The Japanese Journal of American Studies, No. 12 (2001)

Taiko as Performance:
Creating Japanese American Traditions

Hideyo KONAGAYAINTRODUCTION
The acoustics, rhythms, and visual symbols of taiko illuminate the culturally speciﬁc values and beliefs of Japanese Americans, mirroring theirties to Japanese traditions but transcending ethnic boundaries as well.1
Taiko has prevailed as the most powerful mode of folk expression among
Japanese Americans since the late 1960s, surviving acculturation of theethnic community into American society. Sansei, the third generation
Japanese Americans, discovered new meanings in this form of theJapanese folk tradition and have transformed it into an effective medium of self-expression.
The signiﬁcance of this new folk tradition highlights its performance
perspective. Taiko, performed before an audience, carries cultural, historical, and social messages from Japanese Americans to their own community and also to the larger society. Sansei performers began to perform
taiko because they found it “calls attention to and involves self-conscious
manipulation of the formal features of the communicative system.”2
Taiko mediates the inner struggles and dilemmas of individual sansei
performers through the reﬂexivity of its performance. Presented inpublic, the emerging American taiko tradition has also matured into
Copyright © 2001 Hideyo Konagaya. All rights reserved. This work may be used,with this notice included, for noncommercial purposes. No copies of this work
may be distributed, electronically or otherwise, in whole or in part, without permission from the author.
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a cultural performance, and functions as a means for the JapaneseAmerican community to claim higher esteem in multicultural American
society. This progress is related to the inﬂuence of public folklore, whose
discourse has encouraged “the representation and application of folk traditions in new contours and contexts.”3
In accordance with the enlarging scope of the taiko movement, taiko
performers have further multiplied the expressive dimensions of taiko indiverse ways and have called attention to the concern that the taiko community needs to reevaluate the basis of taiko tradition and its authenticity. How has taiko developed into the “most prominent performancecontext” within the community?4 What has it communicated to American
society, and what has shaped the foundation of American taiko traditions? In this article I will discuss various aspects of the process by which
taiko has evolved into the most prominent cultural performance of thecommunity. For the purpose of analysis, I will focus on two inﬂuential
taiko groups, San Francisco Taiko Dojo and Kinnara, and the role of theJapanese American Cultural and Community Center (JACCC) as a principal cultural institution in the Japanese American community. By locating these organizations in the socio-historical context of the JapaneseAmerican community, as well as in the larger context of American society since the late 1960s, I will examine the signiﬁcance of folk tradition
as communication and ethnic presentation.
THE TAIKO MOVEMENT IN AMERICA
Taiko as a group performance emerged within the social changes andbackground of folklore revivalism, the Asian American movement, anda Japanese economic takeover in the Japanese American community during the 1960s and 1970s. In the volatile social climate of that time, aJapanese youth named Seiichi Tanaka left Japan for America and founded the ﬁrst American taiko group in 1968 in San Francisco.5 Tanaka’s
commitment to taiko mirrored the counter-culture movement among
youth both in Japan and the United States where students and activists
used folk expressions as vehicles to convey their social and political messages. The forceful performing style Tanaka exercised in his group, San
Francisco Taiko Dojo, incorporating the disciplines and movements ofmartial arts, depicted the empowerment of youth and ethnic minorities.
Framed within the social context, particularly within a distinctively

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Japanese or Japanese American event like the Cherry Blossom Festival,
the taiko performances with their dynamic visual images stirred JapaneseAmerican audiences. They evoked memories and emotions that drew
them back to their ancestral past.
American taiko originated in San Francisco, a symbolically important
hub of youth radical movements during the sixties and seventies, and its
signiﬁcance for sansei began to grow within the context of their rising
Asian American activism as they struggled with the racism of American
society. They tried to ﬁnd ways to reconsider the past experiences ofissei, ﬁrst-generation, and nisei, second-generation Japanese Americans,and current social realities. Sansei questioned the silence of their grandparents and parents toward American society, despite their having been
unjustiﬁably incarcerated in concentration camps during World War II.
Sansei also questioned their own conformity as “model minorities” andunwillingness to ﬁght against racial prejudice as strongly as African
Americans.6 As they dealt with the challenge of modern social problems,
these grandchildren of immigrants turned to their heritage for inspiration. By engaging with the past, sansei performers made a commitment
to the search for their ethnic identity using Japanese traditions as a foundation.
In pre-modern Japanese villages, taiko served to enliven spirits, conquer fears and protect community boundaries against evil spirits, and theacoustic volume of drums helped to assert the community’s power andinﬂuence.7 Retrieved from the Japanese past, the folk tradition of taikotranscended time and space and complemented the cultural and politicalendeavors of sansei. In taiko performance, which was compatible with
their struggles within American society and with their questioning of
their own self-image, sansei encoded subversive messages to the dominant society. The resonance of the drumming worked as a metaphor
for breaking out of silence and releasing long-suppressed voices of anger. Sansei physically acted out their resistance against inequality andinjustice in American society and against their own passivity and weakness through actions such as whirling sticks over their heads, shouting,jumping, turning, and pounding on taiko.
The reﬂexivity of the performance allowed the performer to act as himself or herself, and at the same time to look at the performance from theperspective of the acting self. By attaching more musically and visuallyJapanese symbols to performances, they asserted themselves more

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clearly in American society. By accepting Japanese traditions, sansei
performers saw their ethnicity becoming visible to white Americans.
This process spurred sansei taiko performers to a new threshold of selfacceptance and self-conﬁdence. However, the new consciousness
emerged not by cherishing nostalgic visions of the past, but coping withpresent interactions with modern Japanese, who began to arrive in the
United States as their economy developed, and were quite different fromthe image of Japanese that issei maintained from the past.
Strengthened economic ties between the Japanese American community and Japanese business have boosted the taiko movement since thelate 1960s.8 The growth of Japan’s postwar economy and trade with theUnited States spurred Japanese corporations to establish branches in theJapanese American community, which invited frequent encounters withJapanese. They constituted a new group of Japanese in the community
and, apart from businessmen, those who remained in the United States
like Tanaka were to be known as shin-issei, the new ﬁrst-generation
Japanese immigrants.9 Ranging from Japanese nationals and shin-issei
to yonsei, fourth-generation Japanese Americans, Japanese American
society became less homogeneous and embraced more stratiﬁed segments. Each group shared the same ethnic and cultural roots and felt emotional kinship with one another, but at the same time each comprehended
their ethnic pride largely or slightly differently from the others. Close
interactions among them produced community power, but also tension
and conﬂict.
Little Tokyo in Los Angeles typiﬁed the new structure of the JapaneseAmerican community, where Japanese organizations were establishing
their business enterprises and investing for the revitalization of the community. The economic impact of Japan was clearly illustrated in the
1960s in the Nisei Week Festival in Little Tokyo, which is the largest
and oldest cultural manifestation of the Japanese American community.
Prior to the postwar Japanese arrival, historian Lon Yuki Kurashige
writes in his study of the Festival, nisei had promoted white American
appearances in the festival so that it could look patriotic to the UnitedStates.10 In contrast, in the 1960s the parade turned into what he calls “ashowcase for Japanese culture and businesses,” with ﬂoats advertising
Japanese corporations and mikoshi, portable Shinto shrines. Regardlessof some community leaders’ concern for the “big inﬂux of the Japanesefrom Japan,” in 1975 the festival ofﬁcially came to be called “Nisei Week

TAIKO AS PERFORMANCE

109‘Japanese’ Festival.”11 Some members of the community viewed Japan’s
involvement critically, but others saw it positively and openly exhibited
their ties to Japanese traditions, which they had previously tried to denyin the face of racial prejudice.
Taiko responded to the need to mediate the disparity within the community. In the midst of the overpowering presence of the Japanese
economy, the Festival incorporated taiko, performed by Tanaka’s San
Francisco group, into its parade in 1971. When the community called foran ethnic hallmark that could work as a marker of shared identity, taiko
performances met the need. The spectacle of taiko dramatized the cultural event and functioned to unite Japanese Americans and the Japanese.
Kango Kunitsugu, a nisei member of the Little Tokyo Redevelopment
Association, favorably described the excitement of the ﬁrst taiko entry:“As the perspiring drummers pounded furiously away, spectators felt ananswering thrill run down their backs. This was what the Japanese festival was all about. It was an exhilarating moment.”12 His comment suggests that through this emotional experience Japanese Americans united
their community and also reestablished ties with the Japanese. Taiko
within the particular Festival frame communicated non-verbal messages
effectively to enhance ethnic ties within the community.
Tanaka’s powerful performance of taiko as a Japanese symbol in the
Nisei Week parade nevertheless depicted the weight of the Japanese
newcomers within the Japanese American community and also the ethnic pride of Japan-born Tanaka. Likewise through his ensuing visible
presence as a taiko drummer in other community events and concerts,
his efforts propelled the diffusion of taiko throughout North America.
Among the earliest groups formed were Kinnara Taiko, begun in 1969
in Los Angeles, Denver Taiko in 1976, Los Angeles Matsuri Taiko in
1977, Midwestern Buddhist Temple Taiko Group in 1977 in Chicago,and Soh Daiko in 1979 in New York.13 Thus Tanaka has been designated “Grand Master” among American taiko performers, and has established his legendary status in the growing taiko community.14
BUDDHIST TAIKO
The development of taiko was consolidated by the Japanese American
Buddhist community, which centered in a temple as a spiritual andcultural ground. Following Tanaka’s group, sansei formed numerous

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taiko groups in Buddhist temples throughout the1970s and this enabled
taiko to take root in the foundation of the Japanese American community.
The incorporation of taiko into two folk traditions in the temple wasan important factor to support the movement. Taiko had been used as amusical instrument to accompany folk dance at the Bon festival, a celebration of ancestors in the summer, which had created an opportunity totighten community ties as well as afﬁrm ancestral roots in the prewar
Japanese immigrant enclave.15 Replacing this marginal function, groupperformance of taiko took the spotlight at the festival in the late 1960s
and thereafter. With the vibrant sounds and rhythms of the new taikostyle and the staging effects of the performance, taiko became a prominent feature of the Bon festival. It revitalized community gatherings andstrengthened the collective Japanese American consciousness by attracting back those who had dispersed in the suburbs in the postwar years,
especially young members.16
The other tradition that incorporated taiko was the Buddhist performing arts of horaku, which was dharma entertainment used as an effectivemeans to teach Buddhist ideas.17 Susan Asai, ethnomusicologist, explains that horaku was brought into the community by issei and practiced in Buddhist temples in the 1920s and 1930s. It included dances,songs, and comic plays along with classical Japanese musical instruments such as shamisen (long-necked plucked lute), koto (long board
zither), and shakuhachi (end-blown bamboo ﬂute). Such explicit art
forms could not survive American anti-Japanese sentiments and antagonism, and almost disappeared by the end of World War II. Asai claims
that the decline of horaku occurred in the Americanization of Japanese
Buddhism, as the younger generations replaced the sounds and rhythms
from ancient Japan with singing, skits, and short plays. But a revival ofhoraku began in the late 1960s with the introduction of taiko as a performing art, whereas this form of Buddhist taiko in the United States
does not exist in the Buddhist temples of Japan.18
I view Kinnara Taiko as a group that asserts distinctively JapaneseAmerican values based on Buddhist beliefs and teachings, and in thissense differs from the Japan-oriented group of Tanaka.19 At the rise of
the Asian American movement, Kinnara Taiko was formed in 1969 bya group of sansei members in the Senshin Buddhist Temple in Los
Angeles. Kinnara established a unique style of taiko, attributing its ori-

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gin to the prewar tradition of horaku, and indicated its faith in Buddhism
by using the Sanskrit word “Kinnara,” celestial beings, for their groupname. Bryan Yamami, a yonsei member, says that in contrast to themaster-student hierarchic relationship and the strict discipline of mind
and body typically exercised by Japanese taiko groups, Kinnara has no
master and no rules among its members.20 This belief in freedom ofparticipation and innovation is a source of potential conﬂict with Japanese traditional interpretations of taiko. Members of Kinnara do not
deﬁne taiko as a solely Japanese tradition, and attempt to depart from itin order to deﬁne their own taiko.
True to their identiﬁcation with horaku, Kinnara performances
includes dances, such as the Lion Dance, and comic interludes, alongwith a variety of percussion instruments such as shell horns and bells.21
The group emphasizes their multicultural identiﬁcation with Buddhism,
Japan, America, and other neighbors: the temple is not in a JapaneseAmerican enclave, but in what has become an African American and
Latino neighborhood in Los Angeles, as Japanese Americans moved tothe suburbs. Likewise the Japanese American Buddhist community
offers a space that transcends national boundaries between America andJapan. Buddhist taiko forms a basis from which the performer contemplates Japanese traditions in the light of Buddhist teaching and seeks selfimages that fulﬁll them, self-images that are neither solely Japanese nor
American symbols but coordinate well with a multiethnic environment.
These Buddhist taiko groups formed by sansei, comprising a large partof the taiko community, thus pose new meanings for the Japanese tradition of taiko. The increase of taiko groups has also fostered competitiveness among performers and the skillful and artistic reﬁnement of
taiko as a performing art. Meanwhile growing social concern and political support for multiculturalism in the 1970s and thereafter have broughttaiko performers to a wider range of audiences in the United States. As
taiko performance expresses the inner voices of young JapaneseAmericans, it gains opportunities to be formally presented at public arenas and thus lets them reach out to the larger society. It has developed
into a conﬁdent cultural statement communicating Japanese American
traditions and history on a national stage.

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HIDEYO KONAGAYATAIKO AT THE NATONAL MALL
Heightened public awareness of the pluralistic and multicultural outlook of American society has elevated taiko into a prominent performing art that encapsulates Japanese American messages. Since the early
1970s, cultural programs in the United States have endorsed ethnic
diversity rather than enforced assimilation to white American society.22
National, state, and community festivals and exhibitions have called
attention to ethnic and traditional folk performances and demonstrationsof folk crafts and arts. This positive appreciation of cultural diversity has
given marginal ethnic communities an opportunity to have a voice indeﬁning American culture.
An important step forward in this progress occurred in 1983 when
taiko performance made its debut at the Festival of American Folklife,
which had been produced annually since 1967 in Washington, D.C. by
the Smithsonian Institution. Taiko was represented by a JapaneseAmerican community from New Jersey in that year’s New Jersey
Program, and a Buddhist taiko group from New York, Soh Daiko, perhaps because of proximity to Washington, D.C., demonstrated taiko ata workshop.23 Japanese Americans further enlarged the magnitude of
their presentation in the 1986 Japan Program with the institutional participation of the Japanese American Cultural and Community Center(JACCC) from Los Angeles. Taiko, performed by members of the
Buddhist taiko group Kinnara, comprised a marked feature of theirexhibit.24 The program, as part of the “Old Ways in the New World
Program,” was intended to juxtapose immigrant folk traditions in the
United States with those of their countries of origin. The Buddhist taiko
groups signiﬁed the emergent folk tradition of young JapaneseAmericans and thus most clearly indicated the distance between
Japanese American perceptions of ethnicity and those of Japanesenationals. A focal point of the Japanese troupe was a rice-planting performance by a cultural preservation group from Hiroshima, a Japanesepresentation oriented toward the past and stressing the importance of rice
as a national symbol.25 Distinct from the Japanese presentation, Buddhist
taiko exhibited the contemporary and future oriented aspect of theemerging Japanese American tradition, taking pride in representing an
American community ofﬁcially at the National Mall in the nation’s capital. Taiko now embodies part of American culture, and no longer
belongs only to Japan.

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Public recognition at national events has allowed Japanese American
traditions and communities to gain a more respected and prominent position in American culture and society. Cultural policies of the nation promoted the preservation and representation of ethnic folk traditions byimplementing the Folk Arts Program in the National Endowment for theArts (NEA) in 1974, the American Folklife Preservation Act in 1976,
and the American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress in 1976.26
Grants from public funds offered diverse communities a path to participation in a public event. Daniel Sheehy, director of the Folk Arts
Program, points out, “According to statistics from the NEA, based ondata from nonproﬁt performing arts presenters, both the total number andthe overall percentage of performances thought of as ‘ethnic dance’ or‘traditional arts’ in the 1986–87 season nearly doubled from those of the
1982–83 season.”27 In regard to the presentation of Japanese performing
arts in the United States, Kyoko Yoshida, performing arts specialist,
writes that the NEA constitutes one of the four principal sources of ﬁnancial support, along with The Agency for Cultural Affairs of Japan, The
Japan Foundation, and Japan-United States Friendship Commission.28
The JACCC has taken a leading role in organizing and presenting
Japanese and Japanese American cultural events as they did at the 1986
Japan Program in Washington, D.C. The Center, which was establishedin 1980 in Little Tokyo, Los Angeles, reﬂects the postwar economic success of Japanese Americans and strong ﬁnancial backing from Japaneseorganizations. Possessing a theater, Japanese garden, and a plaza in theirfacility compound, the organization has the capacity to sponsor exhibitions, festivals, and concerts, and therefore their support has been a great
advantage to the taiko community nationwide.29
The JACCC performing arts program effectively introduced Japanese
taiko to American audiences because, as Yoshida explains, it signiﬁcantly increased the number of Japanese performing arts performanceson the west coast, especially of folk arts, including the introduction of
the Osuwa drums, Okinawa dance, and various kagura to California.
They also invited professional taiko groups from Japan increasingly
through the 1980s and 1990s.30 Their attention to taiko served especiallyas a way of replacing images of such past-oriented Japanese culturalpresentations as kabuki, noh, kyogen, bunraku, and bugaku, which havedominated the American view. Popular Japanese groups like Osuwa
Daiko, Kodo, and Ondekoza frequently toured major cities in the UnitedStates and stimulated fascination and excitement in American audiences.

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The performing arts program at the JACCC during the 1980s, forinstance, included the Kodo concerts in the adjacent theater in 1982,
1984, 1985, 1987, and 1989.31
The JACCC program also organized shows by American taiko groups,
like San Francisco Taiko Dojo and Los Angeles Matsuri Taiko, andsponsored the ﬁrst Los Angeles Taiko Festival in 1983.32 Public programming had been instrumental in the institutionalization of taiko as aperforming art in Japanese American festivals and community events
such as traditional Japanese holidays and American celebrations.33 The
Japanese American National Museum (JANM) in Little Tokyo hasarranged taiko classes in its public program and made it a way to “tellthe story of the Japanese American community,” the mission the museum has valued since its establishment in 1992. Taiko’s important contribution to this mission was signiﬁed at the 1999 opening ceremony ofthe museum’s New Pavilion, a monument to the empowerment and success of the community.34 The spectacle, performed by one hundred drummers simultaneously, proclaimed the ethnic pride of Japanese Americans
more loudly than ever in American society. By the end of the1990s, thenumber of taiko groups reached as many as a hundred throughout North
America. Performers now needed a vision of their current location andfuture direction within the large conﬁguration of taiko groups, and the
JACCC met this need with the Taiko Conference, a monumental stage
where American taiko performers could evaluate their progress.
THE TAIKO CONFERENCE
Staging the Taiko Conference symbolized the JACCC’s assumptionof the role of public folklorists. As exempliﬁed by the Festival of
American Folklife, public folklorists support ethnic or minority folk traditions in getting fair recognition in society and also in negotiating different ideas within stratiﬁed communities.35 In the Japanese American
community this role has been played primarily by the public programming of the JACCC and the JANM. They provide taiko performers andgroups with opportunities to participate in constructing images ofAmerican taiko traditions by presenting themselves to the public. The
organizations take the initiative to raise funds to administer and coordinate a festival, exhibition, and concert. As cultural leaders in the community, they are in a position to mediate tension and conﬂict among theTAIKO AS PERFORMANCE

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competing attitudes and interests of group leaders, contributors, sponsors, and organizers themselves.
So as “to bring together all the various taiko groups” throughout Los
Angeles, Taiko Gathering was started by the JACCC in 1994 as an annual show within the Nisei Week Japanese Festival.36 It also aimed for thegroups “to meet and exchange ideas with other groups” and “to give thepublic a chance to sample taiko in a free performance for the community.”37 Managing director of the performing arts programs Duane Ebata
had further expanded the idea of bringing taiko performers together andpromoted a larger-scale conference that could invite taiko performers
from throughout the United States and Canada to Little Tokyo. The project, which materialized in 1979 and 1999, consisted of workshops, discussions, demonstrations, and a “Taiko Jam” concert, and also set up theSummer Taiko Institute.38 The ﬁrst Taiko Conference in 1997, in which
over four hundred taiko performers from throughout North America participated, was the culmination of the proliferation of taiko and the maturestate of American taiko from the previous three decades. The three-daylong event was a pivotal moment for participants to review the past,
examine the present, and explore the future of taiko in North America.
The conference encompassed historical, artistic, Buddhist, and organizational themes that deﬁne the taiko community. As one conference
goal was “to begin to document the history of North American taiko,”
the conference presented a framework within which leaders and performers became aware that they had participated, and were participating
at the moment, in the process of shaping a tradition. The JANM also
promoted the idea of history-making by presenting workshops on“Introduction to Oral History” and “Preserving and Archiving for the
Future.” Thirty years of the taiko movement had built a tradition ofAmerican taiko and consolidating images of a past could demonstrate
the cultural validity of taiko performance. This was articulated in thetheme of the1999 Opening Session, which was to “explore the development of Taiko from a cultural icon and traditional instrument into a
respected performing art form.”39 The leaders and performers lookedback on their own experiences and reinterpreted the meaning of thoseexperiences through participation in workshops and discussion.
The most dramatic presentation, the “Taiko Jam” concert, projected awhole picture of the process in which the taiko community had been
engaging in the creation of traditions. The 1997 concert featured six

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groups from across North America: San Francisco, Los Angeles, Seattle,
New York, Honolulu, and Vancouver. About nine hundred people gathered at the Japan American Theater and videos were ﬁlmed for a larger
audience. Because of his honored status as Grand Master, Tanaka’s performance particularly was a climax of the historic concert. A local newspaper described how he “closed out the three-hour-long show with athundering ﬁnale that featured a marathon solo by two fundoshi (loincloth)-clad male drummers pounding away on the odaiko (large drum).”40
This performance by Tanaka, whose image is that of “founder” or“father” of American taiko, communicated a dramatic narrative of thegrowth of taiko from its early roots.
YONSEI AND DIVERSE EXPRESSIONSThe conference was a quest for a uniﬁed taiko community, and yet theother side of it was the increasing diversity through the 1980s and 1990sin the age of performers, the afﬁliation of groups, and the function of
taiko. A thriving force has come from yonsei, the fourth generation ofJapanese Americans, whose ages range from pre-teen through earlytwenties. The birth of children’s taiko groups has promised the continuity of the folk tradition. It reﬂects their sansei parents’ hope that theirchildren acquire self-respect and conﬁdence through learning their cultural heritage through taiko. Following in sansei performers’ footsteps,
yonsei children often belong to temple-afﬁliated Buddhist taiko groups
such as Zenshuji Zendeko in Los Angeles formed in 1986 and Koyasan
Spirit of Children Taiko Group in Sacramento formed in 1993.41 Some
yonsei begin taiko in a class or workshop that community centers have
set up in their cultural programs. San Fernando Valley Mugen Taiko, forexample, started as a children’s group at the San Fernando JapaneseAmerican Community Center in 1989. Because of the inﬂuence of hersansei father who played taiko, Erin Kimie Sato joined the group at theage of ten and despite her initial unwillingness, taiko has turned into anindispensable part of her life over twelve years. Now in her early twenties, she compares her ﬁrm commitment to the group to a family relationship and also mentions her consciousness of a collective image,saying, “I like people watching us. They really appreciate us.”42
The perpetuation of taiko among yonsei has brought hope and vitality to the Japanese American community. As the tradition of JapaneseTAIKO AS PERFORMANCE

117

American taiko is passed down, yonsei inherit the values and experiences of earlier generations. Taiko performed by children in a historically monumental context epitomizes the inheritance of JapaneseAmerican history. The 1991 theme of the Day of Remembrance in Los
Angeles was “The Camps and Redress: Educating Future Generations,”
and yonsei’s performance at its opening ceremony answered the community’s expectation that the Japanese American past continue to becommunicated to future generations.43 The day commemorates the anniversary of the 1942 enactment of Executive Order 9066, the order that
authorized the evacuation of Japanese Americans from the West Coast,and thus yonsei voiced sorrow and anger for their grandparents and great
grandparents.
For yonsei, who have taken on more of America’s cultural values thanearlier generations, taiko stands out as a physically energetic yet accessible art form among other Japanese cultural traditions such as tea
ceremony, ﬂower arrangement, and calligraphy, many of which valuesilence.44 As Erin Kimie Sato indicated, the yonsei developed an interest of their own in taiko and chose taiko to look for their own meanings
in contexts, different from those of their parents and community as theymature to adolescence. Brent and Adam Toda started taiko in the children’s group, but each has continued it for they have recognized it as anecessary self-expression. Because of his artistic talent, Brent values theaesthetic potential of taiko, and lets it sound his other voice and his inner
self musically.45
Yonsei have also formed a taiko group independently in their own
domain, at university campuses. At the University of California at Los
Angeles, Kyodo Taiko was founded in 1990 under the Nikkei Student
Union. The name Kyodo, to which the group gives two meanings, “family” and “loud children,” is suggestive of their concern for the past andcontinuity.46 Its ﬁrst major performance was “a commemoration of the50th anniversary of Japanese American internment in 1992, which paid
tribute to the 175 UCLA students who were interned.”47 Taiko has also
been offered in the university curriculum, as in the case of Stanford
University. Stanford started its taiko course in 1992 as part of a special
program on political and social issues: “The class contextualized the artof taiko by discussing its link to the Japanese American experience.”48
Taiko has reached new establishments, expanding from Buddhist temples into community centers and university campuses, and has further

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acquired other functions in society. Taiko has broadened from its dominant association with Japanese American contexts into other social
frames beyond the ethnic community. Public folklore has been inﬂuential in the application of folk traditions to social problems on the presumption that they speak to human needs and anxieties. While the taikoclass of JANM’s public programming has invited the participation of
beginners from a wider range of society, the instructor, Reverend Tom
Kurai of Sozenji Buddhist Temple in Montebello, emphasizes the educational and applied functions of taiko for those who need them. Also,
as a leader of the Taiko Center of Los Angeles as well as a workshop
artist with the Los Angeles Music Center Education Division, Kurai
demonstrates taiko in public and private schools, in workshops at community libraries, and in therapy classes at hospitals and special schools.49
Because of its therapeutic and healing functions especially, doctors, therapists, teachers, and corporate employees have adopted taiko as a way
for patients and students to cope with their problems. In these new social
frames, taiko loses its meaning as an ethnic symbol of Japanese heritageand instead emerges as a medium for transcultural, as well as transnational, human expressions. In tandem with new social interest in the universal functions of taiko, the formation of an on-line taiko network,
Rolling Thunder, has diffused information on taiko without limitations.50
With the movement of taiko to broader social categories, how doJapanese American performers deﬁne taiko traditions? This involves thequestion of the presentational form of taiko, which relates to the ethnic
identity of a Japanese American taiko performer.
AMERICAN TAIKO TRADITIONS
The professionalization of performers has worked to counter the diversiﬁcation of taiko. Inﬂuential performers and groups can lead theAmerican taiko community and project their interpretation of American
taiko. Japanese professional groups have long affected the presentational mode of taiko performance in terms of aesthetics, techniques, andstage settings through their frequent tours across the United States.
Likewise some long-established American groups, typically Tanaka’s
San Francisco Taiko Dojo, have exceeded others in their professional
expertise and publicity.
Tanaka has shaped a model of American taiko tradition, which he has

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maintained by reafﬁrming his ties to Japanese roots in his performancesand rhetoric. Stressing his three decades of experience in the UnitedStates, he has placed the authenticity of the Japanese style at the highest
level within the taiko community. The rhetoric of the publicity for his
30th-year anniversary concert refers to three Japanese taiko schools withthe oldest traditions: Osuwa (or Suwa) Taiko, Sukeroku Taiko, andGojinjo Taiko, paying tribute to Osuwa Taiko as recognized by “theJapanese government” as a “National Cultural Treasure.” Its emphatic
tone proclaimed his roots in Japanese taiko traditions: “Tanaka was theﬁrst outsider to be accepted as an apprentice with Grand Master Daihachi
Oguchi of the Suwa Taiko. Tanaka has mastered all the Suwa Taiko arts.
Additionally, he has received the highest degree of diploma for the teaching (of) Suwa Taiko.”51
I read this validation of Tanaka’s status by his association with anauthentic school of Japanese taiko as his reaction against the multilayered meanings and functions of taiko within the American taiko community. He afﬁrms that having roots in Japanese taiko should be thecriterion that distinguishes “real” or “genuine” taiko. The validity of his
authenticity, however, has been kept intact through his professional
manipulations, including the dramatization of his legendary image as thefounder, which has been canonized widely through media such asanniversary booklets, newspapers, and magazines.52
Sensitivity to the concept of authenticity also resounds in on-line discussion on copyright issues in the late 1990s. John Ko of Soh Daiko mentions two spheres of opinions in the copyright debate within the taiko
community. One is “the old school or Asian mode which preaches
acknowledgement of sources, teachers, inﬂuences, etc. and the processof learning from and receiving permission from those who created thestyles and pieces.” The other is “the new world American or Westernmode which preaches ‘innovation,’ artistic freedom, and departure fromthe ﬁrst mode.”53 The concern for copyright shows performers’ aesthetic viewpoints regarding the traditionality of taiko. Circumscribing theperformer’s freedom to present taiko with the use of copyright, the former view intends to renounce the popularization of taiko in order to preserve the purity of its tradition and enforce taiko as an art form. It is adefense against the latter groups who allow unlimited forms of taiko
expression that obscure the validity of traditionality.
The authentication of taiko involves creating ethnic boundaries

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through Japanese symbols. This process also calls into question the ethnic identiﬁcation of the performer, which can be illustrated in shin-issei
Tanaka’s insistence that he uses genuine taiko created by master craftsmen in Japan. In his performance on stage, the origin and age of thedrums counts most and he obtains taiko from an authorized Japanesemanufacturer. Japanese-made taiko validate his performances because“the spirit of the tree from which the wood came from and the spirit
imparted by the performers through the years help produce the unique
sound” of their taiko.54
His claim to Japanese roots parallels his identiﬁcation with Japan,
where he was born, despite his thirty-year life as a shin-issei. The opposite view to Tanaka’s is typiﬁed by sansei artist Johnny Mori, a memberof Kinnara Taiko, in his play “Sansei,” in which he recollects his endeavor to learn taiko-making from different taiko drummers in America.
“What I do is go down to a place outside of L.A., San Pedro, to this old
Italian person. I go down to his wine barrel shop. I pick out a real nicelooking barrel—an oak barrel. Sometimes I get French oak wine barrels
which are real nice. You look at the barrel and try to imagine, to see iton the stage—will it look right? With me? If so, it’s the one I want. I
want one that’s kind of oldish, one that has a kind of yellowish tint toit.”55 The wine-barrel drum reﬂects his multicultural vision of ethnic
identity and belief in the genuineness of the American-born performer’s
experiences.
From Mori’s perspective, diversity does not hamper taiko expressions,but rather nourishes them. Diversity has sustained the vitality andadvancement of America-born performers, yielding the development ofmass production of taiko by American manufacturers in recent years.
American-made taiko have outnumbered Japanese-made taiko and proliferated among performers. Thus the Taiko Conference set up a workshop called “North American Taiko-Making,” in which a local taikomaker demonstrated a “distinctly North American style of taiko built
from wine barrels.”56 Here we can see American performers’ ambition
to redeﬁne American taiko, independent from Japanese taiko, based on
the history of Japanese American communities. Mori’s attachment to his
handmade drum, which “look[s] right” with him, reﬂects the fact that
American performers have created a “real” or “authentic” American
taiko tradition out of their own experiences and environments.

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121

CONCLUSION
Young Japanese Americans found the folk tradition of taiko to be ausable medium not only to convey implicit messages that challenge the
racial injustice of American society, but also to explore their identity. In
multicultural America, where ethnicity has outweighed other determinants of self-identiﬁcation, the inherent link taiko seemed to offer to theirancestral past helped them to conceive and indicate their ethnic roots.
The public presentation of their ethnic traditions, however, has involved ﬁnancial deals with event organizers and sponsors, and the cultural policy of national and local governments. Communication throughtaiko to the larger American society has also generated a diversiﬁcationof taiko expressions and functions. This process has called for mediation and organization by public folklorists. As a cultural performancethat represents the Japanese American community, the presentational
form of taiko, which manifests the performer’s perceptions of his or her
own ethnicity, has to be negotiated among individuals and groups.57
What allows taiko performance to represent Japanese American traditions is that it has its authenticity, which the community recognize in thelight of the collective images, or memories, of the past.
Japan-born Tanaka has expressed his ethnicity through the disciplined
taiko style, based on his visions of the past in hierarchical Japanese society. Away from the geographical basis that supports collective visionsof the Japanese past, however, he has to make a continuous effort tomaintain his authenticity through the manipulation of traditional
Japanese symbols.58 Through the search for ethnic identity, sansei haveuncovered the history of their community, which issei and nisei hadburied. The recognition of having their own past has given them a foundation, which can verify the authenticity of their traditions. While
Tanaka’s taiko still symbolically unites the diversifying American taiko
community in a powerful way, America-born performers now more consciously engage themselves in making the history of American taiko.
Indeed the latter have chosen their own directions as they established adistinctively Japanese American tradition of Buddhist taiko in the community where they were born.
The growing diversity of the taiko community has constantly posed
the question of the representation of ethnicity to Japanese American
performers and thus has produced dynamic forces that drive the taiko

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movement in America. The interplay of these forces together and theircontinued interaction in the future will shape a sense of JapaneseAmerican tradition.
NOTES
Materials and information on which this account is based include interviews and observations that I carried out mainly in Los Angeles in October, 1999 and March, 2000. I
am particularly indebted to Karen Toda and Erin Kimie Sato for their warmest support.
1
James P. Leary and Richard March, “Dutchman Bands: Genre, Ethnicity, andPluralism in the Upper Midwest,” in Creative Ethnicity: Symbols and Strategies of Contemporary Ethnic Life, eds. Stephen Stern and John Allan Cicala (Logan, Utah: Utah
State University Press, 1991), 22–43.
2Richard Bauman, Folklore, Cultural Performances, and Popular Entertainments(New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 46–47. The performance approach, or thecontextual approach, regards folklore as artistic communication and interprets folklore
by locating it within the contexts.
3
Robert Baron and Nicholas R. Spitzer, “Introduction,” in Public Folklore, eds.
Robert Baron and Nicholas R. Spitzer (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press,
1992), 1.
4
Bauman, Folklore, Cultural Performances, and Popular Entertainments, 40.
5Samuel Fromartz, “Anything But Quiet,” Natural History 107, no.2 (1998): 44–48.
6
Amy Uyematsu, “The Emergence of Yellow Power in America,” in Roots: Asian
American Reader, ed. Amy Tachiki, et al. (Los Angeles: UCLA Asian American Studies
Center, 1971), 9–13; Lon Yuki Kurashige, “Made in Little Tokyo: Politics of Ethnic
Identity and Festival in Southern California 1934–1994” (Ph.D dissertation, Universityof Wisconsin-Madison, 1994), 169–92.
7
Misumi Haruo, “Minzoku geino no rekishiteki tenkai [The Historical Developmentof Folk Performance]” in Nihon minzoku bunka taikei: Enja to kankyaku [Japanese Folk
Culture: Performer and Audience] (Tokyo: Shogakukan, 1995), 114–26.
8
Kurashige, “Made in Little Tokyo,” 160.
9They came to the United States in postwar years. Although they were broadly termed
shin-issei, their ethnic identity varies to a large extent and expatriates may not identify
themselves as such.
10
Ibid. 167, 150.
11
Ibid. 237.
12
Kango Kunitsugu, “Drums of the Festivals,” in 1978 Nisei Week (booklet,1978):18–19.
13
The Japanese American Cultural and Community Center (JACCC), The 1999 Taiko
Conference (program booklet, 1999): 29–62.
14
Takeshi Nakayama, “The New Heartbeat of Japanese America,” The Rafu Shimpo,
21 July 1997, 1.
15Masao Kodani, “Bon Odori Music,” in Japanese American Cultural and Community
Center, A Gathering of Joy: Obon Music and Dance: Traditions in the U.S. (Los Angeles:
JACCC, 1993), 11–17; Ted Tetsuo Akahori, interview by author, Los Angeles, Ca., 24
March 2000.
16
Susan Asai, “Horaku: A Buddhist Tradition of Performing Arts and theDevelopment of Taiko Drumming in the United States,” Selected Titles in Ethnomusicology 6 (1985): 163–72.

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123

Kinnara, Kinnara Kara: 2543 (concert booklet, 1999).
Asai, “Horaku,” 163–66.
19
Fromartz, “Anything But Quiet,” 46.
20
Bryan Yamami, interview by author, Los Angeles, Ca., 18 March, 2000.
21
Kinnara, Kinnara Kara: 2543.
22
Angus Kress Gillespie, “Festival,” in American Folklore: An Encyclopedia (NewYork: Garland Publishing, 1996), 249–51.
23
Smithsonian Institution National Park Service, 1983 Festival of American Folklife,(program booklet, 1983).
24
Smithsonian Institution National Park Service, 1986 Festival of American Folklife(program booklet, 1986).
25
Ibid.
26
Baron and Spitzer, “Introduction,” 5.
27
Daniel Sheehy, “Crossover Dreams: The Folklorist and the Folk Arrival,” in Public
Folklore (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992), 227.
28
Kyoko Yoshida, “Perspectives on Japanese Performing Arts Presentations in the
United States: 1982–1992” (Master thesis, Brooklyn College, 1993), 52.
29
The JACCC, Where Cultures Come Together: 10th Anniversary Commemorative
Book, 1980–1990, (1990), 1.
30
Yoshida, “Perspectives,” 12.
31
The JACCC, Where Cultures Come Together, 30–49.
32
Lewis Segal, “Taiko Festival in Little Tokyo,” Los Angeles Times, 11 Jul. 1983, sec.
6.
33
Examples are New Year Celebration, Children’s Day, Bon Festival, Los Angeles
Marathon, the Fourth of July Picnic and commercial events as well as high school anduniversity concerts, commercial festivals at shopping centers, and personal ceremonies
like weddings and other rites of passage.
34
The Japanese American National Museum, (pamphlet); “Taiko Center News,” Taiko
Center of Los Angeles (newsletter, January-April 1999): 1.
35
Archie Green, “Public Folklore’s Name: A Partisan’s Notes,” in Public Folklore,
49–63.
36“Taiko Gathering at JACCC Plaza to Precede Parade,” The Rafu Shimpo, 7 August
1995.
37
Nakayama Takeshi, “The New Heartbeat of Japanese America,” The Rafu Shimpo,
21 July 1997, p.1.
38
Duane Ebata, “Four Hundred Taiko Drummers Descend on Little Tokyo,” Tozai
Times, 153, no.13 (1997), 10.
39
The JACCC, The 1999 Taiko Conference, 7.
40
Nakayama, “The New Heartbeat of Japanese America,” 1.
41
The JACCC, The 1999 Taiko Conference, 29–62.
42
Erin Kimie Sato, interview by the author, San Fernando Valley, Ca., 18 March, 2000.
43“Relocation Researcher to Speak at Day of Remembrance Feb. 17,” The Rafu
Shimpo, 19 February 1991.
44
Tom Kurai, interview by the author, Los Angeles, Ca., 21 March, 2000.
45
Brent Toda, interview by the author, Los Angeles, Ca., 24 March, 2000; Adam Toda,
interview by author, San Fernando Valley, Ca., 18 March, 2000.
46
For “family,” they may refer to the word kyodo, which means association or kinship, and for “loud children, they probably combine two separate Chinese characters“kyo(shout)” and “do(child)” together.
47
The JACCC, The 1999 Taiko Conference, 44.
17
18

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Ibid.
Kurai, interview.
50
Rolling Thunder: The Taiko Resource.[http://www.taiko.com/rollingthunder.html]
51
San Francisco Taiko Dojo, The International Taiko Festival: Celebrating 30 Yearsof Taiko in America (program booklet, 1998): 10–18.
52
Gail S. Tagashira, “Local Groups Share Taiko Drum Heritage,” Los Angeles Times,
3 Feb. 1989, part 4, 32; Etsuo Hongo, interview by author, Los Angeles, Ca., 22 March,
2000.
53
John Ko, “Drumming Up A Storm,” Dialogue (Fall 1999): 31–33.
54
Tagashira, “Local Groups Share Taiko Drum Heritage,” 32; San Francisco Taiko
Dojo, (leaﬂet).
55“Taiko,” Gidra 1970–1990: The 20th Anniversary Edition (1990): 60.
56
The JACCC, The 1999 Taiko Conference (program booklet, 1999): 13.
57
The distinction between the traditional and the non-traditional, Barbara KirshenblattGimblett states, emerges as “the relations of power which are constantly punctuating
and dividing the domains of culture into its preferred and its residual categories.” See
Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 76; and Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett,“Mistaken Dichotomies,” in Public Folklore, 76.
58
Stern and Cicala, eds., Creative Ethnicity, 1.
49