APERCHYDROGEN REPORT
2023

ASIA PACIFIC ENERGY RESEARCH CENTRE

ASIA PACIFIC ENERGY RESEARCH CENTRE

APERC Hydrogen Report 2023

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Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre (APERC)
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https://aperc.or.jp/©2024 Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre

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APERC Hydrogen Report 2023

Contents
FOREWORD ............................................................................................................................................. 5
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................. 6
Highlights ................................................................................................................................................ 7................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Advances in Hydrogen Projects .............................................................................................................. 8
Australia ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Brunei Darussalam ..................................................................................................................... 9
Canada ..................................................................................................................................... 10
Chile ......................................................................................................................................... 10
People’s Republic of China....................................................................................................... 11
Indonesia.................................................................................................................................. 12
Japan ........................................................................................................................................ 12
Republic of Korea ..................................................................................................................... 13
Malaysia ................................................................................................................................... 14
Mexico...................................................................................................................................... 14
New Zealand ............................................................................................................................ 15
Papua New Guinea................................................................................................................... 15
Peru .......................................................................................................................................... 16
Philippines ................................................................................................................................ 16
Russia ....................................................................................................................................... 16
Chinese Taipei .......................................................................................................................... 17
Singapore ................................................................................................................................. 17
Thailand.................................................................................................................................... 17
United States............................................................................................................................ 17
Viet Nam .................................................................................................................................. 18
Hydrogen policies and strategies .......................................................................................................... 19
Australia ................................................................................................................................... 21
Canada ..................................................................................................................................... 22
Chile ......................................................................................................................................... 23
People’s Republic of China....................................................................................................... 23
Japan ........................................................................................................................................ 24
Republic of Korea ..................................................................................................................... 25
Indonesia.................................................................................................................................. 25
Malaysia ................................................................................................................................... 26
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APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
New Zealand ............................................................................................................................ 26
Peru .......................................................................................................................................... 26
Russia ....................................................................................................................................... 26
Singapore ................................................................................................................................. 27
Thailand.................................................................................................................................... 27
Chinese Taipei .......................................................................................................................... 27
United States............................................................................................................................ 28
Viet Nam .................................................................................................................................. 28
Other APEC economy members .............................................................................................. 28
Current Challenges................................................................................................................................ 29
High cost of hydrogen .............................................................................................................. 29
Hydrogen Transport ................................................................................................................. 32
Direct Combustion of hydrogen and ammonia ....................................................................... 33
International hydrogen standards ........................................................................................... 34
References ............................................................................................................................................ 36

List of figures
Figure 1 Estimated committed annual H2 generation capacity by 2030 (Million tonne of H2) ............. 8
Figure 2 Impact of factor on the cost of hydrogen produced via SMR+CCS (USD/kg) ......................... 30
Figure 3 Estimated cost of SMR+CSS based Hydrogen using natural gas prices in EU (USD/kg) .......... 31
Figure 4 Impact of several factors on the cost of electrolysis-based hydrogen (USD/kg) .................... 31

List of tables
Table 1 H2 Policies in APEC ................................................................................................................... 19
Table 2 Properties of hydrogen carriers ............................................................................................... 33
Table 3 Combustion Characteristics of ammonia, hydrogen, and methane. ....................................... 33
Table 4 45V tax credits for clean hydrogen production according to IRA in US. .................................. 35
Table 5 Definition of clean hydrogen and ammonia according to the Revised Basic Hydrogen
Standard in Japan .................................................................................................................................. 35
Table 6 Definition of Tiers in proposed Clean Hydrogen Energy Standard in Korea ............................ 35

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APERC Hydrogen Report 2023

FOREWORDAPEC aims to reduce energy intensity by 45 percent by 2035 relative to 2005 levels. Additionally, APEC
also seeks to double the share of modern renewables by 2030 relative to 2010 levels. Hydrogen iscurrently acknowledged as a promising tool that could help APEC member economies achieve thesegoals, particularly in hard-to-abate sectors such as industry and air transport.
Despite increased attention on low-carbon hydrogen in recent years, its future viability as a lowemissions fuel remains uncertain. Cost competitiveness and the delay in the development of
infrastructure are among the key challenges that could slow its widespread adoption. Technologicaladvancements, economies of scale, and cumulative production will reduce costs. Until substantial cost
reductions are realized, the commercial development of a low-carbon hydrogen market will heavily
rely on supportive government policies, including subsides, which vary widely among APEC economies.
This report provides an update on hydrogen projects and government policies related to hydrogen in
the APEC economies. It also describes the current challenges to substantial growth in the industry andthe importance of international standards in facilitating that growth.
This report is part of the APERC fossil fuel reports series, published annually. I hope this report will
be assist APEC policymakers design and implement hydrogen strategies for each economy. I would
like to express my sincere gratitude to the authors and contributors for their time and effort inwriting and publishing this report. I am also grateful to APEC member economies for providing
updated data through the APEC Expert Group on Energy Data and Analysis (EGEDA).

Kazutomo IRIE
President
Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre
May 2024

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APERC Hydrogen Report 2023

Acknowledgements
We are grateful for the full support and insightful advice of Mr. Glen E. Sweetnam, Senior Vice
President of APERC, and Mr. Munehisa Yamashiro, Vice President of APERC. We also wish to thank theadministrative staff of APERC as this study could not have been completed without their assistance.

AuthorManuel Antonio HEREDIA MUNOZ

Editors
Glen E. SWEETNAM
Munehisa YAMASHIRO

DesignManuel Antonio HEREDIA MUNOZ

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Highlights
•

•

•

•
•

Most APEC economies are implementing policies designed to increase theproduction, transportation, and consumption of zero- and low-carbon hydrogen as
a fuel.
As a result of these new policies and expected future policies designed toencourage zero- and low-carbon hydrogen fuel use, many projects are being
proposed in a number of APEC economies.
Very few of these projects have achieved final investment decision (FID). The
primary reasons are the current high costs of producing zero- and low-carbonhydrogen, the lack of infrastructure and high cost of transporting zero- and lowcarbon hydrogen, and the uncertainty about future demand for zero- and lowcarbon hydrogen.
Reducing the cost of zero-and low-carbon hydrogen poses challenges due to asignificant portion of the production costs are tied to the cost of the energy used.
Another uncertainty relates to future international standards for zero- and lowcarbon hydrogen. The development and widespread adoption of theseinternational standards would remove key uncertainties that may slow thefinancing of zero- and low-carbon hydrogen projects.

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APERC Hydrogen Report 2023

Advances in Hydrogen Projects
According to the Hydrogen Insights 2023 Updates (Hydrogen Council and McKinsey & Company, 2023),
more than 1400 large-scale hydrogen projects, representing USD 520 billion of investment that is
expected to be commissioned by 2030, were announced by October 2023. However, most of theseprojects are in the planning phase while globally less than 7% have reached final investment decision.
Most of the projects that have committed investment are in China and North America, APEC member
economies.
Perhaps the biggest challenges in this nascent industry faces lie on the uncertainty of future demand
and the need of adequate distribution infrastructure to transport hydrogen to the end-users.
Projects that have reached final investment decision could provide around 2.5 million tonnes ofhydrogen by 2030 per year. This capacity can satisfy less than half of the end-use hydrogen demand
estimated in the 8th edition of the APEC Energy Supply and Demand Outlook (APERC, 2022) in the
carbon neutrality scenario.
The role of APEC in the development of the hydrogen industry cannot be underestimated as thisregion hosts the biggest consumers and producers of hydrogen. Several announced projects arelocated withing the APEC region. Canada and USA are currently developing fossil fuel-based lowcarbon hydrogen projects meanwhile China has committed several renewable hydrogen projects andis also rapidly expanding its electrolyser manufacturing capacity. On the other hand, Japan is actively
working on developing hydrogen supply chains in collaboration with other APEC economies such as
Australia.
Figure 1 Estimated committed annual H2 generation capacity by 2030 (Million tonne of H2)

1.5

0.6
0.3
0.03
North America

China

Korea & Japan

Rest APEC

Source: Estimation based on the Hydrogen Insights 2023 update report and APERC

Australia
By April 2023, hydrogen projects with total production capacity of 475 tonnes of hydrogen per year
are operating in Australia (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, 2023).
Most of these projects use water electrolysis as the core hydrogen production technology.
The Hazer Commercial Demonstration Plant, with a capacity of 100 tonnes of hydrogen per year, uses
a proprietary hydrogen production technology, known as Hazer process. This plant uses renewable
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methane obtained from biogas produced from biomass and organic waste to obtain low-carbonhydrogen.
Hydrogen Park South Australia and Western Sydney Green Gas projects with a combined capacity of
2,150 tonnes of hydrogen per year are under construction. They will produce hydrogen via electrolysis.
Other important projects are Yuri Renewable Hydrogen to Ammonia with a capacity of 640 tonnes per
year of hydrogen, Geelong New Service Station with a capacity of 365 tonnes per year and
Goondiwindi Hydrogen and Sumitomo Green Hydrogen Production and Rio Tinto Decarbonisation
Production Pilot Project with a capacity of 300 tonnes per year.
Another important hydrogen project in Australia is the Hydrogen Energy Supply Chain (HESC). In thisproject, hydrogen is produced from brown coal and biomass from Latrobe, a Southeastern ciy in
Victoria, via gasification and then is liquefied and transported through specially designed hydrogen
carriers to Japan. The pilot phase of this project purchased carbon offsets to mitigate emissions andthe main objective was to demonstrate the technical viability of the implementation of a hydrogenenergy supply chain. The pilot was successfully completed in February 2022 with the arrival of the
Suiso Frontier, the World’s first liquified hydrogen carrier, in Kobe, Japan with a load of liquefiedhydrogen. In March 2023, Japan Suiso Energy (JSE) confirmed it had chosen to allocate the Japanese
Government’s Green Innovation Fund (GIF) grant of JPY 210 billion to the commercial demonstration
phase of Victoria’s HESC project. In this new phase, J-Power and Sumitomo Corporation will produce
low-carbon hydrogen using coal from Latrobe and carbon capture and storage technologies. In Japan,
Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Iwatani Corporation will purchase and use this low-carbon hydrogen.
The capacity of HESC in the commercial phase is between 30,000 to 40,000 tonnes per year.
On the other hand, the Western Green Energy Hub project is among the biggest projects that is
expecting to reach final investment decision by 2028. This project plans to uses electrolysis andrenewable energy to produce 3.5 million tonnes of hydrogen per year or 20 million tonnes of green
ammonia for domestic consumption and export and includes the construction of 50 GW of solar andwind power capacity. If the project is built, it will be one of the biggest hydrogen production projects.
Other important project is the Australian Renewable Energy Hub, previously known as the Asian
Renewable Energy Hub. With a capacity of 1.6 million tonnes of green hydrogen or 9 million tonnes ofgreen ammonia, this project will develop 26 GW of solar and wind capacity. However, this project had
some problems to receive environmental approval by the authorities.

Brunei Darussalam
Brunei Darussalam was host of an important project that was a milestone for long-distance hydrogentransport. The Advanced Hydrogen Energy Association for Technology Development (AHEAD) was ademonstration project completed in 2020 and was Bruneian-Japanese effort that consisted of thedevelopment of a hydrogen supply chain using methylcyclohexane (MCH) as the hydrogen carrier.
First, hydrogen is produced via steam methane reforming at Brunei LNG. Next, hydrogen wasconverted into MCH by reacting hydrogen and toluene. Later, MCH was shipped to Tokyo wherehydrogen was extracted using a dehydrogenation process. Finally, to close the hydrogen supply chain,toluene is transported back to Brunei Darussalam for reuse. In December 2020, members of the
AHEAD project announced successful completion of the project, transporting 100 tonnes of hydrogenover 10 months, demonstrating technical viability of this method of transporting hydrogen that willcompete with ammonia and liquid hydrogen. The hydrogen was used in a gas turbine in Keihin refinery
in Japan.

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APERC Hydrogen Report 2023

CanadaAccording to Canada’s National Strategy for Hydrogen, annual hydrogen production reaches 3 million
metric tonnes, primarily sourced from natural gas. Among the most relevant operating projects are
the following: the Quest at the Scotford upgrader, Northwest Sturgeon refinery, and Horizon Oil Sands.
The hydrogen produced in these projects is used into the bitumen refining process and totallyconsumed on site. These projects have a hydrogen production capacity of approximately 700,000
tonnes of hydrogen per year and have incorporated carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies.
The Hydrogen Insights 2023 identifies North America as the region that leads with committed
investment in hydrogen projects, especially low-carbon hydrogen projects. More than 550,000 tonnesof hydrogen production capacity are committed, being the Net-Zero Hydrogen Energy Complex themost important with a capacity of 520,000 tonnes of hydrogen per year. This project consists of an
Auto-Thermal Reformer hydrogen production facility, with carbon capture technology with a rate ofcapture of 95% removal of CO2. Hydrogen-fuelled gas turbines will provide electricity to the project
and the grid. Additionally, 30 tonnes per day hydrogen liquefaction facility will provide hydrogen to
the industrial and transport sector in Canada.
A shift from fossil fuel-based hydrogen production, predominant in projects with committed
investments, to renewable energy-based hydrogen production, in recently announced projects, isevident. For example, Nujio’qonik, located in St George’s Bay in Newfoundland and Labrador, has anannounced hydrogen production capacity of 250,000 tonnes of green hydrogen per year, 1.5GW ofelectrolyser and 3GW of wind energy power plant.
Additionally, two projects will also use wind energy to produce hydrogen and ammonia in Point Tupper
Industrial Park in Nova Scotia: The Bear Head project with 350,000 tonnes of hydrogen and 2 million
tonnes of ammonia per year and the EverWind project with 200,000 tonnes of hydrogen and 1 million
tonnes of ammonia per year.
In total, announced hydrogen production capacity are estimated at around 2 million tonnes per yearby the first half 2023.

Chile
There are over 40 projects of different scales announced in Chile following the introduction of the
National Green Hydrogen Strategy and the current phases of development vary depending on the
project. Chile has taken actions through the Production Development Corporation (CORFO) by
supporting six projects as a crucial step in implementing the National Strategy. The selected projects
are the following:
•

•
•
•

•

HyEx: In its pilot phase, this project aims to yield 3,200 tonnes of green hydrogen forammonia production. A proposed upscale aim to increase capacity to 130 000 tonnes ofgreen hydrogen or 700 000 tonnes of ammonia per year.
Antofagasta Mining Energy Renewable (AMER): Envisioned to produce an annual output of
60,000 of e-methanol.
HyPro Aconcagua: Aiming to displace fossil-fuel-derived hydrogen in refineries, thisendeavor has a projected capacity of 3,000 tonnes of green hydrogen.
Hidrógeno Verde Bahía Quintero: Anticipating an annual production of 430 tonnes of greenhydrogen. However, the project faced challenges in securing sufficient demand which poseda risk to its developmental progress.
H2V CAP: Set to establish a green hydrogen facility with a capacity to generate 1550 tonnesof green hydrogen annually.
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Faro del Sur: Envisaged to produce 25,000 tonnes of hydrogen per year, with intentions to
manufacture e-methanol and e-gasoline for export purposes. However, this project recently
halted its advancement due to regulatory requisites imposed by the authorities.

Additionally, the Haru Oni project, located in Punta Arenas in the South of Chile, exported its first
2,600 liters of synthetic fuel produced with green hydrogen in 2023. The e-fuel was exported toEngland to be tested by Porsche as the car company plans to use carbon-neutral fuels in the Porsche
Mobil 1 Super Cup.
In August 2023, Chile inaugurated the first industrial green hydrogen facility in Latin America tosupply hydrogen to two hundred forklifts’ fuel cells. There are also pilot projects that blendhydrogen with natural gas 20% (v/v) 1, for heating some households in Coquimbo, located in the Near
North region of Chile.

People’s Republic of China
China currently stands as the world's largest consumer and producer of hydrogen. According to theInternational Energy Agency's Global Hydrogen Review 2022, China's hydrogen demand wasapproximately 28 million tonnes in 2021, constituting nearly 30% of the global demand. Most of thisdemand is met through unabated coal-based hydrogen production.
China has emerged as a frontrunner in committed investments within the APEC region, with a strong
focus on green hydrogen projects. S&P Global Commodity Insights for 2022 indicates that 307MW ofelectrolysers were installed worldwide, with 224MW installed just in China. Installed capacity ofelectrolyzers is estimated in 1.2 GW by 2023.
Sinopec, the world's largest refiner by volume, has set an ambitious target to ensure that 60% of its
annual hydrogen production will be green hydrogen by 2025. To achieve this goal, Sinopec hasundertaken the Kuqa Hydrogen Project in the Xinjian region. This facility commenced operations inJune 2023 and is expected to supply 20,000 tonnes of green hydrogen annually to a nearby refineryby 2025. The plant is powered by solar power and consists of 52 electrolysers, each with a capacityof 1,000 Nm3/h, totaling 260MW of electrolyser capacity.
Another notable project by Sinopec is the Ordos Project in Inner Mongolia. This facility is recognized
as one of the largest green hydrogen projects, with an annual production capacity of 30,000 tonnes
that will replace coal-based hydrogen in nearby chemical plants. The Ordos Project relies on 450MWof wind power and 270MW of solar power.
Furthermore, Sinopec is advancing its green hydrogen initiatives, with plans for a 400-kilometerhydrogen pipeline connecting the Ulanqab Green Hydrogen Plant to Sinopec's Yanshan
Petrochemical Plant in Beijing. This pipeline is designed for an annual production capacity of 100,000
tonnes. Notably, this pipeline is a component of the extensive 6,000-kilometer network anticipatedby 2050, as outlined by the China Petroleum Pipeline Engineering Corporation.
Inner Mongolia's local government has also given the green light to several other projects, including
a significant 1.68GW solar and 370MW wind project. This project is expected to generate asubstantial 66 900 tonnes of green hydrogen annually. With these projects gaining approval, theaggregate hydrogen production capacity in Inner Mongolia, if fully realized, could reachapproximately 500,000 tonnes of green hydrogen. This surpasses the national target of producing(v/v) stands for volume over volume and indicates the concentration of the hydrogen relative to total volumeof the mixture.

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100,000 to 200,000 tonnes of hydrogen per year by 2025, putting substantial pressure on the
expansion of the hydrogen distribution system in China.
Preceding these recent developments were noteworthy projects such as the Baofeng Energy Solar
PV/Hydrogen Project, featuring a 150MW alkaline electrolyser paired with a 200MW solar array,
which came to fruition in 2021.
Regarding fossil fuel-based hydrogen projects, in 2022, Sinopec successfully completed a carbon
capture and storage (CCS) project in Jiangsu province, integrated into a synthetic ammonia plant anda coal-to-hydrogen plant. This project captures approximately 200,000 tonnes of CO2 annually, withthe primary objective of sourcing CO2 for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). A similar approach is being
applied in another Sinopec project located in Shangdong, where 700,000 tonnes of CO2 are captured
annually.
In 2022, Sinopec finished a carbon capture and storage project in Jiangsu province that was installed
in a synthetic ammonia plant and coal to hydrogen plant, capturing around 200,000 tonnes of CO2
per year. The objective of this project is obtaining CO2 for enhanced oil recovery. This concept is also
applied in other Sinopec’s project in Shangdong with a capture of 700,000 tonnes of CO2 per year.
The Yangchang Integrated Carbon Capture and Storage project is under construction and linked tooil production activities.
Furthermore, 2022 marked a significant milestone with the ignition of China's first biomass
gasification-to-hydrogen project.

Indonesia
Pertamina, an Indonesian state-owned oil and natural gas corporation, announced its plan to produce
green hydrogen using energy from the Ulubelu Goethermal plant. The primary objective of this projectis to supply clean hydrogen to the processes in the Plaju and Dumai refineries. The proposed facility isintended to produce 100 kg of hydrogen per day.
Additionally, Panca Amara Utama, PAU, an Indonesian ammonia production and sales company
entered a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with Japanese companies. The main objective of
this collaboration is to develop clean fuel ammonia production in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. The
project will convert PAU’s ammonia plant to produce 700,000 tonnes of clean ammonia for exports
and will be supplied by natural gas from local reserves.
In October 2023, Persusahaan Listrick Negara (PLN), the Indonesian state-owned company,
inaugurated the first green hydrogen plant located in Jakarta with a yearly production of 51 million
tonnes of hydrogen.
Later, in November 2023, Indonesia announced the successful culmination of the feasibility study
concerning a 300 MW project in the Aceh province. The estimated investment in this project isapproximately USD 500 million, and the plant is expected to produce 98.5 tonnes per day using
renewable electricity starting in 2026, taking advantage of Indonesia’s geothermal potential.

Japan
Japan has been actively investing in hydrogen projects across various economies, including Australia,
Singapore, and more. However, there are also noteworthy local initiatives, primarily in the form of
demonstration projects. Among these, the Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field (FH2R) stands
out. This project was equipped with a 10MW electrolyser and a 20MW solar generation plant. It held
the title of the largest green hydrogen plant from 2020 until bigger projects emerged in other12

APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
economies in recent months. This plant has the capacity to supply hydrogen to power approximately
150 households or 560 fuel cell vehicles daily.
In May 2023, Hokkaido Electric Power announced the beginning of hydrogen production of its 1MW
electrolyser facility. Over the next three years, the plant will be connected to the grid. Subsequently,
it will utilize excess renewable electricity to contribute to grid stabilization. Furthermore, ongoingfeasibility studies are exploring the potential for a substantial 100MW electrolysis unit, to tap into
Hokkaido's ample renewable energy resources.
In the realm of technological advancements, Mitsubishi Power's hydrogen gas turbine technology isaiming to demonstrate its ability to run the 40MW unit on 100% hydrogen by the end of 2023 andtargeting its commercialization by 2025. Cofiring 50-50% natural gas–hydrogen in 400MW turbines
was already successfully verified.
This innovative technology enables the conversion of existing gas-fired power plants into highly
efficient and cost-effective hydrogen-fueled facilities. The goal is to reduce CO2 emissions fromthermal power generation by initially blending hydrogen with natural gas and eventually transitioning
to 100% hydrogen utilization.

Republic of Korea
Korea had been actively pursuing various hydrogen projects and initiatives as part of its efforts totransition towards a hydrogen-based economy. In alignment with its hydrogen economy roadmap andthe establishment of hydrogen cities, several projects have started construction in recent years, withseveral more expected in the following years.
In 2020 Korea announced plans to build hydrogen pilot cities. The first selected cities were Ulsan,
Ansan, and Jeonju/Wanju. During this pilot phase, more than 20 km of hydrogen pipelines were built,
several fuel cells residential systems were installed including 437 units of 1.320 MW fuel cells were
installed in Ulsan, over 60 hydrogen buses were operated, and hydrogen operation and safety
management centres started construction. It is estimated that this pilot phase may contribute with aannual reduction of emissions of 10,996 tonnes of CO2-eq in the three cities. In 2023, the government
declared successful implementation of the aforementioned project and announced a similar projectat greater scale in six additional cities: Pyeongtaek, Namyangju, Dangjin, Boryeong, Gwangyang, andPohang. A hydrogen city must use this gas in major urban functions in buildings, transport, andindustry. Some projects consider hydrogen production from fossil fuels with carbon capture andstorage, organic waste such as cattle dropping, and other activities such as petrochemical in the formof by-products. Another important characteristic is that there are hydrogen uses not only intransportation or steelmaking, but also in air-conditioning in buildings.
In December 2022, SK E&S, a prominent Korean corporation, received approval for the constructionof the world's largest blue hydrogen facility near the Boryeong LNG Terminal. This endeavour utilizes
liquefied natural gas (LNG) to produce blue hydrogen and is expected to yield an annual output of
200,000 tonnes of hydrogen for power generation, in addition to 50,000 tonnes intended for hydrogen
filling stations in the form of liquefied hydrogen, all to be achieved by 2025.
Ulsan city, a notable player in Korea’s hydrogen landscape, revealed intentions to build 6GW of
offshore wind power by 2030. Of this capacity, 20% will be dedicated to the production of greenhydrogen utilizing sea water with the aim of reaching an annual production of 84,000 tonnes per year.
The development of Donghae 1, a 200MW floating offshore wind power plant, is an initial step
towards achieving this vision.
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Hyundai Group has unveiled a long-term hydrogen strategy. As part of this strategy, Hyundai Oilbank,a refinery oil company within the group, plans to produce 100,000 tonnes of hydrogen per year fromnatural gas and refinery by-products employing carbon capture technologies. Concurrently, Hyundai
Oilbank aims to build 180 hydrogen fuel stations by 2025. Moreover, in 2022, Hyundai Oilbank enteredinto a business agreement with ARAMCO to explore the feasibility of a long-term supply of ammonia
from Saudi Arabia for fuelling liquefied natural gas boilers.
The industrial conglomerate Doosan is committed to develop the Changwon Hydrogen Liquefaction
Project in Gyeongnam. Located in Changwon City, this facility represents Korea's first hydrogenliquefaction plant, with a daily capacity of 5 tonnes of liquefied blue hydrogen that will be used forsupply to charging stations.
Kogas, a state-owned Korean gas corporation, has initiated the construction of a hydrogen production
facility in Gwanju with a capacity of 1,400 tonnes per year, with plans for additional facilities inChangwon and Pyetntaek. Kogas aspires to produce 1.035 million tonnes of hydrogen by 2030,
comprising 668,000 tonnes of gray hydrogen, 167,000 tonnes of blue hydrogen (both sourced fromnatural gas), and 200,000 metric tons of green hydrogen. Additionally, Kogas envisions the importationof 1.21 million tonnes of green hydrogen starting in 2030.
Furthermore, there are plans to construct a nuclear plant employing Small Modular Reactor
technology in the Uljin Nuclear Hydrogen National Industrial Complex, intended to supply electricity
to hydrogen production companies that will be in that region.
SK Gas has unveiled a business plan that includes the construction of a hydrogen production complex
scheduled for completion by 2025. SK's vision also includes the establishment of 100 hydrogen
refuelling stations throughout Korea by 2030.
In September 2022, Jeju Island launched what was considered the biggest Korea’s green hydrogenproject. The project uses a 12.5 MW electrolyser to produce up to 1 176 tons of green hydrogen peryear at 60% of capacity factor and the use of the hydrogen is to power vehicles, drones, and powerother uses. This project is expected to run until 2026. Later, Jeju announced plans a 30 MW
electrolyser green hydrogen plan after a feasibility study is concluded.
In December 2022, Korea’s SK E&S announced the approval for the construction of the world’s biggest
blue hydrogen facility in the vicinity of Boryeong LNG Terminal. This project uses LNG to produce bluehydrogen and has an output of 200,000 tonnes of hydrogen per year for power generation and 50,000
tonnes of hydrogen for hydrogen filling stations in the form of liquified hydrogen by 2025.

Malaysia
PETRONAS, a Malaysian state-owned energy company, signed a MOU with ENEOS, a Japanese oilcompany, to develop competitive clean energy supply between Malaysia and Japan. This partnershipwill explore opportunities for hydrogen production in Malaysia and the use of methylcyclohexane(MCH) for the long-distance hydrogen transportation.
Additionally, there are also other partnerships between Korean and Malaysian companies to study thefeasibility of a 900MW hydropower-based green hydrogen project called H2biscus. If developed, thisproject will potentially export hydrogen to Korea.

MexicoAccording to the Mexican Hydrogen Association, approximately 10 hydrogen projects are currently invarious stages of development. For instance, the state-owned electric utility of Mexico, Comisión
Federal de Electricidad unveiled plans for pilot hydrogen projects. Two of those projects center around14

APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
two solar energy power plants: Cerro Prieto in Baja California and Puerto Peñasco in Sonora.
Significantly, Pemex, the state-owned oil company of Mexico, has also announced the use of greenhydrogen to decarbonize its operations.
Energía Los Cabos, a 40 MW solar power plant located in Baja California, is under development andwill use hydrogen as energy storage of excess electricity that can be converted back into electricity
through fuel cells technology.
Similarly, Las Delicias solar plant, located in Guanajato and with a capacity of 31 MW, is poised to yield
annual hydrogen output of 3,200 tonnes. Meanwhile, the Neptuno solar plant is projected to achieve
higher output with 18,300 tonnes of hydrogen annually.
Adding to these projects is the proposal for a hydrogen-fueled train renowned as the Tren Maya.
This pioneering concept seeks to harness the potential of hydrogen as a clean fuel source,
exemplifying a forward-looking approach to sustainable transportation.

New Zealand
There are some clean hydrogen projects that are under development or study in New Zealand. Halcyon
Power green hydrogen plant, the first green hydrogen plan in New Zealand, started operations in 2021.
The project is powered by geothermal energy plant in Taupo. The plant capacity is 1.5 MW.
The Pouakai NZ project, located in Taranaki, is a large-scale initiative focused on the production ofhydrogen, power, and ammonia/urea. The project utilizes the Allam Cycle process, which generates
power by combusting natural gas in an environment of pure oxygen. This process results in the
production of carbon dioxide (CO2) and steam. The CO2 is subsequently captured, contributing to theenvironmental sustainability of the project. The project also involves a series of processes including
partial oxidation, gas heated reforming, and autothermal reforming. These processes, powered by theelectricity generated, lead to the production of hydrogen with a claimed efficiency of 87%. The project
aims to complete construction by 2023 and achieve a production capacity of 600 tonnes of hydrogen
per day.
Despite facing some challenges, Kapuni Green Hydrogen Project, located in Kapuni, Taranaki, isprojected to start operations in 2023. The project includes the installation of an electrolysis plant anda hydrogen storage facility. Additionally, four wind turbines are expected to supply 75% of the power
needed for the operations of the electrolysis plant. The hydrogen produced will be used in the
manufacture of urea, potentially replacing 7,000 tonnes of this imported urea.
Hiringa Energy, a company that produces green hydrogen to decarbonise transport and industry, isdeveloping a hydrogen refuelling network in New Zealand, constructing 4 sites (Hamilton, Palmerston
North, Auckland, and Tauranga) that are expected to be operational by the end of 2023. The numberof hydrogen-refuelling sites is expected to reach 24 by 2028, and 100 by 2030.
In addition to them, there are several demonstration projects spread throughout New Zealand, mainly
focused on hydrogen for transports.

Papua New Guinea
While there are currently no projects under development in Papua New Guinea, the nation's
significant renewable energy potential, particularly in hydro and geothermal resources, positions
Papua New Guinea to explore hydrogen as a promising energy source for both domestic consumption
and international trade. Several feasibility studies are underway to assess the viability of such projects.

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Peru
Engie Peru signed an agreement to supply renewable energy certificates to Industrias Cachimayo tocertify 100% green energy use in its ammonium nitrate plant in Cuzco. The plant, fully privately
invested, produces around 33,000 tonnes of ammonium nitrate per year.
In January 2024, Fenix, one of the main electricity producers with a combined-cycle natural gasfuelled thermal plant, inaugurated its first green hydrogen project. This installation is located inside
its power plant and comprises a photovoltaic plant that powers an electrolyser. The project aims to
produce 8,000 m3 of green hydrogen annually, meeting 100% of the internal hydrogen demand forthe cooling system for generators.

Philippines
Hydrogen de France (HDF) Energy, Zamboanga Sibugay, and the three off-grid towns of Olutanga,
Mabuhay, and Talusan on the island signed the memorandum of cooperation for the construction of
the first hydrogen power plant project in the Philippines. This pilot project consists of a capacity of
10MW.

RussiaThe Russian original Roadmap for Hydrogen Development has a strong vision for export. As a result,some of the announced projects are geared towards establishing hydrogen hubs with the vision ofexporting to the Asia Pacific or European market as well as supplying local demand.
The Ministry of Trade and Industry of Russia launched the Russian Atlas of Hydrogen and Ammonia
production projects that aim to become a reference point for investors and domestic manufacturers.
At its launch the Atlas showed 41 projects in 21 regions. Most of them are green hydrogen projects,
mainly fed by tidal and wind power plants, with a total production capacity of 6.9 million tonnes ofhydrogen per year, followed by blue hydrogen/ammonia projects with a total capacity of 13.6
million tonnes of ammonia per year and 100,000 tonnes of hydrogen per year. There is also 1
turquoise hydrogen project.
The largest hydrogen production project observed in the Atlas is the hydrogen-power cluster basedon Penzhinskaya tidal power plant in Kamchatka. With a total capacity of liquified hydrogenproduction of 5 million tonnes of hydrogen or 31 million tonnes of ammonia, the facility will be
powered by the total capacity of 110GW Penzhinskaya tidal power plant, although this is a long-term
plan. The project will be implemented by phases and the first phase, expected to start operations by
2034, will produce 17,500 tonnes of liquid hydrogen or 115,000 tonnes of ammonia per year and willuse 100MW of wind and 300MW of tidal power plants, although shipments of products are expected
to start in 2026. The second phase will include 1GW of wind and 21.4GW of tidal power plants to
produce 1.200 billion of hydrogen or 7.7 million tonnes of ammonia per year.
Another ambitious project is the production of 500,000 tonnes of hydrogen per year via electrolysis
fed by Mezensk tidal power plant. This project is expected to operate in 2030 and can expand its
capacity to 1 million tonnes per year by 2033.
On side of the blue hydrogen/ ammonia project, the biggest ammonia production project is theNorth-East Alliance in Yakutia that will be implemented by phases with 3 million tonnes of ammonia
per year by 2026 and 6 million tonnes per year by 2030. The project will use steam methane
reforming with CO2 capture that will be used in enhanced oil recovery in oil reservoir. The mainmarket for these products would be the domestic market and the Asia Pacific region.

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APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
Additionally, Rosatom, the State Atomic Energy Corporation, adopted hydrogen development as amajor strategic plank of its business in 2020. It announced plans to launch pilot hydrogen productionin Kaliningrad, Murmansk, and Sakhalin. Kaliningrad will produce green hydrogen using wind energy
to supply domestic and European demand. In Murmask, the Kola Nuclear Power Plant will include atest hydrogen production facility with the capacity to produce 200 tonnes of hydrogen for exports by
2025.In Sakhalin, two hydrogen production projects are expected to be launched in 2025: one willproduce hydrogen by electrolysis using wind power, and the other, in collaboration with Gazprom,
will produce blue hydrogen. Both projects are for export to the Asia Pacific Region.

Chinese Taipei
Chinese Taipei has undertaken a series of demonstration and research projects, collectively reaching
several hundreds of KW of electrolyser capacity. While local hydrogen consumption has beenmodest until now; Chinese Taipei’s ambitions are resolute: to install 91MW capacity by 2025,
according to its Hydrogen Energy Development Roadmap.
On the other hand, the fuel cell manufacturing sector anticipates a promising surge in theforthcoming years. This surge is largely attributed to burgeoning demand in other economies in theworld, positioning Chinese Taipei's industry on a trajectory of growth and expansion.

Singapore
Singapore announced the construction of a 600MW Keppel Sakra Cogen Plant, a combined-cycle gas
turbine facility, that can run on natural gas with 30% of hydrogen and it is expected to run 100% onhydrogen in the future. This plant is expected to enter operation during the first quarter of 2026.

ThailandLam Takhong Wind Hydrogen Hybrid Project, a project owned by the Electricity Generating Authorityof Thailand (EGAT), was one of the first green hydrogen project in Southeast Asia. The project, part ofa renewable energy complex, uses excess electricity from a 22MW wind energy power plant and 1MWelectrolyser to store energy as green hydrogen that will be converted into electricity through fuel cells.
In April 2023, PTTGroup, Thailand’s state-owned oil and gas conglomerate, announced plans to build
a Plant that will produce 225,000 tonnes of green hydrogen equivalent to 1.2 million tonnes ofammonia.

United States
United States is the second largest hydrogen consumer and producer. According to the report,“Pathway to Commercial liftoff: Clean Hydrogen”, the domestic demand of clean hydrogen could risefrom 1 million tonnes of hydrogen per year to 10 million tonnes by 2030, and 50 million tonnes by
2050. In the short term, most of the demand will be driven by the transition from the current use ofhigh-carbon-intensity hydrogen to low-emission hydrogen. In recent years US has intensified its
efforts to develop the hydrogen value chain.
According to the White House’s blog “The Economics of Demand-Side Support for the Department ofEnergy’s Clean Hydrogen Hubs”, of all US clean hydrogen projects announced by 2022, which add up
to 12 million tonnes of hydrogen per year, only 1.5 million had reached financial investment decisionby the end of that year.
According to the report “Pathway to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen”, most of the announced
clean hydrogen capacity, which is around 10.5 million tonnes, is associated with projects where
production is developed in conjunction with midstream processes and/or specific end uses. Projects
that are solely dedicated to clean hydrogen production represent 1.4 million tonnes. Meanwhile,17

APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
projects that only involve midstream processes and end-use account for less than 0.1 million tonnes
per year.
Some green hydrogen projects that are expected to enter production:
•
•
•
•
•

St Gabriel Hydrogen Plant in Louisiana with a daily production of 15 tonnes, expected to
grow up to 500 tonnes by 2025 and 1000 by 2028.
Sauj Valley green hydrogen project with a capacity of 52 tonnes per year and will be able tostore 400 kg of hydrogen on site.
Kingsland green hydrogen project will produce 15 tonnes of hydrogen per day in Georgia,
Casa Grande, producing 10 tonnes per day in Arizona. The hydrogen produced by thisproject will be used for transportation.
Donaldsonville Green Hydrogen project will consist of 20MW electrolyser to produce 20,000
tonnes of green ammonia per year.

Among future projects that are still under development, Advanced Clean Energy Storage (ACES)
project stands out as important initiative. It will be built in Utah and will use 220MW alkaline
electrolysis with two salt caverns to store clean hydrogen with a storage capacity of 5500 tonnes.
ACES is expected to start operation in 2025 and will use stored excess renewable energy to stabilize
the grid. Later, hydrogen will be used by the Intermountain Power Agency to cofire its gas turbine.
The vision is that these turbines will run on 100% of hydrogen by 2045.
Air Products is currently developing one of the biggest blue hydrogen projects in Louisiana with adaily production of 21 million of standard m3 and it is expected to be finished by 2026. The purposeof this project is to provide low-carbon hydrogen to the refineries along the US Gulf coast. The
nominal CO2 capture rate of this project is 95%.
There are also announced pilot projects that involve blending hydrogen into the natural gas pipeline
systems for power generation. Dominion Energy has initiated the first hydrogen blending pilot
program in Ohio, introducing a 5% (v/v) blend. However, in this initial phase, the hydrogen blend will
be utilized exclusively in a limited scope of 16 households. This project followed a demonstration
performed in 2022, where blending of 5% (v/v) hydrogen-natural gas was used in the long ridge
terminal power plant in Hannibal, Ohio.
Numerous hydrogen projects have recently been announced and are anticipated to reach a higher
level of maturity in the coming years.

Viet Nam
In March 2023, TGS, a leading clean energy company, commenced the construction of a greenhydrogen plant located in the province of Tra Vinh. This project aims to deliver an initial annual
production of 24,000 tonnes of green hydrogen alongside 195,000 tons of oxygen. Additionally, theestablishment of an industrial cluster in Ben Tre province was announced. The initial phase of this plan
has a 400MW electrolyser-powered green hydrogen plant, with an annual capacity of 45,000 tonnes– of which 13,500 tonnes are for commercial utilization.

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APERC Hydrogen Report 2023

Hydrogen policies and strategies
Most APEC members have expressed interest in the development of a hydrogen market and want tostudy the potential role that this gas may play in their future potential energy system.
APEC region has been a leader in developing and implementing strategies to promote the nascenthydrogen industry. Each strategy in APEC corresponds to the unique characteristics and priorities ofthe economy member that developed it. Among the most relevant policies developed in the APEC
region we have the followings:
Table 1 H2 Policies in APEC
EconomyAustralia

Main documents or policy
National Hydrogen Strategy
Hydrogen HeadStart Program••
Brunei
Darussalam
CanadaNo specific policy•

Hydrogen Strategy for Canada
The Emission Reduction Plan 2030

•
•
•

Chile

National Strategy of Green Hydrogen•••

PeopleRepublic of
China

China's Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cell
Industry Development Plan (20202030)
Hydrogen Industry Development Plan
(2021-2035).

•••

Hong Kong
China

Climate Action Plan•

19

Key goals
Establishment of export
supply chains anddevelopment of shipping andlogistics capabilities forhydrogen exports.
Clean hydrogen under AUD2
per kg H2
To be defined
Expansion of clean hydrogenproduction.
Creation of different regionalhubs.
The strategy envisioned
Canada as a consumer and an
exporter of hydrogen.
5GW of electrolyser installedby 2025.
To produce the lowest-costgreen hydrogen by 2030.
Being one of the 3 main greenhydrogen exporters by 2040.
50,000 hydrogen fuel-cellvehicles on the road by 2025.
Green hydrogen production
using renewable feedstock
resources to reach between
100,000 to 200,000 tonnes
per year by 2025.
Besides transport, China
envisages the use of cleanhydrogen in other sectors:
energy storage, electricity
generation and industry
Hong Kong China mentionshydrogen in its Climate Action
Plan, especially for use intransportation.

APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
Indonesia
Japan

National Hydrogen Strategy
Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and
Fuel cells
Hydrogen Strategy Roadmap
Green Growth Strategy
Basic Policy for the realization of Green
Transformation
Revised Basic Hydrogen Strategy

•
•

•
•

Republic of
Korea

Hydrogen Economy Roadmap 2019
Hydrogen Economy Promotion andHydrogen Safety Management Act
1st Basic Plan for the Implementationof the Hydrogen Economy

•

•

•
•

Malaysia

Hydrogen Economy & Technology
Roadmap••

MexicoNew ZealandUnder development
Vision for Hydrogen in New Zealand

•
•
•
•
•
•

Papua New
GuineaPeru

No specific policy•

Law that establishes Climate Energy asa National Interest
Green Hydrogen Promotion Law•

20

To be defined
3 million tonnes of H2 by
2030, 12 million tonnes by
2040 and 20 million tons by
2050.
The threshold for cleanhydrogen is 3.4kg of CO2/kg
H2 on a Well-to-Gate basis.
The threshold for ammonia is
0.84kg of CO2/kg NH3 on a
Gate-to-Gate basis.
Korea wants to become oneof the leading global fuel cellvehicles manufacturers with
6.2 million vehicles and 1200
refilling stations by 2040.
Hydrogen demand supplied by
100% of low-carbon hydrogenby 2050. 82% will come fromoverseas, while 60% of thedomestically producedhydrogen is green and theremainder is blue. The
estimated hydrogen demandin 2050 is 27.9 million tonnes.
10% of green hydrogen frommarine sources by 2040.
Blending 20% ammonia in atleast half of the coal plants by
2030 and 30% or morehydrogen by 2035 in all thegas-fired power plant.
Phase out gray hydrogen by
2030.
The cost of green hydrogen by
2050 are the following:
USD 1.45/kg solar
USD 2.11/kg hydroUSD 1.72/kg biomass
USD 1.25 kg biogas
To be defined
Clean hydrogen plays a keyrole in the establishment of alow emissions economy.
To be defined
Promotion of production,
R&D, transport, distribution,and end use of green

APERC Hydrogen Report 2023

Republic of
Philippines
RussiaIn process of formulating a Strategic
Roadmap
Energy Strategy to 2035
Roadmap for Hydrogen Development
until 2024•••

Singapore

Singapore’s National Hydrogen
Strategy•••

Chinese Taipei
Thailand

United States

Hydrogen Energy Development
Roadmap.

•

Study on the production andconsumption of hydrogen underpolicies recommendations to promotehydrogen in Thailand
Hydrogen Shot
Inflation Reduction Act
Clean Hydrogen Strategy andRoadmap•••
Viet NamHydrogen Energy Development
Strategy•hydrogen for domestic andinternational market.
To be definedExports of 0.2 million metrictons by 2024 and 2 million by
2035.
Development of threehydrogen clusters.
Combined cycle gas turbines
will be able to run on 100%hydrogen by 2030.
Hydrogen will satisfy 50% of
the projected demand ofelectricity by 2050.
Low-carbon hydrogen can beused to produce biofuels andsynthetic fuels.
Hydrogen is targeted to reach
between 9-12% of total power
generation mix.
This document was released
for public consultation
10 million tonnes per year of
clean hydrogen by 2030, 20
million by 2040 and 50 million
by 2050.
Reduction the cost of cleanhydrogen to 1 USD per kg H2
in a decade.
100,000 to 500,000 tonnes
per year of renewable and low
carbon hydrogen by 2030 witha vision to produce 10 to 20
million tonnes per year by
2050.

Australia
Australia was the second economy in APEC to develop a hydrogen strategy. In contrast to the Japanesevision that was influenced by the scarcity of domestic natural resources, Australia recognized thepotential use of its abundant natural resources and existing energy infrastructure for producing andbecoming a leading global exporter of clean hydrogen. Australia launched its National Hydrogen
Strategy in 2019 outlining the economy’s vision: large-scale, low-cost hydrogen production hubs
across the economy, the promotion of hydrogen adoption in transport, industry, and power
generation, among other uses. The strategy also aspires to establish export supply chains and todevelop shipping and logistics capabilities for hydrogen exports. This strategy is under review in 2023.
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APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
Following the National Hydrogen Strategy, Australia launched other complementary documents suchas the First Low Emission Technology Statement in 2020 that identifies clean hydrogen as a priority
technology, and highlights the government's commitment to supporting their development,
deployment, and commercialization, highlights the stretch goal of reaching clean hydrogen under AUD
2 per kg H2 , the Technology Investment Roadmap in 2020 that sets out Australia's plan to accelerate
the development and deployment of low-emissions technologies, with hydrogen being one of the key
focus areas.
In 2023, the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment, and Water unveiled the
National Hydrogen Infrastructure Assessment. This comprehensive assessment serves as a criticalreview of the hydrogen infrastructure needs, enabling informed decisions for prioritizing
infrastructure investments.
Additionally, Australian states and territories have developed individual strategies or action plans tofacilitate the development of hydrogen projects in their territories, aligning these initiatives with theoverarching framework of the National Hydrogen Strategy.
In 2023, the Australian Government announced up to AUD 2 billion in the Hydrogen HeadStart
Program to fund, in the form of a production credit, large clean hydrogen projects to accelerate thedevelopment of Hydrogen industry in Australia. To be eligible for the program, projects must include
electrolysers with capacity of at least 50 MW that are powered by 100% renewable energy. The
program will fund a maximum of10 years of eligible clean hydrogen production since the date ofcommissioning starting 2026. By the end of 2024, selected projects will be known.

CanadaCanada presented the Hydrogen Strategy for Canada following the Canadian Net-Zero Emissions
Accountability Act in 2020. In this document, Canada wants to maintain its leading role in the global
energy market. The strategy focuses on expanding clean hydrogen production, creating different
regional hubs that take advantages of different natural resources in each region. The strategy
envisioned Canada as a consumer and an exporter of hydrogen.
The strategy states that clean hydrogen has the potential to deliver up to 30% of Canada’s end use
energy by 2050, abating to 190Mt of CO2e. Canada also aims to become one of the top three cleanhydrogen producers globally.
Canada aims to develop a hydrogen infrastructure network, including hydrogen production facilities,
storage, and transportation infrastructure. The strategy focuses on building hydrogen refuelling
stations for FCEVs (Fuel cell electric vehicles), establishing hydrogen hubs, and utilizing existing natural
gas pipelines for hydrogen transport, storage, and distribution.
The Emission Reduction Plan 2030 has established an ambitious target: By 2030, the aim is to ensurethat zero-emission vehicles constitute 35% of the total sales within the medium and heavy-duty
vehicle category.
In addition, Canada has implemented some amendments to its legislation to support clean hydrogendevelopment such as the amendments to the Electricity Act in Nova Scotia to include green hydrogenprojects in the definition of wholesale customers or the expansion of the scope of the UndergroundHydrocarbons Storage Act to include hydrogen, ammonia, and carbon sequestration.
Additionally, hydrogen projects are eligibles tax for credits between 15% to 40% for hydrogenproduction under the proposed Clean Technology investment Tax Credit.
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APERC Hydrogen Report 2023

Chile
Chile presented the National Strategy of Green Hydrogen, a comprehensive strategy to promote thedevelopment and export of green hydrogen, known as the Green Hydrogen Strategy in 2020. Amongthe main goals of this strategy are the following:•••

5GW of electrolyse installed by 2025.
To produce the lowest-cost green hydrogen by 2030.
Being one of the 3 main green hydrogen exporters by 2040.

Chile aims to become a leading producer of green hydrogen by leveraging its abundant renewableenergy resources, particularly solar and wind power. The strategy focuses on developing large-scale
renewable energy projects dedicated to hydrogen production through electrolysis, with an emphasison cost reduction and scalability. The economy aims to establish long-term partnerships with othercountries and leverage its geographic advantages, such as proximity to international markets, toposition itself as a reliable supplier of clean hydrogen.
In December 2023, Chile released the draft of the Green Hydrogen Action Plan for public consultation.
This preliminary document that prioritizes 30 measures required to implement the National Strategy
of Green Hydrogen, ranging from the implementation of demonstration pilot projects to regulatory
reforms that facilitate the development of hydrogen project, is open for comments and observations
until February 2024. The action plan was launched in May 2024.

People’s Republic of China
By 2023, China is already the World’s largest producer and consumer of hydrogen and launched its
national hydrogen strategy in November 2020. The strategy, officially titled China's Hydrogen Energy
and Fuel Cell Industry Development Plan (2020-2030), was announced by China's Ministry of Scienceand Technology, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and National Development andReform Commission. This strategy outlines China's vision, goals, and policy directions for thedevelopment and utilization of hydrogen energy and fuel cells over the next decade (2020-2030). This
document emphasizes the importance of hydrogen in China's energy transition, decarbonization
efforts, and technological innovation. The strategy aims to position China as a relevant global player
in the hydrogen industry. This approach to hydrogen is rooted in China's dedication to curbing carbon
emissions, bolstering energy security, and driving technological innovation.
Some key aspects of China's national hydrogen strategy are the following:
China aims to expand the production and supply of hydrogen, with a focus on green hydrogen(produced from renewable energy sources) and clean hydrogen (produced with carbon capture andstorage technologies). The strategy includes plans for building large-scale hydrogen production
facilities, developing hydrogen infrastructure, and establishing hydrogen supply chains.
Additionally, China released the Hydrogen Industry Development Plan (2021-2035). This document
establishes some guidelines regarding the trajectory of the hydrogen industry in the following years
and try to help the orderly growth of this new industry. This plan focuses on two areas: hydrogenproduction and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. China envisions 50,000 hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles on theroad by 2025 and additional hydrogens refuelling stations 2 . The plan targets green hydrogenproduction using renewable feedstock resources to reach between 100,000 to 200,000 tonnes per
year by 2025. Besides transport, the plan envisages the use of clean hydrogen in other sectors: energy
By 2023, the number of fuel cell vehicle charging stations have been estimated in 354, with a combined goalof several provinces of more than 1200 stations by 2025.
2

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APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
storage, electricity generation and industry. In that regard, China will establish five demonstrations
clusters (Jing-Jin-Ji, Shanghai, Guangdong, Hebei, and Henan) for the demonstration of fuel cellvehicles.
An important characteristic of Chinese vision of hydrogen is that industrial by-product gas will play arole during the first years of the hydrogen industry development.
In August 2023, the regional government of Inner Mongolia issued a decree aiming to transform theregion into a prominent hydrogen hub. This ambitious initiative envisions Inner Mongolia as a central
player in the development of a hydrogen industry where green hydrogen will play an important roleon reaching 30% of hydrogen production.

Japan
Japan has positioned itself as a global leader in the development of the hydrogen market. Japan
became the first APEC member to formulate and release a national hydrogen strategy in 2017 thatwas known as the Basic Hydrogen Strategy. Japan’s vision described in this document included thewidespread use of hydrogen in several sectors including transport, power generation, and industrial
processes and aimed to support research and technological advancement to drive cost reduction
throughout the hydrogen value chain. Japan also acknowledged the need of international
collaboration and partnerships with other economies to develop a global hydrogen market. Japan
aimed to procure 300,000 kg of H2 at JPY 30/Nm3 which is equivalent to JPY 334/kg H2 by 2030 and JPY
20/Nm3 or JPY 223/kg H2 by 2050. Following the Basic Hydrogen Strategy, several documents
considering hydrogen as an important fuel were released such as the Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogenand Fuel cells (2019), Hydrogen Strategy Roadmap (2020), and the Green Growth Strategy (2020).
In February of 2023, Japan introduced the Basic Policy for the realization of Green Transformation (GX).
The principal objective of this initiative is to facilitate the transition of Japanese energy sector from a
predominantly fossil fuel-based paradigm to one firmly rooted in clean energy sources. This transition
should ensure a stable energy supply following the guidelines delineated in the Sixth Strategic Energy
Plan. The GX initiative lists a series of actions for execution over the next decade, that includes theacceleration of hydrogen and ammonia as important fuels within Japanese energy matrix. Japantargets establishing its large and resilient supply chain, including production, transportation, andutilization. Japan also aims to develop co-firing and single firing technologies as well as measures topromote the widespread adoption of hydrogen and ammonia in transportation sector.
In June 2023, Japan revised the Basic Hydrogen Strategy updating some goals: increase supply fromcurrent 2 million to 3 million tonnes of hydrogen by 2030, to 12 million tonnes by 2040 and 20 million
tons by 2050, expand the installed capacity of water electrolysis equipment with Japan-madecomponents to 15GW globally by 2030, and attract more than JPY15 trillion in public and private sector.
This new strategy indicates Japanese government will subsidize clean hydrogen or ammonia projects
based on their carbon intensity. The threshold for clean hydrogen is 3.4kg of CO2/kg H2 on a Well-toGate basis, and the threshold for ammonia is 0.84kg of CO2/kg NH3 on a Gate-to-Gate basis.
In December 2023, the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) announced a proposal for a
subsidy scheme for big scale hydrogen production projects of at least 10 000 tonnes of H2/year, witha carbon intensity of 3.4 kgCO2/kgH2. This subsidy in the form of Contracts for Difference (CfD) willclose the gap between hydrogen market price, i.e. hydrogen produced by unbated fossil fuels, and areference price set by the Japanese government. In case the market price is higher, the producer will
pay the difference. The subsidies will last 15 years and projects will be required to run for anotherdecade.
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APERC Hydrogen Report 2023

Republic of Korea
Korea announced its vision of expanding hydrogen production capacity and developing a hydrogen
supply chain through its Hydrogen Economy Roadmap 2019. Although Korea wants to increasehydrogen production from various sources, including renewable energy, this expansion will beinsufficient to meet potential future demand requirements and Imports might be required.
Korea seeks to promote the widespread use of hydrogen across various sectors, includingtransportation, industry, and residential applications. Special emphasis is put on the deployment ofhydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) as Korea wants to become one of the leading global fuel cell vehicles
manufacturers with 6.2 million vehicles and 1200 refilling stations by 2040. Additionally, Korea aspires
to introduce 40,000 fuel cell buses, 80,000 taxis and 30,000 trucks by 2040. On the other hand, theroadmap indicates that Korea will promote the manufacturing of fuel cells for power generation witha combined capacity of 15GW by 2040.
Also, the Hydrogen Economy Promotion and Hydrogen Safety Management Act (Hydrogen Act) wasapproved in 2020. This legislation provides a legal framework to support the development of thehydrogen industry in Korea in accordance with the vision described in the Hydrogen Economy
Roadmap. The act includes provisions related to hydrogen production, utilization, safety standards,
research and development, and incentives for investment and adoption.
In 2021, Korea announced 1st Basic Plan for the Implementation of the Hydrogen Economy. The plan
set some goals for 2050: total hydrogen demand will be supplied by 100% of low-carbon hydrogen.
82% will come from overseas, while 60% of the domestically produced hydrogen is green and theremainder is blue. The estimated hydrogen demand in 2050 is 27.9 million tonnes. There is also a goal
to produce 10% of green hydrogen from marine sources by 2040. Also, in 2021, the government set
the goals of blending 20% ammonia in at least half of the coal plants by 2030 and 30% or morehydrogen by 2035 in all the gas-fired power plant.
In November 2022, the government announced a new hydrogen policy direction emphasizing the roleof clean hydrogen. The clean hydrogen standard is currently under discussion. The government seeks
to establish a clean hydrogen supply and create a world-leading hydrogen industry. The threestrategies to achieve that vision were: “scale-up”, “build-up”, and “level-up”. Some of the plansinclude the construction of the world’s largest liquid hydrogen plant, an ammonia and hydrogen
receiving terminal and the opening of a hydrogen bid market.
The action plan includes the goal of producing 30,000 hydrogen-powered commercial vehicles by 2030,
building 70 liquid hydrogen fuelling stations and clean hydrogen being 7.1% of the country's energy
mix by 2036.
In 2024, Korea launched the clean hydrogen energy portfolio standards (CHPS). This system aims tofacilitate clean hydrogen-fuelled power trade in clear hydrogen power bid market. To implement thisinitiative, Korea will implement a Clean Hydrogen Certification System that allows to provide
incentives according to 4 different tiers depending on the hydrogen carbon intensity measured in wellto-gate basis.
Korea is expected to open the first round for 6.75 TWh of capacity of clean hydrogen energy bidding
during the first half of 2024. The delivery of energy is expected for 2027 or 2028.

Indonesia
The Directorate of New, Renewable Energy and Energy Conservation of the Ministry of Energy andMineral Resources published the National Hydrogen strategy report in December 2023. The report25

APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
shows scenarios where hydrogen demand increases mainly in transport, starting in 2030, and industry,
starting in 2040. Hydrogen is considered as a key element to reach carbon neutrality by 2060.

Malaysia
In 2023, Malaysia released its Hydrogen Economy & Technology Roadmap. This roadmap is comprisedby 5 strategic thrust -namely strengthening governance system, institutional framework, andregulatory mechanism; facilitating enabling environment and economic instruments, acceleratecommercialization of technology to enable export and domestic uptake, Capacity development andcapability enhancement; and communication, education, public and awareness-, 9 strategies and 29
Action Plans. Malaysia targets to phase out grey hydrogen by 2030, and increase competitiveness ofgreen hydrogen from solar, hydrogen, biomass, and biogas in the long-term. This document estimatesthat the adoption of hydrogen in the energy mix can create a demand of 68.2 TWh/year by 2050.

New Zealand
In 2019, New Zealand released its Vision for Hydrogen in New Zealand, a green paper where cleanhydrogen plays a key role in the establishment of a low emissions economy. New Zealand hasabundant renewable energy sources that are a big part of the economy’s electricity fuel mix. This
electricity system can supply renewable energy to produce clean hydrogen in several parts of the New
Zealand.
Vision for Hydrogen in Zealand explores different projects and is the foundation on which the New
Zealand’s Road Map, scheduled to be finalized by 2024, is being built. The road map will explore thepotential of green hydrogen in New Zealand and will set a pathway for the development of theindustry that can support transition to net zero 2050. This roadmap will be integrated into the General
Energy Strategy.

Peru
Peru approved the Law that establishes Climate Emergency as a National Interest. This law assigns
development of a green hydrogen roadmap to the Ministry of Energy and Mines.
Later, in 2024, the Green Hydrogen Promotion Law was issued. This law aims to promote thedevelopment of the green hydrogen value chain to supply both domestic and international markets
through specific policies, actions, and fundings. This law defines green hydrogen as that produced
using technologies with low emission of emission of greenhouse gases. The Ministry of Energy and
Mines is also responsible for promoting green hydrogen produced from renewable energy, developing
complementary rules that define the requirements for the certification of origin and the condition toaccess potential tax and financial benefits.

RussiaHydrogen is a component of Russian strategic vision for its energy sector. Russia, as majorhydrocarbon producers, seeks to secure its leading position as an energy producer and exporter given
its location that facilitates commercialization with the Asia Pacific region, the existence of a welldeveloped gas industry including relevant infrastructure that can be adapted for production andtransport of hydrogen, scientific and engineering expertise, and vast hydrocarbon resources.
In 2020, Russia released its Energy Strategy to 2035 that was followed by the Roadmap for Hydrogen
Development until 2024. Although specific actions are not defined, the documents describe theRussian vision of becoming a world-leading producer and exporter of low-carbon hydrogen energy. Its
official goals are to export 0.2 million metric tons by 2024 and 2 million by 2035. In the documents,

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APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
Russia plans to develop three hydrogen clusters, a Northwest cluster, an Eastern cluster, and an Arctic
cluster.
Later in 2023, due to the war in Europe, Russian officers announced that hydrogen production goals
could be reduced to 550,000 tonnes per year by 2030, mainly for domestic consumption.

Singapore
In 2022, Singapore launched its Singapore’s National Hydrogen Strategy. The strategy has been
influenced by the goal of decarbonizing the economy to reach net zero by 2050, considering the scarce
available land and renewable resources. This document outlines Singapore’s vision on the use ofhydrogen within the economy:•••

Combined cycle gas turbines will be able to run on 100% hydrogen by 2030.
Hydrogen will satisfy 50% of the projected demand of electricity by 2050.
Low-carbon hydrogen can be used to produce biofuels and synthetic fuels.

In addition, Singapore, a significant global hub for shipping and air travel, recognizes the potential ofhydrogen to drive decarbonization across various sectors, including maritime transport, port
operations, aviation, and airport services. This transformation can be achieved through methods suchas electrification, ammonia utilization, and the promotion of sustainable aviation practices.
The emphasis on decarbonizing power generation in this strategy is due to the responsibility of this
sector of 40% of primary greenhouse gas emissions, despite being fuelled by natural gas.
Singapore is also signing agreements with other APEC economies to cooperate on low-carbonhydrogen.

ThailandIn 2022, the Energy Planning and Policy Office (EPPO) of the Ministry of Energy released preliminary
results from a study on the production and consumption of hydrogen under policies recommendations
to promote hydrogen in Thailand. This study, conducted by the Energy Research Institute, Erdi-CMU,
and H2ydrogen, was presented for public consultation to obtain feedback that are being used for thedevelopment of future Thai hydrogen policies.

Chinese Taipei
The Ministry of Economic Affairs and the Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) released theHydrogen Energy Development Roadmap in July 2022. Hydrogen is considered one of the 12 strategies
that Chinese Taipei will use to reach net zero by 2050. Hydrogen is targeted to reach between 9-12%of total power generation mix.
Like Singapore, the primary source of emissions in Chinese Taipei is the power sector. As a result,hydrogen has emerged as a priority within this sector. Chinese Taipei has outlined ambitious plans toprogressively integrate hydrogen into its energy landscape. Specifically, their goal is to increasehydrogen utilization from 0.57MW in 2022 to 91MW by 2025, and further to 891MW by 2030. Notably,
they are set to embark on a trial operation of a hydrogen co-firing power demonstration plant,
incorporating a fuel mixture of 5%.
Looking ahead to the span of 2031-2050, their National Determined Contributions (NDC) plan
envisions a substantial integration of hydrogen into power generation. This is anticipated to occur
through co-firing with LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) or even its exclusive use, with the aim of elevating
its contribution to total power generation to 9%-12% by 2050. Furthermore, beyond power generation,
27

APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
Chinese Taipei envisions an expanded role for hydrogen, encompassing applications in steel
production and other vital industrial processes.

United States
Department of Energy of the United States released the National Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap
in June 2023. Hydrogen is envisioned to play a key role for the achievement of a 100% clean power
grid by 2035. This strategy targets 10 million tonnes per year of clean hydrogen by 2030, 20 million
by 2040 and 50 million by 2050.
In December 2020, the United States Congress passed the Energy Act of 2020, which included
provisions to support research, development, and demonstration of hydrogen technologies. This act
authorized funding for various hydrogen-related projects and activities.
In 2021, the bipartisan Infrastructure Law established the Regional Hydrogen Hubs and Electrolysis
and Clean Hydrogen Manufacturing and Recycling programs and allocated USD9.5 billion to fundthese initiatives. Most of these resources, 8 billion UDS will be used to develop at least 4 regionalhydrogen hubs creating a network that will connect hydrogen producers and consumers and expand
the necessary hydrogen distribution.
Also, in 2021, U.S. Department of Energy launched the Hydrogen Shot, an initiative program that ispart of the Energy Earth Shots Initiatives. The objective of the hydrogen shot is to reduce the cost ofclean hydrogen to 1 USD per kg H2 in a decade.
In 2022, The inflation Reduction Act, also known as IRA, was approved. This act introduced the 45V
Hydrogen Production Tax Credit, which awards up to USD3 per kg H2 produced with gas emission
intensity of less than 0.45 kg CO2e/kg H2. Additionally, individual states within the United States weretaking their own initiatives to develop hydrogen strategies and support the growth of the hydrogen
economy. For example, California have been at the forefront of hydrogen fuel cell vehicle adoption
and is actively promoting the use of hydrogen as an alternative energy source.

Viet Nam
In February 2024, Viet Nam announced its Hydrogen Energy Development Strategy. This document
aims to produce 100 000 to 500 000 tonnes per year from renewable or from fossil fuels with carbon
capture and storage by 2030. There is also a vision of producing between 10 to 20 million tonnes per
year by 2050.

Other APEC economy members
Other APEC economy members have expressed its interest and vision regarding the future hydrogen
industry although they have not specifically adopted or developed formal hydrogen strategies yet.
Hydrogen is sometimes mentioned as an emerging decarbonizing technology in more comprehensive
action plan or other legal tools. For example, Hong Kong China mentions hydrogen in its Climate Action
Plan, especially for use in transportation and is developing the Strategy of Hydrogen Development inHong Kong China that is expected for the second half of 2024.
The Department of Energy of the Philippines is working in the process of providing a national policy
and general framework, roadmap, and guidelines for hydrogen in the energy sector. In addition, Viet
Nam, and Thailand are currently formulating their hydrogen roadmaps.
Despite the difference between the hydrogen policies established by the economies, there arecommon principles on the design of these policies that can be appreciated:

28

APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
•

•
•

•

•

•
•

Clearly define the long-term vision for hydrogen utilization and set specific, measurable goals to
guide the strategy. These goals could include targets for hydrogen production, infrastructuredevelopment, sectoral applications, emissions reduction, and economic growth.
Evaluate the economy's renewable energy resources and other potential sources for hydrogenproduction, such as natural gas.
Establish a comprehensive hydrogen infrastructure network that includes production facilities,
storage systems, transportation infrastructure (such as pipelines or shipping), andrefuelling/recharging stations.
Develop a supportive regulatory framework that encourages investment, facilitates market
development, and ensures safety and environmental standards for hydrogen production,transportation, storage, and utilization. Address any regulatory barriers or gaps that may hinder
the growth of the hydrogen industry.
Identify key sectors where hydrogen can play a transformative role, such as transportation,industry, power generation, and heating. Develop policies and incentives to support the adoptionof hydrogen technologies in these sectors, including the deployment of fuel cell vehicles,
integration into industrial process.
Develop mechanisms to support domestic demand, incentivize hydrogen adoption, and establish
partnerships with other countries to facilitate knowledge sharing, standardization, and utilization.
Foster domestic market growth while exploring opportunities for international collaboration andhydrogen trade.

Current Challenges
The APEC region is progressing in the development of low-carbon hydrogen supply and promoting
the use of hydrogen in applications such as fuel cell vehicles and the decarbonization of natural gas
supply. However, there are challenges that need to be addressed to facilitate the widespread
adoption of hydrogen as a clean alternative to fossil fuel energy.

High cost of hydrogen
To enhance competitiveness against inexpensive fossil fuel energy, both low-carbon hydrogen andzero-carbon hydrogen must undergo cost reductions. Currently, energy feedstock—specifically,
electricity or natural gas—constitutes over half of the production cost for low-carbon hydrogen. The
cost of natural gas can account for approximately 65% of the levelized cost of low-carbon hydrogenproduced through the SMR process and CCS. It is noteworthy that a reduction in CAPEX, the secondmost influential factor in the cost of hydrogen production, is comparatively less impactful thanfluctuations in fuel prices.

29

APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
Figure 2 Impact of factor on the cost of hydrogen produced via SMR+CCS (USD/kg)

0
SMR+CCS H2

0.5

1

1.5

Natural gas price (64%)

22.5Capex (27%) Opex

3
2.8 USD/kg

Discount rate 8%
reduction to 5%

Discount rate

Capex 1735 USD/KW
50% reduction

Capex

Price 9.3 USD/MMBtu
reduction 50%

Natural gas price

Reduced cost

1.3 USD/kg

Note: The cost assumed were estimated for US. The price of natural gas was estimated using Henry
Hub prices for August 2022.

The volatility of natural gas prices observed in recent years, particularly in 2022, had the potential tosignificantly impact the cost of hydrogen production based on natural gas. In Europe, one of theleading future hydrogen markets where natural gas prices are generally higher than in other regions,hydrogen produced from natural gas might have been more expensive than green hydrogen duringcertain months of 2022. The prices of natural gas not only directly impact hydrogen production costs
but also contribute to higher equipment supply costs.

30

APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
Figure 3 Estimated cost of SMR+CSS based Hydrogen using natural gas prices in EU (USD/kg)
Natural gas price70 USD/MMBTU

16
14
12

Natural gas price
10 USD/MMBTU

10
8
6
4
2

2023/9/1

2023/7/1

2023/5/1

2023/3/1

2023/1/1

2022/11/1

2022/9/1

2022/7/1

2022/5/1

2022/3/1

2022/1/1

2021/11/1

2021/9/1

2021/7/1

2021/5/1

2021/3/1

2021/1/1

2020/11/1

2020/9/1

2020/7/1

2020/5/1

2020/3/1

2020/1/1

0

In the case of electrolysis-based hydrogen, electricity prices constitute 75% or more of the total costof hydrogen production. Since the goal is to integrate hydrogen production with renewable energy
power plants, challenges extend beyond the pricing of renewable electricity to include considerationsof the electrolyser's capacity factor. Achieving a capacity factor exceeding 70% in the hydrogen plants
is crucial for reducing the cost of hydrogen production. This level of capacity factor surpasses thecurrent levels in solar and wind power plants. While connecting the power plant to the grid canenhance capacity factors in the electrolyser, it may introduce challenges related to emission
compliance and zero-emission certification.
Scalability will contribute to decreasing the cost of hydrogen production. While bigger and more
ambitious projects have been announced, these projects are also more complex than those previously
developed, creating other technical challenges. For example, FH2R in Japan still has one of the biggest
single-stack electrolysers with a capacity of 10 MW. Projects that require higher capacity will need toconnect, operate, and balance several modules to achieve the expected hydrogen production capacity.
This can become a driving force to slow down the cost decline of future systems.

Figure 4 Impact of several factors on the cost of electrolysis-based hydrogen (USD/kg)

31

APERC Hydrogen Report 2023

0Electrolysis H2

1

2

Electricity price (75%)

3

4

Opex
Capex (23%)

3.9 USD/kg

Discount rate

Discount rate 8%
reduction to 5%

Capex

Capex 1014 USD/KW
50% reduction

Price 59 USD/MWh
reduction 50%

Renewable electricity price

Reduced cost

1.9 USD/kg

Note: It was assumed that the cost of electricity to be equal to the levelized cost of energy of wind
power in US and the capacity factor of electrolyser 50% to match the capacity factor of the power plant.
Capital cost of renewable energy plant is included in electricity price.
Additionally, the increased demand for hydrogen production equipment will drive costs upward byplacing stress on the supply chain of raw materials. For instance, the manufacturing of proton
exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysers requires a supply of iridium and platinum, which are rather
scarce elements.

Hydrogen Transport
The delivery of hydrogen from the production point to end users is one of the areas where moreadvances are required. Hydrogen has a comparatively low volumetric energy density, meaning that
there is low energy per unit of volume under most conventional conditions. When hydrogen is blended
with natural gas at a 20% (v/v) rate, the delivered energy per unit of volume is reduced by 14%, andemissions decrease by 7% per unit of delivered energy. For that reason, the use of hydrogen carriers
such as ammonia (NH3), methylcyclohexane (MCH), and methanol (CH3OH) has been proposed.
Ammonia has gained attention the advantage due to its high hydrogen content. It is liquid at standard
conditions which is better for handling and transportation. Infrastructure associated with ammonia
already exists, but it will need to be drastically expanded if ammonia becomes an important hydrogen
carrier. The direct use of ammonia as a cofiring agent in coal power plant has been proposed as ameasure to decarbonize power sector. Ammonia is also mentioned in several hydrogen-related
policies and strategies developed in APEC.
32APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
Methanol shares some of the same advantages as ammonia as a hydrogen carrier. Methanol can beused as an alternative fuel for internal combustion engine and as anti-freeze agent. The Haru Oni
project in Chile uses the produced green hydrogen to manufacture methanol for exports.
On the other hand, ammonia and methanol are harmful for humans and require special handlingmeasures; therefore, updates of safety regulations will be required.

Table 2 Properties of hydrogen carriersgasliquidProperties

unit

compressed H2

H2

CH3OH

NH3

MCH

Temperature°C

25-259.925

25

25

Storage Pressure

MPa

69

0.1

0.1

0.99

Density

kg/m3

39

70.8

792

600

770

Volumetric Energy Density (LHV)

MJ/L

4.5

8.49

15.8

12.7

33.5

Gravimetric Hydrogen content(% weight)

100

100

12.5

17.8

6.16

Volumetric Hydrogen content

kg-H2/m3

42.2

70.8

99

121

47.4

Energy to Extract Hydrogen

kJ/mol-H2

-

0.907

16.3

30.6

68.3

MCH has already been proven as a hydrogen carrier in the AHEAD project conducted between Brunei
Darussalam and Japan. Although some research has been conducted to use MCH directly in solid oxide
fuel cells, its primary role is as a hydrogen carrier, implying that hydrogen will be extracted at the pointof arrival for distribution or use.
he use of energy carriers is currently justified under conditions of high hydrogen demand and longtransportation distances. In the near term, as demand is being built and distances between hydrogenproduction sites and the end-use point increase, the role of trucks transporting compressed hydrogenand pipelines will be relevant.

Direct Combustion of hydrogen and ammonia
The use of hydrogen and ammonia as cofiring agents or as the sole fuel has been proposed as ameasure to decarbonize power generation. The main adaptation required for turbine systems to
adopt these fuels is in the burners where combustion occurs, and several companies are working on
the design of these systems and commercial availability is expected in the coming years. However,both have different combustion characteristics than coal or natural gas.
Table 3 Combustion Characteristics of ammonia, hydrogen, and methane.
Fuel
Boiling temperature at 1 atm

Unit
°C

NH3
-33.3

H2
-252.9CH4-161.5Lower heating Value (LHV)

MJ/kg

18.6

120.0

50.0

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APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
Higher heating Value (HHV)

MJ/kg

22.5

141.7

55.5

Flammability limit

%vol

15-28

4-75

5-14.3

Adiabatic flame temperature

°C

1800

2210

1963

Flame speed

m/s

0.07

1.7

0.4

One of the most significant effects of using hydrogen and ammonia for direct combustion is theformation of NOx. This formation is facilitated by the higher temperatures reached during the
combustion of hydrogen. Additionally, the higher flame speed, allowing fast flame propagation, andthe wide range of flammability limits make hydrogen a fuel that requires special care. These
characteristics must be considered when analysing the potential use of hydrogen in residences.
On the other hand, the direct combustion of ammonia is challenging and requires the use of a pilot
fire for combustion. To control NOx formation, very careful control of the air/ammonia ratio isnecessary.
When used as cofiring agents, one of the most significant effects of using hydrogen and ammonia isthe formation of NOx. This formation is facilitated by the higher temperatures reached during the
combustion of hydrogen.

International hydrogen standards
Given that the use of colours to identify different pathways for hydrogen production has failed toaccount for the actual carbon intensity of the produced hydrogen, APEC has also identified the needto establish an international standard for hydrogen as a condition to facilitate international trade.
Even though the establishment of the international hydrogen standard will take several years, some
APEC economies, namely Japan and the USA, have started defining criteria based on carbon intensity
to allocate support for hydrogen production.
Some important issues that require consensus building include the boundaries within the project
where emissions are measured, especially for estimating the carbon intensity in fossil fuel-basedhydrogen. Other considerations involve the concepts of additionality, temporal correlation, andgeographic correlation in the case of renewable energy projects for hydrogen production 3.
The adequate criteria for international hydrogen demand should be designed to avoid the raising ofbarriers.
There are some criteria that have been established by different economies to access some benefits
and support. For example, tax credits for hydrogen production are tiered by well-to-gate emission
intensity in US. In contrast, Japan established in its Revised Basic Hydrogen Strategy its threshold forclean hydrogen as 3.4kg of CO2/kg H2 on a Well-to-Gate basis. The threshold for ammonia is 0.84kg of
CO2/kg NH3 on a Gate-to-Gate basis.

Additionality refers to idea that a project has increased renewable energy generation that would not haveoccurred otherwise. Temporal correlation refers to the degree that renewable energy production matches
actual demand. Geographic correlation is the special alignment between the space where demand is locatedand the space where the energy is produced.

3

34

APERC Hydrogen Report 2023
Table 4 45V tax credits for clean hydrogen production according to IRA in US.
Emission Intensity (KgCO2e/kgH2) Tax credit (USD/kg H2)
0-0.453.00
0.45-1.5

1.00

1.5-2.5

0.75

2.5-4

0.60

Table 5 Definition of clean hydrogen and ammonia according to the Revised Basic Hydrogen Standard
in Japan
Clean Hydrogen

Emission Intensity (KgCO2e/kgH2)
3.4

System Boundary
Well to gate

Clean Ammonia

0.84

Gate to gate

Table 6 Definition of Tiers in proposed Clean Hydrogen Energy Standard in Korea

Carbon intensity (kgCO2eq/KgH2)
0-0.1
0.1-1
1-2
2-4

35

Tiers
1
2
3
4

APERC Hydrogen Report 2023

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Business Wire (2023). Black & Veatch Advances Green Hydrogen Production in Indonesia.
Business Wire. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20231105452858/en/BlackVeatch-Advances-Green-Hydrogen-Production-in-Indonesia
Direktorat Jenderal Energi Baru Terbrukan Dan Konservasi Energi (2023). Strategi Hidrogen
Nasional https://ebtke.esdm.go.id/post/2023/12/15/3680/strategi.hidrogen.nasional

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Petermina (2023). Pertamina NRE-TEPCO HD Consolidate Green Hydrogen and Green
Ammonia Development. Press release. https://www.pertamina.com/en/news-room/newsrelease/pertamina-nre-tepco-hd-consolidate-green-hydrogen-and-green-ammoniadevelopment .

•Mitsubishi Corporation (2021). Signing of Memorandum of Understanding regarding CCS
Joint Study for Clean Fuel Ammonia Production in Indonesia. Press Room.
https://www.mitsubishicorp.com/jp/en/pr/archive/2021/html/0000046720.html•

HTW Editorial Team (2023). 300 MW green hydrogen plant in Indonesia feasible – Black &Veatch. Hydrogen Tech World. https://hydrogentechworld.com/300-mw-green-hydrogenplant-in-indonesia-feasible-black-veatch

Japan
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Hasegawa, M. (2023, May 19). Japan’s Hokkaido Electric starts producing hydrogen. Argus.
https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news/2451178-japans-hokkaido-electric-starts-producinghydrogen•

Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (2023) Basic Hydrogen Strategy. Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries Group (2023) Hydrogen Gas Turbine. Energy Transition Mitsubishi Heavy.
https://www.meti.go.jp/shingikai/enecho/shoene_shinene/suiso_seisaku/pdf/20230606_5.
pdf
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Group (2023) Hydrogen Gas Turbine. Energy Transition
Mitsubishi Heavy.https://solutions.mhi.com/power/decarbonization-technology/hydrogengas-turbine/••

New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (2020, March 7). The
world's largest-class hydrogen production, Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field(FH2R) now is completed at Namie town in Fukushima.
https://www.nedo.go.jp/english/news/AA5en_100422.html

Republic of Korea
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Biogradlija, A. (2023, January 9). Creation of 6: “hydrogen cities”.
https://energynews.biz/creation-of-6-hydrogen-cities/
Collins, L. (2021, November 16). South Korea aims to burn millions of tonnes of cleanhydrogen and ammonia for giga-scale power production. Recharge.
https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/south-korea-aims-to-burn-millions-oftonnes-of-clean-hydrogen-and-ammonia-for-giga-scale-power-production/2-1-1099333
CSIRO (2019). Hydrogen Economy Roadmap of Korea. HyResource
https://research.csiro.au/hyresource/policy/international/republic-of-korea-south-korea/
Doosan (2021, December 03). Doosan Heavy Embarks on Blue Hydrogen Production
Together with Changwon City. Doosan. https://www.doosan.com/en/media-center/pressrelease_view/?id=20172348&page=0&
Enerdata (2021, May 11). South Korea supports plans to build a 6 GW floating offshore windplant. Enerdata. https://www.enerdata.net/publications/daily-energy-news/south-koreafloating-6gw-offshore-plant-2030.html
Kim, S. (2023, November 1). Strategies for Realizing Hydrogen Cities in Korea. Korea Agency
for Infrastructure Technology Advancement (KAIA) Hydrogen Pilot City Group.

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Li, T. Y. (2022, October 03). South Korea Launches green H2 pilot project in Jeju. Argus.
https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news/2376600-south-korea-launches-green-h2-pilotproject-in-jeju

Malaysia•

Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (2023). Hydrogen Economy & Technology
Roadmap. MOSTI. https://www.mosti.gov.my/dasar/#dearflip-df_69947/1/

Mexico•Francovigh, G. (2023, February 21). La Asociación de Hidrógeno de México destaca
inversiones por 60 mil millones de dólares y 3 millones de empleos. energía estratégica.
https://www.energiaestrategica.com/la-asociacion-de-hidrogeno-de-mexico-destacainversiones-por-60-mil-millones-de-dolares-y-3-millones-de-empleos/

New Zealand•

Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment (2023) New Zealand’s hydrogen roadmap.
https://www.mbie.govt.nz/building-and-energy/energy-and-natural-resources/energystrategies-for-new-zealand/hydrogen-in-new-zealand/roadmap-for-hydrogen-in-newzealand/

Papua New Guinea•

Jackson,L. (2022, December 8). TotalEnergies may buy green power from Fortescue inPapua New Guinea -regulator. Reuters.
https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/totalenergies-may-buy-green-power-fortescuepapua-new-guinea-regulator-2022-12-08/

Peru•

Fenix (2024, January 26). Fenix inaugura primera planta de hidrógeno verde en una central
eléctrica en el Perú. Noticias Coorporativas. https://www.fenix.com.pe/fenix-inauguraprimera-planta-de-hidrogeno-verde-en-una-central-electrica-en-el-peru/•

H2 Perú (2023, June 15). Una experiencia en hidrógeno verde sin precedentes: Evento
exclusivo para los asociados de H2 Perú. Asociación Peruana de Hidrógeno.
https://h2.pe/noticias/una-experiencia-en-hidrogeno-verde-sin-precedentes-eventoexclusivo-para-los-asociados-de-h2-peru/•

El Peruano (2024, March 23). Ley de fomento del hidrógeno verde-Ley-N°31992. Ley defomento del hidrógeno verde - LEY - N° 31992 - CONGRESO DE LA REPUBLICA (elperuano.pe)

The Philippines•

Biogradlija, A. (2023). French Company to Build P5-Billion Hydrogen Power Plant inZamboanga Sibugay. Energy News. https://energynews.biz/french-company-to-build-p5billion-hydrogen-power-plant-in-zamboanga-sibugay/

Russia•Bazhenov, S, Dobrovolsky, Y. Maximov, A., Zhdaneev, O. (2022) Key Challenges for thedevelopment of the hydrogen industry in the Russian Federation. Sustainable Energy
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Technologies and Assessments 54 (2022) 102867.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2022.102867•

Barlow, I. & Tsafos, N. (2021). Russia’s Hydrogen Energy Strategy. Center for Strategic &International Studies. https://www.csis.org/analysis/russias-hydrogen-energy-strategy•

Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation (2020). Energy Strategy to 2035. Climate
Change Laws of the World. https://climate-laws.org/documents/energy-strategy-to2035_c574?id=energy-strategy-to-2035_f857

Chinese Taipei•

FuelCellsWorks (2022, July 22). ITRI Unveils Taiwan Hydrogen Energy Develoment Roadmap.
News. https://fuelcellsworks.com/news/itri-unveils-taiwan-hydrogen-energy-developmentroadmap/

Singapore•

Power Technology (2023, September 1). Keppel Sakra Cogeneration Plant, Singapore.
Newsletter. https://www.power-technology.com/projects/keppel-sakra-cogeneration-plantsingapore/?cf-view•

Ministry of Trade and Industry Singapore (2023). Singapore’s National Hydrogen Strategy.
https://www.mti.gov.sg/Industries/Hydrogen

Thailand•

ESMAP(2020). Vietnam firm breaks ground for country’s first green hydrogen plant. The
investor Magazine. https://theinvestor.vn/vietnam-firm-breaks-ground-for-countrys-firstgreen-hydrogen-plant-d4333.html

United States•

Airswift (2023,February 7). 5 US Green Hydrogen projects starting in 2023.
https://www.airswift.com/blog/green-hydrogen-p rojects-usa•

Department of Energy (2023). Advanced Clean Energy Storage. Loan Programs Office.
https://www.energy.gov/lpo/advanced-clean-energy-storage•

Department of Energy (2023). U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/library/roadmaps-vision/clean-hydrogen-strategyroadmap
Stewart R. (2022, May 3 Department of Energy (2023). ‘Green hydrogen’ coming to Olin’s St.
Gabriel facility through joint venture. The Advocate.
https://www.theadvocate.com/baton_rouge/news/business/green-hydrogen-coming-toolin-s-st-gabriel-facility-through-joint-venture/article_5cc7b88c-cb1e-11ec-bfef1fe442f5c60f.html
The White House (2023,July 20). The Economics of Demand-Side Support for the
Department of Energy’s Clean Hydrogen Hubs. https://www.whitehouse.gov/cea/writtenmaterials/2023/07/05/the-economics-of-demand-side-support-for-the-department-ofenergys-clean-hydrogen-hubs/

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Viet Nam•Tuong, M. (2023). Vietnam firm breaks ground for country’s first green hydrogen plant. The
investor Magazine. https://theinvestor.vn/vietnam-firm-breaks-ground-for-countrys-firstgreen-hydrogen-plant-d4333.html

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