（令和"年度前期日程）

英

語
９０ 分

注

意

事

項

１．試験開始の合図までこの冊子を開かないこと。
２．本問題冊子は１４ページ，答案用紙は!ページである。
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号の下!桁の数字を忘れずに記入すること。
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５．問題冊子および答案用紙は切りはなさないこと。
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すること。

◇Ｍ４
（０８０―６９）

Ⅰ

次の英文を読んで，以下の設問に答えよ。（９０点）

Throughout history the role of technology and people’s reactions to it havebeen remarkably consistent, and those who worry about new technology and its
impact on society would do well to reflect on the history of paper.
We tend to think of “technology” as referring only to the development ofphysical devices, mechanical in the nineteenth century, and now electronic. But
the word can also be applied, as Merriam-Webster’s dictionary says, to any“practical application of knowledge.”
Technological inventions have always arisen from necessity. ［］Firstcame spoken language, then drawing, then pictographs, then alphabets, thenphoneticism, then writing, and then paper. Paper was then followed by printing,moveable type, typewriters, machine-driven printers, and electronic word
processors and the electronic printers that go with them.

As needs present

themselves, 著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません
solutions are found. Every idea engenders a need for another. In
this case, the original inventions ― spoken and then written language ― are not

本文は，7ページまで続きますphysical, man-madeobjects, and so are not “technology” in the traditional senseof the word. But the way they function in and influence society and history is
like a technology ― a founding technology. Speech was the wheel that eventually
led to the cart that was paper.
Studying the history of paper exposes a number of historical misconceptions,the most important of which is this technological fallacy: the idea that technology
changes society. ［］Society develops technology to address the changes

that are taking place within it. To use a simple example, in China in ２５０ BCE,
Meng Tian invented a paintbrush made from camel hair. His invention did notsuddenly inspire the Chinese people to start writing and painting, or to develop
calligraphy. Rather, Chinese society had already established a system of writing
but had a growing urge for more written documents and more elaborate
calligraphy.

Their previous tool ― a stick dipped in ink ― could not meet therising demand.

Meng Tian found a device that made both writing and
― １ ―

◇Ｍ４
（０８０―７１）

calligraphy faster and of a far higher quality.
Chroniclers of the role of paper in history are given to extravagant
pronouncements: Architecture would not have been possible without paper.
Without paper, there would have been no Renaissance.

If there had been no

paper, the Industrial Revolution would not have been possible.
None of these statements is true. These developments came about because
society had come to a point where they were needed.

This is true of alltechnology, but in the case of paper, it is particularly clear.
As far as scholars can tell, the Chinese were the only people to invent
papermaking, though the Mesoamericans may also have done so; because of thedestruction of their culture by the Spanish, we cannot be sure. And yet paper
came into use at very different times in very different cultures as societies
evolved and developed
a need for it and circumstances required a cheap and easy
著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません
writing material.
Five centuries after paper was being used widely by the Chinese
bureaucracy, Buddhist monks in Korea developed a need for paper also. They
adopted the Chinese craft, and took it to Japan to spread their religion. A few
centuries later, the Arabs, having become adept at mathematics, astronomy,
accounting, and architecture, saw a need for paper and started making and using
it throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain.
The Europeans initially had no use for paper until more than a thousand
years after the Chinese invented it. It was not that they had only just discovered
the existence of paper, however. The Arabs had been trying to sell it to them foryears. But it was not until they began learning the Arab ways of mathematics
and science, and started expanding literacy, that parchment made from animal
hides ― their previous writing material ― became too slow and expensive to
make in the face of their fast-growing needs.
The growth of intellectual pursuits and government bureaucracy, along withthe spread of ideas and the expansion of commerce, is what led to papermaking.
But its international growth was a remarkably slow process. The use of printing
― ２ ―

◇Ｍ４
（０８０―７２）

presses, steam engines, automobiles, and computers spread internationally over
far shorter periods of time than did paper.
Paper seems an unlikely invention ― breaking wood or fabric down into itscellulose fibers, diluting them with water, and passing the resulting liquid over ascreen so that it randomly weaves and forms a sheet is not an idea that would
logically come to mind, especially in an age when no one knew what cellulose
was. It is not an apparent next step like printing, which various societies would
arrive at independently. Suppose no one had thought of paper? Other materials
would have been found. Improved writing material had to be found, because theneeds of society demanded it.
There are other important lessons to be learned from the history oftechnology ― and other commonly held fallacies.

One is that new technology

Mediterranean world after paper was introduced.

Parchment remains in use.

eliminates 著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません
old. This rarely happens. Papyrus survived for centuries in the

The invention of gas and electric heaters has not meant the end of fireplaces.
Printing did not end penmanship, television did not kill radio, movies did not killtheater, and home videos did not kill movie theaters, although all these things
were falsely predicted. Electronic calculators have not even ended the use of theabacus, and more than a century after Thomas Edison was awarded a patent for
a commercially successful lightbulb in １８７９, there are still four hundred candle
manufacturers in the United States alone, employing some ７，
０００ workers withannual sales of more than $２ billion. In fact, the first decade of the twenty-first
century showed a growth in candle sales, though the uses of candles have ofcourse greatly changed. Something similar occurred with the manufacturing anduse of parchment.

New technology, rather than eliminating older technology,

increases choices. Computers will no doubt change the role of paper, but it isextremely unlikely that paper will be eliminated.
The history of technology also shows that Luddites always lose. The original
Luddites were artisanal workers in eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century
Britain who protested the loss of their skilled jobs to machines operated by low― ３ ―◇Ｍ４（０８０―７３）

wage, unskilled workers. Originally, the movement was active in a wide range offields, including printing, but by the first decade of the nineteenth century, it waslargely focused on the textile industry. It is uncertain why its proponents werecalled Luddites, but there was a mythical anti-machine rebel of the eighteenth
century named Lud who, like Robin Hood, was said to live in Sherwood Forest.
The Luddites opposed such technology as power looms, and they attacked mills,
smashed machinery, and fought against the British Army. One mill owner waseven assassinated, which led to the Frame Breaking Act of １８１２, making it acapital crime to break machines. This eventually led to mass trials that crushed
the movement.
Today, the term Luddite is used to mean someone who opposes newtechnology. And those who rail against the use of computers today are truly

heirs to the著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません
Luddites, because the machine that the Luddites originally opposed,
the mechanical loom, could be programmed to weave in various patterns throughthe use of punch cards ― an early mechanical forerunner of the computer.
In his seminal work Das Kapital, Karl Marx said that the Luddites failed
because they opposed the machines instead of the society. He observed: “TheLuddites’ mistake was that they failed to distinguish between machinery and its
employment by capital, and to direct their attacks, not against the material
instruments of production, but against the mode in which they are used.”In other words, it is futile to denounce technology itself. Rather, you have totry to change the operation of the society for which the technology was created.
技術が新しくなるたびに，その新しい発明が過去のよいものすべてを破壊すると考

え，非難する人々がいる。This happened when the written word started toreplace the oral word, when paper began replacing parchment, when printing
started to take work away from scribes ― and it is still happening today, withelectronics threatening paper. In all these cases, the arguments against the newtechnology were similar: the functioning of the human brain was imperiled, wewould lose the power of our memories, human contact would be diminished, andthe warmth of human engagement would be lost.
― ４ ―

◇Ｍ４
（０８０―７４）

These early outcries against technology went largely unheeded, much thesame way warnings about computers are going unheeded today. It is true thatthe greater the aids to memory, the less we depend on our brain. But that does
not mean that our minds are being destroyed.

Illiterate people have better

memories than literate people. But few would see that as an argument in favorof illiteracy. The introduction of the written word demonstrated that such aids,
though they make us more dependent, also make us more powerful.
You cannot warn about what a new technology will do to a society becausethat society has already made the shift.

That was Marx’s point about theLuddites.

Society changes, and that change

Technology is only a facilitator.

著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません

creates new needs. ［］The only way to stop the technology would be toreverse the changes in the society.

Printing did not create the Protestant

Reformation; the ideas and the will to spread them is what created printingpresses.

The Chinese bureaucrats and Buddhist monks were not created bypaper. Paper was created for them.
To argue that a technology somehow changed society would entail atechnology that radically changed the direction of society. But this simply never
happens. A technology that is intended to redirect society will usually fail. In
fact, most technology companies do not introduce new technology but new ways
to use ideas that already exist. They spend a great deal of time and money onmarket research ― that is, determining where society already wants to go. Only

once this direction is determined do they tailor a new product to meet that need.
［］Some technology succeeds in a changing society and some fails.

And even when an idea is right, the machine that introduces it to the society may
not be.

Cai Lun did not invent paper, Gutenberg did not invent the printingpress, Robert Fulton did not invent the steamboat, and Thomas Edison did notinvent the lightbulb.

Rather, these were people who took existing ideas or

machines that were not suiting society’s needs and reworked them into
technologies that did.

It says something about our world that we seldom

remember the person who came up with an idea, but canonize the pragmatist
― ５ ―

◇Ｍ４
（０８０―７５）

who made it commercially viable.

Already we have forgotten the people who

created most of the important computer concepts and instead celebrate thepeople who became rich on them.
Another important lesson is that technology usually becomes less expensive
over time, as well as more accessible and of lower quality.

Paper is far lessexpensive now than it used to be, but eighteenth-century paper was of muchbetter quality than nineteenth-century paper, which in turn was better than muchof today’s paper.
For more than a thousand years, papermaking was the mark of civilization:an advanced
civilization was one that made paper.
When the Spanish
著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません
conquistador Hernán Cortés arrived in the New World in １５０４, he was extremely
impressed by the Aztecs. They had built the largest city in the world and wereadvanced in mathematics and astronomy, but it was their papermaking ability
that most impressed him. To the Spaniard, a society that made paper was anadvanced civilization.
Using the paper test as the mark of civilization yields a surprisingly different
but not inaccurate picture of history. In this version, civilization begins in Asia in
２５０ BCE and spreads to the Arab world.

For centuries, the Arabs were theworld’s dominant culture, while the Europeans were among the most backward
people on Earth. They didn’t read, they had no science, and they could not do
simple math; even when tracking their own commerce, they had no need for
paper.

The “barbarians” who destroyed Rome in the fifth century were still

barbarians in the eleventh century.
Most historians today emphasize that the “Dark Ages” were not nearly as
dark as they were said to be. But it is irrefutable that the Europeans were far
behind the Asians and Arabs in many ways.

Christians had not reached theintellectual level of Muslims and Jews. This became obvious when the Christians
took over Muslim Spain, destroying the civilization of Muslim al-Andalus, andwhen they systematically destroyed one of the most advanced civilizations in theworld in Mexico, suppressing their language, religion, and culture, and burning
their books.
― ６ ―

◇Ｍ４
（０８０―７６）

When Europe finally began to develop, it did not do so in the geographic
order that many today might assume it did. Italy developed from the south up,
 ］Much of Europe also progressed by adopting Arab
著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません

starting with Sicily. ［ideas, especially in the areas of mathematics, science, and accounting. Later inhistory, Europe’s leap forward, to a position ahead of its Arab and Asiancompetitors, was facilitated by moveable type, a Chinese invention.

The

Europeans could make that invention work for them because, unlike the Asians
and Arabs, they had an alphabet that was well suited for moveable type. Thisalso meant that Europeans got to write history the way they wanted it to be read.

［Adapted from Mark Kurlansky, Paper: Paging Through History.

New York:

Norton, ２０１６: xiii-xix.］

Ⅰ―１．下線部では，なぜ unlikely だと言っているのか。その理由を５０字以内の日本語で説明せよ。（句読点も文字数に含める。）

Ⅰ―２．下線部を英語に訳せ。

Ⅰ―３．下線部を日本語に訳せ。

Ⅰ―４．下線部を日本語に訳せ。

Ⅰ―５．文中の空欄［



］から［



］に入れるのにもっとも適切な英文をＡからＥの中から選び，記号で答えよ。

Ａ．Ireland developed far ahead of England.
Ｂ．It is exactly the reverse.
Ｃ．Not all technology is the future.
Ｄ．Numerous inventions preceded paper.
Ｅ．That is why the technology is brought in.
― ７ ―

◇Ｍ４
（０８０―７７）

Ⅰ―６．以下の!と"の答としてもっとも適切なものをＡからＥの中から選び，記号
で答えよ。

!

Choose a reason mentioned in the text why a new technology might notreadily be adopted throughout a society.
Ａ．A highly educated populace took time to carefully weigh the pros andcons of accepting a new technology.
Ｂ．Communication barriers such as linguistic and cultural differences
slowed the spread of knowledge, ideas, and objects.
Ｃ．Governments imposed high import taxes on innovations originatingfrom rival countries in order to protect their local economy.
Ｄ．Products that had already been in use were good enough to serve thesociety at its stage of development.
Ｅ．Societies refused extensive contact with outside groups for fear of
being colonized or otherwise taken advantage of.

"Choose from the following demands one which has NOT driven thelarge-scale acceptance of innovations across time and geography,
according to the text.
Ａ．the demand for greater options
Ｂ．the demand for lowered costs
Ｃ．the demand for fairer wages
Ｄ．the demand for increased quantity
Ｅ．the demand for quicker production

― ８ ―

◇Ｍ４
（０８０―７８）

Ⅰ―７．次の!から１０の文から，本文の内容に一致するものを"つ選び，番号で答えよ。

１．Meng Tian’s invention of the camel-hair writing brush helped improve
literacy in China by decreasing the cost of writing implements.
２．Immigrants from the Korean peninsula brought paper to Japan and used
it to help establish a Chinese-style nation state.
３．In Karl Marx’s opinion, the Luddites could not understand that
manufacturing equipment was not to blame for the loss of their jobs.
４．Sixteenth-century Aztecs resembled Protestants during the Reformation
regarding their discovery of a means to spread unconventional ideas.
５．Thomas Edison is widely remembered as a mere pragmatist who
reworked existing ideas into technologies that were commercially viable.
６．While it is much cheaper to produce paper now than it was in theeighteenth century, paper today has, for the most part, degenerated inquality.
７．European intellectual activity surpassed that of Arabs and Asians
between the ５th and １１th centuries thanks to Europeans’ adoption of
papermaking.
８．Chinese and Arabic are examples of languages with linguistic featuresthat make them less troublesome to print using moveable type.
９．From the perspective of how people have developed and used paper,
world history diverges from dominant Western narratives.
１０．Calligraphy, clay tablets, papyrus, parchment, and typewriters areexamples of writing technologies mentioned in the text.

― ９ ―

◇Ｍ４
（０８０―７９）

Ⅱ

次の英文を読んで，以下の設問に答えよ。（６０点）

Over the centuries, the credentials needed to carry out scientific research
have been in flux. Only recently has science become an occupation. In earlierdays, science was something for those with the luxury to dedicate their leisuretime or spiritual time to follow their curiosity.

In the １６００s, Antonie van

Leeuwenhoek discovered microorganisms. His professional background? A cloth
merchant who learned to make excellent lenses to judge the weave of fabrics.
Eventually, he made lenses more powerful than microscopes at that time, whichallowed him to curiously examine mucky pond water and plaque on teeth and findtiny life, earning him the title of father of microbiology. Gregor Mendel filled
many of his days as a monk with experimental breeding of pea plants tounderstand how traits are hereditary.
genetics.

That earned him the title of father ofCharles Darwin was a companion to Captain FitzRoy of the Beagle

著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりませんwith time to see the world before planning to return and become a parson.
Darwin’s later days were part of a shift in science.

Not only was science

becoming a本文は，12ページまで続きます
profession, the precursor to citizen science was beginning: Darwin
and others started crowdsourcing for data through letters in which people shared
their observations from around the world.
In more recent history, fellow citizen scientists have continued to accomplish
the remarkable.

Citizen science has contributed hugely to entomology.

The

mystery of monarch butterfly migration had long eluded scientists until Fred
Urquhart and Norah Patterson began experimenting with techniques to affix
unique tags to butterflies. Once these scientists identified a way to attach a tag
to the butterfly without harming their sensitive wings, 可能な限り多くの蝶に彼ら
がタグを付けるのを手伝うためには，より多くの人々が必要であることに彼らは気がついた. In １９５２, they asked for the help of thousands of volunteers andstarted a monarch tagging program, which eventually became the modern-day
Monarch Watch. Then, in the mid-１９７０s, the first tagged monarch was spotted― １０ ―◇Ｍ４（０８０―８０）

in Mexico. It turned out to be tagged by a Minnesota＊ school teacher and two of
his teenage students, which led to the discovery of the long-distance monarchmigration from North America to Mexico in the fall and the return in the spring.
The breakthrough was possible because thousands of volunteers had been
capturing and tagging the wings of monarchs with postage-stamp-size stickers
for decades.

To this day people continue to tag monarchs and bring morediscoveries, like making us aware of their current population decline.
The modern environmental movement was also inspired by citizen scientists.

著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません

Rachel Carson’s seminal book, Silent Spring, revealed the dangers of thepesticide DDT. Predatory birds, such as peregrine falcons, became endangered
species because DDT thinned their eggshells. The discovery that their eggshells
were thinning was possible because egg specimens found in museums had thicker
eggshells. Non-professionals ― citizen scientists ― had collected those eggshells
before the manufacturing of DDT began. （The hobby of collecting wild bird eggs
was outlawed in the United States in １９１６ with the Migratory Bird Treaty Act,
which protected migratory birds, including their nests and eggs.）
In the mid-１９９０s, citizen science was key to climate change negotiations.


British scientists found that birds were laying their eggs earlier in the year
because of climate change. The entire dataset, with hundreds of thousands ofnesting records, was the result of decades of observations by birdwatchers
scattered across England.

In making the case for the Kyoto Protocol （theinternational treaty about climate change action）, the British government reliedon that research to show that climate change was not a “future” problem but a“now” or urgent problem because it was already affecting life on Earth.
Today, with the internet and smartphones, science is in flux again. Millions!!!!!!!!!!!
of people, each with their own occupation（and many too young to have an
occupation yet）, share their observations and help process data.

Volunteers

work online to transcribe thousands of old letters, some originating with Darwin,others from Shakespeare, and others from war diaries. People are needed to turn― １１ ―◇Ｍ４（０８０―８１）

handwriting into digital text because automation with optical recognition software
can’t decipher handwriting as well as the human eye.

Today, fields likebiochemistry advance because people use their free time as players in online
games because the human mind is better at spatial reasoning than computers. In
the Eterna game, players design RNA, the blueprints that make proteins.

In

Foldit, a game to solve puzzles of how proteins fold, some players discovered thefolded shape of a particular protein associated with AIDS in monkeys.

As

environmental and health sensors like Fitbits and air-quality monitors become
lower cost, people without science credentials are assessing the quality of theirenvironment, providing a check on industries to make sure regulations are

著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません

followed. In ports like Oakland, California, with significant truck traffic, and in
New Orleans, Louisiana, with petrochemical refineries, communities organized by
the West Oakland Environmental Indicators Project and Louisiana Bucket
Brigade have discovered excessive exposures to pollution where scientists andregulatory enforcers have failed to look.

Across the world, eyes of citizen

scientists have discovered that endangered monk seals were attempting torecolonize the Mediterranean Sea, that invasive ladybirds in England were rapidly
expanding their range, and three new species of dancing peacock spiders inAustralia.
Looking across history, what’s revealed is that in many areas of study the

only way to keep advancing the frontiers is for scientists to collaborate, not justwith each other, but with everyone.

＊

Minnesota アメリカ合衆国内陸の北部にある州の一つ［Adapted from Darlene Cavalier, Catherine Hoffman, and Caren Cooper, The
Field Guide to Citizen Science: How You Can Contribute to Scientific Research andMake a Difference. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, ２０２０: １５―１７.］― １２ ―◇Ｍ４（０８０―８２）

Ⅱ―１．下線部を日本語に訳せ。

Ⅱ―２．下線部を英語に訳せ。

（Kyoto Protocol）をめぐるイギリス政府のⅡ―３．下線部に関連して，京都議定書
交渉において市民科学が果たした役割とその意義とは何か。６０字以内の日本語で説明せよ。（句読点も文字数に含める。）

Ⅱ―４．下線部を日本語に訳せ。

Ⅱ―５．以下の!と"の答としてもっとも適切なものを!についてはＡからＧ，"についてはＡからＥの中から選び，記号で答えよ。

!

According to paragraph ３, in which order did the following events

happen? Choose one from A to G.

ア．Rachael Carson published Silent Spring.
イ．Predatory birds faced a crisis because of their thinned eggshells.
ウ．Citizen scientists legally gathered eggshell samples.
エ．The pesticide DDT was manufactured.

Ａ．ア → イ → ウ → エ
Ｂ．ア → ウ → エ → イ
Ｃ．イ → ア → ウ → エ
Ｄ．イ → ウ → エ → ア
Ｅ．ウ → イ → エ → ア
Ｆ．ウ → エ → イ → ア
Ｇ．エ → イ → ウ → ア― １３ ―◇Ｍ４（０８０―８３）

%

Look at the double underlined part in paragraph ５.

What does theauthor mean by “science is in flux again”? Choose one from A to E.
!!!!!!!!!!!
Ａ．A traditional scientific approach is considered particularly importantin assessing new surroundings or environments.
Ｂ．Citizen scientists today are significantly affecting the world of science
like their predecessors did.
Ｃ．It happens that the history of science is more often than not marked
by images of water.
Ｄ．Scientists are constantly facing problems that have arisen over andover again in human history.
Ｅ．Scientists are reluctant to accept ideas from different occupations tocreate new theories.

Ⅱ―６．次の"から$の文から，本文の内容に一致するものを#つ選び，番号で答えよ。

１．Antonie van Leeuwenhoek encouraged his fellow citizen scientists tomake science their profession as he dedicated his life to lens making andmicroorganisms.
２．A Minnesota school teacher and two of his teenage students reported
evidence that monarch butterflies travel from North America to Mexico.
３．Tagging monarchs has led to an understanding of their migration
patterns and an awareness of their decline in numbers.
４．Citizen scientists meet online to translate letters written by Darwin andShakespeare.
５．Computers go beyond human capacity for spatial reasoning, efficiently
analyzing handwritten letters and proteins.
６．Health monitors can record the quality of air, detect protein folding, andprovide detailed data for the advancement of science.
７．Observations by citizen scientists have led to discoveries of new species
and brought to light behaviors of endangered sea animals.
― １４ ―◇Ｍ４（０８０―８４）