Research Material-274
238

Digest of Japanese Science and Technology

2015
Indicators 2018
Oct. 2018
Research Unit for Science and Technology Analysis and Indicators

National Institute of Science and Technology Policy, MEXTThis material is the English translation of the executive summary of the “Japanese Science and Technology
Indicators 2018” which was published by NISTEP in August 2018. The English version is edited by Yumiko
KANDA and Masatsura IGAMI.

【Contributors】
Yumiko KANDA

Senior Research Fellow, Research Unit for Science and Technology Analysis andIndicators, National Institute of Science and Technology Policy, MEXT

Akiyoshi MURAKAMI

Research Fellow, Research Unit for Science and Technology Analysis andIndicators, National Institute of Science and Technology Policy, MEXT

Kuniko MATSUMOTO

Research Fellow, Research Unit for Science and Technology Analysis andIndicators, National Institute of Science and Technology Policy, MEXT

Masatsura IGAMI

Director, Research Unit for Science and Technology Analysis and Indicators,
National Institute of Science and Technology Policy, MEXT

Fujio NIWA

Affiliated Fellow, Research Unit for Science and Technology Analysis andIndicators, National Institute of Science and Technology Policy (NISTEP), MEXT

Nobuyuki SHIRAKAWA

Senior Research Fellow, Research Unit for Science and Technology Analysis andIndicators, National Institute of Science and Technology Policy (NISTEP), MEXT

Please specify reference as the following example when citing this NISTEP RESEARCH MATERIAL.
“Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018”, NISTEP RESEARCH MATERIAL No. 274,
National Institute of Science and Technology Policy, Tokyo.
DOI：http://doi.org/10.15108/rm274e

Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (ABSTRACT)“Science and Technology Indicators” is a basic resource for understanding Japanese science andtechnology activities based on objective and quantitative data. It classifies science and technology
activities into five categories, such as R&D Expenditure; R&D Personnel; Higher Education and S&T
personnel; Output of R&D; and Science, Technology, and Innovation; and shows the state of Japanesescience and technology activities with approximately 160 indicators.

The report is published annuallyand shows the latest results of the analyses of scientific publications and patent applications conductedby the NISTEP.
This edition of “Science and Technology Indicators 2018” includes new indicators such as “thepercentage of non-permanent researchers at Japanese universities and colleges,” “trial analysis on thetrend of papers in social sciences,” “relationship between paper-to-paper citations and paper-to-patentfamily citations,” “patent application trends in automobile manufacturing industry.”
indicators were newly introduced or visualization methods were revised.

In total, 21

Also, in the commemorationof the 30th anniversary of NISTEP, a special column on episodes, etc. from the birth to thedevelopment stage of science and technology indicators is included (only available in Japanese).
Overviewing the latest Japan’s situation from “Science and Technology Indicators 2018,” it was
found that the R&D expenditure and the number of researchers in Japan are the third largest in majorcountries (Japan, U.S., Germany, France, U.K., China and Korea).

The number of papers in Japan(fraction counting method) is the fourth in the world and the number of papers with high citations is theninth.

Japan continues to be the world first place in the patent family (patent applications to morethan two countries).

These trends continue from the previous edition.

The number of collaborative

research between Japanese universities and business enterprises and the amount of research funding
received steadily increase. Although the number of papers produced by the business enterprises isdecreasing, the proportion of the number of industry-academia collaborative papers among them has
increased, and therefore the weight of universities in research activities of business enterprises that
produce papers is increasing.

Blank page

1. R&D expenditure: circumstances in Japan and the selected countries(1) Japan's total R&D expenditure was 18.4 trillion yen in 2016 (OECD-estimate for Japan: 16.9
trillion yen), the world's third largest after the United States and China. The business enterprises
accounted for a large part of the total R&D expenditure in all of the selected countries.
Japan's total R&D expenditure was 18.4 trillion yen in 2016 (OECD-estimate for Japan: 16.9 trillionyen), down 2.7% from the previous year (OECD-estimate for Japan: -3.0%).

The United States' total

R&D expenditure was 51.1 trillion yen in the same year, maintaining the world's largest scale. The
R&D expenditure of China reached 45.2 trillion yen in 2016, exceeding that of the EU that shows along-term growth.
The business enterprises sector accounted for the largest percentage of R&D expenditure in all of theselected countries.

This tendency is particularly notable in Asian countries, whereas differences

between the business enterprises sector and other sectors are relatively small in major European
countries.
[Summary Chart 1] Changes in total R&D expenditure in the selected countries:
nominal values (converted using OECD purchase power parities data)

R&D expenditure (nominal values)Japan¥ trillions

60

Japan
(estimated by OECD)

U.S.

50

Germany
40

France
U.K.

30

China
20

Korea
EU-15

10

EU-28
0
1981 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 2016 Year
Reference: Chart 1-1-1, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)[Summary Chart 2] R&D expenditure by sector in the selected countries (2015): nominal values(converted using OECD purchase power parities data)
Business enterprises
40

Universities and colleges

Public organizations

Non-profit institutions

Public organizations and Non-profit institutions¥ trillions

36.5

35.0

35
30
25
20
15

13.3

13.3

10
5
0

3.6

8.1

6.8 5.8
1.3 0.2Japan

2.1 1.3

2.1

0.2

Japan
(estimated by OECD)

U.S.

4.0

2.2 1.6
Germany

7.1
1.4 0.8 0.1
FranceReference: Chart 1-1-6, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)

-1-

3.2

1.2 0.3 0.1
U.K.

3.1
China

6.2
0.7 0.9 0.1
Korea

(2) In Japan, the “business enterprises” is the largest funding sector and is also the largest
performing sector. The flow from “business enterprises” to “universities and colleges” is small,accounting only for 2.8% of the entire amount used in the “universities and colleges.”
According to the flow of R&D funds from funding sectors to performing sectors in Japan (withreference to OECD estimates), “business enterprises” contribute to the largest proportion of the funds,
and most of the funds flow to “business enterprises.” The flow from “business enterprises” to“universities and colleges” is small, accounting only for 2.8% of the entire amount used in the“universities and colleges.” As for the R&D funds from “governments” to other sectors, the flow ofsuch funds to “public organizations” is the largest with 48.6%, followed by “universities and colleges”
with 42.9%.
[Summary Chart 3] Flow of R&D funds from funding sectors to performing sectors in Japan (estimated by the OECD)(2016)

Reference: Chart 1-1-5, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)-2-(3) In the manufacturing industry of Japan, R&D expenditure in the “motor vehicles, trailers andsemi-trailers and other transport equipment” has been growing, reaching 3.6 trillion yen in 2015,
in contrast to a decline in the “computer, electronic and optical products.”
In the United States, R&D expenditure in both manufacturing and non-manufacturing industries
shows the steady growth, with a marked increase in the “information & communication.”

In Japan,Germany and Korea, the volume of R&D expenditure of the non-manufacturing industry tends to besmall relative to the manufacturing industry.

Germany saw growths in both the manufacturing andnon-manufacturing industries, although not by as much as in the United States. The volume of thenon-manufacturing industry tends to be greater in France and United Kingdom than in other countries.
[Summary Chart 4] Business enterprise R&D expenditure by industry in the selected countries¥ trillions¥ trillions

30

12

Manufacturingnec,other25

10

Motorvehicles,trailersandsemi-trailersandothertransportequipment
Electricalequipment208Non-manufacturing

Manufacturing

15

3.6

Computer,electronicand
opticalproducts

6
7.4

10 7.1

5

2.9

5.1

5.9

5.6

6.0

0 1.2

1.0

5.8

8.2

5
3.0

0.6
2.5

10

4 3.8

2

0

2.9

3.1

2.5

0.9

Pharmaceuticals,medicinal
chemicalandbotanicalproducts
Chemicalsandchemical
products

3.0

Non-manufacturingnec,other

0.6
1.5 0.9
0.5
0.8 0.5
0.6 0.3
0.9

1.3
0.8
0.6
0.9

1.0
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.6

0.7
0.4
0.3
0.9

0.7
0.5
0.5
1.0

1.9
0.5

0.3
0.4
1.0

0.2

0.4
1.0

Servicesnec,other
Professional,scientificand
technicalactivities

2

Financialandinsurance
activities

4

Informationand
communication

15

6
08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 Year 0809101112131415
U.S.

Japan

0809101112131415

0809101112131415

0809101112131415

Germany

FranceU.K.

0809101112131415 Year
Korea

Note: 1) The chart complies with the International Standard Industrial Classification Rev. 4 (ISIC Rev. 4).
2) The figures in individual countries are classified according to the main economic activities of business enterprises engaged in R&D.
3) The figures for the United States do not include amounts in the “agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting” or “public administration” category, which makes thecountry’s non-manufacturing statistics different from those of other countries. For this reason, care is needed when making international comparisons.
Reference: Chart 1-3-6, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)-3-(4) The external R&D expenditure of Japanese enterprises has been rising over the long term; thedegree of rise is relatively large in the overseas spending. Much of the external R&D funding touniversities is directed toward national and public universities and colleges in Japan.
The R&D expenditure spent outside by Japanese enterprises has been expanding over the long term.
The growth rate is large in overseas spending rather than in domestic spending.

For both overseas anddomestic expenditure, external funding to business enterprises accounts for the largest segment,
according to its breakdown.

For R&D expenditure directed toward universities, funding to national

and public universities and colleges in Japan accounted for the largest share in FY2016, followed byuniversities and colleges in abroad and private universities and colleges in Japan.
[Summary Chart 5] Changes in the external R&D expenditure of Japanese business enterprise(B) Breakdown of external R&D expenditure spent on
universities and colleges(A) Breakdown of external R&D expenditure¥ trillions¥ billions
70

3.0

World：Others

World：Companies
2.0

World
Domestic：Others

1.5

Private U&C
1.0

External R&D expenditure

External R&D expenditure

60

World： U&C

2.5

Domestic：National
and public U&C

World： U&C
50
Private U&C
40
Domestic：National
and public U&C

30

20

Domestic：Companies
0.5

10

R&D funds paid
outside0.0

1999 01

03

05

07

09

11

13

0

15 2016FY

1999 01

03

05

07

09

11

13

15 2016FY

Note: 1) Aggregated values are available only for FY1999 and FY2000. The recording of external R&D expenditure outside Japan broken down by business enterprises,
universities and colleges and others began in FY2013.
2) Data on universities and colleges in the world prior to FY2012 are not shown in Summary Chart 5 (B).
3) Please note that some of the R&D expenditure paid to a parent company and its subsidiaries outside Japan may have been spent on local universities andcolleges as part of R&D efforts by the parent company or subsidiary concerned.
Reference: Chart 1-3-11, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)-4-2. R&D personnel: circumstances in Japan and the selected countries(1) The number of researchers in Japan was 666,000 in 2016, the third largest scale in the world after
China and the United States.
The number of researchers is as important as the amount of R&D funds.

The number of researchersin Japan was 666,000 in 2017 (the head count is 918,000), the third largest scale in the world after
China and the United States.

The number of researchers in Korea has exceeded those of France andthe United Kingdom since 2010, reaching the same level as that of Germany in the most recent year.
The number of researchers in the business enterprises sector is the highest in most of the selected
countries, as is the case for R&D expenditure.

However, for the United Kingdom, the largest numberof researchers is found in the university and college sector.
[Summary Chart 6] Changes in the number of researchers in the selected countries
10,000 people
200180Japan*
Japan(FTE)Japan(HC)U.S.
Germany
France
U.K.
China
Korea
EU-15
EU-28

160

Number of researchers

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1981 84

87

90

93

96

99

02

05

08

14 2017 year

11

Note: China's definition of a researcher up to 2008 was not fully compatible with the OECD's definition, and consequently its method of measurement was changed in 2009.
For that reason, there is a break between the years leading up to 2008 and 2009 onward.
Reference: Chart 2-1-3, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)[Summary Chart 7] The number of researchers by sector in the selected countries
Business enterprises

Universities and colleges

OthersPublic organizations and Non-profit institutions

10,000 people
120

Public organizations

104.8

98.1

100

Non-profit institutions

80
60

48.9
39.9

40

30.8 33.6

23.6
20
0

13.8

11.1

3.0 0.8
Japan(2017)

U.S.(2015)

16.6
5.4

Germany(2016)

8.0

2.8 0.4

France(2015)

11.0

28.8

17.0
4.1 2.7 0.5

0.7 0.4
U.K.(2016)

China(2016)

Korea(2016)

Note: 1) All the countries are based on FTE values.
2) The values of the U.S. are those estimated by the OECD. Since no value for recent years is available aside from those for the business enterprise sector, thevalues shown pertain to business enterprises and other sectors.
Reference: Chart 2-1-7, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)-5-(2) Researchers with engineering-related specialized knowledge account for a large proportion in
the manufacturing industry of Japan.
As for the fields of specialization of researchers in each industry classification, the number of
researchers specializing in the “mechanical engineering, shipbuilding & aeronautical engineering” field
is large in the “transportation equipment manufacturing industry,” which holds the largest number of
researchers in the manufacturing industry.

In the “information & communication electronics

equipment manufacturing industry,” a large number of researchers specialize in the field of “electricalengineering & telecommunications engineering.”

Meanwhile, in the non-manufacturing industry, thenumber of researchers specializing in the field of “information science” is large in the “information &communication industry.” The number of researchers specializing in “information science” is small inother industry classifications.
[Summary Chart 8] Fields of specialization of researchers affiliated in business enterprises in Japan (2017)

Note: Parentheses indicate the numbers of researchers in the head count.
Reference: Chart 2-2-8, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)-6-(3) In Japan, the number of female researchers, which totaled to 144,126 in 2017, is increasing
steadily. In all countries, the proportion of female researchers remains low in the businessenterprises but tends to be higher in the universities and colleges.
The number of female researchers, which totaled to 144,126 in 2017, is increasing and their
proportion is also growing steadily in Japan.
29,114 in 2017.

The number of female researchers with doctorates wasThis is an increase of 5.6% from 2016, which is greater than the overall increase rateof female researchers in number, at 4.1%.

Status by sector shows that, in all countries, the proportionof female researchers tends to be lower in the business enterprises and higher in the universities andcolleges.
[Summary Chart 9] The number of female researchers and their ratio against the total number of researchers (HC)10,000 people

Female researcher

14
Number of Female researchers

15.7 ％
16

Number of researchers with doctorates

14

Ratio of the number of female researchers against the total

12

12

10

10

8

8

5.9

6

6

4

4

2

2

0
1981 83

85

87

89

91

93

95

97

99

01

03

05

07

09

11

13

Ratio against the Total

16

0
15 2017 Year

Note: The numbers of researchers until 2001 were regular researchers. The numbers of researchers since 2002 were head count basis.
Reference: Chart 2-1-11, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)[Summary Chart 10] Shares of female researchers of the selected countries by sector

40

Business enterprises
Public organizations
Universities and colleges
Non-profit institutions
Public organizations and Non-profit institutions
48.7
45.3
42.1
38.7
37.8
36.3 36.4
35.4

30

26.6

％
60
50

20
10

18.2

21.1

20.3
15.1

30.4
28.6
25.5
15.5

14.7

9.1

0
(2017)(2015)(2015)(2015)(2016)

Japan

Germany

France

U.K.

Korea

Note: 1) The numbers of researchers were head count basis.
2) For the non-profit institutions sectors of France, the U.K., and Korea, the number of researchers was obtained by subtracting the numbers of researchers in thebusiness enterprises sector, the universities and colleges sector, and public organizations sector from the total.
Reference: Chart 2-1-10, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)-7-(4) In Japan, the proportion of females among newly hired researchers is higher than the proportionof females among all researchers.
Male researchers account for a larger proportion of newly hired researchers than their female
counterparts in all sectors. The proportion of female researchers among newly hired researchers ishigher than that of female researchers among all researchers. The number of researchers newly hiredby business enterprises is on the rise for both males and females.

In all sectors, male researchers

account for a larger segment of incoming researchers than female researchers.

Females account for alarge segment of incoming researchers at universities and colleges, at around 30%.
[Summary Chart 11] Newly hired and incoming researchers by gender in Japan(A) Newly hired researchers％
50

Number of newly hired researchers

45
2.0

40

34.3

35

30.1
1.5

24.4
18.1

1.0

30
25
20
15

0.5

10
5

0.0

0
2014 2015 2016 20172014 2015 2016 20172014 2015 2016 20172014 2015 2016 2017

Business enterprises

Public organizations

Universities andcolleges

Non-profit institutions

Ratio of the number of female researchers against the total

10,000 people
2.5

Male researcher
Female researcher
Ratio of the number of female researchers against the total(B)Incoming researchers％
50

Number of incoming researchers

45
2.0

40
35

30.8
1.5

30
25

20.1
1.0

20
13.3

0.5

10.9

15
10
5
0

0.0
2014 2015 2016 20172014 2015 2016 20172014 2015 2016 20172014 2015 2016 2017

Business enterprises

Public organizations

Universities andcolleges

Non-profit institutions

Reference: Chart 2-1-20, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)-8-

Ratio of the number of female researchers against the total

10,000 people
2.5

Male researcher
Female researcher
Ratio of the number of female researchers against the total

(5) The proportion of non-permanent researchers at Japanese universities and colleges is high inthe medical science. The proportion of non-permanent researchers tends to be higher amongfemale researchers than among male researchers.
Female researchers tend to account for a greater proportion of non-permanent researchers atuniversities and colleges than their male counterparts. It is true for most attributes such as academic
fields and the type of universities and colleges, i.e., national, public and private.
By academic field, a high proportion of non-permanent researchers can be found in the medical
science and in national universities among national, public and private universities and colleges. The
gender differential among non-permanent researchers tends to be narrower in the medical science andmore prominent in natural sciences, engineering, and agricultural sciences.
[Summary Chart 12] The percentage of non-permanent researchers at Japanese universities and colleges (2017)100%
Non-permanent researchers90%

Non-permanent researchers（Female）
80%

Non-permanent researchers（Male）

70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%

Total

Natural sciences

Engineering

Agriculturalsciences

Medical sciences Social sciences andhumanities

OthersNote: 1) The survey covers teaching and other research staff.
2) Permanent researchers here refer to teaching and other research staff with no prescribed term of employment contract (including terms that last until theretirement age). Non-permanent researches refer to all researchers other than permanent researchers.
Reference: Chart 2-2-14, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)-9-

privatepublicNational

privatepublicNational

privatepublicNational

privatepublicNational

privatepublicNational

privatepublicNational

privatepublicNational0%3. Graduates of universities and colleges: the situation in Japan(1) Among the selected countries, Japan is the only country that shows a decline in the number of
new master’s degree and doctoral degree recipients per one million of population. Comparedwith other selected countries, the number of master’s degree and doctoral degree recipients inhumanities and social sciences is small in Japan.
Regarding the balance of fields among bachelor's degree recipients, master's degree recipients, anddoctoral degree recipients per one million of population, the number of bachelor's degree recipients in“social sciences and humanities” is large in many of the countries.

In Japan, the number of graduatesin “natural science and engineering” tends to be high as the academic stage advances, specificallyamong master's degree recipients and doctoral degree recipients.

In contrast, in the other selected

countries, the number of graduates in “social sciences and humanities” is largest even among master's
degree recipients, and the number of graduates in “natural science and engineering” tends to be largest
among doctoral degree recipients.
Other than Japan, the numbers of academic degree recipients per one million of population haveincreased at all degree levels.

In Japan, the number of master’s degree recipients dropped slightly andthat of doctoral degree recipients declined.
[Summary Chart 13] International comparison of academic degree recipients per one million of population(A) New bachelor's degree recipients(B) New master's degree recipients
4,000

6,000

Field classification
unknown

5,000

Others

4,000
3,000

Natural science andengineering

2,000

Social sciences andhumanities

1,000
0

Master's degree holders per one million of
the population

Bachelor's degree holders per one million of
the population

7,000

08 17

08 15 08 14 08 14 08 14 08 17 08 14

Japan

U.S.

Germany France

U.K.

Korea

3,500

Field classification
unknown

3,000
2,500

Others2,000
Natural science andengineering

1,500
1,000

Social sciences andhumanities

500
0

FY

China

08

14

Japan

Reference: Chart 3-4-1, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018
(in Japanese)

08

15

U.S.

08

14

08

14

Germany France

08

14

U.K.

08

17

Korea

08

14

FY

China

Reference: Chart 3-4-2, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018
(in Japanese)(C) New doctoral degree recipients
Doctoral degree holders per one million of
the population

400
350
300

Field classification
unknown

250

Others200
Natural scienceand engineering

150
100

Social sciences
and humanities

50
0

08

14

Japan

08

14

U.S.

08

14

08

14

Germany France

08

14

U.K.

08

17

Korea

08

14

FY

China

Reference: Chart 3-4-3, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)
Note: 1) The number of doctoral degree recipients in the U.S. is the figures calculated by subtracting the figures for “law and economics,” “medicine, dentistry, pharmacy,and health care,” and “other” among the figures for first-professional degrees from the figures for the “doctoral degrees” noted in the “Digest of Education
Statistics.”
2) The figures for individual fields are not known for China.
3) Each field classification includes the following:
Social sciences and humanities: humanities, art, law, economics, etc.
Natural science and engineering: science, engineering, agriculture, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, and health care
Others: education, teacher training, domestic economy, etc.

- 10 -

4. R&D outputs circumstances in Japan and the selected countries(1) Compared with ten years ago, the number of papers from Japan slightly declined (counted by thefractional counting method). Due to the growth of other countries, the position of Japan in theworld rankings has moved down. The decline of Japan's ranking is remarkable in relation tohighly cited papers (the number of adjusted top 10% papers and adjusted top 1% papers).
As for the number of scientific papers, which is one form of R&D output, the number of Japanese
papers (the average of PY2013–2015) is ranked 4th after the United States, China, and Germany, whencounted by the fractional counting method that measures the degree of contribution to paper production.
As to the number of adjusted top 10% papers, Japan is ranked 9th after the United States, China, theUnited Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, Canada, and Australia. As to the number of adjusted top
1% papers, Japan is ranked 9th after the United States, China, the United Kingdom, Germany, France,
Australia, Canada, and Italy.
Compared with ten years ago, the number of Japanese papers has slightly declined.

It is clear thatJapan's ranking has moved down because of the growth of other countries in terms of the number of
papers.

The decline of Japan's ranking is particularly remarkable in highly cited papers such as

adjusted top 10% papers and adjusted top 1% papers.
[Summary Chart 14] Top 10 countries/regions in terms of the number of papers, the number of adjusted top 10% papers,
and the number of adjusted top 1% papers (based on the fractional counting method)
All fields
Country/Region
U.S.
Japan
U.K.
Germany
FranceCanadaRussiaItaly
Australia
India
All fields
Country/Region
U.S.
U.K.
Germany
Japan
FranceCanada
Italy
Netherlands
Australia
SwedenAll fields
Country/Region
U.S.
U.K.
Germany
Japan
FranceCanadaNetherlands
Italy
Australia
Switzerland

1994 － 1996 (PY) (Average)
The number of papers
Fractional counting
Papers
Share
World rank
189,87930.4
152,0618.3
245,6197.3
3
42,0896.7
432,571
5.2
524,195
3.9
621,912
3.5
7
20,122
3.2
8
13,1172.1
912,6202.0
101994 － 1996 (PY) (Average)
T he number of adjusted top 10% papers
Fractional counting
Papers
Share
World rank
29,000
46.5
1
5,175
8.3
2
3,873
6.2
3
3,631
5.8
4
2,984
4.8
5
2,754
4.4
6
1,604
2.6
7
1,562
2.5
8
1,340
2.1
9
1,127
1.8
10
1994 － 1996 (PY) (Average)
The number of adjusted top 1% papers
Fractional counting
Papers
Share
World rank
3,425
54.9
1
511
8.2
2
343
5.5
3
289
4.6
4
261
4.2
5
260
4.2
6
145
2.3
7
124
2.0
8
115
1.9
9
112
1.8
10

All fields
Country/Region
U.S.
Japan
China
Germany
U.K.
FranceItaly
CanadaSpain
Korea
All fields
Country/Region
U.S.
U.K.
GermanyJapan
ChinaFranceCanada
Italy
Netherlands
Spain
All fields
Country/Region
U.S.
U.K.
Germany
Japan
FranceChina
CanadaNetherlands
Italy
Australia

2004 － 2006(PY) (Average)
The number of papers
Fractional counting
Papers
Share
World rank
228,84925.7
167,6967.6
2
63,2967.1
353,6486.0
451,9765.8
538,3374.3
631,573
3.5
729,6763.3
823,0562.6
922,5842.5
102004 － 2006(PY) (Average)
The number of adjusted top 10% papers
Fractional counting
Papers
Share
World rank
34,127
38.4
1
6,503
7.3
2
5,642
6.4
3
4,559
5.1
4
4,453
5.0
5
3,833
4.3
6
3,392
3.8
7
2,731
3.1
8
2,146
2.4
9
2,093
2.4
10
2004 － 2006(PY) (Average)
T he number of adjusted top 1% papers
Fractional counting
Papers
Share
World rank
4,088
46.0
1
695
7.8
2
524
5.9
3
356
4.0
4
337
3.8
5
332
3.7
6
318
3.6
7
231
2.6
8
223
2.5
9
182
2.1
10

All fields
Country/Region
U.S.
China
Germany
Japan
U.K.
India
Francekorea
Italy
CanadaAll fields
Country/Region
U.S.
China
U.K.
Germany
Italy
FranceAustralia
CanadaJapan
Spain
All fields
Country/Region
U.S.
China
U.K.
Germany
Australia
FranceCanada
Italy
Japan
Spain

2014 － 2016 (PY) (Average)
The number of papers
Fractional counting
Papers
Share
World rank
273,85819.3
1
246,09917.4
265,115
4.6
363,330
4.5
459,6884.2
552,875
3.7
646,522
3.3
745,3373.2
844,4503.1
939,6742.8
102014 － 2016 (PY) (Average)
The number of adjusted top 10% papers
Fractional counting
Papers
Share
World rank
38,73627.4
124,136
17.0
2
8,613
6.1
3
7,755
5.5
4
4,912
3.5
5
4,862
3.4
6
4,453
3.1
7
4,452
3.1
8
4,081
2.9
9
3,609
2.5
10
2014 － 2016 (PY) (Average)
T he number of adjusted top 1% papers
Fractional counting
Papers
Share
World rank
4,686
33.1
1
2,214
15.6
2
973
6.9
3
764
5.4
4
456
3.2
5
445
3.1
6
432
3.1
7
398
2.8
8
333
2.4
9
302
2.1
10

Note: The number of Articles and Reviews was counted. Papers were sorted by publication year (PY). The number of citations was as of the end of 2017.
Reference: Chart 4-1-6, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)- 11 -

(2) The number of papers (whole counting method) in “economics and business” and “social sciences,
general” in Japan has grown faster than the world average in the past two decades. Japan’s rank,
however, fell from the 10th to 15th place in “economics and business” and from 14th to 24th in “social
sciences, general.”
Regarding the number of journals and papers on “economics and business” and “social sciences,
general” in the world (those indexed in SSCI： Social Sciences Citation Index), the numbers havegrown rapidly in both fields since 2005.
[Summary Chart 15] Number of journals and papers on “economics and business” and “social sciences, general”(Worldwide, whole counting)

120,000
100,000

Number of papers

2,500

Economics & business(papers)
Social sciences, general(papers)
Economics & business(journals)
Social sciences, general(journals)

2,000
1,500

80,00060,0001,000

40,000500

20,000
0
1981

85

89

93

97

01

Note: 1) Social sciences, general: education, sociology, law, political science, etc.
2) The number of articles and reviews was counted based on the whole counting method.
Reference: Chart 4-1-11, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)- 12 -

05

09

0
13 2016(PY)

Publication year was applied for the counting.

Number of journals

140,000

The number of Japanese papers on “economics and business” increased 4.2 times in the past two
decades, from 136 to 565. While Japan’s share rose from 1.3% to 2.1%, its ranking in the world dropped
from the 10th to 15th place.

Likewise, the number of Japanese papers on “social sciences, general” grew

4.6 times during the same period, from 188 to 868.
ranking fell from the 14th to 24th place.

Japan’s share increased from 0.6% to 1.0%, but its

Regarding the number of papers by country/region, differencesin ranking trends can be observed between English-speaking and non-English-speaking countries. The
difference is large between “economics and business” and “social sciences, general” that include
education, law, political science and other disciplines that deal with research subjects that are dependent
on legal/social framework or language.
The analysis presented here was conducted using SSCI, which indexes papers primarily in the English
language. In social sciences, emphasis is sometimes placed on research output in forms other thanpapers, including books, which makes it difficult to gauge the status of activities in overall social sciencesusing the SSCI.

However, the number of papers has increased worldwide over the long term, andEnglish-language papers have come to play a certain role in the presentation of research outcomes.

Forthese reasons, the index can serve as a tool to measure some research activities in social sciences in forms
that enable international comparisons.
[Summary Chart 16] Number of papers by country/region in “economics and business” and “social sciences, general”(Worldwide, whole counting)Economics &business

1994 － 1996 (PY)
(Average)

Economics &business

Socialsciences,
general2014 － 2016 (PY)
(Average)Share2014 － 2016 (PY)
(Average)Country/Region Papers

Share

Country/Region Papers

Share

U.S.

5,662

53.7%

1 U.S.

9,625

35.1%

1

U.S.

16,67752.1%

1 U.S.

33,655

38.2%

1

U.K.
CanadaAustralia
FranceNetherlands
Germany
Israel
Italy
Japan

1,133
646
295
292
252
233
146
141
136

10.8%
6.1%
2.8%
2.8%
2.4%
2.2%
1.4%
1.3%
1.3%

2 U.K.
3 Germany
4 China
5 Australia
6 France
7 Canada
8 Spain
9 Italy
10 Netherlands

3,894
2,451
2,229
1,983
1,511
1,492
1,413
1,286
1,127

14.2%
8.9%
8.1%
7.2%
5.5%
5.4%
5.2%
4.7%
4.1%

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

U.K.
CanadaAustralia
Germany
Netherlands
FranceIsraelSwedenRussia

3,346
1,631
1,064
764
514
414
331
288
288

10.4%
5.1%
3.3%
2.4%
1.6%
1.3%
1.0%
0.9%
0.9%

2 U.K.
3 Australia
4 Canada
5 Germany
6 Netherlands
7 China
8 Spain
9 Sweden
10 Italy

11,833
6,467
5,235
4,008
3,593
3,503
3,298
2,194
1,966

13.4%
7.3%
5.9%
4.6%
4.1%
4.0%
3.7%
2.5%
2.2%

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Sweden115

1.1%

11 T aiwan

754

2.7%

11

China

206

0.6%

11 France

1,863

2.1%

11

China

113

1.1%

12 Korea

734

2.7%

12

India

197

0.6%

12 South Africa

1,750

2.0%

12

Belgium

110

1.0%

13 Sweden

661

2.4%

13

New Zealand

194

0.6%

13 Brazil

1,688

1.9%

13

World rank

Country/Region Papers

Socialsciences,
general1994 － 1996 (PY)
(Average)

World rank

World rank

Country/Region Papers

Share

World rank

0.9%

14 Switzerland

657

2.4%

14

Japan

188

0.6%

14 Belgium

1,472

1.7%

14

85

0.8%

15 Japan

565

2.1%

15

Norway187

0.6%

15 Korea

1,372

1.6%

15

Denmark71

0.7%

16 Belgium

509

1.9%

16

Italy

178

0.6%

16

…

…

New Zealand

65

0.6%

17 Denmark

465

1.7%

17

South Africa

171

0.5%

17 Japan

868

1.0%

Note: Same as Summary Chart 15.
Reference: Chart 4-1-12, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)- 13 -…

91

Switzerland

…

Spain

24

(3) Japan has maintained the 1st position in the world in the number of patent families (patents filed in two
or more countries) in the past ten years. However, Japan’s shares in “information & communication
technology” and “electrical engineering” have declined in parallel to the rise of Korea and China.
This section examines the status of patent applications by analyzing the number of patent families,
which is the number of inventions created in each country/region and measured in an internationallycomparable manner.
Between 1991 and 1993, the United States was ranked first and Japan second.

Between 2001 and2003 and between 2011 and 2013, Japan was ranked first and the United States second.

The increase in

the number of Japanese patent families is attributable to the increase in its patent applications in multiple
countries instead of any single country. China’s number of patent families has been steadily increasing
although it was ranked fifth between 2011 and 2013.
[Summary Chart 17] The number of patent families by selected country/region: top 10 countries/regions

Country/Region

1991 - 1993(Average)

2001 - 2003(Average)

2011 - 2013(Average)

Number of patent families（Whole counting）

Number of patent families（Whole counting）

Number of patent families（Whole counting）

Patent Families

ShareWorld rank

Country/Region

Patent Families

ShareWorld rank

Country/Region

Patent Families

ShareWorld rank

U.S.

24,204

28.8

1

Japan

48,717

28.2

1

Japan

64,804

27.4

Japan

21,927

26.1

2

U.S.

45,644

26.4

2

U.S.

52,07322.0

2Germany

14,28017.0

3Germany

27,408

15.9

3

Germany

29,81912.6

3

France

5,614

6.7

4

Korea

9,606

5.6

4

Korea

21,806

9.2

4

U.K.

4,631

5.5

5

France

9,509

5.5

5

China

18,202

7.7

5

Italy

2,613

3.1

6

U.K.

8,663

5.0

6

Taiwan12,281

5.2

6

Switzerland

2,194

2.6

7

Canada

4,796

2.8

7

France11,5884.9

7Canada

1,714

2.0

8

Italy

4,756

2.8

8

U.K.

8,935

3.8

8

Netherlands

1,668

2.0

9

Netherlands

4,634

2.7

9

Canada

5,943

2.5

9

Sweden

1,349

1.6

10

T aiwan

4,299

2.5

10

Italy

5,466

2.3

10

Note: A patent family is a group of patents filed in two or more countries, directly or indirectly related to each other by priority rights. In many cases, the same patents filed in
multiple countries belong to the same patent family.
Reference: Chart 4-2-5, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)- 14 -

1

As for the shares of patent families between 2011 and 2013, Japan’s share exceeds 35% for “electricalengineering” and “general machinery,” while Japan has relatively small shares for “bio/medical devices”
and “biotechnology/pharmaceuticals.” The global shares of Japan in the “information & communication
technology” and “electrical engineering” have both fallen by around 6 percentage points, which is
attributable to rapid growth in the global shares of China and Korea.
[Summary Chart 18] Comparison of the shares of patent families by technological fields in the selected countries(％, 2001-2003 and 2011-2013, whole counting)(A)Japan(B)U.S.

Electricalengineering

Electricalengineering
50

50

Others40

Others

ICT

40

20

Transport
equipment

GeneralmachineryTransport
equipment

Bio/medical
devices

Mechanicalengineering

100Mechanicalengineering
Biotechnology/
pharmaceuticals

200Bio/medical
devices
Chemistry(2001-2003)(2011-2013)(C)China(D)Korea

Electricalengineering

Electricalengineering

20

OthersOthersBiotechnology/
pharmaceuticals(2001-2003)

ICT
10

GeneralmachineryTransport
equipment

Bio/medical
devices

Mechanicalengineering

0

Mechanicalengineering(2011-2013)

20

ICT
10

Transport
equipment

Generalmachinery

10

Biotechnology/
pharmaceuticals

Chemistry(2001-2003)

ICT

30

30

0

Bio/medical
devices

Biotechnology/
pharmaceuticals

Chemistry(2011-2013)(2001-2003)

Note: Same as Summary Chart 17. The items “ICT” in Summary Chart 18 stand for “Information and communication technology.”
Reference: Chart 4-2-10, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)- 15 -

Generalmachinery

Chemistry(2011-2013)

(4) Although the number of Japanese patent families that are citing papers is the world's second largest,these patent families account for only a small proportion of the total patent families of Japan.
In order to examine the linkage between science and technology, information on papers cited by patentfamilies was analyzed.
citing papers.

Japan ranks second in the world in terms of the number of patent families that are

However, the number of Japanese patent families that are citing papers accounts for only

9.4% of its total patent families, suggesting that Japan's technologies do not cite scientific output as muchas other countries' technologies do.

On the other hand, the volume of Japanese papers that are cited bypatent families is second largest after the United States.
[Summary Chart 19] The number of patent families that are citing papers: top 10 countries/regions
Whole counting

No.

Country / Region

1 U.S.
2 Japan
3 Germany
4 France
5 U.K.
6 China
7 Korea
8 Canada
9 Netherlands
10 India(A) Patent families citing
papers105,576
46,826
41,87023,23320,07919,08814,022
12,366
10,6399,716

2006–2013 (T otal)(B) T otal number of patent families
Percentage of patent
Number of patentfamilies citing papers
families(A) / (B)389,823497,991
242,031
90,20270,009108,828
156,546
46,32135,59528,608

27.1
9.4
17.3
25.8
28.7
17.5
9.0
26.7
29.9
34.0

Reference: Chart 4-3-2, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018(in Japanese)[Summary Chart 20] The number of papers that are cited by patent families: top 10 countries/regions
Whole counting

No.

Country / Region

1 U.S.
2 Japan
3 Germany
4 U.K.
5 France
6 Canada
7 China
8 Italy
9 Netherlands
10 Switzerland(A) Papers cited bypatent families

381,50282,00275,14874,82349,41739,98237,99632,53525,403
22,275

Reference: Chart 4-3-3, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)- 16 -

1981–2013 (T otal)(B) Total number of papers
Percentage of papers
Number ofcited by patent families
papers(A) / (B)7,425,218
1,900,522
1,924,036
1,919,295
1,403,206
1,064,191
1,571,419
959,700
565,878
427,917

5.1
4.3
3.9
3.9
3.5
3.8
2.4
3.4
4.5
5.2

(5) Scientific papers that get more paper-to-paper citations tend to get higher paper-to-patent family
citations. In other words, papers that attract wide recognition of science also attract wide
recognition of technology.
To explore whether the frequency of paper-to-paper citations impacts on the degree of citation by patentfamilies, the proportion of papers that are cited by patent families was examined controlling for thefrequency of paper-to-paper citations.
Of all the papers published globally since 1994, some 4.2% were cited by patent families between 2006
and 2013.

Controlling for the frequency of paper-to-paper citations, papers in the top 1%, top 10% and

top 20% categories were cited at the rates of 31.9%, 14.9% and 11.1%, respectively, indicating thatscientific papers that get more paper-to-paper citations tend to get higher paper-to-patent family citations.
Papers within the top 20% paper-to-paper citations occupy about a half of all papers cited by patentfamilies.

[Summary Chart 21] Percentage of papers cited by patent families according to frequency of citation
0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

4.2%

All

31.9%

Top 1%
Top 10%14.9%

Top 20%

11.1%
Papers cited by patent families

OthersNote: Calculations based on papers published after 1994 (in the past 20 years) that were cited by patent families among those filed between 2006 and 2013.
Reference: Chart 4-3-9, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018

[Summary Chart 22] Number and percentage of papers by frequency of citation among papers cited by patent families

56,214(7.6%)

204,318(27.5%)

356,549(48.0%)

Top1%
Top10%（Exclude Top1%）
Top20%（Exclude Top10%）
Others125,341(16.9%)

Note: Same as Summary chart 21.
Reference: Chart 4-3-8, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018- 17 -

5. Science, technology, and innovation: circumstances in Japan and the selected
countries(1) An examination of the structure of industrial trade exports in the selected countries reveals thatmedium-high-technology industries account for the largest segment in many countries. In
Japan, medium-high-technology industries constitute approximately 60% of its exports.
The country that had the most substantial share of medium-high-technologies in 2016 was Japan(56.8%), followed by Germany (50.0%).

High-technology industries had the largest share in China(30.4%), where medium-low-technology industries accounted for 27.6% of the total, with different
industries carrying certain weightages.
[Summary Chart 23] Percentage of industrial trade exports in the selected countries(B)U.S.

(A)Japan
100%

100%
90%

5.7

90%

80%

14.4

80%

70%

Others

60%
56.8

40%
20%
10%
0%

96

99

02

05

08

11

14

HITECH

20%
26.1

10%
0%

2016 Year

1990 93

96

99

02

05

08

11

14

2016 Year(D)China(C)Germany
100%

100%
90%

90%

15.8

80%

10.9

70%
60%

50.0

40%

70%

OthersMDTECHMHTECH30%

HITECH

20%
10%
96

99

02

05

08

11

14

14.1

60%
50%

26.3

40%

0%

MLTECHMDTECHHITECH

20%

2016 Year

OthersMHTECH

30%
30.4

10%

18.3
1990 9327.6

80%

MLTECH

50%

0%

MDTECHMHTECH30%

15.6
1990 9335.9

40%

HITECH

Others
MLTECH50%

MDTECHMHTECH

30%

9.8

60%

MLTECH

50%

16.4

70%

1990 93

96

99

02

05

08

11

14

2016 Year

Reference: Chart 5-2-1, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)

Industry
HITECH: High R&D intensive industries

Breakdown
pharmaceutical, computer, electronic and optical, and aerospace.
chemicals and chemical products, electrical equipment, machinery and equipment

MHTECH: Medium-high R&D intensive industries

n.e.c., motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers, railroad equipment and transport
equipment n.e.c., and other.

MDTECH: Medium technology industries
MLTECH: Medium-low technology industries
OthersRubber/plastic products, metals, shipbuilding, others
Textiles, food/beverage/tobacco, metal fabrication products (except machinery andequipment), others
Industries other than the above- 18 -

(2) Japan's trade balance ratio for high‐technology industries is the lowest among the selected
countries. However, in medium high‐technology industries, Japan maintains highest position
among the selected countries.
Japan's trade balance ratio in high-technology industries showed a continuous decline and it marked
0.75 in 2016.

Japan ranked first among the selected countries in trade balance ratio for

medium-high-technology industries at 2.73.

The trade balance ratio shows a gradual decline

following a rapid drop in the mid-1990s.
[Summary Chart 24] Changes in the trade balance ratios for high-technology industries in the selected countries

The trade balance of high technology industry

4
Japan
U.S.

3

Germany
France
2

U.K.
China
Korea

1

0
1990 92

94

96

98

00

02

04

06

08

10

12

14 2016 Year

Note: 1) High-technology industries refer to "pharmaceutical," "computer, electronic and optical," and "aerospace."
2) Trade balance ratio = export value / import value
Reference: Chart 5-2-3, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)[Summary Chart 25] Changes in the trade balance ratios for medium high‐technology industries in the selected countries

The trade balance of
medium-high technology industry

6
Japan

5

U.S.
Germany

4

France
3

U.K.
China

2

Korea

1
0
1990 92

94

96

98

00

02

04

06

08

10

12

14 2016 Year

Note: 1) Medium high-technology industries refer to "chemicals and chemical products," "electrical equipment," "machinery and equipment n.e.c.," "motor vehicles, trailers
and semi-trailers," "railroad equipment and transport equipment n.e.c.," and "other."
2) Trade balance ratio = export value / import value
Reference: Chart 5-2-5, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)- 19 -

(3) The number of joint research projects conducted by Japanese universities and the private sector,
as well as the amount of research funds received, has grown steadily.
Changes in the funding and number of research projects with business enterprises shows that “joint
research” received the largest amount of funds at 53.7 billion yen with the implementation of some
23,000 projects.

Most of the funds, 42.9 billion yen that year, came from large corporations. This wasfollowed by funds for “clinical trials, etc.” at 17.1 billion yen.
[Summary Chart 26] Changes in the funds received (breakdown) and number of projects implemented for joint research, etc.,
by Japanese universities and private businesses, etc

60¥ billions

80,00070,00050

Endowedlecture/endowed
research division40
50,00030

40,00030,00020
20,00010
10,000

0

06

08

10

12

14

Joint research

16

06

08

10

12

14

Contract research

16

06

08

10

12

14

Clinical research, etc.

16006 08 10 12 14 16 FY
Endowed lecture/endowed
research division

The number of projects

the amount of funding

60,000Foreignenterprises
Domestic：microenterprises
Domestic：small
and medium
enterprises
Domestic：large
enterprises
Number of
projects

Note: Joint research: Joint research and development by institutions and private business, etc., in which the other party bears the expenses. Until FY2008, the amount offunding and the number of projects were classified according to the size of the enterprises - small and medium, micro and large enterprises.
Contract research: R&D conducted primarily by universities, etc., under a commission from private enterprises, etc., the costs of which are paid for by the private
enterprises, etc.
Clinical research, etc.: Clinical research on pharmaceuticals and medical equipment, etc., conducted primarily and independently by universities, etc., based on acontract with outside parties, the costs of which are paid for by the consignee. Clinical research includes histopathological examination outside the range of clinicalresearch as well as similar tests and surveys.
Endowed lecture/endowed research division: Values shown are only for national universities.
Reference: Chart 5-4-6, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018- 20 -

(4) The number of papers produced by Japanese business enterprises has been declining. Amongsuch papers, the share of papers authored jointly by industry and academia has been on the rise.
The number of papers produced by Japanese business enterprises has been declining.

Among such

papers, the percentage of papers authored jointly by industry and academia has been on the rise.

The

proportion of such jointly authored papers increased from 22% of the total in 1982 to 67% in 2015,
illustrating the growing weightage of universities and colleges, in research activities that result in
papers at the corporate level.
The number of papers produced by business enterprises has fallen in many fields of science. The
decline in the number of papers produced by business enterprises in physics, basic life sciences, etc.,
can be attributed to a decline in the number of papers that are not co-authored by industry and academia.
The number of papers produced by business enterprises has increased in clinical medicine andenvironment/geoscience, in which a rise in the number of papers jointly produced by businesses andacademic institutions contributed greatly.
[Summary Chart 27] Status of papers co-authored by industry and academia in Japanese business enterprises
Business enterprises coauthored with U&C sector
OthersNumber
12,00010,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
1982

85

88

91

94

97

00

03

06

09

12

2015

Note: The analysis, which covers articles and reviews, used the whole counting method for a 3-year moving average.
Reference: Chart 5-5-1, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese)[Summary Chart 8] Status of papers co-authored by industry and academia among Japanese businesses by field
Business enterprises coauthored with U&C sector
0500

Chemistry
Material science
Physics
Computer science/Mathematics
Engineering
Environment/Geoscience
Clinical medicine
Basic life sciences
Note：Same as Summary chart 27.
Reference: Chart 5-5-2, Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018 (in Japanese))- 21 -

1,000

1,500

Others
2,000

2,500

Number3,000

Characteristics of the Japanese Science and Technology Indicators“The Japanese Science and Technology Indicators” is published annually to present the most recent
statistics/indicators at the time of publication.

The statistics/indicators are selected considering thefollowing two conditions: 1) the indicators should allow either of the time-series comparison or thecomparison among the selected countries and 2) the indicators should be possible to update annually inprinciple.

Use of original statistical data published by authorities in each country
Wherever possible, statistical data published by authorities in each country are used as the sources ofdata for indicators appearing in Japanese Science and Technology Indicators. Every effort has been
made to clarify each country’s method of collecting statistics and how it differs from other countries’
methods.

NISTEP conducted analysis of paper and patent databases
Paper data were aggregated and analyzed by NISTEP using Web of Science provided by Clarivate
Analytics.

Patents family data were aggregated and analyzed by NISTEP using PATSTAT (the patent

database of the European Patent Office).

Use of “reminder marks” for international comparisons and time-series comparisons
The reminder marks “attention to international comparison”
have been attached to graphs where they are required.
are collected in line with the OECD’s manuals.

and “attention to trend”
Generally, the data for each country

However, differences in methods or scope ofcollecting data exist, and therefore attention is necessary when making comparisons in some cases.
Such cases are marked “attention to international comparison.” Likewise, for some time series data,
data could not be continuously collected under the same conditions due to changes in statisticalstandards. Cases where special attention is required when reading chronological trends are marked“attention to trend.”

Specifics for such points requiring attention are provided in the notes ofindividual charts.

- 22 -RESEARCH MATERIAL No. 274
Digest of Japanese Science and Technology Indicators 2018

October 2018

Research Unit for Science and Technology Analysis and Indicators
National Institute of Science and Technology Policy (NISTEP)
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), Japan

http://doi.org/10.15108/rm274e

http://www.nistep.go.jp