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Disaster memorial
events for increasingawareness andpreparedness: 150
years since the Arica
tsunami in AotearoaNew ZealandKristie-Lee Thomas1
Lucy Kaiser1,2
Emily Campbell2
Professor DavidJohnston2
Hamish Campbell1
Rana Solomon3
Helen Jack4
Jose Borrero5,6
Ali Northern1

Introduction

1 GNS Science, Lower Hutt,
New Zealand.

Memorial events held within the weeks, months or years
following a disaster may play a crucial role in community
recovery and encourage community resilience (Eyre 2007,
1999; Nicholls 2006). Eyre (1999) explained that bothinformal (impromptu, community-led initiatives such as
flower laying) and formal (organised events) anniversary
memorials allow collective expression of grief. This is an
important process for some people to come to terms withtragedy and seek comfort and is part of the healing process.
However, for some people, these memorials may cause
trauma and reduce community resilience (Garde-Hansen etal. 2017, Fraser 2018, McKinnon 2019). This can occur whenmemorials place the event in the past and put pressure on
people to forget, downplay the effects, are not inclusiveof marginalised groups, are not carried out in a culturally
appropriate manner or do not appropriately address failed
disaster management policies (McKinnon 2019, Fraser 2018).

2 Massey University,
Wellington, New Zealand.
3 Chatham Islands Council,
Chatham Islands, New
Zealand.
4 Environment Canterbury
Regional Council,
Christchurch, New
Zealand.
5 eCoast Marine Consulting
and Research, Raglan, New
Zealand.
6 University of Southern
California, Los Angeles,
United State of America.

SUBMIT TED

12 August 2019
ACCEPTED

18 November 2019

Anniversaries of disaster events are a time when people’s
memories and personal experiences are powerfully evoked,
prompting recollection, reflection and storytelling (Forrest
1993, Echterling 1998). Disaster memorials, including
permanent features such as plaques, gardens, art andstatues as well as services and events are ‘symbolic formsof ritual expression demonstrating the impact of tragedy,
particularly sudden and unexpected events, on communities’(Eyre 1999, p.23).

Abstract
On 15 August 1868, a greatearthquake struck off thecoast of the Chile-Peru border
generating a tsunami thattravelled across the Pacific
Ocean. Wharekauri-Rēkohu-The
Chatham Islands, located 800 km
east of Christchurch city, was oneof the worst affected locations in
Aotearoa-New Zealand. Tsunami
waves, including three over six
metres high, injured and killed
people, destroyed buildings
and infrastructure and affected
the environment, economy andcommunities. Advancements in
disaster risk reduction systems
and technology have significantly
advanced since then, as has
Aotearoa-New Zealand’s capacity
to be ready for and respondto earthquakes and tsunami.
However, collective memory ofthis event and other tsunami
events has diminished. In 2018,a team of scientists, emergency
managers and communication
specialists collaborated toorganise a memorial event on the
Chatham Islands and coordinate
a multi-agency media campaign
to commemorate the 150th
anniversary of the 1868 Arica
tsunami. This paper describes
the purpose and variety ofcontexts in which anniversary
memorial events are held. The
1868 Arica tsunami event andthe design and components of
the 150th anniversary memorial
event are examined to detail the
educative function this memorial
held and potential improvements
for future memorial events. The
importance of commemorating
centennial disaster anniversaries
using memorial events ishighlighted as it raises awarenessand increases community
preparedness for future events:‘lest we forget and let us learn’.

This paper describes the memorial event held tocommemorate a 150th anniversary, which held a different
purpose or kaupapa1. Anniversaries in longer timeframes
1 Kaupapa is a Māori term for topic, policy, matter for discussion, plan,
purpose, scheme, proposal, agenda, subject, programme, theme, issue,
initiative (Moorfield 2019).

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after disaster events, where people have not been directly
affected, can have a educative function greater than those heldin the immediate aftermath. These memorials raise awareness ofpast events that may have diminished in a community’s collective
memory (defined by Roediger & Abel (2015) as recollections ofevents shared by a group). Memorials also reflect on the lessons
learnt and encourage preparedness for future events (BlanchardBoehm & Cook 2004; Cowan, McClure & Wilson 2002; McGee &Young 2000; Blanchard-Boehm 1996).
Aotearoa-New Zealand’s disaster risk reduction agencies,
including the National Emergency Management Agency, regional
Civil Defence Emergency Management groups and operational
monitoring agencies such as the MetService and GeoNet use
websites and social media channels to acknowledge and publicise
historical disaster anniversaries (Hill 2016). However, memorial
events for events of decades or centuries ago are rare. Examples
include the 85th anniversary of the Hawkes Bay earthquake in2016 and the 50th anniversary of the Īnangahua earthquake in
May 2018 (Laing 2016). Prior to 2018, memorial events were notheld to commemorate historical tsunamis.
The 15 August 2018 marked the 150th anniversary of the1868 Arica earthquake and tsunami. While Aotearoa-New
Zealand’s tsunami exposure is widely documented, there has
been less focus on the Chatham Islands, located 800 km eastof Christchurch (Figure 1). The Chatham Islands are exposed totsunami from all sides and was one of the most affected locations
during this event. Since then, no tsunami has been as destructive
and tsunamis have not caused damage to the Chatham Islands
since 1960. As a result, some members of the community havegrown complacent (Thomas 2018).

Indeed, the full wrath of the ocean seemed to battle with
the island in fierce resolve to submerge it… The third
wave, which came rolling in with most awful grandeur andthousand-fold power, bearing down outbuildings and stout
old akeakes [native tree, Olearia traversiorum], which broke
and cracked beneath its fury like matchwood, carrying
away young cattle, and scattering the debris of the ruins far
away…
Hawkes Bay Herald 1868

Figure 1: Location of the Chatham Islands off the east coast of
Aotearoa-New Zealand.
Map produced using ESRI World Imagery Basemap and Stats New Zealand
Regional Council 2018 Boundaries.

This study received approval from Massey University, Ethics
Notification Number 4000019934.

The 1868 Arica tsunami
On August 14 1868 at 10:15 am (Chatham Islands local date
and time), a large-magnitude earthquake struck off the coast ofArica, near the Chile-Peru border. The earthquake generated alarge tsunami that was observed throughout the Pacific region(Figure 2). As no tsunami warning system existed for the Pacificat that time, people in areas beyond the earthquake source weregenerally caught unaware. Almost 15 hours after the earthquake,at 1:00 am on 15 August, an hour before high tide, the largest
tsunami waves arrived along the east and north coasts (Downes
et al. 2017, McSaveney 2006, North Otago Times 1868). People
woke to a loud roar and water surging through their homes. Ten
minutes later, a larger wave hit followed 3–5 minutes later bya third large wave that dragged away everything still standing(Wanganui Herald 1868, Downes et al. 2017, Hawkes Bay Herald1868).

…the first great wave rushed in with such force and terrificnoise that the very foundation of the deep seemed broken
up. In ten minutes more, another wave, more terrible than
the former, commenced its work of destruction and after alike interval, the third and last completed the catastrophe.

72© 2020 Australian Institute for Disaster Resilience

House ruins at Tupuangi from the 1868 Arica tsunami.
Image: Kristie-Lee Thomas.

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in Taranaki (on mainland Aotearoa-New Zealand) soon after(Holmes 1993, Lawrie & Powell 2006, Travers 1871).
The rest of the island fared little better. A man drowned at
Waitangi West while trying to save a fishing boat (Otago Witness
1868, Wanganui Herald 1868). Many houses were destroyed andwashed away and the Pā5 at Waitangi was damaged (North Otago
Times 1868, Otago Witness 1868, Hawkes Bay Herald 1868).
Boats and bridges were damaged or washed away, beaches werecovered in debris and sand dunes were eroded (Otago Witness
1868; Richards, Carter & Amery 2009; Wanganui Herald 1868;
Travers 1871). Abnormal waves, surges and strong currents
continued over the following 24 hours even as people cleaned up
the mess left behind the tsunami (Downes et al. 2017).
Figure 2: Trans-Pacific propagation pattern of the 1868 Arica
tsunami (left) and modelled tsunami height around the Chatham
Islands coastline (right).
Image: Jose Borrero

Tsunami waves affected Aotearoa-New Zealand one to two hours
after arrival in the Chatham Islands. Several people were nearly
swept away, many boats were damaged and some homes, roads
and fences were destroyed, particularly around Banks Peninsula
near Christchurch (Downes et al. 2017; De Lange, Healy &Geophysics 1986; Borrero & Goring 2015). In Lyttleton Harbour,the tsunami had a trough-to-peak height of around 7.6 metres(Gibson 1868). Tsunami waves and surges were observed overthe next two days along the east coast from Maunganui in thenorth to Bluff in the south as well as in places along the West
Coast region.

Memorial event and media

Figure 3: Map of the 1868 tsunami inundation (yellow) produced by
local run holder and trader, Mr Thomas Ritchie.

Research investigating the 1868 tsunami and its impacts on
the Chatham Islands by Thomas (2018) and developing tsunami
evacuation zones by the Chatham Islands Council provided atimely opportunity to hold a memorial event to commemorate
the 150th anniversary and promote tsunami awareness andreadiness. GNS Science, GeoNet and Massey University Joint
Centre for Disaster Research evaluated interest from Chatham
Islands Emergency Management, both indigenous groups Ngāti
Mutunga o Wharekauri Iwi6 and Moriori (through their respective
Iwi Trust Offices7) as well as other interested groups including the
Chatham Islands Museum, two primary schools and infrastructure

Image courtesy of National Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa(1868)The entire Chatham Islands coastline was affected (Figure 3). The
north and east coasts experienced waves up to six metres thatflooded up to six kilometers inland. Waitangi, Te One and theSouth Coast experienced waves of 2.4–4.6 metres (Hawkes Bay
Herald 1868).
Tupuangi, Te Raki and Waitangi West experienced the greatest
effects of the tsunami. The entire kāinga2 at Tupuangi, whereapproximately 70 people lived, was destroyed. Whare3 weresmashed, vegetation was destroyed and sand, boulders andseaweed covered the ground (Holmes 1993; Richards, Carter& Amery 2009; Otago Witness 1868). Māori oral histories
reveal three whānau4 were washed away with their whare anddrowned (Thomas 2018). People who ran to high ground survived
but were left with nothing. The once flourishing settlement
was abandoned and many people returned to ancestral lands

2 Māori settlement, village (Moorfield 2019).
3 Traditional Māori dwelling (Moorfield 2019) usually made from ponga (silver
tree fern, Cyathea dealbata) and, on the Chatham Islands, sometimes withother materials such as driftwood.
4 Whānau is ‘extended family, a family group; a familiar term of address to anumber of people, the primary economic unit of traditional Māori society’(Moorfield 2019).
5 Fortified village (Moorfield 2019).
6 Iwi are an extended kinship group, tribe, often refers to a large group of people
descended from a common ancestor and associated with a distinct territory(Moorfield 2019).
7 Ngāti Mutunga O Wharekauri Iwi Trust and Hokotehi Moriori Trust are
Mandated Iwi Organisations established under the Māori Fisheries Act 2004
to receive fisheries settlement assets on behalf of and for the benefit ofregistered members and beneficiaries (who are determined by whakapapa).
Mandated Iwi Organisations may also represent the members and beneficiaries
on other matters, such as resource management, and wider engagement andconsultation on behalf of iwi.

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companies. Interest in designing and organising the event wasreceived from the Chatham Island Emergency Management andNgāti Mutunga o Wharekauri Iwi Trust Manager. Two primaryschools on Chatham Island, Kaingaroa School and Te One School,
were also interested (Pitt Island School was not contacted and will
be for future engagement). Other groups indicated they may
attend the memorial or were unable to contribute at the time.
Phone calls and emails were exchanged to design the activities
and organise the event. Invitations were extended to members of
the science community invested in tsunami research on the
Chatham Islands.
The agreed purpose of the campaign was to:·raise awareness of the fatal and destructive 1868 Arica
tsunami·acknowledge and remember people who lost their lives andincurred losses from the tsunami; people on the Chatham
Islands and the 25,000 who died in areas of southern Peru·

raise awareness of potential tsunami sources for AotearoaNew Zealand and the Chatham Islands as well as tsunami
processes and warning systems·

raise awareness of the potential impacts that may occur if atsunami of similar magnitude hit the islands again and what
the community can do to reduce the consequences (sharing
results from recent research)·encourage the community to be prepared for and resilient tofuture tsunamis.

Chatham and Pitt islands have a combined population of
approximately 600 people, of which, 59 per cent identify as
Māori with the remainder mostly identifying as being European
or Pacific Islanders (Statistics New Zealand 2013). People known
to have lost their lives in 1868 on the Chatham Islands were of
Ngāti Mutunga decent (Thomas 2018). Therefore, it was vitalthat memorial activities be carried out in a culturally appropriatemanner, abiding by Chatham Islands community tikanga8 andkawa9. This was ensured by co-designing the memorial eventwith local and iwi representatives.

To prepare for the event, postcard-sized flyers were created withtsunami facts and evacuation messages (Figure 4). These wereco-designed with Chatham Islands Emergency Management
and GeoNet as take-home resources that could be displayed inhomes. The messages were consistent with National Emergency
Management Agency messaging and had specific advice for
the Chatham Islands community. The messages and layout also
followed evacuation boards to be erected on island. The postcard
was designed with local context in mind; a light-hearted imageof a Weka (native bush hen, Gallirallus australis) and her chickevacuating with a kete10 was used to connect with local people
as Weka are well-known on the Chatham Islands and are used as
mascots of sports teams.
The anniversary was commemorated by travelling to the worstaffected site of Tupuangi to acknowledge the destruction and tosay a karakia11 for the lives lost there. This was followed by kai12(sausage sizzle) to abide by tikanga, followed by korero13 looking
at how the community could be prepared for a future tsunami.
Copies of a story written for the Chatham Islander newspaper,
the postcards and evacuation zone maps were distributed toattendees. Copies were also left at the hotel for local people andtourists. Kaingaroa School (less than ten pupils) joined in withmemorial activities. Te One School (approximately 50 students)
preferred to be visited in the afternoon for a korero and otheractivities.
8 Tikanga is ‘correct procedure, custom, habit, lore, method, manner, rule, way,code, meaning, plan, practice, convention, protocol - the customary system ofvalues and practices that have developed over time and are deeply embeddedin the social context’ (Moorfield 2019).
9 Kawa are customs, protocols, rules and appropriate karakia (blessings/prayers)
for events.
10 Kete is a basket traditionally made with woven harakeke, flax (Moorfield 2019).
11 Karakia is a blessing (Moorfield 2019) to acknowledge, be present, reflect andprepare.
12 Kai is food and sharing a meal, which is significant during cultural procedures(Moorfield 2019).
13 KKorero is to talk, speech, storytell (Moorfield 2019).

Figure 4: The postcard (front and back) with tsunami facts and evacuation messages.
Image: Emily Campbell

74© 2020 Australian Institute for Disaster Resilience

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Stories were shared of the 1868 tsunami with Te One School
students and teachers.

Members of the Chatham Island community gathered for a karakia
and story sharing at Waitangi West.

Image: Lucy Kaiser

Image: Lucy Kaiser

Initially the memorial was scheduled for Wednesday 15 August,the day the tsunami struck (1:00 am Chatham Islands time), but it
was rescheduled to Tuesday 14 August to accommodate a tangi14
and a teacher strike scheduled for the Wednesday. This allowed
an acknowledgement of the moment the earthquake struckin Arica and to consider how the tsunami travelled across the
Pacific Ocean.

New Zealand coast including Lyttelton Harbour and Sumner inChristchurch. A news story about the tsunami, with associatedsocial media promotion, was written by GeoNet. The story
described the tsunami and its effects along the New Zealandcoastline, incorporating eCoast’s animations with a reminder
for New Zealanders to know tsunami evacuation zones. A story
was prepared for The Chatham Islander that detailed the effectsof the 1868 tsunami and listed things Chatham Islanders could
do to be ready for a future tsunami. Information was postedon the Chatham Islands Council website. Ian Simpson, CEO of
GNS Science, sent letters to the New Zealand ambassadorsof Chile and Peru sharing the plans for the event and sending
condolences for the shared devastation of the 1868 tsunami. The
media releases and stories were a collaborative effort to increaseawareness of this fatal event and to improve preparedness for
future tsunamis.

Activities of the memorial included:·

gathering at the Emergency Operations Centre at start of thememorial event for a karakia to commence proceedings andintroductory speeches·

karakia acknowledging people lost at Tupuangi and korero at
Waitangi West Beach about the tsunami and the impacts·

a convoy of vehicles to the site with a stop at the moment
the earthquake struck (10:15 am Chatham Islands time) toobserve a minute of silence for those who lost their lives in
the 1868 Arica earthquake and tsunami·

sharing a meal at the EOC followed by a presentation ofrecent tsunami research findings, newly developed tsunami
evacuation zones and tsunami readiness information·

visiting Te One School for a presentation and tsunamireadiness activities that included playing a game to educate
children about earthquakes causing tsunami and identifying
their homes, and evacuation routes on the evacuation zone
maps. Postcards with key information about tsunamis were
distributed for them to take home to their families.

Three media releases were prepared by GNS Science, theNational Science Challenge Resilience to Natures Challenges andeCoast, that described the 1868 tsunami and its impacts on the
Chatham Islands and Banks Peninsula (Table 1). eCoast preparedanimations of the tsunami propagating across the Pacific Ocean
and how the tsunami affected various sites along the Aotearoa-

Discussion
This memorial event served as excellent outreach to promotetsunami awareness and preparedness. The anniversary was
widely covered in the media through news articles, social
media, magazines and newspapers (Table 1) and many Chatham
Islanders attended the memorial event. This showed theappetite of people to commemorate disaster anniversaries andindicates an educative function of memorials to share messagesof preparedness. With passing time, people who have not been
directly affected by disasters benefit from the educative roleof memorial events. Memorials must be co-designed with thecommunity whose ancestors experienced the event and should
be carried out in culturally appropriate ways respective of thelocal context.
14 Funeral (Moorfield 2019).

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Table 1: Press releases, news stories and animations about the anniversary memorial event.

Media Type

AgencyLink

Media Release

GNS Science

www.gns.cri.nz/Home/News-and-Events/Media-Releases/Chathams-tsunamianniversary

National Science Challenge
Resilience to Nature’s
Challenges

https://resiliencechallenge.nz/media-release-tsunami-preparedness-in-thechatham-islands/

GeoNetwww.geonet.org.nz/news/6QkxQCLs0E4A0QQqgKMQiC

eCoastwww.ecoast.co.nz/tsunami-of-august-1868/
www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLiR2pNH9T8nRpbqUnwpYsDUWL_LPXSQ3X

Online News Articles

Magazines

Chatham Islands Council

www.cic.govt.nz/your-council/news-and-events/2018/150-years-ago-on-thechatham-islands/

Chatham Islander
Newspaperhttps://drive.google.com/file/d/0B1OcswQ6_z-OWWYweWZ4Yk5ZdHlhNGI1dFA
zNXl0dTgxcFdn/view

Māori Televisionwww.maoritelevision.com/news/regional/150-years-chatham-islands-fataltsunami

Newshub

www.newshub.co.nz/home/new-zealand/2018/08/video-shows-impact-ofnew-zealand-s-largest-tsunami-on-150th-anniversary.html

NZ Herald

www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=12106143

Scoop Sci-Tech
Independent Newswww.scoop.co.nz/stories/SC1808/S00020/scientists-go-to-chathams-foranniversary-of-deadly-tsunami.htm

Stuff

www.stuff.co.nz/science/106213804/Only-deadly-NZ-tsunami-on-record-hitthe-Chathams-150-years-ago

GeoNetwww.geonet.org.nz/news/6QkxQCLs0E4A0QQqgKMQiC

Insurance Business
Magazine

www.insurancebusinessmag.com/nz/news/breaking-news/memorial-set-tocommemorate-nzs-only-deadly-tsunami-108748.aspx

Natural Hazards Magazine(2017)

https://www.naturalhazards.org.nz/NHRP/Publications/Natural-Hazards-Issues

NZ Today Magazinewww.stuff.co.nz/science/106213804/Only-deadly-NZ-tsunami-on-record-hitthe-Chathams-150-years-ago

Approximately 30 Chatham Islanders, including Kaingaroa School,joined the commemoration on Tuesday morning. Te One School
was included on the Tuesday afternoon. Approximately 100
Chatham Islanders (20 per cent of the resident population) wereinvolved. Attendees sharing information to spouses, parents andsiblings may have expanded this reach. The events were planned
well and were led by local, well-known and trusted researcherswith community connections and who collaborated with an
iwi representative and Civil Defence Emergency Management
staff. Although identifying direct descendants of the families
involved was out of scope for this project, it is recognised that
including descendants would be vital to memorial design andorganisation processes for future events. Impromptu feedback
from memorial participants (either at the end of the day or in76© 2020 Australian Institute for Disaster Resilience

the days following) indicated they learnt a lot and enjoyed theday. The authors perceive that the most important motive forparticipants attending was to educate the younger generationand perhaps also for cultural reasons to acknowledge andrespect the deceased. Future memorial events should collectformal feedback from participants to understand:·people’s motives for attending to help understand why
commemoration is important and what form memorial
events should take for particular communities or groups·

how participants responded to the memorial activities,
the forms of information presented and how these enable
resilience

RESEARCH

Some of the memorial event team, left to right: Hamish Campbell, Lucy Kaiser, Kristie-Lee Thomas, Emily Campbell, Debbie King, Rana
Solomon and David Johnston.
Image: courtesy Kristie-Lee Thomas.

·

whether construction of permanent reminders or designatedplaces for people to reflect and remember would assist in
education and increased resilience.

Conclusion
The 1868 Arica tsunami caused destruction on the Chatham
Islands and across the coastline of Aotearoa-New Zealand. The
150th anniversary was an opportunity to raise awareness andcommunity preparedness for future events. A coordinatedmemorial event and communication materials achieved outreachacross parts of Aotearoa-New Zealand. The anniversary was
widely covered in the media and many locals attended thememorial event. The good attendance suggested significant
interest in the anniversary and the threats tsunamis pose tocommunities. A strength of the project was the involvement of awide cross-section of the community, including school children.
This increased the educative value of the commemoration.
Anniversaries in the centuries following such significant events
provide opportunities to raise awareness of past disasters, toshare scientific findings and the lessons learnt during and sincethat time. The aim is to keep people informed of disaster risk
reduction activities and encourage public action to improve
preparedness for future events.

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The authors thank Rana Solomon and Debbie Kingand staff of Chatham Islands Council, Chatham Islands
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78© 2020 Australian Institute for Disaster Resilience

About the authors
Kristie-Lee Thomas is a disaster risk and resiliencescientist at GNS Science. Her research focuses oncommunity participation in disaster risk reduction,indigenous disaster risk reduction, community resilienceand risk communication.
Lucy Kaiser is a Social Scientist at the Joint Centre ofDisaster Research at Massey University and GNS Science.
She specialises in indigenous disaster management andrisk reduction research, indigenous disaster planning,
school safety and community resilience.
Emily Campbell is a research officer at the Joint Centre
for Disaster Research at Massey University. Her work
explores the intersection of design thinking and science
communication for effective knowledge translation indisaster risk reduction.
Professor David Johnston is the Director of the Joint
Centre for Disaster Research at Massey University. His
research focuses on human responses to volcano, tsunami,
earthquake and weather warnings, crisis decision-making
and the role of public education and participation inbuilding community resilience and recovery.
Hamish Campbell is a geologist and Emeritus Scientist
with GNS Science. He has over 40 years of geologicalresearch experience in the Chatham Islands.
Rana Solomon is the Emergency Manager and Local
Controller at Chatham Islands Council. Her work includes
hazard analysis, risk management, planning and policy,
public awareness and community preparedness.
Helen Jack is a senior hazard scientist at Environment
Canterbury Regional Council, which assists the Chatham
Islands Council in emergency management. Her work
involves translating geohazard information into land-use
policy and planning, emergency management planning andpublic education.
Jose Borrero is a Director of eCoast Marine Consulting andresearch in Raglan, New Zealand and an Adjunct Research
Professor at the Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering of the University of Southern California in Los
Angeles. He studies the effects of tsunami on the naturaland built environment.
Ali Northern is the Digital Marketing Manager for WWFNew Zealand. Her expertise is in science communication.