The Japanese Journal of American Studies, No. 19 (2008)

Space, Class, City:
Gwendolyn Brooks’s Maud Martha

Julia LEYDA*I.

INTRODUCTION

Maud Martha is the only work of fiction by Gwendolyn Brooks(1917−2000), the first African American poet to win a Pulitzer Prize. It is a
short novel or novella made up of a series of vignettes centering around thetitle character, a young black woman, covering the period from her childhoodto early adulthood in Chicago. The frontispiece tells us that “Maud Martha
was born in 1917 and she is still alive,” creating a kind of immortality for themain character. The book was published in 1953 to positive reviews, although
literary historians such as Mary Helen Washington argue convincingly that it
was overshadowed at the time by Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man, published in
the previous year and winner of the 1953 National Book Award (Washington271−72). As Lattin and Lattin explain,
In 1940, Richard Wright told the story of Bigger Thomas growing up in black
Chicago not far from where Maud Martha was to grow up. In 1953, the year Maud
Martha was published, Ralph Ellison added the story of his protagonist harassed
from the south to New York City. Judged by the standards of these two complex,
powerful urban novels, Maud Martha could be easily dismissed. (181)

Washington’s comparison of the reviews of Invisible Man and Maud Martha
demonstrates the widespread neglect Brooks’s book met with: while “ElliCopyright © 2008 Julia Leyda. All rights reserved. This work may be used, with thisnotice included, for noncommercial purposes. No copies of this work may be distributed, electronically or otherwise, in whole or in part, without permission from theauthor.
*Lecturer, Sophia University

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son’s work was placed in a tradition” and “compared to Wright, Dostoevsky,
and Faulkner,” none of the reviews at the time mentioned Brooks’s artistic
lineage (272). None of the reviewers recognized, as Washington did thirty
years later, that “[w]ith no college degrees, no social standing, lacking themilitant or articulate voice, denied the supports black men could claim fromblack institutions, Maud Martha is the invisible woman of the 1950s”(272).
The book itself is also markedly different from Ellison’s and Wright’s novels in its subject matter and its style:
Maud does not experience the same intense search for identity that Bigger andEllison’s protagonist experience. Nor does the novel have comparable violent
struggles between the black and white worlds, broad discussions of black nationalism, or tragic conflicts between characters. (Lattin and Lattin 181)

In fact, Malin Walther suggests that in a chapter centering on Maud Martha’s
interactions with a mouse, Brooks’s novel “re-Wrights” the disturbing scene
in which Bigger Thomas kills a rat, resituating it in a more humorous andcontemplative domestic setting with the result that Maud Martha sets themouse free, rather than killing it as Bigger does the rat (143).
I want to demonstrate that, although it appears smaller and less dramaticthan Wright’s and Ellison’s novels both in its length and in its reception,
Maud Martha is also a “complex, powerful urban novel,” not in the sense ofgritty depictions of street life but in its quieter, more ethereal images of theinner life and reveries of its main character. Barbara Christian, in her essay“Nuance and the Novella: A Study of Gwendolyn Brooks’s Maud Martha,”
identifies the historical importance of the text: it is one of the first novels bya black woman to focus on an ordinary person who is not only a victim of an
unjust society, “not just a creation of her external world,” but also an active
individual who “helps create her own world by transforming externals
through her thoughts and imaginings” (244). The text’s portrayals of Maud
Martha’s inner life of the mind, as well as her day-to-day life at home, and in
the beauty parlor, hat shop and department stores, produce an intimate portrait of a woman who is constantly made aware of her lack of status—becauseof her gender, racial identity, skin color, class—yet also constantly finds ways
to reaffirm her worth. As Christian puts it, Maud Martha is “the embodimentof the idea that a slice of anybody’s life has elements of wonder and farce,
wry irony and joy” (247). The book’s third-person omniscient narrator puts
into words thoughts and feelings that the characters seldom do; the reader has

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access to this narrator’s humor and judgment as it tells the story, highlighting
both the “wonder and farce” inherent in ordinary life.
This article considers two of the thirty-four vignettes in Maud Martha:
chapter 11 “second beau” and chapter 12 “Maud Martha and New York.”
These chapters are set around 1935, when Maud Martha is eighteen years
old. Her boyfriend David is the central character in chapter 11; the subsequent chapter focuses on Maud Martha herself. Through free indirect discourse, both chapters narrate the overlapping but quite different ways David
and Maud Martha fantasize about worlds outside their own. While David
longs to be a member of the collegiate bourgeoisie that he observes while
taking classes at the University of Chicago, Maud Martha imagines herself inthe luxury of high-society New York, a city she has never visited. Neither
chapter directly refers to race, but it is a central issue in the novel, even when
unspoken. Moreover, the fact that both characters’ fantasies hinge on classmobility illustrates the attraction of the comfortable life that, then as now,
often required the privilege that accompanied whiteness, as well as wealthand education.
To better understand the representations of class and space as co-constructions in Maud Martha, I would like to introduce a key concept from geographical theory: the “imaginative geography.” According to Felix Driver,imaginative geographies are “representations of place, space and landscapethat structure people’s understandings of the world, and in turn help to shape
their actions” (152). Driver cites Edward Said’s coinage of the term in Orientalism to describe the ways in which Europe’s “shared collective imaginations” of non-western cultures contribute to crucial binary oppositions bywhich westerners identify themselves against the Other (149). What geographers emphasize is the material, embodied nature of imaginative geographies: they are not just images. Rather they are products of, and influenceson, physical lived experience as raced, gendered, classed, and otherwise
marked and unmarked bodies in society. In the case of oppressive imaginative geographies, such as Orientalism, the importance of these representations cannot be disputed; on the other hand, not all imaginative geographies
enable imperialism.
I suggest that reading provides access to another kind of imaginative geography, which can have more liberatory potential. Sheila Hones argues for anunderstanding of reading as a “spatial event” that involves the reader and thewriter, along with the “traces of other readers and writers: novelists, geographers, colleagues, students, reviewers, editors” as well as the conditions under which the practices of reading and writing take place (n.p.). In this way

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the spatial event of reading “happens at the intersection of agents and situations scattered across time and space, both human and non-human, absent
and present” (n.p.). I argue that, in the spatial event of reading, the text’s
imaginative geographies play a role in the development of literary meaning,in that a reader’s impression is informed by the text’s representations of thenarrator’s or the characters’ thoughts, dreams, and actions as portrayed in the
text. But they can also be a product of reading literature, in that the act ofreading fosters an imaginary experience of other places, other lives, andother bodies. As reader-response criticism teaches us, “readers actualize thetext into a meaningful work that in turn stimulates response,” so that themeaning of the text is the product of the “dynamic transaction” between the
text and the reader (Schweickart and Flynn 4).
This transaction can be powerful, and even transformative; Janice Radway
argues that reading is sometimes a physical experience:
There are moments for me now when books become something other than mere
objects, when they transport me elsewhere, to a trancelike state I find difficult to
describe. . . . When this occurs, the book, the text, and even my reading self dissolve in a peculiar act of transubstantiation whereby “I” become something otherthan what I have been and inhabit thoughts other than those I have been able toconceive before. This tactile, sensuous, profoundly emotional experience of being
captured by a book is. . . an experience that for all its ethereality clearly is extraordinarily physical as well. (209)The physicality of this kind of reading resonates with the materiality inherent
in the concept of imaginative geography. Rather than emphasize a divide
between mind and body, Radway wants to investigate the blurring of that divide that occurs when she is in such a “trancelike state.” Troubling the split
between mind and body, the spatial event of reading can transport us to new
and unknown places, teach us about things we cannot learn in our “real”
lives.
I argue that, in Maud Martha, representations of the characters’ imaginative geographies express their spatial and classed identities in relation to thebody in two ways: through fantasies of clothing and consumer goods, andthrough the imagination of the body in other places. Finally, I’d like to conclude by considering the imaginative geographies that can be produced by
the readers’ engagements with the text.

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CLOTHING, ACCESSORIES, AND PHYSICAL EMBODIMENTS OF CLASSDavid wants to join the educated elite, “those guys” he sees on the University of Chicago campus. David’s desire to become a part of the college-educated middle class brings with it a desire for the “tasteful” trappings hedeems appropriate to that class. Although his plan to acquire these various
things appears shallow and superficial, David’s highly specific wants reflect
his sensitivity to the role of taste in the social construction of class. Pierre
Bourdieu argues that taste is a “systematic expression of a particular class ofconditions of existence, i.e., as a distinctive life-style,” which is the “productof the internalization of the structure of social space” (175). David’s wish forclass mobility is not expressed through any overt desire for wealth, but
through a set of symbolic objects he wants to possess. He believes that owning these objects will enable him to build a more educated, middle-class
identity. From the first line of this chapter, David’s yearning for class mobility is gently derided by the narrator, whose descriptions of him make him
appear arrogant and self-absorbed: the chapter opens with the joking admonition, “And—don’t laugh!—he wanted a dog” (42).
David’s catalog of desirable consumer goods becomes repetitive in thechapter’s final paragraph, using the word “good” six times in his cliché-filled
fantasy of the objects—the goods—he feels he needs to own in order toachieve the lifestyle and class identity he wants.
He wanted a dog. A good dog. No mongrel. An apartment—well-furnished, containing a good bookcase, filled with good books in good bindings. He wanted aphonograph, and records. The symphonies. And Yehudi Menuhin. He wantedsome good art. These things were not extras. They went to make up a good background. The kind of background those guys had. (46, emphasis added)

This background, which he thinks “those guys” have, can be read to mean
their upbringing, in which they were exposed to cultured conversations froman early age. David laments that he has not, as the college boys have, grownup surrounded by educated adults; in their homes, he imagines, their parents
had had casual discussions “across four-year-old heads” about a book he has
just begun to study, the American studies classic,
Parrington’s Main Currents in American Thought. He had not mastered it. Only
recently, he announced, had he learned of its existence. “Three volumes of themost reasonable approaches!—Yet there are chaps on that campus—young!—
younger than I am—who read it years ago, who know it, who have had it for

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themselves for years, who have been seeing it on their fathers’ shelves since infancy. . . . ” (43)These students have the advantage, in David’s imagination anyway, of being
raised to be comfortable and at ease in the intellectual milieu that he so badly
wants to inhabit. His yearning for a middle-class identity centers around theuniversity, not only as a place of learning and ideas, but also as a communityof people among whom David seems to feel uncomfortable (it goes without
saying, too, although he doesn’t indicate it directly, that most of them arewhite). If only he had “a good background” with a bourgeois upbringing likethose students appear to have had, he seems to say.1
But David’s word “background” also implies a backdrop, the tableau inwhich their lives are played out. The performance of the academic is a physical act, supported by appropriate clothing and props. As mentioned above,the chapter opens with his desire for a dog; the narrator continues to describeDavid’s newly contrived image as the “picture of the English country gentleman. Roaming the rustic hill. He had not yet bought a pipe. He would immediately” (42). In this scene, David is dressed in a tweedy professorial
costume, wearing the right tie, purchased with much anxiety and planning, as
well as socks, haircut, and shoes:
There already was the herringbone tweed. . . . There was the tie a man might think
about for an hour before entering that better shop, in order to be able to deliberate
only a sharp two minutes at the counter, under the icy estimate of the salesman.
Here were the socks, here was the haircut, here were the shoes. (42−43)

He has also adopted the physical mannerisms he thinks appropriate: “Theeducated smile, the slight bow, the faint imperious nod” (43). In his fantasy,
the herringbone-clad David is trying to act the part, ensconced in a stage set
peppered with all the important “goods” to signify his desired status. His
body and physical appearance are in the process of being made over to conform to an image of the class identity he aspires to, in addition to his intellectual pursuit of a university education.
In some ways similar to David’s, Maud Martha’s imaginative geography ofa higher class involves costuming and adorning the body, but she expresses
only a passing interest in intellectual pursuits and instead directs her imagination toward scenarios heavily indulging the senses. While David’s physicalmakeover is part of his overall goal to become more like the middle-classuniversity “chaps” and less like the working-class man he starts out as, Maud

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Martha is quite emphatically still herself in her fantasies. Like David, she isfascinated by the habits of a more privileged class, but her fantasies place her
directly in their realm, skipping over the “icy estimate of the salesman” andother uncomfortable obstacles that David knows first-hand. The faraway location of Maud Martha’s imaginative geography, New York City, and her own
lack of experience there allow her to appropriate only the positive elementsof that world, eliding the potential roadblocks. The opening of the chapter
expresses her image of the city:
The name “New York” glittered in front of her like the silver in the shops on
Michigan Boulevard. It was silver, and it was solid, and it was remote: it was behind glass, it was behind bright glass like the silver in the shops. It was not for her.
Yet. (47; emphasis added)

The repetition of the words “silver” and “glass,” along with the image of theglittering name, reinforces the metaphor in this passage that describes what
New York means for Maud Martha—something as shining and expensive,“solid” as a precious metal. This passage also describes part of the allure of
New York in its remoteness, “behind glass,” something beautiful she can see“in front of her” but cannot touch. Perhaps because of her distance from its
reality, perhaps because she hasn’t (yet?) encountered the difficulties thatDavid has in achieving his dream, Maud Martha’s New York is almost entirely hopeful and doesn’t entail a reworking of her body so much as a swirling daydream. The youthful sense of the future in the final word, “yet,”strikes a contrast with David’s anxiety and frustration, for Maud Martha is
not at this point certain that she won’t someday achieve the elegance andpoise she admires in the idea of New York.
Gleaned from her cultural knowledge of New York as depicted in magazines and newspapers, her daydreams envision upper-class life there:
Maud Martha loved it when her magazines said “New York,” described “good”
objects there, wonderful people there, recalled fine talk, the bristling or the creamy
or the tactfully shimmering ways of life. (48)The adjective “good” here is emphasized with quotation marks, creating anecho of the previous chapter and David’s humorous overuse of the word andhis fetishization of tasteful “goods” for purchase, as discussed above. Also
like David, Maud Martha envisions “fine talk” but here is none of David’s
envy or wistful regret. Rather, this chapter’s imagery is overwhelmingly sensual, describing Maud Martha’s excitement over the “tactfully shimmering

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ways of life” so different from her own and often focusing on the senses, asseen in the tactile metaphors such as “bristling” and “creamy.”
Indeed, Maud Martha’s New York dream is a sybaritic delirium of delicacies. Her epicurean litany of foods shows Maud Martha’s fascination with thehabits of New York polite society:they ate things called anchovies, and capers; they ate little diamond-shaped
cheeses that paprika had but breathed on; they ate bitter-almond macaroons; they
ate papaya packed in rum and syrup; they ate peculiar sauces, were free withhoney, were lavish with butter, wine and cream. (49)

The context, in the middle of the Depression, can explain some of Maud
Martha’s gourmet lusts, of course. But I also suspect she is a sensualist,
chanting in repetitive anaphora (they ate; they ate; they ate). Food here is not
merely a source of physical nourishment, but a sign of “lavish” living, which
she physically craves. This is not a catalog of things she feels she needs inorder to gain a particular status, as David’s are; it is a list of exotic indulgences that she wants to sample for herself, for her own pleasure, even if she
does not know what they are, as the expression “things called anchovies, andcapers” suggests.
Maud Martha can hardly bear the opulence of her New York fantasies andher lust for these expensive objects extends beyond food, although hunger
remains an apt metaphor. The physical craving overcomes her completely
when she peruses magazine advertisements for an expensive pair of figurines:“Her whole body become a hunger, she would pore over these pages” (47).
This physical desire is not only for the commodities being sold, nor is it formembership in a particular university community; it is for “what she felt life
ought to be. Jeweled. Polished. Smiling. Poised” (50). Her yearning for effortless elegance shows an eye for both the product and the lifestyle: “especially did she care for the pictures of women wearing carelessly, as if they
were rags, dresses that were plain but whose prices were not” (48−49). But
for Maud Martha, the attainment of this elegance is not fraught with disappointment and self-denigration, as are David’s ambitions; perhaps due totheir remoteness, both geographical and experiential, the things she fantasizes about are at least theoretically within her reach if she only had themoney to purchase them. Although she too imagines her own body swathedin expensive fabrics before a high-class backdrop, she screens out the negative implications that David cannot.
Crucial too is the fact that her imaginative geography of New York is for-

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mulated from the images and information she gleans from her own experience as a reader of texts:
She bought the New York papers downtown, read of the concerts and plays, studied the book reviews, was intent over the announcements of auctions. She liked
the sound of “Fifth Avenue,” “Town Hall,” “B. Altman,” “Hammacher Schlemmer.” (49)

The New York in her imaginative geography captures her interest as a centerof high culture, and again appeals to the senses, where even the sound of thenames of streets, halls, and shops are attractive. Maud Martha has “studied”
these texts and developed an idealized world that embodies everything she
thinks life should be. For David, studying texts seems to mean reading volumes such as Parrington’s, which signify for him the disadvantages he labors
under in comparison to the other students. David’s aspiration to enter theeducated bourgeoisie is closer, more within reach: it is predicated on attending a university in Chicago where he already lives, and where he is alreadytaking classes. Yet perhaps because he has come so close, he is all the moreaware of the hindrances that still threaten to hold him back.
Like a child dreaming of fairy tales, Maud Martha places herself at thecenter of her fantasies of New York, and her wide-eyed optimism is only
gently teased by the narrator: saying that she “was intent over the announcements of auctions” shows the utter seriousness of the inexperienced young
woman and at the same time the absurdity of her reading about auctions thatare inaccessible to her, both because of her location in Chicago and becauseof her status, as a young, working-class black woman. The grammatical inversions in this chapter are unique in that they don’t occur in David’s: formal,archaic-sounding constructions like “especially did she care,” quoted above,
also underscore the fairy-tale quality of the chapter, where the narrator seems
to want to convey the naïve magic of her hopeful imagination. But thesegrammatical inversions also hint at the spatial act of transposition that is inherent in her imaginative geography, which is the other intriguing element of
her and David’s imaginative geographies.
III.

DISPLACEMENT AND TRANSPOSITION AS PRODUCTION OF SPACE AND CLASSDavid’s ambitious shopping list of clothing and accessories—the pipe, thegood bindings—are made to look silly and snobbish by the narrator, but his
character’s pathos comes from the contrast between those attempts to mimic

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the performance of middle-class academia and his stark imaginative geography of race and class in South Side Chicago, where he draws a firm boundaryline between east and west. Of course, this imaginative geography is not
merely an individual construction: it is informed by his own embodied experience of racial segregation in early twentieth-century Chicago. Accordingly,
he separates his own neighborhood (and Maud Martha’s) “[w]est of the Midway” from that of the university2 and its denizens “[e]ast of Cottage Grove”(44). He explains that he becomes “instantly depressed” and “want[s] tothrow up” when he comes home from the university to the “mess” that is his
own neighborhood (44). Here in Bronzeville, people “leaned against buildings and their mouths were opening and closing very fast but nothing important was coming out. What did they know about Aristotle?” (45). The brashness of the street life in this passage, where conversations are lively but not
intellectual enough to suit him, contrasts with the polite restraint and intelligence David attributes to people in the university neighborhood, where“people were clean, going somewhere that mattered, not talking unless they
had something to say” (44−45). The clownish image of “mouths. . . opening
and closing very fast” makes his neighbors appear foolish, and although hestops short of calling the residents of his own neighborhood dirty, he implies
it in this passage by asserting the cleanliness of the others “[e]ast of Cottage
Grove” (44). Similarly, he condemns the poor condition of the buildings byblaming the inhabitants: “up in those kitchenette windows, where the lights
were dirty through dirty glass—they could wash the windows” (45). His
imaginative geography consists of a divided city, in which the clean, intelligent people are east of the line and the dirty, foolish, ignorant people are westof it. David often finds himself on what he considers to be the wrong side ofthe line, in more ways than one: as these passages demonstrate, he lives in anarea he considers poor and dirty. But several times in this chapter he also
seems to misapprehend his own location in relation to that line.
Through a kind of imaginative displacement, David’s strict sense ofboundaries sometimes gives way to a possibility for transgression. Although
he is in Maud Martha’s parents’ house, he comports himself with such pompthat the narrator chides him again: “His scent was withdrawn, expensive, as
he strode down the worn carpet of her living room, as though it were the educated green of the Midway” (43). The dramatic situation again resembles aperformance through the narrator’s choice of words, such as striding the carpet and “the educated green,” that elevate him to the status of an actor or orator, but the “worn carpet of her living room” reminds us that he is just ranting
in his girlfriend’s house. But this passage also shows the slippage between

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the two parts of David’s divided imaginative geography, as he is behaving
here in a manner more appropriate there. The carpet in this passage almost
becomes the green of the Midway, almost but not quite, thanks to the narrator’s precise use of the simile “as though it were” highlighting the distinction.
However, this kind of imaginary spatial displacement continues later in David’s description of his own neighborhood as if it were elsewhere: “The unhappiness he felt over there was physical” (45). Though we know he is in theliving room at Maud Martha’s house, the sentence implies that he is speaking
from elsewhere about “there,” meaning their neighborhood, a place thatmakes him feel sick with unhappiness.
Perhaps because in his mind he is on the other side of the boundary, David
even becomes forgetful about his neighborhood:
There was a fence on Forty-seventh and—Champlain? Langley? Forestville?—heforgot what; broken, rotten, trying to lie down; and passing it on a windy night oron a night when it was drizzling, he felt lost, lapsed, negative, untended, extinguished, broken and lying down too—unappeasable. (45)

Although he cannot remember the exact intersection, he identifies with thatfence on 47th Street. It makes him feel “lost” and “untended” as well as “broken and lying down too”—the ragged fence can be read as a synecdoche for
the African American community in the midst of the Depression. It also more
specifically bears a symbolic burden for David, standing for all the things heassociates with his own neighborhood, his own “background” that hasn’t
prepared him enough for a life at the university.
Like the fence, too, David is in his own estimate “untended,” in that his
working-class parents weren’t able to provide for him the kind of privileged“background” that the students at the university appear to have. As the chapter explains, not everyone in his neighborhood is dirty like the windows
mentioned above:
His mother had taken in washing. She had had three boys, whom she sent toschool clean but patched-up. Just so they were clean, she had said. That was allthat mattered, she had said. She had said “ain’t.” (44)

His mother did her best to tend her sons while washing other people’s laundry
to support her family, keeping them clean even if she couldn’t replace theirworn clothes, only patch them. “His father,” we are told, “hadn’t said anything at all,” implying he was distant or even absent from the family (44). But
David wishes he had been tended in other ways, raised in a more genteel,

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middle-class environment, by parents who didn’t say “ain’t” and who could
afford to buy him new clothes (herringbone?).
Certainly the frustration David feels in his own neighborhood and thinking
about his own upbringing could make him feel broken. But the fact that thefence is ineffective in its primary function as a boundary or barrier, broken
and “trying to lie down,” also suggests the impossibility of maintaining therigid spatial boundaries he tries to invoke (45). His very presence taking
courses on the University of Chicago campus—“the Midway”—is evidenceof the permeability of those boundaries. That is not to say crossing is easy or
taken-for-granted, but it is possible.
Maud Martha’s imaginative geography also enables her to cross boundaries. However, she doesn’t visit New York only to return to her own neighborhood depressed; she has never visited there at all. Instead, she completely
projects herself into an assortment of scenes there. Unlike David, whose language betrays his insecurity and uncertainty about his location even though
he attends the university, Maud Martha relocates herself at will. Whenever a
train passes she imagines it’s heading for New York and she is on board: “Shesat inside with them. She leaned back in the plush” (47). The physical sensation of sitting in the train seat, feeling the plush fabric against her skin, is not
mediated by a metaphor; rather, Maud Martha transports herself onto thetrain that she knows is going to New York. The imagined mobility in this passage is two-fold: she imagines that she is in another place (on a train) and on
her way to another city.
She is on the train, looking out the window at all the “unfortunate folk whowere not New York-bound and never would be” (48). Harry B. Shaw points
out that Maud Martha’s fantasy of New York “is more to escape a stultifying
mental and aesthetic environment,” while David wanted to “change his styleto escape his own heritage” (262−63). Her escape, in this imaginative act ofgeographic transposition, performs a kind of switch, where she is no longer
the unfortunate person who isn’t going to New York, but rather she is going
there, looking out at the unlucky ones. Similarly, she transposes herself to thefamous Fifth Avenue:
She was on Fifth Avenue whenever she wanted to be, and it was she who rolled up,
silky or furry, in the taxi, was assisted out, and stood, her next step nebulous, before the theaters of the thousand lights, before velvet-lined impossible shops; she
it was. (49)

Maud Martha is there, decked out in silks or furs (again the focus on cloth-

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ing). In her embodied imaginative geography she physically travels to andoccupies the city in her imagination and she feels the textures of the plush,
silk, fur, and velvet against her skin.
Maud Martha’s fantasy, inspired by the magazines and newspapers shereads, focuses on the distant and unknown, not only the cosmopolitan city of
New York, but also the imported luxuries to be found there. The chapter ispeppered with references to exotic imported goods. She revels in the idea ofconsuming expensive products from other countries: “Chinese boxes,” “Italian plates” (48), “Russian caviar” (49), “a Persian rug,” “tea, as in England”(echoes of the “English country gentleman”) (50).
Maud Martha reserves her best metaphors for a decorative screen she envisions in a beautifully furnished home. The narration doesn’t attribute it to aparticular source, but fits in with the kinds of interiors that Maud Martha delights in. She describes the screen, thinking that it might be “Japanese. . . withrich and mellow, bread-textured colors” (50−51). The colors of the screen
are, like the people she imagines inhabit the New York of her daydreams, richand mellow. But here a visual attribute, color, has a tactile description thatevokes the feel of bread, its rough crust and cushiony inside. The reference tofood underscores the hunger metaphor that runs through the chapter, too: herappetite for the imagined New York permeates even her figures of speech.
The fantasies in which she indulges are like her daily bread, feeding her
spirit as well as her body with the sustenance she needs to thrive in the midstof the challenges in her life.
She acknowledges that her daydreams, in which she “dwell[s] upon colorand soft bready textures and light, on a complex beauty, on gemlike surfaces,”might not come true (51). But she defends the pleasure she derives from
them:
What was the matter with that? Besides, who could safely swear that she would
never be able to make her dream come true for herself? Not altogether, then!—butslightly?—in some part?
She was eighteen years old, and the world waited. To caress her. (51)Maud Martha’s pragmatism has struck a bargain with her daydreams, allowing her to enjoy the imagined New York even as she realizes that she probably
won’t ever attain that level of luxury. She optimistically elects to incorporate
her sense of aesthetics into her life “slightly,” as we can see in later chaptersfrom her appreciation of “her finest wedding gift, a really good white luncheon cloth” (167). Although her fantasies are not “real,” they have a real

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effect in her life.
IV.

LITERARY GEOGRAPHIES OF MAUD MARTHA

Later in the book, in chapter 18, entitled “we’re the only colored people
here,” Maud Martha and her husband go to the movies in a fancy, mostly
white downtown cinema. After depicting their delicate dance of anxiety andforced nonchalance, the narrator explains the value of the movie for Maud
Martha:you felt good sitting there, yes, good, and as if, when you left it, you would begoing home to a sweet-smelling apartment with flowers on little gleaming tables;
and wonderful silver on night-blue velvet, in chests; and crackly sheets; and lacespreads on such beds as you saw at Marshall Fields. (77)This description, inspired by the brief experience of the movie (along withtrips to a downtown department store) and its ability to transport her to another kind of life, shows that Maud Martha still has the power to create
imaginative geographies replete with sensual and luxurious details of color,
texture, and fragrance.
In this later chapter, too, the narration provides a strong contrast with herreality, living in a kitchenette apartment in a run-down building:Instead of back to your kit’n’t apt., with the garbage of your floor’s families in a
big can just outside your door, and the gray sound of little gray feet scratchingaway from it as you drag up those flights of narrow complaining stairs. (77)

Unlike the New York chapter, Maud Martha is older now and has experienced
more of the restrictions and disappointments that her past boyfriend David
had also encountered. But her habit of creating pleasurable fantasies—“learning to love moments”—helps to sustain her even in the “gray” circumstancesof her daily life (78). Like the imagined geographies of New York that thrilled
her at eighteen, Maud Martha’s imagined geographies of upper-class creature
comforts continue to feed her craving. She might not any longer feel she is on
the train or on Fifth Avenue, but she feels as if she “would be going home toa sweet-smelling apartment,” which pleases her. By projecting themselves
into imagined places and imagined embodied experiences, David and Maud
Martha try to open themselves to possibility. As readers following these two
fictional characters as they undergo this projection, we also project ourselves
into other times, other places, other lives. Representations of class and space

SPACE, CLASS, CITY

137

in the novel allow us as readers to temporarily access imaginative geographies that are not “real,” but that can have real effects on our lives.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to the American Studies Foundation of Japan for an
overseas travel grant to attend the Modern Language Association 2007 Convention in Chicago, where I delivered an earlier, shorter version of this paper.

NOTES
1
See also Shaw 263; his reading of David’s desire for a good background is similar to mine,
although he doesn’t read a double meaning into the word “background,” as both upbringing
and backdrop, as I do.
2
The University is referred to as “the Midway” because it is located on the site of the Chicago World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893.

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