves to examine the period of Early Adulthood, 18 - 35 years old.

22s

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

Chapter 6 - Early Adulthood (18 - 35 years old)
Introduction

6.1

This chapter will consider research data on the early adulthood period to the onset of the
midlife decade - in age terms from 18 - 35 years old.

The key focus of this chapter is an examination of the following research question:

Research question 2: (a) How do ‘ordinary’ creative individuais locate and develop adomain of creative activity in early adulthood? (b) How is this different from thepractices of ‘exceptional’ creative individuals and normal life span development?

To achieve this, the chapter will present:

6.2 The decade of the twenties:-

6.2.1 The early adult transition.

-

6.2.2 The life structure choices.

-

6.2.3 The work trajectory (examples of the work experience of participants).

-

6.2.4 Work patterns viewed through the componential theory of creativity.

6.3 The thirties to the start of the midlife decade (30 - 35 years old):-

6.3.1 The life structure.

-

6.3.2 The work trajectory-

6.3.3 Work patterns viewed through a componential theory of creativity.

6.4 Other analytical perspectives:-

6.4.1 Influential adults.

-

6.4.2 Experiences of female participants.

-

6.4.3 Pre-midlife relationships to domain and field.
226

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

6.5 Research questions and summary of results

The research question will be explored by (a) the experiences of the participant group, (b)contrasts with the experiences of the exceptional creative individual, and (c) contrasts with life
span development theory and (d) contrasting the experiences of particular groups, such as
women and the disabled.

6.2

The Twenties-

6.2.1 The Early Adult Transition (18 22 years old)
According to Levinson the early adult transition marks the move from the world of the “familyof origin” into an adult life that reflects more of the individual’s own choice and priorities inthe social world. It signifies a termination, evolution and/or change in relationships withsignificant parts of the adolescent world, e.g. school and peer group of the time, and initiates
relationships that will take the individual towards “the responsibilities, burdens andsatisfactions of early adulthood” (Levinson 1996: p69).

Biographic research on the exceptional creative individual indicates that if a talent or skill has
not shown itself in childhood and adolescence it is likely to do so during this period (e.g.
Gardner 1993, Roe 1953). The individual’s decision on a work course to follow is expected
to be made or confirmed at this time. Research reviewed in Chapter 2 implies that the moveinto a choice of work is ‘plain sailing’ for the exceptional creative individuai. Arnold’s(1994) research on gifted individuals suggests that this transition may not always he madesmoothly or successfully.

227

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

The reports of the participant group in this period (the early adult transition) were primarily
structured around the subject of further education and anticipated work, though comments
about home and parents were also made. The tone of these comments were often about thewish or need to leave home, poor relations with parents, or the way in which parents had
shaped subsequent work steps. Section 5.18 of Chapter 5 reviewed the motivation and clarityof direction of the participant group on entry into university-level education at the age of 18.

This situation changed during the early adult transition (18 - 22 years old). The following
table reviews the clarity of participants as they exited this transitionary period.

Table 6.1: Clarity of directiodmotivation at approximatelv 22 years old:
Note: participants may appear in more than one category,‘Group 1’

zy
Clarity of direction:‘Group 2‘

TParticipant
Numbers:(6, I l , 13, 15,
19,24,31,32,
35.36, 39,40,
41.) (8,9, 12,
(-5)
(+I)
(72%)
(50%) 16,21,22,23,
26, 28, 34,38.)

A clear choice of work made. In some cases
this involves furthedextended education. (in1113

the majority of cases this choice is subject to further
evolution, development and/or change.)

A study andor work choice structured by‘tradition’, or options considered normal in thecontext, e.g. “girls move into teaching fromthis school”, or “education is not for girls”, or“getting work in this town is a lottery - you
can expect to be unemployed”.

Nil

Participants who are or have become unclear
about their choice of direction, and are‘searching’.

4(3,4, 12, 14.)

6

(+4)

(-1)
(22%)

228

(27%)

‘Group 1’

Nos%‘Group 2’
Nos%

Clarity of direction:
Female participants whose choices have been
structured or influenced by marriage or the
possibility of it.

3

1
(6%)

Participant
Numbers:(18.) (10,25,(14%) 27.)

What lies behind these figures and the changes in them? Of the 24 participants who made aclear work choice, 10 located a place in which to commence their work - 14 knew what they
wished to do and were attempting to locate a place in which to do it. For the ‘group 1’
participants this formed the basis of incremental moves into other work over time. While theclarity achieved by this group is clear it is less than that reported by exceptional creative
individuals in other domains where the work choice had generally been made by this time (e.g.
Gardner 1993, Roe 1953).

Four participants in group 1 had lost clarity in their work or career choice by age 22 and foundthemselves in a state of doubt, or searching for what they wanted to do in the future. In eachcase they eventually returned to their original choice and/or motivation.

Four female participants became focused on marriage, or a future move into it (IO, 18,25,27).
For the participant in group 1 (18) marriage initiated change in her previously anticipateddirection, including having a child and going to live overseas for a period. For the threeparticipants in group 2 marriage represented a move made while unclear and undecided onwhat other alternatives might have existed for them.

229

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

Other characteristics or qualities can be detected in this time period including the relationshipwith parents. One background factor was present in the descriptions. Gould (1977) and
Levinson (1996) each suggest that in this time period, when an individual moves away fromtheir parents, they often internalise their parents’ attitudes, values or codes of conduct.
Descriptions of internalized parental values and behaviour were clearly present in many
reports.

Table 6.2: The impact or contribution of parents at this time in adult life:
Note: Participants may appear in more than one category.
‘Group 1’‘Group 2’

7T

Impactlcontribution of parents at this time:Work choice made from a positive andsupported place of ‘free choice’.

14

6(7, 11, 13, 15,
18, 19.24.29,(27%) 31, 32,35, 36,
39,40.) (8,12,21,22,25,
38.)

11

(2.41.) (3.4.
9,10, 14, 16,(50%)
20.26.30, 34,
37.)

B(6, 15-33.) (1,3,16, 17.20,(36%)
23,26,28.)

1

(27.)

(78%)

Clear/described indications of an ‘internalised’
parental influence often ‘negative’ or limiting.

Decisions taken to move ‘away from’ the ideas
and values of the parents.

3

Unclear or unstated influence of parents at this
time.

Nil

Participant
Numbers:

(28%)

(5%)

Generally, group 1 reflects stronger and more explicit support from parents for the choicemade by the participant, or, in three cases a clear model of what an individual did not want tobe present in their subsequent lives. Group 2 contains more reports of what may be described

230

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthoodas an internalized ‘negative’ or ‘limiting’ parent, and high levels of wish to be ‘away from’what the parents represented to the individual.

6.2.2 The Life Structure
The life structure reflects what participants accord priority in their early adult life - the partsof themselves they were ’living-out’ in this period, (e.g. work roles or familyrole/relationships?) This section explores the qualities and characteristics of this experience.

Levinson proposed that the most valuable starting point for describing and examining the Life
Structure was the choices made by the individuai in their life, e.g. work, family, friendships,
love, and living location (1978: p4.3). He proposed that in making a choice, and having a
relationship with something, the choice became “a vehicle for living out certain aspects of theself’ (p44). Levinson argued that the Life Structure would have 1 - 3 primary components,
and that these would change over time. Levinson found that the choices made were tentativeor provisional, often due to uncertainty and inexperience, and commonly revised during thetwenties (e.g. age 25/6) prior to a more detailed revision in the Age 30 transition.

Biographic material on the exceptional creative individual in science suggests that work is theprimary focus in this period, and that such individuals are sometimes ‘slow’ to move into thesocial aspects of relationship and family (e.g. Roe 1951a, 1953).

The table below summarises the choices made by this group for the decade of their twenties,and (in a later table) for the thirties for both group 1 and group 2 .

231

=

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

Table 6.3: Life structure Drionties -decade of the twenties:
Note: participants may appear in more than one category.

‘Group 1’‘Group 2’

PartichantLife structure priorities:,

Occupation

18

15

(83%)

Job search(44%)

Marriage and family
(39%)

.

.

.

.

.

19. 24, 29. 31,
32,33,36,39,(82%)
40,41.) ( I . 3,
4. 8.9, 12, 14,
16, 17,20,21,
22,23,25,26,
28, 34, 38.)
(2,7, 11, 13,
18.29.32,
33.)
14.. 17..
,,
(14%)
30.)
(6, I l , 13, 15,
18, 32,41.) (3,9,IO, 22.25,(3210)
26,27.)

Travel
(44%)

(41%)

(17%)

(14%)

Study and training(2.6. 13.32,
33,39,40,
41.) (I, 16,20,
21.22.23.25.
, . , .
26,37.)(33,35,39.)(4,23,37.)(6.7, 15, 19.)
(1.9.)“

Difference” (A value or criteria used to assess jobs
or circumstances in contrast to the family of origin.)

(22%)

3

Spare time activities(9%)(18,24,36.)(9, 12, 14.)

3
(17%)

(14%)
(29.) (21.)

Self-expioration (includes an exploration of
spirituality).

Eighteen participants across the two groups (1, 2, 4,7, 8, 12, 14, 16, 17, 19, 20,24,28,31, 34,
37, 39,40) indicated that the working world was accorded a prime priority in the building of
their life structure in their twenties.

232

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

In commencing their twenties - fourteen of this group were building a life structure based bothon work and married life. (Group 1: 6, 11, 13, 15,32,33,35,41.) (Group 2: 3,9,22,25,26,
38.) Four of this group talked as if work and mamed life were in balance, or of equal
priority. (3,9, 11,25). The other participants did not communicate this balance or equal
priority.

Three (10, 18, 27) were directed primarily towards marriage and family life. During thepassage of the decade this also became the focus for participant 25.

Two participants (21,29) were motivated primarily by a search for and exploration of
spirituality. Two participants (23, 35) were engaged in long-term Ph.D.- level study atprestigious universities that would significantly influence their future work direction.
Participant 36 was engaged on a path of work and music independently and would eventuallycombine aspects of these areas together into a single form of work.

There are few differences between group 1 and group 2 in the life structure in this time period.
The main difference is that a higher proportion of group 1 are focused on job search. This is
not surprising since the majority of participants in group 1 have made a clear choice on whatwork to become engaged in. It follows that the focus and energy of their efforts are to
discover where they can or wish to become engaged in this. More of group 2 participants arestill asking both what work to become engaged in, and where. Where they lack clarity someof these participants choose one kind of work as a possible option, with the intention ofhelping clarify where they may eventually focus their attention.

233

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

Given that little research in the area of creativity has examined the experiences of female
participants this will be considered separately. Eleven out of sixteen female participants
make direct references to their work choices and decisions being influenced by opportunities
available to women, or the attitudes of their fathers towards work that was appropriate for awoman to do.

For examule (participant 20):“. . . I was geared to “you are going to be married and have a family”. So you need to
do something so if your husband can’t provide for you, it would fit round having
children”. (Interviewer -So incredibly practical.) “Absolutely! So be a teacher,

you have got the school holidays! (Laughs.) Cookery and needlework, you know, if
you marry somebody who can look after you, you will have the skills to entertain.
And be a homemaker. That was the pressure. The way it went. This is what girls
do, you know, your life is mapped out. . . . So I don’t think I ever really thought
about it - at even possibly up to 18 - I think I was just swept along with it. I thinkprobably where I began to say ‘hang on a second’ probably was 18 and over. When I
was at teacher training college. I had actually been with like people up till 18. . ..
was mixing with very different people at teacher training college who had come frompeople who said why don’t you take a year off. ... So I was being opened up. So it
was at that stage I thought hang on a second. I am here for the practicalities of the restof my life - what other people are doing is living for the moment! So I think that iswhere I started to question.”

Six female participants (2,7, 18,39,40,41) made no references to parental influences
directing them to ‘female’ activities. In all cases, however, they moved towards work or
234

IChapter 6 -Early Adulthoodareas of study where openings would be expected for women (e.g. writing, journalism andteaching). Two of this group of seven (18 and 41) are at the older end of the participant age
range which places them in a time when these parental and work stereotyping influences could
be expected to be both present and significant. They appear to have avoided these influences.
In one case (participant 18) said she had no father to model this restriction, and participant(41) said she was significantly influenced by women teachers as role models who

communicated that she could and should do what she chose.

Levinson’s description of the “dream” is a fundamental part of the early adult transition andearly adulthood. It is a formation of a sense of self in the adult world, one that gets tested anddeveloped over time. The descriptions of the dream equate broadly with Enkson’s
descriptions of ‘identity’. The formulation of a dream provides focus and direction -it
influences the life structure components to be ‘lived out’. The experiences described bygroup 1 - the early starters - communicate a clearer sense of self in the adult world, connectedwith occupational choice, and choice of activity, and thereby relate more directly to a “dream”
than participants in group 2.

6.2.3 The Work Trajectory
The overview of the life structure provided broad indications of work patterns. Occupational
development is examined by looking at the patterns these individuals developed in their work

andor creative activity during this period.

The two groups had differing experiences. For ‘group 1’. (18 participants) the group where awork area or motivation had been identified and developed in childhood or schooling, this235

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthooddevelopment was continued through university education, and in the development of a career.
Generally, they had a level of clarity on ‘what’ they wished to do, and indicated that theirefforts went into finding ‘where’ they could or wished to undertake this work.

For examde: The outdoor activities teacher (13) made, initially, a ‘false start’ in thedevelopment of his career when entering a particular occupation influenced by his Father. He
rapidly made an alternative choice, and applied to a leading college to study the teaching ofphysical education. He said:“I wanted to go to (this particular college) to train to be a P.E. teacher, like Bill, myrole model. I heard stones of what a fantastic college life others had, so I applied togo there. They had a ratio of fourteen applicants for every available place, so I wasdead chuffed to get offered a place there”.
On completing his teaching certificate he decided to travel, and spent two years in Africa andCanada, at first teaching, and then studying further to convert his teaching certificate to adegree. He mamed in this period. A turning point in work occurred at the end of it when hemoved for the first time into teaching outdoor activities’:‘‘I got a three month seasonal job as an Outward Bound Instructor in the first season ofa British Columbian Outward Bound school. I loved it, being out in the mountains
with these lads doing outward bound stuff - it was really like it was it!”He returned to Britain, to an unsettled and unhappy period of temporary teaching posts.

There was a clear pattern in group 1 of trying to find a work location that matched their skills
and aspirations. This participant had focused, in the course of his degree, on leading-edge
educational ideas sought a location in which to implement these ideas.

’ Outdoor education had been part of his collegeluniversity education, he found himself at the “beginning of awave of interest in outdoor education” in this country.

236

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood“I was driving along a country lane, and I was following an army three ton truck full oflads in the back, singing their heads off. It took me right back to my memories of thecadet force at school. And I made an instant decision (clicks hisfingers), I thoughtright, I am going to join the air force. I am going to do a short service commission anddo 5 years as a physical education officer. It will be 5 years on the CV, at the sametime it is lots more adventure, and going places ... “.
His period in the RAF, the remainder of his twenties, involved two postings to bases

undergoing massive organisational and cultural change. His work starts a second ‘niche’, forhim, which continued in later years. He had to initiate programmes not previously developed
or used in his context. He described one example:“My brief was to write a P.E. programme for the new (degree/graduate) entry scheme.

I did it with ease. (...) It was just like common sense. I surprised myself how well I
managed it, and how well I involved the staff, and allocated people to jobs.
Everybody knew what they were doing. By the end of the year all the entrants had abalanced menu of physical education, including outdoor activities, and all the P.E. staff
which I was responsible for saw each student equally, in all sorts of ways.’’

It was not a smooth path of development for all of group 1. One participant (female), with afamily background of law, who had already spent many years in successful study and practicein journalism said:“I experienced a loss, a total loss of purposefulness and direction.

. . . the logicalconsequence of what I had done, four years of journalism school, and graduating withhigh honours, became opaque. There was no logical next step for me, within me.
(...) I felt like a deeply, deeply lost soul. If it had been the fashion at the time I

237

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthoodwould have said that I was cracking up. I didn’t know those words. I just knew thatany logical next step, none of them drew me”.
She initiated periods of travel, tentative moves towards further education, and an assortment ofwork, none of which gave her the focus, or direction she sought. Having become involved in
the feminist movement, she was asked to chair the final session of a major conference. She
demonstrated a skill, in part from journalism, in part from many family experiences, whichbecame an integral part of work and appeared in her thirties:“I was chairing a session where they expected 50 women, and 400 or something turned
up, from across the country, and across the political spectrum. I chaired the final
session that drew all these disparate elements together, in a way that was just gobsmacking to others, because they never comprehended it was possible. And so it wasa signal of the stuff I have come to do later on. Again, it was a skill I didn’t perceive
and truly own, but other people clearly did”.

In group 2, (with 22 participants), the group where individuals were slower to locate a chosendomain of work, there are differing patterns of experience. For example: (1) 50% of theindividuals who began a career, made ‘step changes’ within it as it evolved into a different
form; (2) approximately 25% of the individuals entered the working world uncertain of theirdirection and explored or moved seemingly randomly until they related to and settled in aparticular domain; (3) approximately 10%of the individuals developed a creative activity
outside the field of conventional employment; and (4)the remaining 15%devoted themselvesto family life.

238

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

For example: There were 11 participants in this group who entered a field of work, and made‘step changes’, progressive changes in work based on opportunities presented to them, or otherexperiences

An example of this path is a male (4),originating in the North of England, in a town with twolarge, traditional employers. He hoped, initially, for a more academically demanding
apprenticeship, but was offered a ‘craft’ (rather than a ‘commercial’) apprenticeship. He said:“(It was) a fairly traditional apprenticeship”. He followed this for its full period: “At
the end of the apprenticeship, instead of going into the regular tradesman job thatpeople went into, I was invited to move into a drawing office, a design office, which
was, if you like, a kind of promotion I guess. (...) I worked there for a number ofyears, experienced different plants and industrial processes, and designed equipment
and pressure vessels, things of that kind. (. ..) It was industrial, dirty, sometimes
dangerous. (. ..) I became aware of a growing sense of dissatisfaction with thatenvironment, that lifestyle. And wanting something better for myself, something more
personal.” His brother moved away from home in this time: “And I think that mademe realise there were other options, one didn’t have to simply remain at home. And
shortly after I started to look at job advertisements”.
Building on earlier experience of writing technical training material he succeeded in obtaining
a London-based post preparing programmed learning material/texts.
“This was a really big move,” both in personal and professional terms, where hecommenced an independent lifestyle.
After two years his boss left, and invited him to moye also to a major international company.

“In career terms I went through a glorious period I suppose where people kept tapping
me in the shoulder and saying we think it is time you moved on to such-and-such, so I
239

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

didn’t have to think about my career. Other people thought about it. And it went
very well, initially.”

In that period, at the end of his twenties and beyond, he moved through a succession ofalternating personnel and training jobs, becoming progressively more senior.

There were also six individuals who entered the working world in varying degrees of
uncertainty about their direction and explored or moved until they related to and settled in aparticular domain. For some these were happy, or positive experiences, for others they
represented an often painful process of self-exploration.

For examule: Participant 14 had joined a graduate training scheme for a large organisation andwas rotating through various departments.
“And moving to (the training department) was a highlight, because it was a job that I
immediately thought oh this is good, this isn’t like working for a living, this is

excellent. I worked for a (man who) was ex-services, a wonde&l boss, very
developing, he gave you room to do things but he was always there to guide you.”(What sort of training work did you do?) “. . . it was the general training as theycalled it. Which was supervisory and in those days we had a ‘patch’. And mine was(a division based in the North-west of England), which again was a rich experience
because there was this whole (free-standing company) up there.

So relatively early in(my) career I was talking to all the senior managers and helping them to find theirtraining, I was their training advisor on anything that wasn’t technical. That was agood experience. They had a wonderful house in Cheshire, a great Victorian pile was
the head office, and that was not exactly like hard work.”

240

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

Other participants in the sub group proceeded in a similar pattern of moving and changing
work, but against a background of difficult experiences in childhood that left them withsignificant uncertainties in locating a domain of work about which they felt positive.

For examole: One participant (3), after a background of major abuse in school and at home,
and a pattern of travelling, a maniage, and seemingly random jobs decided:“I had to get away from (the northern town). It was always going to be very low-paid
employment there. And there was still 30% unemployment. I didn’t want mychildren growing up in an area of 30% unemployment, because I realised how hard I
had struggled to get work, and it was almost impossible to get work, it was a purelottery if you worked or not.”
The time of searching for these participants was longer, in comparison with others in their subgroup, and they described self-doubts and negative self-perceptions against which theystruggled even when locating their eventual domain of work.

Further differences in the pattern of occupational selection will be explored in the following
section.

6.2.4 A Componential Theory of Creativity
Domain, motivation and change skills in the activity of participants in this period are
examined. These are aspects of creativity brought to the researcher’s attention by Amabile’s
componential model of creativity and adapted from it for the purposes of this thesis.

241

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

Amabile (1997: p42-44) proposes the model of creativity in which three factors need to bepresent for creative work to appear.
1. Domain specific skills (expertise): “. . . memory for factual knowledge, technicalproficiency, and special talents in the target work domain .. .”2. Intrinsic task motivation: a motivation driven by “deep interest and involvement in thework, by curiosity, enjoyment or a personal sense of challenge”.
3. Creative thinking skills:“. . . a cognitive style favourable to taking new perspectives (...)

and a working style conducive to persistent energetic pursuit of one’s work. (...)
creativity skills can be increased by the learning and practice of techniques to improve
cognitive flexibility and intellectual independence.”

Amabile argues that for creativity or creative work to occur all these factors have to bepresent. The level of creativity achieved is partly a function of the level at which thesefactors are present. If any are absent, Amabile claims, creative work will not occur. In thisresearch factors prompted by Amabile’s model will be examined from a longer-term
occupational perspective.

Aspects of two of Amabile’s factors - domain expertise and intrinsic motivation are examined
below, together with a consideration of the role of skills associated with achieving change inthe workplace.

This data is presented from the status of participants in the second half of the twenties - aperiod representing the closing of the ‘entry life structure for early adulthood’ within
Levinson’s theories.

242

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood‘Group 1’
Nos%‘Group 2’

Nos

Participant
Numbers:%i(2, 6, 11, 13,

15, 19,29,31,
32,33, 35,36,(27%) 39,40,41.) (4,8, 12, 14,22,
23.)

15

Participants who have located and are working
in their domain of creative activity. (i.e. “The”
domain.)

(83%)

1

I

Participants who have located ‘a’ domain ofwork and have yet to make a step or change
into their eventual domain of creative activity.

3

Participants who have not yet located a domainof activity.

Nil

(17%)

(9, 10. 17, 25,
27.)

5
(23%)

I

---

Nature of Motivation(6, 13, IS, 19,

Intrinsic motivation for the chosen area ofcreative work.

13

Intrinsic motivation for another area ofactivity, or aspect of work.

3

Uncertain or unclear motivation.

2

3
(72%)

7
(17%)

2

(2, 11.1 (10,17,25,27,
37.)
(23%)

io

(632.) (3,4,9, 12, 14, 16,
20,23,26.
(45%)
28.)

(11%)
I

I

I

I

(7, 18,40.) (I21,22,23,26.
30,34,38.)

(32%)

5
(11%)

Extrinsic motivation: e.g. to move away from
home, poverty, to make enough money to keepa family, to travel, to get promoted.

24,29, 31.32,(14%) 33-35>36,39,
41.) (8,22,
28.)

I“Change Skills”
Individuals who are demonstrating the
introduction of novelty, newness andappropriate contributions in their setting.

I (6, 13.15, 19,G10

I 24, 31,32,36,

(56%)
I

243

I

I

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthoodm‘Group 1’

Individuals who are working in settings where‘change’ is considered ‘normal’, andor where
the skills of introducing change, variation ordifference are taught and used.

‘Group 2’

11

16

(89%)

(50%)

Participant
Numbers:(2.6.7, 11.
13, 15, 18, 19,
24,29, 31.32,
35, 36.39,
41.) (1,3,4,
8, 14, 16.20,
22,23,26,
28.)

Domain-specific skills: The two groups show distinctly different patterns in table 6.5. By
their late twenties significantly more of group 1 participants had located their domain of
eventual creative work (83% in contrast with 27% of group 2 participants). Over half ofgroup 2 participants had either not located the domain of their eventual creative activity, or
were working in a domain from which they wouldímight make a ‘step change’ to it. Thismeans that the pattern in group 1 is of having achieved a focus of work faster and participants
were better placed to concentrate on the development and mastery of their domain-relevant
skills. It takes time to learn domain-specific skills. Therefore those who have located andare learning their domain relevant skills earlier are more likely to be further towards achieving
domain mastery and a capacity for introducing change creatively in that area (Gardner 1993,
Simonton 1994, Feldman 1999).

Motivational focus: This pattern also holds in the area of motivation. Seventy two percent ofgroup 1 described an intrinsic motivation for their area of work, in contrast to 14 per cent ofgroup 2. The majority pattern within group 2 during the late twenties was a motivation to
pursue another area of work, unclear motivation, or extrinsic motivation focused on theexternal aspects of their work, rather than the internal pleasure or gain from doing it.
Amabile’s (1996) theories suggest that this work focus in group 2 was likely to lead to a lower244

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthoodstandard of eventual work (i.e. either less creative, or not creative), or a focus on other aspects
than the work itself.

Change skills: This data looks at two possible perspectives on the skills for creative work
appearing at this time. The stories of participants indicated 56 percent of group 1 and 22
percent of group 2 were already demonstrating the skills of introducing new, novel andappropriate ideas and work in their work context. However it was also clear fromparticipants’ stories that the majority of group 1 participants and half of group 2 participants’
were working in contexts where the introduction of new and novel work was expected, and/or
the skills for achieving such change were taught as part of the skills for working in that
context. It seems that a large percentage of this overall participant group was working inlocations that were open to or actually nurtured aspects of creative work, i.e. the production
and introduction of new, novel and appropriate changes into their context. (For example: alarge bankrupt company in the process of an aggressive regime to ‘turn-round its work
processes and performance; a company manufacturing broadcasting equipment in a fastmoving and fast-changing industry.) In some of these settings the process of making andintroducing change was developed and taught.

We now turn to the life span development perspectives of Erikson and Levinson. Erikson’s

descriptions of the gLhstage of adult development (intimacy vs. isolation) cover the decades of
the twenties and thirties. His descriptions are phrased in general terms, but do not imply
struggles in the formation of a path of work. For Levinson, the development of theindividual’s life structure is progressive and may involve struggles, uncertainty or iterativechanges. The close of the decade of the twenties at the end of the entry life structure for early245

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

adulthood and the ‘age 30 transition’ is the first time in which the individual attempts a maior
review progress to-date in comparison with his or her expectations and aspirations. We can
examine how these participants are progressing in this respect.

Seventeen out of eighteen participants in group 1 (94%) had established a stable life structure
focused on their area of work - and eventual creative activity. No participants in group 1
seem to have ‘flaws’ in the life structures that precipitated change in Levinson’s age 30
transition.

Eighteen out of twenty two participants in group 2 have stable life structures (82%). Yet only
four of these (18%) relate directly to the area of work in which the individuals willsubsequently establish a reputation for creativity. Three women focus exclusively on family,
children and home. There is a pattern in group 2 both of searching and making step-changes
to areas and types of work these participants prefer.

6.3

The Thirties, to the Start of the Midlife Decade (30 - 35 years old)

6.3.1 The Life StructureThis time period includes the Levinsonian age 30 transition and the culminating life structure
for early adulthood.

Within Levinson’s conception of the life course the Entry Life Structure extends from 22 toapproximately 30 years old. The tasks of the Age 30 Transition are “to explore new
possibilities in the self and in the world, to become more individuated” and to move towards a“culminating life structure” for this period of Early Adulthood. Levinson (1978 and 1996)
246

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthoodand Gould (1977) both acknowledged that the life structure developed in early adulthoodwould be flawed given that it would have been formed out of provisional choices, andinexperience. This period represents a time to review and adjust the choices and structuresdeveloped to shape the individual’s adult life in this time (Levinson 1996: pl17).

How does the life structure - the top two or three priorities - change for this group in thisperiod of the thirties? The table, below, summarizes these factors:

Table 6.5: Life structure priorities - age 30 - 35:
Note: participants may appear in more than one category.
‘Group 2’‘Group 1 *Life structure priorities:

T “I_-

Occupation18

19( 100%)(+17%)

Participant
Numbers:(2,6,7, I l ,13, 15, 18, 19,
24,29,31,32,(86%)(+4%) 33,35,36,39,
40,41.)(1,3,4, 8.9, 12, 14,
16, 17, 20, 21,
22,23,26,28,
30, 34,37,
38.)~

Job search

1

(5%)
(-9%)

(6%)

(-33%)

Marriage and family

16

11
(61%)
(+22%)

rravel3

1

247(6,7, I l , 13,
15, 18.29.32,(73%) 35, 36, 41.) (3,(+41%) 4, 8,9, 10, 12,20.21,22,23,
25,26,27,28,
37,38.)

3(17%)(-27%)

Study and training(2.) (17.)

1

(14%)

(13, 32, 33.)
(1, 16,21.)(-27%)(35.)(3.4.)

2
(6%)

(9%)

(-11%)(-6%)

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood’Group 2’.~

Life structure priorities:

1“Difference” (A value or criterion used to assessjobs
or circumstances in contrast to the family of origin.)
Spare time activities

T
O
(-9%)

(6%)
(-16%)

I(24,36.) (4.9,(27%) 12, 14,34.
(+13%) 37.)

6

(2,6, i l , 15.)
( i , 10,25,27,
30, 37.)(11%)

Self-expioration (includes an exploration of
spirituality).

6

(22%)

(27%)
(+22%)

What trends emerge when the life structure of the 20s’ and 30s’ are contrasted? (i) There
was an increase in both groups towards a focus on work and family. For group 1 the focus onwork now applied to 100% - for group 2 i t was 86%, (lower as a result of the focus of someparticipants on raising families). (2) There was a decrease in the activity focused on travel
and the search for an appropriate job or area of work -an indication that periods of
uncertainty seem to have been resolved and a more settled period had emerged. (3) In group

2 there was an increased focus on spare time activities, which for these participants
represented an opportunity for creative activity to take place in these areas, (e.g.participant 14
learning to write poetry.)

6.3.2 Work Trajectory and Experiences
We now turn our attention to other background factors that occur within work experience inthis time.

248

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

Table 6.6: Summary of participants work traiectorv at this time:
Note: participants may appear in more than one category.

I
T‘Group I ’

Working in an organisational context.

(100%)

Experiencing success andor recognition in thiscontext, e.g. promotions; for novel work; being

17
(94%)

allocated major clients; being given major and‘unknown’ pieces of work to accomplish.

7

This period is a prelude to difficulties being
experienced - externally, in the context, orinternally, in the individual’s feelings about
their work.

(39%)

1

i

,
I

Participants who are not in an organisational
context. (Three are married - one is self-employed.)

Nil

Participant
Numbers:(2,6,7, I l .
13, 15, 16, 18,(82%) 19,24.29,31,
32, 33.35, 39,
40,41.) ( I , 3,4, 8.9, 12, 14,
16. 17.20.22.
23,26,28,30,
34, 37, 38.)
(2,6,7, I l ,13, 15, 18, 19,(45%) 24,29, 31,32,
35, 36,39,40,
41.)(1.3,4,8,
14,23,26,28,
30,34.)(7, I l , 13, 15,
24.29, 33.) (1,(45%) 3,4,8,12, 14,
20,21,28,

18(Note: All except four participants are working in an
organisational context at this time.)

%

37.)

10,21,25,27.

4

(18%)

The three occupational groups participants displayed or occupied in later life (e.g.
organisational, self-employed, and working 1 : l ) did not hold at this earlier time in life. One
hundred percent of group 1 participants, and eighty two percent of group 2 participants
worked in conventional organisational contexts at this time. Ninety four percent of group 1
participants experienced some form of success or recognition during this time period - incomparison with forty five percent of group 2 participants.

Approximately equal proportions of participants faced impending difficulties in their work or
personal environments. (Six of this group became dissatisfied with the work environment,249

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

what it demanded of them, and what it allowed them to contribute. They sought a change ofenvironment both in work style and content. Beyond this, the researcher cannot detect further
patterns in the pending difficulties.)

Given that one of the distinguishing factors of group 2 is not having related quickly or directlywith their domain of eventual creative activity, it is relevant to consider their patterns of workand changes in work. There are differing patterns of experience, yet the underlying patterns
remain unchanged from the twenties. For example: (1) 50% of the individuals who began acareer, made ‘step changes’ within it as it evolved into a different form; (2) approximately

25% of the individuals entered the working world uncertain of their direction and explored or
moved seemingly randomly until they related to and settled in a particular domain; (3)approximately 10%of the individuals developed a creative activity outside the field of
conventional employment; and (4) the remaining 15% devoted themselves to family life.

In summary, this reports no changes occumng in the work patterns of this sub-group at thistime. Half of group 2 participants, who start in one form of work and incrementally change
the focus of their work, all do so because of intrinsic motivation. Even if they were uncertain
about the long-term or future work, they had chosen work at that time that interested them andengaged their talents. They developed and changed their expertise from this starting point. A
quarter of the group 2 participants who moved into work uncertain of their future direction

so from very differing motivations - usually ‘extrinsic’ - and five out of six of them reportunhappy experiences as this is occurred.

Turning back to the overall group we can examine some of their experiences in this time
period. Contrasting the experience of group 1 and group 2 participants:
250

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

For example: In group 1, the architect (in his early thirties), sold his home, and took his family
to America for a year, spending part of that time staying on a farm community. He described
how:“. .. they had a Quaker background, and were living on the basis of consensus, every
major, and sometimes quite minor decisions were made in meetings using consensus
principles. (...) we met them quite by chance. We stayed there for about twomonths, and I started looking at planning communities, that is to say how, or what, isthe principle of planning an intentional community. What are the intentions, what are
the aspirations, how do you create if you like a support structure, and a series ofbuildings and infrastructures for that, without fixing it rigidly, so it doesn’t move
anywhere.”He returned to the UK intending to put this experience and these ideas to immediate use in aplanned project. This project, which he believed was confirmed, failed to materialize. These.ideas, however, turn out to be a ‘seed’ for work commenced a decade later.
“So I cast around for a job here, and soon got working with a large and growing

architectural practice in London, and quite quickly worked my way up through theranks, to a sort of designate partner. We were doing architecture with a very small ‘a’.
Architecture with a big ‘A’ was quite rare in this country, and that is what I callarchitecture which is built with feelings of love, and generosity, it is built with theintention to help people enjoy and get fulfillment by using the spaces that you create”.
Architecture with a big ‘A’ had, at least in part, been an element of his work during his
twenties.
“Architecture with a small ‘a’ is actually just another way of making money, it was agame I played, and for a while I enjoyed playing. (. ..) It was a big practice, one of251Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

the most successful in Europe in terms of building (speculative office and shop space).

I had about 25 people working for me, I was personally responsible for something like,in those days, f800 - f900m worth of business.’’
This participant eventually broke from this pattern of work and moved to smaller-scale, moresensitive projects. The circumstances of this will be described in the next chapter.

In group 2, participant 14 described a contrasting experience that illustrated a difficulty offeeling blocked and unsure of direction:“(During my twenties) I made my steps up the ladder, and got good guidance as towhen to move - I wanted to be senior management by the time I was 30, and I made it
when I was 29. (A significant achievement in that organisation.) I thought “ohgreat!”, and for the next couple of years I thought “fine”, and then suddenly I got thissense of not quite knowing what I had to do from there. It seemed like “oh, now
what?”. And it was in this context that I began to question whether I wanted to be an
airline man for life. It seemed to me that there were decisions to be made about apossible career change. (...) This milestone coincided with me getting a job with theman who was to turn out to be my worst-ever boss - I don’t think he did anything forhis staff to speak of except destroy their confidence.

(. ..) This was not a goodmental frame. (. , ,) So in this background I decided to (leave). I didn’t have a clue
what I was going to do, and I convinced myself that it might give me a year to try andbe a professional writer - an interest I had been developing since my early thirties.”

The structuring of these lives reflects the actions, change and growth in adulthood describedby Levinson’s (1978 and 1996) theories (e.g. formation of the life structure and adjustments to
it made in transitionary periods). The two groups, the early starters and the later starters, each252

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

displayed differing work and motivation patterns in the decade of the twenties (described in
section 6.2.4)dealing with the componential theory of creativity. The shifts that occurred in
the early thirties will now be examined.

6.3.3 A Componential Theory of Creativity
We now turn to the factors prompted by Amabile’s Componential Model of Creativity tocompare the position of participants in their late twenties to their mid-thirties, with changes
from the position in the twenties indicated in brackets:

Table 6.7: Domain. motivation and change-orientation during the early thirties (contrasted
with table 6.4):
Note: participants may appear in more than one category.

‘Group 1 ’Nos%‘Group 2’

Nos%

Participant
Numbers:
1 (2.6.7. 1 1 .

Participants who have located and are working
in their domain of creative activity, (i.e. “the”
domain.)Participants who have located ‘a’ domain ofwork and have yet to make a step or change
into their eventual domain of creative activity.

253

31.32, 33.35,(64%) 36.39.40,
41.) (4.8.9.
10, 12. 14, 16,
20.22.23.30,

7(18,24.) 1.3,
(32%) 17,21.25,26.
(-4)
28.)

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood‘Group 2’‘Group 1’

Nos

Participants who are still searching for adomain of activity.

%

Nos

%

1

Nil

Participant
Numbers:
(27.)

(5%)

Intrinsic motivation for the chosen area ofcreative work.

(6, I l , 13, 15,
IS, 19,29,31,
32,33, 35,36,
39,40,41.)( 3 , 8 , 12,21,
22,25,28, 30,
38.)

15
(83%:

(4)

Intrinsic motivation for another area ofactivity, or aspect of work.

3

11
(17%)

(+5)

d C

Uncertain or unclear motivation,(L24.35.) ( i ,4.9, 14, 17,(50%) 20,22,23,26,
34,37.)(7.) (16,27.)

2
(9%)
(-3)

Extrinsic motivation: e.g. to move away from
home, poverty, to make enough money to keepa family, to travel, to get promoted.

2
d C

(-9)

Other motivation, (for example coping with ormanaging illness).

Nil1(18.32.) (25.)

1
(11%)

(5%)

(5%)

(2.6. 11, 13,
15, 18, 19,24,
16
15
29,
31,32, 35,
(68%)
(89%)
36, 39.40,(4)(t9)41.) (1,3,4,
8,9, 12, 14,
20,21,22.23,
28.30.37.

individuals who are demonstrating the
introduction of novelty, newness andappropriate contributions in their setting.

254

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthoodm‘Group 1’

Individuals who are working in settings where‘change’ is considered ‘normal’, andor where
the skills of introducing change, variation ordifference is taught.

‘Group 2’

Participant
Numbers:G 6 . 7 , 11,
13,15, 18.19,
17
17
24.29, 31,32,(94%)(77%) 35,36, 39,40,
(+I)
(+6)
41.) (1, 3 , 4 , 8 ,12, 14, 16,20,
21,22,23,26,
28,30,34,37,
38.)
I(Note: The numbers, in brackets, with a plus or minus figure indicate the change from ie
figures contained in table 6.4, examining these factors in the decade of the twenties.)

There was an increase in the percentage of both groups working in the domain of their creative
work, and a consequent decrease in the figures appearing in the other categories.

In addition, there was also an increase in the number of participants reporting intrinsic
motivation for their work - yet the percentage within group 1 is still considerably higher thanin group 2 (78% in comparison to 41%). In group 2 there was also an increase in the numbers
indicating a motivation for another activity (50%).

This involved an expanded or changed

focus of interest. There is a decrease in the numbers reporting an unclear or extrinsic
motivation in group 2. Combined, these suggest more of the group 2 participants had found adomain of activity and intrinsic motivation albeit later than the pattern demonstrated in group

1.

There was also an increase in both groups of individuals demonstrating creativity skills in theircontext - through the percentages are still higher in group 1 than in group 2. The number ofindividuals working in settings where change is normal, and the skills for introducing change

255

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

are taught, also increases in both groups. Again the percentages are higher in group 1 than ingroup 2.

6.4

Other Analytical Perspectives

6.4.1 The Contribution of Influential Adults in Early Adulthood:
Literature on the lives of exceptional creative individuals in various domains indicates theimportance of the influential adult (e.g. Zuckerman 1977, Simonton 1983b, 1984d). The
influential adult can take on many roles and can provide a range of contributions, e.g. on thecontent of work undertaken, working practices, and standards to be achieved.

Influential adults also appear to play a role at this time for both groups.

‘Group 1’

NOS

Role models: Individuals who demonstrate
work skills and working practices aspired to byparticipants.

10

Mentors: The individual receives
9‘recognition’ from another person which either
offers them further work opportunity, or
prompts them into a new understanding of theircapability.

256%‘Group 2’
NOS

6
(56%)

10
(50%)

%

Participant
Numbers:(6, I l , 13, 15,(27%) 19.29, 32,33,
36,39.) (1,12,20,23,27,
30.)

(45%)

(2,7, 11, 13,
19,36339,40,
41.) (1,3, 8,
16. 17,25,27,

28,30, 34.)

‘Group 2’

Nos‘Teachers’: Contact with trainers, teachers or
professional ‘role models’: The individual is incontact with an individual who either teaches
them a new skill, or challenges and changes
their way of thinking about work.

10

Authors: Writers who have influenced theparticipant via books etc.

1

%

T
6

(6, 11, 15, 18,
20,29,
32,36,(27%)
39.41.) (3,12, 14,20,21,23.)3(35.)(27,37,

(56%)

(6%)

(14%) 38.)

17

16

Summary: Participants reporting some formof experience of an influential adult in thistime period.

Participant
Numbers:

(89%)

I

(77%)

(2,6,7, I l ,13, 15, 18, 19,
29,32.33, 35,
36, 39,40,
41.) (1.3, 8,
12, 14, 16, 17,
20,21,23,25,
27,28,30,34,
37, 38.)The following observations are added to illustrate stories behind the above numbers. A highpercentage of the sample reported being infl uenced by another adult. The percentage washigher in group 1 and more of the participants in this sub-group had more of theseexperiences, i.e. they reported experiences in more than one of the above categories.

For group 1 participants the reports suggest an opening-up of perceptions about what is
entailed in their work domain, or is possible to achieve in work. (6, 7, 11, 13, 15, 18, 19,29,
32,33,35, 36,39,40; 14 out of 16 reporting participants.)

Group 2 participants described contributions from the influential adult that were more often
focused on an understanding of who they were, or changed understanding of who they may be
as individuals, resulting in a fundamental change in their self-understanding. (I, 2, 12, 14, 16,
17, 20, 21,25,27, 28,30, 37; 13 out of 17 reporting participants.)
257

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

The group 1 pattem is similar to that found with the exceptional creative individual - in termsof their demonstration of working skills and the working practices aspired to by the individual.
Both groups report comparable levels of experience of a mentor - the person who recognises
and supports development in the younger person.

6.4.2 The Experiences of Female Participants
Three patterns emerge from the stories of women in the participant group in this era ofadulthood. First, there are three “home oriented” women who marry and devote this period
primarily to the home and child-rearing over-and-above other alternatives. (All are from‘group 2’: 10,25,27). It was a choice made in the absence of other options being understoodor presenting themselves at that time. All three knew that they wanted to be engaged in otherwork, and were capable of it, but were unclear during this period what to do about achievingthat other work. All were seemingly happy in the role of wife and mother, yet there was also
clearly a reported implication of an “unlived” element to their lives that they all knew wasthere. For all three there was an increasing sense in this period of facing this question andmoving gradually towards activity in the world of work away from the home.

Second are the six women who were involved in a relationship (that led in two cases tochildren), but were also working. (2, 18, 20, 36, 38,41.)

In each case, the story was told

with a clear assumption that there was never any other thought of not working despite therelationship or the presence of children. For all but one of these participants (41). there was alack of clarity at the time on where they would wish to work, or place their efforts. In thecase of participant 41, she married while doing ground-breaking Ph.D. research in science,258

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

traveled and worked extensively overseas with her husband at a time when that was
uncommon, and returned to make a home and raise children in the UK. She worked
consistently during the early adulthood period, sharing this time with child-rearing work. In
all cases it was on a voluntary basis, but increasingly involved pioneering work, e.g. into
establishing hospices.

Third were the seven women whose main focus during this period was work. (I, 7 , 16, 17,28, 39,40.) The motivations of this group differed. Four (1.7, 28, 39) moved into work inorganisational settings, where the presence of women was accepted, albeit unusual. In eachcase it presented them with opportunities for work and development that they might not have
had as women in other organisations at that timehn that era. Two (1, 7 ) suggested they werein that particular organisational context to make use of their energy and ability. They had

made active choices to be professionally engaged and ‘stretched’ as women and to get theseopportunities even though their actual skills and interests might have taken them elsewhere.
Two (28.39) were in organisations that matched their skills and aspirations and they
proceeded to work and develop in these contexts.

Four of this overall group (16, 17,20,40) worked in settings where the presence of womenwas ‘normal’ - ‘feminine’ occupations as defined by Levinson (1996), e.g. teaching or
administrative work. One (40) gained promotion and responsibility rapidly. Three (16, 17,20) moved hesitantly, carrying with them difficult experiences from adolescence and the early
adult transition that are centred on their fathers’ attitude to what was, or was not acceptable forthem as a woman to do. (In all cases of this sample, however, the work orientation was to‘feminine’ occupations as described by Levinson 1996, i.e. social work, teaching, academic,
and service to others.)
259

Chapter 6 -Early AdulthoodSix of the eight individuals in the 56 - 60 years old age range are female. Tho patterns ofdescriptions provided by them vary. The older age group exited this phase of adulthood in
approximately 1975, the younger in 1990. The older age group experienced the large-scalesocial changes of the 1960s’ and 1970s’ as they moved into adulthood. The younger age
group experienced adulthood already shaped by these changes. Yet females at both ends ofthis range described restrictions to their options for choice and being faced with choices basedon stereotyped ‘female’ choices. Equally, females at both ends of the age ranges described

how they broke out of stereotyped choices.

In summary (i) all of this female group maintained a focus on the working world outside thehome at some point. None expected to be or wished to remain as a ‘homemaker’ alone. (2)Feminine occupations (as defined by Levinson 1996) predominate in this group even after the
feminism of the 1970s’ to 1990s’. (3) All described a world apparently framed by feminine
stereotypes and occupations.

6.4.3 Pre-Midlife Relationship to ‘Domain’ and ‘Field’
This section looks at the apparent patterns of relationship and movement between a domain ofwork, and the fieldís in which it is undertaken during this period.

The use of ‘domain’ and ‘field’ is taken from Csikszentmihalyi’s “systems” model (e.g. 1988
and 1996), and was covered in the literature review section 2.2.4,which examined the social
context of creativity.

260

Chapter 6 -Early AdulthoodThe ‘domain’ is the discipline or dork area an individual seeks to learn and to which he or she
will subsequently contribute. The ‘field’ is the social institution or context in which theindividual works, and which contains the ‘judges’ who directly or indirectly assess the valueof the individual’s contribution in that context. For individuals to become ‘expert’ in adomain of knowledge a choice will need to be made and a focused period of learning will needto take place.

It is common in biographies of creative people to find concentration on asingle domain and field. For an individual to receive recognition from a ‘field’ time will beneeded for the work to be noticed, acknowledged and recognised.

Table 6.9 summarizes the relationship of this sample to their ‘domains’ and ‘fields’ of work:

261

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood‘Group 1’
Nos%‘Group 2’

Nos

Participant
Numbers:%

Domain:Participants who have chosen a domain ofwork and entered into a structured or organised
framework of leaning the associatedknowledge and skills.

16

Working in a single domain.

10

17
(89%)

(56%)

Working in two domains. (E.g. teaching, then into6

the priesthood. A social worker, and then a singer. A
teacher/academic. to an artist.)

9
(33%)

2

Working in three domains. (E.g. electronicengineer to salesman, to sales managedmanaging
director.)(6, 11. 13, 15,
18, 19,24,29.
31,
32,33, 35,(77%)
36.39.40,
41.) (1,3,4, 8,
10, 12, 14, 16,
20.22.23.26,
28,30, 34,37,
38.)(2, 13, 15. 19,
31,32,33, 35,
39.40.) ( i , 8.
9, 10, 12, 17.
23,28, 30.)
( i l , 18.24,
29, 36.41.)(41%) (3. 14, 16,20,
21, 26, 34, 37,
38.)

2
(9%)

(11%)

Field:
Working in a single field.

I2

Working in two or more fields. (I.e. theparticipants have moved into and out of one or more‘fields’, localised contexts in which they work andmayimay not be recognised for this work.)

10, 12,22,30,

(11%)

16
(59%)

(89%)

41.) (3,4, 8,
14, 16, 17,20,
21,23,26,28,
37, 38.)Focus on marriage and family alone during this Niltime period.

(25,27.)

2
(9%)
I

262

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

One of the anticipated consequences of working in two or more domains and fields is thatparticipants might have been distracted, or slowed down from being an expert or master in adomain, and receiving recognition from the ‘judges’ in a particular field.

For some, multiple domains may have helped creativity. In group 1 participants were
working in two or more domains and in each case these changes appear to ‘feed’ the eventual
creative work. For example, participant 36 became an acknowledged singer and developer ofthe discipline of voice teaching. One of her primary motivations in singing, and choosing
material to sing is that it illustrated the nature of human experience and the “humancondition”. She found that her study and experience in social work also shaped anddeveloped her understanding in these areas. This raises a question of whether the idea of adomain of work as a single area of focus is limited, or too constraining. Though the idea ofwork in a single domain pervades many studies of exceptional creative individuals in thisstudy of the locally creative, work in several different domains seems to combine to shape
activity in the area of creative endeavour.

For others, involvement in multiple domains may reflect a search for fulfillment. Thechanges of domains made by group 2 participants were mainly made against a background of‘searching’ for a happier or more fulfilling work context.

Shifting between ‘fields’ also had potentially positive effects. Participants in group 1 whoworked in two or more ‘fields’ reported reasons for the changes associated with gaining
experience that supported their intrinsic motivation for the work they had chosen to do. In
contrast, participants in group 2 who worked in two or more ‘fields’ reported reasons based on

263

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

their changing their minds about career course, or for extrinsic reasons like promotion or
career status.

6.5

Research Questions and Summary of Results

The key focus of this chapter has been an examination of the following research area:

Research question 2: (a) How do ‘ordinary’ creative individuals locate and develop adomain of creative activity in early adulthood? (b) How are these different from thepractices of ‘exceptional’ creative individuals and normal life span development?

We look first at the experiences of the ‘ordinary’ creative individual in this sample:
The choice of work:
The majority of participants in group 1 had made a choice on what work to become engaged inby the end of the Early Adult Transition, university-level education. The focus, the energy of
their efforts was to discover where they could or wished to become engaged in this work.
This took time, and initial choices were not always successful. These stories reflect
Levinson’s findings on the Early Adult life structure - that choices are tentatively made, andcommonly with difficulty. Their narratives suggested a higher attention to job search within
this period, which possibly indicates either their concern or their intention to find the work
location of their choosing. Even with this choice made, this sample of locally creative people
took more time to find the ‘right’ location than the exceptional creative individual in a variety
of work domains reported by (Gardner 1993, Csikszentmihalyi 1996).

264

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

One of the anticipated consequences of working in two or more domains and fields is thatparticipants might have been distracted, or slowed down from being an expert or master in adomain, and receiving recognition from the ‘judges’ in a particular field,

For some, multiple domains may have helped creativity. In group 1 participants were
working in two or more domains and in each case these changes appear to ‘feed’ the eventual
creative work. For example, participant 36 became an acknowledged singer and developer ofthe discipline of voice teaching. One of her primary motivations in singing, and choosing
material to sing is that it illustrated the nature of human experience and the “humancondition”. She found that her study and experience in social work also shaped anddeveloped her understanding in these areas. This raises a question of whether the idea of adomain of work as a single area of focus is limited, or too constraining. Though the idea ofwork in a single domain pervades many studies of exceptional creative individuals in thisstudy of the locally creative, work in several different domains seems to combine to shape
activity in the area of creative endeavour.

For others, involvement in multiple domains may reflect a search for fulfillment. Thechanges of domains made by group 2 participants were mainly made against a background of‘searching’ for a happier or more fulfilling work context.

Shifting between ‘fields’ also had potentially positive effects. Participants in group 1 whoworked in two or more ‘fields’ reported reasons for the changes associated with gaining
experience that supported their intrinsic motivation for the work they had chosen to do. In
contrast, participants in group 2 who worked in two or more ‘fields’ reported reasons based on

263

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

their changing their minds about career course, or for extrinsic reasons like promotion or
career status.

6.5

Research Questions and Summary of Results

The key focus of this chapter has been an examination of the following research area:

Research question 2: (a) How do ‘ordinary’ creative individuals locate and develop adomain of creative activity in early adulthood? (b) How are these different from thepractices of ‘exceptional’ creative individuals and normal life span development?

We look first at the experiences of the ‘ordinary’ creative individual in this sample:

The choice of work
The majority of participants in group 1 had made a choice on what work to become engaged inby the end of the Early Adult Transition, university-level education. The focus, the energy of
their efforts was to discover where they could or wished to become engaged in this work.
This took time, and initial choices were not always successful. These stories reflect
Levinson’s findings on the Early Adult life structure - that choices are tentatively made, andcommonly with difficulty. Their narratives suggested a higher attention to job search within
this period, which possibly indicates either their concern or their intention to find the work
location of their choosing. Even with this choice made, this sample of locally creative people
took more time to find the ‘right’ location than the exceptional creative individual in a variety

of work domains reported by (Gardner 1993, Csikszentmihalyi 1996).

264

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

In group 2 participants were generally still asking both what work to become engaged in, andwhere. Where they lacked clarity, some participants chose work as a possible option with theintention of using the experience to clarify where they may eventually focus their attention.
Levinson defines a period of life with structural uncertainty as a ‘transition’, but commonly of
relatively short duration (e.g. 4 - 5 years). These results suggest that many group 2participants remained in a transitionary state in early adulthood longer than Levinson would
have predicted. This extended period of uncertainty has consequences in terms of a delayed
career start-date, and delayed opportunity to concentrate in learning the knowledge and skillsof a domain.

The development of domain skills, motivation and change skills:
Drawing on the framework suggested by Amabile’s componential model of creativity, the twogroups show a distinctly different pattern of work experience and motivation.

Locating their domain: By the end of their twenties significantly more of group 1 participants
had located their domain of eventual creative work (83% in contrast with 27% of group 2participants). Over half of group 2 participants had either not located the domain of theireventual creative activity, or were working in a domain from which they would make a ‘stepchange’. This means that the pattern in group 1 was of having achieved a focus of work fasterand an ability to concentrate on their development and mastery of their domain-relevant skills.
Therefore those who had located and were learning their domain relevant skills were likely to
be further towards achieving domain mastery andor creativity skills.

Finding motivation: A similar pattern also holds in the area of motivation. Two thirds ofgroup 1 described an intrinsic motivation for their area of work in early adulthood, in contrast
265

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

to 14 per cent of group 2. The majority pattern within group 2 at this time was a motivation
for another area of work, unclear motivation, or extrinsic motivation focused on the external
aspects of the work, rather than the internal pleasure or gain from doing it. Amabile’s
theories predict that this pattern in group 2 could lead to a lower standard of eventual work or
it being less creative, or a focus on other aspects than the work itself.

Developing skills associated with change: This data looks at two possible perspectives on theskills for creative work appearing at this time. The stories of participants indicate 56 percent
of group 1 and 27 percent of group 2 were already demonstrating the skills of introducing
new, novel and appropriate ideas and work in their context. However it was also clear fromthe participants’ stories that the majority of group 1 participants and half of group 2participants were working in contexts where the introduction of new and novel work was
expected, andor the skills for achieving such change were taught as part of the skills forworking in that context. A large proportion of this overall participant group was working inlocations that were open to or actually nurtured aspects of creative work, i.e. the production
and introduction of new, novel and appropriate changes in their context. It is not clear theextent to which this facilitated their creative endeavour, yet it must be assumed to have playeda supportive part.

The domain of creative work: Prior to the midlife decade (35 years old) the patterns inbiographies change further. There was an increase in the percentages in both groups of thosein the domain of their creative work, and a consequent decrease in the figures appearing in theother categories.

266

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

In this period of adulthood there was an increase in the number of participants who reported
intrinsic motivation for their work - yet the number within group 1 was still higher than ingroup 2 (78% in comparison to 41%). There was also an increase in the numbers indicating a
motivation for another activity in group 2 (50%). There was a decrease in the numbers
reporting an unclear or extrinsic motivation in group 2. Combined, these represent a clear
indication within group 2 of having found a domain of activity and intrinsic motivation albeit
later than the pattern demonstrated in group 1.

There was also an increase, in both story groups, of individuals who demonstrated change
skills in their work context (yet the numbers are higher in group 1 than in group 2).
Individuals working in settings where change was normal, and the skills for introducingchange are taught also increased in both groups. Again these numbers are higher in group 1
than in group 2. It is possible that this environmental factor facilitated the development ofskill and the appearance of associated creative influencing from these participants.

Presence and contribution of influential Adults:
More of participants in group 1 report experiences of influential adults and have more of theseexperiences, i.e. they report experiences in more than one of the categories.

For group 1 participants the core pattern within reported experience was an opening-up ofperceptions of what is contained in work, or is possible in work.

Group 2 participants described contributions focused on an understanding, or changed
understanding of who they may be as individuals, a fundamental change in their selfunderstanding.
267

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

This difference in focus may be expected. For example, where group 1 participants havefound their domain of work, their focus is on what they may need to develop that activity,
Group 2 participants, with a longer period of ‘searching’ are stili resolving questions about
who they are as individuals, or where they wish to attach their work efforts.

Patterns of change between domain and field:
In cases where group 1 participants changed to work in two or more domains, at this time theadditional areas ‘feed‘ or contributed to the eventual creative work. However, the changes ofdomain made by group 2 participants all seemed to be based on some form of uncertainty
around work or work choice.

Participants in group 1 who opted to work in two or more ‘fields’ (in the sense of different
organisational environments) all reported reasons for the decision associated with gaining
experience. Participants in group 2 who worked in two or more ‘fields’ all reported reasons
based on their changing their minds about career course, or for extrinsic reasons likepromotion or career status.
Examined overall in this period of early adulthood there are strong indications that group 1
and group 2 participants represent two distinct patterns of development. The early
identification of a focus of work activity in group 1, the movement towards a place in which to
conduct this, and the further development of domain relevant skills occurred faster, and in amore concentrated manner than in group 2. The narrative reports of group 1 indicated that
motivation had formed as a result of childhood and adolescence experiences and was drawn onin adulthood. The need for group 2 participants to clarify their work interests, often after
268

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthoodconsiderable periods of time, indicated via their narratives not only a slower development of
their career, but the movement towards work as a vehicle for clarifying their personal
motivation. It is important to note, however, that Erikson (1958) directly, and Levinson(1978 and 1996) by implication link the identification of this key area of life focus to be
indicative of identity formation. This would suggest that group 2 participants might be acting
more slowly in reaching the decision on who they are as individuals.

The broad pattern that has emerged from the literature on the exceptional creative individual ina variety of work domains is of
Commonly a choice of work area made during childhood and adolescence, or during theuniversity years (e.g. Gardner 1993).
A move towards a study/work location that involves one or more role models that

demonstrate work standards and methods, as well as teaching and providing work
opportunities (e.g. Zuckerman 1977).
A focused period of learning, sometimes described as a ten year period, during which time

productivity and contribution emerge. If the exceptional creative individual started theircareer earlier than early adulthood (via the study and work undertaken in childhood andadolescence) significant contributions to the domain and field may emerge earlier andduring this period of early adulthood (e.g. Gardner 1993, Simonton 1994, Feldman 1999).
A focus on the ‘whole’ domain, i.e. contributing to the domain and field of ‘physics’,

rather than one in a locality. This is an important distinction to make in this study. If

Roe’s study of scientists is used as an example, these individuals were studying andworking on an area, e.g. physics or biology, that potentially impacted upon the wholedomain, rather than a localised version of it, e.g. within a single workplace as in this study.

269

Chapter 6 -Early AdulthoodGetzels and Csikszentmihalyi’s study of young artists examined people working on art in a
locality (Chicago) but who were dealing with a ‘field’ (gallery owners) that linked into thewhole field of art (other galleries and gallery owners) across the country. This body ofliterature dealing with recent exceptional creative individuals implies a concentrated
period of focus on one domain and one field (Roe 1953) though it must be said thatcounter-examples exist (e.g. Chomsky).
A peak of contribution likely to emerge, depending on the domain of work, from the early

thirties through until the mid forties or later (e.g. iehman 1953, Lindauer 1992, 1993).

Group 1 participants appear to present a pattern of development that related most closely tothe experience of the exceptional creative individual - in the early location and commitment toa course of work. However, differences emerge in the domain focus, e.g. a localised context.
Implicitly they did not perceive themselves as working in or contributing to a whole domain,(e.g. art or science).

Contribution is therefore locally focused. The details of peak of

performance and of contribution have not been possible to measure with data emerging from
biographic interview.

The participant sample shows a number of characteristics proposed by Levinson (1978 and1996) as typical in this particular life period. This is shown in:
An orientation to work and career that is exploratory at the outset and subject to change if

perceived to be inappropriate on the basis of experience gained.
The gradual shift or development of the life structure priorities over time, reflecting bothexperimentation or exploration on the part of the individuals, and a settling of choices.

270

Chapter 6 -Early Adulthood

Gradual shifts in motivation over time within the group overall, from extrinsic to intrinsic reflecting Levinson’s views on potential for ‘becoming one’s own person’ as an individual
progresses through life.

Chapter 7 examines the next time period, the midlife decade from 35 - 45 years old.

271

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period

Chapter 7 - The Midlife Period (from 35 - 45 years old)

7.I

Introduction

This chapter will address two of the research questions:

Research Question 3: Will participants experience events predicted in the literature
for the mid-life period?
And

Research Question 4: Will individuais alter I change their creative activity as a resultof experiences and decisions of the mid-life period?

To achieve this, the chapter will present:
7.2 (For research question 3) the research data against the Characteristics consideredpresent in literature on the midlife period. By doing this, the research allows for the
possibility, argued by some authors, that the midlife phenomenon does not exist.
7.2.1 The ‘external’ experiences of participants in the midlife decade.
7.2.2 The ‘internal’ experiences of participants in the midlife decade.
7.2.3 Anticipating the midlife.

On the assumption that these experiences are detected, the research will consider any
patterns that appear, their impact on creative work, and the differences, if any, between
the two groups in this respect.
7.3 (For research question 4)the research data will be examined for potential changes
to creative work, including those proposed by Elliot Jaques (1965).

7.4 Experiences of female participants.

7.5 Conclusions to the review of the midlife period.
Please note: data tables from this point present totals for the whole participant sample, as
well as groups 1 and 2. The reason for this change is that the two groups, the ‘early272

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period

starters’ and the ‘later starters’ appear to converge in their experiences from this time
period.

7.2

Midlge Experiences

A range of experiences that have been associated with the midlife in literature are listed
below. The midlife experiences of participants will be analysed against the characteristicsof the midlife shown in tables 7.1 - 7.3.

Table 7.1: “External” midlife experiences:
Midlife Characteristic:“External” (Social I family / workplace.)

Literature Source:

Relationship changes: (children becoming
more independent, parents becoming
dependent).

1979: p890; Gould 1979: p2; McIlroy 1984: p625;
Quadrio 1986: p34/5; McAdams 1993: p198;
Levinson 1996: p385; Moen and Wethington 1999:
p7; Whitborne and Connully 1999: p W 7 ; Kosenherg
er a1 1999: p58: Reid and Willis 1999: p278.

Employment:- A decision to change employment.
- The end of one career, the beginning ofanother.
- The loss of a job. The end of job
progression.
Events may represent continuity or
discontinuity with the past.

Levinson 1996.
Corlett and Milner 1993.

Moen and Wethington 1999

Table 7.2: “Internal” midlife experiences:
Midlife Characteristic: “Internai”.
(Feelings, the physical.)I

l Literature Source:
1 June 1933. Erikson 1958. Levinson 1978. 1986.

Personal questioning and re-evaluation:- Recognizing failures in self-development.

- Debating what actions or behaviours to

1996. Quadrio 1986. Neugarten 1969. Stein 1983.
Corlett and Milner 1993. Ouenk 1993. 1996. Gould
1979. Moen and Wethington 1999.
Levinson 1996
Levinson 1996.

.

I

devote oneself to in future.
~~Jung 1933. Erikson 1958. Levinson 1978, 1986,~of ageing~ and~ physical~ decline:it 1996.
i Quadrio~ 1986.
~ Neugarten 1969. Gould 1979.
McIlroy 1984. McAdams 1993. Dunn 1999.

- Recognition of personal mortality.

- A sense of time ahead being limited.

Jung 1933. Levinson 1978, 1996. Jaques 1965.
Brim 1976. Neugarten 1968. McAdams 1993.
Jaques 1965. Wolf 1991.
273

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period

I Midlife Characteristic: “Internal”.
(Feelings, the physical.)Recognition of the ‘aspirations andachievement’ gap.

Brim 1976. Levinson 1978,1996.

‘Desocialization’. (Recognition of personal

Brim 1976. Levinson 1978, 1996. Stein 1983.
Corlett and Milner 1993. Quenk 1993, 1996.

needs, hopes and ambitions in contrast to those thathave been ‘imposed’ or expected in some way
externally.)

Table 7.3: Anticipating the midlife:

Midlife Characteristic:
Personal backgroundícontext

Literature Source:

Are midlife changes/expenences ‘expected’or ‘unexpected’? (Predictability is suggested as

Moen and Wethington 1999.
Wheaton 1990
White and Edwards 1990

supporting preparation for the transition.
Unexpected changes may prove harder to respondto.)Is there evidence of personal ‘success’ inearlier life? (Assumed to reduce the intensity

Moen and Wethington 1999.

and/or make midlife experiences more positive inoutcome.)Is there evidence of a personal ‘dream’ inearly adulthood? (Assumed to reduce theDrebing and Gooden 1991

intensity of midlife experiences.)274

Chapter 7 - The Midlife Period

Research Question 3: Will participants experience events predicted in the literature
for the mid-life period?

7.2.1 The ‘External’ Experience of Participants in the Midlife Decade
The following table presents the participant data analyzed against this structure ofpredicted experiences for the midlife as listed in table 7.1

Table 7.4: External midlife experiences of participants:
Note: participants may appear in more than one category.
‘Group 1’-

Midlife Experiences External
Relationship/role changes: (e.g.
children becoming more independent,
parents becoming dependent,changing relationship with spouses?).

‘Group 2’

TT12(2. 6.7, 13,
15, 18, 19.29.
32.39.40,

18
(67%)

(81%)

8. 10. 12. 14.
16, 17,20,21,
22,25,26,27,
28,30. 38.)

I (2.6.7.
~. . 19.

Employment
A decision to change employment
or work direction.

15

9
(50%)

24
(60%)

(68%)

29. 32,39,40,
41 ) (i,3,4.
8, 12, 14. 16.
20.22.25. 26.
27.28. 30,

1
’
38.)

-

The end of one career, thebeginning of another.
~~

-

~~

4

4
(22%)

(2,7, 15.40.)( I , 8. I6,28.)

8
(18%)

(20%)

~

The loss of a job. (Or the end of
job progression, prompting anequivalent change).

6

Continuity with the past. (The pattern 01 8

9(15,24.) (3.4,8, 12,20,34.)(27%)

structure of life continues broadly as before.)

(44%)

(20%)

29,31,33,35.
36.) (9. 10.

(41%)

34, 37.38.)(2.6.7, I l ,Discontinuity with the past. (Asignificant change is experienced in the
structure, content and/or direction of life, incontrast with the past.)

10

13
(56%)

275

40,41.) ( l , 3 ,(59%)

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period

The patterns of experience appear to be very similar across the two groups - the earlystarters and the later starters.

Roles and relationships: Changes to roles and relationships reflect the full range of thosedescribed in the midlife literature. For example, children leave home, parents became ill,
some participants divorce, or separate. In other cases, changes in the work left one orother spouse more dependant economically on the other as a result of redundancy or
failures of work plans.

Employment changes: Though decisions to change employment are made inapproximately equal numbers by both group 1 and 2 participants within interview reports,
many group 1 participants had either initiated the changes themselves, or at the very least
responded to them as a natural extension of what they were otherwise engaged in doing.
There was a more ‘reactive’ tone or pattern in the descriptions of many of the group 2participants.

For examole: In group 1, the early starters, a participant working at the time as a Managing
Director, planned to make a deliberate change in his life and work on reaching his fortiethbirthday:‘‘I made a decision when I was 38 that I was going to have some major project for
my fortieth (birthday). It was a rite of passage, at the age of 40,to some kind ofachievement. (. ..) So I became physically very fit. I learned all the technicalskills to do a serious mountain walk. So I learnt how to do all these things.”

He had new work projects planned to be undertaken on his return. These will be discussed
later.

276

In contrast, in group 2, the later starters, (against a common pattern of externally promptedchanges), participant 8 described his organisation being subject to a takeover by people
who adopted a very adversarial attitude to existing working practices. He worked hard to
support the changes being requested by new managers:“I would catch the first train into London (to work in the morning) and sometimes
have meetings two or three nights a week, not getting home until one in themorning.” He became very ill. “. . . I didn’t realise I had absolutely burnt out (. ..)it was blood pressure for the most that was high”. What happened to bring thisabout for him? “Not being able to communicate my intent (to the new board). I
didn’t actually mean them any harm, I was actually there to help. They didn’t wantthat, it didn’t suit their aims.”
This example will be continued below in illustrating how it became the end of one career
and the start of another.

Career changes: The end of one career and the beginning of another occurred for various
reasons in the eight participants. For example in group 1: The architect found himself
suffering from suspected tuberculosis following overseas travel, and was put on a sustained
period of medication to treat this.
“I was put on this stuff which completely knocked me out. I had to stop doing all

this high-powered stuff, where I had 25 people working for me. (. ..) I justcouldn’t hack it, I was half asleep, and dropping off at meetings. So they put me

on to a much easier job, designing and building the headquarters for thisarchitectural practice. It made me look at what I was doing, this illness -and it
turned out that I didn’t have TB.”He left this practice, and started doing a range of other architectural work, for charities, and277

Chapter 7 -The Midliïe Periodusing alternative technologies.
“And got involved in master planning, schemes for the regeneration of dockland
areas (in many cities). Working with a lot of different groups, pressure groups,
local authorities, utility companies, and so on. I was simply a co-ordinator, my job
was to facilitate harmony, leading to decisions between all these various groups,
who were quite often at loggerheads, either through commercial competition, or
through their philosophical point of view. My job was to bring them to a point ofagreement of some sort, and to iron out a compromise, so that the project could goahead”.
These were skills associated with community planning and building that he had learnt in
his late twenties, and not practiced in work until a decade later.
“And then came the 1990s’ recession. The 80s were total craziness (in this area ofwork), it was never-never land, and then (with the recession) came reality, andabout 50% of architects were made redundant, including me”.
What he did to deal with his redundancy will be described later in this chapter.

In group 2, the experiences of participant 8 were described above and are also illustrativeof job changes. He was medically advised not to return to his former work. In the year
he had been ill he had studied and trained extensively in a range of inter-personal skills andtraining methods. These were to form the basis of a new career and a wider reputation for
creative work.

In summary, therefore, the pattern of experience of the two story groups is broadly similar
to that predicted by the midlife literature. Behind the experience, however, is a different
pattern to changes to work. Group 1 participants appeared to have been proactive ininitiating work changes. Group 2 participants appeared to show a more reactive pattern.

278

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period

Continuity and discontinuity with the past: 17 of the overall group report a life structure
remaining broadly the same through midlife experiences, whereas 23 experience asignificant change in structure, content andor direction in contrast with the past.

7.2.2 The “Internal” Experiences of Participants in the Midlife Decade
We turn now to examine experiences internal to the individual - including their personalassessment of current position, personal definition, as well as what the participant mightplan in the future. The categories used in this table are found in table 7.2 at the beginningof the chapter.

Table 7.5: Internal midlife exueriences of uarticiuants ísubiective. feelings. the uhvsicai):
Note: participants may be found in more than one category.
Participant

Midlife Experiences - Internal
Personal re-evaluation and reassessme(2.6.7, 15.

Personal questioning and reevaluation: (Major reappraisal of life
and/or career).

8

Recognition of the ‘aspirations andachievement’ gap.

3

Recognizing “failures” in selfdevelopment.

Nil

What actions or behaviours to devote
oneself to in the future.

24, 39,40,
41.) (1.3.4.

(44%)

(55%)

(17%)

(5%)

(10%)

(5%)

(2.5%)(6.7. IS, 19,
24,32.) ( I , 8,
IO. 12. 14, 16,

6
(33%)

279

26, 27,28.)

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period‘Group 2’‘Group 1’-

Midlife Experiences Internal

Total

KqT

ParticipantNos.

I( 2 . 6 . 1 , 11,

Psychological turning points: “a new10

insight into one’s self, a significant other oran important life situation ... this leads toredirecting, changing or improving one’slife”. (Moen and Wethington 1999: p14.)

22

12
(56%)

(55%)

(55%)

13, 15,24,32,
39.40.) (I. 3.
4. 8. 12. 14.
16. 11,25, 27.
28.30 )

I

Physical changes and mortality:

2

Recognition of ageing and physicaldecline.

--Recognition of personal mortality.
Death of someone close.

A sense of time ahead being
limited.

(5%)

I
3

4

1

(17%)

(5%)

(7, l8,39.)(10%) ( 3 . )

I
Nil
Nil
I Nil

Illness (including depression)

8‘Desocialization’ . (Recognition of
personal needs, hopes and ambitions incontrast to those that have been ‘imposed’ or
expected in some way externally.)Nil(7, 15.) (8,12, 16,20,
30.)
27,
(20%)

-I
I

The above table focuses primarily on two aspects of midlife experience . First, personal
reevaluation and reassessment. Second, awareness of physical changes and mortality.

The content of experiences is diverse. The following quotes are, therefore, only
illustrative.

Major re-appraisal and decisions to change:

In Group 1, participant 7 described her experiences at 39 years old:

280

Chapter 7 - The Midlife Period“I had a very stressful year! I changed jobs, my father died. I got married. I
moved house. And had a major operation.”
How did these experiences coincide in such a short space of time?
“(It was a) series of events coming together on a collision course I suppose. My
Father died. He had always been very upset, I think, that I’d stayed at (company
name). Because he always reckoned I was wasted. And for some reason, I
suppose, he died, and within a month or two, I thought he was right! I owed it to
him to move out. He’d done a lot for me. He supported me. Went without things
to put me through an education. You go through all these things. You get to thatpoint and think yeah, I owe it. Like a catalyst. (. , .) (But) I thought I am going to
make a fairly considered move. I am not going to leap out. I will do it when it suitsme. (.. .) In fact it took me about six weeks after making the decision.”
This move, into a senior management role in a leading finance company transformed her
focus on work and started a period of intense new creative activity for which she became
recognised in her field of activity.

In contrast, in group 2, participant 4,then a senior manager in an organisation,
acknowledged:“I hit a plateau (in my career) (...) I was getting typecast.” Many positive things
were happening in his work context and experience: “. .. but in career terms it was a
bit of a period of stagnation.”

A change of boss and work context prompted him to accept a company-sponsored place at
a leading university to learn new management skills. The learning methods used, and his
peer group, prompted a major period of self-assessment:

28 1

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period“. .. until then I had been encouraged to believe success came from winning.

Succeeding in spite of others. Not valuing other people and doing things yourself.
(. . .) It was a very painful period for me in rejecting a lot of my upbringing.”

Both of these quotes constitute examples of “psychological turning points”.

Illness: Three of the examples quoted above (in section 7.1.1 and this section -participants

7, 8, and 15) also illustrated the presence of illness as an experience and a catalyst tochange. The recognition of personal mortality appeared to occur with the experience ofsomeone close to the participant dying. In two cases (3,7), following the death of aparent, both individuals were prompted into positive and constructive action in theircareers which had not been undertaken before.

In summary, both participant groups reported experiences predicted in the midlife

literature. Both participant groups reported broadly similar experience levels. The
primary difference occurred with group 2 participants reporting higher levels ofquestioning over their future actions and behaviours. This would appear to be in line withgroup 2 “reacting” to these events and may represent part of their greater need to findsome aspect of themselves, i.e. creative activity.

7.2.3 Anticipating the Midlife
The following categories are cited in the midlife literature as indicators of the quality ordifficulty of experience in midlife and are listed in table 7.3 at the beginning of thischapter.. While they are not assumed to remove the issues contained in the midlife
experience, they are assumed to be indicators of a more positive outcome to the midlife
experience.

282

Chapter 7 - The Midlife Period

Table 7.6: Anticipating the midlife
Note: Participants may appear in more than one category.

’Group 1 ’

Total

%

Nos

Participant

Nos.

Midlife Experiences - PersonalContext

Nos

Midlife changedexperiences‘expected‘.

4

Midlife changesíexperiences‘unexpected’,‘Group 2’

%

Nos

5
(22%)

10

9
(22.5%)

(23%)

25

15
(56%)

%

(62.5%)(68%)( 2 . 6 . 19.29.)(12,25,26.
28.34.)(7, L I , 13, IS,
18,24,32,39.
40.41.) (1.3.
4.8,10.14,
16, 11,20,21,
22. 21, 30. 37,

3
8
)
~~~~

No reports in participant interviews.

24Is there evidence of personal ‘success’in earlier life? (Assumed to reduce the

(15%)

(9%)

(22%)

13

29
(72.5%)

(59%)

(89%)

(31.33, 35,36.) (9, U.)

6intensity of midlife experiences.)

Is there evidence of a personal‘dream’ in early adulthood? (Assumed

6

15
(83%)

to reduce the intensity of midlife

21
(27%)

(52.5%)(6.7, I l , 13,
15, 18, 19,24,
29. 31. 32, 35,
36,39.40,
41.) ( l , 3 . 4 ,8, 14, 16.20,
22.23.26.28,
30, 34.)(6, I l , 13, 15,18, l9,24,29,
31,32,35,36.
39,40,41 .i( i .
16,20,22,23,28.)

experiences.)

Examining the above table and considering the individuals who had ‘expected‘ or‘unexpected’ transitions we find the figures in both groups are broadly the same. In thissample the intensity or impact of events described did not appear to be any ‘easier’ when‘expected’.

There were no direct references to a ‘dream’ in interview reports. (The ‘dream’ within life
span literature is taken to be indicative of a sense of self within the adult world.) This

283

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Periodclassification was undertaken according to the clarity of direction expressed by participants
and the stability of the life structure established. As would be predicted from theinformation contained in chapters 5 and 6 a higher proportion of group 1 participants
appear to have a dream or goal.

7.2.4 Conclusions on the Experiences of the Midlife Decade

All participants experience some of the experiences predicted for the midlife decade by
midlife literature. There are no strong differences showing between the two story groups
in the patterns of ‘external’ midlife experiences. The primary difference occurring in thepattern of the ’internal’ midlife experience is the number of Group 2 participantsconsidering action to take in future (59%) -in contrast with participants in Group 1 (33%).
This appeared to be connected with the clarity of direction found in Group 1 participants which carries through into midlife and beyond. In Group 2 participants, there were more
incidences of new decisions occurring for future action and work and this was in theircontext of a need, or a sense of searching.

At midlife a number of participants also experienced a significant change in the patterns of
employment in organisations as shown in the table below.

‘Group I’%

NosParticipants who remain inorganisational employment.

10Participants who leave organisational
employment.

7‘Group 2’

Total

%

Nos

Nos

11
(56%)

284

%

21
(52.5%)

(50%)

4
(39%)

ParticipantNos.

(2.6. 11. 15.

11
(18%)

(7, 13. 18. 19.
29,31.32,33.
35,40.) (3,4,
9,IZ. 16.17,
22.23.2628,
34.)(27.5%)

W39.41.)(1.8. 14%20.)

Chapter 7 - The Midlife Period

1-‘Group 1’‘Group 2’

Total

Participant
Nos.

I
Nos

Participants who continue in selfemploymen t.

5Participants who are employed in
more than one location, i.e. inorganisations, and outside.

1

Participants who are married and not
employed, i.e. focusing on family.

2Yo(36.) (21,30,
37, 38.1(12.5%)(3.)(2.5%)(5%)

Generally, within group 1 when participants changed their work at this time - theirmotivation was to develop new ideas and avenues for work - whether remaining working
inside an organisation, or leaving one. Five out of seven of group 1 participants who leftorganisational work at this time did so for self-initiated reasons, i.e. of their own choosing.
Two left for reasons of redundancy.

Generally, group 2 - the later starters - participants were attempting to change direction
after being faced with blocks or difficulties. For each of the four participants who leftorganisational work at this time - it was a step towards an area of subsequent creative
activity and recognition.

While there is a different underlying qualitative experience between the two groups, theirexperiences appear to be converging by midlife. Midlife can represent a ‘self-ownership’phase - the point at which individuais make their independent choice about the work theywish to do either in organisations or outside them and this is the case for some of theparticipants in this sample. Participants appeared less influenced by the expectations of285

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period

those around them - also a description contained in midlife literature. At this point they
seemed able and experienced enough to find their own way forward.

The underlying ‘tone’ of the midlife reports is of a ‘transition’, the end of one ‘cycle’ or
passage of events (e.g. of children who are no longer ‘children’ and are reaching forincreased independence) before the start of another.

7.3 Changes to Creative Activiíy as a Result of Midlife Experiences

Research Question 4: Will individuals alter I change their creative activity as a resultof experiences of the mid-life period?

The work of Erikson (1958) in a broad population and Jaques (1965) with artists indicatesthat midlife can affect creative activity.

This question is based on:

1. Erikson (1958), whose seventh stage in the human life cycle predicted a focus on thepotential nurturing of and legacy left to the following generations (i.e. ‘generativity’).
2. Jaques’ (1965) classic article, which predicted changes to creative activity based on

midlife experiences.
Table 7.8 outlines the expected changes.

286

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period

Table 7.8: Predicted changes to creative work followine. midlife experiences:

I Midlife Characteristic:

Literature Source:

Changes to creativity or creative activity.
Erikson 1958

Generativity vs. stagnation. (A focus on the‘legacy’ to the next generation. Nurturing those that
follow and/or an increased focus on creativity and its
products.)

Creative workkareer may cease.
Jaques 1965.

Creative capacity may show itself for the
first time.
A change in the qualitykontent of creativework.
A change in work method.

Jaques 1965.
Jaques 1965.
Jaaues 1965.

Participant experiences are analysed against these headings.

Table 7.9: Changes to creative activity in the midlife period
Note: Participants may appear in more than one category.
‘Group 1’

7‘Group 2’

Participant
Noi.
.

Midlife Experiences - Changes tocreative activity.

I

Generativity vs. stagnation. (A focus on

11

the ‘legacy’ to the next generation. Nurturing
those that follow andlor an increased focus on
creativity and its products.)

Total

9
(61%)

20
(41%)

(50%)

(6, I l . 13. 15,
18,29.31,32,
35. 39.41.)(8,12.21.22.
25,21, 28’34.
37.)~

A change in the qualitykontent ofcreative work, (e.g. 15 -holistic approach

7

11
(61%)

18
(32%)

(45%)

to wk. 33 -use of music for the first time.)

A change in work methodíprocess.
(E.g. 6. 33 -language.)

Creative workícareer may cease or‘dry up’, (e.g. prompted by external

f2.6,7, I l ,13, 15. 18, 19,

6

14
(78%)

2

(27%)

changes, redundancy, economic depression.)

287

40,41.) (8, IO,
14. 16.21,(6. IS.) (4,

4

2
(11%)

( 2 . 6 7 , 11,
13. 15.29, 32,
33. 39.40.)(1.3.4,s.14.
17, 37.)

(9%)

IO.)

(10%)

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period‘Group I’

Midlife Experiences - Changes tocreative activity.

Nos

Creative capacity may show itself forthe first time. (Note: This is also being

3%‘Group 2’

Total

Participant
Nos.

TI
Nos

(2,7. 15.) ( I ,3, 17.)

6

3
(14%)

(17%)

%

(15%)

used for a ‘reappearance’ - a reconnection
with something from the distant past.)

New direction, (e.g. new work
contextl’field’. Changed role. Change tothe customers for a participant’s work.)

Changed direction (within existingworking areas.)

6

7

13
(27%)

(39%)

(30%) 26.)

(27%)

(33%)

(7, 13, 18.29,
32. 39.) (4,14. 16, 17,22,

12

6

6

(32.5%)

0 , 6 , 15, 19,24.40.41 .)( 3 , 8 , 14,25,
27. 28.)I
continuity with prior work context.)(6%)(31.) (20,23.)

3

2

No report. (Implicitly this involved(9%)(7.5%)

Participants in both groups experience changes to creative activity in the midlife period(94% of group 1, and 86% of group 2). However 67% of group 1 participants experienced
three or more changes, in contrast to only 23% of group 2 participants. This could suggest
an early and enduring relationship with a domain of work opens the individual to more of
midlife changes than a later and less enduring relationship with a work area.

Turning now to the individual areas of change:

Generativity vs. stagnation: References to “generativity vs. stagnation” were primarily
associated with descriptions of bringing on others, or deliberate attention to the systemic
context, i.e. caring for those around, and the future of those around. The primaryreferences were to children. In other cases (e.g. 6, 11 and 34) it was to developing a teamof associates and the effectiveness of a company’s operation as a ‘system’.

288Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period

In three categories (generativity vs. stagnation, a change to the qualitykontent of creative
work, a change in work methodprocess) a higher proportion of group I show changes thangroup 2. In the other four categories the reported levels are broadly similar. Many of thechanges to creative work predicted by Jaques (1965) for artists occurred for this sample.

Selected illustrations of these experiences are as follows:
The creative work may cease or dry up:
The architect’s (15) redundancy, loss of work and marriage breakdown had been referred

to earlier. What followed was a gradual and progressive rebuilding of his working careerin different settings, using skills that were components of his architectural work. For
example, he sold project management as a service in different business settings. The skillsof assessing and defining problems and the goals of change became something that wasoffered as another service, and subsequently taught to others. The experience of runningteams and business operating were used in part-time management roles. Each of these,combined with others, newly developed, to form a new career which has led to nationalrecognition of his skill and ideas, the publication of one book, and a contract to produce asecond.

The ‘rebuilt’ career represented a significant change from the previous ‘life structure’

Creative work may show itself for the first time:
Participant 3 (in group 2) had undertaken voluntary work for the first time in his late 30’s(with his main work continuing to be in the construction industry). He coordinatedsupport to patients living at home with a particular terminal illness, and to those actuallyworking with these individuals. The quality and professionalism of the counselling andtraining work he offered, with no prior experience in this domain, led to positive feedback289

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period

and job offers. He continued to work part-time in this field for the following period while
undertaking professional training. He commenced full-time work in this domain in his
early 40s.

A chanpe in work methodprocess:A management trainer (14 in group 2) had come from a background where training

delivered was in set and defined ways, that would be considered ‘teacher or trainercentred’ rather than ‘learner-centred’. He described how he shifted from one approach tothe other:“. . . I think because I feel very confident that I can go where the group will lead me,
I guess I am more comfortable with that, and I’ve got a grasp on what I mustdeliver against what’s advertised. I worked out in fact that you can deliver(advertised material) at a number of levels, and I stopped worrying about having todeliver exactly the same teaching. And I guess there has been something going onin the background (,..) and maybe I’ve got different messages in my head now but the learning, I mean it sounds very silly to say the learning is the more
important thing than the teaching, but I think I am more tuned in (. ..) to what
they’re learning, and they have very different readinesses to leam at different
levels. (...) I am aware now that in some groups I am covering certain things andit’s completely over the head maybe of some of the group. And I don’t worry aboutthat any more providing I’m satisfied that some are learning at a level that’s
appropriate for them. Others will come to it and their subconscious may take it on
board when they’re ready. (. ..) But I think probably that’s the factor, that I’m
more tuned into people, to being more of a facilitator, than a teacher.

290

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period

Chanped direction (within existing working areas):
The outdoor pursuits teacher (in group i), following a period of major organisationalchange at the university, was allocated to the University’s business school. The school
had a lot of uncertainty how to use a physical education teacher in their context.

“I was offered the opportunity of joining the staff team for a brand new MBA
programme, a combination of taught course, distance learning for managers thatwere in jobs. It was part-time, two evenings a week. All the course work had torelate to real work issues. When they wrote assignments it had to relate theory towhat they were actually doing. So the big newness was that it had to accommodate
people’s experience as well as being intellectually demanding. It required adifferent way of learning from these men and women - if they were coming
expecting to sit quietly and be taught by tutors, who were doing ail the talking, it
would not work. So it became my job to design an induction programme to breakthrough traditional attitudes to learning, and to sow the seeds for “you areresponsible for your own learning”, and that “all the resources you need to get yourMBA exist in your own group”.”
This drew on skills first learnt in his early twenties, practiced in the context of the RAF,
developed further in learning he had privately undertaken, and brought into a work context
in a new form during his forties.

The changes to creative activity described above appeared often to be linked to lifechanges outside the control of the participants.

7.4

Experience of Female Participants

Levinsonian literature (e.g. Furth 1990: p27; Helson 1999) indicates midlife can be an
important time of change of priorities within women’s lives.

291

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period

Forty percent of the research participants are female. Six out of sixteen women wereinvolved in a marked change in work direction during the midlife period. They had a prior
background of work in varying domains and fields. They then made a break with the pastand moved into a new direction of work. These individuais appeared to come more into
their own choice or direction. (Group 1 = 2 , 7 , 3 9 , 4 1 . Group 2 = 20,28.) In all cases
they built on prior work while taking significant steps into new areas of work, e.g. ajournalist who becomes an author - a mother with extensive experience of voluntary work
becoming a management trainer.

Five continued activity in the same work: (Group 1 = 18,36,40. Group 2 = 16.38, ) but
also evident was continued professional growth and change within this area, e.g. movingfrom one form of training into a more advanced and demanding arena.

Two of the women emerged into the working world from a previous history of primarily
focusing on married life. These two women (25,27) undertook training in a domain ofwork while continuing to focus on marriage and their family. To undertake this training
was a significant decision and change for these two women, in contrast with their prior life
patterns and priorities.

One participant ( i ) left a work domain in which she had been highly successful and thenmarried. She had experienced disenchantment in this prior domain and commenced asearch for a new domain of activity that would continue into middle age.

One woman (10) married for the second time while also continuing to search foropportunities to work in a particular domain. A second (17) found, finally, an area of292

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period

work about which she felt positive and commenced extensive and progressively more
complex education to support her development of work in this domain. This movefundamentally challenged beliefs and experiences she had held since childhood of“education is not for girls”.

In summary, while female participants had varied experiences in the midlife period they
continued to display a complexity of goals pursued in contrast with the biographic reports
received from males (i.e. marriage or relationships, concern for children, struggling withvalues received earlier in life about ‘education is not for women’) and the impact these
may have on a choice and pursuit of creative activity. They also appeared to move more
into work of their own choice.

7.5

Conclusions to the Review of the Midlge Period

Research Question 3: Will participants experience events predicte for the mid-life
period?

All participants reported some external and internal experiences predicted by midlife
literature.

In reviewing (external) changes to employment group 1 participants showed a marked
tendency of either initiating the changes themselves or at the very least responding to theextemal changes as a natural extension of what they were otherwise doing.

In considering changes internal to the individual, the content of reports were diverse withapproximately equal numbers in both groups reporting becoming involved in personalquestioning and reappraisal, as well as ‘psychological turning points’ - gaining new

293

Chapter 7 - T h e Midlife Period

insights into one’s self or circumstances (56% of group 1 and 55% of group 2). The group

2 participants were more likely to describe themselves as considering what actions or
behaviours to devote themselvesto in the future. (Approximately two thirds of group 2 do
this in contrast to one third of group i.) The researcher interprets this as illustrative of theeffort or work from group 2 to find an activity that related to their interests and motivation.

This period does have the quality or ‘tone’ of a transition from participants’ descriptions they are making shifts in the underlying structure of their lives (by Levinson’s definition ofthis term).’ As such, in the characteristics of a transition, this period represents a starting
point of change, not a finishing-point, The changes initiated in this period generally
continue into middle age.

For a number of participants there is also a quality or ‘tone’ to the descriptions of changes
made where the participants’ make more of their choices, and were less influenced by the
expectations of others they may have responded to in the past.

Research Question 4: Will individuals alter / change their creative activity as a resultof experiences of the mid-life period?

Thirty seven out of forty participants alter or change some aspect of their creative activity
as a result of experiences of the midlife decade in ways predicted by either Enkson (e.g.
1958) or Jaques (1965), or both.

Forty two percent of participants described or reported a peak period of achievement
during the midlife period within an organisational context. This peak is seen ‘in

The life suucture is formed from the top I - 3 priorities of the individual -the psychosocial aspects of
their life that they choose to live out. This is defined more fully in the literature review section 2.3.2.

294

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period

retrospect’. This ‘peak’ is consistent with the literature on creative productivity andachievement. In all except two cases these participants made a switch to a new work
context, either by choice, or through necessity. While acknowledging the peak ofachievement within an organisational context, it was clear from these participants’ reportsthat they believed other forms of achievement stili remained open to them, and clearly thiswas important to them.

About half of participants reported experiences at midlife that within their story were
pivotal to their creative activity and the achievement for which they were or subsequently
became recognised. There were no completely new, or completely novel changes. All
had some antecedents in experience or skills, even where those skills were subsequently
redeveloped and changed.

About half of participants reported significant changes in self-perception; often a negativeand inaccurate self-perception, was subsequently discovered and confronted in the mid-life
period. In four of the cases it was associated with intelligence and/or ability - forexample, the perception or belief that they were not intelligent, disproved by a particular
event or development.

This examination of the midlife decade was weighted towards an examination of its
component parts as part of a process of determining the nature of experience that took
place and whether predicted experiences could be confirmed as occumng at all.

Yet there is a further question that it is appropriate to ask. Is this period as big a milestone
or transition as some of the literature implies? Taking Levinson’s concept of the life

295

Chapter 7 -The Midlife Period

structure, the 1 - 3 priorities or choices through which an individual will live-out
themselves in a social context:

23 of this overall group experience fundamental changes that affect the future directionof their lives.

19 of this group make choices over the direction of this change - 4 participants are
involved in experiences where this change came from some other occurrence such as
illness or organisational change.

Chapter 8 will examine ways in which the changes develop that have been initiated in thisperiod.

296

Chapter 8 -Middle Age

Chapter 8 - Middle Age (45 - 60 years old)
8.1

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to address the following research question:

Research Question 5(a) In what ways did the creative activity of these individuals change in ‘middleage’?
(b) Do these individuals display evidence of “the late life style”?

To address this the chapter will present:
8.2 Reported changes to creative activity in this life period.
8.3 Changes in contrast to earlier ways of working.

8.4 Plans for the future - anticipated and planned changes in work.

8.5 These lives in retrospect - perspectives offered from participants on key experiencesand events through time.
8.6 The experiences of female participants in this time period.

8.7 Perspectives on “decline” in middle age.
8.8 Conclusion
It should be noted that the nature of participants’ accounts changes in the material presented inthis chapter - from reminiscences to include descriptions of what is happening ‘now’. The
nature of the narrative reports offered by participants involved material in response to aninterview request based on the unfolding of life as a whole - how their work changed and.

developed over time. The interview analysis suggested a coherence within the stories that did
not change with the move from reminiscences to current descriptions.

297

Chapter 8 -Middle Age

8.2

Reported Changes to Creative Activity in Middle Age
int mal to th individual,

The reported experiences of this participant group indicated cha
externally in their context, work they chose and how they did it.

Table 8.1: Described changes to creative activity in ‘middle age’ (i.e. Dost 45 years old):
Note: participants may occur in more than one category.
‘Group I ’

NosIncreased sense of confidence in
work.

%

3

‘Group 2’

Total

%

Nos

Nos

3
(17%

Engaged in reviewing the past,‘correcting’ or adjusting theirperception of it.

(14%)

Increased sense of clarity on personal‘mission’ and ‘skills’. (Redirecting
or focusing work accordingly.)2(12.5%)

2(24, 31.) (22.
26.)

(10%)

(9%)

3

(14%)

298

(10%)

4

L
Redirecting their career in order toslow down, do less, give more focus
to family.

(6.32.) (3,
25.)

4
(9%)

(11%;

(2.) (3, 14. 16.
26.)

5

2
(II%,

(2,6,7.) (3,16,26.)

(15%)

(18%)

2

%

6

4

Aware of the difference ageing andormortality would make to their workand decisions, (e.g. they have lessenergy, or are using their energy indifferent ways in order to conserve it.)

ParticipantNos.

(20.22.37.)

3(7.5%)

Chapter 8 - Middle Age+
T “i“’Group 1 ’‘Group 2’

Nos

Participants not represented in the
categories above.

13

1 Participant

Total

%

14
(72%)

(67.5%)(64%)( I l , 13, 15.
18.19, %,29
33,35,36,39,
4Q4I.ì (134.

External to the individual~

New workíactivities: (e.g. a broad
range of responses describing newactivities undertaken, such as writingbooks, making videos, bringing new
subjects into training work.)

12

A new work method, (e.g. several
trainers describe working from a ‘colearner’ perspective rather than that of‘teacher’ imparting knowledge.)

10

Systemic focus to work activity: (e.g.
focusing on making a contribution tothe ‘whole’ system, rather than alimitedíisolated part.)

5

A new perspective on work
undertaken: (e.g. takes account of far
more in work and decisions - or much
more aware of what is not known.)

4

Loss of a valued work context and

2

10

20

3

8

3
(14%)

(11%)

299

(6.7, I l , 13,
15. 18.31, 32,
36,40.) (4,14, 16. 17.22,
25. 26,28,31,
38.)

í6,7,lI,l3,
32.) ( 14, 17,26.1(17.5%)(3S, 36.)(34.)(7.510)

(5%)

4
(9%)

18, 19.29.31,
32, 33, 36,
41.)(1,4,8,
I O , 14, 16, 17.
21, 22, 23,26,
27, 28.30, 34.
38.)(6,24,3 I , 36.)(3, 20, 25.)

3

2
(11%)

(7.0%)

7

1

2

(50%)

(14%)

(22%)

(6,7, 13, 15,

(70%)

(45%)

(28%)

:olleagues. Faced with work theparticipant has no wish to do.

\To reports of changes made.

(73%)

(56%)

~

28

16
(67%)

~

(10%)

(2,39.)(9, 12.)

Chapter 8 -Middle Age

The patterns of comments made are broadly similar across the two groups. There is nomarked differentiation between them. It is notable how widely participants interpreted anyquestion about the nature of creative activity in this time of life. Selective examples ofresearch data are examined from two directions, internal and external changes.

8.2.1 Changes Internal to the Individual
Fourteen out of forty participants made comments in this area. Two examples are used toillustrate these changes.

Confidence in work

For example: The counsellor (3), when asked to contrast ways of working now, with several
years ago, responded:"Confidence. Confidence. I am now an experienced practitioner. (...) I know I
can't 'fix' things. I have, at times, a deep influence. There (was) a sense of selflimiting, self-limiting, self-limiting. (...) A voice in the back saying you couldn't dothis. You aren't very good at things. Look, here's someone not changing, and you've
been with them. You aren't very good at this. There was something of that i l k .
One of the trainers (6) offered a slightly different perspective:"The more I do this, the more I realise I am good at it, so I don't have to test (check) so
often. What I would do was to test almost every step, am I doing okay, am I doing
okay, am I doing okay. Now I can test every half hour, or whatever. I don't have togo test, test, test, test, test, test, test. I just go test, seems to be going okay, (and thenafter a while) test again. So it is kind of improving my skill of being able to do thisand to trust myself".

300

Chapter 8 -Middle AgeThis may follow the accumulation of ‘experience’ with its consequent effect or influence on
an individual’s ability, confidence in and comfort in working.

Integration of personal ‘mission’ and ‘skills’
Participant 24 described another perspective on how he had reached a clearer and more
comfortable sense of who he was as a person, and how that integrated with his work:“A11 I would say is I get a lot more fun out of things than I did before. I have always
enjoyed my working life - but I get more fun out of it now. Because 1 feel totally free,
there is more going on up here (pointing at his head) than there was. Because any
restraints, if that is the right word, disciplines, and things you felt you should have if
you were in a working situation, just aren’t there anymore. I don’t think of myself as
being any different between work, and outside work. And I think a lot of that is that I
don’t worry about the politics. I make my impression, and I go away and I don’t
worry about it - I know I am not going to let myself down - I am totally relaxed withmyself and the way I present myself. And I have no hang-ups about people, in termsof seniority. I am more natural, and I can have more fun, and confidence toexperiment.

.

(. .) it started a couple of years after I started (self employment) - it

took me a couple of years not to be an employed person, as it were. And then it started
to be different. And you realised that people were calling you in for a particularreason. And you then realised that people wanted you to be like this, so you felt the
freedom then to give them what they wanted. And then as you learn more about
yourself, like not worrying about being stuck, you think that’s great, let’s really go for

this. So it is richer up here (head), richer in delivery. And i would see that
continuing. I don’t see any reason for it not to.”301

Chapter 8 -Middle Age

While the majority of participants did not reveal any clear change at this time a minority
showed a marked increase in confidence and comfort in work.

8.2.2 Changes External to the Individual
The second area was of changes that were external to the individuais, such as work direction
or work process. Three examples follow:

Work Direction (e.g. new work or activities)
Thirty three participants (82.5% of the total) embarked on some form of change to their workin the first four categories of this section of the table. The pattern within the group is varied.

For example: A former business chief executive, soon to be a composer, developed a range ofskills necessary for her new musical work. A senior human resources manager within amajor business had experienced difficulties as a result of an organisational restructuring, and a
new boss. He decided to accept voluntary redundancy, and searched for a new job. Thistranspired to be management consulting and writing. Another former chief executive decided
to return to a previously unfulfilled dream of being an independent trainer and coach.

Behind the data in the table, thirteen participants made moves prompted or caused by external
circumstances, i.e. business or economic changes (nos. 3,4, 17, 19, 20.21, 22,24,26,28,34,
35.38). Would they have made these changed if outside events had not occurred? Nine

participants indicated that this would have been the case - and that extemal circumstances
became the framework for a direction that was already developing in their thoughts.

302

Chapter 8 -Middle Age

A New Work ProcessMethod
Twenty participants indicate the start of a new way or process of working - the second
category in the external part of table 8.1. Given the diversity of occupations, there is not acommon pattern in these changes, hut for five of these individuals this change of processrepresents a significant move from an earlier way of working.

For examole: A trainer ( 6 )describes:'I...

I was starting to use more and more unconscious teaching, rather than cognitive

teaching. (...) to set up a thing, have you explore it, and then you discover for
yourself what that's like. ... for the first time, when I did it with this group, ... I'mgoing to let them explore it, then I am going to reveal what the structure is if that's
appropriate. It was a different teaching process I used."

The female senior manager (7), having made it clear that earlier ways of working involved
high levels of control on her part, tells now of"... (liking) big pictures, the long-term, where I am trying to go, and I like to let people

get me there - with minimum intervention, except when I need to coach them, or help
them, or support them. And more and more as a manager I see my role as setting
direction, and helping everybody else get there".

A management consultant and trainer (1 l), having come from a background which hedescribed as characterised as either 'I'm okay, you're not okay', or vica versa, told of afundamentally different orientation in his approach:"I have got a really interesting dilemma here, because (if) I sincerely believe that you
need to change your thinking and the way you do things, but if I come in here and say
303

Chapter 8 -Middle Age'hey client, you're wrong, you should do it this way' I am not role-modelling the way I
need to be, I am actually committing the very same thing I may be accusing you of.

So, how do I role model excellence and coach in a way that still allows you to be who
you are, and what you represent, but by changing the way I am, that ripples out, andinvites you to explore what is happening here. And by increasing your understandingof what is happening here, you then develop new strategies (forworking)".

The university teacher of outdoor pursuits (13) took a sabbatical, and worked temporarily withan external training organisation, also focused on offering learning via outdoor pursuits.
"The thing that really struck me about the way they worked is that the staff actually
talked about what they were doing with students as a team, and every course wasreviewed as a course team. After twelve years of my (university) work where youwere just beavenng away on your own, I felt just wonderful (in this) new experience
just being able to talk to colleagues about what was going on. Planned a review,
actively support each other. The staff were saying "what I want for myself out of thisprogramme is...I'

and "the support I want from you is ..." - that is how they worked as amatter of routine. It really inspired me to bring this to my work, I enjoyed it somuch."
This prompted him into using similar methods himself in other contexts.

Loss of a valued work context

For a few, however, the changes occuming at this time were not positive, and involved a lossof both a valued work context and colleagues. Participant 35 worked in a major academic
institution and performed consultancy work as part of his role.

304

Chapter 8 -Middle Age“What I wanted from the academic world was intellectual stimulus and challenge, andthe capacity to grow oneself intellectually. But the sort of job I was in, andprogressively being in, was one that was systematically destroying it, root and branch.
(...) that was because you would finish one consultancy project, and you would

immediately be given others. And I was running consultancy projects four and five at
a time. And it was reaching a point of literally the feeling of plate-spinning, thatsooner of later something was going to crash. And (. . .) that if you reach your targets
for (revenue) this year, next year it would be (doubled) is true.”
The turning point for him was when his revenue targets and support facilities were changed
without any discussion with him, despite his seniority.

“I wouldn’t have an office or a desk any longer. I would share an office and a desk,
because funds are tight, this sort of thing. So that is what I meant about thepsychological contract being broken. That I think the academic world as I knew it isdead, and these places are sausage machines. The academic world has been turned
into a sausage processing plant.”
This experience brought him to leave that work piace and move into a significantly different
one.

8.3

Changes in Contrast to Earlier Ways of Working

A further aspect of change to creative activity in this age period is how these participants
perceived their work to be different from that undertaken earlier in their career, as illustrated
in the table below.

305

Chapter 8 -Middle AgeTable 8.2: Contrasts between their current and Drevious wavs of working:Note: participants may appear under more than one category.

1 ‘Group 1’ I ’Group2’ I Total

I ParticiDant I

Increased skill and improvements towork methods.

I-7

Increased interpersonal and emotional
skills.

4“It is harder to keep up, both

1

5
(23%)

(39%)

I
(22%)

professionally and personally.”(30%)(2, 18, 19,24.
29.31.36.) (89, 14, 16.25.)(27.5%)(6. 19,35,40.
(3. 12. 14. 16.
17, 25, 37.)

12

11
(32%)

Nil

1
(2.590)(6%)

Sense of self
( I l , 13. 15,

Changing beliefs about the ‘world’and ‘self‘.

5Ageing - personal mortality.

2

6
(28%)

(27%)

3
(1 1%)

Less driven or impetuous as a person.

22

Less influenced by the expectations ofothers.

1

Aligning sense of selfhdentity withwork undertaken.

4(27.5%)

4(12.5%)

(15%)

(18%)

(11%)

(6. 35.) (8, 25.
27, 28.)6

235,39.) (3.4,
14, 17,26,
27.)(6, 13.)(3.25,
26.)

5
(14%)

(11%)

Increased learning, and ability tolearn.

11(6.7.) (17.
20.)

4
(10%)

(9%)

L
-

(6%)

(5%)

3
(22%)

306

(5%)
(11,31,40,
41.)(21,26,

7
(14%)

(17.5%)

27.)

‘Group 1’

Nos

Achieving a clarity of direction andor
motivation that was lacking when
younger.

1

Taking a broader work perspective(e.g. systemic, strategic or long-term
as well as short-term).

5

Expanding and learning new work
methods.

4

Total‘Group 2’

Nos

%

%

I
Nos

%

(7.) (8, 16,

4

3
(6%)

Participant
Nos.

38.)

( 10%)

(14%)

2
(28%)

(9%)

6

lo (25%)

(27%)

(22%)

I

(6, 11, 13, 15.)
(i.3, 8,14,
16.25.)

I

I
Achieving things through others,
rather than personally.

l2

Nil

(31, 32.)

2

(11%)

(5%)

I
No perceived change

I

Minimal perceived shift: i.e. they holdthe same views of themselves andtheir work.

IlI(24.)(23.)

2

1
(6%)

(5%)

Participants were asked whether they noticed any contrast between their current and previous
ways of working. It is notable that this is a relatively broad range of descriptions, and is
focused more at the level of the person rather than on the detail of work. The descriptions
included changes to how they saw themselves as people and how they worked.

Most participants in both groups show a contrast between their current and previous ways ofworking - 89% of group 1 participants and 77% of group 2. The number of changes citeddoes, however, vary with 61% of group 1 describing 2 or more contrasts, as opposed to 41%
of group 2.
307

Chapter 8 -Middle Age

A small number of participant quotes will be used to illustrate this experience.

Changing beliefs about the world and self

For example: Participant I l came from a background of disability and associated feelings ofmarginality. He had worked extremely hard on these feelings in the previous decade. In aquote used, in part, earlier, he commented on changes to his work over time:"The difference was that I was coming at it from the "I'm not okay" position, which I
then flipped into "I'm okay, you're not okay".
Talking from a position where he now believed he works with people from a point of equality,
he said"It has taken me some years to get through that, and I think I'm through it now -and

that's a difference between how I go about things now in my mid-forties, compared to
how I would have done it, say, in my twenties and thirties."

Increased intemersonal and work skills:
This commonly involved changes in the level of personal confidence that impacted work andpersonal skills. For example, the female senior manager (7) described how:"the biggest change in me has been over the last two and a half years. There is no two
ways about that, in terms of work, and what I think I can do. Now whether that is
because I have a boss (...) - he has an infinite belief in my capacity, in the sense that heover-realises what I can do. But like to him there is nothing I can't do. (...) And
probably until the last two and a half years I have never felt vaguely fulfilled in a job.

I sense, for the first time, I am actually using my brain properly. I'm pushing it. And
1 surprise myself with the capacity sometimes. This isn't me bullshitting, in terms of308

Chapter 8 -Middle Ageme actually achieving things, and looking around, I see in the last two and a half years
that improving, or getting better than the previous five."

Expanding and learning new work methods:
Four participants, (6, 11, 13, 14). all trainers reported similar changes to their work process.
For differing reasons, and in differing ways, they had each reached a point of working as "colearners" with the people they are engaged to train. For example, participant 14, coming froma background where he presented very precise and controlled material told of his change:"... I feel very confident I can go where the group will lead me. I guess I am more

comfortable with that. (...) I have stopped worrying about having to deliver exactly
the same teaching. (...) But (my) learning, it sounds very silly to say, the learning ismore important than the teaching, I think I am more tuned in to what they are learning,
and they have very different readiness to learn at different levels."

8.4

The Future - Anticipated and Planned Changes in Work

Anticipated and planned changes in work are also an indicator of activity at this age.
Therefore, what did participants expect from the future, in either plans to change the way they
worked, or future challenges?

Table 8.3: Future changes planned or anticipated in work:
Note: participants may appear in more than one category.
ParticipantI

New projects: (e.g. new products,
businesses, work, book, methods.)

(39%)
I

309

I

l

Chapter 8 -Middle Age‘Group 1’‘Group 2’

Total

Participant
Nos.

Er! T INos

New developments: (e.g. to existing
patterns of work, relationships orcommunications).

5

New directions: (e.g. rethinking andredefining their present direction ofwork).

6

3

8

(28%)

(14%)

4
(18%)

“Staying open to events”: (e.g.
Nilparticipants report “I’ll wait and see”.)

3

Skill development.

2(6%)

Coping with physical changes anddifficulties. (E.g. impact of certain
illnesses and physical changes nonwork.)

1

New Projects: Non-work, i.e. taking
up art, and learning music.

2

No changes plannedíanticipated.

1(7, I l , 15. 18,
40. ) ( l . 3, 8.)(25%:(2, 13.31,35,
36,41.)(20.
23,26,28.)(9, IO, 27.)

(7.S%)

1

Nil

(20%:

10

(33%)

Future is seen with unhappiness or
uncertainty.

%(33.)(8.)

(5%)
(34.)

1
(2.5%)

Nil

1(2.5%)

(6%)

2
(11%)

(5%)

(32.1 (4. 12,

5(6%)(33.41.)

16, 21.25.)(23%)

The patterns of descriptions across the two main groups are again broadly similar- yet group
1 participants seem to be involved in more future plans for work than group 2. The changes

described by participants are about desired or anticipated changes. They tend to begeneralized in their nature. When examined in conjunction with table 8.4 below there may be

310

Chapter 8 -Middle Ageindications of why the plans are more generalised. (There are some indications appearing intable 8.4 of uncertainty in the ‘tone’ of interview reports in ‘how’ to achieve desired change.)

Participants were also asked about challenges they faced. This question accessed anemotional perspective on the difficulties anticipated within planned changes described above.
Second, it surfaced indications of decisions to change not yet made, or with which participants
were struggling.

‘Group 1’

Nos

Developing a change in the work
method or process currently used.

4

Developing planned new work
projects.

3

Developing current work projects.

2

%

(22%)

‘Group 2’

Total

%

Nos

Nos

5

(23%)

19

ParticipantNos.

%(22.5%)(6, I l . 18.31.)(i, 3, 17,25,30.)(19.24.35.)( i , 4. 8, 28.)

(17%)

(11%)

Making a decision on a change indirection.

5

Achieving further recognition andinfluence.

2

3-(7,32.) (IO.)

5
(27%)

311

(2, 1 I, 29. 39,
41.)(14,20,

10
(23%)

2
(11%)

(7.5%)

(5%)

(25%)

(15. 18.) (8.

4(9%)

23, 26, 28.)

21.)

(10%)

*

Chapter 8 -Middle Age‘Group I’

Finding new work.

Maintaining a balance between workand private life.

Personal and domestic challenges‘Cxoup 2’

1

12

I3

1

Nil

1

(40.1

,
Nil

Ageing

Nil

(5%)

(9%)

3

1

(7.5%)(32 )1(2.5%)

(6%)

5
(11%)

(3.23, 25.)

3

Nil

2

(16.27.)

2

2

(14%)

No described or perceived challenges.

(33.1 (4.38.)(2.5%)(6%)

Changing domestic circumstances andrelationships.

Whether or not to retire.

Participant
Nos.

Total

7
(23%)

(17.5%)(13,36.)(9,12. 22, 34,
37.1

In this sample, a larger number anticipated change and described feelings or uncertainties
associated with this rather than reported specific planned changes. In addition, different
descriptions of time are evident - some participants looked years ahead, others looked only
months away. In all except three cases (6, 14, 19) the challenges represented an incremental
development of a previous position. There is a significant element in these descriptions of
how to plan and bring about change. The challenges participants perceived in this, and theassociated uncertainty may have been affected by personal skill. Another perspective is thatmany of them have moved out of organisational work, and now work for themselves - this hastaken them from a support structure, where others were present to often support or resourcechanges in work.

312Chapter 8 -Middle Age

Achieving further recognition and influence

The architect, who in this age period worked in several roles, responded:"Gradually, I would like to do more lecturing and more tutoring, and less hands-on
business management. But having said that, as I am saying it I am aware that I need tokeep my fee1 firmly on the ground, and therefore what I am doing at the moment,
which is a mixture of 'advice' and 'doing' is quite a good balance. So I would neverwant to completely leave 'doing'.''AgeinRFor example: Turning first to incrementai or adaptive changes, the counsellor described an
expected development of his work which he saw as a reflection of, and in pace with his own
ageing and mortality:"There are certain things which, I guess, I'll have to revisit. And one of (those) ismortality, almost inevitably. Terminal illness. Most of the work I have done aroundterminal illness has been around HIV, and that has very specific issues. (...) And I
am very much aware that other terminal illnesses do not have that same level of
support - there was so much money thrown at HIV in the first decade. But the otherterminal illnesses, people are far less well supported."

He anticipated an expansion of his work in this field in coming years.

Larger-scale changes to work
For example: Participant (8) said:"I need to work with individuals on a one-to-one basis. When I come out of trainings

I am incredibly high, I have got more energy when I come out of a training than when
go in. I am very happy with that. But, (pauses) I now need to spend more time313

Chapter 8 -Middle Age

empowering people on a one-to-one basis where I can track the results more - where I
can be alongside them or being with them, acting as a coach, or mentor, so I canactually see where they are going to, and how they are going to get there. So, I am
beginning to realise I am missing the end-product.’’
At the time of being interviewed he was planning these changes, and acknowledged the needto achieve a reputation and referrals for this rapidly.

Another trainer (participant 14), having spent a number of years building the skills of poetry,drawing and painting, practised privately, wanted to bring these and other areas of exploration
into his industriai training work:“. .. increasingly I ask people to do things like draw, which therapists have been doing
for a long, long time. (. ..) Most people play, quite happily. In a management
training course they think it is quite fun to go away and do something creative like that.
(...) in the main most people are happy to be invited to be more creative. So, it iscoming in a number of ways. I mean one of the other things I am about to start
exploring (is humour) because I begin increasingly to think the way I want to go as abusiness consultant, trainer, I want to introduce more stimulation. I am getting a little
fed up with going through feeding people very traditional stuff and what, I am always
trying to make sessionsfairly lively but I am increasingly beginning to find newer

ways, more inventive ways of bringing things into training courses which break the
mould. That seems to me to work very well for a lot of people. Some say, it is a bit
funny isn’t it. I think good, they think it is funny, good. They are telling you that it isfunny peculiar, but often it don’t take long before it becomes light-hearted and thatusually is a huge step for a lot of people. They are allowed io havefun, to realise
things they can’t realise with their serious hats on.”314

Chapter 8 -Middle Age

Most of the descriptions of the future were 'externally' focused. Four of the participants (6,11, 12, 14) made specific references to things they needed to find and develop withinthemselves in order to achieve what they wanted and hope.

Develouinp a change in the work method or urocess currentlv used

For example: A trainer ( 6 ) acknowledges some crucial practical issues about changes he has
already made:"(I need to) reduce it to a size that means something, and by that I mean to a size which
is practical, and then creating a plan. I have no plan at the moment, and therefore I
have no strategy, and therefore my actions are random, therefore I am getting
randomness. So in terms of creating a future, those are the principal things I need to
be doing".

Making a decision to change direction
Another trainer (14 - already quoted above on 'external' changes) reflected a similar
challenge:"The biggest challenge is when I make, and how I move towards changing direction.
And I do recognise I am actually overdue for the change. (...) how I make theadjustment between my 'conventional' earning capacity work, and (work where) the
painting becomes a reality, so that the poetry becomes more important. The challenge
is about getting that balance, and making that move in a controlled way."

The majority of participants were future-focused, expecting and anticipating continued workin the future. This is in line with the findings of Csikszentmihalyi (1996).
315

Chapter 8 -Middle Age

There was an unplanned gain that occurred from the pattern in which this research wasundertaken. Original plans at the outset of the research involved two interviews followed bya fairly rapid feedback interview in which to confirm research findings from the individual
participant. Shifts in the focus of the research, difficulties in scheduling interviews and thetime taken to transcribe material led to a delay (in the largest case) of up to eighteen months
between interviews andor a follow-up or feedback interview. Through this it was possible togain an unplanned perspective of how a small number of participants’ plans at one point intime had evolved successfully or otherwise, (e.g. participant numbers 1,4,6,7, 11, 13, 14, 15,

18,20,21, 24,26,28 = 14.)

It was noticeable how few of the stated plans for the future had

actually converted into a reality. The causes of this were varied. For example: in the case of
the former architect who had described plans for a second book, two things had happened.
The book he conceived and wished to write involved significant research and thought. These
plans did not sit practically with a range of other demands on him in this time penod. He also
found himself involved in an activity unexpected at the time of the research interview. He
had the opportunity to work on a long-held goal of bringing a certain form of communitydesigned living from Europe to this country. At the follow-up interview he was deeply
involved in practical aspects of design and location for a building of this type in the LondonI-area and how the community might run. Two other participants who had moved from anorganisational work context to one where they now worked alone found themselves making
plans for future work (something with which they were supported in an organisational context)that in practice were not realistic.

316

Chapter 8 - Middle Age

8.5

The Life in Retrospect

Part of the picture of where these individuals were on the path of their creative activity isrevealed by how they saw their lives, self and work ‘now’,at the time of interview, incomparison to an earlier time, anything from ten to twenty years ago. Given some parts of thecreativity literature imply a decline in functioning, e.g. the product centredsocial acclaim
approaches, it is appropriate to consider how the participants experienced this period in casetheir lived experience revealed factors additional to earlier research.

The detail used to illustrate these points comes exclusively from questions developed for
Csikszentmihalyi’s (1996) study with living participants from a variety of work domains, andalso used with these research participants. This table indicates responses when asked what
individuals were most proud of

Table 8.5: Of what are these individuals most proud?
Note: Participant may appear in more than one category.
‘Group 1’
Nos%’‘Group 2’

Total

To

Nos

Nos

ParticipantNos.

%( i l . 15, 18,

Career achievements: (worksuccesses achieved via skill or
personal influence).

11

Career achievements: (positions
achieved, e.g. managing director).

2

Making a difference to the lives ofothers, andor businesses.

4

19,29,31,32,
33, 36.39,

(61%)

(11%)

(22%)

317

Chapter 8 -Middle Age‘Group 2’‘Group I’

Total

Participant
Nos.

I
Nos

Moving beyond or outside theexpectations of others.

(7.5%)

3

4

1

(10%)

(5%)

(17%)

(6.) (9.)

2Persevering in the face of inner andouter discouragement.

(5%)
I

Relationships with spouse, children,
parents andor siblings.

( l S . ) ( l 6 , 28.)

3

Integrating personal identity withwork undertaken: (ensuring ‘what I
do’ reflects ‘who I am as a person’).

Outside work

%

I

I
12
(30%)

(32%)

(28%)

(11,32,35,
36,41.)(8, 12.
26,27. 28.37,
38.)

I

Home: (The type of home, andmaking changes to it).

3
(7.5%)

Growing and changing as a person.
(“The type of person I have become.”)2

Sport: (e.g. golf, rugby), and the skill
achieved in it.

1

Garden

(11%)

(10%)

(9%)

(31.)(14,23,
26,34.)

5

4(6%)(11.33.)(25.
26.)

4

2

(12.5%)

(18%)

I
2

(7.1 (27.1(5%)

Educational achievement (theachievement of a degree).

(17.)

1
(2.5%)

I
Being a good friend

1

(38.)

(2.5%)The levels of reported experiences are broadly similar between the groups and are diverse in
their content. There are two particular contrasts. 61% of group 1 participants reported pride
318

Chapter 8 -Middle Agein career achievements over and above other areas in contrast with 36% of Group 2participants. This is perhaps to be expected for the ‘early starters’ given that they have had alonger career focused on a particular domain choice. Pride over differences made to the livesof others, and relationships with others, is indicative of Erikson’s seventh stage of adultdevelopment (Generativity vs. stagnation). These findings are also consistent with the workof Ryff (1989) on the self-defined measures of positive psychological functioning.

8.6

The Experiences of Female Participants

By middle age all of the women in the sample were actively engaged in their creative work all except one on a full time basis. Two were ‘employed’ conventionally by organisations (17and 40). The remainder all worked in a self-employed capacity. Those who invested priority
earlier in life on partners and family were freer in this time period. While their children, forexample, received attention, the women clearly felt themselves free to work more fully on
what they choose. Increased freedom is a ‘tone’ of many of the stories at this time - free ofthe detail of family constraints, or the worries of establishing earlier work and careers, thisgroup is making new and often adventurous choices about what they wish to do in middle age.
In acting in this way these findings and behaviours are consistent with the work of Helson(1999).

8.7‘Decline’ in ActiviQ in Middle AgeThis period of adulthood is one that is commonly associated (in research from a productcentred perspective) with some form of creative decline - a reduction in activity, recognitionand perhaps quality of work. The potential interpretations of the decline in this period havebeen explored in the literature review section 2.7. It is appropriate to ask, therefore, in what319

Chapter 8 -Middle Ageways ‘decline’ appeared in this sample group. (“Decline” for these purposes is being
interpreted as circumstances that gave rise to failures in work, an inability to produce desired
work, or decisions to limit or cease work.)
1“
While table 8.3 above indicated on-going activity and plans for this group and table 8.4 thechallenges anticipated, difficulties were also apparent for a small number of participants.
While it is possible that creative plans were still ‘incubating’, difficulties were described in theinterviews about the activities needed to bring about a creative idea into action, or reality.
The ideas were still forthcoming but the execution had become problematical. The following
difficulties appeared in interview reports:

1. Planning and delivery: A participant found it difficult to bring about desired work.
Repeated attempts had failed to create particular activity. Within the narrative reports
there were clear signs of difficulties in planning realistically. For the first time in his life
he was working largely alone - whereas in previous roles there were always others
working alongside him, including people to whom work of this sort could be delegated.

2. Clashes between personal goals and the goals of others: Another participant also had anumber of clearly creative projects in which she wished to invest time and work. This
individual continued to struggle between what she considered others wanted of her - andwhat she hoped to do for herself. That single-mindedness to focus on work of herchoosing, to the point of refusing others was not apparent here, and was clearly a source oflost activity.
3. Facing possible rejection: A different participant had developed and delivered work that
had received significant local acclaim. To go beyond this context involved
communicating and displaying this work to others. In facing that prospect there was avisibly communicated fear of rejection - one that would clearly limit this individual’s
320Chapter 8 -Middle Agewillingness to develop their work further, and would restrict the ‘field’ in which it wasoffered.

4. No longer being willing to face the risks associated with work: In the time between the
research interview and the writing-up of the thesis a further participant, who had
maintained contact with the researcher, told of being faced with a legal challenge to thequality of his work. While the legal case was, almost certainly, without foundation, it had
implications for the time that would be needed to fight it - and the likelihood that futurebusiness insurance would almost certainly not be forthcoming as a result of thisexperience. For these reasons, this participant made a decision to cease trading - and toseek an alternative form of work.

5. Financial security and retirement: A number of other participants had clearly reached apoint of financial security where the need to work had reduced, along with the need to
struggle or seek recognition. Again, in the time prior to writing-up of the thesis several
participants communicated the likelihood of impending retirement and adopting a simpler
and more relaxed lifestyle.
The circumstances found in points 1 - 3 above may be associated with the move of many
participants out of organisations into self-employment. The structuring of work, the social
support and resources available were no longer there for some of these individuals. This was,at least, one contributing factor observed in interview reports. There may also have beenother contributing life events not mentioned in interview. In this sample it seemed any decline
in work output was more to do with practicalities than cognitive decline.

321Chapter 8 -Middle Age

8.8

Conclusions

In summary:

Research Question 5(a) In what ways did the creative activity of these individuals change in 'middle age'?
A broad range of activity was reported by participants in their context, the work they
undertook and how they did it. There was no marked differentiation between the two groups.

It was interesting to note how interview questions in their area were very widely interpreted byparticipants, i.e. very diverse descriptions of experiences were offered.

The majority of participants in both groups became involved in new work and activities (67%of group 1, and 73% of group 2 ) with smaller numbers utilising new work methods (56% ofgroup 1 and 45 % of group 2 ) .

The majority of participants in both groups showed contrasts between ways of working at thistime, and ways of working earlier in their lives (89% of g o u p 1, and 77% of group 2). The
reported changes were again diverse in their nature.

Over half of the participants planned further specific changes to their work. There were also
indications that these plans were less specific in nature than those reported by exceptional
creative individuals in Csikszentmihalyi (1996). The reasons for this were unclear. There
were practical implications - the future is less certain or less focused as a result of more
ambiguous plans and more subject to influence or distraction.

322

Chapter 8 -Middle Age(b) Do these individuais display evidence of “the iate life style”?
The contribution of the existing literature and research on the exceptional creative individual
to an understanding of changes in activity following the mid-life period is limited. The
experience of the exceptional creative individual is summarized as follows:

Product-centred research indicates that, depending on domain of work, the time of peakoriginal contribution on average will have passed. Productivity may, however, remain athigh levels in comparison to earlier life if the individual chooses to maintain work andworking practices - and the likelihood of original contribution is related to the maintenanceof productivity. In a number of the participant group members productivity appeared to
be as high or higher in middle age than previously, though two fifths acknowledged a peakearlier at midlife

The descriptions of individual experience in this period are generalised and limited.
Exceptionally creative individuals in the domains of science, for example, may take on
wider responsibilities, over-and-above their work in the domain, (e.g. this was a common
experience of the scientists examined by Anne Roe in the early 1950s’, and revisited in thelate 1960s’.) They face the same pressures, misfortunes and tragedies as others, yet “theyhave a calling that makes it possible for them to dwell as little as possible on what might
have been, and get on with their lives” (Csikszentmihalyi 1996: p208).
Csikszentmihalyi’s participants’ self-reports (from various work domains) took a contrary
view to that of the product-centred researchers. His participants perceived both thequantity and the quality of their work being sustained over time, with their abilities andgoals remaining “the same as they had always been” (ibid.: p212). This conclusion was
supported by Lindauer et al (1997) from a research population of graphic artists, who323

Chapter 8 -Middle Agefound that though working relationships with the ‘field’ may have fluctuated for his
participant group, the relationships with the domain remained positive. For manymembers of the thesis sample group, the quality and quantity of work appeared to besustained or improved over time.
An examination of the “Iate life style”’ is a relatively recent development in the study ofcreativity. It assumes (in line with the theories of Erik Erikson) that a person changes anddevelops as they age, and that the characteristics and qualities of their ‘products’ alsochange in line with the person. Studies in this area have, so far, investigated such changes

in art, music and literature. For example, Simonton (1983) in an examination of 81
classic Athenian and Shakespearean plays, found that as a playwright aged they became
more prone to discuss religious or mystical experiences, and the role of spiritual questions

in human affairs. While no specific definition of the late life style has been provided, it ischaracterised by: (1) An expression of deeper thoughts and feelings, with greater economy
of means. (2) Simplicity and depth. A reduction of ‘form’ to essence. (3) A focus onquestions, issues, associated with ‘meaning’ in life and spiritual affairs. (4)It may
transcend current conventions, and use alternative approaches. (This definition is drawn
from Munsterberg 1983 and Simonton 1994.)

No clear indication could be seen in the reports of this group of the “late life style” describedin the terms outlined above. However, another sign of this phenomenon may have been
apparent. It was noticeable in hearing the biographies of these participants that for all except
two of the participants (4 and 16) the ‘emotional heat’ had left the stories in middle age. The
group was calmer with their lives and with themselves. The conflicts and concerns that wereI

Also called the “old age style” or the “swan song effect”. It is believed also to be a middle-aged phenomena,
but empirical evidence for this has yet to be gathered in any quantity.
324

Chapter 8 -Middle Age

described in their earlier careers were no longer present - they showed signs of being more atease and peace with who they were and what they were doing. This gave them a freedom tochoose the work they undertook and how they undertook it. They were consistently looking
for ways to work that expressed who they were as individuals. This was repeatedly described
as a priority. This more peaceful presence is consistent with the findings of Lindauer et al(1997) and indicative of positive psychological functioning as identified by Ryff (e.g. 1989
and 1999).

325

Chapter 9 - Other Factors

Chapter 9 - Other Factors

9.1

Introduction

The investigations in this thesis have been focused on examinations based on life spandevelopment perspectives in specific time periods. In learning about the characteristic
development of individuals and their associated creativity, the use of this perspective has alineage in work such as that of Roberts and Newton (1987), Furth (1990), Gardner (1993)
and Csikszentmihalyi (1996). The research data does, however, indicate the presence ofother influencing factors, such as age, gender and occupation that do not always fit neatly
into the four stages of life used to summarize the data so far. The purpose of this chapter
is to examine a number of these and to present a preliminary assessment of the strength oftheir influence. This chapter will review the following areas:

9.2 Occupational and organisational factors:
9.2.1 Contrasts between the occupational groups involved in this research.
9.2.2 Organisational issues and their contribution to creative development.
9.2.3 The work patterns of enduringly successful individuals.
9.2.4 Occupational factors bearing on when an “influencer” might become an“influencer”.
9.3 Gender - the experiences of male and female participants.
9.4 Age influences - the differences in experience across the age range of participants.
9.5 The influence of disability in the shaping and formation of creative activity in thissample, albeit small in size.

326

Chapter 9 - Other Factors

9.2

Occupational and Organisational influences

9.2.1

Occupations

The participant group, at the time of interview, represented 3 broad occupational
categories.
Table 9.1: SamDle. by 3 broad occupational categories. showing numbers of particiuants insuecific occuuations:4:Working for an organisation

B: Self-employed (hired by

C: Other (Self-employed,:salaried employees):organisations):

generally working 1:I, or
alone):

N = 13; <lo = 32.5

N = 17: % = 42.5

N = 10; % = 2 5Manager = I(40)Management Consultant andComposer = 1 (i)Senior manager = 4 (7.32.34.35.)

writer = 2 (2.4)

Artist & sculptor = I (18)Youth workeriscout Idr = 1 (12)Managemeh Consultant andCounsellor = 1 (3)ïrainer I counsellor = I (17)trainer = 10 (6.8, 11. 14, 16, 19.20,

Psychotherapist = 2 (25,301

Managing Director = i (23)22.38.41)

Writer = 2 (9,391

Zompany Director = 2 (27.31)
Vicar # = i (29)
NGO Chief Exec. = 1 (31)Osteopath I trainer = I (37)

Outdoor Pursuits teacher = 1 (13)

Yoga teacher i writer = I (IO)

Trainer, writer, architect = 1 (15)Outplacement i career

Trainer / counsellor = 1 (21)consultant = I (28)Trainer i outplacement

Singer I voice teacher = I (36)consultant = 2 (24.26.)

Group 1 = 8 (47%);

Group 1 = 3 (30%);

Group 2 = 6 (46%).

Group 2 = 9 (53%).

Group 2 = 7 (70%).

Male = 9Male = 12Group 1 = 7 (54%);

Female = 4

Female = 5

Male = 3

Female = 7

Note: Participant numbers are pr odcd i n brackets beside each ucci itionai category.)
Participant nos: 7, 12, 17.23,
27.29, 31, 32,33. 34. 35, 37,40.

Participant nos: 2,4,6,8, 1 I,
13, 14, 15, 16, 19,20,21,22,
24,26, 38,41.

Participant nos: I, 3,9, 10, 18,
25.28, 30, 36, 39.

Note: (# Engaged primarily in organisationalwork.)

What was not apparent at the time, however, was that over three quarters of theseparticipants worked primarily in a conventional organisation background until their midlife
327

Chapter 9 - Other Factors

decade. (The 7 exceptions to this were 4 participants who were mamed and focusing on
raising a family and 3 in various forms of self-employment.)

The balance of group 1 and 2 participants was approximately equal across occupational
categories A and B, those working in organisations, and those individuals self-employed
and working in organisations. This indicates a balance of early starters and later starters[and their associated experiences) across these two occupational groups.

In the third occupational group (C) there were 10 individuals who worked primarily 1:l oralone. Seven of these were women. Six out-of seven of these women had consciouslychosen to work alone or outside the context and dynamics of organisation-based work andcareers. (Women also represent only 4 out of 13 people in occupational category ‘A’,
those working in organisations, and 5 out of 17 in occupational category ‘B’, those selfemployed working in organisations.) The higher percentage of women who are selfemployed presumably represents an occupational choice that was easier to manage or more
open to the inclusion of women than those organisationally-based.

Fifteen out of 18 participants in Group 1, the ‘early starters’, were found primarily inoccupational category A, organisations (7), or category B, self-employed working inorganisations (8). This appears to be an indication of their influencing work being a
response to the needs and circumstances of others.

Another question considered by the researcher was whether organisational contexts (which
commonly focus on structure and efficiency) might be constraining to the development anddelivery of creative performance. Since 6 out of the 13 participants who remained inorganisations during and after their midlife decade were manifestly creative in their work

328

Chapter 9 - Other Factors

and had good reputations, therefore organisations did not appear to be a constraining
influence to this group. (This is examined further in 9.2.3 below.)

The balance of the MBTI types across the three occupational groups will be examined in
section 9.5 below.

9.2.2 When Might An ‘Influencer’ Become An ‘Influencer’?
The participant population fits into the category of creativity described as an ‘influencer’
proposed by Gardner (1997). (Gardner proposed three other categories - master, maker,
and introspector. He argued that a creative individual may manifest more than one ofthese areas of creativity over a life span - for example an individual would ‘master’ adomain and may potentially act as an influencer, or a ‘maker’ of a new domain.)Withinthe context of Gardner’s theoretical structure it is appropriate to ask whether and at what
point these research participants made a shift from another possible definition of work tothat of an influencer, i.e. when an ‘influencer’ becomes an ‘influencer’. This is illustrated
by Gardner’s primary example of an influencer, Gandhi who trained and practiced first as alawyer prior to moving into both a political and a spiritual arena. There were specific
events in his life that moved him to the status of an ‘expert’ or a ‘master’ in the subject oflaw.

The biographic descriptions of the majority of participants strongly indicate that early
career life was focused on learning a specific discipline of work and acting within what
was expected and required situationally for that domain. The possibility of wielding
influence, of moving other individuals from one place of perception to another, emerged
later in most of these stories.

‘Influencing’ emerged earlier, overtly and moreconsistently over time for group 1 participants, e.g. in appointment to management or329

Chapter 9 - Other Factors

teaching roles. In Group 2 an influencing role seemed to emerge later in the career ofparticipants.

9.2.3

Organisational Issues And Their Contribution To Development

The analysis contained in chapter 6 (Early Adulthood) indicated that the majority of theparticipants worked in an organisational setting where a high level of change was expected- and the skills of creating such changes were in many cases modeled and/or taught.

Thissuggests that ‘creativity’ is something that is at least partially, environmentally generated,
communicated and supported - rather than solely emerging from the individual in theirown right. The researcher concluded that in the cases of most participants, creativity wasenvironmentally supponed and expected, and that their work drew on and was developedby the environmental context. This is an interesting indication of the potential
contribution that an organisation might make to facilitating creative development, and how

the consequences of pressures for change on that organisation may perhaps enhance that
potential contribution. (For example, participant 11 described how his own occupational
and work process changes occurred while working in organisational circumstances dictatedby the need for dramatic business changes.)

This then raises the question of whether the participants’ creative ‘output’ wasorganisationally ‘dependent’. The research seems to indicate that their early career phase
did involve learning and performing skills valued in the organisations in which they
worked. Beyond a point in time, however, these skills appeared to be internalised andbecame part of the individual. The researcher believes that this mastery occurred in the
midlife decade at the latest. One can wonder whether these participants would have been‘creative’ in another setting that did not have these values and teach these skills. This
question can only be speculative.
330

Chapter 9 - Other Factors

9.2.4 Patterns In The Work Of Enduringly Successful Individuals
There is other data emerging from the overall participant group that cuts across the story
groups 1 and 2. A sub-group of the overall participants have been enduringly successful
in their work activity since the mid-twenties. These participants have mainly been in the
education and work of their choice from the time of early adulthood and have received
progressive recognition for their skill and contribution. These participants are:Group 1: I l , 13, 15, 19, 24, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 39,41. (A total of 13 participants.)
Group 2: 8,23.

(A further four participants could be included in this group (Group 1 = 6 , 18,40; andGroup 2 = 20) by allowing for short periods of uncertainty at either the outset or during the
middle age periods of their careers.)

The potential reasons for this enduring success were identified in the following interview
themes:All of the individuals in this particular group identified with a specific domain ofknowledge and skill by early adulthood at the latest. There was a distinct period of
education and experience gained associated with their work. They retained a focus on thiswork, and generally did not shift within or from the domain. The following additional
patterns are detectable within these biographies:

1. In all cases they worked “in relationship” with “the field‘’ -both those in the field thatused their work, and judged it. They responded to clear needs existing in the field, andwere generally slightly ahead of the field in recognizing the existence of those needs.
Their stories appeared to indicate a level of precision and skill in doing this that was

not evident in other biographies. (This contrasts with a pattern in many Group 2331

Chapter 9 -Other Factors

participants of seeking to shape the needs of the field, or lead the field into having
certain needs.)

2. In all cases they demonstrated an apparent confidence, both in their own ability to dogood work and in their ability to deal with the social context in which they foundthemselves. They made changes to their work and work context, often personallydifficult ones (e.g. changing country). They did so with an apparent confidence thatthey could manage and master any consequences that might arise. They were willingto “engage” with the field, and put themselves and their work forward forconsideration.
This was clearly an able group of individuals. The differentiation between the biographiesof these individuals and those of other participants seemed to be in the act and skill ofperceiving what was relevant to or needed in a field, and then responding to this withskilful creative activity. These themes parallel similar points identified by Freeman(1993).

9.3

Gender

The experiences of female participants have been examined in each of the results chapters,
examining life spart stages of time. They were included in this way because of therelatively small amount of research on the experiences of creative women.

The purpose of this section is also to add a further perspective on gender. The balance ofgender is 60% of the sample are male, and 40% female. The proportion of males andfemales in group 1 and 2 is almost identical, so gender does not seem a significant factor in
determining the age at which people start creative work in this case. A notable aspect of
the biographic stories was consistent with the work of Peters and Newton (1987) and332

Chapter 9 -Other Factors

Freeman (1993). It was apparent from the interview reports that the women in this study
identified more goals or perceived demands on them in their lives (e.g. work, families andrelationships) than did men, who concentrated their narratives on work alone. The
attention taken to address these frequently competing demands implies less time wasavailable for the development of a conventional career and creative work.

Table 9.2: The balance of males and females between Group 1 and Group 2:‘Group i’

%

Nos

Males

11

‘Group 2’

Total

%

Nos

Nos

Females

I

(54%)

%

(100%)

16

9
(44%)

9.4

24

13
(46%)

Participant
Nos.

(56%)

(100%)(6, 11, 13, 15,
19,24,29,31.
32.33. 35.) (3,4.8.9. 12, 14.
21, 22,23,26,
30.34.37.)(2. 7, 18.36.
39.40.41.)( I ,IO, 16, 17, 20.
25,27.28,

38.)

Differences Within The Parh’cipant Age Range

Research participants are drawn from a 15-year age range. This may, potentially, be
expected to yield different development patterns across the range. It is appropriate,
therefore, to consider this possibility.

Table 9.3: The spread of males across three age groups:

45 - 50 years old

333

Chapter 9 - Other Factors

Table 9.4: The spread of females across three age groups:

45 - SO years old

56 - 60 years old

Retirement: The age range within the research group meant that those participants
approaching 60 years old were on the brink of possible retirement. Some had semi-retired(males = 22, 26, 32, females = 1, 16, 28). Retirement at this age in this overall researchgroup is higher than that of the Teman sample at a comparable age where participants
worked into their OS', (Holahan and Sears 1995). but it is now more common to take early
retirement. The creative work of some of overall participant group had apparently been
influenced and eased by their financial security at this time in their life - an ability to makepersonal choice free of other financial pressures.

Experiences of females at either end of this age range: The participants in the 55 - 60 age
range were bom immediately prior to, or during the Second World War. Six of the eightolder members of the sample are women. Their stories involve expectations about
following traditionally female roles, and the education it may, or may not he appropriate
for them to follow. Yet four out of the six moved forward into work of their choosing
regardless of these pressures. Women in other parts of the age range, including the otherextreme (45 - SO years old) also described these pressures influencing them, although to a334

Chapter 9 -Other Factors

lesser extent. Females at both ends of the age range described how they broke out ofstereotyped choices. Thus, there do not seem to be discernable differences in theexperiences of the females in this participant group across different age groups.

Experiences of middle age: All participants had passed through the midlife decade prior toparticipating in this research. The spread of ages in the group meant, however, that thepassage into middle age was varied. (This difficulty, within research, is not unique.
Levinson, in both his 1978 and 1996 study, involved a group of participants with a similar
age range. This had the consequence that his midlife findings were only drawn from asmaller section of the overall group.)

Only 20% (8 participants) are in the range 56 - 60 years old. Therefore, while there was abroadly similar pattern of experiences being reported in Chapter 8 (Middle Age), the factthat the majority of this group have several years remaining in which to experience middle
age means that these results must be treated with caution as other patterns may emerge in
time.

9.5

The Influence Of Disability In Shaping Creative Activity.

The research group included 7 individuals who may be defined as being physically or
psychologically disabled (n = 4)’andor whose experience has been affected significantly
through experience of illness (n = 6). i.e. some of these participants experienced both
illness and disability. (Participants IO, 11, 12, 17,27,30,36.)

The patterns within this group are different from the rest. Participants 11 and 12, who
experienced differing forms of physical disability, appeared to display a drive and an
energy for work and activity that in some way made up for inactivity or marginality
335

Chapter 9 - Other Factors

experienced earlier in life. Participant 11 had worked through feelings, experienced
during his 30s, of marginality and not being “okay” that he had experienced in earlier life,and used this learning consistently in his professional activity during his 40s’ -by not
judging others, being attentive to his frame of reference and seeking constructive ways of
supporting those he worked with.

Participants 17 and 36 experienced disability that directly contributed to their work - andbecame a major focus of their interest. For example, participant 17 (in collaboration witha colleague) has created work in which she influenced the National Health Service to makechanges in their standards and methods of treatment for a particular fonn of disability.

Participants 27 and 30 each experienced illness in their 40s. of different complexity andlength. It was, however, life threatening to both. The recovery process left them with adescribed need and a drive to work and contribute in ways they had not done before.

The experience of participant 10 was largely influenced by psychological trauma in theyears of the Second World War. It was the researcher’s view, confirmed by theparticipant’s report, that a primary focus of her creative activity was and is to make senseof those experiences in a way that allows her to live a healthy and contributing life. This
struggle is on-going in middle age. The experiences and actions described by thisparticipant indicated a definition of ‘creativity’ not otherwise used in this thesis - the act of
creating a healed or healthy life. There is not a ‘domain’ or a ‘field’ in the conventional
sense for this work - but the context of her life, how she feels about that, and how sheprocesses and comes to terns with her inner-most feelings. In Gardner’s (1997) terms,
this person could be defined as an “introspector” - one of the other descriptions of creative
work in which a person contributes by reaching a new and different understanding of336

Chapter 9 - Other Factors

human consciousness by their own inner exploration or introspection. There were clear
indications of this in the interview reports of this participant in how she explored andunderstood the experience of her earlier life. The experiences of participants 11 and 17,
described above, also fell within this perspective of creativity. They had used theirexperience of disability and marginality for direct learning and as a resource in their workwith others.

In general, these reports provided indications that the experience of illness or disability
may contribute to a drive or motivation to work in a particular manner, or in ways different
to those experienced before. Additionally, a disability or illness may provide the material

and the context itself for the creative work undertaken. Further, to achieve atransformation of an intensely negative experience into something that is positive for theindividual, and that allows a healthy life, is also, the researcher proposes, an act of
creativity.

9.6

Conclusions

This chapter has examined a range of additional perspectives on the data. The main
results which affect the interpretation of this study are as follows:
Participants in group 1 and 2, the Early Starters, and Later Starters respectively, arespread approximately evenly across the 3 broad occupational groups involved in thisstudy. It therefore appears that these occupational groups are not a differentiating
factor between the early and later starter groups.
Organisations appeared to have influenced a number of participants’ creativity, where
they were expected to be creative and supported in learning skills associated withcreativity and change. This illustrates the capacity of organisations to positively
influence the life span development of a group of potentially creative individuals.
337

Chapter 9 - Other Factors

The patterns of work in enduringly successful individuals illustrate the potential
importance of working in relationship with and responding to the needs of the field.
The spread of participants among the ‘middle age’ age-range (i.e. 14 out of 40
participants - 35% - are in the first five year band of this age period) means that theresults of this part of the study should be treated with caution and subject to further
exploration or confirmation.
The experience of disability can be a source of motivation and experience which
influences subsequent work and creative activity.

Due to the relatively small number of participants in this study these findings must only betaken as indicative, and not proven. They therefore offer possibilities for further researchand investigation.

338

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

Chapter 10 - “Localised Creativity”

I0.I

Introduction

The purpose of this thesis has been to examine the development of creativity from a life
span perspective. This chapter extends that examination in two ways. First, by
examining the possibility that the creative development identified may be related to otherfactors, notably healthy development. Second, to consider the nature and development of‘‘localised creativity”. The Chapters 6 - 9 have examined research data against what is
known about normal lifespan development, systems theory of creativity, and developmentof exceptional creative individuals in the attempt to identify factors that potentiallycontribute to the development of localised creativity. This chapter will consider additional
perspectives.

In order to examine these areas, this chapter will:10.2 Examine the relationship of the research results to other theories by:
10.2.1 Considering whether creativity in later life is reflective of positive
psychological functioning.
10.2.2 Examining measures of self-actualisation,
10.2.3 Contrasting research data with work on “flow”.
10.2.4 Comparing certain features of this research group with those found in‘giftedness’ research.
10.2.5 Considering the impact of whether or not someone considers themselves
creative.
10.3 Propose certain characteristics of ‘localised creativity’ that deserve further
theoretical examination and research.
339

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

10.2

The Relationship of Research Results to Orher Theories

The focus of this thesis has been creativity and its development over time in a population
with a reputation for localised creativity. Little is known about the life span development
patterns of creativity in individuals like this, so the findings have been examined alongsidedata on normal lifespan development and systems theories of creativity, as well as what is
known about the lifespan development of exceptional creative individuals. To conduct
research from a life span perspective has precedents, e.g. Roberts and Newton 1987, andFurth 1990. What has emerged are life span development patterns of what may bedescribed as ‘localised‘ creativity. Another possibility is that these patterns are‘intermediate creativity’, something that may be associated with exceptionally creative
people who are not yet recognised as such or those who fail to achieve such recognition in contrast to the ‘Big C’ (the exceptionally creative) or ‘little c’ (everyday) creativity
described in the literature review (section 2.2.5).

However, we could also ask how this type of creative development relates to work onother, related special populations, such as self actualisers or the gifted. In a thesis of thissize there is no space to examine these factors in detail but it seems important to at leastconsider the relationship of each of the following with creative development, albeit briefly.
1. Positive psychological functioning: Do the individuals in the sample display patterns oflife and behaviour associated with positive psychological functioning and healthy
development?

2. Self-actualisation: Do they display characteristics of self-actualisation?
3. Giftedness: Do they show patterns of development associated with ‘giftedness’?
4. Flow: There is extensive research into optimal experiences, termed ‘flow’. Does thissample exhibit characteristics associated with the flow experience?
340

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

5 . Self-image: Does an individual’s self-image impact on whether or not they are

creative? If so. how?

6. ‘Localised creativity’: After considering the potential impact of the theories and factors
described above, what characteristics may be inferred about the nature of localised
creativity and its relationship with normal life span development?
It is possible that ‘localised creativity’ may occur in relationship with, or because of theseother contributing factors

10.2.1 Positive Psychological Functioning
It has been argued by authors such as Rogers (1960) and Maslow (1970) that creativity is afeature of healthy development. The question therefore arises as to whether the local
creativity found in this sample group is nothing more than healthy development. One wayof beginning to address this issue is to look at whether this group shows the signs ofhealthy development identified in other research. There is a range of theoretical work thatsuggests certain sorts of behaviour are indicative of continued adult development and‘well-being’ in middle age and old age. The researcher has drawn on Ryff‘s (1989) work
to provide an indication of whether or not this sample shows such signs of positive
development. This interview based study used self-reported perceptions of well-being forvarious age ranges, i.e. how individuals describe and define positive functioning at certain
times in their life (Keyes and Ryff 1999: ~ 1 6 3 ’ ) . Interestingly, Ryff‘s findings suggestthat these factors peak in middle age.

Ryff also proposed that these factors represented

manifestations of self-actualisation (Maslow 1968 and 1970) and Generativity as describedby Erikson (e.g. 1958).

’ These definitions are also found, in part, in Ryff 1989: p199.
34 1

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

Ryff‘s and Keyes and Ryff‘s research involved ‘scales’ or continua that sought to measurehigh and low performances. For the purposes of brevity, only the ‘high scoring’definitions have been used in the table below.

Table 10.1: Measures of well-beinp or positive mvchological functioning in middle age
Note: participants will appear in more than one category.
‘Group 1’

Possesses a positive attitude toward
the self; acknowledges and accepts
multiple aspects of the self including
good and bad qualities; feels positive
about past life.

‘Group 2’

NOS

70 NOS %

15

15

(83%)

(68%)

Participant
Nos.

Total

NOS %

I

30

(75%)

(2,6, 1 I . 13.
IS, 18, 19, 24,
29,33, 35, 36,
39.40.41.)(1,3,8, 12,
14. 16, 17.21.
23. 25, 26.27.
28. 30, 37.)

Positive relations M ith others:
I

Is concerned about the welfare ofothers; capable of strong empathy.
Affection and intimacy; understands
give and take of human relationships.

14

Is self-determining and independent;
able to resist social pressures to think
and act in certain ways; regulates
behaviour from within; evaluates selfby personal standards.

18

Has a sense of mastery andcompetence in managing (specific)
environment(s); controls complex
array of external activities; makes
effective use of surrounding
opportunities; able to choose or create
contexts suitable to personal needs
and values.

18

22

(78%)

36
(100%)

(90%)

35

17
(100%)

(77%)

(87%)

(86%)

(92%)

19

(100%)

Il

342(2.6, I l , 13,
IS, 24. 29. 32,
33.35.36.39.
40.41. (1.3.
4.8.9, IO, 12,
14. 16. 17.20.
21,22, 23, 25,
26. 21, 28, 30,
34.37.38 )(2.6.7, 11,
13, 15, 18, 19,
24, 29, 32, 33,
35. 36, 39.40,
41.) (1.3.4.
8, IO, 12, 14,
20.21.22, 23,
25.26.30, 34,
37, 38.)(2,6,1, 11,
13, IS, 18, 19,
24.29.32.33,
35,36,39,40,
41.) ( I . 3,4.
8, 12. 14. 16,
17,20,21.22,
23,25,26,21,
28,30,34,
31.)

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity‘Group I ’‘Group 2’

Total

%

Nas

Participant

Nos.
Nas

Has goals in life and a sense of
directedness: feels there is meaning topresent and past life; holds beliefs thatgive life purpose; has aims andobjectives for living.
I1%

l8 (100%)

Personal growth:
Has a feeling of continued
development; sees self as growing andexpanding; is open to newexperiences; has a sense of realizing
his or her potential; sees improvement

Nos

1

%

I

22 (ira%) 40 (100%)(2,6,7. 11,
13, 15, 18, 19,
24.29.32, 33.
35.36, 39.40,
41.)(1.3.4,8,9, IO, 12, 14,
16. 17,20.21.
22,23.25.26,
27. 28, 30, 34,
37, 38.)I(2,6.7. 1 I .
!2

18(100%)(100%)

II

in self and behaviour over time; ischanging in ways that reflect more
self-knowledge and effectiveness.

40(100%)

13, IS, 18, 19,
24,29,32,33.
35.36.39.40,
4 l . ) ( l , 3 , 4 , 8,
9. IO, 12, 14,
16, 17, 20, 21,
22,23,25,26,
27,28,30.34.
37.38.)I

Table 10.1 draws on the interview reports of participants during middle age. While group
1 reports more highly overall on these measures, there is broad similarity between the twogroups. The high level of reports in both groups suggest that, according to Ryff‘smeasures, the group does appear to demonstrate characteristics associated with well-being
and healthy ageing at this point in their lives. Ryff‘s descriptions are also strongly
reminiscent of the type of reports given by participants in chapter 8 -describing theirpersonal state, work plans and feelings about their accomplishments in middle age. In thisgroup most seem to have a sense of well-being about their work and lives by middle age.
It may be, therefore, that “localised creativity” is indeed associated with healthy ageing andwell-being. It could be that healthy development has enabled creative work, or positive
functioning and creative activity may go hand-in-hand, as Maslow argued (Maslow 1970)or that creative work has enahled healthy development.

343

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

10.2.2 Self-actualisation
Another way of looking at this research data is to consider whether the particpants are
becoming more self-actualised. Creativity is, after all, one of the characteristics of selfactualisation (Maslow 1970).

Work on self-actualisation was summarized in the literature review (section 2.9). Ryff‘swork (e.g. 1984, 1989, 1991), described in 10.2.1 above, intentionally set out to use criteriathat encapsulated self-actualisation. So, in that respect, data contained in tablelO.l also
supports the argument that this population displays certain characteristics associated with
self-actualisation. To examine the relationship between self-actualisation and creativity inthis sample a little further, the interview reports were also evaluated against criteria used in
two studies involving interviews (Landau and Maoz 1975; and Brennan and Piechowski1991).

Table 10.2: Selected Measures of Self-actualisation
Note: participants will appear in more than one category.
‘Group I’%

Nos“Self-realisation means adjustment tochange by using one’s potential, being
flexible, and looking for other andnew ways of being oneself, becoming
one’s

17

‘Group 2’

Nos

%

22
(94%)

(100%)

Totai
Nos

ParticipantNos.

%

13. 15. 18,19,
24,29,31,32,
41.) (1.3.4.
8,9, 10. 12.

14, 16. 17.20,
26,21,28,30,
34,37.38.)

It should he noted that these authors saw the definition quoted in this table as reflective of both a creative
attitude and self-actualisation.

344

Chapter IO - Localised Creativity‘Group I ’NOS%‘Group 2’

Total

Yo

NOS %

NOS

~

Working for the benefit ofhumankind: the individual has a”focus on problems outside oneselfthat stem from the person’s sense of a
mission in life, of having a task tofulfill for the sake of others” (p54).

17

A philosophy of life: that theindividual has “principle guiding one
in how to live” (values, a spiritual or
religious focus) ( ~ 5 4 ) .

12

Personal growth: “statements about
working on self, one’s emotional
development, internal change andstruggle” (p55).

15

Decisions made for the self evidenceof “turning points in life, criticaldecisions that have changed anddeepened the direction of their lives”(p57).

18

~

12
(94%)

29

27

15

(68%)

17

(83%)

(67%)

32

(77%)

(80%)

40

22
(100%)

(72%)

(54%)

(67%)

ParticipantNos.

(100%)(100%)(2.6,7, 11,
13, IS, 18, 19,
24. 29.31.32,
33, 36,39,40,
41.) (1.3.4.
14, 17.20,21,
25, 26,27,34,
37.)(2, 11, 13. IS,
24,29,32, 33.
35, 36, 39,41.) (3.8, 14,
16. 17,20,21,
22,25,26,27,28.30.34,
37.)(2.6, 1 I.13.
15. 18, 19,24.
29, 32,33,36.
39,40,41.)(1.3.8, IO,
14, 16, 17. 20,
21,22,23,25,
26. 27. 28, 30,
37.)(2,6,7, Il.
13, 15, 18. 19,
24.29, 31. 32,
33.35, 36, 39,
40,41.) (l,3,4 , 8 , 9 , I O . 12,
14, 16, 17.20,
21.22.23.25,
26,27,28,30,
34.37.38.)

In table 10.2 all the participants exhibit at least some characteristics associated with selfactualisation. This suggests that this group is concerned with self-actualisation.

Ryff (e.g. 1984,1989, 1991), Landau and Moaz (1975) and Brennan and Piechowski(1991) all indicate that positive psychological functioning and self-actualisation generally
increase with time and age. (Ryff also considers they decline in old age). The analysis
contained in tables 10.1 and 10.2 were taken from the participants’ interview reports in
middle age. The percentages would be much less if they were taken from self -reports

345

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

relating to the 20s and 30s. Therefore this research data seems to concur with the proposalthat the factors quoted above are associated with positive psychological functioning andself-actualisation and appear with increasing maturity. Ryff (e.g. 1984, 1989, 1991),
Landau and Moaz (1975) and Brennan and Piechowski (1991) all worked with research
participants in the general population, not those with a particular reputation, such as forcreativity. The high percentage reporting the factors quoted in table 10.1 and 10.2 in thisparticipant group suggest that they do display behaviours associated with positive
psychological functioning and self-actualisation, Without further work it is hard todetermine whether the creative work was supported by positive development or vice versa,
whether creativity and positive development go hand in hand and reinforce each other or
are overlapping phenomena in this and other populations, or whether separate terms arebeing used to describe broadly similar phenomena.

It must be stressed, however, that the above criteria, as indicators of self-actualisation, arerudimentary. They were chosen primarily because they had emerged from studies using
interviews as a data-gathering tool and to permit a comparison with data emerging fromthis research study. Further investigation in this area would be needed for confirmation.

10.2.3 “Flow”
As well working on creativity, Csikszentmihalyi has developed and studied optimal
experience, in which he adopted the term ‘flow’ to describe a state of mind associated with
optimal functioning. His work on ‘flow’was based on sampling reports of particularexperiences close to when they happened.

The research data from this thesis have beencollected on recollections over time, rather than on specific experiences. It is not possible,
therefore, to make a like-with-like comparison on this topic. Nevertheless it is interesting346

Chapter 10 - Localised Creativity

to see if this creative sample exhibit characteristics associated with flow (Csikszentmihalyi
1997). Table 10.2 below provides descriptions of the “flow” experience used in
Csikszentmihalyi’s (1975, 1990, 1997) three main books on this subject.

Table 10.3: The Structure and Characteristics of the “Flow” Exoerience

Balancing Challenges with Skill
Tasks are within the individual’s ability to perform.
A specific set of skills is involved.
Opportunities for action are evenly matched by capabilities.

1975: p39
1997: p29.
1975: p50.

Intrinsic Motivation
The individual is intrinsically motivated. They need no goals external to the self.

1975: p47; 1990 p67;
1997: p W 7 .
1997: p56.

A sense of purpose.

I
There is a loss of egolself-forgetfulness experienced.
A loss of self-consciousness.
Transcendence of individualityI
1975: p42
1975: p42; 1990: p62.
1975: p42.
107‘;. “A?

IMerging action an awareness
Consentration on the task in hmd.
Unpleasdnt issues of life are forgoiten.
‘lhe dearly struciured demands < i f ihe acii\’iiy impme order 2nd exclude ihc
interference of disorder in consciousness.

Sense of Control

1 1975~38.
I I990:pS8
I 1990: pS8

1 1Y90: pS8

I 1990~59
1 1990~59
I 199o:p59

A paradox of control.

A sense of control.
A lack oi worry uver h n g cmirol.
The possibiliiy af control rather [han its aciuiility.

1 1990. p60.

Sense of Time
Transformation of time.
Time no longer seems to pass in the way it ordinarily does.

1 199O:p66.
I 1990:p66.

It is perhaps worthy of comment that intrinsic motivation, goals, challenge and skill
development feature prominently in participants’ accounts. By middle age the participant
341

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

group were generally undertaking activities congruent with their intrinsic motivation; some
had got to a point where they were working to achieve intrinsically motivated goals earlyin life and others later. They valued challenge and the development of their skills. The
flow experience may be a common experience for those engaged in creative work;
certainly, these participants experienced at least some of the ‘flow’ characteristics
recognised by Csikszentmihalyi.

10.2.4 Giftedness
There appears to be a very high level of consistency between the experiences in childhood
and adolescence described for creative and for gifted children, and this does not seem tohave received much attention in the literature previously. The thesis participant groupalso demonstrates certain parallels with the patterns of experience found in gifted people.
Three possible explanations for this overlap are:

1. The sample population involved with this thesis are gifted, and that is why they display
certain aspects of experience associated with giftedness.
2. The gifted literature also examines the development of creativity, and the life spandevelopmental paths of both groups are similar, and therefore similarity in life span
experience may be expected.

3. The thesis sample population shares features and experiences with gifted people, otherthan IQ.
It is appropriate to examine, therefore, whether this sample demonstrates giftedness, or
factors associated with giftedness, in addition to creativity. The potential presence ofgiftedness will be considered from several perspectives.

348

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

Winner (2000: p164) writes: “Children are usually defined as gifted if their global IQ scorerises above some arbitrary cutoff point (often 130)3. The assumption underlying the use ofa global score is that academically gifted children are generally gifted in all academic
subjects.” This measure is reflected in other studies and generally indicates the top 1 -5% of students (e.g. Perleth and Heller 1994: p82).

Academic records for this participant group were not requested, and in some cases would
not have been available. While school performance was discussed, this was generally at
the level of detail offered by the participant (often minimal). Therefore, there is nocommonly accepted measure of giftedness available for this participant group. This may,potentially, be considered to be a design-flaw in this research.

There is an acknowledgement within some of the literature that an IQ-related definition ofgiftedness has limitations and inadequacies. Multiple conceptions of giftedness thatrecognise giftedness within domains may be more appropriate (e.g. Perleth and Heller
1994: p78; Runco 1997a: p222). However, even the embracing and inclusive work ofPerleth and Heller still uses IQ and psychometric measures as a process of identification ofgifted individuals.

There are, however, other characteristics of gifted children with parallels in this researchsample. Data from this research study are considered against a selection of thesemeasures, the first being the levels of skills displayed in early life and the second,
motivation.

An IQ of 135 was the qualifying measure for the Terman sample although the median of the sample was an
IQ of 147 (Holahan and Sears 1995: PIO).
349

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

Table 10.4: Near-adult levels of skills in childhood:‘Group 1’‘Group 2‘

Total

ParticipantNos.

( 2 , 6 , 11, 13,
15, 18. 24, 31,
36. 39.40,
4 1 ) (1,3.22.

“Gifted children . . . display near-adultlevel skills and interests.” (For example:
they read fluently at the age of 3 or 4 years.)

23.38 )

(Winner 2000: p159; Sears andHolahan 1995: p16.)

Early reading ages were reported by participants 3 and 38,39,40. The Terman group was
described as showing precocity primarily in language -read and spoken at early ages.
There were interview reports from 22 out of 40 participants indicating an early level ofinterest and skill in reading and speaking. Adult levels of responsibility and activity arealso reported in early years. For example, participant 2 wrote a regular column in a
published (adult) periodical, participant 6 constructed radios, participant 11 played music
and directed plays, and participant 31 was given responsibility for aspects of a business at avery early age. Two participants were also founder members of the National Youth
Theatre. Yet the interview reports provide no measures of the level of skill and therefore
these achievements cannot be taken as clear signs of possible giftedness in this group.

350

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

Table 10.5: Intrinsic motivation in childhood:‘Group 2’

Nos%

I Participant

14(2.6.7. 11.
13. 15, 18.24,
36, 39.40.)

T
3“Gifted children ... are far more
intrinsically driven than are averagechildren.” (Winner 2000: p159.)
They are driven “to master the domain
in which they have high ability andare almost manic in their energy
level.” They have “a rage to master”.
(Ibid.: p162/3.)

Total

(14%)

(35%)

I

(22. 23. 25.)

Data presented in Chapter 6 (Early Adulthood) suggest that the motivation of the overall
group evolved over time towards intrinsic motivation. While it is not suggested that thissample expressed a “manic” energy level, or the “rage to master’’ of dnven gifted
individuals, in many cases these were clearly young people who had made a clear and firm
decision to pursue and learn about a specific area of interest. It led, in virtually every caseto public ‘performance’ at least at school level, or beyond. For example: participant 15
had contact with a senior and recognised member of the architecture profession who
encouraged and guided him in his interests in this domain. Participant 18 designed
publicly circulated documents (e.g. advertisements) for use by her school. Participants 22
and 24 were each members of the National Youth Theatre at different times. However,these interests and activities do not appear to be at the same level as those suggested for thegifted. It may be that individuals who become locally creative lack the ability of theextremely gifted but still tend to show above average ability and share a strong inîrinsic
motivation. There may be other differences between gifted populations and the localised
creative, for example they may differ in access to and relationship with the domain andfield.

35 1

Chapter 10 - Localised Creativity

A further Characteristic of giftedness is as follows: “They are highly driven, nonconforming thinkers. Gifted children in all domains also tend to be introverted. They
spend more time alone than do ordinary adolescents” (Winner 2000: p163). While 37.5%

n = 15) of this sample were introverted, as measured by the MBTI, the researcher could
find few clear signs within the interview data of this “highly driven, non-conforming’’
thinking.

In summary, therefore, while this research population may display some patterns of
behaviour found in gifted groups, there is insufficient evidence to conclude that parts ofthis research population are “gifted”. However, factors identified in research on thedevelopment of a talent among the gifted may be relevant to understanding of thedevelopment of ‘localised creativity’.

The childhood definition of giftedness is linked to the potential to achieve. Adult
definitions of giftedness are linked to achievement (Winner 2000: p165; Noble, Subotnik
and Arnold: 1999: p146). Winner (2000: p165) proposes three possible ‘end points’ tochildhood giftedness. First ‘big-C’ creativity - “domain altering innovations”. Second,
the achievement of expertise - while not visible or marked as ‘big-C’ creativity, it is acommon outcome, particularly for Terman’s gifted sample. Third, Winner acknowledges“the biggest issue for profoundly gifted children is making the transition from precocity”
into technical expertise and ‘big-C’ creativity. The gifted may also become frustrated orlost in adulthood. They may become ‘frozen into expertise’ where the gifted person
achieves domain mastery, but does not extend this mastery into the domain change impliedby ‘big C’ creativity (Winner 2000: p166).

352

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

A fundamental tenet of this thesis is that this group has achieved recognition for creativity

in a localised context. Within this group it could be argued that 11 participants haveachieved ‘intermediate’ creativity, judging by the social recognition they have received, forexample for a book written or advertisement designed. The ‘intermediate’ creativity groupin this sample had achieved at least an ’expert’ status -they have had to master specificdomain skills in order to move through these and create a particular outcome.

And while

there have been some indications of superior functioning contained in the measures
evaluated above, it does not, however, imply that giftedness was a necessary precursor tothese achievements. In each case however, these have not been ‘domain changing’achievements, one of the commonly used descriptions of ‘Big C’ creativity. It may be thatcreativity is best thought of as a continuum with ‘Big C’ domain altering creativity at one
end, and ‘little c’ creativity, at the other. There seems to be a need for more work in the
middle of the continuum acknowledging the development path of those whose creative
work has been recognised locally or regionally for example.

The research findings, however, do relate to the recent giftedness literature (Subotnik and
Arnold 1994; Arnold 1994; and Winner 2000) in a way unanticipated by the researcher.
These literature sources have highlighted the experiences that may influence whether or
not a gift found in youth becomes developed later into a significant area of achievement.
They have indicated some of the influences that are found which frustrate the development
and achievement of skill and creativity in a gifted population, e.g. the absence of rolemodels or mentors (Subotnik and Steiner 1994). In contrast, much of the literature on the
exceptional creative individual often implies a smooth trajectory of development fromyouth, through adulthood to widespread social acclaim. This recent giftedness literature(e.g. Arnold 1994, Winner 2000) addresses the struggles involved, and the ways in which agift may not yield achievement. The researcher proposes that the findings in this thesis

353

Chapter 10 - Localised Creativity

show some parallels with this work. Research into the lives of exceptional creative
individuals are sometimes less revealing in this respect, perhaps because it has focused on
those recognised as having ‘achieved’, rather than those still seeking that recognition.
This may suggest that research may be needed on understanding what the experience andprocess of trying to gain this recognition may be like.

There are some parallels between the life span literature on the exceptional creative
individual and gifted populations. The giftedness researchers Subotnik and Arnold(1994), in reviewing literature on the longitudinal development of giftedness, cite Roe
1953, Goertzel and Goertzel 1962, Getzels and Csikszentmihalyi 1976, Zuckerman 1977
and Bloom 1985 as offering work indicative of longitudinal gifted development. All ofthese researchers are also quoted commonly in creativity literature as cases of thedevelopment of exceptional creative individuals. This suggests there may be moreparallels in the development of the exceptional creative individual, and the gifted
individual than the literature commonly acknowledges. Winner (1995) in considering thedevelopment of gifted children, reviewed experiences in terms of categories (e.g. homebackground, parental attitudes, experiences of schooling) that are also common onliterature on exceptional creative individuals. Similar categories have emerged from theanalysis of the biographies of the participants in this research sample. Admittedly, someof these would be expected in any life-span study. More important, there is a similar
pattern of influences described within the individuals’ lives in the gifted and exceptional
creative literature and in this sample of local creatives. It is illustrated, for example, byTannenbaum (1983 -quoted in Rudnitski 1994: p350); Albert (1994: p282/3) and Winner(1995) who each propose a model of inter-connecting factors that must be present toproduce gifted performance.

354

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

Tannenbaum (1983):

Albert 1994:

Winner 1995:

Superior general intellect.

Family members, close mentors

First horn, or only children.

Distinctive special aptitudes.

and educators (are involved) in at‘Enriched‘ home environments.

Non-cognitive traits.

least two major transformations:‘Child-centred’ families.

A challenging and nurturing( I ) The early identification of

Parents who model interest andenvironment.

giftedness by others - and theskills in a domain.

Good fortune or chance factors.

self-discovery and use of one’s

Parents who allow independence(own) giftedness.

for their children.

(2) (See/developj a well-balanced

Parents who have highset of cognitive skills, increased

expectations of their children, andfocus on one’s own interests, theprovide nurturing support.

(Psycho-social model ofgiftedness.)

presence of aesthetic values andproblem oriented criticalpersonality dispositions.

The parallels between the literature on the exceptional creative individual, the gifted
individual, and the data emerging from this thesis suggest a commonality in the following
areas:A predisposition to a form of intelligence or talent (e.g. Winner 1995, Gardner 1999a).
First bom or eldest children (e.g. Goertzel et al 1978, Albert 1980, Ochse 1990, Albert
1994, Winner 1995).
The identification, the ‘noticing’ of a child’s talent by adults (e.g. Bloom 1985, Albert1994).
A home environment that in some way will support or actively bring out a child’stalent (e.g. Goertzel and Goertzel 1962, Bloom 1985, Csikszentmihalyi et al 1993,
Tannenbaum 1983, Csikszentmihalyi 1996). It needs to be acknowledged, however,that the quality of the support received may vary in the home environment of the gifted355

Chapter 10 - Localised Creativity

and creative individual. For example, Csikszentmihalyi et al (1993) stress the childcentred nature of the home environment of gifted children, Ochse (1990) and Winner(1995) indicate the levels of tension and discord that may occur in the home of thecreative individual, even if support for talent development is also provided.

It is also quite possible that children in normal populations also benefit from abilities being
noticed and the support of an interested adult.

It is not clear if the benefits of this type of

support are universal or particularly important in special populations such as creative or
gifted individuals. The relationship between the developmental factors identified in theliterature on exceptional creativity, giftedness and localised creativity was not anticipatedat the outset of this thesis, and any link would need to be the subject of further examination
and research.

10.2.5 Self-Image Of “Creative” Ability

The individual’s self-image has emerged as a significant influence on whether individuals
pursue creative or other work. For example, Piirto (1991: p143) reported on a study byBarron of art students where 60% of men and 40% of women did not think of themselves
as artists.

The implication was that an individual’s creative activity may be influenced forbetter or worse by whether they define themselves as creative or not.4

The impact of this is illustrated in some recent literature examining the influences on

creative development in women. This recognises that a woman’s entry into a form ofwork and subsequent activity is influenced by the prevailing conventions or social
messages she receives, or by indications that the career she seeks is possible. For
example, for some women, one of the issues faced is their ‘right’ to engage in creative
Lindauer et al (1997: p143) review changes to creativity in a group of ageing artists. This study revealed
that few described their work as creative - so even this absence may not indicate an absence of creativity.
356

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

activity when other matters in the home normally considered part of ‘their work’ (aswomen) remain undone - thus creative activity might be perceived as going against asocial norm. Uncertainty in the early career period can arise from the circumstances of thesocial context (Walker, Reis and Leonard 1992: p202; Noble, Subotnik and Arnold 1999:
p149; Arnold 1994: p47).

Table 10.6: Particioants who viewed themselves or their work as ‘creative’:‘Group 1’

Total‘Group 2’

Kq-zInterview reports directly indicatedparticipant viewed hidherself or theirwork as ‘creative’ at the time ofinterview, (i.e. this was not an ‘inference’

14

10

(78%)

( 2 . 6 . I l , 15,

24

(45%)

Participant
Nos.

(60%)

18, 19,24, 29.
31. 32,33,36,
39.41.) (1,3,8, 14,20,21,
22, 23,25,
30,)

by the researcher.)

The researcher has examined the interview reports for indications of whether or not theparticipants defined themselves or their work as creative. A higher proportion of group 1
than group 2 explicitly considered themselves or their work creative. But there wasevidence that even those who did not self-report as creative, in fact, were. For example,
participant 7 (in group I ) - with a reputation for achieving business change unprecedented
in her context - told the researcher that she did not consider herself to be creative. She
then proceeded to explain that “all I do is move existing elements around into a new anddifferent relationship”. This is one of the ways used to describe ‘creativity’. She thenexplained that she considered creativity to be something else, something akin to thecreation of a new rose - to grafting one plant onto another.

351

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

Please note that the participants not included in the above table did not necessady report
themselves as not creative. Rather, their interview reports did not include an explicit
description of their own creativity ability.

The accounts of the women participants (reviewed in the results chapters 5 - 8) indicatedthat a number of them had initially placed priority on the development and raising of afamily. It was only on completion of that task that they moved into other forms of work,with more opportunity for development for their creative activity. This finding is
consistent with the pressures on creative women described elsewhere, e.g. Freeman (1993),
and the choices made by women participants reported by Helson (1999) and Subotnik,
Arnold and Noble (1996) - their definition of themselves as ‘creative’ was also influenced
by the definition and expectations placed on them as ‘women’.

In summary, there is evidence that not describing oneself as creative does not necessarily
inhibit creative work (e.g. Lindauer et al 1997). However, where an individual seeks tobalance creative activity with other expectations or image they have, or that have beenplaced on them by others, the development and delivery of creative work may suffer (e.g.
Freeman 1993). (The conflict in expectations experienced by women are the primarymaterial cited in the latter case.)

10.3

Characteristics of ‘Localised Creativity’

Writers such as Feldman (1994), Csikszentmihalyi (1997) and Craft (2000) propose that
there is ‘Big C’ creativity (domain-changing work) and ‘little c’ creativity (which may befound in the acts of everyday life) and these are the two main types of creativity referred
to. Freeman (1993) and Gardner (1999a) both imply that there is a centre-ground, which
Gardner calls ‘intermediate creativity’. But both Gardner and Freeman either use directly358

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

or imply the term ‘intermediate creativity’ to describe the individual that is working
towards a domain-changing act of creativity and the associated recognition from the field,
but have yet to achieve that status. The recognition of a middle ground, a place in which
to examine ‘intermediate-creativity’ and its development, is a change in creativity theory

yet to be taken up to any degree. This thesis suggests that the current definitions of ‘BigC’ and ‘little-c’ alone are limited and that there is a further aspect of creativity in thecentre-ground that Is worthy of study -i.e. investigating the novel, original and useful actof creativity that has worth and meaning in a localised context, along with the individuals
that perform that work. This area has been the subject of this thesis.

The biographies and work activity of this group of local creative influencers appear toindicate the following characteristics of localised creativity:

1. The localised ‘creativity’ in this sample falls somewhere between the ‘Big C’ creativity
and ‘little-c’ creativity described in the literature review (section 2.2.5). There is acase for ‘intermediate-c creativity’ to describe at least some of this centre-ground. The
research criteria for examining creativity, i.e. newness, novelty and utility, can be
usefully applied in a localised context

2. This population of localised creatives have clearly achieved ‘expertise’ in their area, but
do not have the all-consuming drive for their work associated with the exceptional
creative individual (e.g. Roe 1953).
3.

Influential adults, such as role models, contribute to the development of localised
creativity in childhood and adolescence, as well as adulthood, (see chapter 5, section
5.9 and chapter 6, section 6.4.1) - as they also do for exceptionally creative and gifted
individuals (e.g. Simonton 1983b. 1984d and Subotnik and Steiner 1994).

4. The work of this group of creative influencers displays values such as selfdevelopment and service to others, which may be expected from individuals

359

Chapter 10 - Localised Creativity

displaying the preferences associated with the MBTI ‘intuitive-feeling’ type (seeappendix 3) found in the majority of the sample.

The researcher proposes a ‘continuum of creativity’, along the following lines, embracing
the four categories of creativity described in this section:

Table 10.7: A prooosed continuum of creativity:’Little-c’ creativity

Localised creativityor the early stages of‘intermediate-c’creativity.

‘Intermediate-c’creativity‘Big-C’ creativity

Characteristics:
Associated with anattitude to daily life,
and its contents.
Might be seen in
activities likecooking or homedecoration. Not
necessarily
acknowledged byothers.
9
Focusonan
individual, or
individual life.
A local domain, e.g.
home or school.
The ‘field’ might
comprise parents,
friends, partners orteachers.

Characteristics:
Acts displaying
newness, novelty
and utility in a
localised context,
such as anorganisation.
This creative
activity will he seen
and used by others,
and acknowledgedby them.
A localised domain,e.g. focused on theworkplace ororganisation.
The ‘field’ might
comprise managers
or users of thedomain output.

Characteristics:
Individuals who
may be working
towards a domainchanging piece ofwork.
8
individuals who
may actually haveoffered a new, novel
and usefulpotentially domainchanging piece ofwork that has yet toreceive recognitionby the ‘field’. That
recognition may, or
may not follow.
The focus of workin the domain is
likely to be beyond
the local context.
e.g. the domain ofscience or art.
The ‘field’ may belocal, e.g. an
educational
institution, but with
input or influence toa wider context.

Characteristics:
The new, novel, anduseful process or
product that changes
a domain ofknowledge and skill,
and which receives
widespread social
acclaim from therelevant field.
The focus of work
might be any
domain ofknowledge and skill.
0
The ‘field’ is likely
to be broad, e.g.
society, national orinternational in its
nature.

References:
Maslow 1970.
Feldman et al 1994.
Csikszentmihalyi 1997a.
,raft 2000.

Reference:
Amabile 1996.

Reference:
Freeman 1993.
Gardner 1999a.

Reference:
Feldman et al 1994.
Csikszentmihalyi 1997a.
Gardner 1999a.

360

Chapter 10 - Localised Creativity

In proposing the above continuum, the ‘intent’, focus or ambition of the creative individual
may be influential in what quadrant of the continuum they may occupy and where theyseek to develop. For example, if an individual doesn’t seek or expect to contribute toanything other than a localised field, then they may not contribute to intermediate or ‘Big

C’ creativity (unless they make domain changing breakthroughs unexpectedly).

Aspects of this development will be reflected in whether the individual develops‘expertise’ or ‘creativity’.

This is explored further below.

‘Expertise’ or ‘Creativity’? Or ‘expertise and creativity’?:
While an overall definition of creativity can be proposed as encompassing ‘big-C’,‘intermediate-c’, localised-c and ‘little-c’, it still raises the question for some theorists andwriters, such as Ellen Winner, as to whether the latter three definitions are actually‘creativity’. Winner (1995 and 2000) makes a valuable contribution in understanding
development in suggesting that that there are 4 potential outcomes to giftedness inchildhood and adolescence.
1. The ‘gift’ is developed and the individual produces ‘Big C’ creativity in adulthood,changing a domain and gaining associated recognition from a field.
2. The ‘gift’ is developed and the individual reaches the level of ‘expertise’ in adulthood- high levels of skill, but which do not change a domain, and perhaps are directed at
the status quo rather than change.

3. The ‘gift’ remains latent for a period, and the individual becomes a ‘late bloomer’,developing and using the gift at some point later in adulthood.

4. The gift is not activated and used for some reason.

361

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

Winner implicitly suggests creativity is directed at change, whereas expertise, while
valuable, is directed at the status quo, (though Winner’s writing does not appear recognise

an intermediate level or ‘centre-ground’ of creativity- only ‘Big C’ creativity or‘expertise’). Gardner (1993), Simonton (1994), Feldman (1999) each recognise the placeof learning domain relevant skills, and the achievement of expertise, as part of the route
towards producing domain-changing action and ‘creativity’. So, it is appropriate to ask
whether the localised creativity in the participant group represents merely ‘expertise’ or‘creativity’ in the sense of changing products, people, services or environments in theirlocal environment.

All the participants in this study spent time in learning domain-relevant skills, the skills
necessary for their chosen work. However the work positions they reached, and/or the
responsibilities given to these individuals, indicated both achievement of expertise andsignificant levels of recognition. Equally, their biographies indicated that these areindividuals who are not focused on the status quo -their activities are focused on defining,delivering and achieving change in their localised contexts. It is for this reason that the
researcher proposes that ‘local creativity’ in this sample represents something other thanexpertise and the maintenance of the status quo, rather that their creative work also
embraces the delivery of creative activity, flexibility in approach andíor a response tochange, as might be expected in creative influencers.

Time taken to learn domain skills and achieve localised creativity:
The time spent by these participants in achieving domain expertise varied. The shortest
period between the career starting point and the achievement of recognition for theirlocalised creative achievements was 7 years. The more frequent time span was in excess
of 10 years. Both of these measures are less than those cited by Gardner (1993) for

362

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

exceptional creative achievement. Though others (e.g. Hayes and Weisburg) have cited
10 years as the minimum apprenticeship required before the exceptional creative individual

can deliver exceptional work. Gardner argued that learning domain skills involved one
period of work, which was commonly followed by another in which the individual was
preparing to go beyond the accepted understanding and knowledge of the domain. It is
not be surprising that the time taken to acquire expertise and to deliver localised creativity
would be shorter than the estimates for delivering exceptional creativity, and it is very
interesting that even local creativity still seems to require a substantial apprenticeship of inexcess of 7 years.

Life span development:
Reviewing the experiences of early starter participants (group l), there is muchrecognizable in their lives that appears to parallel the theories of Erikson (e.g. 1958) and
Levinson (1978 and 1996). For example: We see the relationship with a ‘competence’, adomain of skill, the identification with it, and the use of this in a workplace (Erikson’s life
cycle stages 4 - 6 ) . There are the efforts taken to identify a place in which they wish towork and develop their interest, alongside the relationships with partners, spouses andfamilies (Levinson’s early adult transition and entry life structure). Two of the mostsuccessful individuals in this group, interestingly, framed their motivation in their twenties
as focused on the material issues of life - and the very need to do this (as they saw it) inorder to provide for themselves and their families. As their domain skills became
established and they began to receive recognition for their work, the accounts of this group
become more characterised by choices they wished to make and following paths of work
more fully of their choosing (Levinson’s culminating life structure for early adulthood).
The experiences of the late starters (group 2) participants involve similar life structure
content, motives and issues. However, as we have seen, they take longer to identify and363

Chapter 10 - Localised Creativity

become sure of their areas of work, and have the confidence to follow and develop this. In
Levinsonian terms, their life structures are less certain, seemingly more prone todifficulties and are subject to more frequent change as part of their effort to place
themselves in contexts they are happy with.

Significant numbers of the overall

participant group experienced events predicted in midlife literature, in line with Levinson’slife span developmental theory. The creative activity and outlook of many also changes insome way at midlife and it is possible that these changes are linked in some way to thedevelopmental midlife experiences,

Finally, it is appropriate to address the question as to which of the factors identified areassociated with normal development rather than specifically with the development ofcreative populations. The life span development of both the participant groups could beclassified as ‘normal’. While their biographies share aspects of the lives of the
exceptional creative individual at various times, they do not display the single-mindedattention paid by exceptional individuals to their domain of interest (e.g. illustrated by theparticipants in the work of Roe 1953 and Csikszentmihalyi 1996), that their work is theprimary part of their life structure. The lives of this research group suggest a morebalanced focus, which would appear to be in accord with Levinson’s life structure theories;
these expect up to 3 priorities or principal choices to be ‘lived-out’ by the individuai. The
accounts of their careers suggest the skillful and flexible application of a domain expertiseand also: (I) a wish to personally develop; (2) a wish to contribute to others; (3) an
example of the flexibility demanded in a changing environment; (4)illustrative of supportand expectations received from the early work environments. The support from influential
adults may aid any individual in their work, whether creative or not. The desire to develop
personally, and contribute to others may be associated with an influencing orientation. The
capacity to respond flexibly in a changing environment may be associated with creativity.

364

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

Details of the accounts show parallels with the research on gifted and exceptionallycreative populations. In particular: (1) the gain achieved from external recognition andsupport in the early days of relating to a domain; (2) the value of a nurturing environment,
e.g. that provides the practical surroundings to work on and develop a skill; (3) the firmingof identity and working practices associated with commitment to and mastery of domain ofknowledge and skill; (4)the importance of role models and mentors in providing supportand development opportunities. The presence and similarity of these factors suggest thatdevelopmental influences on exceptional creativity, giftedness and localised creativity may
be related and similar. They may be equally beneficial for normal development.

10.4

Conclusions

This chapter has set the development of local creativity in a wider context, examining therelationship between the factors associated with the local ‘creativity’ identified in thisthesis with other phenomena such as positive development. These other factors were notbuilt in to data collection in this research study (potentially a methodological shortcoming). Nevertheless it seemed important to consider, albeit briefly, the relationshipbetween normal development, positive development (such as self-actualisation) and
exceptional gifted populations with localised creativity.

Localised Creativity: may be found in the lives of individuals in a local setting where it
offers novel, original and useful contributions in that localised context. Successful local
creativity seems to be built on many years developing expertise in the domain. The life
span development pattern shown by these research participants broadly corresponds withthose suggested by writers on normal adult development, such as Enkson (1958) and
Levinson (1978 and 1996), (for example in achieving the relationship with a ‘competence’,
365Chapter 10 - Localised Creativity

a domain of skill, the identification with it, and the use of this in a workplace (Erikson’slife cycle stages 4 - 6). This chapter presents a perspective for a continuum of creativity
spanning ‘Big C’ creativity (domain changing work in receipt of wide-spread recognition)
to ‘little c’ creativity (where creativity is associated with an attitude to daily life and its
contents).

Positive psychological functioning and self-actualisation: The participants’ accounts ofmiddle age are strongly indicative of well-being and healthy ageing measures developed by
Ryff (e.g. 1989). On the basis of admittedly sparse evidence, it appears that a highproportion of this group also demonstrate certain characteristics of self-actualisation. The
group is also instrinsically motivated. These findings support the idea that creative activity
is associated with healthy development. It may well develop alongside or possibly emerge

from - or even contribute to - that state of healthy development.

Giftedness: It is not possible to say whether this group could be defined as ‘gifted’, asmeasures of IQ and school performance were not collected. There are some small
indications, however, that certain behaviours of some of this group (especially group i) doparallel behaviours attributed to gifted young people, albeit at a slightly lower level ofachievement. The factors found beneficial in the development of the gifted seem to have anumber of parallels in the findings of this sample of local creatives.

Flow: Research on flow was based on sampling particular experiences close to when they

happened. Therefore, as this research data has been collected on recollections over timerather than on specific experiences, it is not possible to make like-with-like comparisons on
this topic. However, it can be said that intrinsic motivation, challenge and skill

366

Chapter 10 -Localised Creativity

development feature prominently in participant accounts and all these are aspects of theflow experience367

Chapter 11 -Conclusions

Chapter 11 - Conclusions
11.1

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to:

11.2 Present an overview of research findings.
11.3 Discuss the limitations of this research.
11.4 Consider further research arising from these findings.
11.5 Consider the originality of this thesis.

11.2

Overview of Research Findings

11.2.1 Methodological Approach
It has been a great privilege to listen to the life stories of 40 individuals, told with openness
and frequently including moving descriptions of the experiences and struggles that they had.

No theoretical framework can ‘reduce’ the uniqueness and individuality of these biographies
into tidy or ‘complete’ representations. In that sense, a research project such as this cannot
have a ’neat’ conclusion.

The research method adopted for this thesis is not unlike that of researchers such as Levinson(1978, 1996) and Gardner (1993). Levinson worked with rich interview material, andGardner with biographic material. As here, they have reviewed a large volume of materialand sought to find structure and patterns within it. This thesis has intended to convey bothaspects of the individual experience as well as common patterns that may appear in large partsof this group.

368

Chapter I I -Conclusions

What follows in this chapter is a summary of research findings identified in chapters 5 - 10.
These summaries will describe the patterns found and identify possible conclusions that may

be drawn about the nature of everyday creativity and its relationship to life span development
and other forms of creativity.

This research project involved participants with a reputation for creativity in a localised
context’. They were asked to describe their life and an example of their work. These
participants may be considered to be creative “influencers” in Gardner’s terms (1997 and1999). This thesis presents a perspective on the development of “localised” or “ordinary”
creativity, as distinct from the exceptional creative individuai, or the genius that has often been
the focus of creativity research, especially biographic research. The research also offers aperspective on the ‘lived’ experience of creativity as described by the creative individual.

Due to the relatively uncommon nature of research in this area, the data established as well as
the findings presented, also constitute an aspect of the originality of this thesis.

The accounts have been examined individually and collectively for patterns and events whichindicated the way in which creative activity originated and developed across the participant’slife span. In addition, results have been compared with the life span development patterns of
exceptional creative individuals to determine in what way, if any, the patterns of these twogroups are different.

’

A ‘localised context’ contrasts with exceptional creativity, a term usually applied to those with a reputation for
creativity across a whole domain of knowledge, or those in receipt of widespread social acclaim.
369

Chapter 1 1 - Conclusions

The primary pattern that emerged from the data analysis is that of two main groups withdifferent developmental histories. First, a group that identified with and developed a skill
andíor motivation from the childhood years, took this into adulthood and onwards to middle
age - the “Early Starters”. Second, a group who, though usually showing an interest in theirsubsequent creative area in early life, did not make a choice to relate to and develop this until
later on in life - the “Later Starters”. The accounts of this second group indicate a period ofsearching before the later development of their subsequently chosen area of activity.

Aspects of this research on everyday creativity can be related to patterns found in the literatureon creativity and the gifted. The life stories of the exceptional creative individual commonly,
though not exclusively, indicate a relationship with a domain that develops in childhood and istaken through and worked on in adult life (e.g. Ochse 1990). Additionally, there are also
research findings that indicate that those individuals who start early, produce earlier andcontinue through adulthood will be those who contribute more, and who make notable
contributions (e.g. Simonton 1988). This parallels the development pattern that was exploredin group 1, the early starters.

An exploration of a question expressed in literature on thegifted (e.g. Gruber 1986) -how and why does a gift become ‘active’ can help to understandgroup 2, the late bloomers or starters. The reported relationship with an area of interest that
does not get confirmed in childhood in group 2 - and the subsequent searching for an activityof their choice - allows for an examination of certain developmental perspectives on thisquestion.

The participants’ retrospective accounts track a developmental pattern for creative activity
over the life span that is reviewed primarily from the orientation of the early and late starters.

370

Chapter I I -Conclusions

The biographic data obtained was also contrasted with research on the exceptional creative
individual, giftedness and normal life span development.

11.2.2 Childhood and AdolescenceIn this sample interest in the subsequent creative activity often originated in childhood, withthe young person finding and relating to a domain of knowledge and skill early. The interestin the chosen area could have been initiated or activated through accidental events, theexample of a parent, or the lead of a teacher.

However the results of the MBTI, indicating amajority of intuitive-feeling types in the overall sample, suggests that the relationship tocreative influencing may originate from an innate talent or a predisposition for this kind ofactivity. The question then became whether, and how this relationship was maintained into
adulthood.

The next step involved events and experiences that supported the young person in having theconfidence to build and develop their relationship with the domain. If they received support
for their choice as an individual, i.e. acknowledgement of their choice as a person, or specificsupport for their choice of a domain from either parents or schools (e.g. through practicalsupport in learning) it appeared much more likely that the relationship became firmer orgrounded, and continued into adulthood. If the young person did not receive (or perceive)
support, or only received support in generalised ways, then it was less probable that they had

the confidence to confirm their relationship with the chosen domain or the motivation tocontinue this work into their adult life. The presence of influential adults, teachers or rolemodels during childhood and adolescence to support and act as resources in the participant’s
relationship to the domain of interest, and this generally appeared key to its subsequentdevelopment. Bloom (1985) also found that parental example (e.g. via their own interests)
371

Chapter I 1 - Conclusions

and practical support (in the location and involvement of appropriate teachers) were keys todevelopment.

Exceptional Creative Individuals: the categories that emerged from this participant groupshow some parallels to those commonly observed in biographic research on the exceptional
creative individual although it must be stressed that these are clearly different research
populations and this is not a direct comparison. These categories included: the origins ofcreative work; the social class and occupation of parents; birth order; parental influences;handicap and illness; bereavement; schooling and education; and the presence of influential
adults. Both the participant groups and research on the exceptional creative individualsuggest a number of common experiences in the first three of these categories. Experiences
are more varied in the remaining factors.
Parental influences varied. Those who received more specific support also tended to be
those who moved on and developed their relationship with a domain of knowledge andskill more confidently and directly than those who did not.
On the whole, participants in group 1 undertook more schooling for longer than those ingroup 2. They described more positive experiences than those in group 2, and appeared to
be able to cope with negative experiences more readily, or at least ‘convert them’ into
something they could interpret positively. For group 1 this pattern of experiences seemed
to have begun to reinforce their choice of and relationship with a domain and/or theirmotivation for it.
Some people had physical disability and illness. The reported experiences of the
exceptional creative individual suggested that this can be a source of isolation, which helps
focus attention on a domain of activity. This did not seem to be the case for individuals

372

Chapter 1 i - Conclusions

who were disabled or had been ill in this research group. More commonly, theexperiences appeared to contribute to the content or approach in their eventual work.
The participant group appeared to have experienced lower levels of bereavement than thatfound with the exceptional creative individual and in the population at large (Eisenstadt
1978). The impact of bereavement is not clear - yet theories on the exceptional creative

individual suggested its presence may form a pressure or driver that stimulates working
and eventually creative activity. Experience of bereavement does not appear to be asignificant factor in this participant group.

The researcher proposes that the overlapping nature of the experiences reported in thisparticipant group with those of the exceptional creative individual and with those classified as
gifted suggests that the development of these groups may all be affected by similar
environmental influences. It also suggested that creative development may be considered ona continuum from ‘little-c’ through local to exceptional and gifted.

11.2.3 Early Adulthood
Domain identification: In what ways do ‘ordinary’ creative individuals locate and develop adomain of creative activity and how does this compare with the practices of ‘exceptional’
creative individuals?

The majority of participants in group 1, the early starters, had made a clear choice on whatwork to become engaged in by the end of the Early Adult Transition, in university-level
education. The focus, the energy of their efforts was to discover where they could or wished
to become engaged in this work. This took time, and initial choices were not always
successful on a first attempt. In contrast to the exceptional creative individual, even with this373

Chapter I l -Conclusions

choice made, the participants in this sample took more time to find an appropriate work
location.

During early adulthood in group 2, the later starters, participants were generally still asking
both what work to become engaged in, and where. Some participants chose work as apossible option with the intention of using the experience to clarify where they might
eventually focus their attention. Levinson (e.g. 1996) defines a period of life with structural
uncertainty as a ‘transition’, but commonly of relatively short duration (e.g. 4 - 5 years).
These results indicate that many group 2 participants remained in a transitionary state in early
adulthood longer than Levinson would have predicted. This extended period of uncertainty
had consequences in terms of a delayed career start-date, and delayed opportunity toconcentrate on learning the knowledge and skills of a domain.

By the closing of the twenties significantly more of group 1 participants had located their
domain of eventual creative work than in group 2. This means that the pattern in group 1 is of
having achieved a focus of work faster enabling them to concentrate on the development andmastery of domain-relevant skills. Over half of group 2 participants had either not locatedthe domain of their eventual creative activity, or were working in a domain from which theywould make a ‘step change’ to this creative activity. Those who had located and werelearning their domain relevant skills were further towards achieving domain mastery andor
creativity skills.

Motivation: A similar pattern also holds in the area of motivation. In early adulthood two
thirds of group I participants described an intrinsic motivation for their area of work, incontrast to just over ten percent of group 2. The majority within group 2 at this time374

Chapter 1 i -Conclusions

demonstrated a motivation for another area of work, unclear motivation, or extrinsic
motivation focused on the external aspects of the work. This pattern in group 2 suggests it islikely to lead to less creative work, or a focus on other aspects than the work itself, due to thisreduced or lower levels of motivation.

Change skills: It was clear from participants’ stories that the majority of group 1 participants
and half of group 2 participants were working in contexts where the introduction of new andnovel work was expected, andíor the skills for achieving change were taught as part of theskills for working in that context. It seems that many of this participant group were working

in locations that were open to or actually nurtured aspects of creative work, i.e. the production
and introduction of new, novel and appropriate changes into their context. It is not clear how
atypical this was at that time.

Pre-midlife circumstances: Prior to the midlife decade there was a further increase in bothgroups, of those settled in the domain of their creative work. There was also an increase in
the number of participants who reported intrinsic motivation for their work - yet the number
within group 1 was still higher than in group 2. By this point the majority of group 2participants had found a domain of activity and intrinsic motivation for it (albeit later than thepattern demonstrated in group i). The participants in group 2 were ‘catching up’ withparticipants in group 1 and often by a different route. Group 1 participants clarified theirmotivation and moved towards work influenced by this choice. In contrast, many group 2participants appeared to use work experience to clarify their motivation and then move into adomain of work that became the place of their creative activity.

375

Chapter I I -Conclusions

At this time, there was also an increase, in both groups, of individuals demonstrating creativeskills - though the numbers were higher in group 1 than in group 2. The proportion ofindividuals working in settings where change was normal, and where the skills for introducingchange are taught, also increased in both groups. Again, these numbers are higher in group 1
than in group 2.

Influential adults: More participants in group 1 reported experiences of being influenced byadults and had more of these experiences.

For group 1 participants the most common pattern was of influential adults who opened up
perceptions of what was contained in work, or was possible in work.

Group 2 participants described contributions from influential adults that focused on anunderstanding, or changed understanding of who they might be as individuals, a fundamental
change in their self-understanding. This suggests that they may have been still searching forthat understanding about themselves in this time period.

The researcher proposes that these two distinct patterns are not unexpected. For example,
where group 1 participants had found their domain of work, their focus is on what they may
need to develop that activity, e.g. working practices. Group 2 participants, with a longer
period of ‘searching’, were still resolving questions about who they were as individuals, orwhere they wish to attach their work efforts.

Changes of domain: Where group 1 participants changed or moved work domains, in eachcase this change contributed to the eventual creative work. The changes of domain made by376

Chapter 11 - Conclusions

group 2 participants at this time were largely based on some form of uncertainty in work or
work choice.

Changes of field: Participants in group 1 who worked in two or more ‘fields’ all reported
reasons for these changes associated with gaining experience that supported their intrinsic
motivation for the work they had chosen to do. Participants in group 2 who worked in two or
more ‘fields’ reported reasons based on their changing their minds about career course, or for
extrinsic reasons like promotion or career status.

11.2.4 Midlife
All participants report at least some experiences predicted by the midlife literature. Group 1
participants report more of the changes predicted by Jaques (1965).

In reviewing changes to employment there was a strong pattern in group 1 participants ofeither initiating the changes themselves, or at the very least responding to them as a naturalextension of what they were already doing. More of group 2 seemed to react to them.

Group 2 participants show a much higher level of considering what actions or behaviours to
devote themselves to in future. This appeared to be in line with group 2 finding their creative
work ‘late’ and ‘reacting’ to changes in external events.

This group also displayed changes to creative activity at midlife predicted by Jacques (1965),(i.e. that creative work might cease or dry up, the capacity might show itself for the first time,
there may be a change in the quality or content of work, or a change in work method).

377

Chapter I I - Conclusions

11.2.5 Middle Age
Participants reported on-going creative activity in 'middle age'. The reported changes to work
were largely internal in nature involving a sense of confidence, skill and improvement in theprocess used in working with others. There were some indications of participants being more
open to the needs of a social group (e.g. a group of trainees) which would be in line with the
expectations for Erikson's seventh stage of Generativity vs. Stagnation (e.g. 1958).

Over half of the forty participants planned further specific changes to their work. There wereindications that the plans of this group were less specific in nature than those found in thework patterns of the exceptional creative individual (Csikszentmihalyi 1996).

There was little evidence of the so-called "late life style". The late life style is characterisedby: (1) An expression of deeper thoughts and feelings, with greater economy of means. (2)Simplicity and depth.

(3) A focus on questions, issues, associated with 'meaning' in life andspiritual affairs. (4) It may transcend current conventions, and use alternate approaches(Munsterberg 1984 and Simonton 1994.) No clear indication could be seen by the researcher
in the reports of this group of the late life style. However, the calmer and clearer focus fromboth participant groups, and the greater degrees of comfort with themselves and their work is
indicative of point 3 above, and of measures of positive psychological functioning proposed
by Ryff (e.g. 1989).

378

Chapter 11 - Conclusions

11.2.6 Additional Perspectives
Analysis of the data suggests there appears to be little relationship between gender,
occupation, age and style and the early and later starter development pattern of the local
creative in this sample.

The experiences of the early adulthood phase of these everyday creatives potentially show
certain interesting parallels with the reported experiences of the gifted (e.g. Subotnik and
Arnold 1994).

Specifically, the findings associated with giftedness suggest the development

and activation of a childhood gift in adulthood is subject to many influences e.g. theavailability of mentors, and can reach both a positive and negative outcome. Subotnik and
Arnold have assembled longitudinal studies of giftedness that illustrate the struggles and theefforts associated with a gift being utilised in adulthood This aspect of talent development israrely considered in creativity literature, e.g. Freeman (1993). and may illustrate one of thepotential contributions of further research on ‘intermediate-creativity’.

The researcher has argued, in section 10.3 of chapter 10, that there are grounds for considering
creativity as a continuum from ‘Big C’ creativity, through to ‘little c’ creativity, with‘intermediate C’ creativity, and ‘localised creativity’ occupying the ‘middle ground’ between
the two extremes. He suggests that there are grounds for research to further develop theunderstanding of creativity as it may appear in this middle ground, possibly on its route topotentially being ‘domain changing’ creativity.

The findings from the midlife period, and the middle age period in particular, suggested thatthe differences between the two participant groups narrow with time - that they grow closer
together with age. There are indications that they show some characteristics of positive379

Chapter I I -Conclusions

development and self-actualization. In this context, that of an examination of ‘little-c’creativity, this suggests that this phenomenon maybe part of a larger developmental pattern
involving identity, and constructive, positive and healthy ageing.

In summary the research suggests that there is a creativity continuum from everyday and‘little-c’ creativity, through local and intermediate creativity, to ‘Big-C’ and exceptional
creativity. In addition it suggests that some of the key developmental factors highlighted inresearch on the gifted seem to have parallels in work on the exceptional creative individual,
and in this sample. It may be that some of the factors identified, such as parental support for
the area of interest and high expectations for the child, are beneficial development factors in
all populations, not just the creative or gifted - and this is worthy of further exploration or
research. A large part of this sample did not settle on their work area until later in life, incontrast to exceptional creatives. While there appear to be developmental influences (such asa lower level of parental support) on their experiences it is not clear if this is in any way
associated with the fact that the sample is composed of influencers, a group who may benefit
from having a variety of life experiences prior to settling into their chosen career.

11.3

Limitations of This Research

Type of research: This research is biographic in nature. It is reliant on an individual’s recall
and memory generally, and their willingness to recall and communicate relevant information.
The story-teller may also attempt to communicate a particular motive or point of view inaddition to, or in place of the facts sought in the research context (e.g. that they have had afulfilling and successful life). As a result, research of this type is susceptible to having

380

Chapter 11 - Conclusions

material needed by the study omitted or distorted because of these factors. Given thisbackground, why and in what ways can these findings be relied upon?

Biographic research is acknowledged as one of the primary routes for creativity research(Mayer 1999). Biographic research - whether through the work of a biographer or the
autobiographical reflection of a participant - is susceptible to distortion in similar ways.
There are three forms of safeguards that were applied to minimise the risks of distortion
described above.

1. First, alertness within the research interview framework to facts or aspects of thecommunicated biography that appear to contradict the overall picture being
communicated.

2. Second, the use of multiple cases as a means of assembling data from a wide range ofsources (i.e. people), and not relying on one participant alone. If similar patterns are
displayed across a wider group then these may be indications that the research is
examining something over and above the factors of an individual story.

3. Third, after Gedo and Gedo (1990) and Feldman (1999). biographic research is seen as avaluable means for establishing models and theories that may then be tested via otherresearch routes. The limitations of time associated with Ph.D. work and a study of thistype have not allowed for other research methods to be used in this case (e.g. survey work
to test experiences of a wider group). This becomes an opportunity for follow-up
research.

Sample structure: The sample in this research project was not random but selected to meetcertain predetermined criteria. This quota approach reflected the practicalities associated with381

Chapter I I -Conclusions

finding participants. Such an approach has been used in prior work such as the Terman
sample (Terman 1925; Holahan and Sears 1995; Csikszentmihalyi 1996.)

Data-gathering: The primary focus of data-gathering in this project has been open interviews;
though an interview guide was used, this meant the content of the material discussed wasdetermined by participants. Chapter 10 illustrated, (e.g. section 10.2.4) that the lack of otherdata, such as academic records, has led to limitations in some of the conclusions that can be
drawn from this study, e.g. in whether or not these participants may be ‘gifted’.

Time and resources: Ph.D. research is limited both in time and the resources available to theresearcher. The use of forty participants will not provide research results that may begeneralised - nor was it intended that they should. The qualitative nature of this study had thegoal of articulating a particular area of information and experience, so this could be used as abasis for further exploration of this field. It would be interesting to look at other comparisongroups but the restrictions of time and resources associated with a PhD study meant it was notpossible to study any contrasting group, though the biographic data gathered from exceptional
creative individuals has provided a framework for considering some of these reported
experiences. 2

Occupational Focus: The focus of this research has been limited to a particular style of work

- that of creative influencers, working in three different settings (e.g. salaried organisational
work, self employed working for organisations, and people who work one-to-one with others).

There are precedents in not using control groups in research of this kind, e.g. Terman 1925. This is an
acknowledged restriction in studies of this nature (e.g. Subotnik and h o l d 1994: p14/5).
382

Chapter 11 - Conclusions

Further research could explore the patterns in other occupational groups, e.g artists or
managers.

Projection: This focus of research has involved an area of study (the work of ‘influencers’)
that relates to the occupational category of the researcher. This source of potential bias in thisstudy was examined in Chapter 3, section 3.4.8. In summary, the researcher believes that hedid not adversely affect the results for the following reasons:
1. The participants involved were generally doing work involving skills not used by the

researcher, and in locations not known by the researcher.

2. The background of the researcher in ‘action research’ consulting in a business context has
led to a broad experience of data gathering by interview. This work has involved a
specific brief to understand information in the terms used by the interviewee, not imposedby the interviewer.

3. Additionally, his training and experience in counselling and psychotherapeutic situations
also provides him with experience and specific methods (described in the research method
chapter) for ‘staying separate’ from the information offered by the participants.

11.4

Further Research

As described above in section 11.3, the findings of this research suggest the need for further
exploration and evaluation of creative development over time, of local creativity and of thedevelopment of creative influencers by other research routes and with other participant groups.
For example:

Additional data sources: This research could be replicated and expanded upon using
additional data sources, e.g. schooling, IQ data, and interviews with others, such as
383

Chapter 11 - Conclusions

parents, spouses or colleagues. This would allow the potential confirmation of findings

andor the identification of further contributing factors.
Testing the results of this research in participant groups within discrete timehge periods,
rather than a whole-life study, (e.g. taking the four time periods used by this study andexamining only individual periods.) This could have the benefit of examining experiences
and influences of these time periods in greater detail.
Influential adults: The contribution of influential adults in the early adulthood period, i.e.
of influencing work patterns or contributing to a firmer understanding of personal identity
warrants further exploration and confirmation.
Changes in middle age: This research has documented that there is a comparative lack ofunderstanding about the changes to creative work that occur post midlife. There is scope,
therefore, for research that examines these changes over and above those of productivity
and social recognition that occupies a large proportion of existing research on this time
period. (The researcher is structuring and planning a further biographic study in this area
to follow this work.)
Midlife experiences: The use of another research route, such as a survey, to examine theextent of midlife experiences that occur in different class and occupational groups of the
population. This would have the advantage of investigating in a more controlled way
whether and how these experiences relate to education, occupation and income sector etc.
The relationship between midlife experiences and changes in creative activity: further
research may also explore the nature and extent of any causal links between midlife
experiences and changes to creative activity.

384

Chapter 11 -Conclusions

11.5

The Originality of This Research.

This research includes the following elements of originality:

1. Development patterns in localised creativity: The focus is on understanding
developmental patterns in a group of individuals with a reputation for creativity in a
localised context, rather than exceptional creative individuals in receipt of widespreadsocial acclaim. In this way, it offers a perspective on the development of ‘ordinary’ or‘everyday’ creativity.

2. “Intermediate creativity”: The illustration of the patterns outlined in point 1 above also
creates a case for further research on the nature of ‘intermediate creativity’.

3. Occupational group: The focus on an occupational type (influencers) that is one of thefour recently proposed by Gardner (1997), offers an exploration of the type ofdevelopmental influences that may occur within this particular under-researched group of
creatives.

4. Research method and population: The application of a standard method of research(biographic interviewing) has been applied to a new research population. In this context,
the data established on two types of local creative influencers in this research is also an
aspect of its originality.

5. Focus on women: Given that the primary focus of creativity research is on males, thisresearch provides some additional data on the experiences of women.
6. Creative development: This thesis has examined the development of domain skills,
motivation and change skills over time, though the research focus of this thesis has beenon the effect of lifespan and environmental influences on their development.

385

References

Appendix 1 - References
Adams, B.N. (1972.) Birth Order: A Critical Review. Sociometry. Vol. 35, p411 439.
Albert, R.S. (1980) Family Positions and Attainment of Eminence. Gifted Child
Quarterly, 1980, Vol. 24, p87 - 95.
Albert, R.S. (1980b) Exceptionally Gifted Boys, and Their Parents. Gifted Child
Quarterly. 1980, Vol. 24, p174 - 179.
Albert, R.S. (1990.) Identity, Experiences, and Career Choice Among the Exceptionally
Gifted and Eminent. In: Runco, M.A. and Albert, R.S. (1990.) (Eds.) Theories ofCreativity. London: Sage Publications.
Albert, R . S. (Ed.) (1992) Genius and Eminence. Oxford: Pergamon Press. (Second
edition.)
Albert, R.S. (1992a) A Developmental Theory of Eminence. In: Albert, R. S . (Ed.)(1992) Genius and Eminence. Oxford: Pergamon Press. (Second edition.)
Albert, R.S. (1992b) Towards a Behavioural Definition of Genius. In: Albert, R. S
(Ed.) (1992) Genius and Eminence. Oxford Pergamon Press. (Second edition.)
Albert, R.S. (1994.) The Achievement of Eminence: A Longitudinal Study of
Exceptionally Gifted Boys and Their Families. In: Subotnik, R.F. and Arnold, K.D.
(eds.) (1994.) Beyond Teman: Contemporary Longitudinal Studies of Giftedness andTalent. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Albert, R.S. (1996) Some Reasons Why Childhood Creativity Often Fails to Make It
Past Puberty into the Real World. In: Runco, M.A. (1996) (Ed.) Creativity fromChildhood Through Adulthood: The Developmental Issues. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Publishers, No. 72, Summer 1996.
Albert, R.S. (1996a.) What the Study of Eminence Can Teach Us - Presidential Address
to Division Ten of the APA. Creativity Research Joumal 1996, Vol. 9, pt 4, p307 - 315.
Albert, R.S. and Runco, M.A. (1986) The Achievement of Eminence: A model based ona longitudinal study of exceptionally gifted boys and their families. In: Sternberg, R.J.
and Davidson, J. (Eds.) Conceptions of Giftedness. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Albert, R.S. and Runco, M.A. (1999.) A History of Research on Creativity. In:
Stemberg, R.J. (1999.) (Ed.) Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Alpaugh, P.K., Renner, V.J. and Birren, J.E. (1976) Age and Creativity: Implications
for Education and Teachers. Educational Gerontology. 1976, Vol. 1, p17 - 40.
Alpaugh, P.K. and Birren, J.E. (1977) Human Development. 1977, Vol. 20, p240 - 248.

386

References

Alpaugh, P.K., Parham, LA., Cole, K.D., and Birren, J.E. (1982) Creativity in
Adulthood and Old Age: An Exploratory Study. Educational Gerontology. 1982, Vol. 8,~ 1 0 -1116.
Amablile, T.M. (1983.) The Social Psychology of Creativity.
Amabile, T.M. (1989) Growing Up Creative: Nurturing a Lifetime of Creativity
Buffalo, N.Y.: CEF Press.
Amablile, T.M. (1990.) Within You, Without You: The Social Psychology of Creativity
and Beyond. In: Runco, M.A. and Albert, R.S. (1990.) (Eds.) Theories of Creativity.
London: Sage Publications.
Amablile, T.M. (1996.) Creativity in Context: (Update to the Social Psychology ofCreativity.) USA: Westview Press.
Amabile, T.M. (1997.) Motivating Creativity in Organizations: On Doing What You
Love, and Loving What You Do. California Management review. 1977, Vol. 40, No. 1,
Fall.
Argyle, M. (1987) The Psychology of Interpersonal Behaviour. Harmondsworth:Penguin.
Argyris, C. (1969.) Diagnosing Defences Against The Outsider. In: McCall, G.J. andSimmons, J.L. (1969.) Issues in Participant Observation: A Text and Reader. London:
Addison Wesley Publishing Company.
Arlin, P.K. (1990) Wisdom: The Ari of Problem-Finding. In: Sternberg, R.J. (Ed.)
Wisdom: Its Nature, Origins and Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Arnheim, R. (1990.) On the Late Style. In: Perlmutter, M. (1990.) (Ed.) Late Life
Potential. Washington: The Gerontological Society of America.
Arnold, K. D. (1994.) The Illinois Valedictorian Project: Early careers of AcademicallyTalented Male High School Students. In: Subotnik, R.F. and Arnold, K.D. (eds.)(1994.) Beyond Terman: Contemporary Longitudinal Studies of Giftedness and Talent.
New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Arnold, K.D. and Subotnik, R.F. (1994.) Lessons from Contemporary LongitudinalStudies. In: Subotnik, R.F. and Arnold, K.D. (eds.) (1994.) Beyond Terman:
Contemporary Longitudinal Studies of Giftedness and Talent. New Jersey: Ablex
Publishing Corporation.
Arnold, K.D., Noble, K.D. and Subotnik, R.F. (1996.) Remarkable Women: perspectives
on Female Talent Development. New jersey: Hampton Press.
Arnold, K. D., and McKenry, P. C. (1986) Divorce and the Mid-Life Transition.
Journal of Divorce: 1986, Summer, Vol ( (4),p55 - 63.

387

References

Atkinson, R. (1998.) The Life Story Interview. London: Sage Publications.
Bakan, D. (1996) Some Reflections About Narrative Research and Hurt and Harm. in:
Josselson, R. (Ed.) (1996) Ethics and Process in The Narrative Study of Lives - Volume
4. London: Sage.
Baldwin, C.B., Colangelo, N. and Dettmann, D.F. (1984.) Perspectives On Creativity
Throughout the Life Span. Creative Child and Adult Quarterly. 1984, Vol. 9, Pt. 1, p9 17.
Baltes, P.B. and Schaie, K.W. (1974) The Myth of the Twilight Years. Psychology
Today. 1974, March.
Banister, P., Burman, E., Parker, I., Taylor, M., & Tindall, C. (1994) Qualitative
Methods in Psychology - A Research Guide. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Bar-On, D. (1996) Ethical Issues in Biographical Interviews and Analysis. In:
Josselson, R. (Ed.) (1996) Ethics and Process in The Narrative Study of Lives - Volume
4. London: Sage.
Bardwick, J.M. (1978.) Middle Age and a Sense of Future. Memll-Palmer Querterly.
1980, Vol. 24, no. 2.
Barron, F. (1988) Putting Creativity to Work. In Sternberg, R.J. (Ed.) The Nature of
Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bayne, R. (1995) The Myers Briggs Type Indicator: A critical review and practicalguide. London: Chapman and Hall.
Bee, H. (1998) Lifesapn Development (Second Edition). Harlow, England Longman.
Ben-Ari, A.T. (1995) It’s the Telling That makes the Difference. In: Josselson, R. and
Lieblich, A. (Eds.) (1995) The Narrative Study of Lives -Interpreting Experience Volume 3. London: Sage.
Berk, L.E. (1998) Development through the Lifespan. London: Allyn and Bacon.
Birren, J.E. and Fisher, L.M. (1990) The Elements of Wisdom: Overview andIntegration. In: Stemberg, R.J. (Ed.) Wisdom: Its Nature, Origins and Development.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Birren, J.E., Kenyon, G.M., Ruth, J.E., Schroots, J.J.F., and Svensson, T. (1996.) (Eds.)
Aging and Biography: Explorations in Adult Development. London: Springer Publishing
Company.
Branson, D. H. (1975) Individuation - Transendence of Jungian Types, Life Change andIllness. Ph.D thesis, the University of Washington.
Brennan, T.P. and Piechowski, M.M. (1991.) A Developmental Framework for SelfActualization. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 1991, VOL. 31, Pt 3, Summer, p43 64.

388

References

Bnggs Myers, I. (1980) Gifts Differing. Palo Alto, California: Consulting
Psychologists Press.
Briggs Myers, I. & McCauley, M.H. (1985) Manual: A Guide to the Development andUse of the Myers-Bnggs Type Indicator. Paio Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists
Press.
Briggs Myers, I. (1993) Introduction to Type - fifth edition. Palo Alto, California:
Consulting Psychologists Press.
Brim, O.G., Jr. (1976.) Theories of the Male Mid-Life Crisis. Counselling
Psychologist. 1976, VOI.6, p2 - 9.
British Psychological Society. (1993.) Ethical Guidelines for Research with Human
Subjects.
Brock, S. (1994.) Using Type in Selling. Palo Alto, California: Consulting
Psychologists Press.
Butler, R.N. (1963.) The Life Review: An Interpretation of Reminiscence in the Aged,
Psychiatry. 1963, Vol. 26, p65 - 76.
Butler, R.N. (1967.) The Destiny of Creativity in Later Life: Studies of Creative People
and the Creative Process. In: Levin, S. and Kahana, R.J. (1967.) (Eds.) Psychodynamic
Studies on Aging: Creativity, Reminiscing and Dying. New York: International
Universities Press Inc.
Butler, R.N. (1974) The Creative Life and Old Age. In Pfeiffer, E. (Ed.) Successful
Aging. Durham, North Carolina: Durham University.
Cangemi, J.P. (1976.) Characteristics of Self-Actualizing Individuals. Psychology.
1976, Vol. 13, pt 2, p48 - 49.
Carpenter, C. (1984) Relationships between two distinct personality types and theircomposing process. Ph.D. thesis, Wayne State University.
Chambers, J.A. (1964.) Relating Personality and Biographical factors to ScientificCreativity. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied. 1964, Vol. 78, Number 7.
Chase, S . (1995) Taking Narrative Seriously: Consequences for Method and Theory inInterview studies. In: Josselson, R. and Lieblich, A. (Eds.) (1995) The Narrative Studyof Lives -Interpreting Experience - Volume 3. London: Sage.
Chase, S.E. (1996) Personal Vulnerability and Interpretive Authority in Narrative
Research. In: Josselson, R. (Ed.) (1996) Ethics and Process in The Narrative Study ofLives - Volume 4. London: Sage.
Clayton, V.P. (1975) Erikson's Theory of Human Development as it Applies to theAged. Human Development. 1975, Vol. 18, p119 - 128.

389

References

Cohen-Shalev, A. (1986) Artistic Creativity Across the Adult Life Span: An Alternative
Approach. Interchange. 1986, Vol. 17,4, p l - 16.
Cohen-Shah, A. (1989) Old Age Style: Developmental Changes in Creative
Production from a Life-span Perspective. Journal of Ageing Studies. 1989, Vol. 3, p21 37.
Cole, S. (1979.) Age and Scientific Performance. American Journal of Sociology.
1979, Vol. 84, No. 4, p958 - 977.
Collins, M.A. and Amabile, T.M. (1999.) Motivation and Creativity. In: Sternberg, R.J.
(1999.) (Ed.) Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Corlett, E.S. and Millner, N.B. (1993) Navigating Mid-life: Using Typology as a Guide.
California: Consulting Psychologist Press Books.
Cornett, C. and Hudson, R. (1987) Middle Adulthood and the Theories of Erikson
Journal of Gerontological Social Work. 1987, Voi. 10 ( 3 - 4). p61 - 73
Cox, C.M. (1926) The Early Mental Traits of Three Hundred Geniuses. Volume I1 in
Genetic Studies of Genius, edited by L.M. Terman. California: Stanford University
Press.
Craft, A. (1998.) Educator Perspectives on Creativity: An English Study. The Journalof Creative Behaviour. 1998, Voi. 32, No. 4, Fourth Quarter, p244 - 257.
Craft, A. (2000.) Creativity Across the Primary Curriculum: Framing and Developing
Practice. London: Routledge Ltd.
Crandall, R. (1978) The Relationship Between Quantity and Quality of Publications.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 1978, Vol. 4, p379 - 380.
Cropley, A.J. (1990) Creativity and Mental Health in Everyday Life. Creativity
Research Journal, 1990, Vol. 3 (3), p167 - 178.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. and Getzels, J.W. (1971) Discovery Oriented Behaviour and theOriginality of Creative Products. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1971,
Vol. 19 (i), p47 - 52.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. and Getzels, J.W. (1973) The Personality of Young Artists.
British Journal of Psychology. 1973, Vol. 64 (i), p91 - 104.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975.) Beyond Boredom and Anxiety: Experiencing Flow in
Work and Play. (25'h Anniversary Edition.) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. and Getzels, J.W. (1988) Creativity and Problem Finding in Art.
In Farley, F.H and Neperud, R.W. The Foundations of Aesthetics, Art and Art Education.
New Your: Praeger Ltd.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1991) An Investment Theory of Creativity and its Development.
Human Development. 1991, Vol. 34, 1, p32 - 34.

390

References

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1992) Motivation and creativity. In: Albert, R. S. (Ed.)(1992) Genius and Eminence. Oxford: Pergamon Press. (Second edition.)
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1992a.) Flow: The Psychology of Happiness. London: Rider
Books.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1994.) The Domain of Creativity. In: Feldman, D.H.,
Csikszentmihalyi, M., and Gardner, H. (1994.) Changing the World: A Framework for
the Study of Creativity. London: Praeger.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996.) Creativity: Flow and The Psychology of Discovery andInvention. London: Harper Collins.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997.) Living Well: The Psychology of Everyday Life. London:
Phoenix Books. (Also published in 1997 as “Finding Flow: The Psychology ofEngagement with Everyday life.”)Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997a.) (Transcript of a radio interview with Michael Tornrns of
New Dimensions Radio.) The Well of Creativity. San Francisco: Hay House.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999.) Implications of a Systems Perspective for the Study ofCreativity. In: Sternberg, R.J. (1999.) (Ed.) Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Curnmings, A. and Oldham, G.R. (1977.) Enhancing Creativity: Managing Work
Contexts For The High Performing Employee. California Management review. 1977,
Voi. 40, No. I, Fall.
Dacey, J. S. (1989) Peak Periods of Creative Growth Across the Life-span. Journal of
Creative Behaviour: 1989, Vol. 23 (4), p224 - 247.
Dacey, J.S. and Lennon, K.H. (1998.) Understanding Creativity: The Interplay of
Biological, Psychological and Social Factors. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Davis, R.A. (1987.) Creativity in Neurological Publications. Neurosurgery. 1987, Vol.
20, p652 - 663.
Dean, J.P. and Foote Whyte, W. (1969.) “How Do You Know If The Informant Is
Telling The Truth. In: McCall, G.J. and Simmons, J.L. (1969.) (Eds.) Issues in
Participant Observation: A Text and Reader. London: Addison Wesley Publishing
Company.
Delcourt, M.A.B. (1993) Creative Productivity Among Secondary School Pupils:
Combining Energy, Interest and Imagination. Gifted Child Quarterly. 1993, v37 (I),
Winter.
Delcourt: M. (1994.) Characteristics of High-Level Creative Productivity: A
Longitudinal Study of Students Identified by Renzulli’s Three-Ring Conception of
Giftedness. In: Subotnik, R.F. and Arnold, K.D. (eds.) (1994.) Beyond Terman:

39 1

References

Contemporary Longitudinal Studies of Giftedness and Talent. New Jersey: Ablex
Publishing Corporation.
Dennis, W. (1954) Bibliographies of Eminent Scientists. Scientific Monthly. 1954,
Vol. 79, p180 - 183.
Dennis, W. (1954a.) Predicting Scientific In Later Maturity From records of Earlier
Decades. Journal of gerontology. 1954, Vol. .9, p465 -467.
Dennis, W. (1956) Age and Achievement: A critique. Journal of Gerontology. 1956,
Vol. 1 1 , p331 - 333.
Dennis, W. (1958.) The Age Decrement in Outstanding Scientific Contributions: Fact orArtifact. American Psychologist. 1958, Vo1.13, p457 - 460.
Dennis, W. (1966) Creative Productivity Between the Ages of 20 and 80 years. Journalof Gerontology. 1966, Vol. 21, p l - 8.
Diamond, A.M. (1986.) The Life Cycle Research Productivity of Mathematicians andScientists. Journal of Gerontology. 1986, Vol. 41, No. 4, p520 - 525.
Diemer, G. (1974) Creativity Versus Age. Physics Today. 1974, Vol. 27, p9 - 11.
Dixon, R.A. and Bakes, P.B. (1986) Toward Life-span Research on the Functions andPragmatics of Intelligence. In: Sternberg, R.J. and Wagner, R.K. (Eds.) PracticalIntelligence: Nature and Origins of Competence in the Everyday World. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Domino, G. (1979) Creativity and the Home Environment. Gifted Child Quarterly.
Winter 1979, v23(4).
Drebing, C.E. and Gooden, W.E. (1991) Impact of the Dream on Mental Health
Functioning in Male Midlife. International journal of ageing and human development
1991, Vol 32 (4), p277 - 287.
Duncan, R.B. (1979) Qualitative Research Methods in Strategic Management. In D.E.
Schendel and C. W. Hofer (Eds.), Strategic Management: A New View of Business Policy
and Planning. p424 - 447.
Eisenstadt, J.M. (1978) Parental Loss and Genius. American Psychologist. March
1978, p211 - 223.
Erikson, E.H. (1958 & 1980) Identity and the Life Cycle. New York: Norton.
Enkson, E. H. (1963) Childhood and Society. Second edition. New York: Norton.
Enkson, E. H. (1974) Dimensions of a New Identity: The 1973 Jefferson lectures in thehumanities. New York: Norton.
Erikson, E.H. (1980.) On The Generational Cycle: An Address. International Journal
Of Psychoanalysis. 1980, Vol. 61, p213 - 223.

392

References

Erikson, E.H. and Erikson, J. (1981) On Generativity and Identity: From a Conversation
with Erik and Joan Erikson. Harvard Educational Review. 1981, Vol. 51 (2), p249 - 269.
Erikson, E.H. (1985) The Life Cycle Completed. New York: Norton.
Erikson, E.H., Erikson, J.M. and Kivnick, H.Q. (1986.) Vital Involvement in Old Age.
New York: Norton.
Erikson, E.H. (1997.) The Life Cycle Completed (Revised edition, by J.M. Erikson.).
New York: Norton.
Erikson, J.M.
Norton.

(1988.) Wisdom and the Senses: The Way of Creativity. New York:

Feldman, D.H. (1988) Creativity: Dreams, Insights and Transformations. In Sternberg,
R.J. (Ed.) The Nature of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Feldman, D.H. (1990) Four Frames for the Study of Creativity. Creativity Research
Journal. 1990, Vol. 3,2, p104 - 111.
Feldman, D.H., Csikszentmihalyi, M., and Gardner, H. (1994.) Changing the World A
Framework for the Study of Creativity. London: Praeger.
Feldman, D.H., Csikszentmihalyi, M., and Gardner, H. (1994a.) A Framework for the
Study of Creativity. In: Feldman, D.H., Csikszentmihalyi, M., and Gardner, H. (1994.)
Changing the World: A Framework for the Study of Creativity. London: Praeger.
Feldman, D.H. (1994.) Creativity: Proof that Development Occurs. In: Feldman, D.H.,
Csikszentmihalyi, M., and Gardner, H. (1994.) Changing the World: A Framework for
the Study of Creativity. London: Praeger
Feldman, D.H. (1994b.) Child Prodigies: A Distinctive Form of Giftedness. GiftedChild Quarterly. 1994, Vol. 37, p188 - 193.
Feldman, D.H. (1999.) The Development of Creativity. In: Sternberg, R.J. (1999.)(Ed.) Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fleming, E S . and Hollinger, C.L. (1994.) Project Choice: A Longitudinal Study of the
Career Development of Gifted and Talented Young Women. In: Subotnik, R.F. and
Arnold, K.D. (eds.) (1994.) Beyond Terman: Contemporary Longitudinal Studies of
Giftedness and Talent. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Freeman, M. (1993.) Finding The Muse: A Sociopsychological Inquiry into theConditions of Artistic Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Furth, D. (1990) Melanie Klein: A Levinsonian Study of the Emergence of Creativity in
the Mid-life Transition. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation: California School ofProfessional Psychology: Berkeley.
Galton, F. (1869) Hereditary Genius. New York: MacMillan

393

References

Gardner, H. (1988) Creative Lives and Creative works: A Synthetic Approach. In
Sternberg, R.J. (Ed.) The Nature of Creativity, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Gardncr, H. (1993) Creating Minds. New York: Basic Books.
Gardncr, H. (1994.) The Creators Patterns. In: Feldman, D.H., Csikszentmihalyi, M.,
and Gardncr, H. (1994.) Changing the World A Framework for the Study of Creativity.
London: Pracgcr.
Gardner, H. and Moran, J. (1990.) Family Adaptability, Cohesion and Creativity.
Creativity Research Journal. 1990, v3, pt 4, p281 - 286.
Gardncr, H. (1999.) Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21" Century.
New York: Basic books.
Gardner, H. and Wolf, C. (1994.) The Fruits of Asynchrony: A Psychological
Examination of Creativity, In: Feldman, D.H., Csikszentmihalyi, M., and Gardner, H.
(1994.) Changing the World: A Framework for the Study of Creativity, London:
Pracger.
Gedo, J.E. (1972) On the Psychology of Genius. International Journal of
Psychoanalysis. 1972, Vol. 53,p199 - 203.
Gedo, M.M. (1979.) Art as Autobiography: Picasso's Guernica. Art Quarterly. 1979,
Vol. .11,pt. 2,p191 -210.
Gedo, J.E. and Pollock, G.H. (1984.) (Eds.) Psychoanalysis: The Vital Issues. New
York: International Universities Press Inc.
Gcdo, J.E. and Gcdo, M.M. (1992) Perspectives on Creativity: The Biographical
Method. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablcx Publishing Corporation.
Getzcls, J.W. (1975) Problem Finding and the Invetiveness of Solutions. Journal of
Creative Behaviour. 1975, Vol 9 (i), p12 - 18.
Gctzcls, J.W. (1979) Problem Finding: a Theoretical Note. Cognitive Science. 1979,
Vol. 3, p167 - 172.
Gctzels, J.W. (1987) Creativity, Intelligence and Problem Finding: Retrospect andProspect. In Isaksen, S.G. (Ed.) Frontiers of Creativity Research: Beyond the Basics.
Buffalo, New York: Bearly Ltd.
Getzcls, J.W. and Csikszentmihalyi. (1976) The Creative Vision: A Longitudinal Studyof Problem Finding in Art. London: John Wiley & Son Ltd.
Gocrtzel, V. and Goertzel, M.G. (1962) Cradles of Eminence. London: Constable.
Goertzel, M.G., Goertzel, V. and Goertzel, T.G. (1978) Three Hundred Eminent
Personalities. San Francisco: Josey Bass.

394

References

Golan, N. (1980) Using Situational Crises to Ease Transitions in Life. American
Journal of Orthopsychoatry. 1980, Vol. 50, p542 - 550.
Goleman, D., Kaufman, P., and Ray, M. (1992.) The Creative Spirit. New York:
Dutton.
Gould, R. (1972.) The Phases of Adult Life: A Study in Developmental Psychology
American Journal of Psychiatry. 1972, Vol. 129, p521 - 531.
Gould, R. (1978.) Transformations: Growth and Change in Adult Life. New York:
Simon and Schuster Ltd.
Gould, R. (1979.) Transformations in Mid-Life. 1979, Vol. 10, part 2, p2 - 9.
Gowan, J.C. (1971.) The Relationship Between Creativity and Giftedness. Gifted Child
Quarterly. 1971, Vol. 15, pt 4, p239 - 243.
Gruber, H.E. (1983.) History and the Creative Work: From The Most Ordinary To The
Most Exalted. Journal of the History of the Behavioural Sciences. 1983, Vol. 19, p4 14.
Gruber, H.E. (1989.) The Evolving Systems Approach to Creative Work. In: Wallace,
D.B. and Gruber, H.E. (1989.) (Eds.) Creative People at Work: Twelve Cognitive
Case Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gruber, H.E. (1989a.) Creativity and Human Survival. In: Wallace, D.B. and Gruber,
H.E. (1989.) (Eds.) Creative People at Work Twelve Cognitive Case Studies.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gruber, H.E. and Davis, S.N. (1988) Inching our way up Mount Olympus: the evolving
systems approach to creative thinking. In Sternberg, R.J. (Ed.) The Nature of
Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gruber, H.E. and Wallace, D.B. (1999.) The Case Study Method and Evolving Systems
Approach for Understanding Unique Creative People at Work. In: Sternberg, R.J.
(1999.) (Ed.) Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Guilford, J.P. (1950) Creativity. American Psychologist. 1950, Vol. 5 , p444 - 454.
Republished in Isaksen, S.G. (Ed.) (1987) Frontiers of Creativity Research: Beyond the
Basics. Buffalo, New York: Bearly Ltd.
Guilford, J.P. (1967a) The Nature of Human Intelligence. New York: McGraw Hill.
Guilford, J.P. (1975) Creativity: A Quarter Century of Progress. In Taylor, LW. andGetzels, J.W. (Eds.) Perspectives in Creativity. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company.
Guilford, J.P. (1980) Cognitive Styles: What are they? Educational and Psychological
Measurement. 1980, Vol. 40, p715 - 735.

395

References

Guilford, J.P. (1987) A Vista of Future Research on Creativity. In Isaksen, S.G. (Ed.)
Frontiers of Creativity Research. Buffalo, New York: Bearly Ltd.
Hall, E. (1983) A Conversation with Erik Erikson. Psychology Today. 1983, June,
p22 - 30.
Hammersley, M. and Atkinson, P. (1995) Ethnography: Principles in Practice - Second
Edition. London: Routledge Ltd.
Harrington, D.M. (1975) Effects of Explicit Instructions To "Be Creative" On The
Psychological Meaning of Divergent Thinking Test Scores. Journal of Personality. 1975,
Vol. 43, p434 - 454.
Helson, R. (1987.) Which of Those Young Women with Creative Potential Became
Productive?: From College to Midlife. In: Hogan, R. and Jones, W.H. (1987.) (Eds.)
Perspectives in Personality: A Research Annual. Volume 2: 1987. London: JAI Press
Inc.
Helson, R. (1999.) A Longitudinal Study of Creative Personality in Women. Creativity
Research Journal. 1999, Vol. 12, pt 2, p89 - 101.
Helson, R. and Moane, G. (1987.) Personality Change in Women From College to
Midlife. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1987, Vol. 53, No. 1, p176 - 186.
Hennessey, B.A. and Amabile, T.M. (1988) The Conditions of Creativity. In Sternberg,
R.J. (Ed.) The Nature of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Henwood, K., & Pidgeon, N. (1995) Grounded Theory and Psychological Research.
UK: The Psychologist, p115 - 118.
Hocevar, D. (1981) Measurement of Creativity: Review and Critique. Journal of
Personality Assessment. 1981, Vol. 45, p450 - 464.
Hogan, R.and Jones, W.H. (1987.) (Eds.) Perspectives in Personality: A Research
Annual. Volume 2: 1987. London: JAI Press Inc.
Holahan, C.K. and Sears, R.R. (1995.) The Gifted Group in Later Maturity. Stanford:
Stanford University Press.
Hollinger, C.L. and Felming, ES. (1992.) A Longitudinal Examination of the Life
Choices of Gifted and Talented Young Women. Gifted Child Quarterly. Fall 1992. Vol.
36, Pt 4, p207 - 212.
Hollis, J. (1993) The Middle Passage - From Misery to Meaning in Midlife. Toronto:
Inner City Books.
Howarth, E. (1982) Birth order and personality: Some empirical findings. Personality
and Individual Differences: 1982, Vol. 3, p205 - 210.
Hunter, S . and Sundel, M. (Eds.) (1989.) Midlife Myths: Issues, Findings and Practice
Implications. London: Sage Publications.

396

References

Huyck, M.H. (1999.) Gender Roles and gender Identity in Midlife. In: Willis, S.L. andReid, J.D. (1999.) (Eds.) Life in the Middle: Psychological and Social Development in
Middle Age. London: Academic Press.
Isaksen, S.G. (1987) (Ed.) Frontiers of Creativity Research: Beyond the Basics.
Buffalo, New York: Bearly Ltd.
Isaksen, S.G. (1987a.) An orientation to the Frontiers of Creativity Research. In:
Isaksen, S.G. (1987) (Ed.) Frontiers of Creativity Research: Beyond the Basics.
Buffalo, New York: Bearly Ltd.
Jaques, E. (1965) Death and the Mid-Life Crisis. International Journal of
Psychoanalysis. 1965, Vol 46, p502 - 514.
Jaquish, G.A. and Ripple, R.E. (1981) Cognitive Creative Abilities and Self Esteem
Across the Adult Life Span. Human Development. 1981, Vol. 24, p110 - 118.
John-Steiner, V. (1989.) From Life to Diary to Art in the Work of Anais Nin. In:
Wallace, D.B. and Gruber, H.E. (1989.) (Eds.) Creative People at Work: Twelve
Cognitive Case Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Julian, T., McKenry, P.C., and McKelvey, M.W. (1992) Components of men's wellbeing at mid-life. Issues in Mental Health Nursing: 1992, Oct - Dec., Vol 13 (4),p285 299.
Josselson, R.and Lieblich, A. (Eds.) (1993) The Narrative Study of Lives -Volume 1.
London: Sage.
Josselson, R. and Lieblich, A. (Eds.) (1995) The Narrative Study of Lives -Interpreting
Experience - Volume 3. London: Sage.
Josselson, R. (1995) Imaging the Real: Empathy, Narrative and the Dialogic Self. In:
Josselson, R. and Lieblich, A. (Eds.) (1995) The Narrative Study of Lives -Interpreting
Experience - Volume 3. London: Sage.

Josselson, R. (Ed.) (1996) Ethics and Process in The Narrative Study of Lives - Volume
4. London: Sage.
Josselson, R. (1996a) On Writing Other People's Lives: Self-Analytic Reflections of a
Narrative Researcher. In: Josselson, R. (Ed.) (1996) Ethics and Process in The
Narrative Study of Lives - Volume 4. London: Sage.
Jung, C.G. (1933) Modem Man in Search of a Soul. London: Routledge, Keegan andPaul.
Jung, C.G. (1971) Psychological Types: Collected Works Volume 6. London:
Routledge Keegan and Paul.
Kardoff, A. D. (1989) Managing Creativity: Discovery and Enhancement. Ed.D thesis
at Northern Illinois University.

397

References

Kastenbaum, R . (1989.) Old Men Created by Young Artists: Time Transcendence inTennyson and Picasso. International Journal of Aging and Human Development. 1989,
vol. 28, pt. 2, p81 - 104.
Kastenbaum, R. (1990) The Age of Saints and the Saintliness of Age. International
Journal of Ageing and Human Development. 1990, Vol. 30, p95 - 118.
Kastenbaum, R. (1992) The Creative Process: A Life-span Approach. In: Cole, T.R.,
Van Tassel, D.D., and Katenbaum, R. (Eds.) Handbook of the Humanities and Aging.
New York: Spinger Publishing Company.
Kavaler-Adler, S. (1991.) Emily Dickenson - and the Subject of Seclusion. American
Journal of Psychoanalysis. 1991, Vol. 51, Pt. 1, p21 - 38.
Kavaler - Adler, S. (1992) The Aging Decline of Two Untreated Border-line Geniuises.
Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy: 1992, Spr. - Sum, Vol. 10 (i), p77 - 100.
Katz, A.N. and Poag, J.R. (1979) Sex Differences In Instructions To "Be Creative" On
Divergent And NonIDivergent Test Scores. Journal of Personality. 1979, Vol. 47, p518 530.
Keegan, R.T. (1996) Creativity from Childhood to Adulthood A Difference of Degree
and Not of Kind. In: Runco, M.A. (1996) (Ed.) Creativity from Childhood Through
Adulthood: The Developmental Issues. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, No. 72,
Summer 1996.
Keirsey, D, & Bates, M. (1984) Please Understand Me. Del Mar, California:
Prometheus Nemesis Books.
Kiersey, D. (1998.) Please Understand Me 11: Temperament, Character, Intelligence.
California: Prometheus Nemesis Books.
Keller-Mathers, S. (2000) Reflections on the Wisdom of a Woman's Creative Journey.
Paper presented to the 46Ih Annual Creative Problem Solving Institute.
Kenyon, G.M. and Randall, W.L. (1997.) Restorying Our Lives: Personal growth
Through Autobiographical Reflection. London: Praeger.
Kenyon, G.M. (1996.) The MeaningíValue of Personal Storytelling. In: Birren, J.E.,
Kenyon, G.M., Ruth, J.E., Schroots, J.J.F., and Svensson, T. (1996.) (Eds.) Aging and
Biography: Explorations in Adult Development. London: Springer Publishing Company.
Kets De Vries, M.F.R. (1978.) The Midcareer Conundrum. Organizational Dynamics.
1978, VOI. 7, p45 - 62.
Keyes, C.L.M. and Ryff, C.D. (1999.) Psychological Well-Being in Midlife. In: Willis,
S.L. and Reid, J.D. (1999.) (Eds.) Life in the Middle: Psychological and Social
Development in Middle Age. London: Academic Press.

398

References

Kramer, H. W, (1977) The Relationships Between Personality Type and Achievement in
Expository and Creative Writing. Ph.D. thesis at University of Michegan.
Krebbs Hirsh, S. and Kummerow, J.M. (1987) Introduction to Type in Organisational
Settings. Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Kvale, S. (1996.) Interviews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing.
London: Sage Publications.
Landau, E. and Moaz, B. (1978.) Creativity and Self-actualization in the Ageing
Personality. American Journal of Psychotherapy. 1978, Vol. 32, p117 - 127.
Lang, R. (1995) Strategic Planning and Personality Type: Towards constructive andcontingent use of difference. Unpublished Doctor of Education thesis, University ofToronto.
Lehman, H.C. (1953) Age and Achievement. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Lehman, H.C. (1956) Reply to Dennis’ Critique of Age and Achievement. Journal ofGerontology. 1956, Vol. I l , p333 - 337.
Lehman, H.C. (1958.) The Chemists Most Creative Years. Science. 1958, Vol. 127,
~ 1 2 13 1222.

Len, M. (1991) An Empirical Evaluation of the MBTI typology. Personality andIndividual Differences; 1991: Vol 12 ( l i ) , p1141 - 1145.
Levinson, D.J., Darrow, C.N., Klein, E.B., Levinson, M.H., McKee, B. (1978)The
Seasons of a Man’s Life. New York: Ballantine Books.
Levincon, D.J. (1986) A Conception of Adult Development. American Psychologist.
1986, Vol 41 (1). p3 - 13.
Lieblich, A. (1986) Successful Career Woman at Mid-Life: Crises and Transitions.
Megamot: 1986, Jan, Vol 29 (3), p256 - 267.
Lieblich, A. and Josselson, R. (Eds.) (1994) The Narrative Study of Lives -Volume 2 Exploring Identity and Gender. London: Sage.
Lieblich, A. (1996) Some Unforeseen Outcomes of Conducting Narrative Research With
People of One’s Own Culture. In: Josselson, R. (Ed.) (1996) Ethics and Process in The
Narrative Study of Lives - Volume 4. London: Sage.
Lindauer, M.S. (1992) Creativity in Ageing Artists: Contributions from the Humanities
to the Psychology of Old Age. Creativity Research Journal. 1992, Vol. 5 , 3 , p211 - 231.
Lindauer, M.S. (1993) The Span of Creativity Among Long-lived Artists. Creativity
Research Journal. 1993, Vol. 6 , 3 , p221 - 239.
Lindauer, M.S. (1993a) The Old-Age Style and Its Artists. Empirical Study of
Aesthetics. 1993, Vol. 11, p135 - 146.

399

References

Lindauer, M.S., Orwoll, L. and Kelley, M.C. (1997.) Aging Artists on the Creativity of
Their Old Age. Creativity Research Journal. 1997, Vol. 10, Pt 2 and 3, p133 - 152.
MacKinnon, D.W. (1960) The Highly Effective Individual. Teacher's College Record,(1960). Vol. 61, p376 - 378.
MacKinnon, D. W. (1965) The Creativity of Architects. In C. W. Taylor (Ed.)
Widening Horizons in Creativity. New York: Wiley and sons.
Mahoney, M. J. (1991). Human Change Processes. Basic Books Inc
Manheim, A.R. (1998.) The Relationship Between the Artistic Process and SelfActualization. Art Therapy. 1998, Vol. 15, pt 2, p99 - 106.
Maslow, A. (1968). Towards a Psychology of Being. New York: Van NostranReinhold.
Maslow, A. (1970.) Motivation and Personality: Third edition. London: Harper Collins.
Mayer, R.E. (1999.) Fifty Years of Creativity Research. In: Sternberg, R.J. (1999.)(Ed.) Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McAdams, D.P. (1993) The Stories We Live By: Personal Myths and the Making of theSelf. New York: William Morrow and Company Inc.
McCall, G.J. and Simmons, J.L. (1969.) (Eds.) Issues in Participant Observation: A
Text and Reader. London: Addison Wesley Publishing Company.
McCaulley, M.H. (1981) Jung's theory of psychological types and the Myers Briggs
Type Indicator. In P. Reynolds (Ed.) Advances in psychological assessment, Volume 5.
p292 - 335. San Francisco: Josey Bass.
McCaulley, M.H. (1990b) The Myers Brigs Type Indicator in Counselling. In C.E.
watkins Jr., and V.L. Campbell (Eds.) Measures of Leadership. (p381 - 418.) West
Orange, N.J.: Leadership Library of America.
McCurdy, H.G. (1957) The Childhood Patterns of Genius. Journal of the Elisha
Mitchell Science Society. 1957, Vol. 73, p448 - 462.
McCrae, R.R. (1987) Creativity, Divergent Thinking, and Openness to Experience.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1987, Vol. 52 (6), p1258 - 1265.
McCrae, R.R., Arenberg, D., and Costa, P.T. (1987) Declines in Divergent Thinking
with Age: Cross-sectional, Longitudinal, and Cross-sequential Analyses. Psychology andAgeing. 1987, Vol. 2 (2), p130 - 137.
McIlroy, J.H. (1984.) Midlife in the 1980s: Philosophy, Economy and Psychology. The
Personnel and Guidance Journal. 1984, Vol. 62, Part 10, p623 - 628.

400

References

McLeish, J. (1976)The Ulyssean Adult: Creativity in the Middle and Later Years.
London: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Merenda, P.F. (1991) Additional comments regarding the Myers Briggs Type Indicator.
Measurement and Evaluation in Counselling and Development. 1991: Jan Vol. 23 (4),p179 - 181.
Memll, S.S. and Verbrugge, L.M. (1999.) Health and Disease in Midlife. In: Willis,
S.L. and Reid, J.D. (1999.) (Eds.) Life in the Middle: Psychological and Social
Development in Middle Age. London: Academic Press.
Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994.) Qualitative Data Analysis: A Sourcebook.
London: Sage Publications.
Miller, R.L. (2000.) Researching Life Stories and Family Histories. London: Sage
Publications.
Millner, N.B. (1997) Creative Aging. Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologist
Press.
Mitroff, I. I. (1983) Stakeholders of the Organisational Mind. San Francisco: Josey
Bass.
Mittleman, W. (1991.) Maslow’s Study of Self-Actualization: A Re-interpretation.
Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 1991, Vol. 31, Pt 1, p114 - 135.
Moen, P. and Wethington, E. (1999.) Midlife Development in a Life Course Context.
In: Willis, S.L. and Reid, J.D. (1999.) (Eds.) Life in the Middle: Psychological andSocial Development in Middle Age. London: Academic Press.
Moon, S.M. and Feldhusen, J.F. (1994.) The Program for Academic and Creative
Enrishment (PACE): A Follow-up Study Ten years Later. In: Subotnik, R.F. and Amold,
K.D. (eds.) (1994.) Beyond Teman: Contemporary Longitudinal Studies of Giftedness
and Talent. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Mumford, M.D. (1984) Age and Outstanding Occupational Achievement: Lehman
Revisited. Journal of Vocational Behaviour. 1984, Vol. 25, p225 - 244.
Munsterberg, H. (1984.) The Crown of Life: Artistic Creativity in old Age. London:
Harcourt Brace.
Murphy, J.P., Dauw, D.C., Horton, R.E. and Fredian, A.J. (1976.) Self-actualisation andCreativity. Journal of Creative Behaviour. 1976, Vol. 10, Pt 1, p39 - 44.
Murray, J.B. (1990) Review of Research on the Myers Briggs Type Indicator.
Perceptual and Motor Skills: 1990, June, Volume 70 (3, Pt 2) p 1187 - 1202.
Myers, I. &Myers P. (1980) Gifts Differing. Palo Alto, C.A.: Consulting
Psychologists Press.

40 I

References

Myers, K.D. & Kirby, L.K. (1994) Introduction to Type - Dynamics and Development.
Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Neugarten, B.L. (1969.) Continuities and Discontinuities of Psychological Issues Into
Adult Life. Human Development. 1969, Vol. 12, p121 - 130.
Neugarten, B.L. (1976.) Adaptation and the Life Cycle. Counselling Psychologist.
1976, Vol. 6, p16 - 20.
Neugarten, B.L. (1979.) Time, Age and the Life Cycle. American Journal of
Psychiatry. 1979, Vol. 136, p887 - 894.
Nicholls, J.G. (1972.) Creativity in the Person Who Will Never Produce Anything
Original and Useful. American Psychologist. 1972, August, p717 - 727.
Noble, K.D., Subotnik, R.F. and Arnold, K.D. (1999.) To Thine Own Self Be True: A
New Model of Female Talent Development. Gifted Child Quarterly. 1999, Vol. 43, pt 4,
p140 - 149.
Ochberg, R.L. (1994) Life Stories and Storied Lives. In: Lieblich, A. and Josselson, R.
(Eds.) (1994) The Narrative Study of Lives -Volume 2 -Exploring Identity andGender. London: Sage.
Ochberg, R.L. (1996) Interpreting Life Stories. In: Josselson, R. (Ed.) (1996) Ethics
and Process in The Narrative Study of Lives - Volume 4. London: Sage.
Ochse, R. (1990) Before the Gates of Excellence: The Determinants of Creative genius.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oden, M.H. (1968.) The Fulfilment of Promise: 40 Year Follow-up of the Teman
Gifted Group. Genetic Psychology Monographs. 1968, Vol. 77, pt 1, p5 - 93.
O h , P.K. (1999.) Towards a Psychological Model of the Midlife Crisis. Psychological
Reports. 1999, Vol. 84 (3, Pt 2), June 1999, p1059 - 1069.

Over, R. (1982) Is Age a Predictor of Research Productivity. Australian Psychologist.
1982, VOI. 17, p129 - 139.
Over, R. (1982a) Does Research Productivity Decline With Age? Higher Education.
1982, Vol. 11, p511 - 520.
Pearlman, C. (1983) A Theoretical Model for Creativity. Education, 1983, v103 (3),p294 - 305.
Pearlman, S. F. (1993) Late Mid-Life Astonishment: Disruptions to identity and selfesteem. Women and Therapy: 1993 Vol 14 (1 - 2). p l - 12.
Perkins, D. (1981) The Minds Best Work. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press.

402

References

Perleth, C. and Heller, K.A. (1994.) The Munich Longitudinal Study of Giftedness. In:
Subotnik, R.F. and Arnold, K.D. (eds.) (1994.) Beyond Terman: Contemporary
Longitudinal Studies of Giftedness and Talent. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing
Corporation.
Perlmutter, M. (1990.) (Ed.) Late Life Potential. Washington: The GerontologicalSociety of America.
Perlmutter, M. and Hall, E. (1992.) Adult Development and Aging (Second Edition.)
Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Piechowski, M.M. (1993.) Is Inner Transformation a Creative Process? Creativity
Research Journal. 1993, Vol. 6, ptl-2, p89 - 98.
Piirto, J. (1991.) Why Are There So Few? (Creative Women: Visual Artists,
Mathematicians, Musicians.) Roeper Review. 1991, Vol. 13, Pt 3, p142 - 147.
Policastro, E. and Gardner, H. (1999.) From Case Studies to Robust Generalizations: An
Approach to the Study of Creativity. In: Sternberg, R.J. (1999.) (Ed.) Handbook of
Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pollock, G.H. (1984.) Aging and Creativity. In: Gedo, J.E. and Pollock, G.H. (1984.)(Eds.) Psychoanalysis: The Vital Issues. New York: International Universities Press Inc.
Prenderghast, T. (1993) Creativity in Organisations. Bulletin of Psychological Type.
16:2, Spring 1993, p17/8.
Quadrio, C. (1986) The Middle Years. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family
Therapy, 1986, Vol. 7 (I), p33 - 37.
Quenk, N. (1994) Beside Ourselves. California: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Reason, P. and Rowan, J. (1981.) (Eds.) Human Inquiry: A Sourcebook of New
Paradigm Research. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
Reason, P. (1981.) Issues of Validity in New Paradigm Research. In: Reason, P. andRowan, J. (1981.) (Eds.) Human Inquiry: A Sourcebook of New Paradigm Research.
Chichester: John Wiley and Sons
Reber, A.S. (1985) The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology. Harmondsworth,Middlesex: Penguin.
Reid, J.D. and Willis, S.L. (1999.) Middle Age: New Thoughts, New Directions. In:
Willis, S.L. and Reid, J.D. (1999.) (Eds.) Life in the Middle: Psychological and Social
Development in Middle Age. London: Academic Press.
Renzulli, J.S. (1986.) The Three-ring Conception of Giftedness: A Developmental
Model for Creative Productivity. In: Sternberg, R.J. and Davidson, J.E. (1986.)
Conceptions of Giftedness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ripple, R.E. (1977.) Communication, Education and Creativity. Contemporary
Educational Psychology. 1977, Vol. 2, p219 - 231.

403

References

Ripple, R.E. (1989.) Ordinary Creativity. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 1989,
Vol. 14, p189 - 202.
Roberts, P. and Newton, P.M. (1987) Levinsonian Studies of Woman's Adult
Development. Psychology and Aging: June 1987, Vol 2 (2), p154 - 163.
Robbins, A. (1986) Unlimited Power. London: Simon and Schuster.
Roe, A. (1951.) A Psychological Study of Eminent Biologists. Psychological
Monographs: General and Applied. 1951, Volume 65, Number 14.
Roe, A. (1951a.) A Psychological Study of Physical Scientists. Genetic Psychology
Monographs. 1951, May, Volume 43.
Roe, A. (1953.) The Making of a Scientist. New York Dodd, Mead and Company.
Roe, A. (1972) Maintenance of Creative Output Through the Years. In Taylor, C.W.
Climate for Creativity. New York: Pergamon Press.
Rogers, C. (1961). On Becoming a Person. London: Constable & Co.
Rogers, K.B. (1999.) The Lifelong Productivity of the Female Researchers in Terman's
Genetic Studies of Genius Longitudinal Study. Gifted Child Quarterly. 1999, Vol. 43, Pt
4, p150 - 169.
Romaniuk, J.G., and Romaniuk, M. (1981) Creativity Across the Life Span: A
Measurement Perspective. Human Development. 1981, Vol. 24, p366 - 381.
Rosel, N. (1988) Clarification and Application of Erikson's Eighth Stage of Man.
International Journal of Aging and Human Development. 1988, Vo1.27 (1). p l 1 - 23.
Rosenberg, S.D. and Farrell, M.P. (1976.) Identity and Crisis in Middle-Aged Men.
International Journal of Aging and Human Development. 1976, Vol. 7, p 153 - 170.
Rosenberg, S.D., Rosenberg, H.J. and Farrell, M.P. (1999.) The Midlife Crisis Revisited.
In: Willis, S.L. and Reid, J.D. (1999.) (Eds.) Life in the Middle: Psychological andSocial Development in Middle Age. London: Academic Press.
Rudnitsk, R.A. (1994.) A Generation of Leaders in Gifted Education. In: Subotnik,
R.F. and Arnold, K.D. (eds.) (1994.) Beyond Teman: Contemporary LongitudinalStudies of Giftedness and Talent. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Runco, M.A. and Albert, R.S. (1990.) (Eds.) Theories of Creativity. London: Sage
Publications.
Runco, M.A. (1996) (Ed.) Creativity from Childhood Through Adulthood: The
Developmental Issues. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, No. 72, Summer 1996.

404

References

Runco, M.A. (1996a) Personal Creativity: Definition and Developmental Issues. In:
Runco, M.A. (1996) (Ed.) Creativity from Childhood Through Adulthood: The
Developmental Issues. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, No. 72, Summer 1996.
Runco, M.A. (1996b) Creativity and Development: Recommendations. In: Runco, M.A.
(1996) (Ed.) Creativity from Childhood Through Adulthood: The Developmental
Issues. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, No. 72, Summer 1996.
Runco, M.A. (1997.) Is Every Child Gifted? Roeper Review, 1997, Vol. 19, pt 4.. p220
- 224.

Runco, M.A. (1999.) A Longitudinal Study of Exceptional Giftedness and Creativity.
Creativity Research Journal, 1999, Vol. 12, pt 2, p161 - 164.
Runco, M.A. and Richards, R. (1997.) (Eds.) Eminent Creativity, Everyday Creativity
and Health. Connecticut: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Runco, M.A., Ebersole, P. and Mraz, W. (1997.) Creativity and Self-Actualization.
In: Runco, M.A. and Richards, R. (1997.) (Eds.) Eminent Creativity, Everyday
Creativity and Health. Connecticut: Ablex Publishing Corporation. (Published first as ajournal article: Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality. 1991, Vol. 6, p161 - 167.
Runco, M.A. (1997.) (Ed.) The Creativity Research Handbook: Volume One. New
jersey: Hampton Press.
Runco, M.A. and Okuda Sakamoto, S. (1999.) Experimental Studies of Creativity. In:
Sternberg, R.J. (1999.) (Ed.) Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Rushton, J.P. (1984) Evaluating Research Eminence in Psychology: The Construct
Validity of Citation Counts. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society. 1984, Vol. 37,
p33 - 36.
Ruth, J.E. (1989.) The Development of Creativity During The Life Span. The Creative
Child and Gifted Adult Quarterly. 1989, Vol. .14, p212 - 219.
Ryff, C. (1982.) Successful Aging: A Developmental Approach. The Gerontologist,
1982, Vol. 22, pt 2, p209 - 214.
Ryff, C. (1984.) Personality Development from the Inside: The Subjective Experience of
Change in Adulthood and Aging. In: Bakes, P.B. and Brim, O.G. (Eds.) (1984.) Life
Span Development and Behaviour - Volume 6. New York Academic Press.
Ryff, C. (1989.) In the Eye of the Beholder: Views of Psychological Well-Being Among
Middle-Aged and Older Adults. Psychology and Aging. 1989, Vol. 4, Pt 2, p195 - 210.
Ryff, C. (1991.) Possible Selves in Adulthood and Old Age: A Tale of Shifting
Horizons. Psychology and Aging. 1991, Vol. 6, Pt 2, p286 - 295.

405

References

Ryff, C. and Heincke, S G. (1983.) Subjective Organisation of Personality in Adulthoodand Aging. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1983, Vol. 44, pt 4, p807 816.
Ryff, C. and Essex, M.J. (1992.) The Interpretation of Life Experience and Well-Being:
The Sample Case of Relocation. Psychology and Aging. 1992, v7, Pt 4, p507 - 517.
Salthouse, T.A. (1991.) Cognitive Facets of Aging Well. Generations. 1991, Vol. 15,
Pt. 1, (Winter.)
Ruth, J.E. and Kenyon, G.M. (1996.) Biography in Adult Development and Aging. In:
Birren, J.E., Kenyon, G.M., Ruth, J.E., Schroots, J.J.F.,and Svensson, T. (1996.) (Eds.)
Aging and Biography: Explorations in Adult Development. London: Springer Publishing
Company.
Sasser - Coen, J. (1993) Qualitative Changes in Creativity in the Second Half of Life: A
Life-Soan Developmental Perspective. The Journal of Creative Behaviour: 1993, Vol 27(i),pÌ8 - 27.
Schaie, K.W. (1989) The Hazards of Cognitive Aging. The Gerontologist. 1989, p484

- 493.
Schaie, K.W. (1994) The Course of Adult Intellectual Development. American
Psychologist. 1994, Vol. 49 (4), p304 - 313.
Schank, R.C. (1988) Creativity as a Mechanical Process. In Sternberg, R.J. (Ed.) The
Nature of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sears, R.R., Lapidus, D. and Cozzens, C. (1978.) Content Analysis of Mark Twain’s
Novels and Letters as a Biographical Method. Poetics. 1978, Vol. 7, p155 - 175.
Segal, H. (1986) Joseph Conrad and the Mid-Life Crises. Revista de Psicoanalisis:
1986, Mar - Apr. Vol 43 (2), p281 - 293.
Sharp, D. (1987) Personality Types. Toronto: Inner City Books.
Sharp, D. (1990) The Survival Papers: Applied Jungian Psychology.
Sheehy, G. (1995.) New Passages. London: Harper Collins. (Please note: quotes arefrom the British paperback edition published in 1997, with UK-specific information.)
Shneidman, E. (1989.) The Indian Summer of Life: A Preliminary Study of
Septuagenarians. American Psychologist. 1989, April, p684 - 694.
Simonton, D.K. (1975) Age and Literary Creativity: A Cross-cultural Survey. Journalof Cross Cultural Psychology. 1975, Vol. 6, p259 - 277.
Simonton, D.K. (1976) Biographical Determinants of Achieved Eminence: A
Multivariate Approach to the Cox data. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology:
1976, Vol. 33 (2), p218 - 226.

406

References

Simonton, D.K. (1977) Creative Productivity, Age and Stress: A Biographical Timeseries Analysis of 10 Classical Composers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
1977, Vol. 35, 11, p791 - 804.
Simonton, D.K. (1978) The Eminent Genius in History: The Critical Role of Creative
Development. Gifted Child Quarterly. Summer 1978, Vol. 22, p187 - 195.
Simonton, D.K. (1983) Dramatic Greatness and Content: a Quantitative Study of 82
Athenian and Shakespearean plays. Empirical Studies of the Arts. 1983, Vol. 1, p109 123.
Simonton, D.K. (1983a) Formal Education, Eminence and Dogmatism. Journal of
Creative Behaviour: 1983: Vol. 17, p149 - 162.
Simonton. D.K. (1983b) Intergenerational Transfer of Individual Differences in
Hereditary Monarchs: Genetic, Role-Modeling, Cohort, or Sociocultural Effects? Journalof Personality and Social Psychology. 1983, Vol. 44, part 2, p354 - 364.
Simonton, D.K. (1984) Creative Productivity and Age: A mathematical model based ona two-step cognitive process. Developmental Review 1984, Vol. 4, p77 - 111.
Simonton, D.K. (1984a) Scientific Eminence Historical and Contemprary: A
Measurement Assessment. Scientometrics. 1984, Vol. 6, p169 - 182.
Simonton, D.K. (1984b) Creative Productivity and Age: A Mathematical Model Basedon a Two-step Cognitive Process.
Simonton, D.K. (1984c.) Popularity, Content and Context in 37 Shakespeare plays
Poetics. 1986, Vol. 15, p493 - 510.
Simonton, D.K. (1984d.) Artistic Creativity and Interpersonal Relationships Across andWithin Generations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1984, vol. 46, no. 6,
p1273 - 1286.
Simonton, D.K. (1985) Quality, Quantity, and Age: The Careers of 10 DistinguishedPsychologists. International Journal of Ageing and Human Development. 1985, Vol. 21,
p241 - 254.
Simonton, D.K. (1986.) Popularity, Content and Context in 37 Shakespeare Plays.
Poetics. 1986, Vol. 15, p493 - 510.
Simonton, D.K. (1987) Developmental Antecedents of Achieved Eminence. Annals ofChildDevelopment. 1987,5, p131 - 169.
Simonton, D.K. (1988) Age and Outstanding Achievement: What do we know after acentury of research. Psychological Bulletin. 1988, Vol. 104,2, p251 - 267.
Simonton, D.K. (1988a). Creativity, Leadership and Change. In: Sternberg, R.J.
(1988) (Ed.) The Nature of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

407

References

Simonton, D.K. (1989) Age and Creative Productivity: Non-linear estimation of an
information processing model. International Journal of Ageing and Human Development.
1989, Vol. 29 (I), p23 - 37.
Simonton, D.K. (1989a) The Swan Song Phenonenon: Last work effects for 172
classical composers. Psychology and Ageing. 1989, Vol. 4, 1, p42 - 47.
Simonton, D.K. (1990) Does creativity decline in later years? Definition, data andtheory. In: Perlmutter, M. (Ed.) Late Life Potential Washington: The GerontologicalSociety of America.
Simonton, D.K. (1990a) Creativity and Wisdom in Aging. In Birren, J.E. and Schaie,
K.W. (Eds.) Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (Third Edition). London: Academicpress Inc.
Simonton, D.K. (1990b) Creativity in the Later Years: Optimistic Prospects forAchievement. The Gerontologist. 1990, Vol. 30, 5, p626 - 631.
Simonton, D.K. (1991) Creative Productivity Through The Adult Years. Generations.
1991, p13 - 16.
Simonton, D.K. (1991a.) Emergence and Realisation of Genius: The Lives and Works of
120 Classical Composers. Journal of Personality and Social psychology. 1991, Vol. 61,
No. 5, p829 - 840.
Simonton, D.K. (1991b.) Career Landmarks in Science: Individual Differences andInterdisciplinary Contrasts. Developmental psychology. 1991, Vol. 27, No. 1, p119 130.
Simonton, D.K. (1992.) Leaders of American psychology 1879 - 1967: Careerdevelopment, Career Output and professional Achievement. Reprinted in: Simonton, D.K(1997.) Genius and Creativity: Selected Papers. Connecticut: Ablex Publishing
Corporation.
Simonton, D.K (1994) Greatness: Who Makes History and Why. New York: Guilford
Press Inc.
Simonton, D.K. (1995.) Exceptional Personal Influence: An Integrative Paradigm.
Creativity Research Journal. 1995, Vol. 8, pt 4, p371 - 376.
Simonton, D.K (1997.) Genius and Creativity: Selected Papers. Connecticut: Ablex
Publishing Corporation.
Simonton, D.K. (1997a.) Creative Productivity: A Predictive and Explanatory Model ofCareer Trajectories and Landmarks. Psychological Review. 1997, Vol. 104, pt 1, p66 89.
Simonton, D.K. (1999.) Creativity from a fistonometric Perspective. In: Sternberg,
R.J. (1999.) (Ed.) Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

408

References

Simonton, D.K. (1999a.) Origins of Genius: Darwinian Perspectives on Creativity,
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Simonton, D.K. (1999b.) Talent and Its Development: An Emergenic and Epigenetic
Model. Psychological Review. 1999. VOL. 106, pt 3, p435 - 457.
Simpson, E.L. (1980.) Occupational Endeavour as Life History: Anne Roe. Psychologyof Women Quarterly. 1980, Vol. 5 , pt 1, p116 - 126.
Singer, J. (1994) Boundaries of the Soul: The Practice of Jung's Psychology. (Revised
edition, first published 1972.) Great Britain: Prism Press.
Sinnoti, J.D. and Cutmann, D. (1978) Dialectics of Decision-making in Older Adults.
Human Development. 1978, Vol. 21, p109 - 200.
Smith, G.J.W. and Van Der Meer, G. (1990.) Creativity in Old Age. Creativity
Research Journal. 1990, Vol. 3, p249 - 264.
Spoto, A. (1989) Jung's Typology in Perspective. Boston MA: Sigo Press.
Spoto, A. (1995) Jung's Typology in Perspective: Revised Edition. Wilmette, Illionois:
Chiron Publications.
Spradley, J. (1979) The Ethnographic Interview. London: Harcourt Brace.
Strauss, A.L., & Corbin, J. (1990) Basics of Quialitative Research: Grounded Theory
Procedures and Techniques. Newbury Park, California: Sage.
Stein, M. (1953.) Creativity and Culture. Journal of Psychology. 1953, Vol. 36, p311
- 322.
Stein, M. (1983). In the Midlife. Dallas Tx: Spring Publications.
Stemberg, R.J. (1985) Implicit Theories of Intelligence, Creativity and Wisdom.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1985, Vol. 49 (3), p607 - 627.
Stemberg, R.J. and Davidson, J.E. (1986.) Conceptions of Giftedness. Cambridge:
Cambridge Uni versit y Press.
Stemberg, R.J. (1988) (Ed.) The Nature of Creativity: Contemporary psychologicalperspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sternberg, R.J. (1990) (Ed.) Wisdom: Its Nature, Origins and Development.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Stemberg, R.J. and Lubart, T. (1991.) An investment Theory of Creativity and Its
Development. Human Development. 1991, Vol. 34, Pt. 1, p l - 31.
Stemberg, R.J. (1995) In Search of the Human Mind. London: Harcourt Brace.

409

References

Stemberg, R.J. (1999.) (Ed.) Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge: cambridge
University Press.
Stemberg, R.J. and Lubart, T. (1999.) The Concept of Creativity: Prospects andParadigms. In: Stemberg, R.J. (1999.) (Ed.) Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Stevens, A. (1990). On Jung. London: Routledge Ltd
Stevens, R. (1983.) Erik Erikson. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press
Storr, A. (1988.) The School of Genius. London: Andre Deutsch.
Storr, A. (1989.) Churchill’s Black Dog - and Other Phenomena of the Human Mind.
London: Harper Collins Publishers.
Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990) Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory
Procedures and Techniques. London: Sage.
Subotnik, R.F. and Arnold, K.D. (eds.) (1994.) Beyond Teman: Contemporary
Longitudinal Studies of Giftedness and Talent. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing
Corporation.
Subotnik, R.F. and Arnold, K.D. (1994a.) Longitudinal Studies of Giftedness andTalent. In: Subotnik, R.F. and Amold, K.D. (eds.) (1994.) Beyond Terman:
Contemporary Longitudinal Studies of Giftedness and Talent. New Jersey: Ablex
Publishing Corporation.
Subotnik, R.F. and Steiner, C.L. (1994.) Adult Manifestations of Talent in Science: A
Longitudinal Study of 1983 Westinghouse Science Talent Search Winners. In: Subotnik,
R.F. and Amold, K.D. (eds.) (1994.) Beyond Terman: Contemporary LongitudinalStudies of Giftedness and Talent. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Tardif, T.Z. and Stemberg, R.J. (1988) What Do We Know About Creativity. In
Stemberg, R.J. (Ed.) The Nature of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Taylor, C.W. (1988) Various Approaches to and Definitions of Creativity. In
Stemberg, R.J. (Ed.) The Nature of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.
Taylor, LR. (1974) Patterns of Creativity and Aging. In Pfeiffer, E. (Ed.) Successful
Aging. Durham, North Carolina: Durham University.
Teman, L.M. et al. (1925) Genetic Studies of Genius: Volume 1. Mental and Physical
Traits of A Thousand Gifted Children. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Teman, L.M. (1954) The Discovery and Encouragement of Exceptional Talent.
American Psychologist, 1954, Vol. 9, p221 - 230.

410

References

Thompson, H.L (1996.) Jung's Functions-Attitudes Explained. Georgia: Wormhole
Publishing.
Thome, A. and Gough, H. (1991) Portraits of Type. Palo Alto, Calfomia: Consulting
Psychologists Press.
Torrance, E.P. (1959) Developing Creative Thinking Through School Experiences.
Unpublished paper presented to the Minneapolis Teachers League. (Reprinted in:
Torrance, E.P. (1995) Why Fly?: A Philosophy of Creativity. New Jersey: Ablex
Publishing Corporation.)
Torrance, E.P. (1963) The Creative Potential of School Children in the Space Age.
(Reprinted in: Torrance, E.P. (1995) Why Fly?: A Philosophy of Creativity. New
Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.)
Torrance, E.P. (1965) Creativity in American Education 1865 - 1965. Paper presented
to Clarke College, Dubuque, Iowa. (Reprinted in: Torrance, E.P. (1995) Why Fly?: A
Philosophy of Creativity. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation,)
Torrance, E.P. (1965a) The Need for Rewarding Creative Thinking. Originallypublished in Rewarding Creative Behaviour. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. (Reprinted in:
Torrance, E.P. (1995) Why Fly?: A Philosophy of Creativity. New Jersey: Ablex
Publishing Corporation.)
Torrance, E.P. (1977) Creativity and the Older Adult. Creative Child and Adult
Quarterly. 1977, Vol. 2, p136 - 144.
Torrance, E.P. (1980.) Growing Up Creatively Gifted. Creative Child and Adult
Quarterly. 1980, Vol. 5 , p 148 - 158, and 170.
Torrance, E.P. (1981) Predicting the creativity of elementary school children (1958 1980). Gifted Child Quarterly: 1981, Vol. 25, p55 - 62.
Torrance, E.P. (1986) The Dangers of Being a Creative Teacher -The Dangers in
Challenging Students to be Creative. Originally an unpublished paper given at the
Iniversity of Massachusets, Amherst. (Subsequently published in: Torrance, E.P.
(1995) Why Fly?: A Philosophy of Creativity. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing
Corporation.)
Torrance, E.P. (1988) The Nature of Creativity Manifest in Testing. In Sternberg, R.J.
(Ed.) The Nature of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Torrance, E.P. (1995) Why Fly?: A Philosophy of Creativity. New Jersey: Ablex
Publishing Corporation.
Vaillant, G.E. (1977.) Adaptation to Life. Boston: Little, Brown and Co.
Vaillant, G.E. (1993.) Wisdom and the Ego. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Von Franz, M.L. (1971). Jung's Typology. Dallas Tx: Spring Publications.

41 1

References

Walker, B.A., Reis, S.M. and Leonard, J.S. (1992.) A Developmental Investigation of
the Lives of Gifted Women. Gifted Child Quarterly. Fall 1992. VOL. 36, Pt 4,p201 206.
Wallace, D.B. and Gruber, H.E. (1989.) (Eds.) Creative People at Work Twelve
Cognitive Case Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wallace, D.B. (1989.) Studying the Individual: The Case Study Method and Other
Genres. In: Wallace, D.B. and Gruber, H.E. (1989.) (Eds.) Creative People at Work:
Twelve Cognitive Case Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Walters, J. and Gardner, H. (1986) The Crystillizing Experience: Discovering anIntellectual Gift. In: Stemberg, R.J. and Davidson, J. (Eds.) Conceptions of Giftedness.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Walberg, H.J., Rasher, S.P., and Parkerson, J. (1980) Childhood and Eminence. Journalof Creative Behaviour: 1980, Vol. 13, p225 - 231.
Waskel, S. A. and Owens, R. (1991) Frequency distribution of trigger events identified
by people ages 30 through 60. College Student Journal: 1991, June, Vol 25 (2), p235 239.
Weisberg, R.W. (1988) Problem Solving and Creativity. In Stemberg, R.J. (Ed.) The
Nature of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Weisberg, R.W. (1993) Beyond the Myth of Genius. New York: W.H. Freeman andCo.
Whitbourne, S.K. and Connolly, L.A. (1999.) The Developing Self in Midlife. In:
Willis, S.L. and Reid, J.D. (1999.) (Eds.) Life in the Middle: Psychological and Social
Development in Middle Age. London: Academic Press.
Whitmont, E.C. (1991) The Symbolic Quest: Basic Concepts of Analytical Psychology.
(Revised edition, first published 1969.) New Jersey: Priceton University Press.
Winner, E. (1996) Gifted Children: Myths and Realities. New York: Basic Books .
Winner, E. (2000.) The Origins and Ends of Giftedness. American Psychologist.
January 2000.
Willis, S.L. and Reid, J.D. (1999.) (Eds.) Life in the Middle: Psychological and Social
Development in Middle Age. London: Academic Press.
Wolf, M. A. (1991) The Discovery of Middle Age: An Educational Task in Training
Gerontologists. Educational Gerontology: 1991, Nov - Dec, Vol. 17 (6), p559 - 571.
Woods, P. (1986.) Inside Schools: Ethnography in Educational Research. London:
Routledge Ltd.
Wyatt- Brown, A.M. (1988.) Late Life Style in the Novels of Barbera Pym and Penelope
Mortimer. The Gerontologist. 1988, Vol. 28, Pt 6 , p835 - 839.

412

References

Wyatt-Brown, A.M. (1992.) Literary Gerontology Comes of Age. In: Cole, T.R., Van
Tassel, D.D., and Katenbaum, R. (Eds.) Handbook of the Humanities and Aging. New
York: Spinger Publishing Company.
Wyatt-Brown, A.M. (1995.) Creativity as a Defence Against Death: Maintaining One’s
Professional Identity. Journal of Aging Studies. 1995, Vol. .9, pt.4, p349 - 354.
Yonge, G.D. (1975.) Time Experiences, Self-actualizing Values and Creativity. Journalof Personality Assessment. 1975, Vol. 39, pt 6, p601 - 606.
York, K.L. and Oliver, P.J. (1992.) The Four Faces of Eve: A Typological Analysis of
Women’s Personality at Midlife. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1992,
VOI.63, NO. 3, p494 - 508.
Zhao, H., and Jiang, G. (1986) Life Span and the Precocity of Scientists.
Scientometncs. 1986, Vol. 9, p27 - 36.
Zuckerman, H. (1977) The Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates’ Mutual Influences.
Reprinted in: Albert, R. S. (Ed.) (1992) Genius and Eminence. Oxford: Pergamon
Press. (Second edition.)
Zusne, L. (1976.) Age and Achievement in Psychology. American Psychologist
1976, November, p805 - 807.

413

CONFIDENTIAL

Appendix 2 - Description of Participants:__
3ender__F

Background and brief description of work area:
ComposerThis individual had a career in business in a multi-national company fo
approximately 18 - 20 years prior to leaving this domain she reachedthe level of country chief executive. She introduced a particularbusiness into a number of countries (e.g. Australia), frequently for the
first time within a local market.
She returned to music as her domain of work in the second half of her
forties, relearning and developing the skills necessary to compose
music. She wrote two musicals specifically for children’. These werestaged initially by a school for the performing arts. One was chosen
for funding by a local authority and used as project for local children.

F

Management consultant a n d writerThis individual has written a number of books published publicly andprivately, on subjects ranging from biography and organisational
development.
She has specialised in working with public-sector and not-for-profit
organisations as a management consultants, and has worked
internationally. She has developed a specific process for resolving
issues of team and organisational development. Outputs of her
consulting work have been taken up by the United Nation HighCommission for Refugees.

___
M

Counsellor
This individual took up counselling work in his late thirties, while
maintaining a work career in industry. He has co-founded atherapeutic centre in a local town with a prime goal of making
counselling and psychotherapy available to the generalcommunitylpopulation, not solely those commonly seen as its focus
group (educated, middle class.) He has a reputation for working withclients to achieve profound change in their lives.

M

Management consultant a n d writer
Until his early fifties this individual worked in a major industrial
corporation in human resources work. He formulated and pioneered
two major changes - a process for the involvement of staff in majororganisational change, and the introduction of performance-related pay
for the first time in this industry area.

~

After leaving organisational life he has published management
education material, including two books via a major publisher. One ofthese books was nominated for a national management hook award.

(Withdrew from participation.)
1

Music written specifically for children is relatively rare. There are only approximately 80 musicals inexistence from this genre - the norm is for adult work to be adapted for use by children.

414

CONFIDENTIAL
Background and brief description of work area:iumber

6

M

Management consultant, coach and trainer
This individual has moved through a number of occupational areas
within the domain of the electronics and engineering industry.
Commencing as an engineer, he moved through sales, sales
management, general management and training.
He has held two posts as managing director within this industry. He
has a reputation for achieving spectacular business growth andperformance which was adopted as a ‘model’ by more than one
company. His reputation also embraces the management methods heuses to develop staff and business performance together.

7

F

Senior manager in a finance organisation
This manager has a reputation for achieving change involving ways
never previously used by the company, or methods never before
conceived as possible by the organisation.
Prior to her current role she worked in the management of corporate
training. She introduced methods focused on business needs and goals
never previously seen in this context. She received nationalrecognition fur some of this work (e.g. partnerships with a university intraining work).

8

M

Organisational consultant and trainer
This individual has a national reputation for work in career
management and outplacement activity. He has introduced a numberof developments, including the principles for use of ‘employee
assistance’ telephone lines, for the first time in UK industry.

9

M

Writer (Youth worker)
The creative work of this individual has been focused on his activities
outside normal paid employment. He has been involved in thescouting movement all his childhood and adult life. Since his latethirties he has combined this with his love of writing. For a number ofyears, he wrote comedy sketches for ‘Gang Shows’, a genre ofentertainment which dates back over 60 years. His sketches have been
acknowledged nationally, and are reproduced by other scout
districtdareas.

10

F

Yoga Teacher
This individual was referred to the author because of her use of yoga, aphysical discipline, for the treatment and healing of psychologicalissues.
There may, however, be an additional perspective to consider. Her
early life was spent as a refugee in World War 2 Europe. Theseexperiences clearly influenced her significantly and, under Gardner’s
definition of “introspector”. her creative work has been working on andinvolves understanding these experiences, and regaining her own
health.

11

M

Management consultant and trainer
This individual has received acknowledgement for contributing to415

CONFIDENTIAL
iumber-Background and brief description of work area:major systemic change in organisations. This work has moved clientorganisations from ‘old’ ways of structuring and working, to new formsof operation.

12Youth worker
Similarly to participant 9, this individual has been connected with thescouting movement all his childhood and adult life. In his early thirties
he established a reputation for creating a functional locaüdistrict
organisation where one had previously not been considered viable. He
has maintained this work, in different forms. most commonly in finding
ways in which one-off events, or district organisations can he operated
where existing ways of operating indicate this would not he viable.

13

Outdoor pursuits teacher
This individual has received acknowledgement in his twenties, and in
his forties for designing new and novel ways for physical education indifferent contexts.
Most recently he has used outdoor pursuits as a means for highlighting
and changing students’ learning methods on an MBA programme. He
has received acknowledgement for this work nationally andinternationally.

14

Trainer, poet, artist.
This individuai was referred to the author for his work across this rangeof activity. He took up poetry and art in his early forties. His work as
a poet has been published, and he has been employed as a part-timeteacher on courses teaching both poetry and art (word and image).

15

Architect, writer, business manager and trainer
This individual’s reputation was initially established in architecture,
dating from his mid-to-late twenties. It has moved through different
forms and contexts.
Since his early forties he has been working across several domains. He
has received acknowledgement nationally as a writer on the subject of
the changing nature of careers.

i6

TrainerThis individual has worked in training roles since her early 30’s,
moving into management and organisational training in her early 40s’.
She has achieved recognition for introducing induction training into amajor UK corporation on the basis of an international study conductedby her. This training had never been undertaken in the 6û+ years of
the corporation’s existence.
Additionally, she has worked overseas. She achieved recognition for
her training methods in communicating the need and benefit of shifting
local management style in a middle-eastem international company.

__
17

Trainer and counsellor
This individual has received acknowledgement in the last five plus
years for supporting a change in public and National Health Service

416

CONFIDENTIAL
üackground and brief description o f uork arca’
perception and treatment ior people with a particular disability. This
has involved expanding the understanding i f the needs of theie
patients, and changing the methods through which they are treated andsupported. It has been achieved by a combination of influencing,education and training of those involved.

Vumber18

F

Academic and ArîisüSculptor
The career of this individual in the main part of her working life was asan academic in the field of anthropology. She achieved recognition for
her work overseas on tracking and recording the life- and familyhistories of indigenous people.
In parallel to her work as an anthropologist this individual has worked
on and developed her artistic skills throughout her adult life. She
describes her interest in people via art and anthropology as a common
theme, a wish to see in its deepest senses what makes people what theyare. She now works primarily as an artist and sculptor and has
achieved public recognition via her exhibitions.

19

M

__

Management consultant and trainer
This individual has worked nationally and internationally in the field of
marketing for over 25 years. He has received acknowledgement and a
reputation for being the person behind a number of major marketing
campaigns that have changed public perceptions of the products being
sold. He defines, as pivotal to this work, the exploration of the‘problems’ being resolved, (i.e. ‘problem-finding’ within the field ofcreativity), and commonly significantly redefines the questions andprojects he works on in order to achieve these outcomes.
~~

20

F

Management consultant and trainer
Similar in background to participant number 16, this individual has
worked in organisational training since her early 30s’. Her reputationis centred particularly on customer service matters, and she has been
acknowledged for her ability to create methods and settings within
which these matters can be examined and changed in a major publiccompany.

21

M

Management consultant and trainer
This individual has a background in teaching and acting during his
twenties and early thirties. He is currently receiving recognition by amajor UK corporation for his counselling and coaching skills in helping
managers achieve personal change.

22

M

Management consultant and trainer
This individual’s reputation is based on two distinct domains management consulting and acting.
Taking the latter first, he was a founder member of the National Youth
Theatre, and has acted as a spare-time activity for all his adult life. He
has a regional reputation for his work, and is approached regularly bytheatre companies.
In his organisational work he was one of, if not the first individuals in
the UK to devise and introduce methods for a novel form ofmanagement feedback not previously used in this country. His

417

p

CONFIDENTIAL
NumberGenderBackground and brief description of work area:
reputation for this work still generates activity for him, 15+ years later.

M

Managing Director
This individual ranks amongst the UK’s top psychologists and has
introduced changes and developments to psychological testing that are
now considered to be the benchmark in that particular field.

M

Outplacement Consultant and Trainer
This individual was recommended by one of the other participants forhis work in 1: I and organisational outplacement and career
management activity.

25

F

Psychotherapist
Recommended by one of the other participants, this individual has
worked in counselling and psychotherapeutic work for over a decadeand has a reputation for creativity and major change within thatdomain.

26

M

Outplacement Consultant and Trainer
This individual was recommended by one of the other participants forhis work in 1:I and organisational outplacement and career
management activity. He has been acknowledged nationally amongst
those working in the outplacement field for his ability to design andimplement training which communicates and addresses often subtle
issues associated with inter-personal relations.

~

~

21

F

~~

~~

~

Company Director
This individual is a company director of a small management
consultancy and training company. The company has a reputation for
the achievement of people and organisational change, and thisindividual is credited as a significant influence on the standards andmethods it uses.

__
28

F

Outplacement Consnitant and Trainer
This individual is credited as co-authorldesigner outplacement andpersonal development training material and courses.

29

M

Church of England Vicar
This individual has an international reputation for his teaching andtraining work in the area of mysticism and creativity. He is creditedwith making often esoteric material practical and communicable. He
has also established an organisation dedicated to contemplative
Christianity that now operates in 23 countries internationally.

__
30

M

Psychotherapist and Photographer
This individual’s reputation was initially as a photographer (in his
twenties and thirties). He achieved recognition from organisations(e.g. the BBC) for his ability to prepare often complex and technicallydemanding images of unusual itemdsubjects. He also achieved
regional and national recognition for his photography in Spain andEastern Scotland.

418

CONFIDENTIAL
Background and brief description of work area:
In his early forties he suffered from chronic life-threatening illness
which took him nearly a decade to recover from, and which prevented
him continuing his photographic career. He has used that experienceas part of his decision to undertake and practice psychotherapeutic
work.

-

M

Director New Product Development
This individual has worked in a marketing role for one of the UK’s
leading consumer manufacturing companies for over 20 years. He was
responsible for studying how certain overseas countries produced
products handled by his organisation and (on the basis of very little
information) working out how these might be practically and profitably
manufactured in the UK. He also pioneered a particular form ofmarket research that allowed his company to gain information on what
products may be wanted and acceptable to their customer market place.
His company is a market-leader in its field, and his work is credited forhaving created that position.

M

Advertising Director
This individual is a ‘Creative Director’ in one of the world’s leading
advertising agencies. His work with them has lasted over 30 years.
He has been responsible for both agency business growth and thedevelopment of new styles of advertising. He has won awards for his
work. He has also worked with the agency to create new ways ofmanaging business required by international customers (neverpreviously used before) which has created levels of agency businessgrowth never seen before.

M

Chief Executive Public-Sector Organisation
This individual headed a small public sector organisation seeking tobring an international perspective to a particular form of humanitarianwork. Traditionally representative organisations in this field were seeras occasionally radical or impractical by politicians working with awhole country perspective. This man created an international forum
through which the organisation’s work on this issue could be drawn
together, developed a method of consensus working which allowed aholistic view to be communicated to governments and communicated it
to government representatives in a manner they could commonly workwith. Additionally he developed understanding of certain problems
which governments had not been able to do, which were subsequently
taken up by the United Nations Organisation.

M

Senior Human Resources Manager
This individual had worked extensively on human resource issues in an
R&D environment. He saw some of his primary contributions as thedevelopment of a team of staff skilled and equipped to support and leadthe R&D environment through time periods that involved conflict andhigh levels of change. More recently he has had to seek out andpioneer particular forms of working which increase organisation
effectiveness.

M

Senior Organisational Development Manager
This individual worked for approximately 20 years as part of aconsulting group associated with one of the country’s leading businessschools. He brought a particular model and perspective to organisatior

~

-

419

CONFIDENTIAL
qumber

36

Background and brief description of work area:
development work. His work, for example, is credited as being asignificant influence on the transformation of one of the country’s
leading financial institutions.

F

Singer and Voice Teacher
This individual combined a talent and love of singing with an interest in
the development of particular groups in society over time. This led toher establishing a reputation for panicular forms of songs which wasreflected both in concert appearances and records released. She
developed this work into a particular form of voice teaching which was
aimed at individuals both understanding and developing their conceptof who they were.

__
37

M

Osteopath and Teacherîïrainer
While initially developing work as an osteopath this individual learnt,
and then subsequently taught methods of combining osteopathy withother forms of health diagnosis and treatment. He has also developed a
specialism in applying these methods to a particular form of healthdisorder as an alternative to the common forms of drug treatment. He
has been involved in teaching both forms of work over a number ofyears.

38

F

Trainer and Management Consultant
This individual has worked in different domains over time. For anumber of years her primary reputation was for the development andpreparation of distance learning material. More recently she has beenworking with new forms of training technology which aim to support
individuals in identifying and building on their personal motivation as aroute for career and personal development, and the use of non-violent
communication.

39

F

Writer and journalist
This individual worked on two of Britain’s leading newspapers as ajournalist during her twenties and thirties. She subsequently became afreelance journalist and writer. She has specialized in writing about aparticular subject area and communicating that to the general public ina manner not previously achieved. She did this in book form, and has
published biographically oriented books that have received widespreadrecognition in their subject area.

40

F

OrganisationDevelopment Consultant
This individual has worked in two related domains over her working
career and has brought the skills and practices of one into the other.
She has a reputation for developing the content and quality of working
practices in her work context, and more recently authoring andimplementing training material not previously used in that location.
She is currently working on the development and use of new working
practices in her work context.

41

F

Trainer and Management Consultant
This individual has worked in three domains over her work career, andhas succeeded in bringing common perspectives from each to help andsupport what is now her work. She has a reputation for different formsof activity, particularly for the development of a form of hospice care in420

CONFIDENTIAL
Number

I Gender I Age I

Background and brief description of work area:
this country.

42 I

I

Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicator

Appendix 3 - Data and analysis on the Myers Briggs Q p e Indicator

I

Introduction

Chapter 1, section 1.2 and Chapter 3, section 3.4.4 refer to how the originai conception of
the thesis was to examine changes to creative activity in the midlife period and middle age.
The shift of focus of the thesis to a whole life perspective, together with results primarily
indicative of social system influences, led the researcher to omit these results from themain body of the thesis and include this material as an appendix. This appendix contains:

2

Background on the MBTI.

3

Data from participants.

4

MBTI results across group 1 and 2.

5

Intuitive Types.

6

Intuitive Feeling Types.

7

Different styles of creativity across ‘type’.

8

MBTI results across the 3 broad occupational categories.

2

Background to the MBTI

In addition to the interview, all participants filled in a personality inventory, the MBTI.
This instrument is derived from Jung’s Theory of Psychological Type.
It was completed by participants in accordance with the processes outlined by MBTI
user material.

The inclusion of the MBTI as a data-gathering instrument was initially speculative.
The MBTI claims to offer data that can be related to an individual’s approach tocreative activity and the nature of changes that may be experienced in the mid-life
period. The researcher’s intention was to examine participant data within the context
422Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicatorof these theoretical claims and to see if psychological type was related to particularpatterns of creative development.

Data from participants

3

Table A3.1: MBTI Scores and Twes:
The score lines of the Myers Briggs Type Indicator for each participant are:
Pallicipi",

Reported Type

Score

"Agreed Type"

1

INFP

I = 39; N = 43; F = 17; P = 23

INFP

2

INFP

I = 11; N = 2 1 ; F = 21; P = 33.

INFP

3

ENFP

E = 15; N = 7 ; F = 3;P = 2 9

ESFP

4

INTJ

I = 37; N = S I ; T = 27; J = 33

Imp

S

(Withdrew)

6

ENFP

E = I L ; N = 4 7 ; F = 15;P=33

ENFP

7

ESTP

E = 7 ; S = 13; T =41; P = S

ENTP

8

ENFP

E = 3; N = 33; F = 3 3 ; P = 4 1

ENFP

9

ISTJ

I = 15; S = 3; T = 19; J = 2 1

ISTJ

10

(See note below)

Il

INFP

I = 5; N = 21; F = 13;P= 23.

INFP

12

ESFP

E = I ; S = 17;F=O;P=21

ENFP

13

INFP

I = 25; N = 29; F = 37; P = 27

ENTP

14

ISFP

I = 5 ; S = 1 3 ; F = 7; P = 33.

ISFP

15

ENTI

E =23; N = 1S;T = 7 ; J = 3 .

ENFP

16

ENFJ

E = 17; N = 7; F = IS;J = 27

ESFJ

17

ENFJ

E = 37; N = 31; F = 27; J = 27

ESFJ

18

ENFP

E = 13; N = 35; F = 7; P = 35

ENFP

19

INTP

I = 17; N = I ; T = 9 ; P = 3

INTP

20

ENTI

E = SI; N = 3 ; T = 3;J=21

ENTI

21

ENFJ

E = 25; N = 27; F = 7; J = 3

ENFJ

423

Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicator= 49.F = 35. J“Agreed type” is the participant’s self-assessed type. In some cases this was not the sameas the scored type.

Notes:
Participants marked with an “*” had taken the MBTI as part of other training. They
did not repeat the questionnaire for this research. Their earlier completion had been
administered under conditions advised by the MBTI distributors, and participants
reported themselves still in agreement with their reported type.

424

Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicator

Participant 10 declined to complete the questionnaire.
Participants 22 and 23 had each done detailed research work connected with the MBTI
and Jungian Type. As a result of this they reported themselves as so familiar with its
structure that they believed they had passed a point where they could complete thequestionnaire as a standard participant could. They both advised the researcher ofwhat they considered to be their ‘type’ within the theory structure.
Participant 29 and 32 did not respond to contacts from the researcher after completing
research interviews. (In both cases the researcher believes that this was due topressure of work - a factor adversely influencing response rates in creative individuals,
described by Csikszentmihalyi 1996.) Participant 29 was familiar with the MBTI
theory and structure and reported that his scored and agreed type had been ‘ENFP’ onprior occasions. The score line of participant 32 is strong or distinct enough to be
described as “clear choice” in MBTI theory. These ‘types’ have been incorporated in

the overall results.
Participant 36 (marked with an “#”) is visually impaired. Her questionnaire wascompleted with the support of a worker trained in working with the visually impairedin their documentary work.

Examining these results, and some of the changes that took place between ‘reported‘ and‘agreed‘ type:28 agree reported type (70 % of group.)

10 alter one letter of reported type as a result of feedback. (25 % of group.)
2 alter two letters of reported type as a result of feedback. (5 % of group.)This pattern of changes is generally as anticipated in Myers and McCaulley (1985:p171). (Where a letter preference is changed this is normally in scales where theoriginal preference was low.)425

Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicator

Table A 3 2 Overall Participant Type Tabulated b y MBTI Type Table:‘Agreed-type’,or the type assessed by participants as accurate and applying to them has
been used in this table
ISTJ

ISFJ

’outh worker / M l ( 9 )
ISTP

INFJ
Trainer / M / (22)
Co. director I F I ( 2 7 )Trainer I F I (28)I
INFP
Composer I F I (1)Wriier/irainer / F / ( 2 )Trainer / M / ( l I j
Mng Director / M /I
ISFF:rainer I M I (14)

INTJ

I

INTP
Writerhgt cons./
M 1 (4)Trainer/M/(I9J
SN Mngr I M I(34)Adv exec / M / (32j
Trainedwiter / F / (38)
Writer / F / ( 3 9 j

ESTP:ounsellor / M / (3)EST1‘rainer / M I ( 2 6 )Note: participants i

ESFJ’rainer / F / (16)‘rainer / F I (17)I

Trainer / M / (6)Trainer / M I ( 8 )Youth leaded M / (12)Architect e t c / M / ( I S j
Sculptor / F / (18)
Vicar / M /(29)Psychotherapist I M /Snr Mngr / F / ( ? jTeacher / M / ( 1 3 )C.Ex. / M / ( 3 3 )OD Consult. / M /(35jTrainer / F / ( 4 1 j

Trainer / M I ( 2 1 )Trainer / M / ( 2 4 )Trainer / F I ( 2 0 )OD Consulrant/ F /Direaor/ M / (31jSingerheacher / F /I36I
Osteopath /teacher / M/ (37)

1ralic are ‘goup l ’ ,participants in plain text, ‘group 2 ’ . )426Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicator

Table A3.3: MBTI - estimated percentage. bv T w e , within the UK population:

ISTJ

ISFJ

INFJ

INTJ

13.7%

12.7%

1.7%

1.4%

ISTP

ISFP

INW

INTP

6.4%

6.1%

3.2%

2.4%

ESTP

ESFP

ENF'P

ENTP

5.8%

8.7%

6.3%

2.8%

ESTJ

ESFJ

ENFJ

ENTJ

10.4%

12.6%

2.8%

2.9%

Percentage of the UK population estimated to be in the four intuitive feeling types = 14.0%(Source of these figures: Oxford Psychologists Press - UK distributor of the MBTI personal communication with the researcher, Autumn 2000.)427

Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicator

4

MBTI data across Group 1 and 2

It has to be acknowledged that this is an unusual sample in that the dominant group are

intuitive-feeling ‘types’ (NFs’). However, this style is probably consistent with the trainerand facilitator roles many undertook in their work and in their awareness for potentialchange involving people.

This is not a typical sample in that the majority are intuitives, and around two thirds arealso intuitive-feeling types. A normal sample would have a more even split between theattitudes (extraversion - introversion), the functions (sensing - intuition, thinking - feeling)
and between judging and perceiving. However intuitive-feeling types are associated withcounselling, training, writing, and art common occupations in this sample (Myers andMcCaulley 1985: p257).

The following two tables are presented to provide an indication of the spread of group 1
and 2 participants across the types. A detailed analysis of aspects of type will bepresented in table A3.6.

428

Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicator

Table A3.4: Group 1 - “The Earlv Starters” bv MBTI Tvue Table:‘Agreed-type’,or the type assessed by participants as accurate and applying to them has
been used in this table.
ISTJ

ISFJ

INFJ

INTJ

ISTP

ISFP

INFP

INTP

Writedtrainer / F / ( 2 )Trainer / M / ( I l )Adv exec / M / ( 3 2 )Writer / F /(3Y)

ESTP

ESFP

ENFP
Trainer/M/(ó)
Architect e r c / M / ( I S )Sculptor / F /(I81Vicar/M/(29)Trainer / M / (19)ENTP
Snr Mngr / F / (7)Teacher / M / (13)

C. Ex. / M / ( 3 3 )OD Consult. / M / ( 3 5 )Trainer / F / ( 4 1 )

ESTJ

ESFJ

ENFJ
Trainer / M / (24)Director / M / (31)Singer/teacher/ F /

(36)

429

ENTJ
OD Consultant/F/‘40)

Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicator

Table A3.5: Grouu 2 - the “Later Starters” bv MBTI Tvue Table:‘Agreed-type’, or the type assessed by participants as accurate and applying to them has
been used in this table.
ISTJ

ISFJ

INFJ
Trainer / M I (22)
Co. director I F / (27)Trainer I F l(28)

ISFP

INFP
Composer / F I ( i )Writerlmgt cons./
M (4)M n g Director / M /SN Mngr I M / (34)(23)
Trainer/witer / F / (38)

WriterlYouth worker I
M (9)
ISTP

TrainerIMl(14)

ESTP

ESTJ
Trainer I M / (26)

ESP

ENFP

Counsellor I M / (3)Trainer i M i (8)Youth leader1 M / (12)Psychotherapist I M I
(30)

ESFJ
Trainer I F I (16)Trainer I F I (17)ENFJ
TrainerIMl(21)Psychotherapist I F I(23Osteooath /teacher I M
I(37)’IBTI.

7
Trainer I F I(20)The relatively small number of participants across the 16 MBTI types means that theseresults will be examined primarily from perspective of ‘quadrants’ - the cluster of 4 types
manifesting a particular perceiving and decision-making style, e.g. intutive-feeling types.

430

Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicator

Table A3.6: Analysis of MBTI results in different function combinations:(Note: participants will appear in more than one category.
‘Group I ’

Extravert

13‘Group 2’

Total

11

24

Kp GpT

(72%)

(50%)

(60%)

Participant
Nos.

33. 35. 36.40.
41.) (3,8. 12,
16, 17. 20.21,
25. 26, 30,
37.)(2, 11, 19,32,

Introvert

5

10
(28%)

Sensing(37.5%)

(45%)

6

Nil

(15%)

15

33
(82.5%)

(68%)

I

7
Thinking

Feeling

5
(39%)

11

Judging

16

14

Sensing Thinking Types (ST)24

12

3.8. 12. 14.

(24.31.36.
40.)(9, 16, 17,
20.21. 22. 25.
26.27; 28,
37.)(2,6.7, I l ,13, 15. 18, 19,
29. 32.33. 35.
39.41.)(1.3.
4. 8, 12, 14,
23, 30, 34,38.)

23(57.5%)(9, 26.)

2
(9%)

431

(60%)

(55%)

2

Nil

(37.5%)

(45%)

(61%)

I

15

10

11

(67.5%)

(50%)

(78%)

Intuitive - Feeling Types (NF)

27

11

4

(2,6,7,11,
13., 15.. 18.. 19..
24, 29,31,
32, 33, 35, 36,
39.40.41.) (I,
4. 8, 12,20,
21, 22,23,25,
27. 28.30.34.
37. 38.)(7, 13, 19.33,
35.40,41.) (4,9, 20, 26.34.)

(30%)

(73%)

(22%)

Perceiving

12
(23%)

(61%)

(3.9, 14, 16,17.26.)

6(27%)

Intuition

39.)(1.4.9.

15

(5%)

Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicator‘Group I ’‘Group 2’

Total

4

4

Participant
Nos.

Gq%
Sensing Feeling Types (SF)Nil

( 3 , 14. 16. 17.)

(10%)

(18%)

Intuitive Thinking Types (NT)

7

3
(39%)

Intuitive - Judging Types (N - J)

(22%)

Intuitive - Perceiving Types (N - P)

(78%)

Extravert - Intuitive Types (E - N)I

Extraverted - Sensing (E - S)

22

(72%)

20

(28%)

Nil

(50%)

(32%)

8

5

(55%)

(36%)

7

13

c---Introverted - Intuitive Types (1 - N)

11
(32%)

8

14

13
(36%)

4

(32.5%)

2

Nil

5

(8.

110%)
(9, 14.)2(9%)(2.6.7. 11.
13. 15. 18, 19,
29. 32. 33.35.
39,41.) ( i . 4,
8 . 12, 23.30,
34, 38.)(6.7, 13, 15,in, 24,29,3i,
33. 35. 36.40.
41.)
i2,20,
21, 25.30,
37.)(2. I l , 19. 32,
30.) ( I . 4, 22,
23.27, 28,34.
38.)(3. 16, 17. 26.)

4
(18%)

Introverted - Sensing ( I - S)

(27.5%)(24,31,36.
40.) (20. 21,
22, 25, 21, 28,
37.)

(14%)

7

4

(25%)

(7, 13. 19.33,
35,40.41.) (4,20.34.)

10(5%)

Intuitive Types

Within the analysis contained in the above table the participant population fall primarily
within the ‘intuitive’ half of the MBTI type table, and are ‘intuitive types’ (82.5% of thetotal participant population). While the groups are approximately balanced within theintuitive-feeling types, clear differences occur between group 1 and 2 with intuitivethinking types (39% to 14%),and the connections between intuition and the perceiving
continuum (78% to 36%), and extraversion and intuition (72% and 36%).

432

Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicator

6

Intuitive Feeling Types

Nearly 60% of the overall participant group are ‘intuitive-feeling’ types. And over two
thirds are feeling types (NF or SF). With this proportion involved, it suggests strongly thatfeeling-types, and intuitive-feeling types in particular, may be associated with ‘influencing’creativity. The intuitive-feeling-perceiving style is associated with careers involving
facilitation, such as trainers (Myers and McCaulley 1985: p257).

Kiersey (1998), offers the following descriptions occur of those displaying the intuitivefeeling functions:“. ,. highly sensitive to the nuances of communication that qualify messages, thebody language, facial expressions and voice inflections ...” (p122).

“Acting in concert with others for the good of the group - co-operation - isconsiderably more important to (intuitive-feeling types) than the functional utilityof their chosen tools and operations” (p123).

“(the intuitive-feeling type’s) first consideration is always to foster caring
relationships . . . their ideal is to help the people in their circle get along with eachother, even care about each other, and thus work with each other for the good ofall” ( ~ 1 2 3 ) .

“(the intuitive-feeling type’s) become more diplomatic in working with people ...
working in both ways, using their eye for possibilities to develop human potentials

433

Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicatorand using their verbal fluency to mediate interpersonal conflicts.” “(Their) eye isalways focused on inclusion, not exclusion, on what gifts people can offer eachother, not what walls divide them” (~124).

In describing roles in which intuitive-feeling types are often found working,Kiersey describes teacher, mentor, counsellor, advocates (for causes andindividuals) (p126).

Kiersey describes the intuitive-feeling type as “Giving voice to views and positions,beliefs and causes - ideas that people often can’t put into words for themselves - inorder to nurture rapport and understanding between people.”(These descriptions are consistent with those contained in the MBTI manual, (e.g. Myersand McCaulley 1985: p28,29 and 35).

The above descriptions of the intuitive-feeling (NF)style suggest that:

1. There is a strong relationship between the jobs Kiersey (1998), and Myers andMcCaulley (1985) propose as common for intuitive-feeling types and the work foundwithin this overall sample group.
2. While the descriptions that Kiersey offers of the priorities and working style of
intuitive-feeling types are generalised, there would appear to be a close connection
between these and the reports occurring within interview descriptions.
3 . Kiersey’s descriptions of the behaviours and values associated with this ‘intutive-

feeling’ temperament are detailed - far more so than Gardner’s description of the‘influencer’ style of creativity. It would appear, however, that there is a potential
connection in that Kiersey, like Gardner, uses Ghandi as a primary example of this wayof functioning.

434

Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicator

This is supported by various studies summarised in the MBTI manual which suggest that
the NF profile is a common type among counsellors and consultants, i.e. among those thatwill use a facilitative and influencing role in their work. Thus, the NF dominance in thissample is consistent with the dominant occupations in this group and not unexpected in an
influencing style of creativity.

7

Different ‘Styles’ Of Creativity Across ‘Type’?

Given that the largest number of ‘types’ contained within this overall sample are in theintuitive feeling quadrant (nearly 60%), the conclusions available about differing styles ofcreativity across different ‘types’ will only be speculative.

Table A3.7 summarises the characteristics associated with each temperament.

435

Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicator

Table A3.7: Priorities likely to be displayed bv the differing type quadrants:“Sensing Thinking”“Sensing Feeling”“Intuitive Feeling”“Intuitive Thinking”

Focuses on:
The specifics.
The logicalimplications ofthese specifics.

Focuses on:
The specifics.
The impact ofthese specifics on
people.

Values:Actingresponsibly.
Working withindividuals who
act responsibly.

Values:
Personal loyalty.
Working withindividuals who
personalise andindividualise theircontribution.

Focuses on:
Thegeneral
concept or the big
picture - not the
specifics.
9
Howthe big
picture impacts
people or supports
their values.

Focuses on:
Thegeneral
concept or the big
picture - not the
specifics.
Howthe big
picturepossibilities create
logical options.

Values:Makingadifference in thecommunity, for thefamily in theworld.
Working withindividuals who
help make his or
her vision a reality.

Values:Having options
that fit his or her
needs now and in
the future.
Working withindiiduals who
demonstratecompetence.

(This table has been adapted from Brock 1 24: p19.)

The interview reports obtained from participants were broadly consistent with the language
styles and priorities described in this table. For example, ‘thinking types’ would
commonly describe the factual, logical and working possibilities within a given context and offer little, if any, observations on people impact. ‘Sensing types’ would generally
talk in a manner focused on the ‘here and now’ rather than future possibilities - consistent
with the type theory on this function.

These observations are not, however, consistent across the participant group. There werea number of individuals who said directly, or implied during feedback on the MBTI, thatthey believed they could equally skillfully display more than one type depending oncontext (e.g. in work or in their private lives). This perspective is not consistent with

MBTI theory. MBTI theory argues that individuals have a preference for a particular way

436Appendix 3 -Data and analysis from the Myers Briggs Type Indicatorof living and working and generally apply qualities associated with other types lessskillfully. However, Csikszentmihalyi (1996 and 1997) observed that creative individuals
can draw on different functions, like extraversion and introversion, according to the needsof their work and context. Over a quarter of participants reported behaviour consistent
with this kind of flexibility (n = 11,27.5%,participants = 1.2, 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 ,8, 13, 14,29,41.)

8

MBTI Results Across The Three Broad Occupational Categories

The following table illustrates MBTI results across the three broad occupational categories
found in the participant population:

Table A3.8: MBTI analysis across the three broad occupational categories:
‘C’

Nos

Intuitive - Perceiving (N - P)

90

8

Nos

4
5

Introverted / Intuitive -Perceiving(UN - P)3

38.41.)(1, 18,30, 39.)(27.31.37.
40.) (20. 21,
22, 24.) (25,

4
(24%)

5
(29%)

(38%)

(23. 32.34.)

5

3

3
(23%)

IN - T ì+38.) ( I , 39.)

(29%)

(23%)

Extraverted / Intuitive -Judging
Introverted / Intuitive -Judging

Nos.

(7, 12, 23, 29.
32, 33, 34,
35.)(2.4. U. 8,

(59%)

(31%)

Extraverted / Intuitive - Perceiving(m- P)

%

10
(62%)

Intuitive - Judging (N - J)1(1,;i;’(=’,”

Oee. Cat.

2

(18%)

I

(20%) I

I

(27.) (22.)
(28.)

1
(6%)

437

(31,37,40.)(20,21,24.)(25.36.)(10%)

I