MEASURING THE SHADOW PANDEMIC:

VIOLENCE AGAINSTWOMEN DURING
COUNTRY REPORT:PARAGUAY

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Violence against women (VAW) is common in
Paraguay, with over half of women (51%) reporting that they, or someone they know, hasexperienced a form of VAW (including physical violence, denial of basic needs, sexual harassment, restrictions or verbal abuse) in their
lifetime. COVID-19 has been challenging for
women in Paraguay. Since the beginning of
the pandemic, the majority of women reported that their household income has decreased,
and that they have experienced negative impacts on their mental health as a result of thepandemic. Nearly half said they feel less safe
alone in public spaces now compared to before
the onset of COVID-19, and a third believedthat physical harm, abuse or harassment of
women in their community has increased.

Congruently, the downstream impacts of COVID-19 vary in type and severity based on preexisting factors, including socioeconomic status and vulnerability to other stressors. This
research delves into the relationships between
measures of VAW and related demographic,
behavioural and socioeconomic factors.
This study found that women’s baseline feelings of safety in Paraguay, whether it was inside or outside of their households, have eroded with significant negative impacts on theirmental and emotional well-being. Among thefactors associated with these feelings, external stressors such as food insecurity and family relations stood out as having a significant
impact not only on experiences of safety, butalso on women’s well-being overall.

2

1. INTRODUCTION
Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, national
prevalence data collected by the Governmentof Paraguay found that 20% of ever-partnered
women aged 15–44 have experienced physicalviolence and/or sexual violence from an intimate partner at least once in their lifetime,1similar to the World Health Organization’s
global estimated average of 20%.2
Since the pandemic began, rapid gender assessments conducted by UN Women using
administrative data from police, VAW hotlines
and other service-providers have suggested
that the COVID-19 pandemic has increased
risk factors for women and intensified some ofthe existing forms of VAW.3 Measures implemented to limit the spread of the pandemic,
such as lockdowns and curfews, have had
an impact on VAW risk factors, especially for
women and girls who faced multiple forms of
discrimination.

1
2
3

UN Women. N.D. Global database on violence against
women, Paraguay.
World Health Organization. Global Database on Violence
Against Women.
UN Women. 2020. COVID-19 and Ending Violence against
Women and Girls.

Within this context, UN Women commissioned
Ipsos to conduct a rapid gender assessment
survey on the impact of COVID-19 on women’swell-being and safety in 13 countries across regions. In adapting the surveying methodology
to be feasible in the COVID-19 context, proxymeasures on experiences of VAW were used tocollect data on sensitive topics to reduce therisk to the respondents, and thus may not bedirectly comparable to other studies conducted before the pandemic.
Having reliable data that was collected inline with methodological, safety and ethicalstandards, without putting women at greater
distress and risk of violence, was critical to informing where policies and programmes can
respond to the UN’s system-wide efforts toscale up actions to address VAW in the context
of COVID-19.
This report details the findings from the survey
in Paraguay from 17 August to 29 September
2021. The survey was conducted with women
aged 18 and older who had access to a mobile
phone – a population that was estimated to be
88% of the total population of women aged 18
years and older in Paraguay.4

4 After Access Report 2018

Measuring the shadow pandemic:
Violence against women during COVID-19 in Paraguay

3

KEY FINDINGS
51%
of women said
that they or other
women they know
have experienced aform of violence.

13%

13%

11%

VerbalAbuse

DeniedBasic Needs

ForcedIsolation

25%

15%

of women feel unsafe intheir homes.

said this has gotten worse as a resultof the COVID-19 pandemic.

16%

16%

of women live in households withconflict among adults at least weekly.

said conflict between adults has
become more frequent as a result of
the COVID-19 pandemic.

42%
of women think that the experience of
verbal or physical abuse at the hands ofa partner is common for women in theircommunity.

54%
said this has gotten worse as a resultof the COVID-19 pandemic.

42%

30%

of women think that physical harm,abuse and harassment are a problem
for women in their community.

of women think physical harm, abuse,and harassment has gotten worse since
the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.

62% walking alone at night.
of women feel unsafe

38% walking alone during the day.
of women feel unsafe

41%
of women think that it iscommon for women to
be harassed in public.

4

2. EXPERIENCES OF VIOLENCEAGAINST WOMEN
2.1. Proxy measures of violenceagainst women in the community
When considering ways of measuring violenceagainst women at the community level, it isimportant to keep in mind the context of thestudy. Due to the remote nature of this survey,
indirect questions were asked as proxy indicators of VAW, meaning it was not possible
to distinguish respondent experiences fromthose of other women in their community
or to know whether this experience occurred
within or outside of the household. Therefore,
while data from this study should not be interpreted as prevalence data, it neverthelessprovides critical information on the impact of
COVID-19 on women’s perceptions of safety
and well-being.
Over half of women (51%) reported that they
themselves or a woman they know has everexperienced a form of VAW (such as physicalharm, denial of basic needs, sexual harassment, restrictions or verbal abuse) in their
lifetime. This included 15% of women who experienced or knew another woman who had
experienced VAW exclusively since the onsetof the COVID-19 pandemic.5

5Personal experience of safety was significantly
associated with experiencing or knowing awoman who has experienced at least one typeof VAW, whether it was over a lifetime or exclusively since the onset of COVID-19. Women
who had felt unsafe at home (64%) or in public spaces (59%), were significantly more likely
than average (51%) to say that they or another
woman they know had experienced at least
one type of VAW in their lifetime.
Women who had felt unsafe walking alone,
whether it was during the day or at night, werealso more likely than those that always felt
safe to have experienced or to know another
woman who had experienced physical violence, verbal abuse, forced isolation or denialof basic needs exclusively since the onset of
the COVID-19 pandemic. Meanwhile, women
who had felt unsafe at home were more likely
than those who had not to have experienced
sexual harassment exclusively since the onsetof the COVID-19 pandemic.

Cognitive testing of this question revealed that for many
women forced isolation and denial of basic needs were
influenced by COVID-19-related measures and economic
stress. The results from this study suggest that women may
bear a disproportionate burden when it comes to COVID-19
effects; however, it is important to keep the overall context
in mind when interpreting study results.

Measuring the shadow pandemic:
Violence against women during COVID-19 in Paraguay

5

FIGURE 1

Experience or knowledge of specific forms of VAW, since COVID-19 and over one’s lifetimeAll women

26%

17%



4%

18%

All women

10%





All women

Experience or knowledge
in lifetime

23%

1%

30%

61%



11%





Among women who felt
unsafe at home73%

Experience or knowledge
exclusively since COVID-19

22%



Among women who felt
unsafe at home
3%

55%
14%

Among women who felt
unsafe walking alone







38%

35%



13%





60%



5%

Among women who felt
unsafe walking aloneSexualharassment



15%





74%

43%

Among women who felt
unsafe at home

16%

3%



67%

32%







3%







5%

Among women who felt
unsafe walking alone



78%
11%

65%

53%







43%

15%

3%



All women

Forcedisolation





13%

17%

Among women who felt
unsafe at home
4%

Among women who felt
unsafe walking alone

Denial of
basic
needs









70%

55%

31%







33%





2%





63%
11%



Among women who felt
unsafe walking alone

63%

4%

32%



4%

13%



13%



All women

Verbal
abuse

65%



24%





9%



Physicalviolence



6%





72%

3%





4%

42%



Among women who felt
unsafe at home

No experienceor knowledge

Don’t know

6In addition to personal experience of safety
being associated with VAW, women who said
they or someone they know had experienced
a form of VAW were more likely to be severely
food insecure compared to women who had
not, indicating that structural and economic
factors could be a significant factor associatedwith violence against women. There are alsosignificant relationships between experienceor knowledge of VAW and age, marital status
and urbanicity.
Women aged 18 to 29 were significantly more
likely than older women to have experienced
VAW themselves in their lifetime or to know
a woman who had (59%, compared to 48% of
women aged 30 and over). Younger women
aged 18 to 29 were those most likely to have
either experience or knowledge of sexual harassment, whether it was in their lifetime or
exclusively since the onset of COVID-19 (37%over a lifetime compared to 27% of women 30
and older; and 13% exclusively since the onset
of COVID-19, compared to 9% of women aged
30 and older). They were also most likely tohave experience or knowledge of physical violence, whether it was in their lifetime (29%,compared to 23% of women aged 30 and older)
or exclusively since the onset of COVID-19 (13%,compared to 8% of women aged 30 and older).
Verbal abuse was also most commonly experienced or known of by women aged 18–29(39%, compared to 32% of women aged 30 andolder).
Those who were single or separated/divorced
were more likely than partnered women to report experience or knowledge of VAW in their
lifetime (54% of single and 64% of separated/divorced women, compared to 46% of partnered women). In particular, women who said
they were single were more likely to have experience or knowledge of physical violence intheir lifetime (28%, compared to 20% of partnered women), as were women who were divorced or separated (34%), though this group
was also particularly likely to have experienceor knowledge of physical violence exclusively
since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic(16%, compared to 9% among partnered, widowed or single women). Similarly, single (38%)
and divorced/separated (45%) women were
those most likely to have experience or knowledge of verbal abuse in their lifetime comparedto partnered (30%) or widowed (15%) women.
Lifetime experience or knowledge of sexual
harassment was also particularly common
among single women or divorced/separated
women (36, compared to 25% of partnered
women), and for divorced/separated women
this was particularly the case exclusively since
the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic (18, compared to 10% on average).
Women living in urban areas were more likely
than those in rural areas to have experience or
knowledge of VAW in their lifetime (52, compared to 46%). This was particularly acute for
VAW experienced exclusively since the onset
of COVID-19, where women in urban areas
were nearly twice as likely to have experienced
any type of VAW (16%) compared to rural areas(9%). This appears to be driven by increased
experience or knowledge of forced isolation(11, compared to 8% in rural areas) or sexual
harassment (11, compared to 7%) in rural areas
exclusively since the onset of the COVID-19
pandemic.

Measuring the shadow pandemic:
Violence against women during COVID-19 in Paraguay

73. FEELINGS OF SAFETY
3.1. Personal safety inside the home
When it comes to safety within the household, 16% of women said that there has been
conflict between adults in their household atleast weekly over the past six months. Abouthalf of women (48%) reported that COVID-19
has not had an impact in the frequency of conflict in their household, though 16% said it has

gotten worse. Women who experienced frequent household conflict were significantly
more likely than those who experienced infrequent conflict (41 compared to 11%, respectively) to say that the frequency has increased
since the onset of the pandemic, suggestingthat already existing household tensions havebeen exacerbated by the situation of COVID-19.

FIGURE 2

Changes in household conflict as a result of COVID-19

All women

16%

Among women fromhouseholds withfrequent conflict
between adults
Among women fromhouseholds with
infrequent conflict
between adults
More frequent

48%

41%

10%

29%

46%

48%

About the same

One quarter of women (25%) said they havefelt unsafe in their household in the last six
months, and 15% of women said that the COVID-19 pandemic has made this worse. However, women who experienced household

12%

33%

Less frequent

7%

1%

9%

Don’t know

conflict were far more likely than those who
did not to say COVID-19 negatively impacted
their safety at home, suggesting that womenalready feeling unsafe at home were further
negatively impacted by the pandemic.

8

FIGURE 3

Women’s safety in the household, by frequency of household conflict
Felt unsafe at home in
the past six months

37%

Felt less safe at home since
the onset of COVID-19

34%

30%
19%

24%
9%

Frequent household conflict

Occasional household conflict

Women who said that they or another woman
they know had experience at least one typeof VAW in their lifetime were nearly twice as
likely to report frequent household conflict (atleast once a week) compared to those that didnot (21, compared to 11%), and were also more
likely to say conflict has become more frequent
since the onset of COVID-19 (21, compared to10%), and report feeling unsafe in their homes
in the past six months (32, compared to 11%).
This further supports the evidence-based theory that women include their own experiences
when they are asked about those of others. In
addition, women who were employed weremore likely to say they had felt unsafe in theirhomes in the past six months (29, compared
to 24% of fulltime caretakers), as were thosethat said they were living with a disability (38,compared to 22% of women who do not livewith a disability).

No household conflict

Women who reported an increase in household income were not only significantly more
likely to have felt unsafe at home (45, compared to 24% of those that did not experience
an increase in income in the past year), butalso twice as likely to say their feelings of safety at home have gotten worse since the onsetof the COVID-19 pandemic (29, compared to14%). Women who felt unsafe at home werealso 2 to 3 times more likely to be food insecure, whether it was moderately or severe,suggesting linkages between socioeconomics
and safety.
When asked why they have felt unsafe in theirhomes, women cited their home being insecure from external threats (i.e. no locks on thedoor), being unable to communicate or reachout for help, and verbal abuse as the threemost common causes.

Measuring the shadow pandemic:
Violence against women during COVID-19 in Paraguay

9

FIGURE 4

Reasons for women feeling unsafe in their homes (among the 25% who reported feeling unsafe)
My shelter is insecure (e.g., there are no locks)

34%

I was unable to communicate/reach out for help

30%

There was verbal abuse in my household

23%

I was living with people I could not trust

19%

I had a serious medical condition or disability and felt vulnerable

16%

Other adults in the household had hurt me

14%

There was substance abuse (e.g., alcohol or drugs) in the household)

13%

There was physical violence in my household

11%

Other women in the household had been hurt

9%Children in the household had been hurt

6%

Another reason

25%

Indicates reasons most closely tied to violence

Women who experienced frequent conflictat home were much more likely than women
who experienced infrequent conflict to reportfeeling unsafe due to verbal abuse, being un-

able to communicate or reach out for help,
substance abuse, physical violence, living withpeople they can’t trust, and having been hurt
by other adults in the household.

10

FIGURE 5

Top reasons for women feeling unsafe in their homes, by frequency of household conflict
55%
43%
33%
22%
13%
8%

There was verbal abuse
in my household

30%

I was unable tocommunicate/reach out
for help

29%

There was substance abuse(e.g., alcohol or drugs) inthe household

27%
17%
10%

3%
There was physical abuse
in my household

I was living with people
I could not trust

Frequent household conflict

3.2. Personal safety in public spaces
When out in their communities, the majorityof women said they feel safe walking alonearound the areas where they live during theday (61%), but this drops to just one third of
women (34%) when asked the same question
about walking alone at night. Nearly half ofwomen (45%) stated they feel less safe walking alone at night since the onset of COVID-19.
Women across all age groups reported feelingless safe walking alone at night than they did
during the day, and less safe walking alone at

Other adults in thehousehold had hurt me

Infrequent household conflictnight now compared to before the COVID-19
pandemic. In particular, young women (aged18-29) were most likely to report feeling unsafe while walking alone at the night (67, compared to 62% on average). Experiences of safety also differed across urban and rural areas,
as women residing in urban communities felt
significantly less safe than those in rural communities walking alone during the day and atnight, as well as feeling less safe since the onset of COVID-19.

Measuring the shadow pandemic:
Violence against women during COVID-19 in Paraguay

11

FIGURE 6

Perceptions of safety while out in public, by location (urban and rural)
Felt unsafe walking
alone during the day

Felt unsafe walking
alone at night

Felt less safe since theonset of COVID-19

66%
50%
43%

47%
38%

22%

Urban

Rural

Urban

Women’s role and employment status werealso associated with their feelings of safety.
Women who said that they were employed
were the most likely to feel unsafe walking
alone, whether it was during the day (45%) orat night (66%), particularly when comparedwith fulltime care takers, who were the least
likely to feel unsafe, again whether it was during the day (31%) or at night (58%). This could
reflect differing experiences and time spent inpublic spaces as employed women were morethan twice as likely as fulltime caretakers tohave left the house alone on a daily basis in
the past month (55%, compared to 20%). Morethan half of fulltime caretakers (57%) left thehouse alone once a week or less.

Rural

Urban

Rural

When asked specifically about the impact of
COVID-19 on their feelings of safety when out
alone at night, women who experienced a decrease in household income were most likely
to report that they have felt less safe since COVID-19 (47, compared to 29% of those whose
income did not decrease), while those whose
household income increased were nearly
twice as likely to say they feel more safe since
the onset of COVID-19 (25, compared to 9% of
those whose income did not increase), suggesting that socioeconomic status could havea strong association with safety for women in
Paraguay.

12

4. PERCEPTIONS OF
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
4.1. Women’s perceived safetyinside the home
When considering the broader community,
42% of women said they think that the experience of verbal or physical abuse at the hands ofa partner is common for women. Out of women who perceived violence, abuse or harassment to be a problem in their community, thisnumber increases to 52%. Over half of women(54%) thought partner abuse has gotten worse
since the start of the pandemic.

FIGURE 7

Perceptions of partner abuse, by perceptions of safety

All women

20%

22%

23%

24%

Among women who
thought violence, abuse, orharassment is a problem
in their community

26%

26%

24%

Among women who
had felt unsafe intheir home

25%

26%

22%

Very common

CommonUncommonSingle women were more likely than women
living with a partner to believe that partner
abuse was common for women in their communities (46, compared to 40%), as were
women who were either employed (47%) or astudent (53%) compared to those who were unemployed (35%) or full-time caregivers (39%).
Women who said that they or another woman

Very uncommon

11%

18%

19%

6%

8%

Don’t know

they know had experienced at least one typeof VAW in their lifetime and exclusively since
the onset of COVID-19, but particularly physical violence or verbal abuse, were also more
likely to say partner abuse was common andthat it had gotten worse since the onset of
COVID-19.

Measuring the shadow pandemic:
Violence against women during COVID-19 in Paraguay

13

FIGURE 8

Perceptions of partner violence, by experience or knowledge of VAW in lifetime
Thought abuse at the hands ofa partner is common

63%

61%

58%

53%
37%

Yes

Thought abuse at the hands of a partner has
gotten worse since the onset of COVID-19

No

Women or someone they know
has experienced physical abusein lifetime

52%

51%

36%

Yes

No

Women or someone they know
has experienced verbal abusein lifetime

Similar to the 76% of women who believedthat women experiencing of violence outside
the home would seek help, 71% said they believe that women would seek out help if theyexperienced verbal or physical abuse at thehands of a partner. Women who lived in ruralcommunities were significantly more likely
than women in urban communities to expectthat a woman experiencing partner abuse
would seek help (78, compared to 69%), as
were women who were full-time caregivers
compared to those who were employed or
unemployed women (79, compared to 64 and61%, respectively), and those who lived withchildren (73, compared to 66% of those who
did not). Additionally, women who had knowledge or experience of any type of VAW in their
lifetime were less likely to expect that womenexperiencing partner abuse to seek help (67,compared to 73% of women who did not).
Women expected that someone experiencing
this would seek help primarily from the family(37%), while 23% expected women to seek help
first from police and 21% primarily from wom-

Yes

No

Women or someone they know
has experienced physical abusein lifetime

Yes

No

Women or someone they know
has experienced verbal abusein lifetimeen’s shelters, centres or NGOs. Young women
aged 18–29 were those most likely to seek support primarily from police (31, compared to 21%
among all other age groups), while women
aged 60 and older were those most likely to
go first to religious (14, compared to 2% among
all other age groups) or community leaders (3,compared to less than 1% among all other age
groups). Women living with children were lesslikely to seek help first from family (34, compared to 44% of women living without children) and more likely to primarily seek help
from women’s shelters, centres or NGOs (24,compared to 16%).
Generally, about half of women in Paraguay
said that services to support women wereavailable to their community, with 51% saying women had access to basic needs, 46% tomedical support, 43% to mental health support, but only 20% citing available access tofinancial support. Women with higher education levels were more likely to say that services
for women were available, and those who had
felt unsafe in their own homes were less likely.

144.2. Perceptions of violence against
women in the community
When asked about physical harm, abuse, andharassment in their community, 41% of women said they believe it is at least somewhat of aproblem, and an additional 22% said it is a little
bit of a problem.
Physical harm, abuse, and harassment in thecommunity was significantly more likely to beperceived as at least somewhat of a problem by
women who were residing in urban locations(42%), compared to women in rural communities, who mostly perceived it as only “a little bit”
or “not at all” of a problem (56%). Women who
participated in income generating activities, aswell as those that said they were single werethe most likely groups overall to consider violence, abuse, or harassment of women to be a
problem at all in their community (66 and 67%,

respectively), as were women who experienced
a decrease in income in the past year (74%),
suggesting linkages between the COVID-19’s
impacts on socioeconomics and VAW.
Women were more likely to perceive violence,
abuse, and harassment of women as a problem in their community if they themselves had
experienced safety issues. Women who said
that they or another woman they know had
experienced any type of VAW in their lifetime
were more likely to consider violence, abuse or
the harassment of women to be a problem intheir community (70, compared to 57% among
women who did not), as were women who felt
unsafe walking alone, unsafe at home, or thatexperienced frequent conflict in their households. These findings may offer evidence thatwomen include their own personal experiences
when reporting on how common VAW is in thecommunity.

FIGURE 9

Extent to which physical harm, abuse or harassment is a problem in the community

All women

18%

23%

22%

26%

Among those who
felt unsafe walking
around alone

28%

27%

18%

Among those
who felt unsafe
in their home

26%

28%

23%

Among those who
experienced frequenthousehold conflict atleast weekly

25%

28%

20%

Somewhat

A little bit

Not at all

A lot

Nearly one third of women (30%) said physicalharm, abuse, and harassment of women has
increased in their community since the start of
the COVID-19 pandemic. Women who thought

11%

17%

16%

18%

10%

7%

9%

Don’t know

VAW is a problem in their community were
three times more likely to believe VAW had increased since the onset of COVID-19 (39 compared to 13% among those that did not think

Measuring the shadow pandemic:
Violence against women during COVID-19 in Paraguay

15

VAW was a problem in their community), as
were women who felt unsafe walking alone
whether it was during the day or at night (41compared to 17%, of those who always feltsafe), and women who felt safe in their homes(37 compared to 27% of those that did not).
Women who said that they or another woman
they know had experienced at least one typeof VAW in their lifetime were also more likely
to report an increase (35, compared to 25%).

4.3. Women’s perceived safety inpublic spaces
4 in 10 women (41%) said they believe it is common for women to experience harassment
and safety issues in public spaces at night,

significantly lower than the 62% of women
who said that they have felt unsafe in public
spaces at night themselves.
Women who had personally felt unsafe whenalone in public spaces were more likely to believe it is common for women to experienceharassment and safety issues (54%) than
women who felt safe (29%). Women who have
either experienced or know of a woman who
has experienced VAW are more likely to thinkthat women experiencing safety issues atnight is common, and that these issues havegotten worse since the onset of COVID-19 than
women who have not experienced or know
someone who has experienced VAW.

FIGURE 10

Percentage of women who felt unsafe, by experience or knowledge of VAW in lifetime
Thought women experiencing
safety issues while out at nightis common

49%

Thought women experiencing safety
while out at night has gotten worse
since the onset of COVID-19

44%
33%

32%

Yes

No

Three quarters of women (76%) expected thatwomen experiencing harassment or abuse inpublic spaces would seek help. Women expected that someone experiencing this would
seek help primarily from the police (39%), lower than the 63% of women who said that legal
support, help in reporting incidents, or dealing
with police was available to women in theircommunity. The second most common primary source of support was family (29%). Women
who lived in urban areas were more likely than
women in rural communities to believe women would primarily utilize women’s centers

Yes

No

(6 compared to 2%, respectively) or a helpline(3 compared to 1%, respectively), and said women’s groups/NGOs/CSOs at a lower rate than
women in rural communities (5 compared to
8%, respectively). This may be the result of adifference in accessibility of resources and theavailability of information between urban andrural communities.
Despite the increased sense of anxiety andfear outside of the household, women werestill engaging in public. Nearly three-quarters of women (73%) said that they left their

16house by themselves at least once a week,with over one third (38%) leaving their housealone. However, over 1 in 10 women (11%) reported that they never left the house alone in
the past month. Additionally, over one thirdof women (36%) reported that the COVID-19
pandemic has limited their interactions withfriends and social groups. Women who experienced or know someone who experienced verbal abuse were more likely to report that the
pandemic had limited their social interactions
than those who did not (40 compared to 34%,
respectively).

5. IMPACTS OF VIOLENCEAGAINST WOMENThis study indicates strong relationships between measures of VAW and changes in women’s behaviours and their feelings of mental
and emotional well-being. Impressions andexperiences of safety (or lack thereof) may be
a major factor impacting women’s perceptionof problems in their life and their ability tohandle them, as well as their mental and emotional well-being.
Women who had experienced or know someone who has experienced at least one form of
VAW were significantly more likely to reportfeeling symptoms of anxiety and depression
at least half of the days since the onset of

COVID-19 (28% on average across all threemeasures, compared to 22% among women
who did not have experience or knowledge
of VAW) particularly if they had experience or
knowledge of VAW exclusively since the onsetof the COVID-19 pandemic (33% on average
across all three measures). Women who said
they had felt unsafe, whether it was in public
spaces or particularly in their home, were also
more likely to report issues with mental health.
Women who said they felt symptoms of anxiety and depression nearly every day were also
more likely to be severely food insecure compared to women who did not.

FIGURE 11

Measures of mental health, by feelings of safety
Felt down, depressedor hopeless at least
half of the days since
the onset of COVID-19

23%
30%
35%
32%

Not been able to stop or
control worrying at least
half of the days since theonset of COVID-19
Had little interest or
pleasure in doing
things at least half ofthe days since theonset of COVID-19

All women

Felt unsafe in home

42%
38%
21%
33%
26%
Felt unsafe walking around alone

Measuring the shadow pandemic:
Violence against women during COVID-19 in Paraguay

17The majority of women (61%) said that the COVID-19 pandemic has had at least some negative impacts on their mental and emotional
well-being, and over a third (35%) said that it
has had exclusively negative impacts. Women who reported experiencing safety issues,
whether they were in the home or in public

spaces, also said that the COVID-19 pandemic
had an exclusively negative impact on theirlives at significantly higher rates when compared to women who had not experienced
safety issues. This suggests that the negative
impacts of COVID-19 are felt the most by women who are already vulnerable.

FIGURE 12

Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health, by feelings of safety

All women

35%

26%

Among women
who felt unsafe
at home40%

27%

Among women who
felt unsafe walking
around alone

38%

31%

COVID-19 has
had only negative
impacts

COVID-19 has had
both negative andpositive impacts

12%

COVID-19 has
had only positive
impacts

26%

19%

11%

1%

13% 1%

19%

1%

COVID-19 has
had no impact
at allNote: “Don’t know” responses in the dark bars comprised 1% or less of total responses in each category

Living with a disability also appears to exacerbate other negative impacts of VAW for women. Women with disabilities experienced more
frequent symptoms of depression and anxiety(meaning they experienced these more thanhalf the days since COVID-19) than women
without disabilities, including not being able
to stop or control worrying (43, compared to29%, respectively), feeling down, depressed or
hopeless (37 compared to 20%, respectively),and having little interest or pleasure in doing things (34 compared to 18%, respectively).
Women living with disabilities also said that

the COVID-19 pandemic had exclusively negative impacts at higher rates than those without disabilities (43, compared to 34%).
The impacts of violence against women in
public and private spaces was also observed
when analysing women’s socialization andmovement patterns. Although the majorityof women reported that they have continued
to leave the house and socialize, women who
felt unsafe in their homes were significantly
more likely to report never leaving their homeon their own (15%) than women who felt safe
(10%).

18

6. RECOMMENDATIONS
The impacts of COVID-19 on VAW in Paraguay
are significant. Women in Paraguay encounter violence in public and in private spaces, atthe hands of strangers and by those closest tothem. With around 28% of women likely experiencing food insecurity at the time of thestudy and 70% saying they had lost income,the majority (63%) due to the COVID-19 pandemic, external stressors that can increase therisk of VAW are on the rise. In addition to COVID-19 negatively impacting finances, women’s
experience of safety in both public and private
spaces has also been negatively impacted by
the pandemic.
This study establishes that a notable proportion of women in Paraguay believe that violence is common for women in their community, with over half of women reporting that theyor someone they know has experienced a form
of VAW. As a result of the intersectionality of
VAW, policy and programmatic interventions
required tailoring to the factors driving different experiences of violence. Not only does thetype of response that is best-suited to address
VAW vary based on the specific experiences ofwomen, but the resources they seek out vary
as well. This work stresses the importance ofpartnering with the existing infrastructurethat supports women in vulnerable situations
to empower communities with the full suite ofresources they may need to support women.
Considering this, the research supports threerecommendations:
1. Interventions that are meant to address
VAW should consider how policy interventions in other areas may alleviate some of theroot causes of VAW, including through fully
integrating VAW measures in post-COVID-19
recovery plans as an opportunity to build
back better.
VAW is pervasive in Paraguay and requires acomprehensive policy review across various

areas. Women consider it common to experience VAW in both public and private spaces
and note that this has only gotten worse since
the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. An issue this universal requires a response that isequally comprehensive and is mainstreamed
into all ongoing programming and policies,
particularly those that are currently being developed and implemented as a response to
the COVID-19 pandemic. Not only is gendermainstreaming required, but planning should
also go further to understand the potential
downstream impacts that interventions may
have on women’s experience of violence andof safety. For instance, women who experienced income change or food insecurity are
more likely to have felt unsafe within and outside of their homes, especially since the startof the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, policy
interventions that address economic vulnerability could play a significant role in alleviating a major factor associated with VAW. If theinitiatives to address the economic and social
impacts of COVID-19 are not connected to programming to end VAW, women experiencing
multiple forms of vulnerability and discrimination risk being left even further behind.
2. Enhance the response and provision of
essential services by authorities and civilsociety, and improve trust in order to increase
reporting and bolster women’s confidence
and feelings of safety.
While the majority of women in Paraguay did
expect that women experiencing violence,
whether it was in private or public spaces,
would seek help, many believed that the primary source of assistance would be the woman’s family, rather than formal institutions or
authorities. This not only means that VAW is
likely underreported to authorities, but alsothat survivors of VAW are not getting the support they need. Similarly, access and aware-

Measuring the shadow pandemic:
Violence against women during COVID-19 in Paraguay

19ness of support for women within communities is low – around half of women said thatmost services to support women were available – suggesting that resources may not be
accessible for all women. Therefore, carefulplacement of services should be considered
where women can feel comfortable seeking
support without fear of repercussions. Programmes designed to allow women to regularly and safely communicate with individuals
outside of their household, whether in person,by phone or by other means, can serve as a
powerful tool for providing vulnerable womenwith increased safety and support. There is an
opportunity to invest further in these institutions, in making them more accessible andincreasing awareness about them within communities, as a means of creating more securesituations for women experiencing violence.
3. Support further research that examines
the underlying social norms, gender roles andbehavioural drivers regarding help-seeking
behaviours.
Paraguay’s social and gender norms can complicate the understanding of the prevalence of
VAW. While this study provides insightful information about the current state of VAW in
Paraguay, further research would create greater understanding of the nuances underlying

the data, which could not be easily captured
due to methodological and situational barriers
for this survey. These types of follow-up studies are particularly effective when conducted
after a quantitative survey, as specific areas
emerge from the survey work that challenge
our thinking or would benefit from further investigation. Qualitative approaches could help
to reveal the social and gender norms that
underlie VAW for both women and men. Further, listening to the voices of women would
help to identify their expectations of women,
the reasons why women do or do not seek
help from formal channels even when they areaware of these channels, and provide insights
about the stigma associated with experiencing and reporting VAW. This type of work may
also illuminate how perceptions converge or
differ between those who perceive VAW to
be a problem in their communities and those
who report personal experiences or knowledge of VAW. Such research can provide adeeper understanding the “how” and “why” ofhelp-seeking behaviours in response to VAW.
The knowledge gained through this research
can help address the negative externalities
that women can sometimes face as a resultof well-intended programmatic and policy
interventions.

20

7. METHODOLOGY
The survey was fielded via Computer-Assisted
Telephone Interviewing using random-digit
dialing to mobile numbers between 17 August–29 September 2021 The total number ofcompleted interviews was 1,210. During thesurvey period, COVID-19 rates were steadilydecreasing with vaccination rates increasing.6
The country was not in a state of lockdown atthat time, but was undergoing recommended
school closures and stay-at-home procedures,
had some workplace closures, and border
quarantining and screening.

The sample was drawn via random-digit dialing among the population of mobile phone
numbers, so the sample population is limited
to women aged 18 or over with mobile phone
access. Women over age 60 were also specifically targeted with an existing database toensure adequate coverage of this age group.
However, the percentages for each age groupfrom this survey match the percentages foreach age group from Paraguay’s Census data.7

Age group

Percentage of adult women based on Census data

Percentage of adult women from sample data

18–29

32%

31%

30–39

23%

23%

40–49

17%

17%

50–59

13%

13%

60+

16%

16%

6 https://graphics.reuters.com/world-coronavirustracker-and-maps/countries-and-territories/
paraguay/7

https://www.ine.gov.py/default.php?publicacion=2

Measuring the shadow pandemic:
Violence against women during COVID-19 in Paraguay

21

DEFINITIONSCommunity: A term referencing the geographic area in which the respondent lives.
Food insecurity: This study used the Food andAgriculture Organization (FAO)’s formulation
to measure food insecurity, with an eightstatement battery. These data can be used toestablish estimates of the proportion of thesample who were moderately or severely foodinsecure, which can also be disaggregated byother variables of interest through the useof the FAO Food Insecurity Experience Scale(FIES) module. Any references in the report toprevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity represent estimates of the prevalence andshould be interpreted as such.
Partnered: A term referring to women who
were married or living/cohabiting with a partner.
Violence against women: Any act of genderbased violence that results in, or was likely
to result in, physical, sexual or psychologicalharm or suffering to women, including threatsof such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivationof liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life.
Felt unsafe walking alone: Refers to women
who indicated that they felt “not very safe” or“not safe at all” walking alone outside during
the day (at question C02) or during the night(at question C03).

Experienced or knew someone who had experienced VAW: Refers to women who indicated that they, or another woman they knew,
had experienced any form of VAW. “Since
COVID-19” is added to indicate women who indicated that these incidents had only been occurring since the start of the pandemic.
Experienced frequent conflict: Refers to respondents who indicated that they experienced conflict or arguments in their homes atleast once a week during the last six months(at question C19).
Experienced infrequent conflict: Refers to
respondents who indicated that they experienced conflict or arguments in their homes“once or twice” or “never” during the last six
months (at question C19).
Violence, abuse and harassment are a problem
the community: Refers to respondents who indicated that physical harm, abuse or harassment of women is “a lot”, “somewhat”, or “alittle bit” of a problem where they live (at question C07).
Violence, abuse and harassment are not a
problem the community: Refers to respondents who indicated that physical harm, abuseor harassment of women is “not at all” a problem where they live (at question C07).

22

© 2021 UN Women. All rights reserved.
The views expressed in this publication arethose of the author(s) and do not necessarily
represent the views of UN Women, the United
Nations or any of its affiliated organizations.
Produced by the Women Count programme
Editor: Jen Ross
Design: Ouissal Hmazzou

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