ASIANN DISASTTER REDUCTION CENTERR
VISITINNG RESEARRCHER PROOGRAM - TE
ERM 2013A
A

Coommuunity-B
Basedd Disaaster Risk
R R
Reducction
A com
mparativee study of Japan and Malldives, annd techniiques to integrateiedisaster risk redduction iinto the communictyIbbrahim Thaaufeeq
Assistant Director,
D
Diirectorate off Operation
ns and Trainning
Integrated HeadquarteHrs - Maldives Nationall Defence Foorce
20 Novemberr 2013

DISCLAIMER
The views expressed in this paper reflects the views of the author and do not necessarily reflect
the views of any organization. The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on
the maps in the report also do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by any organization.

COVER PHOTO: Senbazuru (A string of thousand origami cranes)
The picture on the cover page was taken at the Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum. It shows part ofa string of thousand origami cranes or senbazuru in Japanese. Senbazuru became famous
following Sadako Sasaki, a Japanese girl who was two years old when she was exposed
to radiation from the atomic bombing of Hiroshima during World War II. Sadako developed
leukemia because of exposure to radiation. She heard the legend of the senbazuru through her
friend Chizuko, who one day brought a gift of a golden origami crane. Cgizuko tells Sadako
about the legend that God would grant the wish of a sick person if she folds one thousand paper
cranes and make her healthy again. However, Sadako died at the age of twelve after spending asignificant amount of time in a nursing home, but the senbazuru stands as a symbol of hope andpeace and can be seen everywhere in Japan. (from Sadako and the Thousand Paper Cranes by
Eleanor Coerr, Puffin Books: 1977.)

1

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to...
The management and staff of Asian Disaster Reduction Center for this priceless opportunity to
study disaster reduction in Japan through a participative process. Special thanks go to Ms.
Shiomi Yumi for her exceptional work in coordinating the program, the visits, and immeasurable
assistance during my stay in Japan.
Maldives National Defence Force for giving me the opportunity to attend the visiting researcher
program in order to better contribute to the development of disaster risk reduction effort in theMaldives.
Mr. Umar Fikry from the National Disaster Management Centre for sharing his knowledge andexpertise.
My fellow co-visiting researchers from Mongolia, Myanmar, and Uzbekistan; you were myfamily for three and a half months.
Friends, family, and colleagues who helped me through various stages of the research.

2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 5
1.

Background and significance of the study ........................................................................................ 5

2.

Disaster risk profile of the Maldives ................................................................................................. 6a.

Likely natural hazards in the Maldives ......................................................................................... 6b.

Recent disasters ............................................................................................................................. 8

3.

Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 9a.

Aims of the research ..................................................................................................................... 9b.

Long-term goal of the research ..................................................................................................... 9

4.

Delimitation of the study................................................................................................................... 9

II. LITERATURE REVIEW AND FINDINGS - MALDIVES ............................................................ 10
1.

Disaster management in the Maldives ............................................................................................ 10

2.

Community-based disaster risk reduction in the Maldives ............................................................. 11a.

Legal structure ............................................................................................................................ 11b.

Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis....................................... 11c.

CBDRR Programs in the Maldives ............................................................................................. 14d.

Support from the central and local governments towards CBDRR ............................................ 18e.

Feedback from the community and effectiveness of CBDRR programs .................................... 19f.

Challenges faced in CBDRR in the Maldives ............................................................................. 20

3.

Summary of key findings in the Maldives ...................................................................................... 21a.

An infant institutional disaster management framework ............................................................ 21b.

Lack of support from the grassroots level and the community ................................................... 21c.

Excellent CBDRM/CBDRR projects albeit lack of continuity and coordination ....................... 21d.

CBDRR is the only solution........................................................................................................ 22

III. LITERATURE REVIEW AND FINDINGS - JAPAN ................................................................... 23
1.

2.

Institutionalization of community-based disaster risk reduction in Japan ...................................... 23a.

Laws and regulations .................................................................................................................. 23b.

National level organizations........................................................................................................ 24c.

Local governments ...................................................................................................................... 24d.

Research and development.......................................................................................................... 25
CBDRR through empowerment ...................................................................................................... 263

a.

Physical preventive measures ..................................................................................................... 26b.

Ideological preventive measures ................................................................................................. 28

3.

Disaster education ........................................................................................................................... 29a.

Formal education ........................................................................................................................ 29b.

Non-formal education ................................................................................................................. 29c.

Informal education ...................................................................................................................... 31

4.

Culture/Society ............................................................................................................................... 32

5.

Challenges in CBDRR .................................................................................................................... 33a.

A false sense of security.............................................................................................................. 33b.

Declining economy and population ............................................................................................ 33c.

Disjointed and traumatized communities .................................................................................... 33

6.

Summary of key findings in Japan .................................................................................................. 34a.

A holistic approach to CBDRR ................................................................................................... 34b.

Look-Learn-Participate ............................................................................................................... 34c.

Continuity is vital for an effective CBDRR process .................................................................. 34

IV. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................... 35
1.

Discussions ..................................................................................................................................... 35

2.

Recommendations ........................................................................................................................... 35

3.

Further studies ................................................................................................................................. 36

V. BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................................ 37

4

I. INNTRODUCCTION
a significcance of thee study
1. Bacckground andMaldives iss a nation off 1200 islannds spread acrossaan areea of 750 kiilometers byy 120
kilometters on the IndianI
Oceaan. Maldives lies on thee Equator annd is the flaattest countrry on Earthwith thee highest naatural point merely 2.4 meters abovve sea levell. The popullation of thee Maldivesis 338,4400 (2012 estimate).1 The
T populatiion is scatteered across 199 inhabited islands amongathetwenty administrattive atolls. However,H
allmost one-thhird of the populationpllives in the capital,C
The geography ofMale' City.
the nation and the erratice
distribuution of the ppopulace,along withw the weaak economicc
stature makemsomething as
simple asa providingg basic
servicess to each inhhabited islaanda logistiical nightm
mare. Therefo
fore,
the immminent threaats fromnatural and man-m
made disasters
are vastt, and should a disasterr
strike, it
i would havve devastatiing
effects ono the archiipelago.
From long--term threatssuch as sea level riise to yearlyy
disasterrs such as sttorm surges
and floooding, Malddives has
Figgure 1: Locatioon of Maldivesalways been passivve when
dealing with disastters and the State is stilll at an infannt stage wheen it comes to disastermanageement. Natioonal instituttions lack thhe capacity and fiscal resourcesr
too build a hollistic
disasterr managemeent framewoork. At pressent, the govvernment sppends all thee national fuunds
allocateed for disastter managem
ment to resppond to disaasters [apartt from the saalary of the staff].
Arguabbly, the goveernment hass already sppent enough funds doing damage ccontrol due tot annualdisasterrs that couldd have beenn spent on mitigatingmsoome of the crises.
c
Whatt is clear is thatt
Maldivees could miinimize the effects of mostm of the ddisasters wiith proper m
mitigation steps.
The Nationnal Disaster Managemeent Centre iss the nationaal body thatt deals withh disastermanageement in thee country. Maldives
M
Naational Defeence Force anda the Malldives Policce Service
play thee pivotal rolle of responnding to disaasters, and ttheir operatiion centres are far and few amongg
the islannds. Based on the limitted manpow
wer of the reesponse forcce, the numbber of thesee centres

1

World Bank Websitee, Country Proofile of Maldives, http://wwww.worldbankk.org/en/counttry/maldives.
5would remain the same in coming years. Given this conditions, the only viable method to preventand minimize effects of disasters is to foster disaster risk reduction (DRR) within the community.
At present, the government and other national agencies make ad-hoc efforts at the island level toinculcate DRR within the community. However, the central and local governments cannot
sustain these efforts due to lack of institutionalization and inadequate funding.
Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction (CBDRR) should play a critical role in thedisaster management of Maldives. CBDRR is important to prevent disasters and minimize thedamage, should one occur. Japan, one of the most disaster prone countries in the world,
integrates CBDRR into national strategies and plans for disaster management. This combinedwith the support structure of local governments and national organizations is the key to Japan's
success in its DRR efforts. Today, Japan stands as a testament of disaster resilience at every level.
Maldives being a small country, even the loss of life a single citizen due to disaster has amajor impact at the national level. From this angle, disaster risk reduction plays into national
security. Unlike the traditional approach to national security, it is no longer state-centric, butrather human-centric and places the citizen at the centre.2 Therefore, protecting the citizens fromdisasters is vital to the security of the State. In order to achieve this in the Maldives, thegovernment needs to protect the citizens through empowerment and make them accountable forcontributing to safeguarding the community against disasters at every level.
2. Disaster risk profile of the Maldivesa. Likely natural hazards in the Maldives
Maldives face five basic types of natural hazards. They are:i. Storms;
ii. Tsunamis;iii. Sea level rise;iv. Water shortage;v. Earthquakes.
i. Storms:
Storms present the most frequent hazard to the Maldives. As sea transportation is
the main mode of travel between islands, especially for local merchant vessels, storms
and rough seas could potentially be detrimental to fishing and agriculture industry inaddition to flooding and sea surges. The biggest problem that arises from flooding issanitation issues and spread of diseases such as cholera and dengue fever. Besides heavy
rains and strong winds during monsoons, hazardous weather events which regularly
affect Maldives are tropical storms or ‘tropical cyclones’, and severe local storms

2

Human Theory in Security and Practice, (United Nations Trust Fund for Human Security: New York, 2009), 7-8.
6

(thunder storms/ thunder squalls). The people of Maldives popularly refer to such severe
local storms as ‘freak storms’.3
Apart from the destruction caused by the wind during tropical cyclones, torrential
rain during the aforementioned ‘freak storms’ cause severe flooding across the country.
Not to mention the increasing gusts during storms could cause a sudden rise in sea level
along the coast, leading to storm surges and affect low-lying islands.
ii. Tsunamis:
The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 was an eye opener for Maldives. While thedamages caused in the Maldives were comparatively small in relation to the rest of theaffected countries, many Maldivians are still recovering from the devastation nine years
later. The elevation throughout the Maldives is merely 1.5 meters on average and thismakes tsunami a deadly threat if one occurs. However, due to the spatial distribution of
the atolls and islands, some islands are at a smaller risk compared to others. The economyof the Maldives is largely dependent on tourism. Therefore, apart from loss of life anddamage to infrastructure, a tsunami would greatly affect the economy of the country, as
the number of tourists who come to Maldives would decrease significantly.
iii. Sea level rise:
Sea level rise due to global warming is one of the biggest long-term hazards facedby the Maldives. As the islands of Maldives are coral based with very low elevation, thebeaches erode based on the monsoon and man-made causes. When erosion occurs
naturally, if one side of the island erodes, the beach on the other side of the island usually'grows'. However, when the changing climate and man-made causes disturb the naturalprocess, the erosion is permanent. Many islands have already lost a lot of land due toerosion. If sea level continues to rise as expected by several studies, Maldives faces thethreat of sinking in the distant future.
iv. Water shortage:
Even though not considered a disaster in the conventional sense, shortage of fresh
water has been a recurring crisis in the Maldives since the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami.
People in the majority of the island communities use water from the ground for cooking.
However, following the tsunami in 2004, the fresh water lens of many islands became
salty. As a result, many islands face shortage of fresh water during the dry season.
v. Earthquakes:
Earthquakes of large magnitude are not common in the Maldives. However,Maldives lies in the proximity of several faults and ridges. The biggest threat, apart fromthe earthquake itself, to Maldives from an earthquake is a tsunami. Having stated that,
3

Maniku H. A., “Changes in the topography of the Maldives,” Forum of Writers on Environment, (Male': 1990).
7

buildings in the country do not have the required engineering measures to withstandseismic activities and the effects of an imminent tsunami.
b. Recent disasters
i. Storms/flooding/tsunami:
Floods are annual occurrences in the Maldives and the government does not keep
proper records of annual flooding data unless it becomes a national crisis.
Year/Event2012(Cyclone
Nilam)4

2004(Tsunami)5Islands affected

People affected

Dead

Missing

DamageCaused flooding in
51 islands, 28 islands
wereseverely
flooded, 4 islands
critically flooded
53 were severely
damaged33,826--

133,090.60 USD

Nearly 12,000
displaced. 1,200
IDPs still live in
6 islands

88

20

470 million USD
Estimated cost ofreconstruction is
406 million USD

Figure 2: Damages from storms, flooding, and tsunamis

ii. Water shortage:Due to the contamination of the fresh waters lens during the 2004 tsunami, manyislands face shortage of fresh water during the dry season every year. Since the island
communities do not have the capacity to provide for themselves, the government sends
emergency water supplies to the affected islands. Even though this does not technicallycount as a drought or a disaster, Maldives has faced this crisis every year since 2005 due
to programming issues and ineffective recovery programs.
Year

No. of Islands

2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012

91
86
82
74
117
108
86

Total amount of water
delivered (in tons)

Total amount spent(in USD)
2,728
159,221.80
2,905
145,525.30
2,694
131,031.10
2,088
101,556.40
7.469
472,144.70
Water provided by province offices
3,920
142,178.30
2,500
286,075.80
Total:
1,437,733.006

Figure 3: Money spent on providing water4

Operational Report: Flooding and Related Damage due to Extreme Weather Event - October/November 2012,(Male': NDMC, 2012).
5
Government of the Maldives, "The Maldives: One year After the Tsunami," (Male': Novelty Publishers: 2005).
6
Cost information from NDMC: Fikry, Umar. Email to Author, August 21, 2013.
8

3. Objectives
a. Aims of the research
The main aims of this research are to:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.

Understand CBDRR implementation in Japan and its integration at each level of thegovernment;
Understand how CBDRR plays into disaster management at the national level;
Find out how the community, NGOs and other agencies are integrated into
CBDRR;
Map out the important factors that contribute to the CBDRR process in Japan;
Address the social issues hindering the implementation of DRR measures within thecommunity in Maldives;
Outline the importance of preventive measures as compared to responsive
measures;
Reinforce individual responsibility in reducing the risks of disaster in a community.
Reinforce the importance of making CBDRR a priority at the grassroots level.

b. Long-term goal of the research
The long-term goal of this research is to build on this study in order to integrate the
CBDRR effort into the national planning process of the Maldives and to institutionalize the
CBDRR process to sustain and maintain continuity of such programs.
4. Delimitation of the study
This research will not present a solution on how to implement CBDRR in the Maldives.
On the contrary, the research will seek to highlight the importance of CBDRR and the steps
taken by Japan to ensure disaster resilience at the community level. Furthermore, the research
will highlight best practices and CBDRR education in Japan. Since Maldives will not and cannot
match the fiscal prowess of Japan to conduct the exact CBDRR activities, the major payoff fromthis study is to identify key concepts used by Japan in implementing CBDRR, which Maldives
could replicate.
The first part of the study will begin with an overview of the disaster management
process of the Maldives. It will cover existing frameworks and a SWOT (Strength, Weakness,
Opportunity, Threat) analysis of Maldives' CBDRR efforts. It will also look at current CBDRR
projects in the Maldives. The consequent parts will cover the CBDRR efforts in Japan, how thecentral government and local governments have institutionalized CBDRR, and CBDRR concepts
used in Japan and their effectiveness. The research will conclude with a summary of the study
and its key-concepts, and a discussion on future areas of studies in CBDRR.

9

II. LITERATURE REVIEW AND FINDINGS - MALDIVES
1. Disaster management in the Maldives
A presidential decree established the National Disaster Management Centre (NDMC)
soon after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. Through its haphazard establishment, the mandate of
NDMC was to coordinate the recovery process for the tsunami relief effort. However, as things
progressed, the government handed the mandate of disaster preparedness and disaster risk
reduction as well to NDMC. However, there is no legal framework in the Maldives for a disastermanagement system. Work is underway to ratify a Disaster Management Act. At present, thedraft of the bill is at the Attorney General’s Office for amendments and validation before NDMC
presents the draft to the parliament for ratification. NDMC is currently under the nomenclatureof the Ministry of Defence and National Security as the mandate of responding to disasters falls
under the Ministry of Defence and National Security. Hence, the primary response force is theMaldives National Defence Force, which is also under the Ministry of Defence and National
Security.
Even though Maldives lacks a legal framework, the Decentralization Act of the Maldivesstates that the local councils and the Local Governance Authority have a stake in disastermanagement. Local councils are responsible to undertake, upon appointment by the President,
the task of planning and carrying out search and rescue, or provide temporary relief or restore
normalcy to the area during times of natural calamity, disaster, state of emergency, famine, or an
epidemic in any island, or administrative division.7 Furthermore, the local councils have theresponsibility to allocate funds for losses incurred during natural disasters in their budgets.8 It isalso up to the local councils to coordinate with NDMC to provide aid and relief from the central
government in case the situation worsens.9
Maldives lacks a disaster management strategy, policy, or a plan. However, work isunderway to formulate a National Emergency Operation Plan (NEOP) to define the roles,
responsibilities, the standard operating procedures, and the framework required to manage
disasters at every level. NDMC will publish the NEOP by the time the Parliament ratifies theDisaster Management Act. Furthermore, NDMC is currently in the process of introducing adamage assessments toolkit in order for island communities to report the damages they faceduring hazards. This process would introduce a tool to collect damage and needs assessment
information, and provide NMDC timely assessments of the crisis. The first phase of this projectis to begin in 2013. This phase would focus on institutionalizing the tool and establishing

7

Unofficial Translation of Act 7/2010: Act on Decentralization of the Administrative Divisions of the Maldives.
Section 142, http://www.shareefweb.com/documents/LocalGovReforms/MaldivesDraftlaw&regulations/Draft%20Translation%20of%20decentralisation%20ActMaldives.pdf, accessed on 11 November 2013.
8
Ibid., Section 97, Article 'k'.
9
Ibid., Section 72.
10

procedures for communities to send information, in order for NDMC to analyze and share it withother stakeholders, and finally, how NDMC would get the pre-crisis information.
NDMC is in charge of DRR and other related programs and has to apply through thegovernment's annual budget process to get funding for all their activities. For the current year,
NDMC estimated a budget of around 702,268.93 USD, but received just enough to cover thesalary of the staff and did not allocate funding for any proposed programs for disaster related
activities.10 Nonetheless, the government allots a contingency fund each year for recovery efforts
if there is an emergency/disaster. This budget is strictly for the purpose of recovery and theMinistry of Finance and Treasury controls these emergency funds.
2. Community-based disaster risk reduction in the Maldivesa. Legal structure
The vital component of institutionalizing CBDRR is having the legal structure. As
mentioned in the previous section, Maldives is still waiting to enact the first ever Disaster
Management Act. Mr. Umar Fikry from the NDMC, who worked in drafting the bill, states thatthe bill promotes mainstreaming DRR into different sectors of the government and has a special
clause specific to CBDRM.11 Maldivian Red Crescent (MRC), one of the leading agencies that
conduct CBDRR programs in the country, also notes the lack of laws on disaster management tomake DRR a priority at the national level and to provide the necessary framework for CBDRR as
its biggest challenge.12 In addition to the law, NDMC is also in the process of formulating anational framework for CBDRM. This would streamline the works of the organizations doing
CBDRM in Maldives and establish a mechanism at NDMC to institutionalize CBDRM plans ofislands. NDMC would also publish a facilitator’s handbook to complement the framework.
b. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis13
i. Strengths:
9 Maldives has a national body for disaster management (NDMC) along with agencies
that have the capacity and/or mandate to conduct CBDRR programs in the country.
9 UNDP and MRC already use the Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools used in
CBDRM. As a result, Maldives has been able to contextualize these tools.
9 Community knowledge (traditional and contemporary) exists in terms of risk
reduction, such as the traditional houses that have the kitchens in a separate building
from the main house, as a strategy to keep the main house safe from fire incidents.

10

Estimated Budget of the Maldives 2013, (Male: Ministry of Finance and Treasury, 2013).
Fikry, Umar. Electronic conversation with the author, October-November 2013.
12
Rishana, Fathmath. Email to author, October 31, 201313
The author formulated the SWOT analysis by input by personnel from the National Disaster Management Center,
Maldives Red Crescent, and own experience.
1111

9 UNDP, MRC, and MNDF have been conducting CBDRR trainings.
9 The nation gives disaster management and especially DRR a priority when a disasteroccurs. Maldives has had an increase in the number of flooding due to irregularclimate patterns. The government and other institutions could use these disasters tobuild momentum towards DM and DRR. The affected islands have already beenrequesting NDMC to formulate CBDRM plans for the community.
9 Ministry of Education has started to integrate DRR into the curriculum.
9 NGOs and National Organizations such as the UN provide funding and technicalsupport.
9 An increasing number of NGOs are working in DM/DRR and social causes: such as
Care Society, Society for Health Education, and Maldivian Youth Climate Network.
9 Coordination between stakeholders is good during disaster situations.
9 A high adoption rate of technology at the community level assists in establishing abetter communication network for dissemination of information. Television, radio,
mobile phone, and social media have increased the reach of information for remoteareas.
9 Maldives has homogeneous close-knit communities. People are of the same faith,
speak the same language, and share an identical, unique, and rich culture.
9 Several island councils (local governments) have given support to establish CBDRR
in their constituency.
ii. Weaknesses:
9 Lack of laws and regulations is the biggest challenge as it stops any institutional
effort, and in a society caught up on legality of everything, DRR efforts lackconstitutionally derived authority.
9 Maldives lacks the human resource capacity in CBDRM, and only a handful ofpeople in UNDP, NDMC, and MRC are aware of the CBDRM process in theMaldives.
9 Communities cannot link their traditional knowledge to DRR and DM concepts anduse it. Thus, the younger generations are ignorant of such knowledge.
9 Due to the high turnover of people in islands and government institutions, it isdifficult to maintain the trained people so that the communities could benefit fromtheir knowledge.
9 Lack of awareness regarding disasters/hazards in the country.
9 DRR knowledge and capacity is very limited at the policy level in the government.
Therefore, inclusion of DRR is not a priority in policymaking and developmental
planning. As a result, many government projects are not disaster-sensitive and it
might increase vulnerability to disaster in the future.
9 Political disharmony hinders continuity in DRR efforts.

12

9 Lack of accountability and proper planning is the island council level pushes theburden onto the central government.
9 The government does not allocate funds to DRR efforts at the national or local level.
9 Lack of coordination within sectors – Every institution tries to tackle DRR separately
instead of adopting a holistic approach and integrating DRR into every sector. One
example is the Ministry of Environment who mostly tends to work alone.
9 There is little to no coordination among DRR experts in the country.
9 The population of the Maldives is scattered across two hundred islands. It is
impossible to provide the same service to every island given the economic status of
the country.
9 The administrative structure is very weak at every level and relevant authorities do apoor job of documenting CBDRM/DM projects. This trend continues to documenting
disaster related information. As a result, it affects continuity and makes it difficult toget data on past disasters.
iii. Opportunities:
9 The current Decentralization Act gives the mandate and the freedom for island
councils to have a disaster management plan and to have a land use plan for theisland.
9 Island councils have the opportunity to seek funding through government budget for
DRR activities if they include these activities in their annual budget plans.
9 The Disaster Management Bill would be the quintessential step to start thecomprehensive disaster management process in the Maldives.
9 NDMC is in the process of formulating a national framework for CBDRM. This
would streamline the works of the organizations doing CBDRM in Maldives andestablish a mechanism at NDMC to institutionalize CBDRM plans of islands.
9 There are few people trained in DRR, even though there is little coordination
between them. However, NDMC can use their expertise if required.
9 Educated youth are able to grasp technical concepts, and are sensitive to the effect ofclimate change and the impact of disasters on the economy.
iv. Threats:
9 Land scarcity in islands means vital infrastructures and living area would always benear to the shoreline. There are no high grounds for evacuation and erosion
exacerbates the situation.
9 As DRR is not a priority and the members of the Parliament have little to noknowledge of DM/DRR, the requested budget for DRR programs do not get funding
from the national budget.
9 A weak and declining economy makes the government and the private sector
reluctant to finance DRR efforts.
13

9 Liable authorities are sometimes reluctant to take responsibility and shift it to anotheragency. This creates conflict of mandate among the institutions.
9 Leakage of funds allocated for projects and government’s hesitancy to accept leakage
occurs. This would eventually cause disinclination from international organizations
such as the UN to fund programs in the Maldives.
Looking at the findings on the above analysis, one would see that all the factors tie into
the lack of authority for DM within the country. One could also argue that most of these
problems arise from societal factors, such as a lack of willingness from government officials andthe local community. Therefore, the mindset of the people as a whole should change before thenation could establish an effective CBDRR, if not a comprehensive DM, system.
c. CBDRR Programs in the Maldives
The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami ignited the beginning of the comprehensive disastermanagement process in the Maldives. However, given the infancy of Maldives in disastermanagement, let alone CBDRR, and, given the lack of funding for NDMC and unavailability ofresources to conduct DRR programs, only private organizations and NGOs have been able toconduct CBDRR programs throughout the country. However, NDMC acts as a facilitator with
the UNDP and other international agencies to facilitate capacity-building programs for the
Maldives. The three main organizations that conduct CBDRR programs in the Maldives are
MRC, MNDF, and UNDP.
i. Maldives Red Crescent:Maldives Red Crescent is a relatively new national society. Hence, most of its
focus is on institutional development and capacity building. Maldives Red Crescent Act
mandates MRC to work in the area of disaster management and response. MRC also has
the mandate to implement disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation-related
activities at the community level through the Strategic National Action Plan (SNAP) on
DRR and Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) in Maldives. Consequently, DM is one of
the strategic areas of program implementation set in the MRC Strategic Plan 2011 – 2015.
At present, MRC is implementing a CBDRR Project with focus on integrated
preparedness, mitigation, and response components to increase resiliency to disasters andclimate change risks for four Maldivian communities. This project uses a strategy ofbuilding the capacity of MRC in order to strengthen the delivery of community service
and contribution to building resilience. It uses new DRR approaches, in line with thepriorities outlined by the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) and the Millennium
Development Goals (MDG), with focus on CCA. This project will go from 2010 until
2014. The Canadian Red Cross (CRC) funds the CBDRR project, and MRC manages the
project, including logistics, planning, and implementation. MRC gets technical support
from CRC and IFRC.
14

The Project Goal of this project is: ‘communities have capacity and resilience toaddress their basic needs’ and the eventual outcome is: reduction of the impacts ofdisasters on targeted communities as derived from the Canadian Red Cross (CRC)
Strategy 2015. In order to reach the goal and the eventual outcome, the project will strive
to achieve four immediate outcomes:
9 National society long-term advocacy role: Increased national society DRR/CCA
policies and advocacy actions that consider needs of the community;
This component will facilitate MRC to fulfill its role as specified in the Strategic National
Action Plan (SNAP) and the Disaster Management Bill where it has been positioned as a
key partner in the implementation of DRR and CCA related activities at the community level.
In order for MRC to be a key stakeholder and major partner in this area, Maldivian public
as well as other organizations must recognize MRC. The aim of the output in this area isachieving recognition from both. One of the major lessons learned from Partner National
Societies during the recovery from the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami was the importance ofbuilding good networks and coordination mechanisms with stakeholders. MRC is fortunatethat the government recognizes it as a major partner. However, MRC has a long way toproceed to be active in this area. This project contains many activities such as attending
multi stakeholder forums in DRR/CCA at national level annually, attending regular coordination meetings with NDMC to facilitate activities in DRR/CCA, and participating andsupporting NDMC and other organizations in different DRR/CCA related activities.

9 DM/DRR capacity building at the national society: Strengthened capacity of nationalsociety to sustain the delivery of DM/DRR programs;
As MRC strives to establish itself in the area of DM/DRR, it aims to develop the required
strategies, policies, procedures, and build the capacity of its staff to facilitate this process.
MRC intends to build its capacity to sustain delivery of service for DM and DRR programs
through this project. It will rely on the support of experienced 'movement' partners such as
the CRC, South Asia Regional Delegation (SARD), and Asia Pacific Zone Office (Zone) inthis endeavor. To date, MRC has made marked progress in developing DM/RR strategies,
policies, and Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) as guidance to DM/DRR decisionmaking and implementation. This includes, the MRC Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) andClimate Change Adaptation (CCA) Strategy which was approved by the MRC Governing
Board on June 2011. MRC has also approved an Emergency Response Mechanism andrelated SOPs and procedures in 2013. MRC will use these two strategic documents toimplement the DRR/CCA Strategy and MRC Response Mechanism. MRC Headquarters andits branches will use the DRR/CCA strategy for annual planning. The MRC Response
Mechanism will both inform the organizational disaster preparedness plan of MRC andassist in responding to emergencies.

9 Community Immediate Disaster Management: Increased community ability to
manage disasters including preparedness and response
MRC has currently started the development of MRC Response Mechanism with the supportof this project. The MRC Governing Board approved this effort in 2012. The Mechanism has
15

a strategy of establishing Emergency Response Teams (ERT) in all MRC Units and a
National Emergency Response Team (NERT) at the national level. A comprehensive
preparedness plan, which details the training, capacity building, and practice needed bythese teams,will support the mechanism.

9 Community Long Term Mitigation: Reduced underlying risk factors that affectcommunities
Based on the Vulnerability and Capacity Assessments (VCA) conducted to date in target
communities, MRC will be changing direction from using the traditional DRR model tousing a resilience model for the implementation of DRR. MRC will use the existing VCAs
compiled in 2010/2011 to factor in the resilience issues and priorities in communities, andto choose areas of interventions. MRC will then formulate awareness campaigns, both atpublic and community level to increase awareness on these issues. MRC will also help thetarget communities to develop community level Disaster Management plans.

Six communities initially took part in the event. However, two communities(highlighted in dark gray) are no longer in the project after an assessment in mid
2013.
Data Source:

Census: Registered Population
as of 4 July 2012

Island Name

Total

Male

FemaleHA. Hoarafushi
LH. Hinnavaru

3,277
4,676
2,243
1,735

1,659
2,404
1,178
906

2,953
5,172

K. Kaashidhoo
AA. Thoddoo
GDh. Gadhoo
S. Feydhoo

Census 2006

Council
Office Data
(Jan 2013)

1,618
2,272
1,065
829

Number ofHouseholds
375
482
277
183

AverageHousehold size
5.9
6.3
6.1
6.6

Number ofHouses
492
498

1,514

1,439

328

4.4

370
290
360

2,658

2,514

511

5.3

650

Figure 4: Islands where MRC conducted CBDRR programsii. Maldives National Defence Force:
The Maldives National Defence Force provides municipal fire fighting service inthe country. Therefore, MNDF Fire and Rescue Service (FRS) conducts programs on fireawareness and helps formulate and practice evacuation drills for island communities,
schools, and resorts. Furthermore, since the fire stations within the atolls are located incentral locations within the atolls rather than every island (which is fiscally andphysically improbable). As a result, firefighters cannot promptly respond to fire incidents
in another island. MNDF Fire and Rescue Service started training volunteer firefightersin remote islands in order to integrate the community into firefighting as first responders
until MNDF firefighters could get to the site.
16

Year
2012
2013
2013
2013

IslandSh. Feevaku
HDh. Makunudhoo
HA. Dhidhoo
N. Velidhoo

Number of participants
20
20
40
23

Figure 5: Number of volunteer firefighters by islands

Thus far, MNDF has conducted the training at four islands. In a coordinated effort
with nearby resorts along, MNDF has been able to acquire firefighting equipment forvolunteer firefighters in Sh. Feevaku.14 MNDF held the last program in N. Velidhoo andthe graduates of the program signed an agreement stating that they would attend fireincidents in their community.15
iii. United Nations Development Program:
UNDP conducts CBDRM programs in collaboration with the government. UNDP
provides the funding for the programs and coordinates with NDMC and local
governments to conduct them. One of the recent CBDRM programs UNDP conducted
was in Addu City in 2008. Over eight-thousand people participated in the program.
Under this project, UNDP held a CBDRM facilitation workshop in each island.
Participants from all stakeholder agencies participated in the workshop. Through theworkshop, the participants trained to utilize CBDRM tools such as hazard mapping,
Vulnerability Capacity Assessments (VCA), and collection of data for the planning
process. Next, the participants worked to devise mitigation activities based on the VCAs
and to formulate a response mechanism for disasters.16
NDMC recently started a two-year program with the UNDP; Enhance National
Capacity for Disaster Risk Reduction and Management in Maldives. This project is worth
400,000 USD. The aim of this program is to assist the government of Maldives tostrengthen its DRR and DM capacity, enhance national and local preparedness andreduce risks, and achieve its global commitment to the Hyogo Framework for Action(HFA) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).17 According to UNDP
Maldives, this project will support:
9 The establishment of the institutional and legal systems for DRR and effective DRR
organizations/institutions;
9 The strengthening of the end-to-end early warning systems and facilitate theimplementation of public awareness campaigns and knowledge building on DRR andclimate change adaptation.

14

Rameez, Ahmed. Electronic conversation with the author. August 2013.
News article on MNDF Website, http://www.mndf.gov.mv/mndf/News.php?newsid=864, accessed on November
15 2013.
16
Fikry.
17
Enhance National Capacity for Disaster Risk Reduction and Management in Maldives, (Male': UNDP, 2013).
17
15

9 In increasing capacity of the community for disaster preparedness for effective
response, and will entail a multi-hazard approach involving a multi-stakeholder
engagement.
9 The National Disaster Management Centre to be engaged as the primary
implementing partner for the project to ensure sustainability and ownership.
Assessing and strengthening the capacities of the NDMC as the lead national
institution on Disaster Risk Reduction/Disaster Risk Management coordination, will
also be a key component of this project.
d. Support from the central and local governments towards CBDRR
The Maldivian Red Crescent's main liaison from the central government is the Ministryof Health. However, MRC enjoys immense support from all the ministries in the government. As
such, MRC is currently part of the National Technical Committee coordinated by NDMC. In
addition to taking part in response efforts during disasters, MRC regularly participates, as
observers, in evacuation drills conducted at schools in Male' City, and provides technicalfeedback. MRC has co-facilitated the trainings by Ministry of Education on School Emergency
Operations Procedures for the managements of schools.18 Likewise, the central government
works closely with the UNDP in the implementation of such programs.19 However, UNDP and
MRC both have the freedom in conducting their programs. Unlike UNDP and MRC, theprograms conducted by MNDF are independent.
At the local government level, every organization works closely with the island councils.
For MRC's CBDRR projects, they hold focus group discussions with all key stakeholders at the
local level. Island councils take part in all the local level committees and processes. This is true
for UNDP sponsored programs and the programs by MNDF. The island councils help thefacilitators to mobilize the community and arrange logistical arrangements for the conducting the
programs.
Even though every council makes an effort to cooperate with the facilitators, some island
councils have a lackluster attitude towards CBDRR. MRC has had varied responses fromdifferent councils, especially in the CBDRR Project. "We had to let go of two islands primarily
due to a lack of support from the island councils and the communities," an official from MRC
stated about the lack of cooperation from some island councils.20 However, because of the hard
work by MRC to create awareness on DRR and DM, a few island councils have requested fortechnical assistance in formulating their DM Plans and Contingency Plans.
In line with integrating CBDRR into the community, the CBDRR Project by MRC
includes training on mainstreaming DRR and CCA into the development plans for governance(local councils) of the selected project islands. Their goal is to increase the understanding of the18

Rishana.
Fikry.
20
Rishana.
19

18

local community on the subject and integrate DRR and CCA into the developmental plans of theislands.
e. Feedback from the community and effectiveness of CBDRR programs
In general, the communities always welcome CBDRR programs. The public received
UNDP's program in Addu City in 2008 with gratitude and appreciation. The community said that,"the process made them realize how vulnerable they are to hazards and the importance of risk
reduction."21 However, they were skeptical about a way forward because UNDP's program was
not continuous and the government lacked any plans to carry on the project and support thecommunity in its DRR initiatives.
The trend continues with programs conducted by MRC. The communities areappreciative of the CBDRR Project and the people feel that DRR and disaster preparedness
activities are very important. Furthermore, since MRC works through volunteers, thecommunities feel that it helps in empowering the youth in the community.22 Similarly, theturnout for programs conducted by MNDF gets a lot of support. These programs inculcate asense of accomplishment and communal pride among the participants. Once again, many youth
take part in these programs and it promises to foster a sense of resilience and personal
responsibility among the islanders. One of the biggest achievements from fostering CBDRR
among the communities is the ability for them to be safe during disasters and to find innovative
solutions in DRR.
Every program is very effective as standalone programs. However, because of thegovernment's inability to maintain continuity, most of the programs end up being awarenessraising sessions. Thus, the communities were not able to sustain the knowledge and practice theskills they learned about CBDRR. One proof of this is that the workshops did not result in any
written DM plans of the communities.23
In the projects conducted by MRC, the community conducted a VCA and led thedevelopment of a mitigation proposal for intervention in one of the problems prioritized by thecommunity in their assessment. Volunteers developed the proposal with the guidance of acommittee composed of people from stakeholders and the community. Even though only threeislands were able to complete the proposals, albeit with a lot of support from the project staff, theexercise gave the community to take ownership of the project instead of making it somethingthat MRC imposed upon them. Partly due to these programs, MRC volunteers have becomes
assets in some of the islands and contribute to the awareness of the community and mitigation
activities organized by partner institutions such as the Island Council or Health Centre. A true
estimation of the success of this program at the community level will depend on the formulation

21

Fikry.
Rishana.
23
Fikry, Rishana.
22

19

of a DRR Awareness Campaign for the four project islands and the finalization of thecommunity’s Mitigation Proposals within November, 2013.
f. Challenges faced in CBDRR in the Maldives
The geography of the country is the biggest challenge. Dispersed islands increases thecosts of capacity-building programs as logistics cost almost two-third of the allotted funds.24 The
best way to overcome the fiscal burden is to train people within the community to promote
CBDRR. As the author already covered in the previous chapters, major disasters occur rarely in
the Maldives, and hence, DRR is not a priority for the communities and Maldives does not see
the benefits of investing in DRR. MRC observes "a lack of awareness on how DRR can be
integrated into normal activities and development plans" further compounds the lack ofpriority.25 Another challenge is getting and retaining volunteers in some communities. As
mentioned in the previous section, MRC stopped the project in two of the six communities due toa lack of support from the community and local governments.
As with the central government and the country as a whole, CBDRR is a foreign area formany communities. Few people have the education and the training in this area and due to thelack of the local government's willingness to be proactive, communities take part in CBDRR
only when an organization runs a CBDRR project or during a disaster. This is evident duringlocal emergencies such as floods, when the island councils would understand the importance of
having local capacity to respond. However, they repeatedly fail to make CBDRR/DRR a priority
in developmental planning or at the household level.
Lack of ownership and individual responsibility is one of the key issues that hinder
CBDRR in the Maldives. One such example is the annual flooding in the southern atolls during
the latter half of the year. Flooding occurs every year during the rainy season but the island
communities fail to respond appropriately during the rainy season. There is minimal effort fromthe community to prepare for the rain and to establish simple DRR measures such as using
sandbags to restrict water from entering the house. In addition to the lack of preventive measures,a few island communities take little to no action during flooding and leaves it for the response
forces (in this case MNDF) to start work, and due to lack of laws in this area, the authorities are
powerless to hold the people accountable for lack of preventive measures and the subsequentdamages. However, there are a few communities that do take an active, if not a preventive,
approach to respond to disasters. Mandating disaster insurance would be one way to remedy this.
Lack of continuity and commitment is another concern in CBDRR. Even though theturnout for training programs is high, the return investment from these projects is low. One such
example was during the conduct of maintenance training of desalination plants. Following the2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, relief aid from the international community provided desalination
plants for affected island. As part of the program, selected citizen from the community received

24
25

FIkry.
Rishana.
20

maintenance training. The participants earned a relatively good salary while the project wasunderway. However, after the training, the participants started getting other jobs that paid
comparatively less. In the end, trained individuals never stay in the communities. Often times,
they migrate within the country and their knowledge is lost. As a result, some of the desalination
plants have been out of order, partly due to the lack of expertise in desalination plantmaintenance, which often adds to the growing water shortage crisis.
Another major issue that concerns the MRC is the current political atmosphere. It is a
distraction to the communities and it is difficult to make them focus on pressing issues. There isalso the high possibility of politicizing any work by MRC or another organization, even thoughthese organizations have to adhere to their fundamental principles and code of conduct, and thecommunities are not aware of it. Furthermore, the priorities of most local governments are thework of their respective political parties. Because of this, some councils deliberately delay
developmental projects in the islands for political reasons.26
3. Summary of key findings in the Maldivesa. An infant institutional disaster management framework
Disaster management system in the Maldives is very new and CBDRR is an unfamiliar
idea to majority of the population. The relief efforts after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami
established the National Disaster Management Centre but lack of proper legislation andgovernance hinders the DRR process at every level and fails to institutionalize the DM process.
NDMC has been working hard to draft and ratify the Disaster Management Bill.
b. Lack of support from the grassroots level and the community
Disaster management is not a priority at the national level. The elected officials at thecentral government, local governments, and the Parliament lack knowledge on disastermanagement and disaster risk reduction, and hence, do not give DM a priority. This affects thenational budget for DM, which currently has no funding for DRR activities. The trend continues
to the community who are not aware of CBDRR efforts and the importance of CBDRR.
Grassroots level sees any preemptive spending on DRR effort as unnecessary expenditure. In
addition, since Maldives does not experience disasters often, the return of these investments is
not immediately visible to policy makers and the community.

c. Excellent CBDRM/CBDRR projects albeit lack of continuity and coordination
National and other organizations conduct awareness programs and DRR programs for thecommunity. UNDP, MRC, and MNDF conduct various CBDRM/CBDRR programs. NDMC, the26

Rishana.
21

national organization in charge of DM, has been unable to conduct any programs due to lack offunds. Similarly, the organizations that conduct these programs do not coordinate with each other.
MRC coordinates with the Ministry of Health but does not liaise with NDMC when conducting
programs. Likewise, when MNDF conducts a program, they are independent. The possible
redundancies waste the few resources in the country.
Most the island councils mobilize the community and provide the support to conduct the
programs and the participation of the community is excellent. The numbers of schools that takethe initiative to formulate and practice evacuation plans and drills increase every day, under theobservation of MNDF Fire and Rescue Service, MRC, and the Ministry of Education. If therelevant authorities were able to maintain continuity in the programs, the communities would
benefit more in the long term.
d. CBDRR is the only solution
Given the economic status of the country, CBDRR is the only way to counter andminimize disasters. Long-term planning is necessary to build the physical infrastructure.
Meanwhile, the communities should adopt the DRR effort and foster a culture of resilience.
Maldives is a close-knit homogeneous society. This is the biggest strength of Maldives that could
establish disaster resilient communities under proper guidance and holistic planning. At present,
the organizations involved in DRR need to coordinate in a joint effort. If so, the current effort
towards DRR would yield better results.

22III. LITERATURE REVIEW AND FINDINGS - JAPAN1. Institutionalization of community-based disaster risk reduction in Japana. Laws and regulations
The most important step in institutionalizing CBDRR is establishing the required legal
framework. Following the disastrous Ise-Wan Typhoon in 1959, the Japanese government
enacted Act number 223, the Disaster Counter Measures Basic Act, on November 15, 1961:"For the purpose of protecting the national territory, the life and limb of the citizens and their property, thisAct shall have for its aim the establishment of a machinery working through the State and local
governments and public corporations and the clarification of where responsibilities lie, and provide for theformulation of disaster prevention plans and basic policies relating to preventive and emergency measuresand rehabilitation programs to deal with disaster, and other necessary measures as well as financial action,
thus ensuring an effective and organized administration of comprehensive and systematic disasterprevention with a view toward the preservation of social order and the security of the public welfare."27

This Act remains the principle legislation that governs disaster management in Japan.
Under this Act, prefectural and city governments established their own laws to govern theirrespective DM process. Chapter I, Article 5 - paragraph 2 defines the role of local governmentsin establishing community-based disaster response/prevention measures.
"The mayor of the city or town or the head of the village shall, in order to fulfill responsibilities under thepreceding paragraph, endeavor to employ to the highest degree all capacities of the city, town or village, by
keeping the organization of fire fighting agencies, flood prevention units etc. in good condition, and by
consolidating organizations related to disaster prevention of public groups within the area of the city, town
or village and voluntary disaster prevention groups (referred to as "voluntary disaster prevention groups" inart. 8 para. 2) among the residents in a community spirit of mutual help."28

In addition to the local government, this Act covers every level of CBDRR. Chapter I,
Article 6 covers the responsibilities of designated national and local public corporations during
disasters. The next Article in the same chapter specifies the responsibilities of residents during
disasters.
"In addition to what is provided for in the preceding paragraph, residents of the area under local
government are obligated to contribute toward the cause of disaster prevention by taking their own
measures to prepare for disaster and by participating in voluntary disaster prevention groups etc."29

The above Articles enforce community-based effort towards DRR at every level and pave
the way to make everyone involved accountable for their DRR effort or lack thereof. Ultimately,
this Act is the mere backbone of the CBDRR effort in Japan. Based on this, Japanese citizens
take CBDRR measures as a personal responsibility to the community.

27

Act No. 223 Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act, Provisional Translation by National Land Agency, June 1997,(Japan: November 15, 1961), Chapter I, Article 1.
28
Ibid., Article 5, Paragraph 2.
29
Ibid., Article 7, Paragraph 2.
23

b. National level organizations
Cabinet Office of Japan is the national agency that manages the DM/DRR programs inJapan and is the leading coordination body with all the other ministries in disaster related issues.
Mr. Shinichiro Oe stated that Japan based DRR efforts on the principle of learning from thepast.30 Even though the Cabinet Office is not directly involved in the implementation of CBDRR
projects, they coordinate at each level with other national organizations and local governments toensure the projects go according to plan.
Another organization that plays an important role is the Japanese Meteorological Agency(JMA). JMA is in charge of the early warning systems. JMA along with its regional centers
monitor and provide early warning for earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic activities. In order todo this, JMA and its regional centers have systems setup to monitor volcanic activities, andearthquakes twenty-four hours a day.31 The main goal of the emergency operations is to issue
tsunami warning, advisories, and earthquake information as accurately as possible in a shorttime.32
Several other national organizations contribute to DM/DRR in Japan. However, it is more
important to note that the work at each level of the government complements the work of thecorresponding organization in the other levels. This leads to better coordination between the
different levels of the government and make a united effort towards DM/DRR.
c. Local governments
Local governments have the biggest stake in CBDRR as they have the reach to thecommunities and ultimately have the authority and tools to empower them. Each local
government has their own laws and regulations to manage disasters. However, they all cover thebasic fundamental principles as outlined in the Disaster Counter Measures Basic Act.
Furthermore, local governments prepare the response plans and evacuation drills with input fromthe community. The central government provides general guidance for the plans. In Kobe City,
the local government provided the location and voluntary disaster groups formulated the plan.
Apart from the DM/DRR plans, local governments also have monitoring systems. The
Hyogo Disaster Management Center has an operation center that monitors the Hyogo Prefecture
for any disasters twenty-four hours a day. Furthermore, Hyogo Disaster Management Center also
had provisions for the staff such as accommodation and food for use during disasters as thecenter goes to full staffing during disasters.33 Furthermore, the office also has a stockyard that30

Shinichiro Oe, “Disaster Management of Japan” (lecture, Cabinet Office, Japan, Tokyo, October 3, 2013).
Masaki Nakamura, Tanaka, "The Earthquake Early Warning System of the Japan Meteorological Agency"(lecture, Japan Meteorological Agency, Japan, Tokyo, October 3, 2013).
32
Sayoko Furuta, "Earthquake Information and Tsunami Warning Service at Regional Center" (lecture,
Seismological and Volcanological Division of Osaka District Meteorological Observatory, Japan, Osaka, September
5, 2013).
33
Nishijima, "Recovery Efforts After the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake" (lecture, Hyogo Disaster Management
Center, Japan, Kobe, September 3).
24
31

contains a water reserve, fuel reserve, blankets, sleeping bags, and rice as emergency supplies
during disasters.
Another interesting aspect of the local governments in CBDRR is hazard mapping. Local
ward offices and disaster related offices all have hazard maps of their respective areas. These
maps include evacuation areas and routes. In disaster prone areas, there are signs on the road thatmark designated evacuation routes and the nearest evacuation area. In addition to hazard
mapping, some of the best preventive measures found in Osaka from flooding are the floodgates
and tidal gates. As some parts of Osaka are below the sea level, the best course of action without
evacuating the populace is to engage these gates in conjunction with pumping stations.
One of the most striking features of the local governments is continuity of reconstructionplans. The Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011 affected Ishinomaki City, Miyagi Prefecture. In
order to recover and get return the community back to normalcy, the city government has
devised a reconstruction plan until 2020. It not only focuses on rebuilding the city, but also onbuilding a more cohesive community.34 Since this is a long-term recovery plan, the city
government integrated the reconstruction plan into the developmental plan of the city in order toincrease resilience of the community and better manage the finances involved.35 Likewise, theKobe City local government has continued to revise and reassess the recovery strategy since the1995 Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake. After the initial recovery plan, Kobe City government
conducted a comprehensive assessment in 2000 and expanded to promote the Kobe City
Recovery Plan. The city government conducted another comprehensive assessment in 2003 andformulated a post-recovery plan.36 The key component of this strategy is to work on social ties tomake a ‘new’ Kobe. The key social ties identified in the strategy are self-governance andcommunity solidarity based on the causal factors of self-sustainable individuals, mutual help, andestablishment of attitude in social ties.37 The main idea behind this is to involve the community
beyond recovery and into developmental planning, disaster prevention, and disaster mitigation.
d. Research and development
One has to look around the communities in Japan to notice the development and DRR
measures integrated within the infrastructure of Japan. This is because of the continuing research
to develop preventive measures against disasters. During the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake,seventy-three percent of the people died due to collapsing of houses and suffocation.38 As
earthquakes are one of the most frequent hazards in Japan, the government invested inestablishing the Hyogo Earthquake Engineering Research Center or E-Defense. It is a threedimensional earthquake testing facility and the largest of its kind in the world. The testing

34

Futakamai, Y, Endo, K, Interview by the author. Notes. Ishinomaki City, October 2, 2013.
Hafriza, Interview by the author. Notes. Sendai, Tohoku, November 8, 2013.
36
Comprehensive Strategy for Recovery from the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, (Tanaka Printing andPublishing: Kobe Institute of Urban Research, March 2010), Page 100.
37
Ibid., 105.
38
Ibid., 32-33.
25
35

facility conducts experiments on different kinds of building structures and building materials todetermine the best and most cost-efficient structural designs to minimize damage.
Another disaster that occurs frequently in Japan is landslides. Studies at Kyoto University
investigate slope failures and landslides using different types of soils. Through these experiments,
the faculty are able to predict slope failure, and help in building counter landslide measures along
the slopes.39
In addition to the two laboratories above, many more contribute to the research on DRR
measures in Japan. This shows the willingness of the government to invest in DRR measures.
Given the frequency of disasters in Japan, it is safe to state that the return in these investments ishigh. One of the best examples to see if DRR measures in Japan are working is to look at theGreat East Japan Earthquake in 2011. With a magnitude of 9.0 on the Richter scale, it was the
fourth largest earthquake recorded since 1900.40 However, in terms of loss of life, it ranks at thetwentieth place among the deadliest earthquakes since 1900.41 Another point to note is that all
the earthquakes except the 2004 Sumatra Earthquake had a smaller magnitude on the Richterscale compared to the Great East Japan Earthquake.
2. CBDRR through empowerment
Empowerment of the individual citizen is the imperative principle of CBDRR. In addition
to providing the community with the responsibilities to contribute to DRR, it inculcates a senseof ownership and makes individuals accountable. Japan achieves this through two types ofmeasures: materialistic and ideological. Physical preventive measures are the material structuresand processes enacted to counter disasters at the community level. These measures provide theassistance communities need in order to save themselves from disasters and minimize thedamage from disasters. Ideological measures are the intrinsic processes that accompany thephysical measures. It involves participation of the community and plays the vital role ofinculcating individual ownership in CBDRR efforts.
a. Physical preventive measures
The author already covered floodgates and tidal gates in Osaka in the previous chapter.
The community operates these gates during times of disaster. This gives the responsibility ofphysically taking preventive action against disasters to the community. It also gives time for the
citizens to evacuate high-risk areas. Likewise, ‘Sabo’ dams are another type of physical39

Professor Fukuoka, "Landslides" (lecture, Asian Disaster Reduction Centre, Japan, Kobe, October 22, 2013).
Largest Earthquakes in the World Since 1900, United State Geological Service. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/10_largest_world.php, accesssed on November 15, 2013.
41
Earthquake with more than 1000 deaths Since 1900, United State Geological Service. http://earthquake.usgs.gov
earthquakes/world/world_deaths_sort.php, accesssed on November 15, 2013.
40

26

measures to prevent debris flow. Debris flow could be due to one of many reasons: heavy rain,
volcanic activity, and seismic activity.
After the eruption of Mount Unzen in Nagasaki between 1990 and 1995, volcanic ash andmudflow buried the town of Mizunashi Honjin. This town is over seven kilometres southeast of
Mount Unzen. Mount Unzen is still an active volcano and construction of Sabo dams isunderway in the valley. One could see Sabo dams even in Mount Rokko in Kobe. In order toprevent landslides and debris flow, Rokko Sabo Office under the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism, has a project to build dams in order to prevent debris flow and landslides.
At present, Sabo Office has achieved a ratio of control of approximately fifty-seven percent of
the total sediment.42 During the 1995 Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, approximately 770
locations on Mount Rokko collapsed. In order to prevent damage from slope failure during
earthquakes, Sabo Office developed two types of measures: dams on slopes vulnerable to failureand hillside work.43 While no amount of dams could stop debris flow, even a small delay could
save lives by giving the community time to evacuate to a safe area.
Dissemination of information is another important measure that helps the community incommunicating threats from disasters. The Cabinet Office established the J-Alert system: anationwide automated early warning system. It has the capability to provide early warning to thecentral government within two seconds and the municipalities within five to twenty-threeseconds.44 The system buys time for communities to prepare, and evacuate if necessary. JMA
uses television, radio, emergency messaging systems, and cell phones. Furthermore, JMA is able
to estimate the maximum amplitude if a tsunami is imminent and estimate the wave velocity. The
system disseminates this information to the public within three minutes.45 At the national level,
early warnings enable related authorities to control the trains, elevators, and factory lines. It also
provides warning to workers performing hazardous tasks, schools, and most importantly, alerts
the communities at home.46 Early warning systems are not limited to earthquakes and tsunamis.
The Sabo dams also have a monitoring system and provide early warning if a landslide isimminent or if a dam fails.47
If there is one thing that people carry on themselves, it is a cell phone. Therefore, the useof cell phones as an early warning device is very helpful, effective, and improves the reach of theearly warning system. There are paid services that send messages to the user, issuing warnings
advisories, and evacuation notifications. At the onset of an imminent disaster, the users will getmessages warning and detailing the type of disaster. It also gives special notification for theelderly and the disabled during an evacuation.

42

Morihigashi, Sugiura, "Explanation of Outline of Work" (lecture, Rokko Sabo Office, Japan, Kobe, September 17,2013).
43
Ibid.
44
Oe.
45
Nakamura.
46
Ibid.
47
Morihigashi, Sugiura.
27

b. Ideological preventive measures
Developing a sense of belonging and taking ownership is the best way to integrate anidea in an individual. As such, almost all of the CBDRR efforts in Japan work at building a senseof ownership for individuals. The biggest project of this type is the volunteer fire fighting
programs. These are usually retired firefighters. The city fire departments train them andcoordinate closely in responding to fire incidents. The volunteer firefighters from Kobe operatefrom the outskirts of the towns as it takes time for the Kobe City Fire Department to reach thesite. Therefore, the volunteer firefighters act as a supplementary first responder and enhance thecapabilities of the city fire department. Furthermore, having volunteer firefighters helps raiseawareness about fire incidents in the daily life of the communities and ensure that there is reach
within the communities for the city fire department.
One could argue that everyone cannot be a firefighter and look at it as a lost opportunity
when compared to the whole community. However, there are other programs equally importantand beneficial. Town-watching is a participative opportunity for citizens to develop their own
customized hazard maps. In comparison to hazard mapping by the local governments, thisprocess provides another advantage. It forces individuals to think for themselves and come up
with high-risk areas, possible evacuation routes, and evacuation areas. Nagasaki Prefecture
Public Works Department works on building physical structures to mitigate disasters but thesemeasures are costly and take a long time. It took the prefectural government twenty-two years tocomplete the dam and bypass on Nakashima River.48 In addition, there are over eleven-thousand
hazardous areas surveyed in the Nagasaki Prefecture. As a result, the prefectural government
conducts concurrent town-watching programs for schools and the community, especially before
the rainy season each year. This program enables, rather it forces, every individual to identify
personally areas of concern. If the local governments merely handed hazard maps to every
individual, hardly anyone would remember it or even look at it before a disaster strikes.
The main aim of empowering individuals is to give them ownership. The ‘Rokko
Mountains Greenbelt Development Project’ by the Rokko Sabo Office stands as the best
example that encompasses the physical and the ideological perspective of CBDRR. In thisprogram, student from six Kobe municipal elementary schools pick acorns from nearby
mountains and plant them in a pot at their schools. The children grow the seedlings for a few
years. Students are responsible for their own plant and care for them throughout elementary
school. The students go to Mount Rokko right before graduation and plant their acorn trees. This
project embodies every principle of CBDRR and teaches the importance of contribution andpersonal accountability to the children.49
During the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, the city of Ishinomaki suffered greatdamage. However, the city officials claim that people were able to save themselves through ‘self

48
49

Sugasaki. Interview by author, notes, Nagasaki Prefecture Public Works Department, November 5, 2013.
Morihigashi, Sugiura.
28

protection groups’ who were in charge of evacuation and managing evacuation centres.50 Onceagain, this shows what happens when citizens are encouraged to make a difference and takeinitiative within the community.
3. Disaster education
One of the most noticeable things about Japan is that disaster education is a part ofeveryday life. Whether one goes to a government office or takes a walk in the town, posters,monuments, and memorials are everywhere. It plays an important role in educating about
disasters. On a broader scale, there are three types of education for disasters: formal, non-formal,
and informal. Formal education covers institutionalized learning, academia, and researches. Nonformal education includes disaster memorials, museums, and disaster drills. Finally, informal
education covers educating through secondary mediums such as games, leaflets, andcompetitions.51
a. Formal education
Given that Japan is prone to disasters, disaster reduction is integral in the educational
curriculum and is a wide field of study offered at the universities in Japan. The author had achance to speak to students and professors from different universities in Japan. The education
system in the colleges covered many different aspects of disaster reduction. There are faculties
that specialize in landslides, business continuity management, flooding and inundation,
earthquakes, and typhoons. Having such a vast field of study is vital in promoting DRR among
the population.
b. Non-formal education
One can argue that every disaster struck site in Japan has a memorial. This serves two
purposes. First, it provides a way for people to see the extent of the damage from the disaster.
Secondly, it generates revenue in the shape of tourism. While ‘disaster tourism’ is somewhat
unorthodox, it helps create awareness among the citizens and visitors about what occurred.52 An
interesting fact about these memorials and museums is that they offer a comprehensive overview
of the related disaster. For example, the DRI Museum in Kobe City covers how earthquakes
occur, with special focus on the 1995 Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake. Visitors also get achance to experience earthquakes in a theatre or a simulator. Finally, visitors get a chance to lookat pictures and displays from the disasters, and listen to testimonial from survivors. Nojima Fault
Prevention Museum gives the chance for visitors to experience an earthquake while Mount

50

Futakami and Endo.
Glenn Fernandez, "Environment and Disaster Education Research at IEDM Laboratory" (lecture, Kyoto
University, Japan, Kyoto, November 12, 2013).
52
Ibid.
29
51

Unzen Disaster Memorial Hall gives the chance to experience volcanic eruptions. These places
offer a free environment for everyone to appreciate and learn about disasters.
Another example of non-formal education is drills. Each city has mandatory disaster
drills at different levels. In Kyoto City comprehensive disaster drill, members from the Self
Defence Force, Japanese Red Cross, Firefighters, and Utilities companies take part in the event.
Each service gives a demonstration on what they can do during a disaster. People might view
these types of drills as a show for the public, but from the perspective of these services, they geta chance to coordinate with their fellow services and train to work together during disasters. In
fact, it is unlikely that they get a chance to conduct joint training during their everyday work life.
Japan also conducts drills in which the community takes part in the training. The annual
disaster drill in the district of Shinjuku in Metropolitan Tokyo is an example of the integration of
the private sector and the community into the government’s DRR efforts. Since Shinjuku is inmetropolitan Tokyo, the area is full of private businesses and companies. As such, the private
sector plays an important part in managing disasters in the area. One such example is Kogakuin
University, a private institution, which accommodates the disaster drill for medical evacuation.
The Japanese Red Cross (JRC) organize and conducts the drill, while doctors and individuals
from the government and private sector participate in the drill. In addition, volunteers from JRC
and the university, fire fighters from the Tokyo fire department also participate in the drill. The
JRC staff teaches the participants on how to correctly dress a wound or carry a stretcher. JRC
The drill is a success as a participative learning experience.
The second part of the disaster drill at Shinjuku is the evacuation drill that takes place inthe office building of Sompo Japan, a Japanese insurance company. In addition to conducting thedrill, Sompo Japan has an agreement, the first of its kind, with Tokyo Metropolitan Government
to accommodate up to three-hundred stranded individuals during disasters.53 In addition to theevacuees, the building would accommodate everyone who works in the building during a disasterand have the basic supplies required for the first sevent-two hours. Shinjuku disaster drill
highlights the effectiveness of corporate social responsibility in the private sector.
It is noteworthy to mention that private companies conduct their own disaster drills. Mr.
Shigemoto, head of factory of Nada Kobe Coop, holds full-scale disaster drills fourteen times ayear at his factory. Even though his subordinates were sceptical at the start, he continued theprogram and made sure everyone was serious. He laughs today about how he would make people
redo the drills because they did not take it seriously. This was before the 1995 Great HanshinAwaji Earthquake. He mentioned with pride that, from his five-hundred employees, only one
suffered any injury during the earthquake. Everyone else managed to evacuate.54 Throughrigorous drills, Mr. Shigemoto was able to save the lives of everyone who worked at his factory.

53

Kojima, Tadashi. Interview by author, notes, Sompo Japan, November 7, 2013.
Shigemoto, "Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction" (lecture, Asian Disaster Reduction Center, Japan, Kobe,
October 18, 2013).
30

54This is quite an achievement given the fact that dissemination of information and DRR efforts
was not the same standard as present day.
Another event that underlines the importance and success of evacuation drills is theinfamous ‘Miracle of Kamaishi’. After the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, the students ofelementary and junior high school of Kamaishi City in Iwate Prefecture managed to evacuate
successfully.
“A prime example was the children in Unosumai, the hardest-hit district in the city. Immediately after themagnitude 9.0 earthquake struck that afternoon, the students of Kamaishi East Junior High School ran outof the school to higher ground. Their quick response prompted the children and teachers of the neighboring
Unosumai Elementary School to follow, and consequently drew in many local residents. As they continued
to run, older students supported the younger schoolchildren, and together they reached a safe location whilebehind them the mega-tsunami swallowed their schools and the town.”55

This incident is an inspirational example of the success of disaster education. An
animated cartoon depicting the event at Kamaishi City is now used as a disaster education tool.
Moreover, this incident shows the power of empowerment and personal responsibility fromdisaster education, because teachers and children made the decision to evacuate even when thehazard maps showed the area was safe.
c. Informal education
The importance of informal education is that it is useful for building personal
responsibility in children who are unlikely to pay attention when forced into something. Kiito, an
NGO that uses art to educate on disasters holds an event known as the Kaeru Caravan. The event
contains DRR-based games aimed at creating awareness among children. Participants win points
when they do the specified activity at each stall and exchange the points for toys. One of themost interesting stalls at the event is the usage of a car jack to rescue someone under a collapsed
house. It highlighted the importance of working with what one had. This project does not only
educate children, it also heps get rid of unwanted toys.
Furthermore, informal education allows integrating disaster education into everyday
activities. Mr. Hafriza is from Indonesia and he was in Banda Aceh when the 2004 Indian Ocean
Tsunami occurred. He stated that many people did not know about a tsunami. However, as he
was an avid reader of manga (Japanese comics), he had read about tsunamis and knew what was
happening.56 Even if manga included simple facts like this unintentionally, it is a smart way toreach the younger generations.
Success stories similar to above may not be many, but the truth of the matter is that
education is the first step before enacting disaster preventive infrastructure. Even if thecommunity has the latest technology in terms of seawalls, floodgates, and early warning systems,

55

Public Relations Office, Government of Japan. The 'miracle of Kamaishi': How 3,000 students survived 3/11.
http://mnj.gov-online.go.jp/kamaishi.html Accessed on 19 November 2013.
56
Hafriza.
31

education is what would enable them to learn what to do when disasters occur and helps maintainpriority on DRR at all levels.
4. Culture/Society
Japan has had so many disasters that disasters are as much part of the Japanese culture as
its cuisine or art. The main difference between Japan and other countries when it comes todisasters is that people are willing to learn and there is a sense of individual responsibility aroundevery citizen. Furthermore, the culture of Japan is to embrace nature. The call by Mr.
Hatakeyama, a survivor from the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, to use traditional means torecover and to be in harmony with nature underlines this culture. Instead of moving to a different
area after the tsunami, he decided to stay back and recover his oyster farming business.57
Similarly, Japanese culture is about learning from experience and doing better next time.
When a disaster occurs in Japan, officials and citizens would think about how they could haveprotected the disaster. This is evident by the discussions between the local governments and thecommunities to devise recovery plans. The citizens would never talk about the enormity of thedisaster or blame the authorities.58 This culture is conducive to establishing close ties within thecommunity and maintaining good relations with the authorities.
An additional aspect of Japanese culture is the concept of mutual help. During the Great
Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, neighbors rescued the trapped individuals even before the help from
authorities arrived.59 Furthermore, the communities managed disaster preventive measures suchas patrolling the forests under the guidance of the elders of the village or managing rivers.60 This
notion of volunteering and helping echoes in every conversation with anyone from Japan.
The turnout from the community and the private sector for disaster drills and such eventsshow how well they embody the responsibilities of contributing back to the society. Add to thisJapan’s culture of building back better after a disaster, and the resulting efforts by the locals andthe government is amazing.
Furthermore, the rehabilitation process after a disaster is just as commendable as the
DRR efforts. The children’s market in Ishinomaki City is one such event. The aim of the event is
to improve livelihood within the community who were trying to get back to normal ways after
the mega disaster in 2011. In this market, there were stalls set up by children that sold vegetables,
coffee souvenirs, and other such things. A few children talked about what they did and each ofthem had come early morning to set up the stalls. Even though adults helped them, the effort ofthe children was evident. At the end of the market, the children dismantled the stalls and helped

57

Kinagami, "JICA Reconstruction Assistance for the Great East Japan Earthquake" (lecture, JICA Tohoku, Japan,
Sendai, November 8, 2013).
58
Hafriza.
59
Kojima and Shigemoto.
60
Shigemoto.
32

the adults to load the trucks. Apart from revitalizing the community, such activities help rekindle
the cooperation within the community and instil a sense of responsibility within the children.
Lastly, the willingness of the community to learn about disasters and involve theirchildren is remarkable. Even at the Open Day event at Kyoto University, many parents go with
their children and take part in some of the activities or just watch the presentations by thestudents of the university. Organizing such events and the support by the community helps inthreefold. First, it allows the community to witness the progress made by the work on DRR.
Second, it gives the students and faculty a chance to show what they have achieved to thecommunity. Finally, it inspires children to develop a mindset towards such activities.
5. Challenges in CBDRR
a. A false sense of security
One of the biggest reasons for the high death toll and the damage from the tsunami during
the Great East Japan Earthquake was that the authorities under estimated the extent of thedisaster. Mr. Shinchiro Kurihara, a 73-year-old survivor from Higashimatsushima spoke about
the night of the tsunami. He misjudged the height of the tsunami based on the information givenby the authorities. By the time he realized the tsunami was bigger than he previously thought, it
was too late and he sought refuge on the second floor with his disabled wife. 61 Every survivor
and government official who spoke about the disaster mentioned this trend of false sense of
security. Something similar happened in Onagawa City as well during the 2011 earthquake andtsunami. Everyone expected the tsunami to come from the sea whereas it came from the river.
Some who climbed the nearby high ground to escape thought it was enough. However, thetsunami climbed the slope and some lost their lives. This over reliance on disaster mitigation
efforts creates a false sense of security.
b. Declining economy and population
Even though Japan is one of the most developed countries, the economy is slowly
declining. Even though Japan has the technology and projects, the fiscal challenge will be hardon the government.62 Add to this the declining population and the country is facing many issues.
The declining population is even more visible in remote disaster struck areas where the young
leave the villages leaving behind an elderly community.63
c. Disjointed and traumatized communities
Even though victims of disasters get temporary housing, and eventually permanent
housing, it disrupts the communities. Especially since the elderly remain in the local villages,

61

Kurihara, Shinchiro. Interview by author, notes, Temporary Housing - Higashimatsushima, November 9, 2013.
Kinagimi
63
Kurihara
33
62

they have to reacquaint themselves with new neighbors and this has been one of the biggest
challenges for the survivors.64
Another survivor, an elderly woman, stated that the youth have left and will not return
because there no work available. Her forty-five-year-old son works in the city government. She
said that her son saw the tsunami reached the third floor and she told us about his trauma
following that: he refuses to acknowledge the incident, and has forbid the word ‘tsunami’ in thehousehold. These are all causes for concern as unity and camaraderie is the biggest strength of
the Japanese people. The failure to address this issue right now could lead to deterioration ofvalues in the community.
6. Summary of key findings in Japana. A holistic approach to CBDRR
The CBDRR system in Japan aims to involve and empower the community. The laws
mandate it upon individuals and the local governments. The local governments have a free rolein implementing its DRR activities but do so based on the guidance from the central government
and in close coordination with the community. Disaster education has been the key in
empowering individuals. Furthermore, the societal values are biggest factor that makes CBDRR
successful in Japan, where every organization from the government to the private sector andNGOs is involved in the CBDRR process. These organizations deal with CBDRR on all ‘fronts’of the community.
b. Look-Learn-Participate
The key principle of Japan in disaster management is to accept that disasters occur, learn
from the experience, and to practice better mitigation efforts. Participation of the citizens at
every level of the DRR process makes it possible to establish a resilient community. Individuals
take part in programs such as town-watching and have a sense of ownership to contribute to thecommunity. Furthermore, local governments formulate recovery plans and integrate
developmental plans within the recovery plans.
c. Continuity is vital for an effective CBDRR process
Japan manages to establish continuity in its DRR efforts by involving the community andthe local governments. The local community is responsible for input and feedback for the DRR
efforts and hence, even if the top-level leadership changes, the projects continue with work fromthe permanent cadre.

64

Kuroda, Mieko. Interview by author, notes, Higashimatsushima, November 9, 2011.
34

IV. CONCLUSION
1. Discussions
Japan’s biggest strength in having a comprehensive CBDRR system is the culture and the
intrinsic nature of contribution by the community. Most importantly, disaster management is apriority at the grassroots level and the legal framework identifies and mandates stakeholder
agencies to promote CBDRR. At the same time, local governments have better outreach toremote communities than the central government, and involve these communities in the DRR
process. Lastly, the CBDRR effort in Japan relies on empowerment of the individual throughcoordinated efforts at every level of the government.
Maldives faces a tough battle in establishing a comprehensive CBDRR program. In orderto accomplish this, the national government must start from the basics and establish a strong
disaster management framework. At the same time, it must continue concurrent efforts to bringin relevant stakeholders at the national level and remove any redundancies in the mandates ofdifferent organizations (as it related to DM/DRR), while assigning relevant mandates to theministries and national agencies that contribute and should contribute to disaster management. At
the same time, local governments need to lay aside the political differences and proactively
coordinate with the national government. Unless disaster management in the Maldives meetsthese basic requirements, it would be difficult to establish a comprehensive CBDRR system in
the Maldives.
2. Recommendations
i.

ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

Maldives needs to enact the Disaster Management Act as soon as possible. In a passive
community such as the Maldives, assigning legal mandates and responsibilities is the
only way to institutionalize a comprehensive disaster management process.
NDMC needs to lobby in the national government and make DM a priority by showing
the fiscal advantages of a good DM system and efficient and effective DRR measures.
Institutionalize evacuation drills and conduct island-wide evacuation drills that rely on
using what is available on site.
NDMC needs to take the lead and coordinate with the current organizations that conduct
DRR projects to be on the same page.
Strengthen the continuity of ongoing programs like the volunteer firefighters program by
MNDF and the CBDRR project by MRC.
Conduct innovative programs for disaster education such as Kaeru Caravan that would
leave a lasting impression on the participants.
Find ways to make current disaster education programs empower individuals. One
example is whenever there is a tree-planting program in the country; make the individuals
grow a plant instead of picking a plant from somewhere else. This is similar to the project35

by Rokko Sabo Office. This would give the participants a sense of accomplishment inaddition to empowering them.
3. Further studies
i.
ii.
iii.

This study focuses on the DM/DRR/CBDRR efforts in Japan. The next step would be to
conduct a thorough research on the Maldives with special focus on the local governments.
A research on how Japan set up its disaster management process would be of use to theMaldives and would help in establishing the system in the Maldives.
Since climate change is a big issue in the Maldives, a study on how DRR measures arecoordinated with climate adaptation measures in Japan would be another field of study
that would benefit the Maldives.

36

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3, 2013.
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Sugasaki. Interview by author, notes, Nagasaki Prefecture Public Works Department, November
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39