How will COVID-19impact fertility?
Technical brief
9 July 2021

2UNFPA Technical brief

How will COVID-19 impact fertility?

Key messages
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Existing data from the global north, as well as historicalprecedents, show that COVID-19 has prompted short-term
fertility decline in many countries.
At the same time, in many developing countries the pandemic
has interrupted supply chains and access to family planning
services increasing the risk of unintended pregnancies andunplanned births.
New UNFPA data from two countries in Latin America and theCaribbean and two in Asia and the Paciﬁc indicate a range ofresponses, with three countries, like developed states,
showing signs of declining fertility in response to thepandemic, and a fourth suggesting a sharp rise in births.
But alarmism over fertility changes must be avoided.
Crisis-related dips in fertility have been followed by post-crisis
rebounds, which could augur similar outcomes after thepandemic. Global demographic data also show that fertility“momentum” will continue to grow the world population fordecades to come. Alarmist policy responses are harmful ifthey undermine reproductive rights and choices.
Viewed through a global lens, these data offer a strong
reminder that, though national demographic changes may
pose challenges, these can be addressed with multilateralsolutions grounded in support for the reproductive rights andchoices of all.

3UNFPA Technical brief

How will COVID-19 impact fertility?

COVID-19 is depressing
fertility in Europe and the USA
Seventeen months after COVID-19 was declared a public healthemergency1, it has led to an estimated 3.7 million deaths
worldwide. While countries across the world cope with a 2nd, 3rd
or 4th wave of infections, a growing question is how the pandemic
will also affect fertility - both in the short and long term. Economic
downturns, restrictions in mobility, health care crises and fears forthe future appear to be disrupting social norms, including
reproduction, in a wide range of countries.
Changes in human fertility are never obvious in the short-run
given 9 months of pregnancy, but as the pandemic continues,
declines in birth rates are becoming increasingly clear. Data fromthe USA, 19 European and two East Asian countries² reveal sharp
declines in births starting in October 2020, compared to the samemonths of the previous year. In 15 countries of the European
Union the year-on-year number of births dropped 3.0% in October,
5.0% in November and 8.1% in December 2020, while in the UnitedStates it declined by 7.7%. In January 2021, the ﬁrst month inwhich all full-term babies born were conceived after US
lockdowns began, births fell by 7.2% in Florida and 10.5% in
California³. Likewise, in January 2021 the number of birthsdeclined by 20% in Spain, 10.3% in Russia, and 13.5% in France.
The disruptions vary widely between countries, and Denmark,Finland, the Netherlands and Norway showed no evidence ofchanging birth numbers in the same period.
While it’s still early to track the global impact of COVID-19 on
fertility, in some locations the pandemic has spurred changes infertility intentions, including contraceptive preferences andbehaviors4. In the USA for example, surveys5 suggest that couples¹ On January 30th, 2020, the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a public health emergency.
² Sobotka, T., Jasilioniene, A., Galarza, A.A., Zeman, K., Nemeth, L. and Jdanov, D., 2021. Baby bust in the wake of the COVID-19
pandemic? First results from the new STFF data series.
³ https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/04/opinion/coronavirus-baby-bust.html?smid=url-share4
Lindberg LD et al., Early Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Findings from the 2020 Guttmacher Surveyof Reproductive Health Experiences, New York: Guttmacher Institute, 2020,
https://www.guttmacher.org/report/early-impacts-covid-19-pandemic-findings-2020-guttmacher-survey-reproductive-health5
https://www.guttmacher.org/report/early-impacts-covid-19-pandemic-findings-2020-guttmacher-survey-reproductive-health

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UNFPA Technical brief

How will COVID-19 impact fertility?

have intentionally put pregnancy plans on hold and are having sex
less often6. In the Republic of Moldova a survey conducted both
before and after the pandemic peak found couples7 were 41%
less likely to be trying to conceive after the onset of the pandemic,
even if their eventual fertility intentions were unchanged. Google
searches8 for pregnancy-related terms, such as pregnancy tests,were down.

The long history of fertility
decline in crisis
Public health crises and economic shocks have long beenrecognized as conditions that alter reproductive behavior. The
Spanish ﬂu (1918-1920) caused fertility rates to plunge, reachinga low point 6 to 9 months after the Inﬂuenza pandemic’s peakmorbidity and mortality. The fertility consequences of economic
hardship and uncertainty were evident for years after the Great
Depression. In the USA, the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) fell fromaround 2.5 in 1929 to approximately 2.2 births per woman in
1939, more than ﬁve years after the crisis9. The postponement inbirths resulted in an extraordinarily small cohort of “children of theGreat Depression”. But by the late 1940’s, following WWII and an
economic recovery, fertility increased dramatically, peaking in
1957 at 3.8 births per woman at the height of the 'baby boom’.
More recently, fertility declined after the economic recession of2008 in North America and Europe, but both the economic andfertility recoveries were uneven across the population. Fertilityresponses to the recession varied by sex, age, number of children,education, and migrant status; highly educated women reacted to
employment uncertainty by adopting a postponement strategy,
especially if they were childless.

https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.06.09.20125609v2.full.pdf
Emery, Tom, and Judith C. Koops (2021). The Impact of COVID-19 on Fertility behaviour and Intentions in the Republic of Moldova.
Available at https://ideas.repec.org/p/osf/socarx/fcqd9.html.
8
https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/13776/covid-19-and-the-future-of-us-fertility-what-can-we-learn-from-google
9COMOLLI, C. L. 2017. The fertility response to the Great Recession in Europe and the United States: Structural economicconditions and perceived economic uncertainty. Demographic research, 36, 1549-1600.
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How will COVID-19 impact fertility?

COVID-19 impact oncontraception and sexual andreproductive health services
Public health crises can severely disrupt the availability and use ofsexual and reproductive health (SRH) services and familyplanning. During the 2014 peak of the Ebola epidemic in West
Africa family planning distribution was down by 65% in Liberia,
51% in Guinea, and 23% in Sierra Leone. A post-Ebola baby boomin Liberia in January 2016 was attributed to increased unintended
pregnancies10.
UNFPA experts in East and Southern Africa (ESA) reported
signiﬁcant disruption to such SRH services during the ﬁrst peak of
the pandemic (in May-July 2020 in comparison to May-July2019)11:1)
Outpatient visits declined in 10 of 12 ESA countries, ranging
from a 5% decline in Zambia to 48% in Zimbabwe;2)
Use of family planning services fell in 6 of 12 ESA countries,
with the drop in visits for injectable contraceptives ranging from
10% in Tanzania to 87% in Angola;3)
Antenatal care (ANC) visits decreased in 5 of 13 countries,
ranging from a 3% decrease in Ethiopia to a 44% in Zimbabwe.
Evidence is emerging on how the pandemic is affecting access toSRH information and services for adolescents and young women.
In Malawi, closure of schools, coupled with limited household
economic resources during COVID-19, contributed to an 11%
increase in teenage pregnancies from January to August 2020
compared to the same period in 2019.

McBain et al, 2016 https://www.thelancet.com/action/showPdf?pii=S0140-6736%2816%2931895-5
WHO-UNFPA-UNICEF, 2gether 4SRHR (2020) Data on Disruption of services (comparison between February and April 2019 andFebruary to April 2020).

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How will COVID-19 impact fertility?

The COVID-19 pandemic’s impact on family planning and healthservices varies widely between and within countries, but the WHO
national pulse survey on the continuity of essential healthservices during COVID-19 found that 94% of 135 countries
reported some kind of disruption to sexual and reproductive
health care in Quarter 1, 2021, and 40% reported disruptions tofamily planning and contraception services. While availability ofservices is improving as countries adjust to health delivery within
a COVID-19 environment, lockdowns and fear of contracting thevirus in a health facility have shifted health seeking behaviour,which may have serious implications for the use of contraception,and eventual births. As the pandemic is approaching a 3rd wave
across Africa, and presenting severe case loads in both Latin
America and India, the longer term consequences on fertility inthese regions remain uncertain.

Uncertainties across thedeveloping world
Short-term data on fertility is far more accessible in developed
countries than in the developing world. The European data on
declining fertility mentioned above was predominantly drawn
from high-income countries where fertility has been undergoing
long- term declines well before COVID-19. Whether thesecountries will see a rebound in fertility after the pandemic, or
simply an acceleration in declining fertility, is unclear. Trajectories
will likely depend on factors like the severity of the pandemic ineach country, policy responses, availability of vaccines, the paceof economic recovery, or availability of contraceptives.
But there is far greater uncertainty of how COVID-19 will affectbirths in historically high fertility countries in the developing world.

7UNFPA Technical brief

How will COVID-19 impact fertility?

New, very early data collected by UNFPA in four developing
countries, indicates a wide range of possible consequences: datafrom Thailand, long a champion of contraceptive access, suggest
a fertility downturn like that observed in many Europeancountries. Thailand invoked a state of emergency decree on 26
March, 2020, and extended it subsequently to give thegovernment authority to periodically issue lockdowns of varying
degrees throughout the country. During the lockdowns, ofﬁcial
statistical systems remained operational for the registration ofbirths, yet as hospitals and clinics were less accessible andinstitutional births declined, there may have been some related
decline in registered births. Nonetheless, monthly births in early2021 show a stark decline relative to the same period in 2020,
falling by 22.8% and 15.1% in January and February, respectively.
In Bangladesh, births show wide ﬂuctuations over time, but theavailable data suggest a rise in births in 2021 compared to earlier
years. Strict lockdown measures were implemented periodicallyfrom the beginning of the pandemic in March 2020 and during
these periods, services and mobility were hindered. The country
uses the Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) toenhance birth registration, relying on health workers at bothcommunity and facility levels. Reduced outreach by communityhealth workers responsible for the EPI system, and fewer
institutional births, mean that birth registrations may have been
delayed, such that the rise in births may be even higher. During thelockdown periods, access to contraceptive services was also
impacted by reduced hours of operation and reduced outreach bycommunity health workers.

Fig.1 Trends in the number of births by month in 2018-2021 and relative change in the number of births in 2021 compared to the same month in 2020, Thailand and Bangladesh

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How will COVID-19 impact fertility?

In Peru and Cuba, early data suggest a decline in births fromDecember 2020 to January-February 2021, relative to earlieryears. In Peru, registered births in December 2020 and early 2021,
were almost 20% lower than in earlier years. This decrease may
be due to the lockdown from mid-March, and less sexual activity
during the pandemic. Survey reports show a sharp decline (byabout 50%) in "recent sexual activity" in 2020 compared with theyears 2017, 2018, 2019. The survey data also show that in Peru
wealthier people had greater possibility to control their fertility
than those with less ﬁnancial means.
In Cuba, an observed decline in births in early 2021 (8-9%), wassimilar to a decline between 2019 and 2020 - long before
COVID-19, suggesting a sustained trend. During the pandemic,
SRH services including abortion were part of the basic essential
services package in the framework of the COVID-19 national
response plan. However, there have been contraceptive
shortages reported, including condoms. In both Peru and Cuba
the pandemic has subsequently worsened in 2021, and analyzing
its longer term effects on fertility will require ongoing tracking.

Fig. 2 Trends in the number of births by month in 2018-2021 and relative change in the number of births in 2021 compared to the same month in 2020, Peru and Cuba

9UNFPA Technical brief

How will COVID-19 impact fertility?

No time for alarmism
Across the developing world, it is important to note that COVID-19
may be interrupting the timely registration of births, possibly causing under-reporting. This and other factors call for caution in drawing simple, early conclusions about how COVID-19 is impacting
fertility in developing countries. And while the data from Thailand,
Peru and Cuba suggest that COVID-19 may be impacting fertility
in ways similar to those observed in large parts of Europe and theUSA, several of the countries in question have more robust healthsystems, and better family planning coverage, than many highfertility countries in Africa or South Asia.
Alarms about a potential “baby bust” due to COVID-19, or even a“baby boom” in developing countries, are premature. While individual countries’ demographic changes may spark concern, demographic trends are highly variable across the world, and theworld’s population continues to grow, steered by the large populations of children and youth in developing countries who will reach
reproductive age and begin having children of their own in the
coming decades.
Personal choices to delay childbearing in times of crisis haveample historic precedent, but in many cases those downturns in
fertility were followed by rebounds. Postponing pregnancy intimes of social or economic uncertainty, and hesitating to attend
health services during a pandemic, are common responses tocrisis and insecurity. As for COVID-19, the critical question is how
fast vaccines will reach all countries, how quickly health systems
and supply chains will recover, and how rapidly economies willrebound.

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How will COVID-19 impact fertility?

Enabling reproductive rights and choices must predominate andact as the guiding principle. The evidence reminds us that
constraints on reproductive rights and choices come in many
forms and, COVID-19 pandemic’s impact on fertility should beconsidered through a human rights lens: The disruption of sexualand reproductive health services is exacerbated where theseservices are not considered essential. Even before the pandemic,
only 55% of women in countries with data reported being able to
make their own decisions about health care, using contraception
or engaging in sex with their partner12. A crisis could be exploitedby individuals or policymakers as an excuse for restricting, orfailing to support, women’s and girls’ space for decision making,agency, freedom of movement or access to health services.
Ultimately, the goal is to assure that all women and couples haveaccess to the information, the means, and the health care andfamily planning services required to exercise their reproductive
rights and choices. To guarantee reproductive rights, sexual andreproductive health services should be recognized as “essentialservices” in all countries of the world, to assure that every
pregnancy is wanted, every childbirth is safe and every young
person’s potential is fulﬁlled.

12UNFPA, State of World Population 2021, https://www.unfpa.org/sowp-2021