平成 27 年度我が国循環産業海外展開事業化促進業務

マレーシア国における廃棄物の再資源化事業報告書

平成 28 年 3 月

アミタ株式会社

はじめに経済のグローバル化や人口増加に伴い、世界規模での自然災害や環境問題が顕在化してきている。中でも経済活動に伴う産業廃棄物の発生量の増加と不適正処理による問題は同様に世界的な課題となっており、各国行政の適切な対応と適正な処理技術や健全な環境産業の育成が求められている。この傾向は、IMF の報告の通り、2009 年に 15 兆ドルに達した
アジア経済が 2015 年には 24.4 兆ドルに達し、NAFTA や EU を超える経済圏になろうとしているアジア諸国において特に顕著であり、早期の対策が求められている。その中でもマレ ー シ ア 政 府 は 2020 年 ま で に 先 進 国 入 り す る こ と を 目 指 し た 中 期 計 画 で あ る「WAWASAN2020」の中で、「廃棄物のリサイクル率を 22％まで向上させる」目標を明確に打ち出し、環境対策に具体的に動き出している。2001 年に制定された“The Third Outline
Perspective Plan (2001-2010)”では、「ゼロ・エミッション技術の利用を促進し、エネルギー
消費の削減や廃棄物再利用および再生方針」が打ち出され、第 10 次マレーシア計画（2011-2015）においては、「再生不可能な資源の持続的マネジメント、グリーン技術の生産・加工工程への導入」が戦略の一つとして明記されている。しかし、マレーシア天然資源環
境省・環境局が発表した報告を見る限りでは、発生する廃棄物の 90％以上が依然、単純焼却・埋立処理されており、上述の方針が具体的に進んでいないのが現状の様である。
そこで「マレーシア国における廃棄物の再資源化事業」（以下、本事業と記す。）では、
現在マレーシア政府が進めるグリーン戦略の考えに基づき、製造工場から排出される固形廃棄物を原料に、独自の混合技術でセメント製造工場向けに SiO2 と Al2O3 を主成分とする
セメント代替原料を製造する。具体的には、マレーシアにおける指定廃棄物のうち、特に汚泥、燃え殻、ばいじん、廃触媒等をセメント代替原料製造の対象廃棄物としている。本事業では、39 年にわたる再資源化事業を通して蓄積された 10,000 種を超える廃棄物の分析
データおよび情報管理ノウハウを用い、廃棄物の特徴である成分、性状、発生量等の不安定要素を、品質を均一にして安定的なセメント代替原料として供給することを目指している。再資源化工程においては、火、水、および化学薬品は一切使用せず、また 2 次廃棄物が発生しない 100％再資源化システムである。そのため、大気汚染、水質汚濁、温室効果ガ
ス発生による環境負荷が極めて小さい。更に、本事業を通じて 3R の推進のみならず、マレ
ーシアにおける廃棄物管理の透明性を高め、近年増加している不法投棄、不適正処理の削減、それらによって生じる環境汚染リスク低減に貢献することを目指すものである。

iSummary
The environmental issues have become evident on a worldwide scale in tandem withthe economic globalization and increasing populations. In particular, the increases inindustrial wastes, both in terms of amounts and varieties, resulting from economic
activities have become an equally important issue worldwide and, therefore, eachcountry’s administration is required to take appropriate actions and to foster proper
processing technology and sound environmental industries. As depicted in the IMF
Report, this tendency is particularly pronounced among Asian countries which arebecoming an economic bloc even greater than the NAFTA or the EU: The economic
scale there reached $15 trillion in 2009 and, further, to $24.4 trillion in 2015. As aconsequence, measures are required to be taken at an early stage. Among such
movements, the Malaysian Government has worked out its target of “raising the rate ofwaste recycling to 22%” in its WAWASAN 2020, a medium-term project in which thecountry aims at becoming one of the advanced nations by 2020, and has begun
implementing concrete environmental measures. In The Third Outline Perspective
Plan (2001-2010) which was established in 2001, the Malaysian Government hammeredout its principle of “promoting utilization of the zero-emission technology to reduceenergy consumption and to increase re-use and recycling of wastes.” In the tenth
Malaysian Project (2011-2015) also, it is clearly stated as one of the strategies to“manage continuously the unrecyclable resources and introduce the green technology
into the production and processing.” And yet, as far as the report by the Department ofEnvironment of the Malaysian Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment isconcerned, more than 90% of the wastes generated there are simply disposed of byincineration or landfill even now; the abovementioned principle does not seem to be inprogress.
Against such backdrop, in the “Project of Recycling Wastes into Resources in
Malaysia” (which will hereafter be referred to as “the Project”), it is intended that wewill produce the alternate raw materials (hereafter referred to as “ARM”) containing
principal ingredient of SiO2 and Al2O3 for cement plants, applying our unique blending
technology to the solid wastes generated in manufacturing plants, based on the idea of
the “green” strategy which the Malaysian Government is promoting. More specifically,
it is projected that, among the Scheduled Wastes (hereafter referred to as “SW”) in
Malaysia, sludge, cinders, soot particles, waste catalysts, etc. will be used as materials
for making ARM. In the Project, SW will be converted into useful materials foriicement plants by eliminating such uncertain factors as those pertaining to ingredients,
properties, amounts generated, timing of generation, etc., which are characteristic towastes, through properly blending them and making them homogeneous to stabilize
their supply. In this process, we will apply the analytical data of wastes and theinformation management knowhow built up through the analysis of more than 10,000
kinds of wastes gained in the 38 years of recycling business. In such a recycling
process, no fire, no water and no chemicals are used. It is a 100% perfect recycling
system without generating secondary wastes. As the result, its environmental burden,
which may be caused by atmospheric pollution, water contamination or CO2 emission,is extremely limited. Furthermore, it is also targeted that the Project will, in addition
to the promotion of the “3 Rs,” heighten the transparency of the waste management,
reduce the illegal dumping or improper processing, which have recently increased, andcontribute to the lessening of the risk of environmental pollution to be caused by these.

iii

目次
1． 事業の目的・概要 ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1 事業目的 ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 事業概要 ...................................................................................................................... 2
2． 海外展開計画案の策定 ....................................................................................................... 7
3． 対象地域における現状調査、廃棄物の組成・性状調査 .................................................... 8
4． 現地政府・企業等との連携構築 ....................................................................................... 19
5． 現地関係者合同ワークショップ等の開催 ........................................................................ 23
6． 実現可能性の評価 ............................................................................................................. 30
6.1 事業採算性 ................................................................................................................. 30
6.2 環境負荷削減効果 ...................................................................................................... 31
6.3 社会的受容性 ............................................................................................................. 35
6.4 実現可能性の評価 ...................................................................................................... 35
7． 今後の海外展開計画案 ..................................................................................................... 36

巻末付属資料 1
Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations2005「マレーシア環境保全（指定廃棄物）規則 2005」
巻末付属資料 2
Guidline on Environmentally Sound Co-Processing of Scheduled Wastes in Cement Industry in
Malaysia「2015 年版 マレーシアのセメント産業における指定廃棄物利用に関するガイドライン」

1． 事業の目的・概要
1.1 事業目的
経済のグローバル化や人口増加に伴って、世界規模で環境問題が顕在化している。中でも経済活動に伴う産業廃棄物の発生量の増加と多様化は同様に世界的な課題となっており、各
国行政の適切な対応と適正な処理技術や健全な環境産業の育成が求められていると。
この傾向は、IMF の報告の通り、2009 年に 15 兆ドルに達したアジア経済が 2015 年には 24.4 兆ドルに達し、NAFTA や EU を超える経済圏になろうとしているアジアにおいて特に顕著であり、早期の対策が求められている。その中でも、マレーシア政府は 2020 年までに先進国入りすることを目指した中期計画である「WAWASAN2020」の中で、「廃棄物のリサイクル率
を 22％まで向上させる」目標を明確に打ち出し、環境対策に具体的に動き出している。2001
年に制定された“The Third Outline Perspective Plan (2001-2010)”では、「ゼロ・エミッション
技術の利用を促進し、エネルギー消費の削減や廃棄物再利用および再生方針」
が打ち出され、第 10 次マレーシア計画（2011-2015）においては、「再生不可能な資源の持続的マネジメン
ト、グリーン技術の生産・加工工程への導入」が戦略の一つとして明記されている。しかし、マレーシア天然資源環境省・環境局が発表した報告を見る限りでは、発生する廃棄物の 90％以上が依然、単純焼却・埋立処理されており、先述の方針が具体的に進んでいないのが現状の様である。本業務は、「平成 27 年度我が国循環産業海外展開事業化促進業務（III.事業案
件形成調査）」として、セランゴール州、ペナン州を含むマレーシア半島各州の製造工場から排出される汚泥や燃え殻の固形廃棄物を主原料とし、セメント工場向け代替原料を製造する。廃棄物再資源化製造所の建設対象地域はセランゴール州とする。本事業を通して廃棄物3R を推進すると同時に、マレーシア国における廃棄物の不適正処理による環境負荷低減に貢献する。
現地においては、①指定廃棄物（Scheduled Waste：以下 SW と記す。
）の最終処分（Off-site
Treatment）許可を取得している企業はマレーシア半島で一社、サバ・サラワク州で一社のみであり、またその処理費用が高額であること、②Off-site Recovery（リサイクルに近いが二次廃棄物を先述の最終処分場へ搬入することが前提）の許可を保有する処理企業も増えてはいるものの、二次廃棄物の処理が適正に行われていないなどその透明性に問題が生じていること、③二次廃棄物を排出しない完全再資源化事業に該当する適当な許可が存在せず、マレーシア国天然資源環境省環境局（Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Departmentof Environment：以下 DOE と記す。
）からの許可取得に時間を要していること、④製造所建設時の 環境アセスメント（Environmental Impact Assessment：以下 EIA と記す。）に長期の時間を要していること、⑤不必要に厳格な受け入れ基準が各セメント会社と DOE との間で取り決められていること、⑥排出事業者の委託先変更に係る行政手続きに半年以上の時間を要すること等、多くの課題が存在する。このような状況を踏まえ、本業務は産業系廃棄物（固形）からセメント製造工場向けの代替原料を製造することで、廃棄物の 3R 促進を図り、マレーシア国における廃棄物不適正処理による環境負荷低減と循環型社会形成に寄与するものと考えている。下記に本事業の事業概略図を示す。

1

図 1.1 (1) 事業の概略図

又、本事業の実施体制は下記の通りである。

図 1.1 (2) 事業の実施体制

1.2 事業概要
本事業は、現在マレーシア政府が進めるグリーン戦略の考えに基づき、製造工場から排出される固形廃棄物を原料に、独自の混合技術でセメント製造工場向け SiO2 と Al2O3 を主成分とする粘土代替原料（Alternative Raw Material：以下 ARM と記す。）を製造する。具体的
2

には、マレーシアにおける指定廃棄物（Scheduled Waste：以下 SW と記す。
）のうち、特に汚泥、燃え殻、ばいじん、廃触媒等を ARM 原料の対象としている。本事業では、38 年にわたる再資源化事業を通して蓄積された 10,000 種を超える廃棄物の分析データおよび情報管理ノウハウにより、廃棄物の特徴である成分、性状、発生量、発生時期等の不安定要素を、適正に混合し、品質を均一にして供給量を安定させることにより、それら不安定要因を取り除くことでセメント製造工場向けに SW を原料化するものである。再資源化工程においては、
火、水、および化学薬品は一切使用せず、また 2 次廃棄物が発生しない完全なる 100％再資源化システムである。そのため、大気汚染、水質汚濁、CO2 排出による環境負荷が極めて小さい。更には、本事業を通じて 3R の推進に留まらず、廃棄物管理の透明性を高め、近年増加している不法投棄、不適正処理の削減、それらによって生じる環境汚染リスク低減に貢献することを目指すものである。本事業の対象地域は次の通りである。
【対象地域】
循環資源製造所の建設予定地：セランゴール州
廃棄物の収集対象地域：セランゴール州、ペナン州を中心にマレー半島の各州
又、本事業が目指す廃棄物処理の流れを図 1.2.に示す。

図 1.2 (1) 本事業が目指す廃棄物処理の流れ

ARM は、汚泥や燃え殻、ばいじん等の固形産業廃棄物をユーザーの規格に合致するよう調合したセメント代替原料である。発熱量の低い ARM はセメント工場で主に粘土の代替原料として使用され、発熱量の高いセメント代替燃料（Alternative Fuel：以下、AF と記す。）
は焼成工程において仮焼炉で使用される。ARM、AF 燃焼後の燃え殻はクリンカに混合されるため、二次廃棄物が発生しない完全な再資源化が可能である。
3

図 1.2 (2) セメント原燃料化の製造工程

リサイクル実績量

2007 年2008 年2009 年

2010 年

2011 年

2012 年2013 年

2014 年

（t）

度

度

度

度

度

度

度

度

スラミックス®

23,09025,766

21,85722,902

21,833

19,28718,007

17,471

セメント原料系

20,781

26,78833,80533,30031,57830,78827,994

61,324

セメント燃料系

45,11771,88675,63680,312

92,93086,55788,37959,303

合計

88,988124,440

131,298

136,514

146,341

136,632

134,380138,098(液体燃料)

図 1.2 (4) 製造実績（数値は日本国内 4 拠点の合計）

4

図 1.2 (3) 廃棄物の受入イメージ図

不連続でかつ不安定な廃棄物を連続でかつ安定的な資源にするのが本事業の役割である。
製造業から排出される発生品はその成分（重金属、塩素等のセメント忌避成分）や数量、立地条件等によってセメント会社で直接受入できないものがある。
そうした複数の発生品を当
該事業を通じて混合・調合することで、セメント会社での受入可能な再資源化製品を製造し、再資源化ネットワークを構築することが可能になる。

図 1.2.(4) 混合技術の仕組み

5

ARM は汚泥や燃え殻、ばいじんなどの産業廃棄物をユーザーの規格に合致するよう調合したセメント代替原料である。熱量の低い ARM はセメント工場で主に粘土（SiO2、Al2O3）
代替として使用され、熱量の高い AF は焼成工程において仮焼炉で使用される。ARM は他のセメント原料と共に 1,450℃の高温で焼成されるため、ダイオキシン等の有害物質も炉内で分解される。又、不燃物と焼成後の燃え殻は原料としてはクリンカに移行し、可燃物は燃料として活用されるため、新たな二次廃棄物が発生しない完全な再資源化が可能である。

図 1.2.(5) セメント生産量と廃棄物・副産物使用量、使用原単位の推移（参照：一般社団法人セメント協会）

日本のセメント産業は、原料及び燃料としての廃棄物有効利用に積極的に取り組んでおり、
2013 年度には年間約 4 億 t 排出される産業廃棄物及び副産物のうち 3,000 万 t 以上がセメント製造時の代替原燃料として活用されている。セメント 1t あたりの産業廃棄物使用原単
位は 486kg と世界でも最高水準であり、日本における廃棄物の利活用及び適正処理において重要な役割を担っている。

6

図 1.2.(6) セメントの焼成工程と ARM、AF の投入場所

2． 海外展開計画案の策定
セランゴール州、ペナン州を含むマレーシア半島各州の製造工場から排出される汚泥や燃え殻の固形廃棄物を主原料とし、セメント工場向け代替原燃料を製造する事業について、導入規模を仮に設定した上で、事業計画案を下記に示す。
【導入規模】
敷地面積：20,300 ㎡
処理能力：3,520t/月（セメント原燃料化処理）
工場第一期（2017 年予定）： 混合機、磁選機、振動ふるい機導入
工場第二期（2020 年予定）： 破砕機、粉砕機導入
工場第三期（2023 年予定）： 高含水受入ライン、紛体物受入ライン導入【処理対象廃棄物種類】
各種製造業の工場から発生する指定廃棄物(Scheduled Waste ：以下、SW と記す。) のうち、
特に汚泥、燃え殻、ばいじん、廃触媒等の固形廃棄物を対象品とする。
【許可申請予定の SW コード】
SW104（Dust, Slag, and Ash）
【ダスト、スラグ、及び灰】
SW110（Glass Cullet）【ガラスくず】SW202（Waste Catalyst）【廃触媒】
SW203（Stabilized Sludge）【固化汚泥】
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SW204（Water Treatment Sludge）【排水処理汚泥】
SW207（Fluoride Sludge）【フッ酸汚泥】
SW310（Tank Sludge）【タンクスラッジ】
SW311（Oil Sludge）【含油汚泥】
SW316（Acid Sludge）【水酸化汚泥】
SW319（Phenol Contaminated Sludge）【フェノール汚泥】
SW321 (Rubber or Latex Sludge Sludge) 【ゴム汚泥】
SW406（Slag and Ash）
【指定廃棄物の焼却後に発生するスラグ、及び灰】
SW416（Paint Sludge）【ペイントスラッジ】
SW427（Mineral Sludge）【無機汚泥】の 14 種である。
尚、日本国内では ARM のみならず廃棄物を利用した AF の製造を行っているが、マレー半島で埋立・焼却の許可を唯一保有する Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd（以下、KA 社）がマレーシア
政府との間で独占契約を締結しているため、AF に適している熱量の高い廃棄物の取扱いはその契約に抵触する可能性がある。又、セメント会社側での受入については、AF より ARMの方が利用しやすい点もあり、事業開始時は ARM のみの製造から始めることを検討している。この KA 社と政府の独占契約は 2015 年 2 月中に失効期限を迎えたが、現在も KA 社は操業を続けており、今後の独占事業に対する政府の見解は出されていない。AF 事業については、今後の展開の可能性も見据え、情報収集を行いながら慎重に計画する必要がある。下記に ARM 事業の計画している導入規模を示す。
【事業実施体制】
現地パートナーとアミタ現地法人との合弁会社【事業展開スキーム】
今後の AF 事業展開も見据え、破砕機、粉砕機、紛体サイロ、高含水ライン等の設備増設を検討する。また、許認可の取得状況によって液体燃料（Slurry Mix：以下、SMX）の製造事業の拡張も検討する。

3． 対象地域における現状調査、廃棄物の組成・性状調査① 排出事業者のニーズ調査
排出事業者のニーズ把握のため、排出事業者への訪問調査を継続して実施し、廃棄物の排出量、種類、処理委託先、処理単価、処理における現状の課題等の情報収集を行った。又、廃棄物の組成・性状調査を進めるため、新たに 10 種類の廃棄物のサンプルを採取し、過去に独自で実施したサンプル取得数と合わせて約 110 種類のサンプリングが完了した。分析結
果は都度、排出事業者にフィードバックを行った。実際に訪問した排出事業者からはコストダウン、適正処理、リサイクル率向上のニーズが非常に高く、本事業の進出を希望される排出事業者は非常に多い結果となった。
詳細は、
表 3.1.(5) KA 社の処理費用を参照できるが、一般的に排出事業者が KA 社に支払っている処理費は、埋立処理で約 500RM/トン、固形化
処理で約 800RM/トン、焼却処理で 1,500～3,800RM/トンとなっている。

8

表 3.1.(1) 排出事業者調査リスト

No

業種

該当SWｺｰﾄﾞ

発生品名

発生量(t/月)

ｻﾝﾌﾟﾙ有無

1

自動車部品

204

乾燥汚泥

2

有

2

自動車部品

204

ショットブラスト

1

有

3

電子部品

204

排水処理汚泥

1

有

4

電子部品

207

フッ素汚泥

0.6

有

5

電子部品

427

使用済み研磨パウダー

3

有

6

電子部品

427

研磨屑

1

有

7

電子部品

427

ピット清掃汚泥

1

有

8

電子部品

427

排水処理汚泥

1

有

9

レンズ

204

排水処理汚泥5

有10

情報通信機械器具

316

研磨汚泥

5

有

11

情報通信機械器具

316

排水処理汚泥2

有12

情報通信機械器具

316

ペイント汚泥

2

有

13

電子部品

204

排水処理汚泥

2

有

14

自動車部品

104

はんだドロス

不明

無

15

自動車部品

104

はんだドロス

不明

無

16

自動車部品

204

切削時の金属屑(鉄)を含む汚泥

1

有

17

電子部品

204

ペイント汚泥

5

有

18

電子部品

204

ペイント汚泥

5

有

19

自動車部品

204

水酸化汚泥

10

有

20

自動車関連

204

金属水酸化汚泥

8

有

21

自動車関連

204

金属汚泥

8

有

22

自動車関連

427

リン酸汚泥

2

有

23

情報通信機械器具

204

シリカスラッジ

100

無

24

情報通信機械器具

204

排水処理汚泥

3

有

25

半導体関連

104

ドロス

不明

無

26

半導体関連

204

汚泥

不明

無

27

半導体関連

316

フッ酸汚泥

不明

無

28

自動車部品

204

水酸化研磨汚泥

11

有

29

自動車部品

204

排水処理汚泥1

有30

情報通信機械器具

104

酸化アルミニウム（ブラスト）

0.016

有

31

情報通信機械器具

204

イオン交換樹脂

0.004

有

32

情報通信機械器具

104

煙道ダスト

40

有

33

情報通信機械器具

104

ファイバーくず

40

有

34

自動車部品

204

アルミ汚泥

20

無

35

自動車部品

104

焼却灰

0.03

無

36

自動車部品

204

ペイント工程からの汚泥

2

無

37

電子部品

204

排水処理汚泥

1

有

38

電子部品

104

ブラストくず

1

無

9

39

電子部品

104

Al ダスト

0.3

有

40

電子部品

204

排水処理汚泥（フィルタープレス）

25

有

41

電子部品

204

排水処理汚泥（Auto Separator)

25

有

42

家電機器

204

水酸化汚泥

3

有

43

家電機器

204

排水処理汚泥

1

有

44

家電機器

104

Fe ドロス

100

有

45

家電機器

104

Al ドロス

3

有

46

家電機器

104

回収ダスト

250

有

47

家電機器

104

ショットブラストダスト

250

有

48

エネルギー関連

207

フッ酸汚泥

120

有

49

家電機器

204

Niスラッジ

10

有

50

自動車関連

207

フッ酸汚泥

5

有

51

自動車関連

427

リン酸汚泥

20

有

52

半導体部品

204

活性汚泥

70

無

53

半導体部品

204

排水処理汚泥

30

無

54

電子部品

104

Fe ダスト

0.012

有

55

電子部品

204

Al 汚泥

60

有

56

電子部品

204

研磨汚泥

8

有

57

自動車部品

204

金属水酸化汚泥

0.2

有

58

自動車関連

204

排水処理汚泥

10

有

59

電子部品

204

Al 汚泥

100

有

60

電子部品

204

有機汚泥

20

有

61

自動車関連

204

排水処理汚泥

10

有

62

自動車関連

204

排水処理汚泥

3

有

63

自動車関連

427

リン酸汚泥

2

無

64

一般消費財

204

排水処理汚泥

100

有

65

化学関連

204

排水処理汚泥

2

有

適用外

クリンカ

30

有

406

焼却灰

14

有

204

ASM汚泥

25

有

66
67
68

化学関連
一般消費財
一般消費財

69

一般消費財

適用外

ラグーン汚泥

2500

有

70

一般消費財

204

石鹸汚泥

70

有

71

一般消費財

204

石鹸汚泥

30

有

72

一般消費財

325

廃レジン

30

有

適用外

バイオ汚泥

200

有

204

Ni汚泥

10

有

207

F汚泥

50

有

73
74
75

一般消費財
電子部品
電子部品

76

電子部品

204

シリカ汚泥

3

有

77

自動車部品

適用外

強化ガラスくず

140

有

78

自動車部品

適用外

ラミネートガラスくず

160

有

406

バイオマスボイラー灰

300

有

202

シリカ系廃触媒

30

有

79
80

製紙関連
エンジニアリング関連

10

81

エンジニアリング関連

82

半導体関連

83

半導体関連

84

自動車関連

202

アルミナ系廃触媒

30

有

204

金属汚泥（プレス後）

4

有

204

金属汚泥

4

有

421

研磨汚泥

5

有

85

自動車関連

406

焼却灰

20

有

86

自動車関連

416

ペイント汚泥

不明

有

87

飲料関連

適用外

排水処理汚泥

100

有

88

製鉄関連

204

水酸化金属汚泥

30

有

204

シリカ汚泥

20

有

204

研磨汚泥

4

有

204

金属汚泥

17

有

89

エネルギー関連

90

半導体部品

91

半導体部品

92

半導体部品

207

フッ酸汚泥

50

有

93

半導体部品

204

混合汚泥

90

有

94

食料品関連

適用外

炭酸カルシウム

900

有

95

食料品関連

204

バイオ汚泥

90

無

321

ゴム汚泥（乾燥前）

80

有

321

ゴム汚泥（乾燥後）

不明

有

96

工業道具関連97

工業道具関連98

エネルギー関連204

排水処理スラッジ

100

有

99

一般消費財

204

バイオスラッジ（乾燥前）

25

有

100

一般消費財

204

ケミカルスラッジ

20

有

101

一般消費財

104

五酸化バナジウム触媒（シリカゲル）

5

無

204

Ni 汚泥

5

無

204

研磨汚泥

60

無

202

廃触媒

150

有

102
103
104

電子部品
電子部品
化学関連

105

食料品関連

204

排水処理汚泥

10

有

106

食料品関連

202

廃触媒スラッジ

10

無

107

食料品関連

204

スカム

60

有

108

食料品関連

適用外

廃白土

200

有

204

排水処理スラッジ

12

無

204

水酸化アルミスラッジ

30

有

109
110

化学関連
化学関連

② セメントメーカーのニーズ等調査
マレーシア国内の大手セメント 4 社と継続的に、また新規で新たに参入を開始したセメン
ト会社 1 社と協議を実施した。各社とも廃棄物、副産物受入の実績はあるものの廃棄物利用に関する経験、知見が少ないため、本事業には 5 社とも強い関心と興味を示している。実際に現地で取得した廃棄物のサンプル結果を基に ARM 製品のシミュレーションを行った結
果、成分、数量共にセメント 5 社共に受入に問題がない結果となった。一方、昨年、マレー
シア天然資源環境省（Ministry of Natural Rescores and the Environment）環境局（Department ofEnvironment：以下、DOE と記す。
）が中心となり、セメント各社、セメント協会との協議を通じて’’Guideline on Environmentally Sound Co-Processing of Scheduled Wastes in Cement
Industry in Malaysia’’（「マレーシアのセメント産業における指定廃棄物利用に関するガイドライン」）を新たに策定し、セメント会社での受入可能な廃棄物の成分規格（Waste Acceptance11

Criteria：以下、WAC）が明記された。現在は、新ガイドラインの WAC に沿って、各セメン
ト会社との受入協議を進めている。
本業務で取得した廃棄物サンプルを使用した製品シミュ
レーションの結果、協議している全てのセメント会社での受入は可能との回答を得ている。
又、受入数量についても、本事業で予定している製造数量の受入についても問題ない旨、回答を得ており、既に一部のセメント会社とは具体的な契約の条件詰めを行っている。本事業で製造する ARM はマレーシアの指定廃棄物に関する環境規則（1989 年制定、2005 年に改定）上で SW421（A mixture of scheduled wastes.）に分類されるため、セメント各社は ARMを受け入れる際には DOE から EIA と SW421 の廃棄物受入ライセンスを取得する必要がある。こちらについても、既に一部のセメント会社が上記取得に向けて DOE との協議を進めている。
表 3.1.(2) セメント会社の廃棄物受入規格
No.

Parameter

1

SiO2 (%)

2

Fe2O2 (%)

3

Al2O3 (%)

4

CaO (%)

5

Cl (ppm)

Specifications (in dry basis)

Total of 2 major oxides should be >30%
No specification in AF

Maximum 2%. Waste with total halogenated organic
with > 1%
Must be only used at the main burner

6

Moisture content (%)

7

Pb (mg/kg)

8

Cr (mg/kg)

9

As (mg/kg)

10

Sn (mg/kg)

11

Se (mg/kg)< 70 %

Total heavy metals:
12

Ni (mg/kg)< 100,000 ppm in ARM

13

Te (mg/kg)< 10,000 ppm in AF

14

Co (mg/kg)

15

V (mg/kg)

16

Sb (mg/kg)

17

Mn (mg/kg)

18

Zn (mg/kg)< 30,000 ppm in total input: ARM

12

19

Cu (mg/kg)< 30,000 ppm in total input: ARM

24

Hg (mg/kg)< 10 ppm

25

Tl (mg/kg)-

Total volatile metal:< 100 ppm

26

Cd (mg/kg)-

27

Total organic content

28

Calorific heating value< 1% if ARM fed in cold part of the process< 500 kcal/kg (in dry basis) in AF（参照：DOE セメントガイドラインより作成）⑭LCSB
ク：3.3 セ：5.4⑧NSCI / ク：1.6 セ：2.0③PHS / セ：3.0⑦CIS / セ：0.9⑥APMSB / ク：0.19 セ：0.21⑬APMC / ク：3.2 セ：4.2①TCB /
ク：2.3 セ：2.3⑦CIS / セ：0.3②PCSB / セ：1.2⑬APMC / ク：1.7 セ：2.6⑩CMS / セ：0.75⑫HMSB/ セ：1.2④SLCSB / セ：0.5⑩CMS / セ：1.0⑤SCSSB / セ：0.5⑪CMSK / ク：0.6⑨NSCI / ク：1.3 セ：1.43⑮SCI / セ：0.8

図 3.1.(1) マレーシアのセメントマップ（参照：マレーシアセメント協会 HP より作成）
表 3.1.(3) マレーシアのセメント生産量
単位：百万トン/年
グループ名
Tasek Corporation Berhad

YTL Cement Group

Aalborg Portland Malaysia
Sdn Bhd

会社名

クリンカ

略称

グループ合計No. クリンカ セメント

Tasek Corporation Berhad (TCB)

2.3

2.3 TCB①

Pahang Cement Sdn Bhd (PCSB)-

1.2 PCSB②

Perak-Hanjoong Simen Sdn Bhd (PHS)

-

3 PHS

③

Slag Cement Sdn Bhd (SLCSB)-

0.5 SLCSB

④

2.3

2.3

-

1.2

Slag Cement (Southern) Sdn Bhd (SCSSB)-

0.5 SCSSB⑤

Aalborg Portland Malaysia Sdn Bhd (APMSB)

0.19

0.21 APMSB

⑥

0.19

0.21

-

1.2 CIS

⑦

-

1.2

1.6
1.3
0.6
-

- CIMA
2 NSCI
1.43 NSCI
1.75 CMS- CMSK1.2 HMSB

⑧
⑨
⑩
⑪
⑫

-

-

1.6

2

-

1.75

-

1.2

Associated Pan Malaysia Cement Sdn Bhd (APMC)

4.9

6.8 APMC⑬

Lafarge Cement Sdn Bhd (LCSB)

3.3

5.4 LCSB

⑭

4.9

6.8

Southern Cement Industries Sdn Bhd (SCI)-

0.8 SCI⑮

Cement Industries (Sabah)
Cement Industries (Sabah) Sdn Bhd (CIS)
Sdn Bhd

Cement Industries of Malaysia Berhad (CIMA)
CIMA Group of Companies Negeri Sembilan Cement Industries Sdn Bhd
Negeri Sembilan Cement Industries Sdn Bhd (Bahau Plant)
CMS Cement Sdn Bhd (CMS)CMS Group
CMS Clinker Sdn Bhd (CMSK)
Holcim (Malaysia) Sdn Bhd Holcim (Malaysia) Sdn Bhd (HMSB)
Lafarge Malayan Cement
Berhad Groupセメント（参照：マレーシアセメント協会 HP より作成）

13表 3.1.(3) マレーシアのセメント工場数（参照：DOE 統計データ）

写真 3.1.(1) マレーシアのセメント工場見学

14

③ 競合他社の動向調査
当該事業の優位性を確保するため、競合他社の最新動向やマーケット情報の調査を継続して実施した。調査方法は、主に排出事業者からの聞き取りと廃棄物処理会社からの聞き取りによるものである。KA 社以外の委託先には Thb Preference 社、World Wide 社、Shan Poornam
Metals 社、Texcycle 社、Southern Strength 社、5E Resources 社、Positive Chemical 社などでいずれも液体系、固体系廃棄物のリサイクルを行っており、価格は KA 社と比較して 10～50％程度安価な処理費を設定している。
実際に訪問した液体系廃棄物を扱う会社が有する廃液の処理能力は、3,000 トン/月（8 時間稼働）であったが、受入している数量は約 200 社から
500 トン/月程度であった。この会社では廃油や廃溶剤を間接加熱処理にて再生、販売を行っている。排出事業者から回収した廃棄物の 70～80％をリサイクルしており、残りの 20～
30％（残渣等）は KA 社にて埋立処分している。その他、セメント大手の Lafarge 社、Tasek
社に直接廃棄物を委託している排出事業者も存在するが、こちらも処理費用は KA 社より安価であった。2015 年 2 月に KA 社と当該国政府間の独占契約が満了になったものの、現在も SW の唯一の焼却、埋立処理場であり、今後も動向を確認していく必要がある。一方、DOE としても従来の単純埋立、単純焼却処理から再資源化を促進、支援する方向性は打ち出されているため、市場は独占から開放に向かっていると思われる。又、廃棄物の運搬会社
数社とも現地にて打合せを実施した。
当該事業では数多くの日系企業が事業活動を行うペナン州やジョホールバル州の工業地域からも廃棄物を回収することを検討しており、セランゴール州で検討している再資源化工場までの距離は 400 ㎞以上に及ぶ。よって、廃棄物の収集運搬を実現するためにはこれらの陸送が可能な運送会社と連携することが必要不可欠である。一方、マレーシアで廃棄物の収集運搬を行う運送会社は多数存在するものの、収集可能な対象エリアが限られている会社や、所有するトラックが 2、3 台しかない会社が多いため、今後は長距離輸送が可能でかつ、所有トラックを多く持つ運送会社を見つけ、連携体制を構築することが重要である。

表 3.1.(4) SW ライセンス処理会社

No.

LisenceCompany

1)

Incinerator facilities for scheduled waste30

2)

Off site storage facilities for scheduled waste

44

3)Off-site treatment facilities for scheduled waste

64)On-site treatment facilities for scheduled waste

15)

Secured landfill for scheduled waste

5

6)

Licensed transporters for scheduled waste

332

7)

Licensed off-site recovery facilities for scheduled waste

1000

15

16

表 3.1.(5)

KA 社の処理費用（参照：マレーシアセメント投資開発庁）

17

④ 許可取得に関する調査
本事業の実現にあたっては、DOE 局長からの廃棄物処理ライセンスの取得が必要である。
"Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and Disposal Facilities)
Order, 1989"によると、SW の取扱いができる施設が下記 6 種類に分類されている。
表 3.1.(6) SW のライセンス区分（特定施設）(1)

off-site storage facilities （オフサイト保管）(2)

off-site treatment facilities（オフサイト処理）(3)

off-site recovery facilities（オフサイト回収）(4)scheduled waste incinerators （SW 焼却炉）

(5)

land treatment facilities （土壌処理）(6)secure landfills （安全な埋立）

前述の通り、マレー半島における(2)off-site treatment facilities の許可は、KA 社のみが保有しているが、その主な処分方法は埋立、焼却である。現状、製造業の工場から発生する廃棄物の多くがこの KA 社にて処分されている。工場発生の廃棄物以外にも、(3)off-site recovery
許可取得事業者から排出される二次残渣の廃棄物がある。これらの残渣は KA 社での処理が義務付けられているため、再利用・再資源化可能な廃棄物も有効利用されていない。又、マレーシアには日本の「中間処理」に相当する概念や許可が存在せず、法律上も明確な規定がない。
この点が本事業を進める上で困難な障害であり何度も DOE と協議を重ねてきた。
DOE
からは Preminally Site Assecment1（以下、PAT と記す。）の提出を求められ、2014 年 12 月にDOE セランゴールに対して PAT を提出。PAT 提出に当たっては現地の環境コンサルタント
を通じて実施した。提出後、DOE セランゴール、DOE 本部の担当者と数回に渡る打合せを実施し、2015 年 1 月に正式に PAT が受理された。当初、Off-site recovery もしくは Off-site
treatment の処理ライセンスの取得を見込んでいたが、DOE 本部、DOE セランゴール州の担
当者と協議する中で、当該事業は Off-site Storage に該当するとの見解に至った。その後、Environment Impact Assessment（以下、EIA 提出と記す。) を 2015 年 10 月に提出し、DOE側と何度か協議を重ね 2015 年 12 月に EIA も承認された。現在は、Environmental Management
Plan（以下、EMP 提出と記す。
）の提出を準備しており、今後は Off-site Storage、Transportationのライランス取得に向けて準備を進める。

1

http://www.ssic.com.my/Appendix_2_AS_PAT_1_12_Form.pdf

18

表 3.1.(7) 製造プロジェクトの許認可スケジュール（JETRO 作成）

4． 現地政府・企業等との連携構築
上述の通り、
許認可の取得を進めるため DOE 本部、DOE セランゴール、
土地管理局（Federal
Lands Commissioner：以下、FLC）、住宅自治省（Kementerian Perumahan dan Kerajaan Tempatan：
以下、KPKT）等と現地パートナー、環境コンサルティング会社を協議を行った。又、2015
年 5 月 26、27 日マラッカで行われた DOE 主催の‘’Special Waste Management and Sharing
Session of Success Story’’のセミナーに参加し、DOE、セメント会社、排出事業者等との関係構築を行った。尚、当日のセミナー資料は巻末付属資料として添付する。

日時2015 年 5 月 26 日(火)セミナー名Special Waste Management and Sharing Session of Success Story

会場

A Formosa Resort and Hotel

出席者

アミタ㈱大和内容・Direction and SW Management 2015 and Environment Quality Act (Scheduled
Waste) について Ms. Norhazni Mat Sari (Director)より発表あり。
・Special Waste Management について Mr. Rosli Zul より発表あり。
・Success Story 1 - Co-processing について Lafarge Cement の Mr. Pavel より発表あり。廃棄物利用を始めた 2003 年に 4,000 トンだった取扱量が 2015 年は400,000 トンを見込んでいる。持っている SW コードは SW104、204、205、
206、207、313、320。今後のターゲットは Contaminated Soil、建設系廃棄物、
19賞味期限切れの商品を狙っている。台湾からジョホールバル州に輸入された廃棄物 6,000 トンが 10 年間放置されていたが、DOE の要請を受けて処理を実施した。現在の試算では、利用した廃棄物の効果は、1,500 トンの天然資源の削減、100 トンの CO2 削減、4,000 トンの埋立廃棄物削減である。
・Success Story 2 - Study on Green Brick について Tioxide の Mr. Teryy より発表あり。UMP（マレーシアプトラ大学）と共同で研究し排水処理汚泥からG-Brick を製造。Cement Brick とほぼ同等の質を実現。今後は UMP での建設工事でも使用していく。
・Success Story 3 - Ceramic Production について White Horse の Ms. Lim より発表あり。2014 年に 33,512 トン発生した排水処理汚泥の 33,362 トンを活用して自社のセラミック製品を製造した。

日時2015 年 5 月 27 日(水)セミナー名Special Waste Management and Sharing Session of Success Story

会場

A Formosa Resort and Hotel

出席者

アミタ㈱大和

内容・Environment Quality Act (Clean Air) について、Mr. Cik Nor Rashidah Ghazali
より発表あり。
・Code Practice for Labelling of SW について、Ms. En. Nurmizhuari Abd Samadより発表あり。
Management of Contaminated Soil について、Ms. Ijan Khushaida より発表あり。
Contaminated Soil（SW408）の管理についての法律、罰則等の説明。今後セメント会社での活用が期待される。

日時2015 年 11 月 6 日(金)訪問先

DOE 本部

会議場所

Putra Jaya

出席者

DOE 本部、DOE セランゴール州、KPKT、環境コンサル会社、建設コンサル会
社、現地パートナー、アミタ社

目的

EIA Panel Meeting（EIA 提出後の説明会）

20

写真 4.1.(1)DOE との協議の様子

2015 年 6 月中旬にはセメント社がセメント代替原料を製造する当社、姫路及び北九州循
環資源製造所、製造したセメント代替原料を納める近隣のセメント会社を見学。事業への理解と関係構築を行った。
日時2015 年 6 月 17 日(水)～18 日（木）

訪問先

アミタ㈱姫路循環資源製造所
アミタ㈱北九州循環資源製造所
宇部興産㈱苅田工場

出席者

マレーシアセメント会社、アミタ㈱目的

セメント産業における廃棄物利用の取り組みの研修21

写真 4.1.(2) アミタ㈱姫路製造所を見学

写真 4.1.(3) 宇部興産㈱苅田工場を見学

22

日時

2015 年 10 月 20 日(火)

訪問先

アミタ㈱茨城循環資源製造所
茨城県内の廃棄物運送会社

出席者

マレーシア廃棄物運送会社、アミタ㈱目的

セメント産業における廃棄物利用の取り組みの研修
セメント代替原燃料の荷卸し方法、輸送方法についての確認

写真 4.1.(4) アミタ㈱茨城循環資源製造所を見学

5． 現地関係者合同ワークショップ等の開催
当初予定していたマレーシアでの現地ワークショップは、DOE との調整がつかなかった
ため、開催は延期になったが、本事業に対するマレーシア DOE の理解をより一層深めるため、日本環境衛生センター（以下、JESC）が実施する「平成 27 年度我が国循環産業海外展
開事業化促進のための研修」の日程に合わせ、新たに就任した DOE 新局長含め 3 名の DOE
関係者を日本に招聘しワークショップを開催した。1 日目、2 日目は日本の廃棄物管理の概
要、産業廃棄物、有害廃棄物の処理、リサイクル方法について学んだ。又、セメント協会にご協力を頂き日本のセメントリサイクルの取組みについても講義を頂いた。3 日目、4 日目
は北九州に移動して、北九州市による廃棄物行政、エコタウン事業の説明、アミタ北九州循
環資源製造所見学、セメント会社見学を実施した。5 日目は研修プログラムの振り返りを実施するとともに、日本の環境省、マレーシアの環境省より廃棄物行政についての発表を相互に行った。
本ワークショップを通してマレーシア側のセメントリサイクルに対する理解の促進と新局長との関係構築を図ることができ非常に有意義なワークショップ開催となった。

23

日時

2016 年 2 月 29 日(月)～3 月 4 日(金)訪問先

下記、表 5.1.(1)招聘スケジュールを参照

参加者

DOE3 名 (DOE 本部局長、DOE セランゴール州局長、DOE 担当官)
現地パートナー2 名、アミタより 3 名

目的

DOE への事業理解の促進と関係構築

表 5.1.(1) 招聘スケジュール
月日

時刻

2016年2月28日（日）15:50 成田着

内容

場所

マレーシアより到着

川崎【講義】プログラムオリエンテーション
2016年2月29日（月）終日

日本の廃棄物管理法の概要

川崎

日本のリサイクル技術
日本における廃棄物のセメントリサイクルなど

セメント協会様による講義【工場見学】
2016年3月1日（火）終日

e-Wasteリサイクル工場見学

川崎

建設廃棄物リサイクル工場見学

午前

【講義】
北九州市役所本庁舎
昼食

2016年3月2日（水）

午後

午後

午前

2016年3月3日（木）

北九州

【講義】
北九州エコタウンセンター【工場見学】
アミタ株式会社

北九州循環資源製造所【工場見学】
宇部興産 宇部セメント工場
北九州

昼食

午後

東京へ移動

研修プログラム振り返り
2016年3月4日(金）

終日

環境省、DOEとのディスカッション
全体クロージング

24

川崎写真 5.1.(1) 研修初日の様子

写真 5.1.(2) 建設廃棄物リサイクル工場見学25

写真 5.1.(3)

写真 5.1.(4)e-waste リサイクル工場見学

北九州市庁舎で廃棄物行政の説明26

写真 5.1.(5)北九州エコタウンの説明

写真 5.1.(6) 北九州エコタウンセンターにて27

写真 5.1.(7)

アミタ㈱北九州循環資源製造所の工場見学

写真 5.1.(8)アミタ㈱北九州循環資源製造所にて28

写真 5.1.(9) 宇部興産㈱宇部工場にて

写真 5.1.(10) 宇部興産㈱宇部工場にて29

写真 5.1.(11) 研修最終日の様子

6． 実現可能性の評価
6.1 事業採算性
現時点の FS では、5 年以内に投資回収が可能である。今後の事業実現のポイントと課題は下記の 5 点である。
①工場建設にかかる初期投資コストの精査
土木工事、建設工事にかかる初期投資コストの最小化を現地パートナーと協力して進める。
②製造設備と据付、電気工事の現地調達化
主要製品は日本から輸出するが、製缶品等現地で調達できるものについては、極力現地での製造を目指す。又、工場稼働後のメンテナンスやアフターサービスの必要性を考え、据付工
事、電気工事についても、極力現地化を進める。
③処理費の価格設定
廃棄物分析についても全て現地でできるように分析機器の選定を行う。又、分析後の成分を用い ARM 製造の混合シミュレーションを行い、現地で発生する製造原価を算出した後、処理の価格設定を進める。
④廃棄物運送会社の協議
排出事業者から当該事業場までの運搬ができる運送会社の選定、そして、運搬方法、運搬費、30

発注形態の協議、交渉を進める。
⑤セメント会社との協議
ARM を配給する際に発生する処理費の協議。分析に係る費用負担の方法。又、当該事業場
からセメント会社まで運搬ができる運送会社の選定、そして、運搬方法、運搬費、発注形態の協議、交渉を進める。
上記 5 点を順次進めながら事業 FS のさらなる精査を行う。
6.2 環境負荷削減効果①単純焼却処理、単純埋立処理から 100%再資源化へ
DOE 作成資料（2014 年 12 月）によると、2013 年に確認された SW 発生量は、約 296 万トンである。その内訳は以下の通りである。尚、2014 年以降の統計データについても、DOEに確認したが、DOE の統計データの公表は数年に一度行われており、2014 年度のデータは製作中で 2016 年 5 月以降に回答予定とのことであった。
表 6.2.(1) SW の発生量データ（処理方法別の数量）

処理方法

処理量

許可取得済みの特定施設で処理

約 157 万トン

処理割合
53.08%

排出事業者の工場内で処理

約 63 万トン

21.25%

国内の回収業者で処理

約 56 万トン

19.1%

KA 社で処理約 11 万トン

3.77%

排出事業者で保管

約 4 万トン

1.41%

Trienekens（サラワク）社で処理

約 1.9 万トン

0.65%

国内の医療廃棄物焼却炉で処理

約 1.8 万トン

0.61%

国外に搬出され処理

約 3,700 トン

0.13%

合計

約 296 万トン

100%

（参照：DOE 統計データより）

下記、図 2.5.(3)は SW の処理方法をまとめたデータであり、焼却処理が 49%、埋立処理が47%、固形化処理が 10%、化学処理が 3%と全体の 90%以上が焼却、埋立にて処分されていることが分かる。一方、本統計データの全てを合計すると 100%を超えるため、その点をDOE に確認したが、各州からの情報データに誤りや齟齬があり、DOE としても正確な数字の把握することが難しいとのことであった。
本事業で再資源化できる可能性があるにも関わらず単純焼却、単純埋立されている廃棄物を回収し、水、熱、化学物質を一切使わない「混合処理」によって再資源化することで焼却、埋立時に生じる様々な環境負荷を低減することを目指している。不法投棄も増加傾向にあるが、調べた限りでは具体的な数字や件数は公表されていない。これまで重ねてきた排出事業者へのヒアリングを通し、廃棄物処理ルートの不透明さを事業リスクとして掲げる企業も多数存在した。本事業は、受け入れた廃棄物をARM、AF として 100%再資源化し、セメント製造工場にて利活用することにより処理の透明性担保に寄与するものでもある。
31

図 6.2.(1) SW の発生量データ（年次推移）（参照：DOE 統計データより）

図 6.2.(2) SW の処理先一覧（2013 年版）（参照：DOE 統計データより）

32

図 6.2.(3) SW の処理方法（2013 年版）（参照：DOE 統計データより）

図 6.2.(4) SW の処理方法（2013 年版）（参照：DOE 統計データより）33

②天然資源の使用量削減
セメントの原料は、石灰石、粘土、けい石、酸化鉄原料、石膏に分類され、セメント 1トン(1,000kg)の製造に必要な原料は、おおよそ石灰石 1,100kg、粘土 200kg、その他原料 100～200kg である。マレーシアのセメント生産量は年間 2,000 万トン程度なので、これら全て
を天然資源で製造した場合に必要な資源の使用量は、石灰石が 2,200 万トン、粘土が 400 万トン、その他原料が 200～400 万トンである。本事業は、製造工程から発生する多量多品種の廃棄物・副産物、又、将来的には off-site recovery 事業者から排出される二次残渣を ARM、
AF として使用することで、天然資源の使用量削減に寄与することが可能である。
③最終処分場の延命化
現状埋立処分をされている廃棄物や副産物、二次残渣をセメント原料化することにより、本来必要とされる最終処分場の容積を減らすことに繋がり、最終処分場の延命化に貢献することとなる。実際我が国では、2012 年度にセメント産業が約 2,850 万 t/年の廃棄物・副産物を受け入れ、最終処分場が 8 年延命されたと試算されており、セメント産業での受入量増加
により環境負荷低減面での貢献が大きいことが報告されている。
また最終処分場の延命化により、発生するメタンガスの排出量削減、ひいては温室効果ガス排出量の削減につながると同時に、最終処分場周辺環境への負荷低減にも寄与するものである。又、マレーシアには150 を超える最終処分場があると言われているが、周辺の環境を汚染しない「衛生埋立処分場」は非常に少なく、周辺環境への影響が懸念されている。又、閉鎖した処分場についても、不適切な跡地利用が行われた結果、河川汚染などの深刻な環境問題が発生した事例も報告されているため、埋立からリサイクルの流れを推進していくことでマレーシアの環境負荷が軽減される。
③温室効果ガス排出削減効果
当該事業によって廃棄物から製造された ARM、AF をセメント会社で活用した場合に想定される温室効果ガス排出の削減効果の考え方は、（1.セメント工場での石炭代替分）＋（2.
単純焼却代替分）＋（3.埋立処分場からのメタン発生）－（4.再資源化工場での電力・燃料消費）＋（5.輸送距離低減分）になるが、回収する複数の廃棄物中に含まれる組成と熱量が異なる点、単純焼却、単純埋立処理の過程で発生する温室効果ガスを算定できなかった点、又、セメント向けの代替原燃料の扱いについて国際的に共通化された手法が確立されていない等の理由から、現時点で明確な温室効果ガス削減効果が検証できないため、本項目は今後の課題として引き続き検証、検討を行う。
④循環型社会形成への寄与
マレーシアには中間処理という概念がなく、民間のリサイクル会社で発生する処理後の残渣物は全て、KA 社で埋立、焼却処理が行われている。当該事業の許可が取得できれば、中間処理の認知と理解が広がり、単純埋立、単純焼却処理の削減と処理後に発生する残渣物の再資源化も可能となる。また資源循環網が構築され、市場での競争が発生することで健全なリサイクル市場の確立につながり、
ひいてはマレーシア国での循環型社会形成に寄与すると
確信する。

34

6.3 社会的受容性【廃棄物のリサイクル方針】
マ レ ーシ ア政 府は 、 2020 年 まで に先 進国 入りす る こと を目 指し た中期 計 画で ある「WAWASAN2020」において、廃棄物のリサイクル率を 22％まで向上させる目標を明確に打ち出している。また、2001 年に制定された“The Third Outline Perspective Plan (2001-2010)”
では、ゼロ・エミッション技術の利用を促進し、エネルギー消費の削減や、廃棄物再利用および再生方針が打ち出されている。さらに、第 10 次マレーシア計画（2011-2015）においては、再生不可能な資源の持続的マネジメント、グリーン技術の生産・加工工程への導入が戦略の一つとして明記されている。
マレーシア政府が循環型社会の実現を重要視していることは、上記の各方針が打ち出されていることから明らかであり、当該事業がこれら方針に合致し、社会的受容性を十分に有すると確信する。また前述の通り、2015 年 2 月に期限切れとなった KA 社との契約についても、今後も事業は続けられる見通しだが、独占的な契約は見直され、廃棄物市場が民間にも広く開放されるという見通しが強い。
【DOE の姿勢】
近年、DOE によって承認される off-site recovery（回収）ライセンスを受ける事業者は増加傾向にある。このことからもマレーシア国の廃棄物関連当局はリサイクル促進の必要性、並びに適正な競争と静脈産業の育成を促進しつつあると考えられる。
本事業によるセメント代
替原料、燃料製造事業はマレーシアにとっても初めてのケースであり、2015 年 12 月には申請した環境アセスメントも無事承認されたこともあり、DOE からの期待も非常に大きい。
廃棄物処理ライセンスの許認可取得は 2016 年夏頃を予定している。
【セメントリサイクルの促進】
前述の通り、2015 年 5 月に「セメント産業における廃棄物利用に関するガイドライン」が策定され、今後ますますセメントリサイクルが普及していく見通しである。一方、既に廃棄物を受け入れしている 2 社を除き、他のセメントメーカーは廃棄物利用の経験が乏しく、当該プロジェクトにおける当社また日本の環境省からのさらなる支援について、セメント各社からの期待も大きい。
【日系企業のニーズ】
当該調査を実施する前からの訪問先も含めると既に 120 社近くの日系企業（一部現地企業）を訪問し、既に複数の企業からサポートレターを受領している。これらの企業は CSR
活動の一環として海外事業所を含めたゼロ・エミッション目標を掲げており、また廃棄物処理の透明性確保を重視している企業である。
当該事業がリサイクル率向上および廃棄物処理の透明性向上に寄与する期待は非常に大きい。
当初予定していたマレーシアでの現地ワーク
ショップは、DOE との調整がつかなかったため開催は延期になったが、2016 年度に開催を実現し、継続して現地日系企業のニーズのヒアリングを実施する。

6.4 実現可能性の評価
当該事業の実現においては、
主に①排出事業者のニーズ②セメント会社のニーズ③競合他
35

社の動向④許可取得の 4 つの要因分析が必要である。
①排出事業者のニーズ
上述の通り、再資源化のニーズは非常に高く、特に日系企業を中心とした外資系企業からの再資源化、不適正処理に巻き込まれないための対策に関する要望は強い。また、近年ではローカル企業のコンプライアンス意識も向上しており、リサイクル率を掲げて再資源化を進める企業が増えてきている。今後は、排出事業者を集めた廃棄物リスク、法令に関するセミナーを現地で開催しより一層のニーズ調査を進めていく。
②セメント会社のニーズ
これまでに取得した廃棄物サンプル分析結果に基づく製品シミュレーションとサンプル提供によるセメント会社の判断では、セメント会社が有する受け入れ基準に概ね合致することが確認された。新たに「セメント産業における廃棄物利用に関するガイドライン」も策定され、今後セメントリサイクルの需要はさらに高まることが予想される。
③競合他社の動向
KA 社よりも安価な処理費で廃棄物を回収、処理をしている業者がいくつか存在する。当
該事業の優位性確保のため、引き続き競合他社の最新動向を調査する。2015 年 2 月に契約満了になった KA 社と当該国政府間の独占契約の今後の動向や近年増加傾向の off-site
recovery 許可取得事業者の最新動向を引き続き調査する。
④許可取得
当該事業の実現は、当該国当局からの許可取得にかかっている。環境コンサルティング会社と契約し、2015 年 12 月には DOE から EIA の承認を獲得。今後は EMP の申請、処理業、運搬業の許認可申請を進める。
当該事業に対するマレーシア国関係機関の理解を更に深める
ために効果的な説明会や啓蒙活動を継続的に実施していく。また、頻繁に行われる法規制の変更に対応すべく、逐次情報の収集・整理を遂行する。

7． 今後の海外展開計画案
今後の事業化に向けたスケジュールは下記に示す表 7.1.(1)を予定している。前述の通り、循環型社会システム構築へ向けたマレーシア当局の方針は明確であり、本事業もその方向性に合致している旨の見解を当該国当局より得ている。本事業は今までマレーシアには無かった初めての事業モデルであり、本事業に関係する複数の行政機関への説明や見解の調整に時間がかかっている点など解決すべき課題もまだ多いが、引き続き日本行政の支援を得ながら本事業の早期実現を粘り強く目指すと共に、環境省が掲げる「我が国が有する循環産業の海
外展開の促進」を通じて、本事業を早期に実現させマレーシアのさらなる発展とセメント産業を活用した循環型社会構築の実現に寄与していきたい。

36

表 7.1.(1) 事業化スケジュール
2016
1月

2月

3月

4月

5月

6月

7月

8月

9月

10月

11月

12月

許認可申請関連
各種許認可申請

建物使用・設備設置許可 稼働（予定）申請

処理・運搬業
申請

EMP申請

工事関連
工場建設

土木工事

設備関連

発注

建屋工事

完成

輸送

据付

完成

尚、工場第一期から第三期までの予定は下記の通りである。
工場第一期（2017 年予定）： 混合機、磁選機、振動ふるい機導入
工場第二期（2020 年予定）： 破砕機、粉砕機導入
工場第三期（2023 年予定）： 高含水受入ライン、紛体物受入ライン導入

以上37巻末付属資料 1

マレーシア「環境保全（指定廃棄物）規則 2005」
PU (A) 249/ 2005（日本語版）（2005 年 8 月 15 日施行）

環境保全（指定廃棄物）規則 2005
Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005
PU (A) 294/ 2005

2005 年 8 月 15 日
Jil. 49,; No. 16,; 15 August 2005,; Tambahan No. 74 Perundangan (A)環境保全法 1974 [法 127 号] 第 21 条及び第 51 条によって付与された権限に則り、（天然資源環境）大臣は、環境保全委員会（Environment Quality Council）との協議を経て、以下の規制を策定する。
1． 名称及び施行(1) これらの規制は、環境保全（指定廃棄物）規則 2005 と名付けられる。
(2) これらの規則は、2005 年 8 月 15 日付を以って施行される。
2．解釈(1) これらの規則は、文脈上ほかの意味に解釈されない限り、「指定廃棄物」とは、附則 1 に掲げられた廃棄物分類のいずれかに当たる廃棄物を意味する。
「混合できない指定廃棄物」とは、附則 4 で規定された指定廃棄物を指し、これらを混合した場合、発熱、発火、爆発または有害物質の放出といった形態で、危険な事態に至る廃棄物のことをいう。
「オンサイト処理施設」とは、指定廃棄物焼却炉または土壌処理施設以外で、廃棄物発生者サイトに立地し、当該サイトで発生する指定廃棄物を取り扱うためにのみ利用される施設を意味する。
「委託業者」とは、環境保全法 1974 第 18 条（1A）項の下、（天然資源環境省）環境局長（Director General, Dept. of Environment）によって認可された全ての業者を指す。

1

「廃棄物発生者」とは、指定廃棄物を発生させる全ての者を指す。
「指定施設（prescribed premises）」とは、環境保全（指定施設）（指定廃棄物処理・処分
施設）命令 1989 [P.U. (A) 140/1989]によって規定された施設を指す。
(2) これら規則で定義されていない用語と表現は、環境保全法 1974 及び環境保全（指定施設）（指定廃棄物処理・処分施設）命令 1989 によって規定された同じ意味が割り当てられる。
3．指定廃棄物の発生に関する届出(1) 全ての廃棄物発生者は、指定廃棄物の発生から 30 日以内に、新規に発生させた指定廃棄物の分類及び発生量を環境局長宛に届出なければならない。
(2) 上記 (1)項に基づく本届出は、附則 2 によって提供されている情報が盛り込まれていな
ければならない。
4．指定廃棄物の処分(1) 指定廃棄物は、指定施設のみで、処分されなければならない。
(2) 指定廃棄物は、実行可能な限りにおいて、処分前に無害化されなければならない。
5．指定廃棄物の処理(1) 指定廃棄物は、指定施設またはオンサイト処理施設に限定して、処理されなければならない。
(2) 指定廃棄物の処理の残さは、指定施設において、処理または処分される。
6．指定廃棄物からの原材料あるいは製品のリカバリー(1) 指定廃棄物からの原材料あるいは製品のリカバリーは、指定施設またはオンサイト処理施設において行われる。
(2) 指定廃棄物からの原材料あるいは製品のリカバリーから生じた残さは、指定施設におい

2

て処理または処分される。
7．指定廃棄物の特別管理に関する申請(1) 廃棄物発生者は、環境局長宛に書面で申請することにより、指定の設備（particularfacility）あるいはプロセスから発生する指定廃棄物について、指定施設、オンサイト処理施設またはリカバリー施設以外の施設あるいは設備（facilities）において、処理、処分またはリカバリーされることの免除を受けることができる。
(2) 上記(1)項に基づく申請書は、環境局長の規定に則り、指定廃棄物の特別管理に関するガ
イドラインに従って、環境局長宛に提出されなければならない。なお、同申請に伴って、支払いが求められる 300 リンギットの手数料は、払い戻しされない。
(3) 上記(1)項に基づいて提出された申請書を環境局長が承諾した場合、環境局長は、書面により、条件付きまたは条件なしの許可を発給することができる。
8．廃棄物発生者の責任(1) 全ての廃棄物発生者は確実に、当人が発生させた指定廃棄物を適正に保管し、その指定廃棄物から得られる原材料または製品に関して、オンサイト処理ないしオンサイト・リカ
バリーを施すかまたは処理を施すための指定施設に運搬、納品し、指定廃棄物から得られる原材料、製品の処分またはリカバリーを図らねばならない。
(2) 全ての廃棄物発生者は、環境局長が規定したガイドラインに従って、移動または移送の対象となる指定廃棄物には、必ず包装、表示を施し、運搬しなくてはならない。
9．指定廃棄物の保管(1) 指定廃棄物は、指定廃棄物の保管に適し、耐久性があり、環境への指定廃棄物の流出や漏洩を防ぐことができる容器に保管されなければならない。
(2) 混合できない指定廃棄物は、必ず別々の容器で保管し、当該容器は、別々の 2 次格納エリアに納められなければならない。
(3) 指定廃棄物が入った容器は、指定廃棄物を加えるか、取り出す必要がある時以外は、常に密封しておかなければならない。

3

(4) 容器の保管エリアは、指定廃棄物の環境への流出、漏洩を防止するために、環境局長によって規定されたガイドラインに沿って、適正に設計、施工、維持されなければならない。
(5) いかなる者も、以下の条件を満たす限りにおいて、当人が発生させた指定廃棄物をその発生後 180 日以下の日数だけ保管することができる。
(a) オンサイトで蓄積される指定廃棄物量は、20 トンを超えてはならない。さらに、(b) 環境局長は、いかなる時でも必要と考える分量だけ、廃棄物発生者に対して処理、処分またはその指定廃棄物から得られる原材料ないし製品のリカバリーを図るために、指定廃棄物の移送を指示することができる。
(6) 廃棄物発生者は、20 トンを超える指定廃棄物を保管することを環境局長宛に書面で申請することができる。
(7) もしも環境局長が、上記(6)項に基づき作成された申請書を承諾した場合、環境局長は、書面により、条件付きまたは条件なしの認可を発給することができる。
10．指定廃棄物の表示(1) 指定廃棄物を保管するために利用される容器には、当該指定廃棄物が最初に発生した日
付、廃棄物発生者の氏名、住所、電話番号が明確に記載された表示が施されていなければならない。
(2) 指定廃棄物の容器は、識別と警告の目的のために、附則 3 で規定された廃棄物の種類に従って、明確に表示が施されていなければならず、また附則 1 で規定された指定廃棄物コードが付けられていなければならない。
(3) いかなる者も上記(1), (2)項で述べられているマークや表示を変更してはならない。
11．廃棄物発生者による指定廃棄物の目録（インベントリー）の保管
廃棄物発生者は、附則 5 に則り、指定廃棄物が発生した日から 3 年間に至るまで、発生、処理、または処分した指定廃棄物、並びに当該指定廃棄物から得られた原材料または製品についての分類と量に関する正確で最新の目録を保管しておかなければならない。

4

12．廃棄物発生者、委託業者及び指定施設の所有者が提出しなければならない情報(1) 廃棄物発生者、委託業者及び指定施設の所有者は、附則 6 の方法に則り、本規則で規定されている情報を提供する。しかし、環境局長が妥当と判断して決定したその他の方法に従う場合もある。
(2) 廃棄物発生者は、附則 6 のパートⅠフォームを 6 部作成し、指定廃棄物を委託業者に引き渡す際に、附則の同コピー6 部を委託業者に渡さなければならない。
(3) 委託業者は、廃棄物発生者から指定廃棄物を引き取った際に、廃棄物発生者から渡されたコピー6 部の中の附則 6・パートⅡの部分を記載の上、直ちにコピー2 部を廃棄物発生者に送付しなければならない。次に廃棄物発生者は、指定廃棄物の運搬日から 30 日以内に、そのコピー1 部を環境局長宛に提出しなければならない。
(4) 委託業者は、指定廃棄物を引取ってから 10 日以内に、当該指定廃棄物を指定施設の所有者に引き渡し、附則 6 の残りのコピー4 部を当該施設の所有者に渡さなければならない。
(5) いかなる指定施設の所有者も、指定廃棄物を委託業者から引取った際には、委託業者から渡された附則 6 のコピー4 部のうちのパートⅢの部分を完成し、記入し終えたら、うち 1
部を自ら保管し、また指定廃棄物を引取ってから 20 日以内に、委託業者、廃棄物発生者及び環境局長宛にコピー各 1 部を返却しなければならない。
(6) 廃棄物発生者が、上記(2)項で引用されている委託業者に指定廃棄物を送り届けてから
30 日以内に、上記(5)項で引用されている指定施設の所有者から、附則 6 のコピーを受理できなかった場合、廃棄物発生者は、直ちに環境局長に届け出て調査を行い、その調査結果
を環境局長に通知しなければならない。
(7) 廃棄物発生者、委託業者または指定施設の所有者は各々、指定施設の所有者が指定廃棄物を引取った日から少なくとも 3 年間は、記録の保持という趣旨から、附則 6 の署名入り
コピーを保管しなければならない。
13．廃棄物発生者の施設外に指定廃棄物を運搬する場合に提出されなければならない情報(1) 全ての廃棄物発生者は、委託業者に引き渡す指定廃棄物の各分類に関して、附則 7 に則った情報を提供しなければならず、廃棄物を委託業者に引き渡した際に、附則 7（の当該記載済みフォーム）を委託業者に提出しなければならない。

5

(2) 廃棄物発生者は、附則 7 の目的と用途を委託業者に通知しなければならない。
(3) 委託業者は、運搬されてくる指定廃棄物の分類毎に附則 7（の記載済みフォーム）を所
持し、同指示に注意を払い、その規定を遵守しなければならない。
(4) 委託業者は、運搬ルートの選択に当たって、人口密度の高い地域、集水地域やその他の
環境的に脆弱な地域をできる限り避けるように対応しなければならない。
(5) 委託業者は、指定廃棄物の取り扱い、運搬及び保管に携わる全ての従業員が、関連研修プログラムに確実に参加するようにしなければならない。
(6) 委託業者は、附則 7 フォームの目的及び用途について、当該研修プログラムの期間中に従業員一人一人に周知徹底させなければならない。
14．漏洩及び流出事故(1) いかなる指定廃棄物の漏洩または流出事故が起こった場合でも、廃棄物に対して責任を持つ委託業者は、事態を直ちに環境局長に通知しなければならない。
(2) 契約業者は、漏洩物や流出事故を封じ込め、洗浄し、あるいは除去するため、また漏洩や流出事故に係わる物質を回収するため、実施可能なあらゆる対応を行わなければならない。
(3) 廃棄物発生者は、上記(2)項で規定されたあらゆる洗浄活動で、専門技術及び協力支援を提供しなければならない。
(3) 委託業者は、環境保局長が定める一定期間、漏洩または流出事故による環境影響について、調査・研究を行わなければならない。
15．研修の実施
全ての廃棄物発生者は、指定廃棄物の識別、取り扱い、表示、運搬、保管及び漏洩または流出への対応に携わる全ての従業員が、関連研修プログラムに確実に参加するようにしなければならない。
16．違反行為の解決

6

(1) これら諸規則の遵守に対する不作為または怠慢による違反行為、あるいは諸規則に反して企てられたあらゆる違反行為は、環境保全法 1974 の第 45 条に基づき解決される。
(2) 上記(1)項で引用されている違反行為の解決は、環境保全（違反行為の解決）規則 1978
[P.U. (A) 281/1978]で規定されている手順に沿って行われなければならない。
17．廃止
環境保全（指定廃棄物）規則 1989 [P.U. (A) 139/1989] は、廃止する。

7

附則 1
（規則 2）
SW1

金属及び金属を含む廃棄物

SW101砒素または砒素化合物を含む廃棄物

SW102

鉛蓄電池の廃棄物（形がそのままのもの、あるいは破砕された形のもの）

SW103

カドミウム及びニッケルまたは水銀あるいはリチウムを含む廃電池（battery）

SW104

砒素、水銀、鉛、カドミウム、クロム、ニッケル、銅、バナジウム、ベリリウ
ム、アンチモン、テルル、タリウム、またはセレンを含むダスト、スラグ、
ドロスまたは灰。ただし、製鉄所から生ずるスラグは除く。

SW105

めっきスラッジ

SW106

酸洗い液の回収残さ

SW107

銅の処理工程で、砒素、鉛またはカドミウムを用いた追加の加工または精錬から生ずるスラッジ

SW108

亜鉛処理から生じる灰状及びスラッジ状の浸出残さ（leaching residues）

SW109

水銀または水銀化合物を含む廃棄物

SW110

蓄電池（accumulators）、水銀スイッチ、ブラウン管（CRT）ガラスやその他の活性ガラスまたはポリ塩化ビフェニール（PVC）コンデンサーなどの部品を含むか、あるいはカドミウム、水銀、鉛、ニッケル、クロム、銅、リチ
ウム、銀、マンガンまたは PVC によって汚染された電気電子組立品の廃棄物

SW2

金属や有機材料を含む可能性がある主に無機成分を含む廃棄物

SW201

スラッジ、灰または繊維状のアスベスト廃棄物8

SW202触媒の廃棄物

SW203

化学的に固定化、カプセル化、固形化または不活性化されたスラッジを含む固定化された指定廃棄物

SW204

クロム、銅、ニッケル、亜鉛、鉛、カドミウム、アルミニウム、スズ、バナ
ジウム及びベリリウムの一つまたはいくつかの金属を含むスラッジ

SW205

化学産業または発電所から生ずる石こう廃棄物

SW206

使用済み無機酸

SW207

フッ化物を含むスラッジ

SW3

金属及び無機素材を含む可能性がある主として有機成分を含む廃棄物

SW301

pH 2 以下の腐食性、または有害な使用済み有機酸

SW302

有機酸、溶剤または塩化アンモニウム化合物の混合物を含む使用済みフラッ
クス

SW303

固体高分子材料を除く有機溶剤を含む使用済み接着剤または粘着物廃液

SW304

グリセリン石鹸溶液の前処理（pretreatment of glycerol soap lye）から生ずるプレスケーキ

SW305

廃潤滑油

SW306

廃油圧／作動油

SW307

廃鉱油－水の乳濁液

SW308

オイルタンカー・スラッジ

SW309

バラスト水のような油と水の混合液

9

SW310

鉱油貯水槽のスラッジ

SW311

廃油または油性スラッジ

SW312

自動車整備場、サービスステーションのオイルまたはグリース・インターセ
プターから生ずる油性残留物

SW313

廃潤滑油の再精製から生ずる油で汚染された土壌

SW314

石油精製プラントのメンテナンス作業から生ずる油またはスラッジ

SW315

石油精製、石油化学プラントから生ずるタールまたはタール状の残さ

SW316

酸性スラッジ

SW317

四エチル鉛、四メチル鉛及び有機スズ化合物を含む廃有機金属化合物

SW318

ポリ塩化ビフェニール（PCB）またはポリ塩化トリフェニール（PCT）を含
む、もしくはこれらによって汚染された廃棄物、物質及び成形品

SW319

液体状またはスラッジ状のクロロフェノールを含むフェノールあるいはフェノール化合物の廃棄物

SW320

ホルムアルデヒドを含む廃棄物

SW321

有機溶剤ないし重金属を含むゴムまたはラテックスの廃棄物もしくはスラ
ッジ

SW322

非ハロゲン化有機溶剤の廃棄物

SW323

ハロゲン化有機溶剤の廃棄物

SW324

有機溶剤の回収作業から生ずる非水溶性の蒸留残さ（ハロゲン化されているかいないかを問わない）の廃棄物

SW325

エポキシ樹脂及びフェノール樹脂を含む有機溶剤または重金属を含む未処

10

理（uncured）樹脂の廃棄物
SW326

有機リン化合物の廃棄物

SW327

エチレングリコールなどの熱流体（熱伝達用）廃棄物

SW4

無機物または有機物を含む廃棄物

SW401

重金属を含む廃アルカリ

SW402

pH 11.5 以上の腐食性または有害な廃アルカリ

SW403

向精神薬物質または有毒性、有害性、発がん性、変異誘発性ないし催奇形性の物質を含む廃棄された薬物

SW404

病原性廃棄物、医療廃棄物または検疫隔離物

SW405

製薬品の調合及び製造から生ずる廃棄物

SW406

指定廃棄物焼却炉から生じるクリンカー、スラグ及び灰SW407

ダイオキシンまたはフランを含む廃棄物

SW408

化学合成油、鉱油または指定廃棄物の漏洩の洗浄から生ずる汚染土壌、破片
または物質

SW409

化学品、殺虫剤、鉱油または指定廃棄物によって汚染された、処分される容器、ゴミ袋または機器

SW410

指定廃棄物で汚染されたぼろ切れ、プラスチック、紙またはフィルタ

SW411

飲料水処理、食品産業及びビタミンの製造工程から生ずる炭素を除く廃活性
炭

SW412

シアン化物を含むスラッジ

11

SW413

シアン化物を含む廃塩

SW414

シアン化物を含む廃アルカリ性水溶液

SW415

シアン化物を含む廃冷却油

SW416

インキ、塗料、顔料、ラッカー、染料またはワニスのスラッジ

SW417

インキ、塗料、顔料、ラッカー、染料またはワニスの廃棄物

SW418

有機溶媒を含む、廃棄されたまたは不良（off-specification）のインキ、塗料、顔料、ラッカー、染料あるいはワニス

SW419

フォームの製造工程から生ずる固体高分子材料を除く廃ジイソシアネート
及びイソシアネート化合物の残さ

SW420

指定廃棄物の埋立地から生ずる浸出液／水SW421

指定廃棄物の混合物

SW422

指定廃棄物及び非指定廃棄物の混合物

SW423

廃現像液、廃棄された写真用化学薬品または廃棄された写真関連廃棄物

SW424

廃酸化剤

SW425

殺虫剤、除草剤または殺生物剤の製造、調合、取引（trade）または使用から生ずる廃棄物

SW426

殺虫剤、除草剤または殺生物剤の製造、調合、取引（trade）または使用から生ずる不良品

SW427

水酸化カルシウム・スラッジ、リン酸処理スラッジ、カルシウム亜硫酸塩
スラッジ、炭酸塩スラッジを含む鉱物スラッジ

SW428

銅、クロムまたはフッ化ヒ素化合物を含む無機塩、あるいは塩素化された12

フェノールまたはクレオソートを含む化合物を使用した木材防腐作業から生ずる廃棄物
SW429

捨てられた、または不良の化学品

SW430

実験用の廃化学品（Obsolete laboratory chemicals）

SW432

過酸化物を含むか、過酸化物から構成されているか、または過酸化物によって汚染されている廃棄物

SW5

その他の廃棄物

SW501

指定廃棄物の処理またはリカバリーから生ずるあらゆる残さ

13

附則 2
（規則 3）
環境保全法 1974
環境保全（指定廃棄物）規則 2005
指定廃棄物に関する届出（コピー2 部を作成のこと）
ファイル Ref. No.：
廃棄物発生者コード：
州コード：
1．身元確認（ⅰ）施設名及び同所在地：

Tel. No.：Fax No.：Telex No.：（ⅱ）施設所有者：
役職名：
2． 生産データ
毎月使用する原材料／化学品及び量のリスト*
原材料／化学品量（トン）3．廃棄物データ
毎月発生する指定廃棄物**
廃棄物分類

廃棄物

コード

発生源 1

廃棄物名

14

廃棄物

量（トン／

成分 2

月）3

注：1．工場／工程内の生産過程の単位（Unit Operation in the process/ plant）
2．元素、化合物または素材の名称
3．換算単位（トン／月単位によるデータのみ容認）*必要に応じて追加のシートを利用**推定提供する情報は、下名の知識に基づく限り、真正かつ正確であることをここに誓います。
報告者の署名***
氏名：
役職名：
日付：
注：
***報告者とは、指定廃棄物を取り扱う者を指す。

15

附則 3
（規則 10）指定廃棄物・爆発物（廃棄物）への表示要件
記号（爆発する爆弾）：黒；背景：明るいオレンジ
表示 1 [図省略]
引火性液体類（廃棄物）
記号（炎）：黒または白；背景：赤
表示 2 [図省略]
可燃性固体（廃棄物）
記号（炎）：黒；背景：白、垂直の赤ストライプ入り
表示 3 [図省略]
固体：自然発火性物質（廃棄物）
自然発火し易い物質
記号（炎）：黒；背景：上部白、下部赤
表示 4 [図省略]
固体：水反応可燃性物質（廃棄物）
水と作用して、引火性ガスを放出する物質
記号（炎）：黒または白；背景：青
表示 5 [図省略]16

酸化性物質（廃棄物）
記号（丸の上に炎）：黒；背景：黄表示 6 [図省略]
有機過酸化物（廃棄物）
記号（丸の上に炎）：黒；背景：黄表示 7 [図省略]
毒物（廃棄物）
有毒（毒性）物質記号（交差した骨の上に頭蓋骨）：黒；背景：白表示 8 [図省略]
感染性物質（廃棄物）
記号（丸の上に重なった 3 つの三日月）：黒；背景：白表示 9 [図省略]
腐食性物質（廃棄物）
記号（2 つのガラス容器からこぼれた液体が、手と金属に損傷を与えている）：黒；背景：
上部白、下部黒表示 10 [図省略]
種々雑多な危険性物質の混合物（廃棄物）
記号（なし）；背景：白、上半分に垂直の黒ストライプ

17

表示 11 [図省略]
表示の詳細
1．表示は、45 度に傾けられた正方形上のものでなければならない。表示の寸法は、容器、または包装証明書のサイズの関係上、より小さな表示でなくては収まらない場合を除き、10cm×10cm 未満であってはならない。
2．表示 1～11 で用いられる色は、以下のとおり、英国規格 BS381C「指定目的用の色」に適合していなければならない。
Ref．No．

色
フレンチ・ブルー

・・

・・

・・

166

カナリヤ・イエロー

・・

・・

・・

309

シグナル・レッド

・・

・・

・・

537

明るいオレンジ

・・

・・

・・

557

3．表示は、二分割されていなければならず、上部は絵記号を記すため、下部はブロック体
による文字の印字のために確保されている。
4．全ての表示の活字は、表示の背景が黒、赤、または青である場合（背景がこのいずれかの場合は、白で印字）を除き、黒で印字しなければならない。
5．表示は、以下のいずれかの形態を成していれば良い。
（a）貼付け表示（b）金属プレート、もしくは、（c）容器または包装材に直に刷り込むか、または印刷する
6．全ての表示は、効果を著しく損なうことなく、屋外の天候に耐え得るものでなければならない。
7．表示は、対照的な色を背景にした箇所に貼付けなければならない。
8．2 つ以上のハザードを引き起こす廃棄物である場合、その全てのハザードが表記される
よう、当該廃棄物はそれに応じた表示が貼付けられていなければならない。

18

附則 4
（規則 2）
潜在的に混合できない指定廃棄物
グループ A とグループ B の廃棄物を混合した場合、次のような潜在的影響がある。
グループ 1-A

グループ 1-B

カセイアルカリ浴（Alkaline caustic liquids）

硫酸スラッジ

アルカリ性洗浄剤

化学洗浄剤

腐食性アルカリ溶液

電解溶液、酸

腐食性廃液

エッチング酸、溶液または溶剤

石灰スラッジ及びその他の腐食性アルカリ

酸洗い液及びその他の腐食性酸
使用済み酸
使用済み混合酸

潜在的影響：発熱、過激反応
グループ 2-A

グループ 2-B

アスベスト

溶液

ベリリウム

爆発物

すすぎ落としをしていない殺虫剤容器

石油

殺虫剤

油及びその他の易燃性廃棄物

潜在的影響：発火または爆発時に有害物質を放出
グループ 3-A

グループ 3-B
グループ 1-A または 1-B の廃棄物

アルミニウム
ベリリウム
カルシウム
リチウム
マグネシウム
カリウム
ナトリウム
亜鉛粉末、その他の反応性金属及び金属水素化物

潜在的影響：発火または爆発。引火性水素ガスの発生

19

グループ 4-A

グループ 4-B
濃縮されたグループ 1-A または 1-B

アルコール類に属する廃棄物
カルシウム
リチウム
金属水素化物
カリウム
ナトリウム
水反応性廃棄物
潜在的影響：発火、爆発または発熱。引火性有毒ガスの発生グループ 5-A

グループ 5-B
濃縮されたグループ 1-A または 1-B

アルコール類
アルデヒドに属する濃縮廃棄物
グループ 3-A 廃棄物

ハロゲン化炭化水素
ニトロ化炭化水素などの反応性有機化合物及び溶剤
不飽和炭化水素
潜在的影響：発火、爆発、または過激反応
グループ 6-A

グループ 6-B
グループ 1-B 廃棄物

シアン系廃液及び硫化物溶液

潜在的影響：有毒性シアン化水素または硫化水素ガスの発生グループ 7-A

グループ 7-B

塩素酸塩及びその他の強酸化剤

有機酸グループ 7-A

グループ 7-B

亜塩素酸塩

グループ 2-B 廃棄物

クロム酸

グループ 3-B 廃棄物

次亜塩素酸塩グループ 5-A 廃棄物及びその他

硝酸塩の易燃性、可燃性廃棄物

硝酸20

過塩素酸塩
過マンガン酸塩
過酸化物
潜在的影響：発火、爆発または過激反応

21

附則 5
（規則 11）
環境保全法 1974
環境保全（指定廃棄物）規則 2005
目録（インベントリー）：指定廃棄物
所在地：a.*日付*廃棄物分類

*廃棄物の

*発生量

コード

名称

（トン）

廃棄物の取扱い
b.方法

量（トン）

c.場所

*指定廃棄物の現状発生インベントリー
a．指定廃棄物が最初に発生した日付
b．保管、処理、指定廃棄物からの材料または製品の回収、焼却、転換あるいはその他の方法（明細を記載）
c．施設の名称、住所を記載せよ
本フォームに記載した全ての情報は、下名の知識と信念に基づく限り、全ての面で、真正かつ正確であることをここに誓います。
報告者氏名：
役職名：
署名欄：

日付：

I.C.番号：22

附則 6（規則 12）
環境保全法 1974
環境保全（指定廃棄物）規制 2005
指定廃棄物の委託文書
Ⅰ．廃棄物発生者
ファイル Ref. No.：
廃棄物発生者コード：
州コード：
廃棄物発生者名：
住所：
責任者氏名：
Tel. No.：
廃棄物名：

Fax No.：Telex No.：
廃棄物分類コード：

廃棄物成分：
廃棄物発生源：

廃棄物発生源コード：

廃棄物のタイプ：
固形：
スラッジ：
液体：

23

廃棄物の包装：
パレット容器:
密封容器：
ドラム缶（55 ガロン）：
その他（記載要）：量：（トン） 記入可能であれば：

処理・処分コスト：（リンギット：RM）／トン

最終仕向地の名称及び住所：

引渡し日：
責任者の署名引渡し時間：

24（㎥）

Ⅱ．委託業者
委託業者コード：
州コード：
委託業者名：
住所：
責任者氏名：
Tel. No.：Fax No.：Telex No.：

車両登録 No.：
運転手氏名：

一時保管の有無：いいえ：

はい：

住所：
引取り日：

運転手の署名：引取り時間：

25

Ⅲ．保管／処理／

施設コード：

リカバリー／処分／

州コード：

施設運営者
施設名：
施設所在地：
責任者氏名：
Tel. No.：Fax No.：Telex No.：

運営形態：
保管：
再分別化（regrouping）：
リカバリー：
埋立：
安全な埋立（secure landfill）：
物理／化学的処理：
焼却炉：
その他（記載）
：
廃棄物量：
引取り日：

（トン）、記入可能であれば：
署名：

引取り時間：

26

（㎥）

附則 7
（規則 13）
情報
A．特性
１．分類
- 附則 1 に基づき記載
2．発生源- 廃棄物がどのようなプロセス、活動、発生などを経て、生じたのかを記載
3．廃棄物の物理的特性- 引火点 ℃
- 沸点 ℃- 室温での状態（気体、液体、スラッジ、固体）- 空気よりも軽い／重い気体- 水中における溶解度- 水よりも軽い／重い廃棄物
4．リスク- 吸入による- 経口摂取による- 経皮接触による
B．廃棄物の取扱い
1．身体保護機材- 手袋、ゴーグル、防顔マスク, etc.
2．取扱い、包装、輸送及び保管上の手順／注意事項
3．適切な表示- 容器用の表示

27

4．推奨される処分方法
C．身体損傷を引き起こす漏洩または流出事故の場合の注意事項
1．ガスを吸入、または経口摂取した場合- （想定される）中毒症状- 適切な応急措置- 医師のためのガイドライン
2．経皮接触または目に入った場合- （想定される）中毒症状- 適切な応急措置- 医師のためのガイドライン
D．以下により、器物の損傷を招く漏洩または流出事故の場合に講じられる手順
1．床、土、路面, etc.への漏洩
2．水中への漏洩
3．発火
4．爆発

28

巻末付属資料 2

GUIDELINES ON ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND
CO-PROCESSING OF SCHEDULED WASTES IN CEMENT
INDUSTRY IN MALAYSIA
Contents
1.0

INTRODUCTION

4

2.0

SCOPE

5

3.0

OBJECTIVE

54.0

DEFINITION

65.0

OVERVIEW OF CEMENT MANUFACTURING

96.0

CO-PROCESSING
CEMENT KILNS
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5

7.0

OF

SCHEDULED

WASTE

IN

Overview
Selection Of Wastes For Co-Processing
Scheduled Wastes Suitable For Co-Processing
In Cement Kilns
Trial Burns Of Scheduled Wastes For CoProcessing In Cement Kilns
Others

11
15
15
25
25

ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND CO-PROCESSING OFSCHEDULED WASTES IN CEMENT KILNS
7.1
7.2

Waste Acceptance And Pre-Processing
Co-Processing

8.0

QUALITY OF CEMENT PRODUCT

9.0

GOVERNMENT POLICY AND LEGAL REQUIREMENT
9.1
9.2

9.3
9.4

General Requirements
Requirements under Environmental Quality Acts
1974 for Cement Factory Implementing CoProcessing
Emission Limits
Application procedure

27
27
28

28
29

29
30

ANNEX 132

ANNEX 244

ANNEX 347
1|P a g e

ANNEX 4

51

ANNEX 553

ANNEX 667

REFERENCES

2|P a g eTABLES
Table 1

Examples of scheduled wastes approved for co-processed in cement
industry

Table 2

The general principles for co-processing of hazardous and other wastes
in cement kilns

Table 3

Variables that should be taken in consideration when selecting
Scheduled Wastes for co-processing

Table 4

Minimum Waste Acceptance Criteria for scheduled waste used asalternative raw material

Table 5

Minimum Waste Acceptance Criteria for scheduled waste used asalternative fuelTable 6

Emissions limit for cement plant implementing co-processing ofscheduled wastes

FIGURES
Figure 1

General overview of a cement manufacturing process

Figure 2

Flow diagram of the general cement manufacturing process

Figure 3

Use of scheduled waste in cement plant

Figure 4

Decision to distinguish between operations that lead to resource
recovery and/or disposal

ANNEXES
Annex 1

Clinker Production Process

Annex 2

Quality Assurance And Quality Control Program In The Implementation
Of Co-Processing In Cement Plant

Annex 3

Health And Safety Aspects

Annex 4

Communications And Stakeholder Involvement

Annex 5General Recommendation On Waste Acceptance And Pre-Processing
Of Hazardous Waste For Co-Processing

Annex 6

General Recommendation On Co-Processing Of Hazardous Waste

3|P a g e

1.0

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Management of scheduled wastes in Malaysia has been implemented based on
the cradle to grave principle. However, in line with the development of newtechnology and current practice in the waste management hierarchy which
promote reuse or recycling or reutilization of waste, a transformation in the waste
management to another process-integrated technology, advocated as cradle tocradle approach has emerged. This approach promotes the use of waste
whenever possible, as alternative raw material or alternative fuel to substitute theraw material, without jeopardizing the quality of the same product. This willsubsequently eliminate the need for waste disposal to landfills.

1.2

Shifting attitudes and better understanding from all stakeholders with regards tothe importance of conserving the natural resource and pollution prevention toprotect the environment, this waste to wealth practice has shown an increasing
trend globally, as well as in Malaysia. Nowadays, industries in Malaysia haveshown their interest to choose the disposal of waste to landfills as the last option,
by sending the scheduled waste to recovery facilities to recover the valuable
components, as well as to be co-processed in cement industries as alternative
raw material and cement additives.

1.3

Co-processing is the use of scheduled waste as a raw material or as a source ofenergy or both as an alternative to natural mineral resources and fossil fuel incement production.

1.4

Co-processing of wastes in properly controlled cement kilns provides energy andmaterials recovery while cement is being produced, offering an environmentallysound recovery option for many waste materials. Properly controlled coprocessing can provide a practical, cost-effective and environmentally preferred
option to landfill and incineration. In general, co-processing of waste in resourceintensive processes can be an important element in a more sustainable system ofmanaging raw materials and energy.

1.5

Scheduled wastes to be used as alternative raw material or alternative fuel oradditives in cement industries have certain components or characteristics thatmake them suitable for such purpose. Examples of scheduled waste which has
been approved by Department of Environment to be co-processed by cement
plant in Malaysia are as in Table 1:

Purpose of coprocessing

Waste code underFirst Schedule,
Environmental Quality(Scheduled Waste)
Regulations 2005

Type of waste

Used copper slag

Alternative raw material
SW 104Used garnets
Spent pot linings
4|P a g eCement additive

SW 204

Sludges containing one orseveral metals including
chromium, copper, nickel,
zinc,
lead,
cadmium,
aluminium, tin, vanadiumand beryllium

SW 207

Sludges containing flouride

SW 104

Fly ash from coal-based
powerplant

SW 205

FGD gypsum from power
plant (i.e. not necessary becoal based)
Gypsumplant

fromchemicalTable 1: Examples of scheduled wastes approved for co-processed in
cement industry

2.0

SCOPE
These guidelines are prepared to promote and facilitate the cement industry toplan and implement co-processing activities in their plant in an environmentallysound manner, without jeopardising the quality of cement.

3.0

OBJECTIVE
These guidelines are prepared as a guidance document for cement plants who
intend to use scheduled wastes as alternative raw material and/or alternative fueland/or cement additive in the production of cement product, in an environmentallysound manner.
These guidelines will also:(a) Promote waste-to-wealth concept.
(b) Outline the legal requirement and procedure to implement co-processing
activity in cement plant.
(c) Ensure the implementation of co-processing activity in cement plant is incompliance with Environmental Quality Act 1974 and all Regulations, Orderand Rules under the Act.

5|P a g e

4.0

DEFINITION
For the purpose of these guidelines, the definitions of terms used are as follows:
AggregatesParticulate materials used in construction such as sand,gravel, crushed stone and crushed slag

Alkali bypass

A duct located between the feed end of the kiln and thepreheater tower. A portion of the kiln exit gas is withdrawn
through this and quickly cooled by air or water to avoid
excessive alkali, chloride and sulphur build-up on the raw
feed. This is also known as kiln exhaust gas bypass.

Alternative
Inputs to clinker production derived from waste streams that
fuels and raw contribute energy and/or raw material.
materials(AFR)
Alternative
fuels

Wastes with recoverable energy value, used as fuels in a
cement kiln, replacing a portion of conventional fossil fuelssuch as coal. Other terms include: secondary, substitute or
waste derived fuels.

Alternative raw Waste materials containing useable minerals such as
materials
calcium, silica, alumina and iron, which can be used in the kiln
to replace raw materials such as clay, shale and limestone.
Also known as secondary or substitute raw materials.
Best available The most effective methods of reducing emissions and thetechniques
impact on the environment as a whole.
(BAT)
Bypass dust

Dust discarded from the bypass systems of the suspension
preheater, precalciner and grate preheater kilns, consisting offully calcined, kiln feed material.

Calcination

Heat-induced removal, or loss of chemically-bound volatiles
other than water. In cement manufacture this is the thermal
decomposition of calcite (calcium carbonate) and othercarbonate minerals that gives a metallic oxide (mainly CaO)
plus carbon dioxide.

Cementkiln The fine-grained, solid, highly alkaline material removed fromdust (CKD)
cement kiln exhaust gas by air pollution control devices. Muchof the CKD material is unreacted raw material, including raw
mix at various stages of burning and particles of clinker. The
term can be used to denote any dust from cement kilns, suchas that coming from bypass systems.

6|P a g eCement

Finely ground inorganic material that, when mixed with water,
forms a paste that sets and hardens by means of hydration
reactions and processes and that, after hardening, retains its
strength and stability under water.

Cementadditive

Substances added to impart or improve desirable properties
or suppress undesirable properties of the cement.

Clinkering

The thermo-chemical formation of clinker minerals, especiallyto those reactions occurring above about 1,300° C; also thezone in the kiln where this occurs. Also known as sintering or
burning.

Co-processing

The use of suitable waste materials in manufacturing
processes for the purpose of energy and/or resource recovery
and resultant reduction in the use of conventional fuels and/or
raw materials through substitution.

Destruction
Efficiency in destruction and removal of a given organicandremoval compound. Mathematically, DRE is calculated as follows:
efficiency
DRE = [(Win – Wout stack)/Win] × 100(DRE)
where Win is the mass feed rate of one principal organic
hazardous constituent (POHC) in the waste stream fed to thekiln, and Wout stack is the mass emission rate of the same
POHC in the exhaust emissions prior to release to theatmosphere.
Destruction
efficiency (DE):A measure of the percentage of a given organic compoundthat is destroyed by the combustion process.
Mathematically, DE is calculated as follows:
DE = [(Win – Wout combustion chamber)/Win] × 100
where Win is the mass feed rate of one principal organic
hazardous constituent (POHC) in the waste stream fed to thekiln, and Wout combustion chamber is the mass emission rateof the same POHC leaving the kiln (upstream of all air
pollution control equipment).
The DE represents the fraction of the organics entering a kiln,
which is actually destroyed; the DRE represents the fractionof the organics entering a kiln and emitted from the stack to
the atmosphere

Dry process

Process technology for cement production. In the dry process,the raw materials enter the cement kiln in a dry condition after
being ground to a fine powder called the raw meal. The dry
process consumes less energy than the wet process, wherewater is added to the raw materials during grinding to form
slurry.
7|P a g e

Emissions
testing

Manual collection of stack gas samples, followed by chemical
analysis to determine pollutant concentrations.

Heating
The heat per unit mass produced by complete combustion of(calorific) value a given substance. Calorific values are used to express theenergy values of fuels, usually expressed in megajoules per
kilogram (MJ/kg).
Kiln line

The part of the cement plant that manufactures clinker;
comprises the kiln itself, any preheaters and precalciners andthe clinker cooler apparatus.

Kiln

The heating apparatus in a cement plant for manufacturing
clinker. Unless otherwise specified, it may be assumed torefer to a rotary kiln.

Precalciner

A kiln line apparatus, usually combined with a preheater, inwhich partial to almost complete calcination of carbonate
minerals is achieved ahead of the kiln itself, and which makes
use of a separate heat source. A precalciner reduces fuelconsumption in the kiln, and allows the kiln to be shorter, as it
no longer has to perform the full calcination function.

Preheater

An apparatus for heating the raw mix before it reaches the dry
kiln itself. In modern dry kilns, the preheater is commonly
combined with a precalciner. Preheaters use hot exit gases
from the kiln as their heat source.

Pre-processing Alternative fuels and/or raw materials not having uniformcharacteristics must be prepared from different waste streams
before being used as such in a cement plant. The preparation
process, or pre-processing, is needed to produce a waste
stream that complies with the technical and administrative
specifications of cement production and to guarantee thatenvironmental standards are met.
Raw
mix/meal/feed

The crushed, ground, proportioned, and thoroughly mixed raw
material-feed to the kiln line.

RecoveryAny operation where waste is serving a useful purpose byreplacing other materials that would otherwise have beenused to fulfil a particular function, or waste being prepared tofulfil that function, in the plant or in the wider economy.

Rotary kiln

A kiln consisting of a gently inclined, rotating steel tube linedwith refractory brick. The kiln is fed with raw materials at its
upper end and heated by flame from, mainly, the lower end,
which is also the exit end for the product (clinker).

Trial burnEmissions testing performed for demonstrating compliancewith the destruction and removal efficiency (DRE) anddestruction efficiency (DE) performance standards and
8|P a g e

regulatory emission limits; is used as the basis forestablishing allowable operating limits.

5.0

OVERVIEW OF CEMENT MANUFACTURING

5.1

The crucial constituent in concrete is cement. It is a non-metallic, inorganic fine
powder, which will forms into paste, set and harden when mixed with water.

5.2

Cement production involves the heating, calcining and sintering of an accurate
mix of calcareous and argillaceous materials, usually limestone and clay. This
produces cement clinker, which is then cooled and ground with additives such as
gypsum to make cement.

5.3

The most widely used production process is for Portland cement clinker,
described in more detail in Annex 1 of these guidelines.

5.4

Cement manufacturing is a resource intensive industry. It require about 1.5–1.7
tonnes of quarried raw material to produce a tonne of clinker, and the cementkilns require substantial energy with temperatures of over 2,000° C . Each tonneof cement produced typically requires 60–130 kilograms of fuel oil, or its
equivalent, and about 105 KWh of electricity (Loréa, 2007). On average, energy
costs of fuel and electricity represent 40 per cent of cement manufacturing costs(EIPPCB, 2010).

5.5

Clinker burning is the most important phase of the production process in terms of
the environmental impact associated with cement manufacture. Depending on thespecific production processes, cement plants cause emissions to air and waste
emissions to land such as cement kiln dust (CKD). Other impacts to theenvironment are discharge to water, noise and odour pollution.

5.6

The pollutants released to air are particulates, nitrogen oxides (NOX) and sulphur
dioxide (SO2), carbon oxides (CO, CO2), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins anddibenzofurans (PCCDs/PCDFs), volatile organic compounds (VOC), metals andtheir compounds, hydrogen chloride (HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF). The typeand quantity of air emissions depend on varying parameters, for example, the raw
materials and fuels used and the type of process.

5.7

Cement manufacturing is also associated with impacts of resource extraction(fossil fuel, limestone and other minerals) upon environmental quality,
biodiversity, landscape aesthetics and the depletion of non-renewable or slowly
renewable resources, such as fossil fuels or groundwater (Battelle, 2002).

5.8

Figure 1 illustrates the general overview of cement manufacturing process.

9|P a g e

Figure 1: General overview of a cement manufacturing process
Source: CEMBUREAU (2006)
10 | P a g e

6.0
6.1

CO-PROCESSING OF SCHEDULED WASTE IN CEMENT KILNS
Overview
6.1.1 Co-processing involves the use of waste in manufacturing processes for the
purpose of energy and resource recovery by substituting or reducing theuse of conventional fuels and raw materials. In particular, the co-processingof scheduled waste in cement kilns allows the recovery of the energy andmineral value from waste while cement is being produced. Co-processing
wastes serve a useful purpose in replacing materials that would haveotherwise been used in cement manufacturing, thereby conserving natural
resources. Figure 2 provides a process flow diagram of the general cement
manufacturing process
Figure 2 – Flow diagram of the general cement manufacturing process

Source: van Oss (2005)

Note:
1.
Fly ash used as other raw material referred to fly ash from incinerators,
emission control equipments and etc. that fulfilled the Waste AcceptanceCriteria for alternative raw material.
2.
Fly ash used as additive referred to fly ash coal-based power plant that
fulfilled the Waste Acceptance Criteria for cement additive.
6.1.2 Cement manufacture generally can consume significant quantities ofwastes as fuel and alternative raw materials. This consumption reflects theprocess characteristics in clinker kilns, which ensure the complete
breakdown of the raw materials into their component oxides and therecombination of the oxides into the clinker minerals. The essential processcharacteristics for the use of hazardous and other wastes, fed to the kiln via
appropriate feed points, can be summarized as follows (EIPPCB, 2010):
11 | P a g e(a)Maximum temperatures of approximately 2,000° C (main firing
system, flame temperature) in rotary kilns;(b)

Gas retention times of about 8 seconds at temperatures above
1,200° C in rotary kilns;(c)Material temperatures of about 1,450° C in the sintering zone ofrotary kilns;(d)Oxidising gas atmosphere in rotary kilns;(e)

Gas retention time in the secondary firing system of more than 2seconds at temperatures above 850° C; in the pre-calciner, theretention times are correspondingly longer and temperatures arehigher;(f)

Solids temperatures of 850° C in the secondary firing system and/or
the calciner;(g)

Uniform burnout conditions for load fluctuations due to the hightemperatures at sufficiently long retention times;Destruction oforganic pollutants because of high temperatures at sufficiently longretention times;(h)Sorption of gaseous components such as HF, HCl, and SO2 onalkaline reactants;(i)

High retention capacity for particle-bound heavy metals;\(j)

Short retention times of exhaust gases in the temperature range
known to lead to formation of PCDDs/PCDFs;(k)

Simultaneous material recycling and energy recovery through thecomplete use of fuel ashes as clinker components;(l)

Product-specific wastes are not generated due to a completematerial use into the clinker matrix (although some cement plants
dispose of CKD or bypass dust);(m)

Chemical-mineralogical incorporation of non-volatile heavy metals
into the clinker matrix.

6.1.3 Potential benefits possible through the use of hazardous and other wastes
in cement manufacturing are the recovery of the energy content of waste,conservation of non-renewable fossil fuels and natural resources, reductionof CO2 emissions, reduction in production costs, and use of an existing
technology to treat hazardous wastes (see, for example, Mantus, 1992;
Battelle, 2002; WBCSD, 2005; Karstensen, 2007b).
6.1.4 Co-processing of scheduled wastes in cement kilns shall be carried out only
according to best available techniques (BAT) while meeting requirements
12 | P a g e

set out for input, process and emission. Table 2 outlined the generalprinciples for co-processing of scheduled wastes and other wastes incement kilns.
Principle
The wastemanagement
hierarchy
should be
respected

Description– Waste should be co-processed in cement kilns wheremore ecologically and economically robust methods ofrecovery are not available– Co-processing should be considered an integrated partof waste management– Co-processing should be in line with the Basel andStockholm Conventions and other relevant international
environmental agreements

Additionalemissions andnegative
impacts onhuman healthmust beavoided– Negative effects of pollution on the environment andhuman health must be prevented or kept at a minimum– Air emissions from cement kilns co-processing waste
cannot be statistically higher than those not involved in
co-processing waste

The quality of
the cement
must remainunchanged– The product (clinker, cement, concrete) must not be
used as a sink for heavy metals– The product must not have any negative impacts on theenvironment (for example, as determined by leaching
tests)– The quality of the product must allow for end-of-life
recoveryCompanies thatco-process
must bequalified– Assure compliance with all laws and regulations– Have good environmental and safety compliancerecords– Have personnel, processes, and systems in placecommitted to protecting the environment, health, andsafety– Be capable of controlling inputs to the production
process– Maintain good relations with public and other parties
involved in local, national and international waste
management schemes

Table 2 - the general principles for co-processing of hazardous and otherwastes in cement kilns
Source: GTZ (2006)

6.1.5 Figure 3 illustrates the use of scheduled wastes as alternative raw material,
alternative fuel and cement additive in cement plant.

13 | P a g e

Figure 3 – Use of scheduled wastes in cement plant

14 | P a g e

6.2

Selection Of Wastes For Co-Processing
6.2.1 Co-processing should include a thorough selection of waste to avoid and/or
reduce emissions and risk of damage to the environment or public health aswell as to maintain the quality of cement products.
6.2.2 The use of scheduled wastes in cement manufacturing should add value tothe process, for example the heating value and the material value of themineral composition, while in compliance to the relevant regulations andpermit requirements as well as the plant‟s ability to handle any particularwaste stream. The use of cement kilns as a disposal operation not leading
to resource recovery (i.e., the destruction or irreversible transformation ofscheduled wastes constituents), should be considered only if there areenvironmental benefits : for example, NOx reduction through flame coolingor when there is no other cost-effective and environmentally sound disposal
option at the local level.
6.2.3 Blending and mixing of different scheduled wastes streams may be required
to ensure a homogeneous feedstock of alternative raw material that meetsspecifications for use in a cement kiln. Blending of scheduled wastes should
not, however, be conducted with the aim of lowering the concentration of
hazardous constituents to circumvent regulatory requirements. As a generalprinciple, the mixing of wastes should be prevented from leading to theapplication of an unsuitable (non-environmentally sound) disposal operation(EIPPCB, 2006) .

6.3

Scheduled Wastes Suitable For Co-Processing In Cement Kilns
6.3.1 The selection of suitable scheduled wastes to be used as alternative raw
material in co-processing is influenced by various factors includes:(a) the nature of the waste;(b) its hazardous characteristics;(c) available waste management operations;(d) kiln operation; raw material and fuel compositions; waste feed points;(e) exhaust gas cleaning process;(f) resulting clinker quality;(g) general environmental impacts;(h) probability of formation and release of POPs;(i) particular waste management considerations; and
15 | P a g e

(j) regulatory compliance; and public and government acceptance (Van
Oss and Padovani, 2003; GTZ, 2006; UNEP, 2007; EIPPCB, 2010).
6.3.2 The operator should develop a waste evaluation procedure to assess
potential impacts on the health and safety of workers and the public, plantemissions, operations and product quality, by taking the recommended
variables as in Table 3, into consideration when selecting the waste(WBCSD, 2005; UNEP, 2007):

Kiln
operation

Variables
Alkali (sodium, potassium,etc.), sulphur and chloride
content

Explanation
Excessive inputs of thesecompounds may lead to buildup and blockages in the kiln
system. Where these cannot be
captured in the cement clinker
or kiln dust, a bypass may berequired to remove excess
compoundsfrompreheater/precalcinerkilnsystems. High alkali content
may also limit recycling of CKD
in the kiln itself

Heating (calorific) valueThe key parameter for theenergy provided to the process

Water content

Overall moisture content may
affect productivity, efficiency
and also increase energy
consumption.
The
water
content of waste needs to beconsidered in conjunction withthat of conventional fuels
and/or raw feed materials

Ash content



The ash content affects thechemical composition of thecement and may require an
adjustment of the compositionof the raw mix

Exhaust gas flow rate andwaste feed rate

Sufficient residence time isneeded for the destruction oforganics and to prevent
incomplete combustion due towaste overcharging

Others

Stability of operation
example,duration(forand

16 | P a g e

frequency of CO trips) and thewaste‟s state (liquid, solid),
preparation (shredded, milled)
and homogeneity
Emissions

Organic contentOrganic
constituentsareassociated with emissions of
CO2 and may result inemissions of CO and otherproducts
ofincomplete
combustion (PICs) if waste is
fed through unsuitable points or
duringunstable
operatingconditions

Chloride content

Chlorides may combine withalkalis to form fine, difficult tocontrol particulate matter. In
some cases, chlorides havecombinedwithammoniapresent in the limestone feed.
This produces highly visible
detached plumes of fineparticulate
with
a
high
ammonium chloride content

Metals content

The non-volatile behaviour of
most heavy metals allows mostto pass straight through the kiln
system and be incorporated
into the clinker.
Introduced volatile metals will
partly be recycled internally by
evaporation and condensation
until equilibrium is reached, theother part being emitted in theexhaust gas.
Thallium, mercury and theircompounds are highly volatile
as to a lesser extent are
cadmium, lead, selenium andtheir compounds.
The fact that dust control
devices can only capture theparticle-bound fraction of heavy
metals and their compounds
needs to be taken into account.
Woodtreatedwithpreservatives
containing
copper, chromium and arsenic









17 | P a g eAlkali bypass exhaust gas





also
requiresspecialconsideration with regard to theefficiency of the exhaust gas
cleaning system.
Mercury is a highly volatile
metal, which, depending on theexhaust gas temperature ispresent in both particle-borneand vapour forms in the air
pollution control equipment(EIPPCB, 2010).
Alkali bypass exhaust gas canbe released from either aseparate exhaust stack or fromthe main kiln stack in systems
equipped with an appropriate
bypass.
According to the United States
Environmental
Protection
Agency (1998) the same
hazardous air pollutants arefound in both the main andalkali bypass stacks. Where an
alkalibypasssystemisinstalled, appropriate control ofthe exhaust to atmosphere also
needs to be provided on thebypass exhaust, similar to thatmandated for the main exhauststack (UNEP, 2007)

High sulphur content in raw
materials, fuel and waste may
result in the release of SO2

High levels of phosphate may
delay setting timeHigh levels of fluorine will affectsetting time and strength
development

Chlorine, sulphur and alkali
content

High levels chlorine, sulphur
and alkali may affect overall
product quality

Thallium
content

Thallium and chromium content
can adversely affect cement

Sulphur content

Clinker,
Phosphate content
cement andfinal productquality
Flourine content

andchromium

18 | P a g e









quality and may cause allergic
reactions in sensitive users.
Leaching of chromium fromconcrete debris may be moreprevalent than leaching of othermetals (Van der Sloot et al.,2008). Leaching test is required
to be carried out if the cement
plant intends to use raw
materials or scheduled wastes
containing chromium.
Limestone, sand and clay
contain chromium, making its
contentincementboth
unavoidable
andhighlyvariable.
The
NorwegianNational
InstituteofOccupational Health (Kjuus etal., 2003) reviewed several
studies of chromate allergy,
especiallythoseinvolving
construction workers. It foundthat the main sources ofchromium in cement came fromraw materials, refractory bricks
in the kiln and chromium steel
grinders.
The
relative
contribution of these factors
may vary depending on thechromium content of the raw
materials
andthemanufacturingconditions.
Minor sources include bothconventional and alternative
fuels (EIPPCB, 2010).
Cement eczema can be causedby exposure to wet cement witha high pH, which induces
irritant contact dermatitis andby an immunological reaction tochromium that elicits allergic
contact dermatitis (Kjuus et al.,2003).
Where there is a possibility ofcontact with the skin, cement
andcement-containing
preparations may not be usedor placed on the market in theEuropean Union, if they
contain, when hydrated, more
19 | P a g eLeachable trace elements:

Table 3:than 0.0002 per cent soluble
chromium (VI) of the total dry
weight of the cement.
As the main chromate source isfrom the raw material, areduction in chromium levels(VI) in cement requires that a
reducing agent is added to thefinished product. The main
reducing agents used inEurope are ferrous sulphate
and tin sulphate (EIPPCB,
2010)
Heavy metals are present in all
feed materials, conventionaland otherwise. However undercertain test conditions, leachedconcentrations from concrete ofother metals besides chromium
may approach drinking water
standards (GTZ, 2006).

Variables that should be taken in consideration when selecting
Scheduled Wastes for co-processing

6.3.3 Only waste of known composition, energy and mineral value is suitable forco-processing in cement kilns. To verify the suitability of a particularscheduled wastes stream to be used in co-processing at their cement plant,
the operators should develop a specific Waste Acceptance Criteria for eachof the following purposes:(a) Scheduled wastes used as alternative raw material;(b) Scheduled wastes used as alternative fuel; and(c) Scheduled wastes used as cement additive.
6.3.4. Cement plant shall establish the Waste Acceptance Criteria based on theirplant‟s capability and the criteria should at least include the following
parameters and limits:
Waste Acceptance Criteria for alternative raw material:
NOTE: ANALYSIS SHOULD BE IN DRY BASIS:
No.

Parameter

Minimum

1

SiO2 (%)

Total of 2 major oxides should be>30% in dry basis

2

Fe2O2 (%)
20 | P a g e

3

Al2O3 (%)

4

CaO (%)

5

Cl (ppm)

Maximum 2%. Waste with total
halogenated organic with > 1% must
be only used at the main burner

6

Moisture content (%)<70 % in waste (subject to thecharacteristic of the waste)

7

Pb (mg/kg)

Total heavy metals:

8

Cr (mg/kg)

9

As (mg/kg)

10

Sn (mg/kg)

11

Se (mg/kg)

12

Ni (mg/kg)

13

Te (mg/kg)

14

Co (mg/kg)

15

V (mg/kg)

16

Sb (mg/kg)

17

Mn (mg/kg)

18

Zn (mg/kg)<30,000 in total input: ARM

19

Cu (mg/kg)<30,000 in total input: ARM

24

Hg (mg/kg)

<10

25

Tl (mg/kg)-

26

Cd (mg/kg)-

27

Total organic content<100,000 ppm in ARM

Table 4:

Total volatile metal:<100 ppm<1% if ARM fed in cold part of theprocess

Minimum Waste Acceptance Criteria for scheduled waste
used as alternative raw material

21 | P a g e

Waste Acceptance Criteria for alternative fuel:NOTE: ANALYSIS SHOULD BE IN ASH BASIS:
No.

Parameter

Minimum1

Cl (ppm)

Maximum 2%. Waste with total
halogenated organic with > 1% must
be only used at the main burner

2

Moisture content (%)<70 % in waste (subject to thecharacteristic of the waste)3

Pb (mg/kg)

Total heavy metals:

4

Cr (mg/kg)

5

As (mg/kg)

6

Sn (mg/kg)

7

Se (mg/kg)

8

Ni (mg/kg)

9

Te (mg/kg)

10

Co (mg/kg)

11

V (mg/kg)

12

Sb (mg/kg)

13

Mn (mg/kg)

14

Zn (mg/kg)<30,000 in total input: AF

15

Cu (mg/kg)<30,000 in total input: AF

16

Hg (mg/kg)

<10

17

Tl (mg/kg)-

18

Cd (mg/kg)-

19

Calorific heating value<10,000 ppm in AF

Table 5:

Total volatile metal:<100 ppm> 500 kcal/kg (as dried basis)

Minimum Waste Acceptance Criteria for scheduled waste
used as alternative fuel22 | P a g e

Waste Acceptance Criteria for cement additive1.

Low content of organic carbon

2.

Does not contain radioactive component (example: Radon, ect.)

The cement plant shall ensure that the scheduled wastes received to be coprocessed fulfilled the requirements specified in the Waste AcceptanceCriteria before it is been sent to the cement plant to be co-processed.
6.3.5 The following scheduled wastes are not allowed for co-processing in
cement kilns:(a) Radioactive or nuclear waste;
Cement plants are not designed or operated to meet safety and healthrequirements for radioactive waste management. The preferreddisposal approach is concentration (reduction of volume) andcontainment of radionuclides through a conditioning process to preventor substantially reduce dispersion in the environment.
(b) Electric and electronic waste;
Electric and electronic waste contains valuable resources, such as
precious metals and recycling should be the preferred option. Coprocessing of plastic components might be an option but only after
appropriate disassembly and sorting.
(c) Whole batteries;
Co-processing of batteries would lead to concentrations of pollutants inthe cement and air emissions. Batteries contain valuable resources
such as lead and recycling should be the preferred waste management
option.
(d) Corrosive waste, including mineral acids;
Corrosive wastes may cause corrosion and fouling problems inequipment not specifically designed for this type of waste. This being
usually the case with pre-processing, storage and injection systems.
Wastes with high chlorine and sulphur contents such as some mineralacids may also have a negative effect on clinker production or productquality. High sulphur contents may also result in the release of sulphuroxides (UNEP, 2007).
(e) Explosives;
Explosive waste should not be co-processed in the cement kiln given
the adverse effects on process stability. There are also occupationalsafety concerns due to the risk of uncontrolled explosions duringtransport and pre-processing activities.
23 | P a g e

(f) Cyanide bearing waste;(g) Asbestos-containing waste;(h) Infectious medical waste;(i) Chemical or biological weapons destined to destruction;(j) Waste consisting of, containing or contaminated with mercury above
permitted limits;
The high volatility of mercury poses a problem regarding air emissions.
Inputs of wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with mercury
to the kiln should be controlled and kept to a minimum(k) Waste of unknown or unpredictable composition, including unsorted
municipal waste.
In general these wastes are not recommended because of health andsafety concerns, potentially negative impacts on kiln operation, clinker
quality and air emissions, and when a preferable alternative waste
management option is available
6.3.6 Scheduled wastes that are, in principle, well-suited for co-processing in
cement kilns include: tank bottom sludges, acid alkyl sludges, oil spills andacid tars from petroleum refining, natural gas purification and pyrolytic
treatment of coal; waste machining oils; waste hydraulic oils and brakefluids; bilge oils; oil/water separator sludges, solids or emulsions; washingliquids and mother liquors,still bottoms and reaction residues from the
manufacture, formulation, supply and use of basic organic chemicals,
plastics, synthetic rubber, man-made fibres, organic dyes, pigments,organic pesticides andpharmaceuticals; waste ink; wastes from thephotographic industry; tars and other carbon-containing wastes from anodemanufacture (aluminium thermal metallurgy); wastes from metal degreasing
and machinery maintenance; wastes from textile cleaning and degreasingof natural products; process wastes from the electronic industry(GTZ/Holcim, 2006).
6.3.7 Waste streams with recoverable energy value meet specifications can beused as fuels in a cement kiln to replace a portion of conventional fuels andwaste streams containing useful components such as calcium, silica,
alumina and iron can be used to replace raw materials such as clay, shaleand limestone. Wastes meeting both sets of requirements may be suitablefor processing for both energy and materials recovery.
6.3.8 Figure 4 outlined the decision to distinguish between operations that leadto resource recovery and disposal.

24 | P a g e

6.4

Trial Burns Of Scheduled Wastes For Co-Processing In Cement Kilns
6.4.1 A trial burn is used to determine the facility‟s destruction and removal
efficiency (DRE) or destruction efficiency (DE), to verify its ability toefficiently destroy POPs in an irreversible and environmentally soundmanner. This involves the selection, sampling and analysis of a principalorganic hazardous constituent (POHC) in the waste feed to determine its
input and emission rates. A trial burn typically consists of a series of tests,
one for each set of operating conditions in the facility. Three runs arenormally performed for each test.
6.4.2 During the trial burn, the operator should establish the operating limits for
maximum scheduled wastes feed and maximum kiln production rate. The
operator shall also schedule a sampling and analysis of emission bycompetent and accredited party.
6.4.3 The trial burn should be carried out by existing or new cement plant intends
to implement co-processing of scheduled wastes for the first time.

6.5

OTHERS
6.5.1 Other important aspects that should be taken into considerations when theoperators of cement plant implement co-processing activity are therequirement for (i) a comprehensive programme on quality assurance (QA)
and quality control (QC); (ii) health and safety program; and (iii) the
involvement of stakeholders as well as public communication. Further
information on three (3) aspects as outlined by UNEP are detailed out inAnnex 2, Annex 3 and Annex 4.

25 | P a g e

Figure 4: Decision to distinguish between operations that lead to resource
recovery and/or disposal
Is there a waste disposal
alternative which offer more
appropriate criteria than coprocessing in cement kilns ?

Yes
REFUSE

No
Does the waste meet thefacility‟s waste acceptancecriteria ?

No
REFUSE

Yes
Does the waste comply with
Question A(1) and Question
B simultanously ?

Yes
ACCEPT

Material & energy
recovery (ARM & AF)

No
Question (A) :Is the waste able to sustain
combustion at the prevailingprocess conditions in thekilns without the addition of
supplemental fuel ?

Yes
ACCEPT

Energy recovery (AF)No
Question (B) :Does the waste have a (1)relevant content of CaO (orCaCO3), SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3
and/or SO3 or (2) has certain
component/characteristics to
be used as additives?
No

Yes
ACCEPT

Material recovery(ARM for Question
B(1) and CA for
Question B(2))

ACCEPT

Waste disposal notleading to recovery

Yes

Is there a local need todispose of scheduled wasteor environmental benefits to
be gained from the use ofhazardous waste?
No

REFUSE

Note:
ARM
AF
CA

:
:
:

Alternative raw material
Alternative fuelCement additive
26 | P a g e

7.0

ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND CO-PROCESSING OF SCHEDULED WASTESIN CEMENT KILNS

7.1

Waste Acceptance And Pre-Processing
7.1.1 Before a cement plant decide to receive scheduled wastes to be used asalternative raw material, the operator should investigate the nature andcomposition associated with the waste, and all relevant information shouldbe passed by the waste generator to the operator. The waste should also
be sampled and sent to accredited laboratories for chemical analysis.
7.1.2 Operators of cement plant should ensure that the scheduled wastes
received is in compliance to the Waste Acceptance Criteria of alternative
raw material or alternative fuel that has been established beforehand.
7.1.3 The scheduled wastes usually will require a pre-processing to produce ahomogeneous waste stream before it is co-processed in the cement kilns.
7.1.4 The operators shall develop a “Standard Operating Procedure” on Waste
Acceptance and Pre-Processing that detailed out the management ofscheduled wastes received to ensure it is manage properly and suchactivity will not give any adverse effect to the process, environment as wellas human health. A general recommendation as outlined by UNEP as inAnnex 5.

7.2

Co-Processing
7.2.1 For optimal performance (co-processing without additional emissions)alternative fuels and raw materials should be fed to the cement kiln throughappropriate feed points, in adequate proportions and with proper wastequality and emission control systems.
7.2.2 Co-processing has the following characteristics during the production
process (GTZ/Holcim, 2006):(a) The alkaline conditions and the intensive mixing favour the absorptionof volatile components from the gas phase. This internal gas cleaning
results in low emissions of components such as SO2, HCl, and most of
the heavy metals, with the exception of mercury, cadmium and thallium;(b) The clinker reactions at 1450°C allow the chemical binding of metals
and the incorporation of ashes to the clinker;(c) The direct substitution of primary fuel by high calorific waste materialcauses a higher efficiency on energy recovery in comparison to other„waste to energy‟ technologies.
7.2.3 A general recommendation as outlined by UNEP as in Annex 6.

27 | P a g e

8.0

QUALITY OF CEMENT PRODUCT
8.1 The cement product should comply with MS EN 197-1.

9.0

GOVERNMENT POLICY AND LEGAL REQUIREMENT

9.1

General Requirements
9.1.1 Below are the general requirements specific to cement kilns co-processing
hazardous wastes on a routine basis as outlined by Karstensen (2008a,
2009a):(a) Compliance with all required national/local licenses, permits,authorisations and emissions and relevant national and local
regulations as outlined under Environmental Quality Act 1974 and all
related Regulations, Orders and Rules under the Act.
(b) Suitable location, technical infrastructure, storage and processing
equipment(c) Reliable and adequate power and water supply(d) Application of BAT for air emissions pollution prevention and control,
along with continuous emission monitoring to ensure compliance withregulation and permits (verified through regular baseline monitoring)(e) Exit gas conditioning/cooling and low temperatures (< 200°C) in the air
pollution control device to prevent dioxin formation(f) Clear management and organisational structure with unambiguous
responsibilities, reporting lines and feedback mechanism(g) Qualified and skilled employees to manage wastes and health, safety
and environmental issues(h) Adequate emergency and safety equipment and procedures, andregular training(i) Authorised and licensed collection, transport and handling of hazardous
wastes(j) Safe and sound receiving, storage and feeding of hazardous wastes(k) Access to an adequate laboratory facilities and equipment for
hazardous waste acceptance and feeding control(l) Adequate record keeping of wastes and emissions(m) Adequate product quality control routines
28 | P a g e

(n) Implementation of an environmental management system (EMS)
including a continuous improvement programme and ISO 14000
certification(o) Independent audits (government sanctioned or otherwise), emission
monitoring and reporting(p) Stakeholder dialogues with local community and authorities, andmechanisms for responding to comments and complaints(q) Open disclosure of performance and compliance verification reports ona regular basis
9.2

Requirements Under Environmental Quality Acts 1974 For Cement Factory
Implementing Co-Processing
9.2.1 All cement plant implementing co-processing of scheduled wastes asalternative raw material, alternative fuel or cement additive shall be licenced
by the Department of Enviroment as off-site treatment facilities as specified
in Order 3(b), Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled
Wastes Treatment and Disposal Faciities, 1989.

9.3

Emission Limits
9.3.1 Emission limits for cement plant implementing co-processing of scheduled
wastes are as below:
NO.

PARAMETER

LIMIT

1

Dust

-

50 mg/Nm32Sulphur dioxide

SO2

400 mg/ Nm3

3

Nitrogen Oxides

NO2

800 mg/ Nm3

4

Hydrogen Chloride

HCl

10 mg/ Nm3

5

Volatile Organic Compound

TOC

20 mg/ Nm3

6

Chlorine

Cl2

200 mg/ Nm3

7

MercuryHg

0.05 mg/ Nm3

8

CadmiumCd<0.05 mg/ Nm3

9ThalliumTl

10

Arsenic

As

11

Cobalt

Co

12

Lead

Pb

13

CopperCu

14

Antimony

Sb

15

ChromiumCr

Total 2.5 mg/ Nm3

29 | P a g e

16

NickelNi

17

VanadiumV

18

Manganese

Mn

19

Zinc

Zn

100 mg/ Nm3

20

Hydrogen Floride

HF

1 mg/ Nm3

21

Dioxin & Furan

D&F

0.1ng/ Nm3

22

Smoke (Ringelmann chart)

-

No 1

23

Ammonia & ammonia
compoundNH3

30 mg/ Nm3

24

Benzene-

5 mg/ Nm3

Table 6: Emissions limit for cement
processing of scheduled wastes

plant

implementingco-9.3.2 The emission limits in Table 6 applicable to the following cement plant:

9.4

(a)

New or existing cement plant implementing co-processing for the first
time;

(b)

For existing cement plant which has been licenced to co-process
scheduled wastes shall comply to the emission limits as stipulated in
the conditions of the licence. However, the cement plant shall upgrade
their air pollution control system and make necessary improvement tocomply to the new emission limit after year 2019.

Application procedure
9.4.1 In order to implement co-processing of scheduled wastes, the cement plantshall initially obtain the following approvals from Department of EnvironmentState Office:(a) For existing cement plant has been in operation before 1987, a new EIA
report shall be submitted to the DOE for co-processing activity subject tothe prescribed activity under activity 18(a)(ii) of the Environmental
Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment )1987;(b) For the expansion of existing cement plant involves an increase incapacity of more than 50% and the process of co-processing, a new
Detailed EIA report shall be submitted to the DOE for consideration;(c) Written approval under Section 19 of the Environmental Quality Act
1974; and30 | P a g e

(d) Licence as off-site treatment facility under Section 18 of theEnvironmental Quality Act 1974.
9.4.2 As a licenced premis of an off-site treatment facility, any proposal to receive
new code or new source of scheduled wastes to be co-processed, thecement plant shall require a few step approval from the Department ofEnvironment (DOE) as below:(a) Co-processing activities are believed to have effects residue. Therefore,
all cement plant shall submit additional information(addendum) to DOE
together with other information required during the process of In
Principle Approval for the usage, increasing the quantity and types ofwastes being allowed;(b) The addendum should detail the types of scheduled wastes that will be
used and reviewing the effectiveness of pollution control system toensure the use of scheduled wastes do not effect on the environment
especially the sensitive receptor;(c) The Addendum is required as a basis for considering the use ofscheduled wastes as well as to allow amendments to the conditions ofapproval of the EIA made by referring to the relevant provisions of
information on raw materials including cumulative raw materials(d) In Principle Approval from Department of Environment Headquarters.
Assessment will be carried out to study the suitability of the scheduled
wastes to be used as alternative raw material, alternative fuel or cement
additive;(b) Operational approval from Department of Environment State Office.
This will also require amendment to the licence condition to include newcode or new source scheduled wastes for existing code in the licence.

31 | P a g e

ANNEX 1
Clinker Production Process

32 | P a g e

ANNEX 1 - CLINKER PRODUCTION PROCESSA.

Introduction

1.

Cement production involves the heating, calcining and sintering of a carefully
proportioned mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials, usually limestone
and clay, to produce cement clinker, which is then cooled and ground with additives
such as gypsum (a setting retardant) to make cement. This process typicallyrequires approximately 2.9 to 6.7 GJ of energy depending on the kiln technology
employed (IEA, 2007) and 1.5 to 1.7 tonnes of raw materials per tonne of clinker
produced (Szabó et al, 2003); the portion of raw material that does not become
clinker is either lost on ignition or becomes CKD (U.S. EPA, 1993). „Wet‟ processes
also use water to make the raw slurry that feeds the kilns; about 600 kg of water isused in the manufacture of one tonne of cement, some of which is returned to theenvironment (EA, 2005).

2.

Manufacturers use clinker and specific constituents in various proportions to
produce cements that meet different physical and chemical requirements for
specific applications. By far the most common hydraulic cements in use today are
either Portland cements or „blended‟ cements (van Oss and Padovani, 2003). The
standard specifications with which Portland cements must comply are similar (albeit
not identical) in all countries and various names are used to define the material.
Blended cements, also called composite cements, are mixtures of Portland cementwith one or more pozzolanic additives or extenders (sometimes collectively termed„supplementary cementitious materials‟), such as pozzolana (volcanic ashes),certain types of fly ash (from coal-fired powerplants), granulated blast furnace slag,
silica fume, or limestone. These materials commonly make up about 5 to 30 per
cent by weight of the total blend, but can be higher (van Oss, 2005). The
designations for blended cements differ worldwide.

3.

Although a variety of cement types are produced worldwide, cement production
follows essentially the same process, as described below.

B.

Conventional raw materials and fuel4.

The raw materials for cement must yield the oxides required for clinker in theapproximate proportions noted in Table 1A, with the major requirement being
calcium oxide (CaO). In practical terms this means that naturally occurring
calcareous deposits, such as limestone, marl or chalk, which consist essentially of
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), are required. Clay or shale typically provides theremaining components. To correct for minor deficiencies in one or more oxides in
the primary raw materials, „corrective‟ constituents 1 such as iron ore, bauxite or
sand, may be added to adapt the chemical composition of the raw mix to therequirements of the process and product specifications (Taylor, 1997; Karstensen,
2007b). Generally, most, but not all, of the raw materials are mined adjacent to orwithin a few miles of the cement plant.

1

Sometimes called “accessory” or „sweetener‟ materials (van Oss, 2005).
33 | P a g e

Table 1A - Chemical composition of ordinary Portland cement clinker andconventional raw materials
Constituent

Clinker

Limestone,
lime marl,
chalk

Clay

Sand

Iron ore Bauxite

SiO2

19.7124.25%

0.5-50%33-78%

80-99%

4-11%

2.9%

Al2O3

3.76-6.78%

0.1-20%7-30%

0.5-7%

TiO2

0.21-0.52%

0.0-0.7%

0.2-1.8% 0.0-0.5%
0.2-3%

57.5%

Al2O3 + TiO2

7-30%

0.5-2%

Fe2O3

1.29-4.64%

0.2-5.9%

4.0-15%

0.0-4%

Mn2O3

0.03-0.68% 0.02-0.15%

0.09%

0.051%

0.1-10%2-15%

0.5-2%

19-95%

22.8%

Fe2O3 + Mn2O3
CaO

63.7670.14%

20-55%

0.2-25%

0.1-3%

0.1-34%

2.4%

MgO

0.00-4.51%

0.2-6%

0.3-5%

0.3-0.5%

1.5%

0.04%

K2O

0.31-1.76%

0-3.5%

0.4-5%

0.2-3%

Traces

0.04%

Na2O

0.03-0.335

0.0-1.5%

0.1-1.5%

0.0-1%

Traces0.02%

0.0-0.6%

0.0-1%

Traces

0.1-30%

13.5%

Cl
P2O5

0.02-0.27%

0.0-0.8%

0.0-1.0% 0.0-0.1%

Loss onignition

0.09-1.56%

2-44%

1-20%

5

(CO2 + H2O)
Sources: EIPPCB (2010) and CEMBUREAU (1999)

5.

Natural forms of CaCO3 consist of coarser or finer crystals of calcite. Limestone is
microcrystalline CaCO3 with clay as the main impurity. Chalk is a very fine grained,porous marine limestone composed almost entirely of microscopic fossils. The
main constituents of shale and clay are clay minerals, finely divided quartz and,sometimes, iron oxides. Traditionally, wet materials (chalk and clay) have beenused in „wet‟ or „semi-wet‟ kiln processes, and dry materials (limestone) have beenused in the „dry‟ or „semi-dry‟ processes (EA, 2005).

34 | P a g e

6.

Around 80-90 % of raw material for the kiln feed is limestone; clayey raw material
accounts for between 10-15 %, although the precise amounts will vary (BGS,
2005). In addition to the chemical composition of the desired product, theproportion of each type of raw material used in a given cement kiln will depend on
the composition of the specific materials available to the operator, which is tested
on a regular basis.

7.

The proportioning process takes into account the ratios of calcium, silica (SiO 2),
alumina (Al2O3), and iron oxide (Fe2O3) needed to produce good quality clinker, as
well as the „burnability‟ of the raw mix (i.e., the requirements in terms of time,
temperature, and fuel to process the material) (U.S. EPA, 1993). In addition, kiln
operators pay close attention to the presence of „impurities‟ in the mixture, including
magnesia, sulphur, chlorides, and oxides of potassium and sodium (referred to as„alkalies‟). Magnesia (MgO) can be desirable to some extent because it acts as aflux at sintering temperatures, facilitating the burning process, however MgO levels
are carefully monitored because they can lead to the production of clinker that isunsound if not cooled rapidly2. Alkalies can react in the cool end of the kiln withsulphur dioxide, chlorides, and carbon dioxide contained in the kiln gas and canlead to operational problems (U.S. EPA, 1993).

8.

The raw materials used in the cement production process naturally contain metals
and halogens. Thus, antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium,lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, thallium, vanadium, zinc, bromine, chlorine,
fluorine, and iodine are typically present in the raw materials. The amounts of thesecomponents depend on the geological formations from which the raw materials aremined. In addition to the metals and halogens present, the raw materials cancontain organic compounds (Mantus, 1992). Average values and range ofconcentrations of these constituents are presented in Table 1B.

9.

Cement production also has high energy requirements, which typically account for
30-40 % of the production costs (excluding capital costs). Most cement kilns today
use coal and petroleum coke as primary fuels, and to a lesser extent, natural gas
and fuel oil. As well as providing energy, some of these fuels, especially coal or
lignite, produce significant quantities of ash similar in composition to theargillaceous component.

10.

Many plants routinely burn more than one fuel. For example, when firing up a coldkiln, natural gas or fuel oil is commonly used for the slow, warm-up phase
necessary to prevent thermal overstressing of the kiln‟s refractory brick lining. Oncethe kiln is sufficiently hot, it will be switched over to coal and/or coke (generally
petroleum coke) for production operations. (van Oss, 2005)

11.

Coal can contain significant quantities of sulphur, trace metals, and halogens, andtheir concentrations are dependent on the area in which the coal was mined. The
typical concentration of trace elements in the primary fuels is as in Table 1C.
Sulphur (in the form of SO3) will vaporize in the kiln to form sulphur dioxide (SO 2),
and condense in the form of sulphates. Within the kiln, these sulphates combine

2

Such clinker used to make concrete can cause destructive expansion of hardened concrete through slow reaction
with water.
35 | P a g e

with calcium and potassium, causing operational problems in the cool end of thekiln. Halogens are of concern because chlorides can cause operational problems
similar to those caused by sulphur. Chlorine concentrations in coal can range from100 to 2800 parts per million. (U.S. EPA, 1993)
12.

Both heat and electricity consumption vary significantly with kiln technology aspresented in Table 1D and, for the same general technology, plants operating
multiple kilns tend to have higher energy requirement per tonne of overall output
capacity than the plants with the same overall capacity that operate a single kiln.
Wet kilns consume more fuel on a unit basis than the dry kilns because of the needto evaporate the water in the slurry feed and the much larger size of the wet kilns.
(van Oss, 2005).

36 | P a g e

Table 1B - Trace element concentrations (in parts per million) in conventional raw materials(Min = minimum value; Max = maximum value; AV = average value; n.a. = no data available)
Iron ore
Limestone
Marl
Clay
Sand
Gypsum/anhydrite
Constituent
Min-Max
Min-Max (AV)Min-Max (AV)Min-Max (AV) Min-Max (AV)Min-Max (AV)(AV)
As

0.1-15(3)

0.2-12
(6)

2-100
(14)

0.4-42(11)

2-1200(37)

0.2-3.5(1.5)

Be

0.01-12(0.3)

n.a.-1
(0.5)

1-7
(3)

0.6-1.5
(1.0)

0.8-2
(1)

0.02-0.9(0.2)

Cd

0.02-2(0.2)

0.02-0.5(0.3)

0.01-1(0.2)

0.01-1(0.2)

0.02-15(6)

0.03-2.3(0.15)

Co

0.1-7
(3)

n.a.-28
(5)

6-25
(20)

0.3-37(11)

109-183(144)

0.02-3.9(1)

Cr

0.5-184(14)

1.2-71(28)

15-260
(85)

1-220
(19)

8-1400(495)

1-27.3
(8.8)

Cu

5-57
(11)

4.9-35(12)

10-285(43)

1.2-85(10)(1520)

0.3-12.8(7)Hg

0.005-0.1(0.04)

0.005-0.1(0.03)

0.01-0.5(0.2)

0.01-1(0.02)

n.a.-1(0.5)

0.00625-1.3
(0.1)

Mn

250-3300(500)

n.a.-3300(360)

n.a.-2500(600)

46-2040(194)

900-1200(1090)

n.a.

Ni

1.4-131(18)

1.5-57
(16)

7-236
(63)

1-73
(13)

5-815
(331)

Pb

0.27-151(18)

0.3-57(12)

1-219 (25)0.7-70(10)4-8700(350)

0.3-14.5(5.5)
0.2-20.5(7)
37 | P a g e

Sb

0.2-27(1)

n.a.-27(4)

0.5-13(2)

0.3-12
(7)

(26)

0.1-5
(1)

Se

0.4-30
(0.6)

n.a.
(1)

n.a.-2.5
(0.5)

n.a.
(1)

(8)

0.6-17(0.8)

Sn

0.9-24(4)n.a.-24(3)

1.6-30(5)

1.8-40(3)

n.a.-500
(25)

n.a.

Te

n.a.
(0.7)

n.a.
(1)

n.a.
(0.5)

n.a.
(0.5)

n.a.-13
(10)

n.a.

Tl

0.05-3(0.3)

0.05-0.68(0.6)

0.1-1.6(0.5)

0.05-1(0.2)

0.1-400(2)

0.1-1.0
(0.3)

V

5-80
(26)

n.a.-49(20)

30-300
(130)

2-240
(50)

10-690(256)

1-27.8(13.5)

Zn

0.1-229
(30)

22-79
(48)

2-304
(78)

4.2-112(25)

24-9400(3288)

1-59
(19)

Br a/

n.a.
(5.9)

n.a.

1-58

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

50-240n.a.

15-450

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

100-940n.a.

300-990

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

0.25-0.75

n.a.

0.2-2.2

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

Cl a/
F a/
I a/

a/ Mantus (1992)
Source: Achternbosch et al. (2003), unless otherwise noted.

38 | P a g e

Table 1C - Trace element concentrations (in parts per million) in primary fuels(Min = minimum value; Max = maximum value; n.a. = no data available)

Constituent

Anthracite
Min-Max

Bituminous
coal
Min-Max

LigniteMin-Max

Petroleumcoke
Min-Max

As

1-200

n.a.

0.1-120.2-0.8

Be

0-8

n.a.

0.04-0.6

0.02-0.03

Cd

0.01-10n.a.

0.06-2.4

0.04-4Co

0.5-43n.a.

0.5-4.2

n.a.

Cr

1-260

n.a.

0.9-200.9-104Cu

0.30-60

n.a.

0.4-15n.a.

Hg

0.01-3n.a.

0.01-0.7

0.01-0.09

Mn

5-356

n.a.

50-160

n.a.

Ni

1-110

n.a.

0.6-2924-355

Pb

5-270

n.a.

0.7-341-102

Sb

0.05-5n.a.

0.04-2.5

n.a.

Se

0-6

n.a.

0.4-25n.a.

Sn

1.3-7.8

n.a.

0.5-15n.a.

Te

0.2-5.0n.a.

0.1-10

n.a.

Tl

0.1-5

n.a.

0.05-0.4

0.04-3.1

V

10-250n.a.

0.1-8445-1435Zn

4.5-405

n.a.

1-70

16-220

Br a/

n.a.

7-11

n.a.

n.a.

Cl a/

n.a.

100-2800

n.a.

n.a.

F a/

n.a.

50-370

n.a.

n.a.

I a/

n.a.

0.8-11.2

n.a.

n.a.

a/ Mantus (1992)
Source: Achternbosch et al. (2003), unless otherwise noted.

Table 1D - Energy requirements for clinker manufacture39

Process

Fuel consumption, GJ/tonne

Vertical shaft kiln

3.7-6.6

Wet process

5.9-6.7

Long dry process

4.6

1 stage cyclone preheater

4.2

2 stage cyclone preheater

3.8

4 stage cyclone preheater

3.3

4 stage preheater + precalciner

3.1

5 stage preheater + precalciner

3.0-3.1

6 stage preheater + precalciner

2.9

Source: IEA (2007) and Szabó (2003)

C.

Manufacturing process

13.

Portland cement production begins with the manufacture of clinker followed by its
fine grinding with gypsum and other additives to make the finished cement product.
Grinding can occur on site or at offsite grinding plants known as cement mills.
Clinker manufacture involves the quarrying, crushing, and proportioning of raw
materials to produce either a raw meal for the dry and semi-dry processes or aslurry for the wet and semi-wet processes. Once the material is prepared, the raw
mix is fed into a kiln where it is heated as it moves through a number of chemicaland physical processes necessary for forming the clinker.

14.

In the kiln, the raw meal, or slurry in the wet process, is subjected to a thermal
treatment process consisting of the consecutive steps of „drying/preheating‟,„calcining‟, and „sintering‟ (also known as „burning‟ or „clinkering‟); the various
reactions zones are depicted in Figure 1A.

15.

The first drying and preheating zone, occurs in a temperature range of from <100
to 750°C. Here, residual or free water is evaporated from the raw meal feed, theclay materials begin to decompose and the bound water is removed so that they
become dehydrated. Next is the calcining zone, where materials temperatures
range from 750 to 1000°C. The material is „calcined‟, where the calcium carbonate(CaCO3) in the limestone is dissociated producing calcium oxide (CaO, lime) andliberating carbon dioxide (CO2) gas.

16.

Finally, in the burning zone, calcium oxide reacts with silicates, iron, and aluminium
to form dicalcium silicate, tricalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate, and tetracalcium
aluminoferrite, denoted in shorthand as C2S, C3S, C3A, and C4AF respectively. In
addition, clinker nodules, typically 3 to 20 mm in diameter, are formed in a semisolid state in the burning zone, and solidify completely on cooling, which begins ina short cooling zone within the kiln, and continues in a cooler, outside of thecement kiln.
40

Figure 1A - Diagram of ‘reaction’ zones for different kiln technologies

Source: van Oss (2005)

17.

In the clinker burning process, it is essential to maintain kiln charge temperaturesin the sintering zone between 1400 and 1500°C to convert the raw meal to clinker.
To reach these temperatures, flame temperatures of about 2000°C are necessary.
Also, for reasons of clinker quality, excess air is required in the sintering zone tomaintain oxidizing conditions. Otherwise, if insufficient oxygen is present,
tetracalcium alumino ferrite does not form; instead Fe 2O3 is reduced to FeO. This
leads to a clinker product that produces a quick setting cement with decreased final
strength. Additionally, the presence of unburned carbon in the burning region
produces a clinker with an undesirable brown colour. (U.S. EPA, 2004)18.

The composition of the clinker, as well as the names and formulas of the clinker
components are listed in Table 1E.

19.

To complete the production of Portland cement, the cooled clinker is ground with asmall amount of gypsum or anhydrite. Figure 1 Figure 2 in the main Guidelines
provides a process flow diagram of the general cement manufacturing process.
Table 1E - Typical mineralogical composition of ordinary Portland cementclinker
Chemical name (common
name)ChemicalformulaCommonnotation a/Concentration
range

Tricalcium silicate („alite‟)

Ca3SiO5

C3S

50-70%

41

Dicalcium silicate („belite‟)

Ca2SiO4

C2S

15-30%

Tricalcium aluminate(„aluminate‟)

Ca3Al2O6

C3A

5-10%

Tetracalcium aluminoferrite(„ferrite‟)

Ca4Al2Fe2O10

C4AF

5-15%

a/ Abbreviations: C=CaO; S=SiO2; A=Al2O3; F=Fe2O3
Source: Taylor (1997)

20.

Clinker can be made either in energy-intensive and small-scale vertical kilns or inmore efficient, larger scale rotary kilns. With the exception of vertical shaft kilns(VSK) still used in certain geographical areas (mainly China and India) (CPCB,
2007; Höhne and Ellermann, 2008), cement clinker is predominantly burnt in rotarykilns. For the manufacture of cement using rotary kilns, heating of the raw meal toproduce cement clinker can take place in one of four different types ofarrangements: the „dry‟, „semi-dry‟, „semi-wet‟, or „wet‟ processes (EIPPCB, 2010;
UNEP, 2007):
(a)
(b)

(c)

(d)

21.

Dry process: Dry raw meal is fed to a cyclone preheater or precalciner kiln or,
in some cases, to a long dry kiln with internal chain preheater.
Semi-dry process: Dry raw meal is pelletised with water and fed to a travelling
grate preheater prior to the rotary kiln or in some cases, to a long kilnequipped with internal cross preheaters.
Semi-wet process: Raw slurry is first dewatered in filter presses. The resulting
filter cake is either extruded into pellets and fed to a travelling grate preheateror fed directly to a filter cake drier for (dry) raw meal production prior to apreheater/precalciner kiln.
Wet process: The raw slurry is fed either directly to a long rotary kilnequipped with an internal drying/preheating system (conventional wet
process) or to slurry drier prior to a preheater/precalciner kiln (modern wet
process).

In China, approximately 60 % of the cement was produced in 2005 in VSKs, anamount that is expected to drop to 50 % by 2015 (Karstensen, 2006a). In Europe,
about 90 % of the cement production is from dry process kilns, a further 7.5 % ofproduction is accounted for by semi-dry and semi-wet process kilns, with theremainder of European production, about 2.5 per cent, coming from wet processkilns (EIPPCB, 2010). In the United States, no new wet kilns have been built since1975, and approximately 80 % of U.S. cement production capacity now relies on
the dry process technology (U.S. E P A, 2007). The wet process remains dominant
in the former Soviet Union and Australia/New Zealand and is still significant in
Canada, India, Latin America and Africa (Watson et al., 2005). Table 1F provides
the share mix of kiln technologies in each region or country in 2002.

42

Table 1F - Share of different kiln types in 2002
Regions, Countries
North America

Kiln Type (% Production)
Dry

Semi-Dry

Wet

VerticalUnited States

65

2

33

0

Canada

71

6

23

0

58

23

13

6

Western Europe
EasternEuropeFormer Soviet Union

12

3

78

7

Other Eastern Europe

54

7

39

0

Asia

Japan

100

0

0

0

Australia and New Zealand

24

3

72

0

China

5

0

2

93

South East Asia

80

9

10

1

Republic of Korea

93

0

7

0

India

50

9

25

16

Latin America

67

9

23

1

Africa

66

9

24

0

Middle East

82

3

16

0

Source: Baron et al. (2007)

22.

Although VSKs are improvements over the old, chimney-type kilns in that some
VSKs allow for continuous processing, they are considered to be less energy
efficient than the rotary kilns, and VSK clinker (and hence cement) is generally
considered to be of lower quality (van Oss, 2005). Furthermore, many VSKs plants
have virtually no environmental controls in place, and the nature of the technology
precludes effective use of modern dust (and other emission) controls. Comparedwith preheater/precalciner kilns, VSKs seems to consume from 14 to 105 % morecoal per tonne of clinker; fuel substitution is however not feasible for vertical shaft
kilns (Karstensen, 2006a). The raw materials used for cement production in VSKs
are exactly the same as in any other production process; corrective materials may
also be required to adjust the chemical composition of the raw mix.

43

ANNEX 2
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAM IN THE
IMPLEMENTATION OF CO-PROCESSING IN CEMENT PLANT

44

ANNEX 2 – QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAM IN THE
IMPLEMENTATION OF CO-PROCESSING IN CEMENT PLANT
1.

A comprehensive programme for quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC)
should be applied. The aim is to ensure that the product meets standard
specifications, plant operations are not negatively affected by the use of hazardous
wastes, environmental protection and to reduce health and safety risks. QA is
necessary for ensuring that all data and the decisions resulting from that data aretechnically sound, statistically valid, and properly documented.

2.

A QA plan should be prepared to help ensure that the monitoring, sampling, andanalytical data meet specific objectives for precision, accuracy, and completenessand to provide the framework for evaluating data quality. The plan should coverwaste streams and product materials handled at the facility with detailed
instructions for the following:(a) Organization and responsibilities;(b) QA objectives for data measurement of precision, accuracy, completeness,representativeness, and comparability;(c) Sampling procedures;(d) Sample handling and custody;(e) Analytical procedures;(f) QC checks (blanks, spikes, replicates, etc.) and frequency;(g) Instrument/equipment testing, inspection, or maintenance;(h) Instrument/equipment calibration procedures and frequency;(i) Data review, verification, validation, and reporting.

3.

Adequate laboratory design, infrastructure, equipment, and instrumentation should
be provided and maintained to ensure that all required analysis are completed in atimely manner. Periodic tests of the laboratory should be considered to evaluate
and improve performance.

4.

Safety and health should be taken into consideration when conducting sampling.
Employees carrying out sampling require training for the hazards associated with
waste, handling procedures, protective clothing and equipment. Those involved insampling activities should be fully aware of applicable QA/QC procedures.

5.

BAT for waste quality control in cement manufacturing processes is outlined by the
EIPPCB (2010):(a) To apply QA systems to guarantee the characteristics of wastes and to analyse
any waste that is to be used as raw material and/or fuel in a cement kiln for:maintenance of quality over time; physical criteria, for example, emissions
formation, coarseness, reactivity, burnability, calorific value; chemical criteria,
for example, chlorine, sulphur, alkali and phosphate content and relevant metals
content;(b) To control the amount of relevant parameters for any waste that is to be used as
raw material and/or fuel in a cement kiln, such as chlorine, relevant metals (forexample, cadmium, mercury, thallium), sulphur, total halogen content;
45

(c) To apply QA systems for each waste load.
6.

Internal audits should be carried out with a frequency that ensures QA/QC
procedures are in use and that personnel conform to them. Independent third party
audits should be conducted at least annually or as required to determine theeffectiveness of the implemented quality system. Audit reports should be submitted
to management with requirements to correct observed deficiencies.

46

ANNEX 3
HEALTH AND SAFETY ASPECTS

47

ANNEX 3 – HEALTH AND SAFETY ASPECTS
1.

Health and safety should be a conscious priority and integrated into all aspects ofoperations during hazardous waste management. Overall and specific personnel
requirements, the chain of command, and individual roles and responsibilities,
should be clearly established.

2.

A health and safety programme should be designed to identify, evaluate, andcontrol safety and health hazards, and provide for emergency response forhazardous waste operations. The content and extent of this programme should be
proportionate to the types and degrees of hazards and risks associated withspecific operations.

3.

Adequate documentation and information on safe hazardous waste handling,
operating procedures and contingency measures should be available. Throughopenness and transparency, facility management should ensure the workforce isfully informed about health and safety measures and standards. Easily understoodsafety and emergency instructions should be provided to employees andcontractors in advance.

4.

In the EU, the BAT includes the appliance of hazardous waste safety management
to the handling, storage, and the feeding of hazardous waste materials. For
example, using a risk based approach according to the source and type of waste,
for the labelling, checking, sampling and testing of waste to be handled. (EIPPCB,
2010)
Hazard analysis

5.

Hazards and potential exposures should be determined and appropriate controls
should be in place to maintain employee health and safety. Hazards requiring theuse of personal protective equipment (PPE) should be identified. Assessments
such as job hazard analysis (JHA), job safety analysis (JSA), safety analysis
reports (SAR), process hazard analysis (PHA), and job, task, and hazard analysis(JTHA), are recommended.
Access and hazard control

6.

To eliminate or control worker exposure to hazards, the following should beconsidered in order of preference:(a) Engineering controls to preclude worker exposure by removing or isolating thehazard. For example, ventilation or use of remotely operated material handlingequipment;(b) Administrative controls to manage worker access to hazards and establish safe
working procedures. For example, security measures to prevent unauthorized or
unprotected access to hazardous wastes on-site;(c) PPE, when engineering or administrative controls are not feasible or do nottotally eliminate the hazard.

48

7.

These controls are designed to reduce and maintain employee exposure below
national occupational exposure limit values. If these are not available,internationally recognized exposure levels should be considered.

8.

Examples include: the Threshold Limit Value (TLV) occupational exposure
guidelines by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists(ACGIH); the Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards by the United States National
Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH); Permissible Exposure Limits(PELs) by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United States(OSHA); Indicative Occupational Exposure Limit Values (IOELVs) by European
Union member states, or other similar sources.

9.

For hazardous substances and health hazards for which there are no permissible
or applicable exposure limits, the operators could use the published literature andmaterial safety data sheets (MSDS) as a guide to determine an appropriate level ofprotection.
Personal protective equipment

10.

Employees, contractors and visitors to an installation should be provided with PPE
where engineering control methods are not feasible to reduce exposure topermissible exposure limits. PPE should be selected to protect against any present
or potential hazard and appropriate to the task-specific conditions and duration.

11.

All personnel involved in hazardous waste operations should be fully aware of:equipment selection and use, maintenance and storage, decontamination anddisposal, training and proper fit, donning and doffing procedures, inspection, in-use
monitoring, programme evaluation, and equipment limitations.
Training

12.

Employees should be effectively trained to a level determined by their job function
and responsibility. This should be carried out prior to them being permitted toengaging in hazardous waste operations that could expose them to hazardous
substances, safety, or health hazards. Training activities should be adequately
monitored and documented in terms of curriculum, duration, and participants.

13.

The training should cover safety, health and other hazards present on the facility;
use of personal protective equipment; work practices to minimize risks fromhazards; safe use of engineering controls and equipment on the site; medical
surveillance, including recognition of symptoms and signs that could indicate over
exposure to hazards. Those engaged in hazardous emergency response should
also be appropriately trained.

Medical surveillance
14.

A medical monitoring programme should be implemented to assess and monitor
employee health both prior and during employment. An effective programme should
consider the following components as a minimum:49

(a) Pre-employment screening, to determine fitness-for-duty, including the ability towork while wearing PPE, and provide baseline data for future exposures;(b) Periodic medical monitoring examinations (the content and frequency of which
depend on the nature of the work and exposure), to determine biological trends
that may mark early signs of chronic adverse health effects;(c) Provisions for emergency and acute non-emergency treatments.
Emergency response
15.

Emergency plans and procedures should be established for the protection of theworkforce and public before hazardous waste operations begin. An Emergency
Response Plan, ensuring appropriate measures to handle possible on-site
emergencies and coordinate off-site response, should be in place. As a minimum,
this plan should address the following:(a) Pre-emergency planning and coordination with outside emergency responders;(b) Personnel roles, lines of authority, training and communication procedures;(c) Emergency recognition and prevention procedures;(d) Safe distances and places of refuge;(e) Site security and control procedures;(f) Evacuation routes and procedures;(g) Site mapping highlighting hazardous areas, site terrain, site accessibility andoff-site populations or environments at potential risk;(h) Decontamination procedures;(i) Emergency medical treatment and first aid procedures;(j) Personal protective and emergency equipment at the facility;(k) Emergency alerting and response procedures;(l) Documenting and reporting to local authorities;(m)Critique of response and follow-up procedures.

16.

Emergency equipment, such as fire extinguishers, self-contained breathingapparatus, sorbents and spill kits, and shower/eye wash stations should be locatedin the immediate vicinity of hazardous waste storage and processing areas.

17.

The Plan procedures should be rehearsed regularly using drills and mocksituations, and reviewed periodically in response to new or changing conditions orinformation.

18.

Arrangements should be made to familiarize local authorities and emergency
responders with the layout of the facility; properties of hazardous waste handled at
the facility and associated hazards; places where facility personnel would normally
be working; facility entrances and possible evacuation routes. Arrangements
agreed to by local authorities, hospitals and emergency response teams should be
described in the Emergency Response Plan.

50

ANNEX 4
COMMUNICATIONS ANDSTAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT

51

ANNEX 4 – COMMUNICATIONS AND STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT
1.

Stakeholders are those who see themselves as potentially affected by theoperations of a facility. These can be individuals and groups on a local, national, orinternational scale and include neighbours, community organizations, employees,
trade unions, government agencies, the media, non-governmental organizations,contractors, suppliers and investors.

2.

Public communication is the providing of information through media sources,
including brochures, websites, newspapers, radio and television. Stakeholder
involvement is concerned with community members and others with an interest in
the facility, through public meetings, presentations, advisory committees, andpersonal approaches. Both should form part of the normal operations of a plant.

3.

Facilities should have clear objectives for working with stakeholders. This includes
a realistic timescale for engagement, committing necessary resources and awillingness to find mutually beneficial outcomes.

4.

Operators and regulatory authorities should be prepared to address publicconcerns over possible impacts of co-processing and strive to establish efficient
communication methods to explain the activities. Operators planning on using
hazardous waste should provide all necessary information to allow stakeholders tounderstand the use of the wastes in the cement kiln while illustrating the measuresthat would be implemented to avoid adverse impacts.

52

ANNEX 5
GENERAL RECOMMENDATION ON
WASTE ACCEPTANCE AND PREPROCESSING OF HAZARDOUS
WASTE FOR CO-PROCESSING

53

ANNEX 5 – GENERAL RECOMMENDATION ON WASTE ACCEPTANCE
AND PRE-PROCESSING OF HAZARDOUS WASTE FOR COPROCESSINGWASTE ACCEPTANCE
1.

Prior knowledge of wastes is necessary to ensure that the waste falls within therequirements of the facility‟s permit and will not adversely affect the process.
Generators of hazardous waste should in most circumstances know thecomposition, nature and problems associated with their waste, ensuring that all
relevant information is passed to those involved in its subsequent management.

2.

Hazardous and non hazardous waste acceptance comprises two stages: preacceptance (or screening) and on-site acceptance. Pre-acceptance involves theprovision of information and representative samples of the waste to allow
operators to determine suitability before arrangements are in place for acceptance.
The second stage concerns procedures when the waste arrives at the facility toconfirm previously approved characteristics.

3.

Failure to adequately screen waste samples prior to acceptance and aconfirmation of its composition on arrival at the installation may lead to subsequent
problems. Inappropriate storage, mixing of incompatible substances, andaccumulation of wastes could occur.

Pre-acceptance4.

A pre-acceptance, or pre-shipment screening, protocol should ensure that only
properly and safely handled hazardous waste streams are approved for shipment
to the facility. Such protocol is necessary to:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Ensure regulatory compliance by screening out unsuitable wastes;
Confirm the details relating to composition, and identify verification
parameters that can be used to test waste arriving at the facility;
Identify any substances within the waste that may affect its processing, orreact with other reagents;
Accurately define the range of hazards exhibited by the waste.

5.

The operator should obtain information on the nature of the process producing thewaste, including its variability. Other required descriptions include: composition(chemicals present and individual concentrations); handling requirements andassociated hazards; the quantity and the form of waste (solid, liquid, sludge etc);
sample storage and preservation techniques. Ideally, information should be
provided by the waste generators . Alternatively a system for the verification of theinformation provided by any intermediaries should be considered.

6.

Systems for the provision and analysis of waste representative samples should bein place. The waste sample should be taken by a competent technician and theanalysis carried out by a laboratory, preferably accredited with robust QA/QC
methods and record keeping and a chain-of-custody procedure should be54considered. The operator should carry out a comprehensive characterisation(profiling) and testing with regard to the planned processing for each new waste.
No waste should be accepted without sampling and testing being carried out. The
exception is unused, outdated or off-specification uncontaminated products thathave appropriate MSDS or product data sheets.
7.

A Waste Analysis Plan (WAP) should be prepared and maintained to document
procedures used to obtain a representative waste sample and to conduct a
detailed chemical and physical analysis. A WAP should address measures used to
identify potentially reactive and incompatible wastes. It should include testing of arepresentative sample to qualify the waste for use at the facility (pre-acceptance)
and to verify its constituents (acceptance). Further testing of samples taken during
or after waste pre-processing or blending should be used to verify the quality of
the resultant stream.

8.

Operators should ensure that the technical appraisal is carried out by qualified,experienced staff who understands the capabilities of the facility.

9.

Records of pre-acceptance should be maintained at the facility for crossreferencing and verification at the waste acceptance stage. Information should berecorded and referenced, available at all times, regularly reviewed and kept up todate with any changes to the waste stream.

On-site acceptance10.

On-site verification and testing should confirm waste characteristics with the preacceptance information. Acceptance procedures should address:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

Pre-approved wastes arriving on-site, such as a pre-booking system
to ensure that sufficient capacity is available
Traffic control;
Check for documents arriving with the load;
Load inspection, sampling and testing;
Rejection of wastes and the discrepancy reporting procedures;
Record keeping;
Periodic review of pre-acceptance information.

11.

Wastes should not be accepted without detailed written information identifying thesource, composition and hazard levels.

12.

Where facilities provide an emergency service such as the removal of spillages or
fly-tipped hazardous wastes, there may be situations where the operator is unable
to adhere to established pre-acceptance and/or acceptance procedures. In such
instances, the operator should communicate the occurrence to the competentauthorities immediately.

Arrival13.

If sufficient storage capacity exists and the site is adequately manned, suitably
qualified and trained personnel should supervise the receiving of hazardous
wastes. All wastes received should be treated as unknown and hazardous until
compliance with specifications has been positively verified.
55

14.

A suitable description should accompany hazardous waste delivery including:name and address of the generator; name and address of the transporter; waste
classification and description; volume and weight; and hazardous characteristics of
the waste.

15.

Documentation accompanying the shipment should be reviewed and approved,
including the hazardous waste manifest, if applicable. Any discrepancies should
be resolved before the waste is accepted. If they cannot be resolved, the waste
should be rejected and sent back to the original generator, or at its request, to analternate facility.

16.

Where possible, waste loads should be visually inspected. All containers should beclearly labelled in accordance with applicable regulations for the transport ofdangerous goods and checked to confirm quantities against accompanying
documentation. They should be equipped with well-fitting lids, caps and valvessecure and in place and inspected for leaks, holes, and rust. Any damaged,
corroded or unlabelled container or drum should be classified as „non-conforming‟and dealt with appropriately.

17.

All incoming loads should be weighed, unless alternative reliable volumetricsystems linked to specific gravity data are available.

Inspection
18.

Wastes should only be accepted at the facility after thorough inspection. Reliancesolely on supplied written information should not be acceptable. Physicalverification and analytical confirmation should be undertaken to ensure the waste
meets permit specifications and regulatory requirements. All wastes, whether forprocessing or storage, should be sampled and undergo verification and testing,according to the frequency and protocol defined in the WAP, except for unused,
outdated, off-specification or uncontaminated products.

19.

On-site verification and testing should take place to confirm:(a) The identity and description of the waste;(b) Consistency with pre-acceptance information;(c) Compliance with the facility permit.

20.

Techniques for inspection vary from simple visual assessment to full chemical
analysis. The extent of the procedures adopted will depend upon waste chemicaland physical composition and variation; known difficulties with certain waste types
or of a certain origin; specific sensitivities of the installation concerned (forexample, certain substances known to cause operational difficulties); and theexistence or absence of a quality controlled specification for the waste, among
others. (Karstensen, 2008a)

21.

The facility should have a designated sampling or reception area wherecontainerised waste is unloaded if adequate space is available and temporarily
stored for further sampling and sample analysis. Wastes should be segregated
immediately to remove possible hazards due to incompatibility. Sampling should
ideally take place within 24 hours of unloading. During this period, hazardous
56

wastes should not be bulked, blended or otherwise mixed. Bulk wastes should be
inspected and accepted for processing prior to unloading.
22.

Sampling should comply with specific national legislation, where it exists, or withinternational standards. Sampling should be supervised by laboratory staff and in
those countries where regulations do not exist, qualified staff should be appointed.
Sampling should include well-established procedures such as those developed by
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the European Committee
for Standardization (CEN), and the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). A record of the sampling regime for each load and justification forthe selected option should be maintained.

23.

Samples should be analysed by a laboratory with a robust QA/QC programme,
including but not limited to suitable record keeping and independent assessments.
Analysis should be carried out at a timescale required by facility procedures. In thecase of hazardous wastes this often requires the laboratory to be on-site.

24.

Typically, waste should be sampled and analysed for a few key chemical andphysical parameters (fingerprint analysis) to substantiate the waste composition
designated on the accompanying manifest or other documents. The selection of
key parameters must be based on sufficient waste profile knowledge and testingdata to ensure accurate representation. When selecting fingerprint parameters,
consideration should be given to those that: identify unpermitted wastes;
determine suitability within the facility‟s operational acceptance limits; identify
potential reactivity or incompatibility; indicate any changes in composition that had
occurred during transportation or storage. Should fingerprint testing results of agiven waste stream fall outside the established tolerance limits, the waste may be
re-evaluated for possible acceptance to prevent the unnecessary movement ofwaste back and forth between the generator and the installation. Re-evaluation
should consider facility conditions for storage and processing; additionalparameter analysis deemed appropriate by the operator and established in the
WAP; permit requirements.

25. The inspection scheme may include: assessment of combustion parameters;
blending tests on liquid wastes prior to storage; control of flashpoint; andscreening of waste input for elemental composition, for example by ICP, XRF
and/or other appropriate techniques, in accordance to waste types andcharacteristics, and the facility waste acceptance criteria. (Karstensen, 2008a)
26.

Wastes should be moved to the storage area only after acceptance. Should theinspection or analysis indicate a failure to meet the acceptance criteria, including
damaged or unlabelled drums, such loads should be stored in a quarantine area,
allocated for non-conforming waste storage, and dealt with appropriately.

27.

All areas where hazardous waste is handled should have an impervious surface
with a sealed drainage system. Attention should be given to ensuring that
incompatible substances do not come into contact resulting from spills fromsampling, for example, within a sump serving the sampling point. Absorbents
should be available.

57

28.

In accordance with national legislation and practice, suitable provisions should bemade to verify that wastes received are not radioactive, such as the use of plastic
scintillation detectors.

29.

After acceptance, containerised hazardous waste should be labelled with thearrival date and primary hazard class. Where containers are bulked, the earliest
arrival date of the bulked wastes should be indicated on the bulk container. Eachcontainer should be given a unique reference number for in-plant tracking.

Non-conforming waste
30.

The operator should have clear and unambiguous criteria for the rejection ofwastes, including wastes that fail to meet the acceptance criteria, and damaged,
corroded or unlabelled drums. A written procedure for tracking and reporting suchnon-conformance should include notification to the customer or waste generator
and competent authorities.

31.

The operator should also have a clear and unambiguous policy for the subsequentstorage, including a maximum storage volume, and disposal of rejected wastes.
This policy should achieve the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)

32.

Identify the hazards posed by the rejected wastes;
Label rejected wastes with all information necessary to allow proper storage
and segregation arrangements to be put in place;
Segregate and store rejected wastes safely pending removal within no
more than five working days, where possible.

Wastes not fulfilling the acceptance criteria of the plant should be sent back to thewaste generator, unless an agreement is reached with the generator to ship therejected waste to an alternative authorised destination.

In-plant tracking system
33.

An internal wastes tracking system and stock control procedure should be inplace, starting at the pre-acceptance stage, to guarantee the traceability of waste
processing and enabling the operator to:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

34.

Prepare the most appropriate waste blend;
Prevent unwanted or unexpected reactions;
Ensure that the emissions are either prevented or reduced;
Manage wastes throughput.

The tracking system, which may be a paper-based, electronic, or a combination ofboth), should trace the waste during its acceptance, storage, processing andremoval off-site. At any time, the operator should be able to identify the location ofa specific waste on the facility and the length of time it has been there. Records
should be held in an area removed from hazardous activities to ensure theiraccessibility during any emergency.

58

35.

Once a waste has entered bulk storage or a treatment process, tracking individual
wastes will not be feasible. However, records should be maintained to ensuresufficient knowledge is available as to what wastes have entered a particularstorage facility. For example, to avoid incompatibility with incoming wastes, it isnecessary to keep track of residues building up within a vessel between desludging operations.

36.

For bulk liquid wastes stock control should involve maintaining a record of theroute through the process. Waste in drums should be individually labelled torecord the location and duration of storage.

37.

The in-plant waste tracking system should hold a complete record generated
during pre-acceptance, acceptance, storage, processing and removal off-site.
Records should be kept up to date to reflect deliveries, on-site treatment anddispatches. The tracking system should operate as a waste inventory, stock
control system and include as a minimum:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

38.

A unique reference number;
Details of the waste generator and intermediate holders;Date of arrival on-site;
Pre-acceptance and acceptance analysis results;
Container type and size;
Nature and quantity of wastes held on-site, including identification of
associated hazards;
Details on where the waste is physically located;
Identification of staff who have taken any decisions on acceptance orrejection of wastes.

The system adopted should be structured to report on:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

Total quantity of waste present on-site at any one time, in appropriate units;
Breakdown of waste quantities being stored pending on-site processing;
Breakdown of waste quantities on-site for storage only, that is, awaitingtransfer;
Breakdown of waste quantities by hazard classification;
Indication of where the waste is located relative to a site plan;
Comparison of the quantity on-site against total permitted;
Comparison of time the waste has been on-site against permitted limit.

WASTE STORAGE AND HANDLING
39.

After deciding the waste‟s suitability, the operator should have systems andprocedures in place for transfer to appropriate storage safely.

40.

Considerations for waste storage on the installation should include:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Location of storage areas;
Storage area infrastructure;
Condition of tanks, drums, vessels and other containers;
Stock control;59

(e) Segregated storage;(f) Site security;(g) Fire risk.
Design considerations
41.

Transfer and storage areas should be designed to handle accidental spills. This
may require that:
(a)

(b)
(c)
(d)

(e)
(f)
(g)

(h)

To prevent spills from spreading or seeping into the soil, storage areas
should have adequate boundaries and be adequately sealed, impermeable
and resistant to the stored waste materials;
All spills should be collected, placed in a suitable container, and stored for
disposal in the kiln;
If a spill occurs, incompatible wastes should be prevented from mixing;
All connections between tanks should be capable of being closed by valves.
Overflow pipes should be directed to a contained drainage system such as
a bounded area or another vessel;
Leak free equipment and fittings should be installed whenever possible;
Measures to detect leaks and appropriate corrective action should be
provided;Contaminated runoff should be prevented from entering storm drains andwatercourses. Any runoff should be collected and stored for disposal in thekiln;Adequate alarms for abnormal conditions should be provided.

42.

Storage design should be appropriate to maintain waste quality for the complete
storage period. Segregated storage should be in place to prevent incidents fromincompatible wastes and as a means of preventing escalation should an incident
occur. Individual storage requirements on a particular installation will bedependent on a full assessment of risk.

43.

Within the facility, specific storage area characteristics should reflect the propertiesof the waste that poses the greatest risk that can be accepted. In general, thestorage criteria should also take into account the unknown nature and compositionof wastes, as this gives rise to additional risks and uncertainties. In many cases,
this uncertainty means that higher specification storage systems are applied for
wastes than for well-characterised raw materials.

44.

Containerised wastes should be stored under cover, protected from heat, direct
sunlight and rain, unless the waste is known to be unaffected by such ambientconditions.

45.

For containerised wastes, the design should be such to prevent accumulation of
hazardous wastes beyond the allowable storage timescale. For liquid wastes,
mixing or agitation to prevent settling of solids should be considered. It may benecessary to homogenise tank contents with mechanical or hydraulic agitators.
Depending on the waste characteristics, some tanks may need to be heated andinsulated.

46.

The construction, material selection and design of equipment, such as tanks,
pipelines, valves, and seals should be appropriate for the characteristics of the60waste. They should be sufficiently corrosion proof, and offer the option of cleaningand sampling.
47.

Adequate ventilation should be provided in consideration to applicable work
exposure guidelines. Periodic monitoring should be considered for open stored
wastes that may emit VOC.

48.

A fire protection system approved by local authorities, for example, a local fire
department, should be in place. Automatic fire detection systems should be usedin waste storage areas as well as for fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators(ESP), electrical and control rooms, and other identified risk areas. Continuous,
automatic temperature measurement of the surface of wastes in the storage pits
can be used to trigger an acoustic alarm to indicate temperature variations.

49.

Automatic fire suppression systems should be used when storing flammable liquid
waste and in other risk areas. Foam and carbon dioxide control systems provide
advantages in some circumstances, for example, for the storage of flammableliquids. Water systems with monitors, water cannons with the option to use wateror foam, and dry powder systems are commonly used.

Operational considerations
50.

Written procedures and instructions for the unloading, handling, and storage of
wastes on-site should be in place. It should be ensured that chemically
incompatible wastes are segregated. Compliance should be audited regularly.

51.

To avoid the need for additional handling and transfer hazardous wastes should be
stored in the same containers (drums) that were used for delivery.

52.

Designated routes for vehicles carrying specific hazardous wastes should beclearly identified within the facility. On-site transportation should minimize risk to
the health and safety of employees, the public and the environment. The operator
should ensure that vehicles are fit for purpose with respect to compliance with
relevant regulations.

53.

All loads should be properly identified, segregated according to compatibility (sothat any potential spills do not create chemical safety hazards), and secured toprevent sliding or shifting during transport. Personnel should be directed andtrained to use equipment only as intended, and not to exceed the rated capacity ofcontainers, vehicles, and other equipment.

54.

Appropriate signage indicating the nature of hazardous wastes should be in placeat storage, stockpiling, and tank locations.

55.

Containers should be kept in good condition, free of dents, not leaking or bulging,and closed not in use. Container storage areas should have at least a weekly
inspection.

56.

Maintenance work should be authorized by plant management, and carried out
after the area has been checked by a supervisor and all necessary precautions
have been taken. Special procedures, instructions, and training should be in place
for routine operations such as:
61

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

57.

Working at heights, including proper tie-off practices and use of safety
harnesses;
Confined space entry where air quality, explosive mixtures, dust, or otherhazards may be present;
Electrical lock-out, to prevent accidental reactivation of electrical equipment
undergoing maintenance;„Hot works‟ (welding, cutting, etc.) in areas that may contain flammablematerials.

Safety measures that should be considered include:
(a)
(b)
(c)

(d)
(e)

(f)

Placing of uncontrolled combustible materials in storage areas should be
avoided;Where there is a risk that has not been avoided or controlled, standard
safety signs and information signs should be in place;
Emergency showers and eye wash stations should be provided within thework area for immediate emergency use following exposure to hazardous
wastes. Consideration should be given to the possible need for multiple
emergency shower installations, based upon access distance, and thepossibility that more than one person may be affected at the same time;
Adequate alarms should be provided to alert all personnel about emergency
situations;
On site communication equipment should be maintained so that in case of afire, the control room and the local fire department can be contacted
immediately;
Electrical equipment should be earthed and have appropriate anti-static
devices in place.

WASTE PRE-PROCESSING
58.

So as not to detract from normal kiln operation, product quality, or the site‟s usualenvironmental performance, wastes used in cement kilns should be homogenous,
with compatible particle size, stable chemical composition and heat content. For
optimum operation, kilns require very uniform waste material flows in terms of
quality and quantity. For certain types of wastes, this can only be achieved by preprocessing.

59.

Pre-processing includes drying, shredding, grinding or mixing depending on thetype of waste. It is usually carried out in a purpose-made facility, which may belocated outside or inside the cement plant.

60.

Liquid waste fuels are normally prepared by blending different products withsuitable calorific values and chemistry, such as spent solvents or used oil. Only
simple pre-treatment is usually necessary, such as the removal of bottoms,
sediments and water. In some cases, for example machining oil/emulsion,
chemical processes are necessary to remove metallic pollutants and additives.
The extent of solid waste processing, such as sorting, crushing, or pelletizing,
depends on the specific application.

62

Design considerations
61.

Facility layout should be carefully considered to ensure access for day-to-day
operations, emergency escape routes, and maintainability of the plant andequipment.

62.

Recognized standards should be applied to the design of installations andequipment. Any modifications should be documented.

63.

Health and safety assessments should be undertaken on operations to ensure
equipment safety and to minimize risks of endangering people or installations, or
damaging the environment. Appropriate procedures should be used to assess
risks or hazards for each stage of the design process. Only competent andqualified personnel should undertake or oversee such hazard and operating
studies.

Operational considerations
64.

Although mixing and homogenisation of wastes can improve feeding andcombustion behaviour, it can involve risks and should be carried out according to aprescribed preparation.

65. Techniques used for waste pre-processing and mixing are wide ranging, and may
include:
(a)
(b)
(c)

Mixing and homogenising of liquid wastes to meet input requirements, forexample, viscosity, composition and/or heat content;
Shredding, crushing, and shearing of packaged wastes and bulky
combustible wastes;
Mixing of wastes in a storage pit or similar enclosure using a grab or othermachine.

66. Crane operators should be capable of identifying potentially problematic loads, forexample, baled wastes and discrete items that cannot be mixed or may cause
loading and feeding problems. These can then be removed, shredded or directly
blended (as appropriate) with other wastes.
67. General tidiness and cleanliness should be applied to enhance working
environment and to allow potential operational problems to be identified inadvance. The main elements are:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Systems to identify, locate and store wastes received according to theirrisks;The prevention of dust emissions from operating equipment;
Effective wastewater management;
Effective preventive maintenance.

63

PRE-PROCESSING PLANT CLOSURE/DECOMMISSIONING
68.

Closure is the period directly after the facility stops normal operations. During thisperiod the facility stops accepting hazardous waste; completes storage andprocessing of any wastes left on site; and disposes or decontaminates equipment,
structures, and soils, restoring the site, insofar as possible, to its original condition
or in keeping with the intended land use. Planning for decommissioning of the
facility should be undertaken during the initial stages of the overall project. By
integrating decommissioning requirements into the facility design at the outset, thesite development plan should be compatible with the proper closure requirements
when the operation of the facility has ended.

69.

Operators should be required to properly close the facility in a manner thatminimizes the further need for maintenance, and prevents the escape of any
hazardous contaminants to the environment. To ensure this, a closure plan should
be prepared identifying the steps necessary to partially or completely close thefacility, including:
(a)
(b)
(c)

(d)
(e)

Procedures for handling removed inventory;
Procedures for decontamination and/or disposal;
Procedures to confirm effectiveness of decontamination, demolition andexcavation, including procedures for performing sample collection andanalysis;
Health and safety plan addressing all health and safety concerns pertinent
to closure activities;
Security system to prevent unauthorized access to the areas affected byclosure activities.

70.

To prevent a facility from ceasing operations and failing to provide for the
potentially costly closure requirements, operators should be required todemonstrate that they have the financial resources to properly conduct closure in amanner that protects both human health and the environment.

71.

To minimise decommissioning problems and associated environmental impacts, it
is recommended for existing installations, where potential problems are identified,
to put in place a programme of design improvements (EIPPCB, 2006). Thesedesign improvements should ensure that underground tanks and piping are
avoided. If replacement is not possible operators should provide secondary
containment or develop a suitable monitoring programme. A procedure for thedraining and cleaning out of vessels and piping prior to dismantlement, among
others, should also be provided.

OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
Volatile organic compounds, odours and dust
72.

Emissions to air from waste pre-processing will depend on the types of wastes
treated and the processes used. Emission monitoring and reporting should be
performed according to operating permits and applicable regulations.
6473. Abatement techniques should be in place as required and countermeasures fornoise and odours considered. Dust is usually reduced by bag filters while VOC
emission control technologies, if needed, may include carbon adsorption, thermalor biological treatments, among others.
74. In the EU, BAT is to apply the following techniques to prevent or control theemissions of dust, odours and VOC in the waste treatment sector as a whole:
restrict the use of open topped tanks, vessels and pits; use an enclosed systemwith extraction to suitable abatement plant; apply a suitably sized extraction
system; correctly operate and maintain the abatement equipment; have leakdetection and repair procedures in place; and reduce air emissions by using asuitable combination of preventive and/or abatement techniques (EIPPCB, 2006).
Drums and ferrous metals
75.

Empty drums and ferrous metals removed by magnetic separators should be
disposed of in an environmentally sound manner. Scrap metal not contaminatedby chemicals or scheduled wastes can be recycled for steelmaking. Empty waste
drums contaminated by chemicals or scheduled wastes in good condition can besent to authorised/licenced drum washers/recyclers.

Wastewater
76. Discharges of wastewater to surface water should not result in contaminantconcentrations in excess of local ambient water quality criteria, or in their absence,other recognized ambient water quality criteria. Receiving water use andassimilative capacity, taking other sources of discharges to the receiving water into
consideration, should also influence the acceptable pollution loadings and effluent
discharge quality.
77. Discharges into public or private wastewater treatment systems should meet the
pre-treatment and monitoring requirements of that sewer treatment system. It
should not interfere, directly or indirectly, with the operation and maintenance ofthe collection and treatment systems, or pose a risk to worker health and safety, or
adversely impact characteristics of residuals from wastewater treatment
operations.
78. In the EU, BAT is to apply the following techniques to wastewater management in
the waste treatment sector as a whole: reduce the water use and thecontamination of water; avoid the effluent by-passing the treatment plant systems;
collect spillages, drum washings, etc.; segregate the water collecting systems;
have a concrete base in all the treatment areas; maximise the reuse of treatedwastewaters; conduct daily checks on the effluent management system; carry out
the appropriate treatment technique for each type of wastewater; achieveadequate water emission values before discharge by applying a suitablecombination of techniques (EIPPCB, 2006).

65

EMISSIONS MONITORING AND REPORTING
79.

Emissions and air quality monitoring programmes provide information that can beused to assess the effectiveness of relevant management strategies. A systematicplanning process is recommended to ensure that data collected are adequate forthe intended purposes and to avoid collecting data that are unnecessary. A
monitoring programme for air quality should consider baseline monitoring toassess background levels of key pollutants both at and in the vicinity of the facility.

80. When wastewater is discharged, a monitoring programme, with adequate
resources and management overview, for wastewater and water quality should be
developed and implemented to meet set monitoring objectives.
81.

The parameters selected for monitoring should be indicative of the pollutants ofconcern from the process, and should include parameters that are regulated undercompliance requirements. Monitoring programmes should apply national orinternational methods for sample collection and analysis, such as those publishedby the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), CEN or the UnitedStates EPA. Sampling should be carried out or supervised by trained individuals.
Those permitted or certified for this role should conduct the analysis. Sampling
and analysis QA/QC plans should be applied and documented to ensure that data
quality is adequate for the intended data use. Monitoring reports should include
QA/QC documentation.

66

ANNEX 6
GENERAL RECOMMENDATION ON
CO-PROCESSING OF HAZARDOUS
WASTE

67

ANNEX 6 – GENERAL RECOMMENDATION ON CO-PROCESSING OF
HAZARDOUS WASTE
OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
1.

Safe and responsible co-processing requires careful selection of the feed points inthe kiln system as well as comprehensive operational control relating to the specificcharacteristics and volumes of the waste material.
Feed point selection2.

Adequate feed points should be selected according to relevant characteristics of
the waste, including physical, chemical, and toxicological (see Figure 6A). Different
feed points can be used, most commonly waste is introduced via:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

The main burner at the rotary kiln outlet end;
A feed chute at the transition chamber at the rotary kiln inlet end (for lumpfuel);
Secondary burners to the riser duct;
Precalciner burners to the precalciner;
A feed chute to the precalciner (for lump fuel);
A mid kiln valve in the case of long wet and dry kilns (for lump fuel).

3.

Liquid wastes are typically injected into the hot end of the kiln. Solid wastes may beintroduced into the calcining zone at some facilities. This is mid-kiln for long kilns,
and onto the feed shelf in the high-temperature section for preheater/precalciner
kilns.

4.

Solid wastes used as alternative raw materials are typically fed into the kiln system
via the normal raw meal supply, the same as traditional raw materials. However
materials containing components that can be volatilised at low temperatures (forexample, solvents) should be fed into the high temperature zones of the kiln
system. Wastes containing volatile organic and inorganic components should not
be fed via the normal raw meal supply unless controlled test runs in the kiln, or
adequate laboratory tests, have demonstrated that undesired stack emissions can
be avoided.

5.

Combustible toxic compounds found in some hazardous waste, such as
halogenated organic substances, need to be completely destroyed through proper
temperature and residence time. In preheater/precalciner kilns, hazardous waste
should generally be fed through either the main or the secondary burners.
Hazardous and other wastes fed through the main burner, where conditions will
always be favourable, decompose under oxidising conditions at a flame
temperature of >1800°C (see Figure 6B). Waste fed to a secondary burner,
preheater or precalciner will be exposed to lower temperatures, though expectedburning zone temperatures in the precalciner are typically >1000°C (UNEP, 2007).
The kiln should be operated in such a way that the gas resulting from the process israised, after the last injection of combustion air, in a controlled and homogeneous
fashion and even under the most unfavourable conditions, to a temperature of 850°C for two seconds (cf. Directive 2000/76/EC). In the case of hazardous wastes
68with a content of more than 1 per cent halogenated organic substances (expressed
as chlorine), the temperature should be raised to 1100°C for at least two seconds.

Figure 6A - Typical waste feed points

69

Figure B - Temperatures and residence times during cement manufacture
Characteristics
Temperature atmain burner of the rotary kiln
Residence timeat main burner

Temperature at
precalciner Residence timeat precalciner
6.

Temperature andtime>1450°C (material)>1800°C (flame
temperature)>12-15 seconds >1200°C>5-6 seconds >1800°C> 850°C (material)>1000°C (flame
temperature)> 2-6 seconds >800°C

For hazardous waste feeding into the kiln, the following should be conducted(EIPPCB, 2010):
(a)
(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)
(f)

To use the appropriate feed points to the kiln in terms of temperature andresidence time depending on kiln design and kiln operation;
To feed waste materials containing organic components that can bevolatilised before the calcining zone into the adequately high temperaturezones of the kiln system;
To operate in such a way that the gas resulting from the process is raised, ina controlled and homogeneous fashion and even under the mostunfavourable conditions, to a temperature of 850 °C for 2 seconds;
To raise the temperature to 1100 °C, if hazardous waste with a content of
more than 1 per cent of halogenated organic substances, expressed as
chlorine, is fed into the kiln;
To feed wastes continuously and constantly;
To stop feeding waste when appropriate temperatures and residence times
are not maintained or cannot be reached (at start-ups or shutdowns for
instance), and whenever any emission limit value is exceeded.

Kiln operation control
7.

To avoid operating problems within the kiln, the impact of hazardous waste on the
total input of circulating volatile elements, such as chlorine, sulphur or alkalis,requires careful assessment prior to acceptance. Specific acceptance criteria forthese components should be set by each facility based on the process type and on
the specific kiln conditions.

8.

The general principles of good operational control of the kiln system using
conventional fuels and raw materials should also be applied to the use of waste. In
particular, all relevant process parameters should be measured, recorded, andevaluated continuously. Kiln operators should undergo appropriate training for therequirements related to the use of hazardous waste, including health, safety, andenvironmental emission aspects.
70

9.

For operational disruptions of the kiln, written work instructions describing thestrategy to disconnect the hazardous waste feed to ensure minimum operational
stability conditions should be available and known to the kiln operators.

10.

The mineral content of the waste may affect the characteristics of the clinker. The
raw mix composition should be adjusted accordingly to adhere to the given
chemical set points. Input limits for chlorine, sulphur, and alkalis should be defined,
and operational set points should be strictly observed. Bypass installations to avoid
enrichment cycles of these compounds should only be considered if appropriate
solutions for the management of the bypass dust generated have been identified.

11.

It is important for combustion and process stability, for the purpose of controllingemissions of unintentionally formed POPs, to ensure (UNEP, 2007):
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Consistency in fuel characteristics (both alternative and fossil);
Consistency in fuel supply rate or frequency of introduction of batch-charged
materials;
That adequate excess oxygen is supplied to achieve good combustion;
That concentrations of CO in exhaust gases are monitored and do not exceed
pre-established levels reflecting poor combustion conditions.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
Air emissions
12.

Whether or not wastes are being used in a cement plant, dust (particulatematter),NOx and SO2 emissions cause the greatest concern and needs to be dealt
with. Other emissions to be considered are VOC, PCDDs, PCDFs, HCl, CO, CO2,
HF, ammonia (NH3), benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons (PAH), heavy metals and their compounds (EIPPCB, 2010). Under
some circumstances, emissions may also include chlorobenzenes and PCBs (SBC,2007).

13.

Control technologies should be implemented by the cement plant to ensurecompliance to the emission limit as outlined in these guidelines.
Cement kiln and bypass dust

14.

All cement plants generate a fine dust from the kiln line, collectively labelled cementkiln dust (CKD). CKD composition varies, even over time from a single kiln line, but
includes particulates representing the raw mix at various stages of burning,particles of clinker, and even particles eroded from the refractory brick and/or
monolithic linings of the kiln tube and associated apparatus (Van Oss, 2005). Dustis also discarded from alkali bypass systems, installed to avoid excessive build-up
of alkali, chloride and/or sulphur, however bypass dust, as opposed to CKD,
consists of fully calcined kiln feed material.

15.

In the EU, the BAT conclusion for process waste, in the cement manufacturingsector in general, is to re-use collected particulate matter in the process, wherever71

practicable, or to utilise these dusts in other commercial products, when possible.
(EIPPCB, 2010).
16.

To avoid disposal, most CKD and bypass dust is recycled directly back to thecement kiln or cement clinker grinder. In clinker manufacture, CKD partially offsets
the need for raw materials such as limestone and natural rock constituents, thus
avoiding the energy usage and emissions related to their extraction andprocessing. Periodically some dust may need to be removed from the system due
to increasing concentrations of alkali, chloride and sulphur compounds that may
compromise the quality of the clinker. Dust that cannot be recycled back into theprocess is removed from the system and often collected onsite in piles.

17.

Where appropriate CKD not returned to the production process may be recoveredin various types of commercial applications, including agricultural soil
enhancement, base stabilizing for pavements, wastewater treatment, waste
remediation, low-strength backfill and municipal landfill cover (U.S. EPA, 2010).
These applications depend primarily on the chemical and physical characteristics of
the CKD.

18.

The major factors determining CKD characteristics are the raw feed material, typeof kiln operation, dust collection systems, and fuel type. Since the properties of
CKD can be significantly affected by the design, operation, and materials used in a
cement kiln, the chemical and physical characteristics of CKD must be evaluatedon an individual plant basis. (U.S. EPA, 2010) Until the degree of variability in the
CKD has been established, frequent testing is recommended.

19.

Depending upon the level of contaminants of concern (for example, heavy metals,POPs), this waste can in some cases be hazardous waste for which special
handling and disposal measures apply (UNEP, 2007). A study by Karstensen(2006b) reports an average concentration of 6.7 ng I-TEQ/kg for PCDDs/PCDFs in
CKD and a maximum concentration of 96 ng I-TEQ/kg. The same study shows thatwastes from the cement industry have PCDD/PCDF levels in the same magnitude
as foods such as fish, butter, breast milk, and less than the maximum permissible
concentration of 100 ng TEQ/kg for sewage sludge applied to agricultural land.

20.

To ensure the protection of public health and the environment and to prevent
groundwater contamination, bypass dust or CKD, discarded from facilities that use
hazardous wastes as supplementary fuels or raw materials, should be analyzed formetal and organic leachate quality parameters if they are to be disposed of on land.
The analysis should be conducted during controlled test runs in addition to ongoing
testing that may be required by local regulatory authorities. Releases of dust to the
air should also be controlled.
Emissions to water21.

In general, wastewater discharges are usually limited to surface run-off and coolingwater only and cause no substantial contribution to water pollution (EIPPCB, 2010).
Nevertheless, in the European Union the use of wet scrubbers is a BAT to reduce
the emissions of SOx from the flue-gases of kiln firing and/or
preheating/precalcining processes (EIPPCB, 2010). As such, the generation andmanagement of wastewater shall subject to the requirements under Environmental
72

Quality (Effluent) Regulations 2009, so as to limit the transfer of pollutants from the
air into water.
End-product control
22.

Final products such as clinker and cement are subject to regular control procedures
required by the usual quality specifications as laid down in applicable national orinternational quality standards.

23.

As a principle, co-processing should not alter the quality of the cement being
produced. This means that the clinker, cement or concrete produced should not be
used as a sink for heavy metals. There should be no negative impact on theenvironment as might be demonstrated with leaching tests on concrete or mortar,for example. The quality of cement should also allow end-of-life recovery.

24.

Organic pollutants in the materials fed to the high temperature zone of the kiln
system are completely destroyed, while the inorganic components are incorporated
into the end product. Accordingly, the use of wastes in the clinker burning process
may change the metal concentrations in cement products, and depending on the
total input via the raw materials and fuels, the concentration of individual elementsin the product may increase or decrease as a result of waste co-processing(EIPPCB, 2010). However, lengthy investigations have shown that the effect ofwaste on the heavy metals content of clinker is marginal on a statistical basis, theone exception being the bulk use of tires which will raise zinc levels (GTZ, 2006).

25.

As cement is blended with aggregates to form concrete or mortar, it is the
behaviour of the metals within these building materials that is important for theevaluation of relevant environmental impacts of waste used in the production
process. Studies have shown that metal emissions from concrete and mortar are
low, and comprehensive tests have confirmed that metals are firmly incorporated in
the cement brick matrix. In addition, dry-packed concrete offers high diffusion
resistance, which further counteracts the release of metals. Tests on concrete andmortar have shown that the metal concentrations in the eluates are noticeably
below those prescribed, for instance, by national legislation. Moreover, storage
under different and partly extreme conditions has not led to any environmentally
relevant releases, which also holds true when the sample material is crushed prior
to the leaching tests. (EIPPCB, 2010).

26.

In regard to the above, the main results of leaching studies done to assess theenvironmental impacts of heavy metals embedded in concrete are as follows (GTZ,2006):(a)

The leached amounts of all trace elements from monolithic concrete (service
life and recycling) are below or close to the detection limits of the mostsensitive analytical methods;(b)

No significant differences in leaching behaviour of trace elements have been
observed between different types of cements produced with or without
alternative fuels and raw materials;

73

27.

(c)

The leaching behaviour of concrete made with different cement types issimilar;(d)

Leached concentrations of some elements such as chromium, aluminium andbarium may, under certain test conditions, come close to limits given in
drinking water standards; hexavalent chromium in cement is water-soluble
and may be leached from concrete at a level higher than other metals, sochromium inputs to cement and concrete should be as limited as possible;(e)

Laboratory tests and field studies have demonstrated that applicable limit
values, for example, groundwater or drinking water specifications, are notexceeded as long as the concrete structure remains intact. For example, inprimary or service life applications;(f)Certain metals such as arsenic, chromium, vanadium, antimony, or
molybdenum may have a more mobile leaching behaviour, especially whenthe mortar or concrete structure is crushed or comminuted (for example, inrecycling stages such as use as aggregates in road foundations, or in end-oflife scenarios such as landfilling);(g)

As there are no simple and consistent relations between the leached amountsof trace elements and their total concentrations in concrete or in cement, thetrace element content of cements cannot be used as environmental criteria.

Assessments of the environmental quality of cement and concrete are typically
based on the leaching characteristics of heavy metals to water and soil. Various
exposure scenarios need to be considered (GTZ, 2006):(a)Exposure of concrete structures in direct contact with groundwater („primary‟applications);(b)

Exposure of mortar or concrete to drinking water in distribution (concrete
pipes) or storage systems (concrete tanks) („service life‟ applications);(c)

Reuse of demolished and recycled concrete debris in new aggregates, road
constructions, dam fillings etc. („secondary‟ or „recycling‟ applications);(d)

Dumping of demolished concrete debris in landfills („end-of-life‟ applications).

28.

Careful selection and monitoring of the waste ensure that the use of wastes does
not result in metal emissions of any environmentally harmful magnitude (EIPPCB,
2010). However, in cases where the concentration of heavy metals exceeds thenormal range found in cements made without alternative fuels and/or materials,
leaching tests on mortar and/or concrete should be conducted (GTZ, 2006).

29.

For “real-life” concrete and mortar exposure scenarios, different leaching tests andassessment procedures should be applied. Although standardized test procedures
exist for waste management regulations and drinking water standards, there
remains a need for harmonized and standardized compliance test procedures
based on the exposure scenarios outlined above. It is recommended that a certified
independent testing laboratory perform these at least annually.
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MONITORING
30.

Emission monitoring should be conducted to allow authorities to check compliancewith the conditions in operating permits and regulations, and to help operators
manage and control the process, thus preventing emissions from being released
into the atmosphere. It is the responsibility of the competent authority to establish
and set appropriate quality requirements, and to consider a range of safeguards.
For the purpose of compliance assessment use of the following is considered goodpractice (EIPPCB, 2003):
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Standard methods of measurement;
Certified instruments;
Certification of personnel;
Accredited laboratories.

31.

For self-monitoring activities the use of recognised quality management systems
and periodic check by an external accredited laboratory instead of formal own
accreditation can be appropriate (EIPPCB, 2003).

32.

More useful information regarding monitoring principles can be found in theEuropean Commission‟s Reference Document on the General Principles ofMonitoring (EIPPCB, 2003).
Process monitoring

33.

To control kiln processes, continuous measurements are recommended for thefollowing parameters (UNEP, 2007; EIPPCB, 2010):
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

34.

Pressure;
Temperature;
O2;
NOx;
CO;
SO2 , when the SOx concentration is high (it is a developing technique to
optimise CO with NOx and SO2).

In the EU, the BAT conclusion for the cement manufacturing sector as a whole is tocarry out monitoring and measurements of process parameters and emissions on aregular basis, such as (EIPPCB, 2010):
(a)

(b)

Continuous measurements of process parameters demonstrating process
stability, such as temperature, O2, pressure, exhaust gas flow rate, and of
NH3 emissions when using selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR);
Monitoring and stabilising critical process parameters, for example,
homogenous raw material mix and fuel feed, regular dosage and excess O 2.

Emissions monitoring35.

To accurately quantify the emissions, continuous measurements is BAT for thefollowing parameters (UNEP, 2007):
75

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

Exhaust gas flow rate;
Moisture (humidity);
Temperature;
Dust (particulate matter);
O2;
NOx;
SO2;
CO.

36.

Continuous measurement of TOC is also recommended. The operator should
assure proper calibration, maintenance, and operation of the continuous emission
monitoring systems (CEMS). A quality assurance programme should beestablished to evaluate and monitor CEMS performance on a continual basis.

37.

Periodical monitoring at a minimum once per year is appropriate for the following
substances:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

38.

Metals (Hg, Cd, Tl, As, Sb, Pb, Cr, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, V) and their compounds;
HCl;
HF;
NH3;
PCDDs/PCDFs.

The BAT according to EIPPCB (2010) is to carry out monitoring and measurements
of process parameters and emissions on a regular basis, such as:
(a)
(b)
(c)

Continuous measurements of dust, NOx, SOx and CO emissions;
Periodic measurements of PCDDs/PCDFs and metals emissions;Continuous or periodic measurements of HCl, HF and TOC emissions.

39.

It is also possible to measure and monitor NH3 and Hg continuously, and to sample
PCCDs/PCDFs and PCBs continuously for analysis from 1 to 30 days (EIPPCB,
2010).

40.

Performance tests should be conducted to demonstrate compliance with theemission limits and performance specifications for continuous monitoring systems,
when the kiln is operating under normal conditions.

41.

Measurements of the following may be required under special operating conditions(UNEP, 2007; EIPPCB, 2010):
(a)
(b)
(c)

42.

Benzene, toluene and xylene (BTX);
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs);
Other organic pollutants (for example, chlorobenzenes, PCBs including
coplanar congeners, chloronaphthalenes, etc).

In case of hazardous waste disposal in cement kilns for the purpose of destruction
and irreversible transformation of the POPs content in waste, the DRE should bedetermined (UNEP, 2007) and it is referred to the Updated General Technical
Guidelines for the Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of,76

Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) (SBC,2007).
Environmental monitoring
43.

Justifiable concerns about the environmental impact from the plant may require theimplementation of an ambient air-monitoring programme. This should assess levelsof key pollutants identified as a priority for environmental control. The arrangements
should include control and downwind locations, including the area of maximum
ground level deposition from stack emissions. A meteorological station should be
provided for the duration of the ambient sampling exercise in a location free fromsignificant interference from buildings or other structures.
Reporting requirements

44.

Reporting of monitoring results involves summarising and presenting results,
related information and compliance findings in an effective way. Good practice isbased on consideration of: the requirements and audiences for reports,
responsibilities for producing reports, the categories of reports, scope of reports,
good reporting practices, legal aspects of reporting and quality considerations(EIPPCB, 2003)

45.

Monitoring reports can be classified as follows (EIPPCB, 2003):

46.

(a)

Local or basic reports, which are usually prepared by operators (for example,
as part of their self-monitoring) and, where appropriate, should meet any
permit requirements. These reports may concern, for example, an individual
installation, an occurrence, which covers a short period and needs to bereported promptly, or local audiences;(b)

National or strategic reports, which will generally be prepared by thecompetent authorities. These are usually summary reports and they typicallyconcern, for example, several installations, longer periods in order to show
trends, or national audiences;(c)Specialised reports, which are reports on relatively complex or novel
techniques that are occasionally used to supplement more routine monitoring
methods (for example, telemetry, neural networks, or deposition surveys).

Good practices in the reporting of monitoring information include (EIPPCB, 2003):(a)Data collection, which involves the acquisition of basic measurements andfacts. Considerations of the following items are good practice in datacollection: schedules (stating how, when, by whom and to whom the data areto be reported, and what types of data are acceptable); use of standard forms
for collecting data; data qualification details (used to record whether data
values are based on measurements, calculations or estimations);
uncertainties and limitations data (details of detection limits, numbers ofsamples available); operational context details (details of the prevailingprocess operations and/or environmental conditions).

77

47.

(b)

Data management, involving the organisation of data and its conversion into
information. Considerations of the following items are good practice in data
management: transfers and databases; data processing; software andstatistics; and archiving.

(c)Presentation of results, which involves the delivery of information to users in aclear and usable form. Considerations of the following items are goodpractice in the presentation of monitoring results, depending on the type ofreport: scope of the report (type of situation, timing requirements, location);programme of presentations; trends and comparisons; statistical significance(details on exceedences or changes that are significant when compared withthe uncertainties in measurements and process parameters); interim
performance (interim reports); strategic results (details on levels ofcompliance for different policies, activities, technologies, etc.); non-technicalsummaries (for the public); and distribution of reports.

In order for monitoring reports to be used in decision making processes they should
be readily available and accurate (to within stated uncertainties). Good practice inaccessibility and quality of the reports can be achieved by considering the following
items: quality objectives and checks; competence; contingency arrangements; signoff systems; retention of data; and falsification of data. (EIPPCB, 2003).

78

REFERENCES
1. Technical Guidelines On The Environmentally Sound Co-processing Of Hazardous
Wastes In Cement Kilns, UNEP, 11 November 2011.
2. Environmental Quality Act 1974 and all related Regulations, Orders and Rules underthe Act.
3. Malaysia Standard document MS EN 197-1.

79

DRAFTING COMMITEEGUIDELINES ON ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND CO-PROCESSING AND USE OFSCHEDULED WASTES IN CEMENT KILNS IN MALAYSIACHAIRMAN:DR ZULKIFLI ABDUL RAHMANDEPUTY DIRECTOR GENERAL OF DOE (OPERATION)
MEMBERS
MRS. NORHAZNI MAT SARITUAN HAJI ISMAIL ITHNIN
TUAN HAJI ROSLI BIN ZULMR MOHD SUHAIMI BIN AZMIMRS NOR HAYATI YAHAYAMS NORAZLINA AB HALIM
MR MOHD FAISAL ALIAS
MR MOHD SHAHRIN BIN MUDZARAP @MANSOR
With co-operation from
Celine Chong Lee Peng
Associated Pan Malaysia Cement Sdn Bhd (LAFARGE)
Vincent Ngoo Teck Swee
Associated Pan Malaysia Cement Sdn Bhd (LAFARGE)
Mrs Farhanah Ahmad Shah
Associated Pan Malaysia Cement Sdn Bhd (LAFARGE)
Mr Jafni Bahatin
Associated Pan Malaysia Cement Sdn Bhd (LAFARGE)
Mr Pavel Cech
Associated Pan Malaysia Cement Sdn Bhd (LAFARGE)
Mr Frederic Vallat
Associated Pan Malaysia Cement Sdn Bhd (LAFARGE)
Mr Mohamad Nasir Abdul Samad
Perak Hanjoong Simen Sdn Bhd
Mr Ahmad Syukri Mohd Ghazman
Hume Cement Sdn Bhd
Mr Chong Chiew Fang
Aalborg Portland Malaysia Sdn Bhd
Mr Gan Hock Seng
Slag Cement Sdn Bhd
Mr Hisham Mohmurad Amin
CMS Clinker Sdn Bhd

80

Mr Mohd Tahir Mali
Tasek Corporation Berhad
Mr Mohd Rafizam Razali
Negeri Sembilan Cement Industries Sdn Bhd (Perlis Plant)
Mr Mohd Fauzi Bin Ahmad
Negeri Sembilan Cement Industries Sdn Bhd (Negeri Sembilan Plant)
Mr Imran Bin Mohamad Daud
Negeri Sembilan Cement Industries Sdn Bhd (Negeri Sembilan Plant)
Mr Mohd Ghazali Yacob
Slag Cement Southern, Johor
Mr Saravanan A/L Dhanabal
Tasek Corporation Berhad
Mr Kartigesu A/L Govinda Raju
Holcim Sdn Bhd
MrsElaine Chiew
Cement & Concrete Association Of Malaysia
D.K Nagesrao
Hume Cement Sdn Bhd
George Decruz
Cement Industries Of Malaysia Berhad

SECRETARIATTN HJ. ROSLI BIN ZUL
MS. NORAZLINA AB HALIM
MR. MOHD. FAISAL ALIAS
MS. IJAN KHUSAIDA MOHD JAN
MR. NUR MIZHUARI HJ ABDUL SAMAT
MRS. ROSE ZARINAWATI MAT RAIS

81