Geophysical Research Letters
RESEARCH LETTER
10.1002/2014GL062301
Key Points:• A new method is developed toanalyze moisture budget parametersfrom satellites• Organized system and isolated
cumulus regimes diﬀer in how they
are maintained• The mechanisms are illustrated
based on a thermodynamic
budget consideration

Correspondence to:
H. Masunaga,
masunaga@hyarc.nagoya-u.ac.jp

Citation:
Masunaga, H. (2014), Free-troposphericmoisture convergence and tropicalconvective regimes, Geophys.
Res. Lett., 41, 8611–8618,
doi:10.1002/2014GL062301.

Received 22 OCT 2014
Accepted 11 NOV 2014
Accepted article online 15 NOV 2014
Published online 1 DEC 2014

Free-tropospheric moisture convergence and tropicalconvective regimes
Hirohiko Masunaga1
1 Hydrospheric Atmospheric Research Center, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan

Abstract This work searches for the key elements separating the dynamic and quiescent phasescharacterizing the tropical atmosphere. The analysis is performed with satellite measurements that arecomposited into statistical time series individually for the isolated cumulus and organized system regimes.
Free-tropospheric (FT) moisture convergence, cloud-base (CB) moisture updraft, and FT precipitationeﬃciency (FTPE) are then derived under large-scale moisture budget constraints. Precipitation is fed
primarily by FT moisture convergence while FTPE and CB moisture updraft amplify in tandem asorganized systems develop. In the isolated cumulus regime, FT moisture remains weakly diverging overtime accompanying little change of FTPE. A thermodynamic budget consideration suggests that organizedsystems develop under a self-sustaining growth of large-scale updraft in the dynamic phase, while thequiescent phase is maintained by stable, shallow circulation accompanying isolated cumuli.

1. Introduction
Tropical moist convection is constituted of a broad spectrum of cloud types ranging from shallow cumuli
to deep convective and stratiform clouds. In a climatological picture widely accepted, shallow cumuli
prevail under the descending branch of the Hadley circulation while clouds can develop deep into cumulonimbi within the ascending Hadley cell [Simpson, 1992; Johnson et al., 1999]. This picture, however, does
not necessarily provide a complete illustration to explain the regional and temporal variability of tropical convection. The occurrence of precipitating shallow cumuli is insensitive to large-scale vertical motion
across the tropics although predominant over the central and east Paciﬁc owing to the relative infrequency
of deeper convection there [Masunaga and Kummerow, 2006]. Shallow cumulus clouds are therefore notspeciﬁc to the regions with subsidence but are ubiquitous under the ascending branch of large-scale overturning circulations as well. Indeed, quiescent periods with no cold-topped clouds are more frequently
observed than dynamic periods characterized by extensive deep convection even over the west Paciﬁcwarm pool [Serra et al., 1997], which is an area considered from the climatological perspectives to harbor vigorous deep convection. Alternating occurrences of convectively active and suppressed phases
have been extensively studied in the context of Madden-Julian Oscillation [Madden and Julian, 1972] andconvectively coupled equatorial waves [Kiladis et al., 2009]. It has been much less documented, however,what factors in the large-scale environment are crucial in general beyond the wave dynamics for separating the quiescent and dynamic phases over tropical oceans. This study is an attempt to isolate out
the processes instrumental in a stable maintenance of the isolated cumulus regime and a self-sustaining
growth in the organized system regime, by exploring observational evidence obtained from a suite ofsatellite instruments.

2. Data and Method
2.1. Satellite Data
Air temperature and water vapor soundings are obtained from the Aqua Atmospheric Infrared Sounder andAdvanced Microwave Sounder Unit (AIRS/AMSU, hereafter AIRS collectively). The Aqua Advanced Microwave
Scanning Radiometer for Earth Observing System (AMSR-E) provides surface precipitation, and radiative
heating rate is obtained from the combined CloudSat and Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathﬁnder
Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) product. Although not explicitly discussed in this paper, other A-Train data
sets and Quick Scatterometer (QuikSCAT) measurements are also incorporated in the composite analysis
described below. Precipitating clouds detected by the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Precipitation Radar (PR) deﬁne the base point in composite time series. The global tropical oceans bound between
MASUNAGA©2014. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.

8611

Geophysical Research Letters10.1002/2014GL062301

15◦ S and 15◦ N are analyzed for 7 years from 1 December 2002 to 30 November 2009 with the exception of
CloudSat data that are available only for the period from 1 July 2006 onward.
2.2. Composite Time Series of Moisture Budget Parameters
Key parameters to be analyzed in this work are derived under the moisture budget constraint imposed by
the satellite measurements in the procedure brieﬂy summarized below. Satellite soundings collected overa period of time are projected onto the composite time axis before and after the moment when the TRMM
detects precipitating clouds [Masunaga, 2012]. A large sample of such soundings averaged for each time
bin would constitute a continuous time series of the atmospheric variability associated with the occurrenceof moist convection. The large-scale mean thermodynamic ﬁeld is calculated from the cloud-cleared AIRS
soundings blended with a semi-analytical estimate of in-cloud sounding. Moisture convergence is thendiagnosed from the vertically integrated moisture budget equation, given the rest of the equation being
constrained with the observations. The subcloud layer (SC) convergence is directly computed with QuikSCAT
winds, leaving free-tropospheric (FT) moisture convergence and the vertical moisture ﬂux at cloud base(CB) each isolated out as a budget residual. A complete description of the methodology is found in
Masunaga [2013].
The population density of TRMM-detected convection, or the number count of raining PR pixels within thesurrounding one-square-degree domain, is termed hereafter as the TRMM precipitation coverage. The composite time series are separately constructed depending on the TRMM precipitation coverage in order todiﬀerentiate a range of convective types. Following the deﬁnitions of Masunaga [2013], isolated cumulus
clouds and highly organized systems are each extracted for TRMM precipitation coverages smaller than 25%
and larger than 50%, respectively, to separately examine the two contrasting regimes of tropical convection, hereafter denoted as the isolated cumulus regime and the organized system regime. These convective
regimes are analyzed as a proxy of the dynamic and quiescent phases.
2.3. Moisture Updraft and Downdraft at Cloud BaseAn analysis method is next developed to evaluate the moisture updraft and downdraft at CB. The underlying concept is similar to the traditional approaches based on in situ sounding array data [e.g., Yanai et al.,
1973; Johnson, 1976]. The current approach is new in that it exploits satellite observations only, although theestimates are limited to CB instead of full vertical proﬁles.
The large-scale mean vertical moisture ﬂux at CB, qMCB , is broken down into the updraft and downdraftcomponents as
qMCB = q∗CB- M↑CB + qaCB+ M↓CB

(1)

where q∗CB- and qaCB+ denote the saturation mixing ratio deﬁned immediately below CB and the ambient
vapor mixing ratio above CB, respectively, and M↑CB and M↓CB are the updraft and downdraft mass ﬂuxes at
CB. The formulation would be more accurate if the moisture downdraft term in equation (1) was split into
saturated and unsaturated components, but these two components are very diﬃcult to individually identify in the observations currently available. Those terms may be safely combined when the diﬀerence invapor mixing ratio between the saturated and unsaturated downdrafts is negligible. This assumption is notentirely groundless because, although a saturated downdraft has a higher relative humidity by deﬁnition
than the surrounding unsaturated air, this diﬀerence would be mitigated by a temperature diﬀerence due
to a stronger evaporative cooling in the saturated downdraft than its environment. The current treatment of
the downdraft terms is nevertheless incomplete, and we will focus mainly on the updraft in the remainderof this paper.
Equation (1) is merged with the mass conservation at CB, MCB = M↑CB + M↓CB , to yield the updraft anddowndraft mass ﬂuxes as
M↑CB =

qMCB − qaCB+ MCB

M↓CB = −MASUNAGAq∗CB- − qaCB+
qMCB − q∗CB- MCB
q∗CB- − qaCB+©2014. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.

(2)

(3)

8612

Geophysical Research Letters10.1002/2014GL062301

Figure 1. Composite time series of diﬀerent moisture budget parameters (mm h−1 ) for (a) the organized system regimeand (b) the isolated cumulus regime. FT moisture convergence (qCFT , shaded in yellow where positive and in light blue
where negative) is plotted on the top of net vertical moisture ﬂux at CB (qMCB , hatched). The sum of these two quantities are highlighted in red. (c and d) As Figures 1a and 1b but for CB moisture updraft (qM↑CB , solid) and CB moisture
downdraft with the sign ﬂipped (−qM↓CB , dotted), where the domain bound between the two curves is equal to qMCB
(hatched) by deﬁnition.

Each variable on the right-hand side of equations (2) and (3) are known from the observations (e.g.,
equations (25) and (31) of Masunaga [2013] for qMCB and MCB , respectively).
Precipitation at CB, required to constrain the FT moisture budget, is given by adding the reevaporation rate
within the SC to the observed surface precipitation. The SC reevaporation is estimated so that evaporative cooling balances out the SC heat budget under the assumption that the vertical eddy ﬂux of dry static
energy (DSE) vanishes at CB, using equations (26) and (29) of Masunaga [2013]. The vertical eddy DSE ﬂux isthermodynamically unlikely to stay negative since otherwise heat would be transported downward against
buoyancy, so the SC reevaporation derived this way provides its upper limit under the given constraint. The
estimated reevaporation rate is found to vary between 1% and 10% of surface precipitation rate.

3. Results
An overall illustration of the temporal variation in the FT moisture budget is ﬁrst presented for each isolated
cumulus and organized system regime. Figure 1 shows the temporal variability, for ±24 h about the time of
TRMM-detected convection, in the large-scale mean moisture budget equation integrated over FT,
𝜕t qFT = qC FT + qMCB − PCB ,(4)

where overbar denotes the spatial average over a large-scale domain or a circular area with the radius of
100 km, 𝜕t qFT is FT moisture storage, qCFT is FT moisture convergence, and PCB is precipitation at CB.
MASUNAGA©2014. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.

8613

Geophysical Research Letters10.1002/2014GL062301

Figure 2. The evolutionary trajectory projected onto the plane of (a) CB moisture updraft (ordinate) and FTPE (abscissa), (b) FT moisture convergence (ordinate)
and FTPE (abscissa), and (c) FT moisture convergence (ordinate) and CB moisture updraft (abscissa). Color indicates time with ﬁlled marks for t < 0 and open marks
otherwise. The organized system regime and isolated cumulus regime are designated by circles and triangles, respectively. Only the isolated cumulus regime isshown in Figure 2c.

Note that qC FT nominally includes horizontal moisture advection in the formulation above although theadvection term is small in any case at spatial scales of current interest. The sum of qC FT and qMCB (redcurve in Figure 1) roughly amounts to precipitation except for a minor disagreement that corresponds tomoisture storage.
In the organized system regime (Figure 1a), precipitation is initially fed mostly by CB moisture ﬂux, while
FT moisture convergence takes an increasing share of moisture supply as precipitation evolves toward its
peak. FT convergence remains a dominant source of moisture during several hours after the peak. Since amajority of convective precipitation likely originates from SC water vapor, a substantial fraction of FT moisture convergence presumably experiences a mesoscale downdraft into SC before condensed out in theconvective updraft. It is found from Figure 1c that the contribution of FT convergence is small to the total
moisture carried by each updraft and downdraft at CB, because CB moisture updraft and downdraft are
individually much larger than FT moisture convergence or than any other variables plotted in Figure 1a.
The proportion of how much moisture within the updraft air is to be precipitated out will be later discussed
in terms of precipitation eﬃciency. Precipitation in the isolated cumulus regime undergoes only a slightincrease at time zero, preceded by a modest enhancement of CB moisture ﬂux (Figure 1b) although its
updraft and downdraft components hardly show a systematic variability over time (Figure 1d). FT moisture stays weakly diverging throughout the evolution, implying that in this regime precipitation is not fed
with FT moisture. Recalling that the current study area is limited to tropical latitudes (15◦ S–15◦ N), one
should not confuse the “FT” divergence with whole-tropospheric moisture divergence known to dominate
the subtropical climatology. Rather, SC moisture is converging even in the isolated cumulus regime barely
strongly enough to overcome the FT divergence when integrated over the entire troposphere as will be seen
in section 4.
The contrasting behaviors in the two convective regimes are next examined in terms of CB moisture updraft,q∗CB- M↑CB , and FT precipitation eﬃciency (FTPE) deﬁned as PCB ∕(q∗CB- M↑CB ), which may be considered as a variant of conventional large-scale precipitation eﬃciency with the FT and SC contributions separately deﬁned[Sui et al., 2007, and references therein]. FTPE, when plotted together with CB moisture updraft, would provide an insight into diﬀerent aspects of convective characteristics as illustrated below. The current deﬁnitionof FTPE does not explicitly include FT moisture convergence as a moisture input. As mentioned above,
CB moisture updraft virtually contains the FT-originating moisture that is eventually converted into convective rainfall, so that the denominator in the deﬁnition of FTPE implicitly includes to a large extent thecontribution of FT moisture convergence to precipitation.
MASUNAGA©2014. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.

8614

Geophysical Research Letters10.1002/2014GL062301

Figure 2a shows the evolutionary trajectory in the plane of CB moisture updraft and FTPE. The organized system regime (ﬁlled circles) experiences a steady increase in both moisture updraft and FTPE until a few hours
before time zero when precipitation reaches its maximum (Figure 1a). Moisture updraft then sharply drops
to a minimum before it mildly rises back to the initial level while FTPE monotonically decreases (open circles). The returning track is quite distinct from the ﬁrst half of the trajectory, presumably because stratiform
precipitation, dominating late stages in the life cycle of organized convective systems, does not accompany as robust an updraft in the lower troposphere as deep convection typical of the earlier stages. Isolated
cumulus clouds (triangles) do not exhibit any discernible ﬂuctuation in FTPE around 0.1 while experiencing
a modest variation of moisture updraft. This infers that in the isolated cumulus regime shallow cumuli varyover time only in population, being accompanied by some variation in CB moisture updraft, without growing much into vigorous convection as implied by a constant FTPE. This makes a remarkable contrast to theorganized system regime, where FTPE changes drastically between 0.2 and 0.6, indicative of a signiﬁcant
modulation in the nature of convective clouds during the evolution.
We have seen in Figure 1 that the two convective regimes are especially distinct from each other in the
behavior of FT moisture convergence. Figure 2b illustrates the evolution of FT moisture convergence as afunction of FTPE. In the organized system regime, FT moisture convergence and FTPE evolve in tandem,
tightly coupled together onto a linear trajectory throughout the entire period. FT moisture convergencestays negative and hardly variable in the isolated cumulus regime (Figure 2b) as was evident in Figure 1b. FT
moisture convergence is plotted against CB moisture updraft for the isolated cumulus regime in Figure 2c,where a weak negative correlation, if any correlation at all, emerges between these two quantities. It follows
that, on the contrary to the organized system regime, the FT moisture divergence may slightly strengthen attimes when isolated cumuli increase in number, possibly working against, rather than promoting, a further
deepening of cumuli.

4. Discussion and Conclusion
The motivation of this work is to seek the aspects of large-scale thermodynamics that diﬀerentiate tropicalconvective regimes in search for the potential factors separating the convectively quiescent and dynamic
phases. To this end, a composite time series of the FT moisture budget variability is constructed from a
combination of various satellite measurements. Main conclusions are outlined as follows. FT moisture convergence provides a dominant moisture source feeding precipitation during the peak in the organizedsystem regime, while the isolated cumulus regime is accompanied at any time by a weak moisture divergence in FT. The fact that FT moisture convergence diﬀers even in sign suggests that these two convective
regimes may be driven by essentially diﬀerent mechanisms in terms of the FT moisture budget.
Masunaga and L’Ecuyer [2014] investigated the processes underlying moist convection and its environment
in the organized system regime on the basis of large-scale vertical velocity derived from the same data
set as currently analyzed. They found that the gross moist stability (GMS) [Neelin and Held, 1987] is boundtightly to zero while precipitation intensiﬁes to its peak, inferring a mechanics that (marginally) allows theself-sustaining development of convection and large-scale vertical motion [Raymond et al., 2009]. The vertical mode decomposition technique devised by Masunaga and L’Ecuyer [2014] is applied here to brieﬂy
look into the dynamics behind the observed behaviors in each convective regime. Figures 3a and 3b show
the mode decomposition of FT moisture convergence into the ﬁrst and second baroclinic modes and theshallow mode combined with the time-independent background component. The ﬁrst baroclinic mode predominantly accounts for FT moisture convergence in the organized system regime (Figure 3a), while in theisolated cumulus regime it is the shallow mode, or a thin layer of modest updraft immediately above CB,
that dominates the entire evolution with the ﬁrst baroclinic mode being minimal throughout (Figure 3b).
This clearly delineates the contrast in FT dynamics between the two regimes: the organized system regime
is driven by lower to middle tropospheric convergence that eﬃciently provides FT with moisture, while FT
moisture is diverged away immediately above CB by a shallow overturning circulation. Figures 3c and 3d
presents the whole-tropospheric (WT) moisture convergence (as energy ﬂux, LqCWT ) and WT moist static
energy (MSE) convergence (hCWT ) with WT radiative heating rate (QR,WT ) plotted on its top. These three terms
together constitute a version of GMS that is deﬁned as −(hCWT + QR,WT )∕LqCWT . In the organized system
regime, moisture convergence (rescaled as labeled on right) greatly overwhelms MSE divergence and radiative heating in magnitude during active convection (Figure 3c), indicative of zero GMS as noted above. SC
moisture convergence more than cancels out FT moisture divergence in the isolated cumulus regime when
MASUNAGA©2014. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.

8615

Geophysical Research Letters10.1002/2014GL062301

Figure 3. Composite time series of FT moisture convergence (qCFT ) (mm h−1 ) and its vertical mode decomposition for(a) the organized system regime and (b) the isolated cumulus regime. The ﬁrst baroclinic mode (blue solid), second baroclinic mode (green dashed), and shallow mode with the background proﬁle (red dotted) are plotted together with their
total (shaded in yellow where positive and in blue where negative). The ﬁrst baroclinic mode is labeled on the right axis
in Figure 3a. (c and d) As Figures 3a and 3b but for WT moisture convergence (LqCWT , shaded in light red), WT MSE convergence (hCWT , shaded in light purple), and WT radiative heating rate (QR,WT , shaded in dark purple where negative andin dark red where positive). Radiative heating rate is drawn on the top of MSE convergence so they together delineate
their sum (hCWT + QR,WT , black solid).

integrated together into WT moisture convergence, which is nevertheless not so large in magnitude that it
consistently dominates the sum of MSE divergence and radiative cooling (Figure 3d). The isolated cumulus
regime has a larger radiative cooling than the organized system regime presumably owing to a smaller coverage of high clouds. GMS therefore stays positive, suggesting a stable regulation of the isolated cumulus
regime. It is noted that MSE is diverging in the isolated cumulus regime despite the absence of the ﬁrst baroclinic mode, seemingly contradicting the expectation that shallow circulation imports moisture and MSE[e.g., Back and Bretherton, 2006]. The MSE divergence here arises from a weak upper tropospheric ascentprevailing in the background that exports more MSE than imported by the shallow mode. The backgroundﬁeld is a critical element in the vertical mode decomposition of a tropical sounding conducted by Masunaga
and L’Ecuyer [2014]. Possible origins of the background weak ascent are left to be explored.
Figure 4 presents a schematic summary illustrating the contrasting roles of FT moisture convergence
between the two convective regimes. Figure 4a shows the organized system regime in its developing phase,
MASUNAGA©2014. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.

8616

Geophysical Research Letters10.1002/2014GL062301

Figure 4. Schematic to illustrate the proposed hypothesis (see text). The free troposphere is designated by a light graybox. Horizontal arrows indicate large-scale mean moisture ﬂow (shaded darker where more humid), and vertical arrows
represent CB moisture updraft.

Acknowledgments
The author is grateful to Yousuke Sato,
Dave Raymond, and the anonymous
reviewer for their helpful comments.
The AIRS/AMSU product was provided by Goddard Earth Sciences (GES)
Data and Information Services Center (DISC) (disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov), theTRMM PR (2A25) data set by the Japan
Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA),
the GPROF 2010 precipitation product by Colorado State University (rain.
atmos.colostate.edu/RAINMAP10), the
AMSR-E SST and CWV product byRemote Sensing Systems (www.remss.
com), the CloudSat 2B-CLDCLASS
and 2B-FLXHR-LIDAR data sets by
the CloudSat Data Processing Center (www.cloudsat.cira.colostate.edu),
and QuikSCAT SeaWinds ocean windvector data by the Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center(PO.DAAC) at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (podaac.jpl.nasa.gov).
This work is supported by the Japan
Society for the Promotion of Science(JSPS) Grant-in-Aid for Challenging
Exploratory Research (26610150) andby JAXA (JX-PSPC-399837).
The Editor thanks David Raymondand an anonymous reviewer for theirassistance in evaluating this paper.

MASUNAGA

where large-scale dynamics consist of lower tropospheric convergence and upper tropospheric divergence
brought by the ﬁrst baroclinic mode. The lower tropospheric convergence supplies moisture just enoughto fuel large-scale updraft through the depth of the troposphere with the help of eddy moisture transport
due to penetrating convective clouds [Masunaga and L’Ecuyer, 2014]. The tight coupling observed between
FT moisture convergence and FTPE suggests a close collaboration between large-scale dynamics and moist
convection. A thermodynamic consideration with moisture and MSE convergences suggests that the organized system regime involves a self-sustaining growth of convection and large-scale updraft, giving rise toa dynamic phase. In the isolated cumulus regime (Figure 4b), the shallow mode is prevalent throughout
and provides a weak but consistent FT moisture divergence. Isolated cumuli vary only in population without developing into a vigorous convective system in this regime. Persistently positive GMS as well as theobserved correlation between FT moisture divergence and CB moisture updraft favors the speculation thatthe isolated cumulus regime is stably maintained without the ability to grow by itself, which presumably
accounts for the longevity of a quiescent phase.
FT moisture divergence could often occur in the eastern Paciﬁc intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), where
the meridional circulation is climatologically shallow [Zhang et al., 2004]. The eastern Paciﬁc ITCZ, however,is highly variable in that the dynamics phase associated with unstable environmental soundings is no lesstypical than the quiescent phase [Raymond et al., 2003]. A shallow overturning circulation indeed appears
across diﬀerent tropical areas as a secondary mode to the deep Hadley cells [Trenberth et al., 2000; Zhang
et al., 2008]. As such, the quiescent and dynamic phases coexist widely over tropical oceans, suggestingthat a transition between the phases commonly occurs. The present ﬁndings appear to suggest that a quiescent phase could be destabilized into a dynamic phase once MSE divergence is counteracted by an importof MSE, for any reasons including the eﬀect of radiative cooling reduction, to the extent that it enables aself-sustaining growth of deep convection and circulation. Raymond et al. [2006] highlighted surface heat
ﬂuxes as a key element that destabilizes a quiescent phase to a dynamic phase. Further investigations need
to be done to narrow down the speciﬁc factors that are responsible for the transition.

References
Back, L. E., and C. S. Bretherton (2006), Geographic variability in the export of moist static energy and vertical motion proﬁles in thetropical Paciﬁc, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L17810, doi:10.1029/2006GL026672.
Johnson, R. H. (1976), Role of convective-scale precipitation downdrafts in cumulus and synoptic-scale interactions, J. Atmos. Sci., 33,
1890–1910.
Johnson, R. H., T. M. Rickenbach, S. A. Rutledge, P. E. Ciesielski, and W. H. Schubert (1999), Trimodal characteristics of tropical convection,
J. Clim., 12, 2397–2418.

©2014. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.

8617

Geophysical Research Letters10.1002/2014GL062301

Kiladis, G. N., M. C. Wheeler, P. T. Haertel, K. H. Straub, and P. E. Roundy (2009), Convectively coupled equatorial waves, Rev. Geophys., 47,
RG2003, doi:10.1029/2008RG000266.
Madden, R. A., and P. R. Julian (1972), Description of global-scale circulation cells in the tropics with a 40-50 day period, J. Atmos. Sci., 29,
1109–1123.
Masunaga, H. (2012), A satellite study of the atmospheric forcing and response to moist convection over tropical and subtropical oceans,
J. Atmos. Sci., 69, 150–167.
Masunaga, H. (2013), A satellite study of tropical moist convection and environmental variability: A moisture and thermal budget
analysis, J. Atmos. Sci., 70, 2443–2466.
Masunaga, H., and C. D. Kummerow (2006), Observations of tropical precipitating clouds ranging from shallow to deep convective
systems, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L16805, doi:10.1029/2006GL026547.
Masunaga, H., and T. S. L’Ecuyer (2014), A mechanism of tropical convection inferred from observed variability in the moist static energy
budget, J. Atmos. Sci., 71, 3747–3766.
Neelin, J. D., and I. M. Held (1987), Modeling tropical convergence based on the moist static energy budget, Mon. Weather Rev., 115, 3–12.
Raymond, D. J., G. B. Raga, C. S. Bretherton, J. Molinari, C. López-Carrillo, and Ž. Fuchs (2003), Convective forcing in the intertropicalconvergence zone of the eastern Paciﬁc, J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 2064–2082.
Raymond, D. J., C. S. Bretherton, and J. Molinari (2006), Dynamics of the intertropical convergence zone of the east Paciﬁc, J. Atmos. Sci.,
63, 582–597.
Raymond, D. J., S. L. Sessions, A. H. Sobel, and Ž. Fuchs (2009), The mechanics of gross moist stability, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 1, 9,
doi:10.3894/JAMES.2009.1.9.
Serra, Y. L., D. P. Rogers, D. E. Hagan, C. A. Friehe, R. L. Grossman, R. A. Weller, and S. Anderson (1997), Atmospheric boundary layer overthe central and western equatorial Paciﬁc Ocean observed during COARE and CEPEX, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 23,217–23,237.
Simpson, J. (1992), Global circulation and tropical cloud activity, in The Global Role of Tropical Rainfall, edited by J. S. Theon et al.,pp. 77–92, A. Deepak Publishing, Hampton, Va.
Sui, C.-H., X. Li, and M.-J. Yang (2007), On the deﬁnition of precipitation eﬃciency, J. Atmos. Sci., 64, 4506–4513.
Trenberth, K. E., D. P. Stepaniak, and J. M. Caron (2000), The global monsoon as seen through the divergent atmospheric circulation,
J. Clim., 13, 3969–3993.
Yanai, M., S. Esbensen, and J.-H. Chu (1973), Determination of bulk properties of tropical cloud clusters from large-scale heat andmoisture budgets, J. Atmos. Sci., 30, 611–627.
Zhang, C., M. McGauley, and N. A. Bond (2004), Shallow meridional circulation in the tropical eastern Paciﬁc, J. Clim., 17, 133–139.
Zhang, C., D. S. Nolan, C. D. Thorncroft, and H. Nguyen (2008), Shallow meridional circulations in the tropical atmosphere, J. Clim., 21,3453–3470.

MASUNAGA©2014. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.

8618