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立教日本語教育実践学会
R-JLEP

日本語教育実践研究第 6 号

pp.11-27

研究論文 Research Papers

Analyzing the Factors that Make Matsunojo’s Makura
Captivating: Nurturing Imagination and the Possibility ofApplication to Education

Aya SAKAI (Kyushu University)

Keywords ： Koudan, Rakugo, Discourse analysis, Story-telling, Japanese language teaching

概 要
本研究は、講談師・神田松之丞のマクラの構造を明らかにする基礎的分析を行うことを目的とした。まず、話題を検討した結果、構成的特徴として「来場への謝辞」「演ずることの表明」、内容的特徴として「他の出演者への言及」「講談と落語の比較」「講談師である自分の価値や評価」が見られた。次に、発話機能を分類した結果、15 種類に大別され、【提示情報の言いかえ】【提示情報の補足】【沈黙表現】【行為要求】【行動に対する注釈】に強調効果と梯子外しという強弱二つの使い分けが見られ、観客を惹きつけていることが明らかになった。

1. Introduction
Rakugo (落語) and koudan (講談) are two forms of traditional Japanese story-tellingthat preserve the element of here-and-now. The performers relate the stories according to thetimes and share them with the audience in a refined manner (Sakai, 2001).
What the rakugoka (rakugo performer) and koudanshi (koudan performer) have incommon with teachers is that they both address big groups single-handedly. The performers
engage the audience, and the teachers their students. Rakugo and koudan possess tried andtested oratory techniques that that may be applied to language teacher education. Makura,
which is the component preceding the actual rakugo story, is especially noteworthy. In the
makura, the rakugoka and koudanshi assess the atmosphere of the room, the age range andbackground of the audience members, and their reactions to the performer’s utterances. Theseset the tempo for the main story that follows.

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2. Literature Review and Research Objectives
2.1 Verbal Entertainment and Japanese Language Education
Rakugo is a form of entertainment that has been in existence for at least 400 years(Matsumoto, 2010). In rakugo, the rakugoka uses a sensu (Japanese folding fan that opens andcloses) and tenugui (Japanese towel) as props. In order to distinguish between characters, theyturn their bodies left and right accordingly. Koudan, which is said to have originated in the
15th or 16th century, is similar to rakugo in that it is also a form of verbal entertainment. The
difference between the two is that in koudan, the performer sits in front of a low lecture stand,and tells stories with historical themes while keeping rhythm with both a sensu and hari-oogi(special type fan used in koudan that does not open).
According to Ooshima (2006), rakugo contains humor that is universally understood,
and consequently, people of various cultural backgrounds can relate to it. Researchers havelooked into rakugo as a possible teaching material for Japanese language learners. For
instance, Sakai (2001) reported that by explaining the structure of rakugo and the vocabulary
to students, followed by listening practice or inviting rakugoka, students were able tounderstand the characters in the stories and their relationships to each other.
Similarly, Iritono (2009), as well as Hatasa and Kubota (2009), observed that studying
rakugo helps improve American university students’ Japanese skills and their understanding ofJapanese culture. In recent years, rakugo performances have been incorporated into many
language classes, and their dramatic effects are being noted.
In terms of Japanese language teacher training, Sakai and Takahashi (2006) conducteda workshop for Korean Japanese-language teachers, in which they held discussions after
watching rakugo. In the study by Kanai, Uenishi, and Enomoto (2014), teacher training
sessions that included rakugo lessons and performances were designed. Kanai, Uenishi, andEnomoto (2014) asserted that in Japanese language education, it is necessary for teachers topossess the ability to cultivate a space based on mutual trust between speakers and listeners.
2.2 Structure of Verbal Entertainment and Discourse Analysis
In his series of studies, Nomura (1995; 1996; 2013) approached rakugo throughdiscourse analysis. Nomura (2013) identified five elements in rakugo: maeoki (greeting),
makura (the introduction to the story), hondai (main story), ochi (punchline), and musubi(wrap-up). Maeoki was marked as the beginning of the discourse, and upon examining
recordings and transcripts of rakugo, Nomura categorized the maeoki into seven parts.
Furthermore, Nomura (1995) observed several points. First, rakugo possessed aduality of speaking to the audience and of speaking between the characters in the story.
Secondly, a character’s speech time was longer than naturally occurring conversations, and12

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there were numerous monologues indicating scene changes and time lapses. Thirdly, thepurpose of the pause taken at the start of speech was to gauge the audience’s reaction, as wellas to signify scene change, non-verbal action, hesitation, and dramatic presentation.
In contrast, little research has been done on koudan. Since makura appear in koudan aswell as rakugo, the makura in the koudan will be the focus of this study. The hondai will
hereafter be referred to as the program or story.
2.3 Research Objectives
Several trends emerged when surveying the literature available. First, in the field ofJapanese language teaching, studies have been conducted on how rakugo can be used asteaching material. These focus on viewing rakugo and learning about Japanese culture. Second,rakugo has also been studied as material for Japanese language teacher education; however,there has been no investigation into the implementation of rakugo oratory techniques into
teaching. Thirdly, there seem not to be many past studies available on koudan in terms ofJapanese language teaching. Finally, while the structure analysis for the hondai and themaeoki has been performed, that of makura has not been explored.
This study attempts to better understand the structure of the koudan makura.

It

investigates topics used in makura and speech functions, focusing on elements which engage
the attention of the audience. Koudan makuras were chosen because koudan is difficult tounderstand even for native speakers of Japanese, and they make full use of the techniques forengaging the audience.

3. Method
3.1 Data for Analysis
In this study, data was taken from the transcripts of four types of Makura (A) to (D)from a DVD on koudan titled Shin-Seiki Koudan Taizen Kanda Matsunojo. It features
Matsunojo Kanda, a koudanshi whose strong and dramatic narration is well-received by bothcritics and the general public in Japan.
Makura is the first contact and place of communication between the performer and theaudience. Burke (1969), who advocated dramaturgical theory, proposed that the motivation forcommunication is the need and desire to understand each other, similar to the interaction ofactors in drama series.
In dramaturgical theory, communication is considered to have the following fiverhetorical elements: act (action, event; what happened), scene (the setting of the action; when
and where), agent (the doer; who did it), agency (the tools and language of the doer; how it
was done), and purpose (the goal; why it was done).
This present study approaches the art of speaking as the communication between theperformer and the audience. Its construct is based on dramaturgical theory. The scene from13

日本語教育実践研究第 6 号 2018 pp.11-27
Makura (A) to (C) is Suehirotei in Shinjyuku, and the scene from Makura (D) is Renjyakuteiin Kanda. The agent is Matsunojo Kanda. The span of makura is defined as from the moment
when the agent is seated to when a sound is made by hari-oogi and sensu, as the signals the
beginning of the main story. Agency and purpose is examined in the section titled Results andDiscussion.
3.2 Data Transcription
Data transcription was performed according to Basic Principles of Transcription(Usami, 2011). The basic analysis unit is the utterance. The symbols used in the transcription
for the present study are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Symbols used in Transcription。

Inserted at the end of an utterance.

、

Inserted in the utterance where there is a pause of less than one second.

「 」
“ ”
‘ ’
？
↑↓

Inserted before and after the program title.
Inserted when the performer quotes another speaker during an utterance.
Inserted when the way a word is pronounced is different from the traditional pronunciation.
Inserted at the end of an interrogative utterance.
Inserted to mark intonation; rising arrow for rising intonation, falling arrow for fallingintonation.
Inserted when there is a short pause of approximately one second between two utterances.

，≪pause≫〔〕Inserted when there is a pause of at least two seconds long.
Inserted to indicate nonverbal action or sound.

＜laughter＞

Inserted when there is laughter.

＃

Inserted when it is difficult to hear. Number of #s correlates to the number of seconds.

4. Results and Discussion
4.1 Topic Analysis
A conversation generally takes place between two or more people, and a shift in
topic is indicated by the markers of language, denoting the beginning and end of a topic. Since
the makura is not a conversation, the data was divided according to topics Matsunojo spoke on
and the audience’s reactions. Simultaneously, the following categorizations by Tsutsui (2012)
was used for analyzing the qualitative differences in the topic, and for dividing each item inthe topic as sub-topics: (1) referencing a new topic, different from the topic previously spoken
about, (2) referencing the same topic, but from a different perspective, (3) referencing thesame topic, but in a different time period, (4) referencing the same target and situation, and (5)generalization of references to the same individual target or situation. In the tables appearing
in this study, the sub-topics are the descriptions of utterances by Matsunojo.
The categorization of topics for Makura (A) is presented in Table 2. The DVD used
to gather data for this study did not include a story after Makura (A), while it did have stories
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for the other three Makuras (B), (C), and (D).
Table 2 Makura (A) April 13, 2013 Shinjyuku Suehirotei “Shinyayose” 2 min 18 sec
Topicstate of the venue
situation surrounding thefield of story telling

value as a koudanshi

Sub-Topic
The venue is full.
There are two TV cameras.
The koudan is about to begin.
The number of rakugoka is increasing.
The number of koudanshi is small.
The ratio between male and female for rakugoka and koudanshi is different.
Matsunojo is the only person who is a male koudanshi in his twenties.
As he is the only male koudanshi in his twenties, he is special.
Even if his koudan is not funny, he wants audiences to think that he is special.
In general, if people see something rare or special, they think it’s also something
good.
He wants audiences to think that his koudan is funny.

The categorization of topics for Makura (B) is presented in Table 3. The program that
follows the makura is titled Tagasode no Otokichi. The story, also known as Naniwa Sankyo
Kyaku, depicts Otokichi’s boyhood. A glib Otokichi bumps into a professional gambler at a
bridge and angers him with his words. The topics used in makura are generally related to themain story that follows, and they sometimes foreshadow the punchline. In this case,Matsunojo first discusses a topic from his daily life (i.e., about how he had met the previous
Suehirotei owner). Next in the performance, Matsunojo discusses the hardships he himself
faced in his early career while he is playing the character of Otokichi; it appears that
Matsunojo projects himself onto Otokichi, who was later to become famous.
Table 3 Makura (B) May 10, 2014 Shinjyuku Suehirotei “Shinyayose” 2 min 5 sec
Topicexpressing appreciation
to audiencereference toother performers
self-assessment as
a koudanshi

announcing a performance

Sub-Topic
He thanks people for coming.
There are many other performers.
He will end this performance in a very funny way.
Makura doesn’t have to go on and on.
The previous owner has an eye for performances.
The current owner also has an eye for performances.
The previous owner said he wants to make Matsunojo a shinuchi as soon as
possible.
He will tell another story.
By telling the audience this, there is more likelihood that they will not laugh at
the story he will tell them next.

The categorizations of topics for Makura (C) is presented in Table 4. The programthat follows this is Kashima no Bo-matsuri. It is an excerpt from Tenpo Suikoden, which
depicts the fight between Hanzo Sasagawa and Sukegoro Iioka. In the story, a drunk Hirate
has a quarrel with a subordinate of his enemy Sukegoro. Suddenly, the old lady of Kashima
and her white shaggy dog appear, adding a humorous touch. Matsunojo ends the story in the
middle at the most exciting part, just as he warns beforehand. By informing the audience of
the “typical narration of koudan”, he gives them a clue about the following program.
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Table 4 Makura (C) February 14, 2015 Shinjyuku Suehirotei “Shinyayose” 3 min 22 sec
Topicreference toother performers
expressing appreciation
to audience

typical narration of
koudanannouncing aperformance

Sub-Topic
He wonders why Meiraku appeared first on stage?
He wonders why Meiraku is an apprentince of Rakusuke?
He wants the audience to feel as if the main spectacle has started.
Same logic as water tasting good after a run.
He appreciates that it is a full house.
In koudan, the narration often stops midway.
In rakugo, the story also sometimes stops midway.
In koudan, the story not finishing is blamed on time running out.
In koudan, stories stopping midway have been happening for a long time.
When the story ends in the middle, the audience wants to return to the koudan thefollowing day to find out what happens next.
But when the audience returns the next day, the koudanshi is telling a different story
As always, the story is ended in the middle
A typical way to relate a koudan is by making the audience get into the story, butthen somehow throw them off
He will now tell a story that is serious at first, but has a humorous latter half.

Finally, the categorizations of topic for Makura (D) are shown in Table 5.

The

program title for (D) is Grey Zone. It is an original koudan created by Matsunojo. In it, ayoung boy named Yoshida becomes disillusioned upon learning in a pro-wrestling magazinethat the games are scripted. He idolizes Oonokuni, a sumo wrestler who denounced fixed
matches. Yoshida moves to Tokyo and becomes a rakugoka, even starring in the supposedly
non-scripted TV program Shoten. In (D), Matsunojo announces the release of his DVD, andsuggests that it would not be so bad if his DVD serves as an inspiration for youngsters to
become koudanshi and experience the ups and down of the koudan world.

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Table 5 Makura (D) December 26, 2014 Kanda Renjyakutei “Hitori Dainarikin Zenyasai”
5 min 26 sec
Topicvalue of his DVD
filming at Renjyakutei
expressing appreciation toaudiencevalue of his DVD

effect of his DVD

announcing a performance
effect of his DVD
announcing a performance

explanation for performing
again

announcing a performance

Sub-Topic
Master Shinsuke wants his DVD.
Not sure if topic-wise, it is right to give Master Shinsuke the DVD.
It’s the first time to be filming at Renjyakutei.
He spoke with the staff, and the makura will be cut later.
He thanks the audience for coming.
He should have given thanks to the audience first thing.
He is always very sorry.
No intention of giving a splendid performance.
He asks if there is value in buying the DVD?
In rakugo study circles, there are some foolish people.
He ponders what would happen if his DVD were in a room where a rakugo
study circle was taking place.
There may be people in rakugo study circles that would make good koudanshi.
He wants people to know in his DVD that one can perform freely in a koudan.
There is a possibility that viewers of this DVD may want to become koudanshi.
Finally, he will tell another story.
It is worth it if there are people who become fans of koudan after watching thisDVD.
Finally, he will perform Grey Zone.
He performed Grey Zone at Shinyayose, and it turned out well.
But the staff wanted him to do Grey Zone again.
He went overboard when he did Grey Zone at Shinyayose.
He wants to record Grey Zone at the studio, as the rakugoka Ensho-hyakuseki
did.
He wants Kishin Shinoyama to photograph him.
Due to some circumstance, they can’t record the performances in the studio.
He has said this many times, but he will perform Grey Zone.

Matsunojo’s makura has the following four characteristics: First, as seen in (C) and(D), in the middle of the performance he realizes he has not thanked the audience for coming,and starts doing so. Nomura (2013) has observed that the performer generally thanks theaudience at the beginning of the makura, as seen in (B). Therefore, the audience does notexpect to hear this in the middle, which induces laughter from them.
Secondly, he refers to other presenters, as seen in (B) and (C). In both cases, he pokes
fun at the others, inviting laughter, and thereby setting the mood.
Thirdly, while the topics differ somewhat, as seen in “situation surrounding the fieldof story-telling” in (A) and “typical narration of koudan” in (C), he is able to explain koudan,which may be unfamiliar to the audience, by comparing it with the more famous rakugo.
While explaining rakugo light-heartedly, his effort and desire to help the audience enjoy the
koudan performance is apparent.
Finally, as seen in “value as a koudanshi” in (A), “self-assessment as a koudanshi” in(B), and “the value of his DVD” in (D), he is continuously interested in his own worth andevaluation. These types of topics, along with koudan and Matsunojo’s self-introductions, often
emerge in his talks at the Shinyayose at Suehirotei in Shinjyuku where there are many firsttime viewers.
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4.2 Classification and Structure Analysis of Speech Acts
Next, speech acts and the factors for engaging the audience were analyzed in order tounderstand the structure of the makura. Speech acts are defined as utterances that accomplish
certain goals in a communication (Szatrowski, 1993).
4.2.1 Classification and Frequency of Speech Acts
Fifteen types of speech functions were identified in this data using the framework by
Szatrowski (1993). Definitions and examples of these speech functions are presented in Table
6.

An asterisk ( *) signifies new speech functions identified in the current research.
Table 6

Speech Acts in this Research

Speech Act
Topic Opener *Topic Continuation *Definition
Indicates that the topic is starting.
Indicates that the topic is continuing.

Topic Change *Indicates that the topic has changed.

Ritual Expression

Expresses gratitude or the start of aperformance.
States explicitly the action taken.

Explanation of
Action*Elicitation of Action
Expressing Silence

Information Sharing*

Urges the audience to do something, or
forbids them from doing something.
Inserts pauses to wait for theaudience’s reaction, or to emphasize apoint.
Shares information about a person,
thing, or situation.

Repetition ofInformation *Repeats information that has beenpreviously shared.

Repetition ofInformation Using
Different Words*

Repeats information that has beenpreviously shared using different
wording.

Extra Information *Adds extra detailalready shared.

Reason for
Information *Expressing Opinion

States the evidence or the reason of
information given.
Gives opinion regarding a person,
thing, or situation.
Repeats intention that has beenpreviously shared using different
wording.
States intention regarding a person,
thing, or situation.

Repetition ofIntention Using
Different Words *Expressing Intention

toinformation

18

Example (speech act in bold)
Um, thanks, everybody, for coming.
And, I want to ask the previous Suehirotei
ownerUh, I don’t really have to take my haori off
here.
Um, I want to tell you a story.
I didn’t have to take off my haori…um…
They must be photographing, oh, you don’t
have to turn around.
In the world of koudan, half of us≪pause≫consists of women.
In the world of koudan, half of us≪pause≫consist of women.
Of course the present owner of Suehirotei
has an eye for performances. This isimportant, so please remember that. The
present owner has an eye, too.
In the world of koudan, half are ≪pause≫
women. So, out of 80, 40 are men, and 40
are women.
There are a lot of them, it’s surprising. There
are apparently ≪pause≫ 800 people inTokyo and Osaka combined.
Oh, he’s a narcissist. Uh, uh, I just wanted
to do that joke.
So, also in that sense I think that it’svaluable.
There are stupid people, maybe. Like ones
who are always lying around, with nofuture.
Um, after a break I am thinking about
telling you another story.

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Diagram 1 Frequencies of Speech Acts
Next, the frequencies of speech acts were analyzed for each makura. The findings are
summarized in Table 1. The speech acts occurring the most frequently were Information
Sharing (58), Topic Continuation (33), and Expressing opinion (31). In addition, the topic
direction became apparent through Topic Opener, Topic Continuation, and Topic Change.
Finally, Repetition of Information, Repetition of Information Using Different Words, Extra
Information, and Reason for Information characteristically appeared after Information
Sharing.
4.2.2 Factors for Engaging the Audience
When there is a reaction or laughter from the audience after a speech act, it signifies
that the speech act contains factors for engaging the audience. In analyzing Matsunojo’s
speech acts, close attention was paid to Repetition of Information Using Different Words,
Extra Information, Expressing Silence, Elicitation of Action, and Explanation of Action. From
here on, the utterance numbers, utterance topics, and speech acts are labeled. M in utterance
number stands for Matsunojo and A for the audience.
4.2.2.1. Repetition of Information Using New Words: Emphasis on Information and Rhythm
In a discourse, it is rare for the speaker to add extra information or provide evidence
for the information unless the interlocutor fails to comprehend or asks questions about it.
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However, Repetition of Information Using Different Words occurs frequently in the present
data, excepting (B).
In Example 1, two pieces of information in M12 and M14 (i.e., there are 800
rakugoka, and the number of koudanshi is only 10% of this) are rephrased in M15. Moreover,M16 (i.e., in the world of koudan, there are an equal number of females and males) isrephrased in M17. Both numerical pieces of information are easy to understand; by rephrasing“1 out of 10” to “80 people”, and “half are females” to “40 females”, it accentuates theinformation given previously.
Table 7
Utterance
Numbers
M12

M13
A3
M14

M15

M16

M17

Utterances
There are apparently≪pause≫800 people inTokyo and Osaka
combined.
≪pause≫ 〔waiting foraudience’s reaction〕This iscalled no reaction.
＜laughter＞
Compared to this, in theworld of koudan, thenumber of koudanshi is
only 10% of this.
There are only 80 people.
And, in rakugo, 95% arestill male, but in the worldof koudan, half are≪pause≫ female. [moves
both hands to the right]
So, out of 80 people, 40
are male, and 40 arefemale. [When saying thenumbers, puts out his righthand as if pushing thelecture stand].

Example 1 Makura (A)Speech Act 1

Speech Act 2

Speech Act 3

Extra
Information

Expressing
Silence

Extra
Information

Expressing
Silence

Elicitation of
ActionExpressing
OpinionInformation
Sharing

Speech Act 4

Repetition ofInformation
Using Different
Words
Topic
Continuation

Information
Sharing

Topic
Continuation

Repetition ofInformation
Using Different
Words

Expressing
Silence

Information
Sharing

In the telling of a koudan, the story often ends abruptly at the climax. In M 26, M 27,
and M30 in Example 2, Matsunojo touches on this, using both straightforward andmetaphorical language. In M25, the audience members are already laughing, but by repeating
the same topic in different words, he further engages the audience and causes more laughter.
Moreover, by saying this three times, he creates a rhythm like that of a hari-oogi drawing in
the audience.

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Table 8Utterance
Numbers

M25

A8

Example 2

Makura (C)（Partly Omitted）

Utterances
Ok, yesterday’s koudanshi [hits the lecture
stand with hands] is [talking quickly] coming
up to the stage briskly [makes a sound with thehari-oogi]. ‘‘Sensei, please get revenge, sensei,
please get revenge” [mimes calling out to a
koudanshi]. The koudanshi hits the lecture
stand twice and [makes a sound with thehari-oogi] says, “The revenge is completed”[said in the manner of old style koudanshi] [hitsthe lecture stand] “It’s finished, hey.” [rises
slightly from the mat] It’s finished.
＜laughter＞

M26

So ≪pause≫, um, this is how we do it inkoudan.

A9＜laughter＞

M27

So [shows the palm of hands, and lifts themfrom bottom to top]、I will end the story that I
am about to tell at the most [emphasis]
exciting part.

A10＜laughter＞

M30

The audience sits forward, sits forward and,[raising hands in the air], they like me and[waves both hands in the air] then I take themby surprise [mimes taking off a ladder].

A12＜laughter＞

4.2.2.2.

pp.11-27

Speech Act 1

Speech Act 2

Topic
Continuation

Information
Sharing

Topic
Continuation

Expressing
Silence

TopicContinuation

Repetition ofInformation
Using
Different
Words

Speech Act 3

Repetition ofInformation
Using
Different
Words

Repetition ofInformation
Using
Different
Words

Extra Information: Causing Laughter, or Betraying Expectations
Unique approaches to engaging the audience were observed in the Extra Information

occurring after Information Sharing. In Example 3, in which the topic of the number of
rakugoka continue, Matsunojo waits for the audience’s reaction after saying exactly how many
people it comprises (M12). Furthermore, referring to the news that the previous owner of
Suehirotei wants to give Matsunojo the title of shinuchi (the highest rank in koudan) in
Example 4, Matsunojo creates suspense by first saying, “And, so that I can hear it, he said
clearly,” then “Oh, how I want to make him a shinuchi as soon as possible.”

Supplyingfurther information leads to the next utterance, and this holds the audience’s attention andmakes them laugh even more.

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Table 9

Example 3

Utterance
Numbers

Utterances

M11

There are so many of them. You will be
surprised.

M13
A3

Table 10
Utterance
Number
M14

M15

A4

Speech Act 1

There are apparently ≪pause≫ 800
people in Tokyo and Osaka combined.
≪pause≫ [waiting for audience’s reaction]
No reaction.
＜laughter＞

M12

Utterances
It was definitely ≪pause≫ ina small voice [moving both
hands].
And, to me [raising his righthand] he said clearly [makes
noise with his hari-oogi] “Oh,how I want to make him≪pause≫a shinuchi as soon
as possible” [whispering].
[commotion・applause]＜laughter＞

Makura (A)Repetition ofInformation Using
Different Words
Extra
Information
Expressing
Silence

Speech Act 2

Speech Act 3

Expressing
OpinionExpressing
Silence
Elicitation of
ActionExtraInformation

Speech Act 4

Example 4

Makura (B)Speech Act 1

Speech Act 2

Speech Act 3

Information
Sharing

Expressing
Silence

Information
Sharing

Extra
Information

Information
Sharing

Expressing
Silence

Information
Sharing

On the other hand, after explaining how a rakugoka typically ends his story in
Example 5, he makes fun of himself, as M18 exemplifies. In Example 6, he contemplates thereaction to the sale of his own DVD, then adds in M22, “Nothing may happen.” In bothinstances, the audience’s interest in what Matsunojo says is at a peak; however, Matsunojo
betrays their expectation in finding out what happens next, which makes causes laughter.
Table 11
Utterance
Numbers
M16

M17

Example 5

Utterances
Um, by the way, when rakugoka-sans [waves his
right hand quickly] want to cut the story in the
middle, the way they do it is [makes a soundwith his hari-oogi]
You say, ‘‘You’re kidding’’ [sweeping haori
towards the back with his left hand], like this[licking lips].

M18

I haven’t really told a ≪pause≫ joke.

A7＜laughter＞

Makura (C)Speech Act 1

Speech Act 2

Topic
Continuation

Extra
Information

Information
Sharing
Extra
Information

22

Speech Act 3

Expressing
Silence

Extra
Information

Journal for the Study of Japanese Language Education Practice Vol.6 2018
Table 12 Example 6
Utterance
NumbersM21

pp.11-27

Makura (D)Utterances

Speech Act 1
Information
Sharing

A10
M22

Not sure what kind of coincidence this is, what kind of coincidence
it is, but let’s leave a copy of it in the rakugo club room [mimes
putting down a DVD] and see what happens [moving his right handin a circular manner with palm facing upwards ].
＜laughter＞≪pause≫ Nothing may happen.

A11＜laughter＞

Expressing
Silence

Speech Act 2

Extra
Information

4.2.2.3. Expressing Silence: Heightening Dramatic Effect
The purpose of Expressing Silence is to wait for the audience’s reaction, or toemphasize a point. In the case of conversations, it is used when one is not sure how to respond,or to ponder a subject. On the other hand, in Matsunojo’s makura, silence has a tangible
quality and it is used deliberately as something he wants the audience hear.
For example, instances of Expressing Silence appear in the following (i.e., “There areapparently ≪pause≫ 800 people in Tokyo and Osaka combined,” (Example 1, M12); “And,in rakugo, 95% are still men, but in the world of koudan, half are ≪pause≫ female.”(Example 1, M16)).

By remaining silent for a few seconds before saying “800 people” and“female”, Matsunojo has the audience’s attention and creates emphasis for what follows next.
Expressing Silence also appears when other performers are referenced (i.e., “≪pause≫, I am watching something valuable,” (Example 7, M24); and “≪pause≫ I’m talking
about you.” (Example 8, M21). These pauses have a dramatic effect. As these instances ofExpressing Silence occur before Matsunojo’s signature phrases, they increase the dramaticeffect and elicit laughter.
Table 13
Utterance
NumberExample 7

Utterances

Makura (A)Speech Act 1

Speech Act 2

Speech Act 3

M23

So, please think like this.

TopicContinuation

Elicitation of
ActionM24

So even if my koudan is not [puts both hands
forward] funny ≪pause≫ ‘‘Oh [placing righthand on chest and facing right]≪pause≫、I am
watching something valuable’’[placing righthand on chest and face left].

Information
Sharing

Expressing
Silence

Elicitation of
ActionSpeech Act 1

Speech Act 2

Speech Act 3

Information
Sharing

Expressing
Silence

Information
Sharing

Table 14
Utterance
Number

M21

A5

Example 8

Utterances“Um,” [while thrusting out the right index
finger] I asked, “Do you mean Brother
Koihachi?”, then he shook his head for about
two seconds [his right hand still outstretched]
and like this [shaking his head], he shook hishead sideways ≪pause≫ “I’m talking aboutyou.”[commotion and applause]

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Makura (B)日本語教育実践研究第 6 号 2018 pp.11-27
4.2.2.4 Elicitation of Action: Creating New Laughter
Elicitation of Action is utilized when some type of action is elicited explicitly or
implicitly from the audience. In Example 9 M16 and Example M18, Matsunojo asks theaudience to applaud. In Example 3, he does not get a desired reaction after remarking that the
number of rakugoka in east and west Japan combined is 800. Therefore, he says, “Noreaction” in order to get a reaction. Owing to the physical distance between the stage andspectator seats, natural conversation cannot be established.

However, laughter is caused

through the elicitation of action by the performer.
Table 15
Utterance
Number
M16
A5
M18
M19

Example 9

UtterancesI, [points his left index finger out to theaudience] ≪pause≫ just two people
applauding?
＜laughter＞
For the number of people here. ↑Makura (B)Speech Act 1

Speech Act 2

Speech Act 3

Expression ofOpinionExpression of
Silence

Elicitation of
ActionElicitation of
Action[applause]

4.2.2.5 Explanation of Action: Taking Off the Haori
Explanation of Action refers to an explicit explanation of the action taken. For instance,
the performer may exclaim, “Oh, I dropped it” when he drops something. In the data used,
Explanation of Action occurs infrequently, once in Makura A and B. In both cases, it is used
when Matsunojo takes off his haori (short traditional Japanese kimono-style jacket).
In Example 10, after speaking about how valuable he is as a koudanshi because he is
the only male koudanshi in his twenties, he embarks on the next topic by saying, “I don’t
really have to take my haori off here”. Furthermore, in Example 11, after he tells the audience
about how the previous owner of Suehirotei wants to make him a shinuchi, he states, “I don’t
really have to take my haori off here,” before changing topics.
In both cases, since Matsunojo takes his haori off after he discusses his self-worth, hemay be portraying himself as being embarrassed or humble. Also, the Explanation of Action
invites the audience’s laughter. In koudan, taking off the haori typically signals a change in
topic or story. In Matsunojo’s performance, he tells jokes while doing so; this has become hissignature move.

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Journal for the Study of Japanese Language Education Practice Vol.6 2018
Table 16
Utterance
NumberUtterancesAnd, now, there are fewer andfewer [moving left hand up
and down] young men
studying
tobecomekoudanshi, and [makes asound with his hari-oogi] infact, in fact, the only malekoudanshi in his 20’s is≪pause≫ just me [smiles
ironically and juts his neckout front].
[applause][takes off his haori] I don’t
really have to take my haori
off here <laughter>, um.
＜laughter＞

M18

A4
M19
A5

Table 17
Utterance
NumberM21

A5

pp.11-27

Example 10 Makura (A)Speech Act 1

Speech Act 2

Speech Act 3

Speech Act 4

Topic
Continuation

Information
Sharing

Expression of
Silence

Information
Sharing

Explanationof Action

Topic Change

Speech Act 1

Speech Act 2

Speech Act 3

Information
Sharing

Expression of
Silence

Information
Sharing

Topic Change

Explanationof Action

Example 11 Makura (B)Utterances‘Um [points his right index finger out] when
I asked, “Are you referring to Brother
Koihachi?”, he shook his head for two seconds,[leaves out the right hand] shakes his headsideways like this [shakes head] and said,≪pause≫ ‘‘I’m talking about you.”[commotion and applause]

M22[takes off the haori] Uh, I don’t really have totake my haori off here.

A6＜laughter＞

5. Limitations
The limitations to this study will be discussed in this section. First, for the present
study, data was solely collected from Matsunojo’s DVD, and as a result it has limited
reliability. In order to apply the techniques learned through makura to language teaching, moreinvestigation amassing data and comparing with other makura to classify patterns is in order.
Secondly, more investigation amassing data and comparing with makura by otherperformers to classify patterns is in order. Quantitative research examining the audiencedemographics and the optimal environment for listening to the koudan is necessary. It would
be of use in future research to explore ways in which oratory techniques used in koudan can beeffectively implemented by language instructors to draw students’ attention and to carry out
their lectures.

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日本語教育実践研究第 6 号 2018 pp.11-27
6. Conclusion
Severalcharacteristics

were

observedinMatsunojo’s

makura.

Expressing

appreciation to audience was uttered in the middle of the makura, and announcing aperformance also appeared either part way or at the end. Topic-wise, there were manyreferences to other performers, comparisons between koudan and rakugo, and self-evaluation
as a koudanshi.
The speech acts were categorized into 15 types and analyzed. The following 5 speechacts were the most prominent in Matsunojo’s makura.
(1)Repetition of Information Using Different Words: By repeating information, theinformation is emphasized, causing laughter and creating a comfortable rhythm.
（2）Extra Information: Brings about laughter in the audience and betrays expectation.
（3）Expressing Silence: Pausing allows for dramatic effect, inducing laughter.
（4）Elicitation of Action: Eliciting action that did not originally exist.
（5）Explanation of Action: This occurs just as Matsunojo is taking off his haori. Laughter
ensues.
Matsunojo’s makura is characterized by robust communication. Dramaturgicaltheory posits that the motive for communication lies in the need and desire for people tounderstand each other. In his makura, Matsunojo maintains the stance of viewing the audienceobjectively and creates a boundary between himself and the audience. Simultaneously, hewants to help the audience understand the stories he tells. His speech acts are captivating andassist in building trust between the performer and the audience.
Furthermore, speech acts in Matsunojo’s makura induce and sustain the audience’s
laughter. There is an element of yin, as if the hari-oogi dominates the scene, and an element ofyang, such as when he swiftly but quietly betrays the audience’s expectations. Matsunojo
deftly utilizes these two techniques to hold the audience’s attention and to carry them into theensuing story. He does not betray their expectation heightened by the makura, as he describes
the scenes one by one in a way that is readily absorbed by a mesmerized audience. By
incorporating such aspects into the classroom, it may be possible to have a highly engaging
lesson.
In the present society saturated with imagery, attending a koudan is a uniqueexperience that stimulates imagination. Recently in Japan, there has been a decline in theability to verbalize the experience people have had. This can be remedied by helping themdevelop their imagination. In future studies, it would be beneficial to explore ways in which
koudan can offer students this type of imagination training.

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Journal for the Study of Japanese Language Education Practice Vol.6 2018

pp.11-27

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