SHIKOKU HENROA study of Japanese and western pilgrims
on the Shikoku Eighty-Eight Sacred Places Pilgrimage

A dissertation prepared in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the MA in Japanese Language and Society(by Distance Learning)

Fiona MacGregor
Faculty of Social Studies
School of East Asian Studies

The University of Sheffield
January 2002

Abstract

This is a comparative study of Japanese and western pilgrims who performed the
Shikoku Eighty-Eight Sacred Places Pilgrimage, on the island of Shikoku, in westernJapan. The data was collected in the field on a four-page, thirty-five point
questionnaire by two sociologists from Tokyo’s Waseda University in 1996, and on a
two-page, ten-point questionnaire by myself in 2000 and early 2001. The western
pilgrims were contacted by e-mail and asked the basic questions from my survey;
they responded during the summer of 2001. Some significant differences between theJapanese and western pilgrims were found, both in the age of the pilgrims, as well as
in the motives, attitudes, experiences and performance methods of both groups. This
thesis attempts to demonstrate that these differences are due to the different conceptsof pilgrimage in both cultures, as well as to the different attitudes to religion and theidea of the sacred in Japan and the west.

Contents

AcknowledgementsiIntroduction

1

Chapter One: The Shikoku Pilgrimage

6

Chapter Two: The Pilgrims

16

Chapter Three: Pilgrim Voices – Motives and impressions

23

Chapter Four: Performing the Pilgrimage – ‘Communitas’ and conflict

37

Conclusion

51

Bibliography

56

Acknowledgements
This thesis could not have come to fruition without a lot of help. First, I want to thankmy supervisor, Dr Timothy Fitzgerald, for forcing me to focus; for not letting me getaway with vague generalizations; and for returning my questions with others, thatmade me go deeper and think harder. I cannot say I always welcomed them at thetime, but I am grateful if they have made this a better piece of work. I also want tothank Professor Ian Reader, for responding to my questions, for encouragement, andfor all the research he has done on the Shikoku pilgrimage; I have referred to it
frequently in these pages.
In Tokushima, thanks to Kōno Nayoko, Kashiwagi Yukiko and Horiguchi
Masanobu who helped with the Japanese version of my questionnaire. To all the
anonymous Japanese pilgrims who graciously filled out surveys: hontō ni arigatō
gozaimasu. In Vancouver, Kondō Satomi helped me decipher and translate Japanese
handwriting, and helped with the Waseda free comments section, which would havetaken me years to translate by myself. David Moreton checked my translations, andgenerously shared his own research with me. Many thanks also to librarians at the
University of British Columbia, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver Public Libraryand my own Vancouver Community College, for help with inter-library loans.
Thanks also to Alison Churchill and Karen Gascoigne of the Distance Learning
Centre and to Gill Goddard, librarian, at the University of Sheffield.
Finally, I owe a tremendous debt of gratitude to the western henro whoparticipated so generously in this research, especially those who sent me their own
writings and additional comments: Peter Boudreau, Ger de Groot, Geert Drieghe,
Jesse Ehrenzweig, Bill Flick, Jeffrey Hackler, Elisabeth Kind, Dax Oliver, Zen Parry,
Marc Pearl, Gomyo Kevin Seperic, Susan Tennant, David Turkington (thanks also for
the web-site), Don Weiss and Ashley Wright. I hope I have not misrepresented them.
Of course, all the errors are my own.
Fiona MacGregor
Vancouver, January 2002i

Introduction

Pilgrimage is an almost universal phenomenon of ancient origin, found in Buddhism,
Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism, as well as ‘among peoples classed byanthropologists as “tribal”,’ (Turner and Turner, 1978:1). There are also secularpilgrimages, such as to Elvis Presley’s Graceland, or to European war graves (seeReader and Walter, 1993); and the word is often used as a metaphor for life itself.
This dissertation is a study of one pilgrimage in Japan, and the people who perform it.
As well as analyzing surveys of Japanese pilgrims, responses from a number ofwesterners involved in the research were also studied. This thesis will ask whether theconcept of pilgrimage is the same in Japan and the west. Through comparing andcontrasting the motives, impressions and performance methods of Japanese andwestern pilgrims, it will attempt to demonstrate that there is a significant difference in
the idea of pilgrimage in the two cultures, and consider the reasons for this.
The original idea for this thesis grew out of conversations at temples andminshuku (family-run accommodation) and on the road in the spring and autumn of
1999; I was working in Tokushima city and, during vacations and long weekends,
exploring the Shikoku Eighty-Eight Temples Pilgrimage route. I met several people
from Tokyo and Nagoya – a few devout Buddhists, but mostly professing no religion– who were coming to Shikoku every year to spend their brief holidays walking
sections of the pilgrimage. I became curious about the role of the pilgrimage intoday’s Japan, and decided to investigate the motives and methods of contemporary
pilgrims.
In 1996, Professors Osada Kōichi and Sakata Masaaki, of the Sociology
Department of Waseda University, undertook a major study, interviewing a total of
1,237 pilgrims. While I was aware of this, I was unable to obtain a copy of theirreport before I had to leave Japan. (I later found we had asked identical questions, but
their survey was much longer and more detailed). I conducted my own field researchin Kōchi prefecture from late March to early April 2000, as well as at Kōyasan andaround Tokushima city in February and March 2001. I interviewed a total of 161

1

pilgrims but, due to time constraints and other commitments, my 2001 research was
carried out on weekends and public holidays, when many people are just out for theday, so statements about distances and plans may not be strictly representative. It thus
began as a comparative study between Waseda’s respondents and my own, to see if I
could detect any significant differences over five years.1
After comparing my questionnaire results to Waseda’s, I went through the freecomments pilgrims had added to both surveys, and decided to focus on pilgrims’
individual experiences, as a response to Barbara Aziz’s plea for researchers to listen
to what pilgrims actually say. I then discovered a way to add another dimension tothis research: I contacted a number of non-Japanese people who had performed thepilgrimage who, by allowing their e-mail addresses to be listed on a web site, had
indicated a willingness to provide information to prospective pilgrims. Fifteen
responded and, although it was a statistically very small sample, I decided to compare
their comments with my existing respondents, to see how far their attitudes andexperiences reflected or differed from those of the Japanese pilgrims. As I exploredtheir responses a new theme emerged, which has become the final topic of theresearch, as indicated above. This somewhat convoluted gestation may haveinfluenced the structure of the final product.
Current research and literature
Pilgrimage studies involve a number of disciplines, including theology, sociology,
anthropology, history and geography. The ideas of academics from different
backgrounds often conflict: historians study details of individual pilgrimages overtime and resist the generalizing approach of anthropologists who, in their turn, may
deny the notion of sacred space described by geographers. (See Coleman and Elsner,
1995: 196-208). Some anthropologists see pilgrimage entirely in terms of conflict, asin the title of Eade and Sallnow’s work, Contesting the Sacred: The anthropology of1

With regard to research methods, it can be argued that surveys are not really random; participants
self-select by deciding to fill out the form. As a naturally shy person, I sometimes had to force myself
to talk to strangers, and to time my approach so as not to intrude on their private worship wassometimes difficult. The most interesting-looking prospects often refused to comply. There were someI could not bring myself to ask, such as the girl who struggled out of her wheelchair and dragged
herself up the steps to the Daishidō at Temple 8, or the sad-faced pilgrim sitting begging beside thehenro michi near Temple 24.

2Christian pilgrimage. Compared to the multiplicity of studies of Christian pilgrimage,the literature in English on pilgrimage in Japan is relatively sparse, perhaps because it
does not conform to the theory that ‘sacred travel outside one’s home culture is . . . a
defining characteristic of the way pilgrimage has developed in the world religions.’(Coleman and Elsner, 1995: 206).
The most well-known book in English on the Shikoku pilgrimage is Oliver
Statler’s Japanese Pilgrimage (1983), which combines fictional accounts of thehistorical origins with recollections of the author’s own experiences; while being an
excellent read, and the inspiration for many western pilgrims, it cannot be consideredan academic study. The two people who have published most frequently in English
on the Shikoku pilgrimage over a number of years are Ian Reader, a scholar of
Religious Studies who works primarily on Japan, and Hiroshi Tanaka Shimazaki, acultural geographer. In the past few years, more scholars have begun to study
Japanese pilgrimage, and the Fall 1997 special issue of the Japanese Journal of
Religious Studies contained articles by several younger writers, some still graduate
students, such as Nathalie Kouamé. Since reading Japanese is still a very slow
process for me, I have not been able to access Maeda Takashi’s Junrei no shakaigaku(1971) or works by Kondō Yoshihiro. However, I have read Japanese articles by
Hoshino Eiki and Satō Hisamitsu, as well as a number of Hoshino’s works translated
into English.
The tradition of pilgrimage
Defined as ‘the journey to a distant sacred goal’ (Barber, 1991:1), pilgrimage inEurope and the Americas is usually linear; in Asia, however, it may also involve
circular motion: either circumambulating the sacred space – as at the sacred shrine of
the Ka’aba in Mecca, or in the Hindu practice of circumambulating stupas, temples orburial pyres; or the entire pilgrimage route may be a circle – as in the subject of thisstudy: the Eighty-Eight Sacred Places Pilgrimage on the island of Shikoku, Japan.
While varying across cultures and continents, there are aspects of pilgrimage
common to all the major religions. In mediaeval Europe the Catholic church
sometimes imposed pilgrimage as a penance, but generally – with the exception of3

the Islamic hajj to Mecca, which every Muslim is enjoined to perform once in his or
her lifetime – pilgrimage is a voluntary undertaking. Barber sees pilgrimage as ‘aphenomenon with its own culture, which crosses religious boundaries,’ and observes
that there is:a historical progression in all religions, from pilgrimage as the preserve of theinfluential or exceptionally determined . . . to pilgrimage as a mass movement,
generated and sustained by the needs of the ordinary believer. (Barber, 1991:132)

Pilgrimage routes – like those that crossed Europe to Rome, Venice (and thence by
sea to Jerusalem), or over the Pyrenees to Santiago de Compostela – laid thefoundations for networks of trade and communications between nations. The firsttravellers were pilgrims, and the intermingling of peoples as they passed throughforeign lands, led to the introduction of new ideas and skills; while markets and inns
established to serve pilgrim traffic contributed to the development of urban centers.
Turner and Turner (1978) call pilgrimage a ‘liminoid phenomenon,’ similar torites of passage in tribal cultures, but in more complex societies usually ‘generated by
the voluntary activity of individuals during their free time.’ (Turner and Turner,
1978:231). Pilgrims step outside the structure of their everyday lives and enter asituation where conventional relationships and hierarchy are suspended or inverted.
They encounter communitas: ‘a liminal phenomenon which combines the qualities of
lowliness, sacredness, homogeneity, and comradeship,’ (Turner and Turner,
1978:250). Pilgrims frequently wear special clothing or carry certain objects that
identify their role and mark them as different from other travellers. The staff isprobably the most universal (and most practical) item and has a special significancein Shikoku. In many religions, giving to pilgrims is thought to earn merit for thedonor, and pilgrims may benefit from acts of kindness or hospitality from people
whose territory they pass through. On some pilgrimage routes, such as the camino toSantiago de Compostela in Spain, special refuges offer free accommodation towalking pilgrims. There are associations that provide information to prospective
pilgrims, and confraternities of former pilgrims. Some find the pilgrimage experience
addictive – perhaps due to its liminal quality – and return again and again.

4

Of course, pilgrimage is not the only liminoid phenomenon: tourism andpilgrimage have much in common. As Urry has pointed out, ‘in much tourism
everyday obligations are suspended or inverted’ (Urry, 1990:10), while Graburnexplains:
Because the touristic journey lies in the nonordinary sphere of existence, the goalis symbolically sacred and morally on a higher plane than the regards of theordinary workaday world. (Graburn, 1978:24).

In his analysis of Tokugawa era guide books to the Saikoku pilgrimage, Foard
reviews the elements of itinerary: ‘(1) the places to be visited, (2) the legends thatgave these places meaning, and (3) the behavior required at each place’ (Foard,
1982:242), compared to lists which, while also describing ‘places . . . narratives . . .
and. . . behavior associated with those places’ (p. 241) are options to be selectedaccording to the individual’s interest. When he arrives at the present, he concedes:
True, it is difficult to distinguish clearly tourism from pilgrimage, but one way
might be to say that tourism represents the triumph of list over itinerary . . .
Moreover . . . the explicitly cultural and historic elements come to the fore: animage of Kannon is now an example of late Tempyō sculpture. (Foard,
1982:248).

Pilgrimage has always included the profane as well as the sacred and some actions ofcontemporary pilgrims in many ways resemble those of tourists, such as bringing
back souvenirs. As Coleman and Elsner point out:
A pilgrimage is not just a journey; it also involves the confrontation of travellers
with rituals, holy objects and sacred architecture . . . One important aspect of theobjects of pilgrimage – relics, talismans and amulets – is that they help toreconstruct the sacred journey in the imagination. (Coleman and Elsner, 1995:6).

Pilgrimage destinations contribute to the economy in the same way as tourist
attractions, a fact which local authorities are well aware of, and eager to exploit.

5Chapter One: The Shikoku Pilgrimage

The English words ‘pilgrim’ and ‘pilgrimage’ have their roots in the Latin words‘peregrinus,’ meaning ‘foreigner’, or ‘stranger,’ and ‘peregre,’ abroad – from per,through, and ager, field. (Chambers 20th Century Dictionary, 1983:948, 971). The
implication therefore, is of a stranger passing through. In Japanese, however, there
are over a dozen terms referring to pilgrimage and visits to sacred sites, illustrating
the diversity, complexity, and prevalence of pilgrimage in Japan.
The first Japanese pilgrims were monks journeying to China to seek wisdomfrom the source of their faith (Buddhism having reached Japan in its Chinese, rather
than its original Indian manifestation). However, it is within Japan itself thatpilgrimage ‘has been a dominant religious activity since . . . the early Heian period’(Reader and Swanson, 1997:225), when retired emperors began making visits tosacred sites outside Kyōto; in the tenth and eleventh centuries this custom spread tothe aristocracy. In the Tokugawa era (1603–1868), due mainly to improvements inthe economic situation of farmers, pilgrimage changed from an activity of the elite toan enterprise of the masses. In the okage-mairi of 1705 – a large-scale pilgrimage to
the Grand Shrines of Ise – ‘as many as 3,620,000 individuals ultimately joined in,coming from as far away as Edo and Hiroshima.’ (Davis, 1992:49). People of allclasses came together – some left their work places without asking permission –swept along by rumors of amulets falling from the sky, and aided by ‘the largesse ofalmsgivers who supported indigent pilgrims.’ (Davis, 1992:48). While some haveseen these cyclical movements as signs of mass hysteria or rebellion, Davis argues
that, ‘far from aiming at insurrection, the okage-mairi and nuke-mairi – like the
Shinto festival – had as their purpose the magicoreligious restoration of productiveenergy.’ (Davis, 1992:77). Japanese pilgrimage can be seen, therefore, as fulfillingthe function of renewal.
Foard believes pilgrimage contributed to a ‘vision of national communitas’:
the bonds all Japanese feel with all other Japanese regardless of their place inJapanese social structure. These bonds . . . also come to the fore in those stages ofthe life and annual cycles that became in the Tokugawa fixed, nationwide rituals

6

in which all Japanese participated. Thus pilgrimage impressed on the pilgrim that
he belonged to a nation: he was Japanese and the Japanese tradition was his.
(Foard, 1982:247).

He sees this communitas also evident in modern high school trips, noting their
obvious ‘initiatory overtones’ as well as their ‘antistructural rambunctiousness’ andcomments:
These students are not, of course, being brought to revere Buddhas, bodhisattvas,
and kami, but to make the Japanese tradition their own. (Foard, 1982:248)

Thus, in contrast to the idea of foreigners passing through, for Japanese people,
pilgrimage can be an encounter with their own national history and identity.
Kitagawa has identified three types of pilgrimage in Japan:(1) the pilgrimage to the sacred mountain; (2) the pilgrimage to temples andshrines, based on faith in the divinities enshrined in those sanctuaries; and (3) the
pilgrimage to sacred places based on faith in certain charismatic holy men whoare believed to have hallowed those places by their visits. (Kitagawa, 1987:128).

The Shikoku Eighty-Eight Sacred Places Pilgrimage is the most famous of the third
type of pilgrimage. It is most frequently referred to as henro – a term specific to thispilgrimage – or meguri, which literally means ‘to go round,’ but ‘is most widely usedin cases where the sites on a pilgrimage route are not united by their dedication to asingle figure of worship,’ (Reader and Swanson, 1997:233). Other terms sometimes
used for this pilgrimage are junrei, reijō or junpai. (Reader and Swanson, 1997:237).
The centre of the island of Shikoku is mountainous, and the temples are locatedmostly around the perimeter, although some are at or near the summit of mountains.
The route is about 1,200 kilometres, if just the eighty-eight numbered temples are
visited, but there are also about twenty bangai, unnumbered temples, some of which
are considered obligatory by the more devout pilgrims. If all these are also visited, thedistance is about 1,500 kilometres, which would take about two months on foot (justthe eighty-eight can be walked in around six weeks). The numbering system isdesigned for travellers coming from the east. Temple 1 is located in Naruto city
(formerly Muya), the port at which pilgrims would have disembarked after taking aferry from Wakayama (the port closest to Kōyasan). The route is clockwise round theisland, but some pilgrims travel anti-clockwise (gyaku-uchi), which is consideredmore meritorious as the mountain paths are thought to be steeper (and the signs are7all designed for those travelling clockwise, so it is easier to get lost). In fact, because
is is a circle, there are no rules about where one begins and traditionally, pilgrims
began at whichever temple was nearest their home, or where their ferry docked. For
those unable to travel to Shikoku, there are replicas of the pilgrimage circuit, on amuch smaller scale, at many locations elsewhere in the country.
Kōbō Daishi: the central figure
Among the ‘charismatic holy men’ referred to by Kitagawa in his third category ofJapanese pilgrimage (1987:128), probably none is more famous than the monk Kūkai– better known by his posthumous title, Kōbō Daishi – literally ‘the great teacher who
spread the law [of Buddhism]’ (Reader, 1993a:113). Founder of the Shingon sect ofesoteric Buddhism, he is revered by Japanese of all faiths for his scholarly, artistic,
humanitarian and technological prowess, and has acquired an almost epic stature in
Japanese folklore. He was born into a prosperous family named Saeki in 774, near thepresent-day town of Zentsū-ji in what is now Kagawa prefecture. At the age offourteen, he was sent to the new capital at Nagaoka to study, first with his maternal
uncle, then (from 791) at the university, where training was directed towards entering
government service. This was a turbulent period in the capital (which was moved
again, to what is now Kyōto, in 794) and a scandal involving a Saeki relative cast
doubt on his future prospects. He had also developed an interest in Buddhism;
deciding to become a monk, he abandoned his studies and began a period of
wandering in the mountains, searching for the ultimate truth. Later, in his Sangōshiiki, he described this time, when he performed austerities – enduring cold, hunger
and thirst, while chanting the mantra of Kokuzō Bosatsu (Morning Star Meditation) a
million times – at several places in Shikoku: notably Mt. Tairyū (in present day
Tokushima prefecture, site of Temple 21) and Cape Muroto (southeast Kōchi
prefecture, site of Temple 24).
This may be the only written evidence positively linking him to temples of thepilgrimage which tens of thousands annually undertake in his name, yet he figures infoundation legends (engi) of almost half the temples on the circuit – he is reputed tohave carved many of the principal images – while others have stories of miraculous

8events that occurred when he visited. In fact, little is known about his life between
797 and 804, so he could have been in Shikoku during those years. In 804, at the ageof thirty-one, he was chosen to travel to China as a student monk. At Ch’ang An (now
Hsian), there was an Indian named Prajña (Eliot, 1969:236), with whom he studied
Sanskrit before meeting Hui-kuo, the patriarch of esoteric Buddhism, who‘recognised immediately that Kūkai was the person to succeed him.’ (Awa 88,
1993:16). He proved himself so adept that within three months he had mastered all
the secret knowledge passed on by the patriarch. When Hui-kuo died in 806, Kūkai
returned to Japan to begin his mission of introducing the new teachings to his
countrymen.
The rest of his life was spent mostly in Kyōto, where he became head priest ofTō-ji (making it the chief temple of the Shingon sect) and at Kōyasan, the monastic
centre he founded in the mountains south of Nara. He was active with administrative
duties, and wrote extensively on the principles of Shingon – the only sect to claim
one can achieve enlightenment in this lifetime. The quality of his calligraphy was
unsurpassed and, besides bringing Buddhist art from China, he is also reputed to haveproduced many paintings and sculptures himself. However, he was not only an artist:
he also organised the reconstruction of a reservoir (Mannō no Ike) in his homeprovince in 821, demonstrating a knowledge of engineering, and in 828, heestablished the first school to provide an education for common people (near Tō-ji).
The hiragana syllabic script has also been claimed as his invention.
He died at Kōyasan in 835, at the age of sixty-two. When his followers opened
the tomb, in 921, to put in the Emperor’s decree bestowing his posthumous title, theyreported that his knee was warm; from this came the belief that he is not dead, but
sitting in eternal meditation. This story increased his fame and led to the idea of ODaishi-sama descending from the mountains to become a perpetual wanderer, aiding
pilgrims, who might meet him on any road in Japan. (Reader, 1993a:114). A great
cemetery grew up around his mausoleum, Okunoin, since many people wanted to be
associated in death with such an illustrious figure. Pilgrims visit his tomb to pay theirrespects before and/or after completing the pilgrimage.

9

The origins of the Shikoku pilgrimage
Although one tradition claims Kūkai founded the pilgrimage in 815, this is highly
unlikely, since he would have been far too busy in the capital to have undertaken sucha long journey that year. The most well-known legend relating to its early history
concerns Emon Saburō, a rich and miserly man who refused to help a ragged monk
who came begging at his door. When all his children died on eight successive days,
he realised the monk must have been Kōbō Daishi and, giving away all his
possessions, he set off around the island to ask his forgiveness. He is supposed tohave gone round clockwise twenty times, then reversed direction in hopes of a betterchance of meeting the saint. He collapsed on a mountain path and as he lay dying,
Kōbō Daishi appeared and forgave him. Some claim Emon was the first pilgrim,
although his can be seen as a cautionary tale, warning people to be generous totravellers in need.
Other theories refer to priests travelling around the coast, or to wandering holy
men coming down from Kōyasan to visit places associated with Kōbō Daishi’s life.
Hoshino states that the pilgrimage ‘came into existence . . . during the Muromachi
period (fifteenth to sixteenth centuries).’ (Hoshino, 1997:276). Tanaka saw a
scribbled message from 1528 at Kokubun-ji (80) that mentioned five pilgrims
travelling together, indicating that group pilgrimages might have begun by then.
(Tanaka, 1975:48). Another idea is that the south coast of Shikoku ‘was consideredclose to Fudaraku Jōdo or the “Pure Land” which was believed to lie to the south
beyond the sea’ (Tanaka, 1975:218), making it a popular destination for pilgrimage.
The term henro is not used for any other pilgrimage; Tanaka suggests that ‘hen’
usually refers to going around, but the kanji can be translated as ‘fringe,’ so perhaps‘there is a direct relationship between the present pilgrimage and the early practice oftravelling around the fringe of the island.’ (Tanaka, 1975:219). Probably the exact
origins will never be known.
There is no agreement either about the number eighty-eight. Theories include:the number of worldly desires; the sum of the unlucky years (yakudoshi) for men(42), women (33) and children (13); or the kanji for eight, ten and eight superimposed10

making the kanji for rice (kome). It is not known when the sequential numbering wasestablished; a journal by Kōyasan priest Jakuhon, published in 1689, suggests that
Zentsū-ji (75), as Kōbō Daishi’s birthplace, should be visited first. However, thecurrent order is referred to as early as 1715. (Tanaka, 1975:202). The temples are
irregularly spaced around the island. At the two extremes: Temples 68 and 69 in Kanon-ji (Kagawa prefecture) share the same site, while Temples 37 and 38 in Kōchi
prefecture are almost eighty-seven kilometres apart – a three-day walk.
In the Tokugawa era, travel was strictly controlled by the authorities andpilgrims had to obtain passports from their local temple before setting out on theirjourney. The duration of the pilgrimage was also controlled; for example, ‘they had tocover the 400 kilometres of . . . [Tosa] province within thirty days’ and ‘it was strictly
forbidden to stop at the same locality for more than one night’ (Kouamé, 1997: 416).
It appears ‘that the pilgrimage sometimes provided a cover for fugitives. As a result
the pilgrimage itself came under suspicion,’ (LaFleur, 1979:273-4). However, thisrepression apparently increased its attraction, and groups formed to help pilgrims datefrom this time. LaFleur refers to Turner’s theory that:social relationships can operate on . . . two different modalities: the one
consisting of structure, order and hierarchy; and the other characterised by antistructure, lack of order and communitas. (LaFleur, 1979:274)

Despite the restrictions and regulations imposed by those concerned with keeping
order (structure), local people came forward to offer help and hospitality: ‘a perfect
expression of a situation in which not only hierarchical social relationships but also
usual economic procedures are in abeyance.’ (LaFleur, 1979:275).
Symbolism in the Shikoku pilgrimage
There are a number of aspects of the pilgrimage which are rich in symbolism –particularly its association with death. The clothing worn and items carried by apilgrim indicate that he or she is ‘dead to the world’ (Reader, 1993a:107); in fact, theword Shikoku (four provinces) when written with different kanji, can be read as ‘thecountry of death.’ The short white pilgrim’s robe (hakui or oizuru) represents ashroud (white being the colour of death in Japan), and is tied left over right, as for acorpse; the conical bamboo hat (kasa) is symbolic of a coffin, and the pilgrim staff

11

(kongōtsue) represents a grave stone. In the past, when pilgrims (particularly sick anddestitute ones) did die on the mountain paths, they were buried where they fell, withthe staff marking the spot. The staff also represents Kōbō Daishi; it must be treatedwith respect, and washed as soon as the pilgrim arrives at a lodging for the night. On
it are inscribed the words dogyō ninin, ‘two people one practice’ (Reader,
1993a:111), implying that the pilgrim walks always accompanied by the Daishi.
These kanji may also be seen on signs tied to trees on steep paths, to encourage andremind pilgrims that they are not alone. The staff must also be carried over bridges,
since legend says that one night, when no-one would give him lodging, Kōbō Daishi
had to pass a night under a bridge; it was so cold and uncomfortable that it felt liketen nights. (Tōyoga-hashi, Ten Night Bridge, in Ehime, is now the site of a bangai).
Thus the pilgrim must not tap the ground with the staff while crossing a bridge, since
the Daishi might be sleeping underneath.
Among other items carried, the osamefuda and the nōkyōchō have acquired
special significance. The former is a slip of paper on which the pilgrim writes his or
her name and address and any prayers or wishes. The colour of the paper differs
according to the number of times the pilgrim has completed the circuit: white for the
first six times, red for the seventh to twentieth, silver for the twenty first to fortyninth, and gold for fifty or more. One of these papers is deposited in a box in front ofboth the main hall and the Daishi hall at each temple. An osamefuda should be given
in return for gifts or acts of kindness – settai (see below). The recipient may collectthese, considering them a way of participating in the pilgrimage vicariously. They
were also considered to have great spiritual powers, and people sometimes hung themin their home, to ‘act as a protective amulet’ (Moreton, 2001:30). The nōkyōchō is abook with a page for each numbered temple, which the pilgrim presents at thenōkyōjo where, for a fee (currently 300 yen) the priest or a temple employee stamps
the temple seals then, with a brush, writes the names of the temple and its principal
image (honzon) in both Japanese and Sanskrit. Pilgrims may also carry a scroll(kakejiku) or hakui for the same purpose. The completed scroll will usually be placedin the tokonoma (alcove in the tatami room), while the hakui may be worn forcremation. Statler recalls his feelings of panic and failure when asked to visit a sick12

child. He was not aware that he should have waved his nōkyōchō over her since, by
containing the stamps and calligraphy of the temples, it is thought to have healing
power. (Statler, 1983:190-193.)
The word settai has a special meaning in Shikoku, signifying particular acts ofkindness towards henro (pilgrims). The practice of helping pilgrims was once
widespread, but has mostly died out on other pilgrimage routes. Perhaps Shikoku’s
remoteness and fewer commercial services contributed to its persistence, or maybe itis that faith in Kōbō Daishi, as a potential pilgrim in disguise, remains strong. The
number of folk tales with themes of punishment for cruelty to pilgrims, or conversely,
reward for treating them charitably, may also have been a factor: the idea of karma.
Nowadays the help is usually in the form of money, drinks or food (particularly
seasonal fruits); sometimes it takes the form of service, such as the offer of a ride, andthere are still a few zenkonyado – free lodgings for walking henro. Settai may havemade it possible for the large numbers of poor or sick people to undertake thepilgrimage – some of whom were lepers driven from their communities. Somebecame professional pilgrims, since they had no other place to go. Today there still
exist charity groups (settaikō) who travel to Shikoku every spring and hand out small
gifts to pilgrims.
Nowadays, with the majority of Japanese living in cities, the island of Shikoku
itself has acquired significance as kokoro no furusato – spiritual homeland – a slogan
used frequently in promotional material by bus companies involved in the pilgrimage.
The implication is that, although city dwellers, the Japanese really belong amidst
nature. Reader sees ‘a deeply nostalgic element in the continuing popularity ofpilgrimage in Japan’ (Reader, 1987b:291), particularly the wearing of white clothing.
It is a ‘search for spiritual roots’ (Reader, 1987b:292) in a highly industrialised
society. However it is a romanticised longing for the past: ‘one does not find pilgrims
returning to the actual form of the pilgrimage as it was in earlier times’ (Reader,
1987b:293) – in fact, the pilgrims who dress the most scrupulously in white from top
to toe are almost certain to be travelling by luxury air-conditioned bus or taxi andstaying in comfortable hotels.

13

Shimazaki has described the concept of ‘Shikoku as a Buddhist dōjō, or holy
place of learning and practicing.’ (Shimazaki, 1997:276). Each prefecture has its own
symbolism within the pilgrimage circuit. The modern prefectures, Tokushima, Kōchi,Ehime and Kagawa, were previously known as Awa, Tosa, Iyo and Sanuki.
Awa stands for hosshin (awakening the Buddha mind), Tosa for shugyō, (the practiceof the austerities required to attain awareness), Iyo for bodai (opening of
enlightenment) and Sanuki for nehan (full, absolute enlightenment). (Reader,
1996:271)

This idea may have contributed to, or grown out, of the practice of ikkoku-mairi,
pilgrimage to one prefecture. Those unable to travel the whole route in one trip can
perform one section at a time and gain spiritual merit, until all four prefectures havebeen visited and the pilgrimage is complete.
Performing the pilgrimage also used to symbolise a rite of passage, in local
pilgrimages primarily performed by Shikoku residents: for example, in Tokushima
prefecture, the local pilgrimage from Temple 1 to 17; up to the outbreak of WorldWar Two ‘it was the custom . . . for youths of both sexes to do . . [it] . . prior to
becoming eligible for marriage.’ (Reader, 1993a:123). Another local pilgrimage is tothe first ten temples; these all used to be visited by pilgrims in one day’s walk – adistance of almost thirty kilometres. (Awa 88, 1993:73). A third is between Temples
13 and 17, a distance of less than eight kilometres. Local pilgrimages in the otherprefectures are: in Kōchi, the temples surrounding Kōchi city, (28 to 34, or 28 to 36);
in Ehime, the eight temples (46 to 53) in Matsuyama city, and the five (54 to 58) inand around Imabari city; in Kagawa, Temples 71 to 77 in and around Kōbō Daishi’sbirthplace of Zents¨ji. (Shimazaki, 1997:280).
Pilgrimage seasonsHaru kara shoka no Shikoku ji wa, hachijū hachi ka sho reijō wo meguru sanya
ni suzu no oto ga wataru. (From spring to early summer, the mountains paths andplains of Shikoku echo to the sound of pilgrims’ bells). (Asahi Shinbun,
1990.2.3, quoted by Satō, 1990:30)

In the 1890s, Lafcadio Hearn wrote: ‘during that season when the growing rice needs
least attention hundreds of thousands of the poorest [farmers] go on pilgrimages.’(Hearn, 1927:156-7). The tradition of springtime pilgrimage continues today, with
April bringing the most pilgrims, followed by March then May. (Satō, 1990:42-3).

14

Autumn pilgrimage has also become popular recently – it is generally much drier
than, certainly making walking more pleasant – but the numbers are well below thespring months.2 This may be related to the Japanese love of cherry blossom time; awalking pilgrim I surveyed in March, on his way back to Ryōzen-ji (1), referred tothe crowds of bus pilgrims scornfully as ‘hana henro’ (flower pilgrims).
Performing the pilgrimage: past and present
From its origins until the outbreak of the Second World War, the pilgrimage wasalways performed on foot. Immediately after the war, there were very few pilgrims,
people being more concerned with matters of survival. Bus tours began in thenineteen-fifties, initiating an era of group travel in what, for those outside Shikoku,
had previously been primarily an individual practice. (Reader, 1987a:138). In thenineteen-sixties, with increasing car ownership due to the improved economy, people
began to travel by private car. Since 1998, there has even been the additional optionof performing the pilgrimage by helicopter – chanting sutras while hovering over thetemples (Seki, 1999:77). A minority still walk it in the traditional way – somesleeping outside.
More detailed information on contemporary travel methods will be found in
Chapter Four. Next, the profiles of the Japanese pilgrims surveyed by Waseda andmyself will be compared with those of the westerners who participated in thisresearch.

2

A table of average numbers of pilgrims over an eleven-year period shows 6,092 in April, 5,408 in
March and 5,270 in May. The other peak months are: October, 4,042; September, 3,871; andNovember, 2,805. Figures for other months were: June, 2,368; August, 2,067; July, 1,991; February,
1,356; December, 1,342; and January, 941. (Satō, 1990:42)

15

Chapter Two: The Pilgrims

Because of the variety of ways in which to participate, it is difficult to assess
accurately the number of people who annually undertake the Shikoku pilgrimage: thetemples optimistically suggest as many as 100,000; bus companies claim to carryaround 60,000 (Reader, 1993a:133); while statistics gathered at an Ehime temple in1988 (probably the most credible data, by avoiding duplications) reported 46,000 –and showed a steady annual increase from the 19,000 counted in 1978 (Satō,1990:34). This is probably because ‘better communications and greater economic
wealth have enabled people to travel more’ (Reader, 1987a:140). Japan’s economic
success has come at a price – both to the people whose lives have been consumed bywork, and to the environment that has become increasingly polluted. Thus therelatively unspoiled Shikoku countryside is one attraction: rural Japan, whilesometimes regarded as backward, is also viewed with nostalgia. With improved
travel, Reader explains:[I]t is now possible to leave a city-based lifestyle, don the pilgrims garb, do apilgrimage and, in so doing, feel both a return to spiritual roots and anaccompanying sense of renewal, but still be able to return to the aforementioned
city life in a matter of days. (Reader, 1987a:140).

Since the above figures were collected in 1988, numbers have risen more
dramatically with the ending of Shikoku’s physical isolation; however, I have notbeen able to access any reliable data. The first bridge (from Okayama to Kagawa
prefecture) was opened in 1989, with two more (connecting Tokushima to Hyōgo andEhime to Hiroshima prefectures) completed in 1998 and 1999 respectively. It is since1998 that the increase has been reported, probably because the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge
opened Shikoku to easy access from Osaka. These communication links haveprovided an important boost to the local economies, and Shikoku tourist authorities,
keen to capitalise on access to a wider market, issue brochures that prominently
display photos of white-clothed pilgrims in scenic surroundings, and list the
numbered temples in their areas. NHK (the national television network) regularly
runs programmes on the pilgrimage, which also help to promote interest.

16

Who goes on the pilgrimage?
This chapter will introduce some basic statistics about the pilgrims, their companions,and their religious or spiritual affiliations. Succeeding chapters will report on theirmotives and impressions, as well as the manner in which they perform the pilgrimage.
There will of necessity be some overlap between these; in fact, with my own research
I categorised the results according to the method of travel chosen. I found the most
homogeneity among bus pilgrims and the most diversity among walkers.
The first impression on encountering a group of pilgrims would be that there
are very few young people: three-quarters are over the age of fifty. Pilgrims on bus
tours tend to be older – mostly in their sixties and seventies – while those travellingby car are mostly in their fifties and sixties. Not surprisingly, walking pilgrims who
intend to complete the whole route at one time (tōshi-uchi) are younger than those
who plan to walk it in sections (kugiri-uchi), the former being mostly in their fifties(although I met one over seventy). There are about equal numbers of males andfemales, but twice as many women travel on tours in large-size buses as do men.
Waseda’s figures showed three times as many of the men walking as women –twenty-four percent to eight percent (Waseda daigaku dokūkan kenkyūkai3, 1997:55,
59). However, twenty-eight percent of the men I surveyed were walking, and eighteen
percent of the women4.
Travelling companions in my survey also varied by mode of transport: buspilgrims were more often travelling with friends, while those in cars were usuallywith their spouses (this is presumably due to the bus pilgrims being mostly older
women, many of whom are probably widows). According to Reader, ‘there has beena growing trend towards family groups of parents and children doing the pilgrimage
by car.’ (Reader, 1993a:108). However, I saw very few nuclear families; of those I
surveyed almost half were just with a spouse, twenty-two percent were with friends,
and of the twenty-one percent with relatives, these were most often a mother, sister or
grandchildren. Walking pilgrims are the most likely to be travelling alone: almost
sixty percent of them. Friends are their most frequent companions – for twenty-two
34

To save space, hereafter referred to as Waseda.
All but one of the women I surveyed were walking it in sections.

17

percent. None of the walkers I surveyed was travelling with family members otherthan a spouse – eleven percent. The Waseda survey showed sixteen percent travellingwith kōnakama – fellow members of pilgrim clubs. They also asked about guides(sendatsu): forty percent indicated they were travelling with a guide, forty-one
percent without (and seven percent were guides). Other companions included people
met on the road or on the bus (Waseda, 1997:67).
Although not encountered during my field research, there are pilgrims who areaccompanied by animals. In May 1999, on a henro michi (pilgrim path) in Ehime, I
met a young pilgrim couple with a dog that was wearing boots, and a recent issue of
Shikoku Henro, the magazine for walking pilgrims, ran a feature on another couple
walking with a dog (Kitano, 2001:21-23). A journalist with NHK Tokushima
television news (29 March 2000) interviewed a pilgrim at Yakuō-ji (23) travelling on
horseback. (I later heard that he had a support vehicle, and wasn’t riding all the way).
Where do the pilgrims come from? Again, the answers seem to vary depending
on how they are travelling. Almost three-quarters of the bus pilgrims in my survey
were from the Kinki region – forty-six percent of them from Osaka prefecture. Other
regions represented were: Shikoku (sixteen percent), Chūgoku (ten percent), and one
person from Kantō (Tokyo)5. Car pilgrims tend to be more local: over sixty percent ofthem were from Shikoku, with just over twenty percent from Kinki (almost half of
those from Osaka). They also came from Chūgoku (nine percent), and a few eachfrom Tōkai, Chūbu and Kyūshu. Walkers came from nine regions: Kinki provided
thirty-six percent, Kantō twenty-two percent, Shikoku nineteen percent, and one or
two people each came from Chūbu, Chūgoku, Tōkai, Kyūshu and Hokkaidō. Thismight indicate that the challenge of walking the route is an attraction for people
throughout the country, whereas the bus companies primarily draw on the closest areawith a large population. I suspect the predominance of local people travelling by car
relates to their way of doing the route in sections on short trips, as will be seen in
Chapter Four.

5

She was probably the only member of her bus tour who answered the questionnaire.

18

Religion
Before considering the religious affiliation of the pilgrims, it is necessary to be awareof the nature of religion as it is practised in Japan. In Europe and North America, atleast since the industrial revolution, there has been a clear separation of sacred andsecular but, as Davis observes, Japan is ‘a culture in which the sacred and profane are
not understood as categorical opposites.’ (Davis, 199:246). It may appear to be a very
secular nation – inasmuch as the Japanese consistently score low on international
surveys on religious beliefs – but Davis explains:While belief naturally seems to be an appropriate index of religiousness to thewesterner . . . by itself it tells us only part of the story. The reason for this is that
religious praxis (shugyō) and feelings (kimochi) and not belief per se form thecore of Japanese religion. (Davis, 1992:236).

Ritual is not confined to the religious arena, but pervades every aspect of society,which is fundamentally concerned with the preservation of ‘harmonious social
behaviour and group loyalty’ (Fitzgerald, 1993:320). Yanagawa (quoted by
Fitzgerald) states that ‘people often belong to religious organisations without any
strong sense of the particular creed with which the organisation is affiliated’(Fitzgerald, 1993:320). On the other hand Davis, commenting on a study by Basabe,stresses that ‘those calling themselves “unbelievers” or “indifferent to” religion
continue to do religious things.’ [italics in original] (Davis, 1992:235).
The danka system of households registered with a local Buddhist temple (arequirement and means of control in the Tokugawa era) was officially abolished in
the Meiji era, but appears to persist to the extent that families turn to that temple intimes of need – such as the death of a family member. When confronted with thequestion on my survey about their faith, couples would often consult each other as towhich was their family sect; one woman marked the sect to which her family wasaffiliated, then said she personally was interested in a different one (some indicatedthis on the form). Another woman told me which sect she had been born into andwhich she had joined on marriage. Thus, ticking a certain sect on a questionnaire does
not necessarily indicate strong feelings for or knowledge of the doctrines or practiceof that sect. Although eighty of the temples belong to the Shingon sect, the19pilgrimage has always been considered non-sectarian; the cult of Kōbō Daishi
transcends sectarian boundaries.
The question on Waseda’s survey asked respondents to choose the one religion
they had the most faith in, or which they had a deep interest in, and included Islamand Christianity as options. (Waseda, 1997:130). Over forty percent chose Shingon;
the next most frequent response was ‘toku ni nai’ (no special religion), fractionallyahead of Jōdo Shin (both at almost fourteen percent). Zen had nine percent interest(Waseda did not distinguish between Rinzai and Sōtō), while Jōdo was at sevenpercent. None of the other eight choices had more than three percent support.
(Waseda, 1997:139-40).
The results of my own question on faith, classified by mode of travel, showedbus pilgrims as almost equally Jōdo Shin (forty percent), and Shingon (thirty-eightpercent). The only other sects chosen were Jōdo (at sixteen percent), and Tendai (oneperson). Jōdo Shin was also first among walkers, at thirty-three percent, while
Shingon was at nineteen percent, just ahead of ‘No religion’ (seventeen percent). The
next was Sōtō, at eleven percent, and a couple of people each checked Jōdo andRinzai. Car pilgrims showed the most diversity of religious affiliation, and the most
support for Shingon, at forty-four percent, with almost thirty percent Jōdo Shin.6 Thelarger numbers of car pilgrims affiliated to Shingon is probably due to more of themcoming from Shikoku, ‘where Shingon is still the predominant sect,’ while thepreponderance of Shingon affiliations in the Waseda survey could be due to the larger
proportion of bus pilgrims, since the tours are ‘more likely to be organised by
Shingon temples (given the connection of Kōbō Daishi to Shingon).’(Reader7). The
relatively high percentage of walkers with no religion would confirm the impression I
received when I initially became interested in the pilgrimage: there are quite anumber of people who have little knowledge of or interest in Buddhism, but who
want to spend time walking in the Shikoku countryside.

6

Others were Sōtō (9 percent) and Jōdo (6 percent), while two people each indicated Nichiren, Shintō,and ‘No religion,’ and one Tendai. Tenrikyō and Christian were the only ‘others’ – one person each.
7
Personal e-mail communication, 7 June 2000.

20

Non-Japanese pilgrims
People from other countries account for only a very small minority of pilgrims. In
Kōchi in the spring of 1999, a shopkeeper at Dainichi-ji (28) told me she hadn’t seen
any foreign pilgrims recently, but a few years previously there had been several
groups of them. For the fifteen non-Japanese pilgrims who agreed to participate in myresearch, I added an initial question as to how and where they had first heard about
the pilgrimage, and what made them decide to do it. Oliver Statler’s book Japanese
Pilgrimage was the impetus for four of them, while two others knew him personally.
(One had been a student of Statler’s – and walked with him on the Kōchi section ofhis pilgrimage – while the other went on Statler’s recommendation). Two others cited
brief mentions in guidebooks (Fodors and Lonely Planet) that piqued their interest.
There were as many other answers as people, ranging from a book of haiku poems, toteachers and fellow students, to chance encounters with Japanese in Asia. For some it
was a long process, as an Australian woman who walked it in 2001 relates:
More than twenty years ago a Japanese back packer arrived at my house inIndonesia and while watching the afternoon monsoon rains, he told me theskeleton story in Indonesian about being able to walk around an island and sleep
in a temple each night. It literally translated as ‘short walk long time’ andabsolutely resonated with me . . . For many years I either could not remember thename of the island, or find any information in a language I could read, so I just
had to wait. It all came together a few months before departure when I had jet lag
on a trip to the US and surfed the web on a hunch, found David’s site, e-mailed
and called that same day, and bingo. It all took me to Shikoku.8

The reasons they chose to do it are in many cases the same as their motives, so will beconsidered in the next chapter.
The most noticeable contrast with the Japanese pilgrims is their youth. At thetime they walked it, four were in their twenties, three in their thirties, six in theirforties and two in their fifties; there were twelve men and three women. Eleventravelled alone (or alone for most of the way), two with one companion, and two insmall groups. Ten (all male) were from the United States9, while one each was from
Australia, Belgium, Canada, Holland and Switzerland. Seven were living in Japan at

8

Personal e-mail communication, 19 August 2001.
Two each were from California, New York and Chicago, and one each from Alabama, Connecticut,
Hawaii and Michigan.
921

the time they undertook the pilgrimage. The large number of Americans could be dueto the fact that the web site from which I got the names was generated there.
With regard to religion, five said that at the time they began their pilgrimage
they had no religion (but four added that they were searching, leaning towards, orwere interested in: Hindu, the Quakers, Shingon or Zen Buddhism). Of the five who
identified themselves as Christian, two were Roman Catholic, one Episcopalian and
one each had been raised Methodist and Christian Scientist (but no longer consideredit their faith); one was Jewish (but non-practising); and of the four who consideredthemselves Buddhist, two said ‘non-sectarian’ and two Zen. Ways in which theexperience of walking the pilgrimage caused a change in or an expansion of religious
orientation will be examined at the end of Chapter Three.
In this chapter, it has been seen that while most Japanese people perform thepilgrimage after retirement, the western pilgrims I surveyed were all much younger.
Statistically, they were not noticeably more religious than the Japanese, but it isnecessary to be cautious in using the word ‘religion’ due to its different connotationsin Japanese and western culture (see p.18). Although almost half the westerners either
said they had no religion, or no longer identified with the religion of their upbringing,most of them did indicate some form of spiritual search, which might have led themto undertake the pilgrimage; this could have had some influence on how theyexperienced it. Future chapters will compare and contrast the motives andimpressions of both Japanese and foreign pilgrims, as well as the different ways they
performed the pilgrimage, in an effort to determine whether the concept of pilgrimage
has the same significance in Japan and the west.

22

Chapter Three
Pilgrim Voices: Motives and impressions

Barbara Aziz has argued that Turner’s theory of communitas among pilgrims andsubsequent studies of ‘large groups of pilgrims’ by demographers and sociologists,have led us to ‘think of pilgrimage only as a massive, almost anonymous assembly.’(Aziz, 1987:247). She believes that groups of pilgrims ‘are not as coherent or
homogeneous as Turner’s model suggested,’ and that:
The quintessential mythic and personal experiences which are engendered by
one’s sacred journey have been forgotten by many of today’s researchers. Yet
that is the plane which still holds clues that will deepen our understanding ofpilgrimage. (Aziz, 1987:247)

She asserts: ‘People on pilgrimage . . . can articulate their aspirations, their choices,feelings and assessments of that experience,’ (Aziz, 1987:260). However, Reader(1993c), while acknowledging that ‘everyone had their own story to tell,’ believes
that ‘research into what pilgrims . . . think and feel has . . . been hampered by the very
fact that pilgrims tend to be rather inarticulate about their pilgrimages andmotivations.’ (Reader, 1993c:237). This chapter, therefore, in addition to reporting
survey results, will use the pilgrims’ own words, to see whose theory they conformto.
What brought them
As well as their motivation, the Waseda study asked people what had caused them tocome on the pilgrimage (Waseda, 1997:128). The answers differed by gender: formen it was most frequently retirement, whereas for women it was a health problem;
the next most frequent female response was the death of someone close. (Waseda,
1997:32). This might indicate that the pilgrimage is being undertaken during a periodof transition, between work and retirement, or on becoming widowed. Almost twenty
percent do it every year; for some the pilgrimage has become a hobby. Reader(1993a) interviewed pilgrims on a bus tour in 1990, one of whom ‘stated that he had
been for the last three years on Iyo pilgrimage buses, and that he would continue to23

do the pilgrimage at the same time of year with them until he died.’ (Reader,
1993a:126)
When asked what drew them to the pilgrimage, westerners resident in Japan
responded: ‘it seemed like such a different and interesting way to experience thecountry,’10 or ‘to get out of the stressful “Big City” Japan . . . and see the real Nihon
for a while.’ An American on a study-abroad programme ‘had heard that some kids inprevious classes had done a lot of hiking outside of Kyoto instead of going toclasses,’ and decided earning credit this way was an excellent idea, since he ‘wasmuch better at hiking than . . . at reading and writing Japanese.’ A Swiss woman who
read about it in a magazine at a temple wrote: ‘The pictures immediately caught myattention and I thought, that is a road I want to walk. It looked all so perfectly
Japanese.’ Those who came from overseas often mentioned Oliver Statler’s book; aFlemish student cited:
The feeling of age-old tradition harking back to the Heian period . . . The
attraction of the white robes, like they use in Shugendō [mountain asceticism] . . .
The mysticism of austerity, meditation, of Shingon Buddhism with its intricate
rituals . . . everything I always thought of as being Japanese. [Ellipses in original]

Some were attracted to it as an exercise in austerity: ‘good religious/spiritual training/
discipline,’ as a twenty-one-year-old American defined it. He added: ‘I have longenjoyed doing adventurous things on my own which help to build self-reliance.’
Motives
Barber divides pilgrims’ objectives into two groups: ‘those who went out of religious
devotion, and those who went in pursuit of a solution to a secular problem’ andconcludes that ‘the majority of pilgrimages probably fall into the second group.’ Hethen adds a third group, for those who ‘went from curiosity or a love of travel.’(Barber, 1991:152). All of these motives can be seen in the Shikoku pilgrimage.
Memorials for ancestors
When asked for their main motivation for undertaking the pilgrimage, many Japanesecited prayers for ancestors, or the memorial for a dead person: more than half of the10

Quotations by non-Japanese pilgrims are all from personal e-mail communications in response to thequestionnaire I had sent them. Replies were received during August and September 2001.

24

Waseda respondents and exactly half of my own. Multiple motives were common, but‘to pray for the repose of the soul of a deceased person’ far exceeded the others;
almost three-quarters of bus pilgrims in my survey gave this as their motive. A
walking pilgrim in his sixties ticked all the motives on my survey, but then told me hewas primarily doing it for his wife, who had died the previous year. The Buddhist
tradition of memorials for the deceased at regular intervals could be one reason forthis motive’s predominance; being recently widowed could be another. The Waseda
survey’s next most frequent response (for almost half) was ‘for family safety.’(Waseda, 1997:133). Although not an option on my survey, several people added thisas ‘other’.
Health and harmony with nature
Almost thirty percent of Waseda’s pilgrims gave ‘to pray for health’ as a motive; foreleven percent it was ‘recovery from illness.’ (Waseda, 1997:133). Among those I
surveyed, eleven percent were praying for another person’s recovery from illness, andeight percent for their own, while seven percent were giving thanks for their own
recovery from illness. ‘To improve my health by walking in the fresh air’ was thesecond most popular response I received (almost forty percent). This was in fact thefirst choice (for almost half) of car pilgrims – which surprised me until I reasoned thateven motorised pilgrims have to walk from the car park, often up steep paths, and thatmost temples have a flight of steps up to the main hall (with over three hundred steps
at temple 10, Kirihata-ji). Among walkers, this answer was tied first with thememorial for a loved one (at forty-two percent). The third most popular motive (forthirty percent) was ‘to get away from the congestion and be in harmony with nature in
the beautiful Shikoku countryside.’ This would seem to confirm the importanceattached to nature by many Japanese.
Ascetic training
Thirty-two percent of Waseda’s pilgrims indicated ‘Faith or ascetic training’ as amotive (Waseda: 1997:133). Since they did not distinguish between the two, it is hard
to compare with my own survey option: ‘To deepen my faith through enduringhardship.’ This was chosen by almost twenty percent of car pilgrims and walkers, but

25

by only eight percent of those travelling by bus. It would appear that those who
participate in bus tours are not very interested in asceticism – which may be why
they are travelling by bus; in fact, the bus companies promise a ‘completely safe andcomfortable’ journey. (Reader, 1993a:124). However, since only one bus pilgrim
indicated that he had no religion, it is reasonable to suppose that many were travelling
for reasons of faith. Ascetic training or discipline was also added to the ‘other’motives section on my questionnaire, such as this comment from a motorcyclist in his
fifties: ‘Shinshin tanren no tame’ (to discipline my body and spirit). Three of thewestern pilgrims cited faith or spiritual discipline; a twenty-one-year-old American
wrote:
I did it to strengthen my devotion and my will, and my aspiration, and also tolearn about Japanese Buddhism, since I was strongly considering becoming a
Buddhist monk at that time.

Self-discovery
Another recurrent motive that pilgrims added to my options, was self-discovery. A
car pilgrim in his sixties wrote: ‘Jibun wo hajime kara minaoshitai’ (I’d like to reexamine who I am). A walker in her twenties had come ‘for self-discovery, selfreflection, to learn about the enlightenment of Buddhism.’ (Jiko hakken, kaeri miru
tame, bukkyō no satori wo aratamete shiru tame). One in his sixties, praying ‘for therepose of a loved one’s soul’ wrote: ‘Kongo no jinsei ni tsuite kangaetai ’ (I want tocontemplate my life from now on), perhaps indicating that his pilgrimage was due tobeing widowed. An American in his forties, whose main motive was ‘to write a bookand articles,’ added: ‘To sort out where I was and what I was doing with my life;’ foranother, in his thirties, it was ‘a spiritual and physical exercise to help me find mypath in life.’
History
The historical significance of the pilgrimage is an attraction for young Japanesepilgrims, as one walker in her twenties commented: ‘Rekishiteki ni yūmei dakara’(because it’s famous historically); a teenaged girl wrote: ‘Junsui ni kyōmi ga atta
kara. Rekishi wo kanjitagatta.’ (Because I was purely interested in this. I wanted to26

sense the history). History is among several motives expressed by this woman on abus tour:Nanbyakunen mo tsuzuite iru no de go-senzo-sama he no kansha no kimochi to
Kenzai watashitachi ni gokago ga arimasu yō ni, yakudoshi na no de toku ni
omoimasu. (Because it has continued for a long time, I came to pray for myancestors and to pay respects to them. Also I want to pray for my life right now
especially, as this is my unlucky year [33]).

An American interested ‘in Japanese history and . . . in traditional . . . architecture,
particularly that of temples and shrines,’ undertook it partly out of ‘a historicalcuriosity about the lore and mystic [sic] of the Daishi and the founders of thepilgrimage.’
Other Japanese pilgrims’ motives
Ten percent of Waseda’s respondents indicated they were ‘sightseeing’ (Waseda,
1997:133). Some I surveyed professed no special reasons other than pleasure,‘tanoshimu,’ as one car pilgrim in his fifties put it, while another wrote: ‘Tada nan tonaku, nonbiri to nani ka aru ka’ (I have no specific purpose, to relax, to see what’s
going to happen). A walker in her twenties was also open-minded: ‘Mushin ni natte,
aruita ato ni, nani ka mieru mono ga aru yō na ki ga shita kara’ (I thought it’s
possible to see something new after emptying my mind and walking the route). A carpilgrim in his sixties added ‘purasu kamera satsuei’ (plus taking photographs).
Others wanted to meet people, like a walker in his seventies: ‘Aruki henro to kōryūsuru’ (to communicate with walking pilgrims); a car pilgrim in her sixties wanted ‘toget to know and feel one with the local community’ (chiiki hitotachi to no shinboku
no tame).
Other westerners’ motives
Rather than choose from the options on my Japanese questionnaire (since I suspected
health issues and memorials for dead people might not be relevant for westerners) I
suggested the non-Japanese pilgrims simply state as many motives as they liked. A
Dutchman’s motives were ‘private.’ An Australian woman in her forties wrote: ‘Very
simply, to give thanks. I have a remarkable life and wanted to offer something to say
thank-you.’ A thirty-year-old Swiss woman wrote: ‘I wanted to see whether walking
on such a spiritual trail would put me in touch with my own religious feelings.’ For27his o-bon holiday11, a twenty-five-year-old American living in Tokyo, ‘decided on
the Michi on the spur of the moment. I had no idea what to expect and was woefully
unprepared.’ Some responded with lists, like this one from a Canadian woman in her
fifties, who completed the pilgrimage over three years while resident in Shikoku:
Fascination with the idea of pilgrimage in the modern era; love of nature andhiking outdoors; rewarding experiences with the people I encountered (including
osettai); wanting to learn everything I could about the pilgrimage; wanting tofinish what I’d started; wanting to get all the stamps.

The list of a Belgian who wrote his Bachelor’s thesis on the pilgrimage reads: ‘a. tofind some spirituality in my life; b. to learn about Japanese culture in general; c. as ahiking holiday in nature; d. to do research,’ while an American in his fifties listed:
1. spiritual discipline; 2. the joy of having a different experience of Japan(different from most tourists or businessmen); 3. the appreciation for Japanesetraditional culture.

Having read all the non-Japanese pilgrims’ motives, I decided to examine my own,
and came up with: curiosity and a wish to see the country; the chance to speak only
Japanese (opportunities at work being limited); to feel what it is like to be a pilgrim.
Petitions
Another way to discover pilgrims’ motives is to read the petitions on the osamefuda
left in the bins beside the hondō and Daishidō. Both Tanaka and Reader chose thismethod. Tanaka had felt that in his conversations with over 1,500 pilgrims, ‘questions
concerning motivation seldom elicited anything but the most superficial response’(Tanaka: 1975:26). After examining 1,552 ofuda left at two temples in 1973 hefound:[P]ilgrims pray for such things as safety for the family, prosperous business
and/or improved financial situation, freedom from traffic accidents, good health(strong body, relief from liver, heart, stomach and other ailments), pregnancy,
safe delivery of baby, world peace, and the ability to pass university entrance
examinations. Some give thanks for successful entrance into university andrestored health. (Tanaka, 1975:26)

In 1991, Reader examined 3,164 osamefuda left at a Tokushima temple, of which 569‘had specific requests inscribed on them’ (Reader 1996:274). The requests were for:
Good health (179), for the ancestors (92), family safety/welfare (70), healing of
illness (58), travel safety (47), help in studying/success in education (47), finding
11

Four-day summer festival, 12-15 August. It is believed ancestral spirits come home then.

28

a spouse/having children (27), business prosperity (15), good luck/attainment ofwishes (15), memorials for dead babies (11), prevention of danger (8), and others(various uncategorisable requests) (12). (Reader: 1996:274)

From this Reader identifies both ‘veneration and memorialisation of the dead . . . inother words for benefits in the other world (kōsei or raise riyaku)’ as well as ‘aparticular and prevalent concern for benefits in this world, genze riyaku.’(Reader:
1996: 274). On my survey, a bus pilgrim in her seventies added these wishes:Musume no kaiun ryōen kigan. Musuko no yome no anzan kigan. Kanai anzen,
shison hanei, saiki jokyo. (Pray for good fortune, that my daughter can find agood husband; safe childbirth for my son’s wife; safety of my household;prosperity of my children and grandchildren; relief from misfortune).

Returning to Barber’s theory of pilgrims’ objectives, I would suggest that the
majority of Japanese pilgrims fit in his second group (seeking solutions to secular
problems), while western pilgrims are in either the first (religious devotion) or thethird (curiosity and a love of travel). The motivations with which the pilgrimage isundertaken may determine the experiences; the following section will consider these.

Impressions
At the end of Waseda’s survey, pilgrims were invited to write any thoughts or
opinions they might have about the pilgrimage: ‘Henro ni tsuite no go-iken ya okangae ga areba, nandemo jiyū ni o-kaki kudasai,’ (Waseda, 1997:130); 297 people(twenty-four percent) responded. My own survey question asked pilgrims to write
what impressed them most: ‘O-henro meguri wo shite mottomo kokoro ni nokkota
koto ga arimashitara hitokoto o-kaki kudasai’ and received a response from seventyone people (forty-four percent). The different questions produced a corresponding
difference in the comments. Some of the Waseda responses were highly critical; they
will be examined in the next chapter, in the context of conflict in pilgrimage.
Since the Shikoku pilgrimage is a circle with many sacred places, it is not likely
to generate the same sense of climax as a linear pilgrimage to a single sacred goal. It
is on the approach to ‘the sacred centre’ that Aziz sees ‘a growing dissociation fromothers around them, as opposed to the idea that there are increased feelings ofoneness.’ (Aziz, 1987:253). The tendency to complete the pilgrimage in sections over29

a number of months or years would also lessen the emotional impact. Also, as most of
the comments were written on questionnaires, in many cases filled out in haste, it isunreasonable to expect much philosophical insight; for that one would need to
examine pilgrims’ journals or recollections written at leisure. The non-Japanesepilgrims were able to respond in their own way – one took the time to think about myquestion and replied to it separately a few days later.
Remarks made during the course of a pilgrimage are unlikely to reflect thedegree to which the experience of pilgrimage can change someone; however, some of
the western pilgrims did comment on this, as do those profiled in Hoshino Eiki’s
article on the ‘new age’ of walking pilgrims; this aspect of pilgrimage will therefore
be examined at the end of this chapter. Aziz emphasizes the individuality of pilgrims(Aziz, 1987:260); nevertheless, I found their comments fell into a number of themes,
and I have grouped them in this way below.
The beauty of nature
Many pilgrims’ comments in my survey concerned nature: ‘Shizen no utsukushisa
koto ga dekita’ (I realised the beauty of nature), as a car pilgrim in his fifties noted. A
bus pilgrim in her seventies, who had come to get away from the congestion, andimprove her health in the fresh air explained: ‘Tokai de kurashite orimasu no deshizen ni shitashimarete kibun ga yoi’ (Because I live in the city, it’s such a
wonderful feeling to be in close contact with nature).
Nature also impressed western pilgrims: the Flemish student (one of whose
motives had been a hiking holiday in nature) listed first, ‘the hiking in nature and thekind of nature mysticism,’ while a thirty-one-year-old American cited, ‘the beauty ofKōchi’s mountains and waterfronts and the serenity of temple life.’ The Swiss woman
wrote: ‘My strongest impression is the beauty of nature I walked in, how tranquil
some of the temples were and how well I was received everywhere.’ Not all werequite so positive though, as this comment from a twenty-five-year-old Americanshows: ‘the countryside is beautiful (well, except for that looooong trash-covered
coast on the way to Muroto).’ The Canadian woman praised ‘the beauty of themountains and the mountain trails’ but added a more disturbing impression:

30

the way that the environment is being ruined (e.g., the building of the cable attemple 21 and the destruction of the place where [the] Daishi meditated fromwhich there was a wonderful view).

The kindness of people
Another common theme was the people, primarily their kindness. A cyclist in her
twenties wrote: ‘Jimoto no hito ga totemo shinsetsu ni shite kudasari totemo arigatta’(I was so grateful for the kindness of the people in the community). ‘Hito to noyasashisa no deau, kokoro no iyashi’ (the encounters with people’s kindness mademy heart feel cared for), wrote a car pilgrim in his fifties. One compared the local
people with the temple officials and concluded that ‘people met on the way werekinder,’ (tōrisugari no hitobito no hōga yohodo shinsetsu de atta). (Waseda,
1997:144).
Western pilgrims also mentioned the people of Shikoku; for example, thiscomment from a forty-five-year-old American:
Without question, they were the most important part of the trip. I met someabsolutely wonderful people. To actually live on the streets from morning toevening, seven days a week, for 54 days was a blessing. To meet people fromevery walk of life, every background, and to have the chance to talk to them wasa thrilling experience. I can still see some of their eyes and faces if I try hardenough.

Another American, in his fifties, was impressed by ‘fellow henros . . . I really respect
the people who make this pilgrimage.’ He extended that respect to motorised
pilgrims:
Not everyone can walk it. Some of those people were very old and it was atremendous effort to do it in a van. It’s the spirit in which it is done that is
important to me . . . They were extremely friendly and had a very positive mood.

However, a twenty-one-year-old American distinguished between walkers and others:
Pilgrims who had walked the pilgrimage many times were among the kindest andmost selfless people I had ever met. . . . Car and bus henro on the other hand,
while sometimes kind and generous, were also often completely lacking in thevirtues of selflessness, kindness, compassion, true devotion, or even simple
manners! At some temples the atmosphere was more that of a zoo than apilgrimage site.

The Belgian pilgrim’s list continued with: ‘the friendliness of the people, giving
you money, hospitality and food; related to this, the (short) friendship among henro.’
The twenty-five-year-old American quoted above, was unprepared for settai:

31

I was also floored by the amazing friendliness of the locals . . . people wereconstantly giving me food, drink, supplies, money, etc. I was especially taken
aback because I didn’t know about this aspect of the pilgrimage before I started.

Some were moved to tears, like this thirty-four-year-old man: ‘Samazama na hito
kara o-settai itadaki namida no deru omo desu’ (tears flow at the thought of the settai
I’ve received from various people). (Waseda, 1997: 146).
Feelings of peace and purification
Expressions of cleansing and calmness came up repeatedly in the comments on mysurvey – from over twenty five percent, including, walkers, bus, car and taxi pilgrims:‘Kokoro ga kiyoraka ni naru’ (I felt my spirit become pure), ‘Jibun no kokoro noheian’ (my own heart’s peace), and ‘Kimochi ga akkiri shimashita’ (I feel cleansed)
are typical. A walker in her fifties, whose motive was ‘shinshin wo kitaenaosu’(retrain and strengthen body and spirit) wrote:
Hitori de arukeru koto no sugasugashisa. Shizen to yukkuri nani o aete kokoroga sunao o ni nareta koto. (I feel refreshed walking alone. Being with nature, I
feel my heart calmed and quiet).

Another stressed the calming action of nature: ‘Shizen no naka de kokoro ga odayaka
ni natta’ (In nature my heart became very calm). On the Waseda survey, a sixtyeight-year-old man wrote: ‘Fushigina yasuragi to jūjitsukan ni hitaru koto ga dekiru’(I can feel flooded with a strange peace and a feeling of fulfilment). (Waseda,
1997:143). These comments outnumbered remarks about nature and people, andappear to indicate one of the main functions of the pilgrimage for the Japanese – oneof spiritual purification and physical renewal. This represents a major contrast to thewestern pilgrims, none of whom made such remarks.
Travelling with the Daishi
Although the pilgrimage is undertaken in his memory, only a few mentioned Kōbō
Daishi. A car pilgrim in his seventies commented on his greatness: ‘Kōbō Daishi noerasa.’ A forty-three-year-old woman wrote: ‘Daishi-sama no arukareta michi,
tsuchi no yawarakasa mi ni shimete kanjimashita.’ (On the paths walked by the
Daishi, I felt as if the softness of the earth penetrated my body). (Waseda, 1997:144).
An American in his forties wrote that although ‘it looked like I walked alone and insilence . . . I did pray to Kōbō Daishi and Dainichi Nyōrai every day, in fact, they32

were my constant companions.’ It was ‘the emerging statue of Kōbō Daishi at temple
12 after a long day of walking in the mountains’ that most impressed a Dutch pilgrim
in his forties.
The simplicity of the experience
Some pilgrims encapsulated their experience in a minimum of words, such as‘Mushin’ (empty mind), from a taxi pilgrim in his seventies, or ‘Kyō wo seiippoi
ikiru’ (live today to the utmost), from a walker in his fifties. A bus pilgrim in his
twenties reversed a well-known proverb: ‘Raku areba ku ari’ (If you have an easy
time, there will be difficulties). Others emphasized the simplicity of their intentions inlonger statements, like this thirty-six-year-old man who signed himself Shikoku henro
gyō (Shikoku ascetic pilgrim):
Nani mo motomeru koto mo naku risuru koto mo naku ushinau koto mo naku
tokusuru koto mo naku hakarau koto mo naku satorō to suru koto mo naku
tada tada aruite aruite ano yo made negawaku wa Daishi no futokoro ni dakare
shi konsei no waga inochi. (I’m not asking for anything; I’m not profitting fromanything; I’m not losing anything; I’m also not getting anything; I don’t want toconsider anything; nor do I want to attain enlightenment; I’m simply walking,walking until that time when, in this life, I will be embraced in the bosom of theDaishi.)(Waseda, 1997:146)

The Australian woman wrote: ‘It is such a simple exercise – get up each day andwalk!’
Too much to put into words
In contrast to the previous comments, for some, the experiences were too many or too
powerful to condense; an American in his forties wrote: ‘A few sentences won’t comeclose to explaining my impressions, much less a few hours of writing.’ A walker in
his twenties (a remarkable young man on his third circuit, sleeping out and wearing
sandals he made from string and rubber tyres), whose motive was ‘Jinsei shūgyō’(ascetic training for my life), wrote: ‘Arisugite kakenai’ (too much to write about).
The Australian woman admitted: ‘I have had difficulty trying to articulate myexperience.’ Perhaps these kinds of people create the impression that pilgrims areinarticulate.
Change in outlook during the pilgrimage

33

Those who start out without any particular beliefs or religious feelings often find thischanges as they progress. A forty-five-year-old American described the process:
I was surprised that within a day or so I started wondering about the religious
underpinnings of the pilgrimage more and more. As someone told me when I was
there, ‘Don’t look for the men of old, look for what those men sought.’ That
became a part of the pilgrimage as well but not until after arriving and actually
starting to walk. It has become more religious for me since finishing.

A seventy-two-year-old woman wrote on the Waseda survey:
Hajime no uchi wa kankō hanbun no kimochi deshita ga, dandan kokoro hikare,tadaima wa hotokesama wo oshitai suru kimochi to zange senshin no omoide
kenmei ni doryoku shite imasu. (At first, I felt like [my trip] was half forsightseeing but gradually [my feelings have changed] to now [wanting to] strive
hard to have thoughts of cleansing my heart, repenting and to have the feeling ofwanting to adore the Buddha). (Waseda, 1997:165)

Hoshino (1999) profiled several walking pilgrims who claimed not to be doing it forreasons of faith. He quotes, a ‘dangaiseshiki’ (baby boomer) he calls Mr. A :Boku wa reijo de hannya shingyō wo tonaeru keredomo boku no henro wa kihon
teki ni wa shumi henro de aru kara, boku jishin wa bukkyō de wa nai. (At thesacred places I chanted the heart sutra but mine was basically a hobby
pilgrimage, because I am not a Buddhist). (Hoshino, 1999:52).

Mr. A reported being shy at first and chanting quickly in a whisper (kogoe).
However, one early morning, on arriving at an empty temple compound:
Kyō wa boku hitori na no de, yukkuri to ōgoe de tonaeta. Wazuka 1–2 fun nodokyō no aida ni ikki ni ikai ni botsunyū suru yō na kankaku ni ochiiru . . . Sekai
ni jibun hitori to iu kanji. Jibun ga uchū no naka no chūshin no yō na ki ga suru.
(Today, I was alone, so I chanted slowly in a loud voice. In just the space of 1 or
2 minutes of reciting the sutras, I lapsed into the feeling of being completely
absorbed into another world . . . It felt like I was the only person in the world. It
seemed like I was the centre of the universe). [emphasis in original] (Hoshino,
1999:60).

A woman in her twenties whom Hoshino calls Ms. E, who undertook the pilgrimage
because she loved walking and wanted a feeling of accomplishment, said in aninterview afterwards: ‘Shinjite ireba o-Daishi-sama wa mimamotte kurete kanarazu
sukui no te wo sashinobete kureru koto.’ (As long as one believes that the Daishi iswatching over us, surely he is stretching out a saving hand). (Hoshino, 1997:61).
Those already spiritually inclined found their feelings deepened. A Buddhist
American in his forties, wrote: ‘afterwards, I started meditating daily and went much
deeper into studying Buddhism.’ An American in his twenties who undertook the34

pilgrimage as ‘religious/spiritual training/discipline,’ found that he ‘grew in devotion
a great deal.’ An American in his forties described a revelation:
I grew up a Christian – Episcopal, but finished the pilgrimage as a part Christian,part Buddhist, part Taoist and part Confucianist. All of this came to me while
walking one day. Amazing day.

A life-altering experience
Several western pilgrims wrote in superlatives about the total experience: ‘One of themost intense experiences of my life,’ and ‘by far the hardest thing I’ve ever done,’were the comments of two twenty-five-year-old Americans. ‘One of the mostamazing things I have done in my life, and I have done A LOT,’ wrote an Americanin his forties. The Australian woman found it ‘a sublime experience that permeates
every pore.’ The American who was unable to explain in a few sentences, added: ‘If I
must say some- thing brief, I found the pilgrimage to be life-altering, exhilarating,
painful, silent . . . Every day, I think about the pilgrimage and something that
happened to me.’ An American in his thirties who slept out, recalls:
how empowering it was. I wanted to quit at one point and was seriously thinking
about it and then told myself that if I could do this I could do anything . . . I now
feel like I can do anything I set my mind to do and I owe that feeling of
empowerment to the pilgrimage. It literally changed my life.

In fact, he has become a Shingon priest, and is on his third pilgrimage, kugiri-uchi.
Summary
From the comments reported above, it can be seen that motives and impressions fell
into a number of themes. Japanese pilgrims’ motives generally centred on prayers forancestors, and on practical issues such as health or family safety; they also appeared
to welcome the opportunity to spend even a short time in nature. They mostly
expressed their experiences in terms of their feelings – such as being calmed,
cleansed or refreshed – thus demonstrating Davis’ assertion, quoted earlier, that‘praxis . . . and feelings . . . form the core of Japanese religion.’ (Davis, 1992:236).
About a fifth of western pilgrims came for religious or spiritual motives; for others it
seems the pilgrimage represented something quintessentially Japanese which theywanted to participate in; others came in a spirit of adventure, or to enjoy hiking in
nature. Some appear to have been powerfully affected by their experiences.

35

Although not inarticulate, the Japanese pilgrims do not show much evidence of‘the idea of “becoming the hero” through pilgrimage experience’ (Aziz, 1987:257), in
contrast to some of the western pilgrims, whose final comments above, perhaps do
indicate some sense of this. Yet pilgrimage may not have heroic implications forJapanese people. It has been said that, ‘To be a Buddhist in Japan is hardly separate
from occasionally (or often) undertaking a pilgrimage.’ (Coleman and Elsner, 1995:
185). If this is so, and pilgrimage is seen as an activity to be engaged in on a regularbasis – as seems probable given the fact that almost twenty percent of Waseda’s
respondents perform the Shikoku pilgrimage annually (Waseda, 1997:134), andalmost half had been on other pilgrimages too12 – then it probably does not have thesame implication of an epic journey, which seems to be a western idea. The
implications of this will be explored in detail in the conclusion.
Perhaps, too, the way the pilgrimage is performed by the majority of Japanesepilgrims today does not lend itself to heroic feelings. Cousineau refers to thetrivialisation of modern pilgrimage, and reports that ‘when travel is too easy, people
often don’t appreciate their experience and certainly don’t understand the
mythological nature of certain kinds of travel.’ (Marler, quoted in Cousineau, 1998:
110). The next chapter will review those travel methods, as well as some attitudes
towards the modern manifestations of the pilgrimage.

12

The figures for other pilgrimages undertaken were: Saikoku pilgrimage (33%), Chichibu pilgrimage(14%), Bandō pilgrimage (13%), mini Shikoku (12%), and other (16%). 46 percent had not been on
any previous pilgrimage, and 5 percent did not respond. (Waseda, 1997:140).

36

Chapter Four
Performing the pilgrimage: ‘communitas’ and conflict

Considering the approximately 1,200-kilometre distance to be travelled in order tocomplete the Shikoku pilgrimage, it is not surprising that a number of performance
methods have developed over the years. While some walking pilgrims – westerners
among them – may feel strongly about how it should be performed, for many
Japanese this appears not to be an issue. According to Hoshino, ‘The greatestemphasis in the pilgrimage is placed on visiting all the pilgrimage sites on the route’(Hoshino, 1997: 289); how this is done is up to the individual. Reader (1996)
explains:
There are no pre-ordained routes or rituals that must be followed: each pilgrim
determines his or her own manner of travel, forms of behaviour and styles ofprayer and action at the sites. (Reader, 1996:271).

This chapter will report on the various methods of performance chosen by thosesurveyed, with reference to the anti-structural nature of pilgrimage; it will end with astudy of conflict, most noticeable in the comments by walking pilgrims.
Communitas
LaFleur (1979), in a paper based on essays by Hoshino, notes ‘an indifference tostructure and order’ (p.275), and refers to Turner’s theory of communitas:[T]he Shikoku pilgrimage, in contrast to some others in Japan, is characterised on
all levels by an intentional suspension of all notions and expressions of order andhierarchy. One needs, therefore no credentials or qualification to undertake it,since ‘qualification’ is an idea that applies only to daily life in a structured
society. [Italics in original] (LaFleur, 1979:275)

Whether monks or deeply religious lay people walking it as a rigorous exercise in
ascetic training, or families enjoying themselves on day trips in the comfort of bus orcar, all are considered pilgrims. Although a number of walking pilgrims reject thisidea, Hoshino, as reported by LaFleur, argues, ‘an acceptance of a diversity of styles
is congruent with the communitas which is the central point of the event,’ (p. 276):
The usual judgment from outside, namely that the more ascetic practitioners arethe ‘real pilgrims’ while those travelling in comfort are only ‘tourists,’ is a
judgment which again interjects an element of hierarchy and prestige (in this case37

spiritual prestige) into the very situation which is designed to reject andcircumvent all notions of such differentiation. (LaFleur, 1979:276)

However, Reader (1993b) argues that the temples do, in fact, attempt tostructure the pilgrimage through their organisation (Reijōkai), and through ‘thesendatsu [guide] system that . . . offers them a potential mechanism for organising,
controlling and influencing the behaviour of pilgrims’ (Reader, 1993b:4-5). This
influence is aimed primarily at increasing the number of pilgrims, who provide a
valuable source of income to temples that would otherwise struggle to survive, manyof them having lost their local congregations due to rural depopulation. Guidebooks
often advise would-be pilgrims to go in a group with a sendatsu, some of whom havetheir own travel companies with close links to the temples, and ‘act as local agentsand proselytisers of the cult of pilgrimage.’ (Reader, 1993b:34). Repetition of thepilgrimage is also encouraged, in order to provide a stable future revenue source.
Travel modes
In the Waseda survey, motorised pilgrims accounted for eighty-three percent of thetotal, in the categories: ‘mainly car or bus,’ (seventy-nine percent), and ‘mainly car or
train but sometimes walking,’ (almost four percent). Those ‘walking only,’ made up
almost eleven percent, with five percent ‘mainly walking, but also using cars or
trains.’ The breakdown by vehicle type was: forty-five percent by large bus, twenty
percent by car, seventeen percent by mini-bus, nine percent by taxi, and five percent
by public transport. Motorbikes and bicycles were in the same category, making up
two percent. (Waseda, 1997:137). In my own survey, motorised pilgrims totalled
seventy-six percent; pilgrims walking only comprised nineteen percent, those mainly
walking (also using public transport or car, or sometimes accepting rides as settai)
made up three percent, with two percent by bicycle. The breakdown by vehicle type
was: fifty-six percent by car, forty-one percent by bus, three percent by taxi, and one
motorcyclist.13

13

The difference in percentages on bus tours between Waseda’s figures and mine is due to thedifficulty I had in gaining the participation of bus pilgrims, whose schedule was so rushed that to stopand fill out even a short questionnaire could leave them without enough time to complete their worship
before they had to get back on the bus. I eventually overcame this by positioning myself at a shop
between the temple compound and the car park at a temple – Anraku-ji (6) – that was often the laststop of the day. By then, many were glad of a chance to relax.

38

Of the fifteen non-Japanese pilgrims, eight performed the circuit entirely on
foot, four occasionally accepted offers of rides as settai, and three combined walking
with other modes: one hitchhiking, one taking buses, and the other ‘walking, cycling,train, bus.’ Thus travel mode provides a striking contrast to the Japanese pilgrims; forthe majority of westerners, performing the pilgrimage means walking it; this is its
main attraction, and they want to perform it in the traditional way. While recounting
his frustration with a priest who suggested he ‘take a bus or train round thepilgrimage,’ Marc Pearl, an American who sent me a collection of essays compiled
from his journal, explains: ‘Couldn’t he see that as I was not a follower of thisreligion, the Walk was the main point, the means and the goal?’ (Pearl, 1993: Days
8/9, p. 2).
Continuous or interrupted travel
Continuous travel around the eighty-eight temple circuit is known as going tōshiuchi, while interrupted travel (part-time) is called kugiri-uchi. The nature of work inJapan means people have few and very short holidays, so it is impossible for most ofthem to undertake a trip of several weeks’ duration. Osada Kōichi, writing on the
Waseda survey he undertook with Sakata Masaaki, reported that twenty-three percent
of all pilgrims were visiting Temples 1 to 88 in one trip, and one percent (all walkers)
were doing the entire circuit, returning to Temple 1. (Osada, 1999:15). Forty-three
percent of walkers were going tōshi-uchi, but only twenty-five percent of motorised
pilgrims. (Osada, 1999:9). Among those I surveyed, a third of walkers were doing theentire circuit, but only three car pilgrims and two bus pilgrims indicated this intention(many didn’t answer the question).
Ten of the fifteen western pilgrims walked the whole route in one trip, one
completed it in sections, and four only did parts of it (one of whom is still completingit). This two-thirds majority going tōshi-uchi shows another contrast with Japanesepilgrims. For those who came from overseas with the sole intention of walking thepilgrimage, it is natural they would travel continuously, although five of the ten were
living in Japan. The time taken varied from thirty-four days, for a male in his thirties,
to fifty-seven days for a forty-three-year-old female who visited all the bangai too.

39

Three of the American men slept out; one describes where: ‘I slept in bus
shelters, phone booths, under the awnings of schools or out in the open air. Part way
through I was given a tent that I slept in the rest of the way.’ Another one camped;
the third wrote that, ‘the biggest difficulty . . . was finding a place to sleep andenduring the difficulties of essentially living like a “bum” or a “hobo” for six weeks
or so.’ An American in his forties walked it alone in winter in reverse direction(gyaku-uchi) then, after resting for three weeks walked it again, clockwise (jun-uchi)
in spring with his wife. He was the only one I surveyed who went anti-clockwise. The
Waseda survey found only two people travelling gyaku-uchi, among those doing thecomplete circuit.
Those people unable to travel continuously often choose to visit all the temples
in one prefecture (ikkoku mairi), or do local pilgrimages, as described in Chapter
One. Reader and Swanson have found that even retired pilgrims often prefer the
ikkoku mairi format as, ‘they still felt constrained not to spend too long away fromtheir homes and families’ (Reader and Swanson, 1997:241). For those committed towalking only, breaking it into segments is one way to make it possible. On 30 April
1999, at a minshuku near Temple 40, I met a young man from Nagoya, a devout
Shingon Buddhist, who was walking exclusively but could only come in Golden
Week14 each year. He was in his fourth segment, having started that morning at
Temple 39, the last in Kōchi prefecture, where he had finished the year before. This
ends up being the most expensive option since, in addition to accomodation costs on
the road, one has numerous train fares, increasing in price the further across the island
one has to travel to commence the next section.
Recently an even shorter method has become popular among motorised
pilgrims: the one-day pilgrimage. Of the bus pilgrims I surveyed, two-thirds were out
for the day only. I asked them to estimate how long it would take to complete thewhole pilgrimage: responses varied from six months to ten years. Forty-four percent
of car pilgrims, almost all Shikoku residents, were also just making a one-day
pilgrimage. A woman told me that she and her husband went out one Sunday every
14

Four national holidays fall within the week: 29 April, 3, 4 and 5 May, and it is a major holiday
season.

40

month and visited a few temples – apparently a fairly common practice (Reader andSwanson, 1997:242).
Both the ikkoku mairi method and local pilgrimages seemed to be popularamong the walking pilgrims I surveyed. Twenty-one percent were doing just theTokushima temples (1 to 23), travelling for between four and eleven days. Twenty
percent were on a two-day local pilgrimage – mostly from Temples 11 to 17 – with
one- and three-day trips the next most popular (thirteen percent each). The thirteenkilometre henro michi (pilgrim path) between Temple 11 and 12 involves a strenuous
hike over three mountain ranges, so combining this with the stroll between Temple 13
and 17 gives first-timers a taste of the two extremes of the route.
Waseda’s results showed twenty-three percent of pilgrims doing a oneprefecture pilgrimage (ikkoku mairi); however, sixty-seven percent chose ‘other,’ anda table in Osada’s report indicates great diversity in the segments pilgrims weretravelling. (Osada, 1999:16). Twenty-six percent were on a two- to three-day trip, justover fifteen percent were out for four to five days, and almost fifteen percent five tosix days. Twelve percent were on six- to seven-day trips. (Waseda, 1997:131). Only
three percent were on day trips – indicating that my figures, mostly having beencollected on Sundays and public holidays, probably over represented day trippers,
unless they have become more common since 1996. The four non-Japanese pilgrims
visited Temples 1 to 44, 1 to 12, 33 to 40, and the last one went from 1 to 21 on his
first trip, 21 to 30 on the second, and plans to finish all the Kōchi temples on his next
vacation.
Ritual behaviour at the temples
Although not obligatory, there are a number of ‘ritual steps’ (Miyata, 1996:15) at the
temples. These include ritual purification (washing the hands and rinsing the mouth);offering the osamefuda and ‘osaisen (offertory coins)’ (p. 16), lighting incense sticks(senkō) and candles (rōsoku) in front of both the hondō and Daishidō, and chanting
sutras – the heart sutra (hannya shingyō), and the sutra for the honzon (principal
deity). At the Daishidō, they should also chant ‘Namu Daishi Henjō Kongō’ (Homage

41

to Kōbō Daishi) ‘at least 21 times’ (Miyata, 1996:16). Prayers are offered at bothhalls.
The final step is to proceed to the nōkyōjo to obtain the hōin (temple seals) andan image of the honzon. Reader explains how the meaning of this ritual has changed:
Once seen as recognition for performing an act of piety at a temple, this has cometo represent, in the mind of the modern pilgrim, a symbol of having performed
the pilgrimage and of the merit that goes with this. A scroll or book with the hoinof all 88 temples is believed to bring the bearer great benefit . . . to the extent that
it is not uncommon to meet pilgrims for whom the most important part of thepilgrimage is the completed book or scroll. (Reader, 1987a:143-4)

Since the temples gain materially from the fees charged for the service, they do notdiscourage this notion. Reader reports a priest saying that ‘whatever his personal
feelings might be, it was not his place to state them openly: it was up to pilgrims todetermine what they wished’ (Reader, 1987a:147). He describes meeting a young
man driving the route: ‘[he] advised me to get a car; it would enable me to obtain all
the hoin in one-sixth of the time it took me to walk’ (Reader, 1987a:144). Apparently,
one can even buy completed scrolls; Reader quotes a newspaper advertisement
offering them, ‘for a sizeable fee’ since ‘to perform a pilgrimage such as Shikoku,
even by bus, is difficult and time-consuming’ (p. 144). The implication that the‘external symbols of its completion’ (Reader, 1987a:144) are more important thanactually performing the pilgrimage, has led some walkers to refer to ‘whirlwind
henro’ as ‘stamp collectors’ (McLachlan, 1997:166). The situation of walkers will be
described in detail below.
While the liminality of pilgrimage has so far been defined as taking pilgrims
outside their usual place in society, Barber points to its other aspect: ‘it is also liminal
because it takes him out of this world and puts him in touch with the world beyond.’(Barber, 1991:155). A walking pilgrim in his sixties, returning to Temple 1, wrote: ‘I
was away from the material world and came to the spiritual world for about fiftydays.’ (Yaku 50 nichikan ‘mono no sekai’ wo hanare ‘kokoro no sekai’). Apart fromthe lack of structure in communitas, there is also the sense of equality, seen in theacceptance of all performers as genuine pilgrims no matter their travel mode, and of
fraternity which, in Japan, Foard (1982) observes, ‘is that of a clearly bounded group,
namely the Japanese people’ (Foard, 1982:240):42

[T]he very paradigms that the communitas of the pilgrimage leads the pilgrim toencounter are those that would make the pilgrim aware of his bonds with all otherJapanese through his sharing in the common national past. (Foard, 1982:241).

Foard is writing about the Saikoku pilgrimage, which includes some of the nation’s
most famous cultural icons. However, the symbolism of Shikoku as a spiritual
homeland (kokoro no furusato), representing nostalgia for an idealised, rural past is asignificant part of its attraction to urban Japanese, for whom dressing in pilgrim’s
clothing and performing the pilgrimage can give a sense of returning to their roots –real or imagined – and perhaps of reinforcing their Japanese identity.
Conflict
Another theory of pilgrimage, mentioned briefly in the introduction, is that ofconflict. Generally, this implies conflict between pilgrims and religious authorities; as
Turner and Turner point out, ‘orthodoxy in many religions tends to be ambivalent
toward pilgrimage.’ (Turner and Turner, 1978:31). Among the reasons they cite isthat ‘pilgrimage is too democratic, not sufficiently hierarchical’ (p.31). They consider
that ‘there is something inveterately populist, anarchical, even anticlerical, aboutpilgrimages in their very essence.’ (Turner and Turner, 1978:32). Reader (1993b)
defines this populist nature of pilgrimage:[T]he ordinary participants, the pilgrims, are able to express their own needs,
wishes and views, sometimes, though not necessarily, in conflict with, and over
and against, the religious hierarchies, the priests and clerics who officiate atpilgrimage sites and frame the dogmas that surround them. The tensions between
what pilgrims want . . . and what the ordained religious officiants and religious
hierarchies would like them to take away from the pilgrimage . . . are rarely far
from the surface in any pilgrimage.
(Reader, 1993b:3-4).

The belief that a completed nōkyōchō or scroll ‘serves as a passport to the Pure Land’(Reader, 1996:272) – a notion with no ‘scriptural or ecclesiastical justification’(Reader, 1987a:143-4) – provides one example of a populist idea regarding thepilgrimage.
The Waseda survey free comments section contained over a hundred
complaints or negative comments (thirty-seven percent). Frequent comments
concerned the materialism of the temples – what one American called ‘Bukkyō
Keizai,’ the big business of Tourist Buddhism.’ One person complained that thepilgrimage places are not being run properly, that faith is being forgotten as they43

become merchants: ‘Reijo mattaku tarun de iru moyō . . . Shinkō wo wasure shōnin tonari tsutsu ari.’ (Waseda, 1997:143). This shows conflict between ideas of sacred andsecular. One man wrote:
Saikin ji-in wa sarariiman kashite shuinkei no hito ga kōman ni natte henrojin wo
nan to omotte inai. (Recently the [people] at the Buddhist temples have changed
into office workers, and the attitude of the people in charge of the red stamps has
become arrogant; they think nothing of the pilgrim). (Waseda, 1997:146)

However, Reader reports ‘priests complaining about unruly behaviour from pilgrims,’
and notes one function of the sendatsu system is ‘for defusing or lessening potential
sources of conflict that may occur between priests and pilgrims.’ (Reader, 1993b:5).
Issues for the walking pilgrim
Apart from conflict between pilgrims and religious authorities, there is also conflict
between different groups of pilgrims. Although identified only by gender and age, it
is clear that many of the critical comments come from walkers. Most of their remarks
concerned two areas of tension: temple lodgings (shukubō) and the nōkyōjo. Perhaps
behind these complaints is a conscious or unconscious desire for some recognition of
their efforts. Kushima Hiroshi – who runs reputedly the best Japanese web site on thepilgrimage – gave the following response to my questions on this topic:
Many walking henro complain about not receiving any respect from the temple
people. I think henro using bus[es] and cars are not so conscious of this . . .
Temple people (including priests and employees) are not concerned about
whether a henro is walking or driving a car. That might be because most of themhaven’t walked [it] themselves. Everybody who has ever walked [it] seems to bevery respectful to walking henro.Also, from the religious standpoint, pilgrims by
car and on foot may be equivalent, they would say. (Kushima15)

After his difficulty in explaining to the priest why he needed to walk (see above),
Marc Pearl asked himself, ‘Is this walk just an ego thing?’ He wondered if he wasbeing hypocritical, since he was ‘not praying or constantly studying the sutras.’ Hedecided that walking was his prayer, and concluded with the following suggestion:
Maybe to graduate from the Shingon Buddhist University, before one canbecome a Jushoku Head Priest, before one can ‘own’ a temple, it should be arequirement to do the 88 Sacred Temples Pilgrimage by WALKING!’ (Pearl,
1993: Days 8/9, p. 2)

15

Personal e-mail communication, 15 December 2001.

44

Highways and henro michi
Reader (1987a) considers ‘recent developments have served to discourage the footpilgrim.’ (p. 142). New highways have replaced many of the old henro michi (pilgrim
footpaths), so that in some places ‘the route is neither quiet nor particularly safe.’(Reader, 1987a:142). Tunnels have been bored through mountains – some over akilometre long. Most of them have no provision for pedestrians, and to walk throughone with the roar of traffic, the exhaust fumes, and the fear you might be hit, is athoroughly unpleasant experience. In the meantime, the old mountain passes have inmany places become overgrown. Thus, a number of comments on the Waseda survey
were pleas for the protection of the henro michi – ‘dōzo kono michi wo mamottekudasai’ (Waseda, 1997:144) – or for their maintenance, while preserving theiratmosphere: ‘Henro no michi wa ima no funiki wo nokoshinagara seibi shite hoshii.’(Waseda, 1997:142).
Accomodation
Fewer pilgrims on foot have led to deteriorating conditions for walking, which serves
to discourage potential walkers, in a spiral of decline, as Reader (1987a) describes:
The older structure that supported the walker has eroded with the disappearanceof many of the old pilgrims’ lodges that catered for walkers. This is due both to alack of walkers and to the fact that the simple facilities they offer areunacceptable to modern pilgrims for whom increased convenience and comfort
have led to higher expectations and demands. (Reader, 1987a:142).

One of the main complaints in Waseda’s comments section concerned the difficultylone pilgrims face in being accepted at temple lodgings (shukubō). The temples
appear to prefer the more predictable and free-spending bus parties. Priests urge
‘sendatsu to get their parties to stay at temple lodging houses (shukubō),’ according
to Reader (1993b), ‘because this would allow closer contact between temples andpilgrims and encourage deeper religious behaviour.’ (Reader, 1993b:27). Whether
this is really an effort to improve pilgrims’ religious outlook, or merely an economic
interest in the money the bus parties bring to the temples is unclear. Outside the peakpilgrimage seasons almost all the shukubō close. One man wrote:
Dōka shukubō wo motareru ji-in de wa jiki wo towazu aruki henro no tame ni
shukubō wo kaihō shite itadakitai to omoimasu. (For the sake of the walking

45

pilgrim, I would like the temple lodgings to be kept open whatever the season).
(Waseda, 1997:143).

Kushima thinks shukubō do not welcome walkers travelling alone, since:[L]one henro are tiresome guests for them. They don’t make [a] reservation or
often cancel it. They don’t come at the same time and don’t depart at the sametime. Sometimes they depart too early, before the attendants leave their bed[s].
The bath is, [as] you know, public bath style [so] to accept few guests they haveto consume a lot of energy (= cost) to keep [up the] temperature of the big bathtub. . . . Only a few temples, [where the] shukubō is managed as a youth hostel,can provide their service to lone henro.16

NōkyōjoWith the increasing emphasis on acquiring the tangible evidence of having performed
the pilgrimage (nōkyō), some pilgrims present more than one item at the nōkyōjo.
Waseda’s results showed that while forty-one percent carry just the nōkyōchō (book),
thirteen percent each carry either the nokyōchō and a scroll (kakejiku), or the scroll
and hakui (robe), and fifteen percent carry all three. (Waseda, 1997:132). To stamp
and inscribe all these takes time. With the bus pilgrims on a tight schedule, the driver
takes all the passengers’ nōkyō materials to the nōkyōjo while they are performing
their mairi (worship). There are usually only two (or at most, three) priests or temple
employees on duty, so when two or more bus parties arrive at a temple
simultaneously (a not uncommon occurrence during spring or autumn), lone pilgrims
may have to wait a long time for service. This causes frustration for walkers who aretrying to reach a particular destination by a certain time and is one of the majorcomplaints on the Waseda survey. A fifty-eight-year-old walker wanted preferential
treatment: ‘Nōkyō toki, dantai yori kojin no aruki wo yūsen shite hoshii.’ (Whengetting the nōkyō I want walking individuals to be given preference over groups).
(Waseda, 1997:157).
A common complaint on Waseda’s survey concerned the hours of operation of
the nōkyōjo: seven a.m. to five p.m. Twenty-three percent of respondents thought
they close too early (Waseda, 1997:135); many asked that they be kept open until six
p.m., or requested seasonal extensions when daylight hours are longer. Other
comments from walkers included complaints about bad-mannered drivers on narrow

16

Personal e-mail communication, 15 December 2001

46

roads and requests for better signs on the henro michi; these are mostly small red
stickers (either arrows or an image of a walking henro) placed by Henro michi hozon
kyōrokukai (co-operative association to preserve the pilgrim paths).
Attitudes to walking and worship
We passed a lone pilgrim – it may have been the one I saw earlier – and Saburō
gave his approval. ‘That man is a real traveler. He has the spirit of Kōbō Daishi.
Today’s pilgrims, bah! They travel by bus, they stay in hotels. I call them“instant henro.” Just add water, like Cup Noodle.’ (Ferguson, 1998:136)

On the Waseda survey, one question contained opinion statements which pilgrims
were asked to agree or disagree with. (Waseda, 1997:129). The first was: ‘The
essential meaning of the pilgrimage is to walk, performing austerities on the way.’(Henro wa toho ni yoru dōchū shugyō ni koso honrai no imi ga aru). Just over fortytwo percent of respondents strongly agreed, and over thirty-one percent agreed
somewhat. Twelve percent disagreed somewhat, and only nine percent disagreed
strongly. (Waseda, 1997:138). Thus almost three quarters of the pilgrims agreed thatwalking pilgrims perform it in the most meaningful way. However, only elevenpercent of pilgrims were actually walking exclusively (and five percent were mainly
walking).17
Another statement, ‘Because worship at the temple has the most meaning, thedifferent methods of travelling the pilgrimage don’t matter’ (Henro wa, reijo junpai
ni imi ga aru kara, idō shudan no chigai wa mondai de wa nai), (Waseda, 1997:129),
produced a more mixed result, with fifteen percent agreeing strongly and thirty-fourpercent agreeing somewhat; while twenty-eight percent disagreed somewhat andseventeen percent disagreed strongly (almost the same percentage – possibly thesame people – as those walking). (Waseda, 1997:138). Thus almost half thought
travel methods are less important than worship. The priest who suggested Marc Pearltake a bus or train told him: ‘Inori (prayer) is really 90% of the Pilgrimage. Shugyō(walking discipline/austerities) is only 10% important, if at that.’ (Pearl, 1993: Days
8/9, p.2).

17

Kushima questions Waseda’s figures of 11 percent walking. He thinks that walkers probably makeup only ‘1 or 2 percent of the total.’ (Personal e-mail communication, 6 January 2002)

47

Walkers’ attitudes
Most walking pilgrims do not agree that method does not matter. A fifty-six-year-old
walker commented, ‘pilgrims who use vehicles are just sightseeing aren’t they?’(norimono wo riyō shita henro wa tannaru kankō ni sugine?) (Waseda, 1997:146-7).
Some non-Japanese walking pilgrims insist: ‘The temples themselves are not theexperience.’ (McLachlan, 1997:120). Statler asserts that they ‘provide places ofworship; they define the route; they are milestones of a sort. The temples punctuate
the pilgrimage but they do not constitute it.’ (Statler, 1983:298). McLachlan wonders
what Kōbō Daishi would have thought of today’s motorised pilgrims, and continues:
The experience is in overcoming the physical and mental hardships required tocomplete the pilgrimage. Battling fatigue, sore feet, the elements. Ascetic
practice. Kōbō Daishi believed in ascetic practice. The hardships are faced
between the temples, not at them; and those who sit in an air-conditioned bus
between them are defeating the whole purpose. But this is only the opinion of aself-righteous walking henro. Me.(McLachlan, 1997:120)

For these pilgrims, the difficulty of the walk appears to have the most significance.
However, as Reader (1987a) observes, ‘the increasing ease with which pilgrims canget between sites and the removal of the barriers of hardship and effort formerly
necessary’ have meant that for the motorised pilgrim, ‘the focus is now falling largelyon the sites, with the spaces between to be completed as fast as possible.’ (Reader,
1987a:143).
On the pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela in Spain, the method of travel
defines the pilgrim: ‘Even if one is religiously motivated, pilgrim status is reserved
for those who get to Santiago by foot or pedal.’ (Frey, 1998:18). In Shikoku, as seen
above, there are no such requirements – all are considered pilgrims. However, it
seems that some regard themselves as better than others, as McLachlan explains:
I was beginning to realise that there is a hierarchy within henro. Or at least, a
perceived hierarchy. Walking henro, doing it rough as we were doing, consider
themselves most erai [great]. They look down on walkers who stay in yado(accomodation houses). Next come ‘bicycle henro’ who are at least making somephysical effort. Then come ‘motorbike henro’, ‘car henro’, ‘taxi henro’ and ‘bus
henro’ who make no physical effort at all unless they have to. (McLachlan,
1997:50).

This hierarchy is of course, ‘only important to walkers. The harder you make it for
yourself, the more erai you must be!’ (McLachlan, 1997:65). A twenty-one-year-old

48

American who slept out, stressed his ‘entirely different experience,’ from ‘those whojust walk it and stay at inns every night;’ yet he insisted this was the whole point:
Without the difficulty of walking it and camping out, you’re missing out on a
giant portion of the pilgrimage. That’s why the car/bus henro were so
dramatically different from the walking henro. The difficulty purifies the henroof his foolishness, arrogance, selfishness, etc. Car and bus henro miss out on thatand in many cases only do the pilgrimage superficially.

Frey explains the attitudes of those who perform the Santiago pilgrimage, which may
be reflected also in some of the comments by Shikoku walking pilgrims:[W]hen bus pilgrims are labeled ‘tourists’ by foot or bicycle pilgrims it is not apejorative statement about their motives but their movement choices. Tourists,
understood to be frivolous, superficial people, travel en masse by bus, car orplane. Pilgrims, understood to be genuine, authentic, serious people, walk andcycle. (Frey, 1998:27).

The pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela is tightly controlled: pilgrims mustcarry a credential which is ‘only for those who go on foot, bicycle or horseback andwho “desire to make the pilgrimage in a Christian sense, even though it may only be a
general searching”.’ (Frey, 1998:67). It must be stamped along the way and presented
to receive the compostela (certificate of completion). McLachlan’s ‘perceived
hierarchy’ is institutionalised on the camino to Santiago, with the volunteer-run free
refuges (which offer accomodation on a first-come, first-served basis) giving
preference to walkers over cyclists. All of this seems the very antithesis of the totallyunregulated Shikoku pilgrimage. Perhaps walking pilgrims in Shikoku would not liketo be as regulated as on the route to Santiago, but they do appear to be seeking someform of recognition of their distinctness from motorised pilgrims. Demands for accessto the shukubō year round, and to be given priority at the nōkyōjo appear to indicatethat walkers consider themselves to be a special category of pilgrim – perhaps more‘genuine’ than those on bus tours, and thus deserving of preferential treatment.
Yet bus tours have made the pilgrimage accessible to many who otherwise
could not perform it. One could argue that pilgrimage should not be available only tothose who are physically fit. The bus pilgrims too, are kept to a punishing schedule;
when Reader spent some time with a group, he reported ‘[they] proved to be four ofthe most hectic and wearying days of my life.’ (Reader, 1993a:127). The steep paths
and flights of steps up to the temples also present a real challenge for the elderly and49

infirm. Most Japanese pilgrims seem to acknowledge that walking the pilgrimage is
the ideal, (see p. 47) but it is simply not practical for them. Since visiting all thetemples, reciting the correct sutras and collecting the hōin are probably considered
the primary activities, performance methods are less important.
Modern manifestations
It is those with the most ‘religious’ motivations who appear to be the mostdisillusioned by the pilgrimage’s ‘modern-day reality,’ as the twenty-one-year-old
quoted above defined it. He recalled meeting a British priest (denomination
unspecified) who said:
the pilgrimage he was doing . . . (his fourth time around) would be his last because hecouldn’t stand to see the corruption of the pilgrimage, the temples and Shingon itself
any longer. While the temples were once places of purity and true devotion, most are
now far more concerned with money, and other materialistic things like upgradingthemselves, becoming more popular, etc.

Whether the temples were ever as pure as this man believes is immaterial; thesituation clearly is not consistent with his perception of what a pilgrimage should be.
The pilgrimage is obviously very different now from the days when everyone walked
it. However, Reader (1993a) considers those complaining about corruption ‘are tosome degree indulging in a standard human exercise of looking back nostalgically toa past that is always better in the imagination than the present.’ (Reader, 1993a:127).
In an era of consumerism and instant gratification, where self-denial and asceticism
are distinctly out of fashion, we should not be surprised at seeing examples of this inpilgrimage, which is after all, a component of popular culture; it is simply reflecting
the dominant values of contemporary society.

50Conclusion

Previous chapters have compared and contrasted the profiles, motives, impressions
and performance methods of Japanese and western pilgrims, and have found somesignificant differences between them. In fact, one American’s initial response to myrequest to participate in the research was:I’d be surprised if us westerners have anything in common with your Japanese
respondents, other than that we all went around in the clockwise direction. When
you look at Waseda’s survey, the vast majority of people do the pilgrimage by
bus, kugiri-uchi, when they are retired, and for reasons other than travel orreligion. All just the opposite of what us westerners seem to do. [Emphasis
added].

To review the major differences: while most Japanese pilgrims were in their fifties
and sixties, the western pilgrims were generally much younger – the average age
being the late thirties. The majority of Japanese – as noted by the American above –travelled by motor vehicle, as part-time pilgrims (kugiri-uchi), but the westerners all
walked the route – mostly in one trip (tōshi-uchi). There were some shared motives,
such as self-discovery, ascetic training and history, but most of the Japanese pilgrims’
motives related either to ancestors and the recently deceased, or to practical concernsof everyday life, such as health and safety; whereas the non-Japanese pilgrims’
motives mostly centred on hiking in the natural environment or an interest inJapanese culture. While both Japanese and westerners expressed appreciation for
nature and the people of Shikoku, the Japanese pilgrims mostly described theirexperiences in relation to their feelings: being refreshed, calmed, purified or grateful.
Many of the westerners, however, wrote more dramatically about the intensity of
their experiences, and how the pilgrimage had changed their lives.18

18

To what extent the westerners surveyed can be considered typical is an issue that must be taken into
account. I have met a number of international residents in Tokushima who have participated in bus
excursions to at least the first twelve temples – although whether they considered themselves pilgrims
at the time is doubtful – as well as an Australian woman who visited all the temples in her car. The factthat the pilgrims I contacted had put their names on a list of ‘Known henro’ willing to communicate
with others about the pilgrimage would seem to indicate a particular interest in it (that they responded
to my questions – some even sending me their own written accounts – attests to this, as does the factthat the American quoted above possesses a copy of the Waseda survey). Further research with a muchlarger sample of non-Japanese pilgrims will be needed to confirm whether the data and hypothesispresented here are accurate.

51

It is obviously unreasonable to compare fifteen western walking pilgrims withhundreds of Japanese motorised pilgrims; realistically they should be comparedsolely with Japanese walking pilgrims. However, after examining the motives andimpressions of all the Japanese respondents, walkers do not appear to differ
noticeably from those travelling in cars or on bus tours. As seen in the quotations in
Chapter Three, for most themes there were almost identical statements from pilgrims
in all travel modes. It was only in their common disdain for motorised pilgrims that a
number of Japanese and western walkers expressed similar views. It is necessary tolook elsewhere to explain the differences: to the concept of pilgrimage itself.
Pilgrimage, as represented in European or North American literature andhistorical accounts, evokes an image of a long, arduous and possibly dangerous
journey through foreign lands, encountering different cultures and customs, to a
distant sacred goal. In his foreword to Phil Cousineau’s 1998 book, The Art of
Pilgrimage: The Seeker’s Guide to Making Travel Sacred, Huston Smith declares:
To set out on a pilgrimage is to throw down a challenge to everyday life. Nothing
matters now but this adventure. . . . The naked glitter of the sacred mountain stirs
the imagination; the adventure of self-conquest has begun.’ (Cousineau, 1998:xi).

The words ‘challenge’, ‘adventure’ and ‘self-conquest’ exemplify ‘the pilgrim as
hero’ that Aziz describes. Pilgrimage appears to be attractive as a spiritual activity
that also involves physical challenge. Frey reports that many of the predominantly
male pilgrims to Santiago ‘boast about the number of kilometres they are able totravel each day. Instead of the 20- or 30-kilometre average, some walk 40 to 60
kilometres per day.’ (Frey, 1998:30). An example of this in Japan is Craig McLachlan– a New Zealander who had previously walked from Ky¨shu to Hokkaidō – whocompleted the Shikoku pilgrimage circuit in thirty days. (McLachlan, 1997:223).
Perhaps the emphasis on individual achievement in a competitive, goal-oriented
society influences this type of behaviour. Turner and Turner (1978) ‘argue that there
is a significant difference between pilgrimages taken after the industrial revolution
and all previous types’ (p.38):[P]ilgrimage has become an implicit critique of the life-style characteristic of theencompassing social structure. Its emphasis on the transcendental, rather thanmundane . . . its generation of communitas; its search for the roots of ancient,almost vanishing virtues as the underpinning of social life . . . all have52contributed to the dramatic resurgence of pilgrimage. (Turner and Turner,
1978:38).

By contrast, it is said that, ‘In Japanese culture, the image of pilgrimage took apeculiarly poetic and haunting turn.’ (Coleman and Elsner, 1995:186). The haiku poet
Matsuo Bashō is probably the most famous poet-pilgrim. He ‘spent the last ten yearsof his life going on a number of pilgrimages, dressed like a priest’ (Coleman andElsner, 1995:187); his ‘The Narrow Road to the Far North’ shows his melancholy
nature:But though I might die on the road – on this journey to far and remote places, off
the beaten track – I was resigned from the beginning to the evanescence ofhuman existence; and if I fall by the wayside and die in a ditch like a beggar, it
will merely be my fate. (Matsuō, 1974: np19)

For wanderers like Bashō, and possibly also for the ‘professional’ pilgrims on theroads around Shikoku, movement seems to have taken on a meaning of its own, as
Coleman and Elsner explain: ‘For Bashō, the particular goal was less important than
the wandering itself and the deep motivation for attaining an interior state, anecstasy.’ (Coleman and Elsner, 1995:187). Both the mythic adventure, and the driveto achieve, are absent; instead, the idea of pilgrimage seems to be of wandering in
nature and visiting places associated with holy men of the past. The fact that, except
for the earliest pilgrims to China, almost all pilgrimage has been within the country,
also removes the encounters with different cultures noted in most western pilgrimage;indeed, as described by Foard in the last chapter, pilgrimage has tended to reinforce
Japanese identity through the sense of sharing a common history.
While some Japanese undoubtedly do undertake the pilgrimage in a spirit ofascetic discipline, this may not imply exactly the same thing as for a western pilgrim.
Kitagawa (1987) has written that Japanese Buddhism has ‘a propensity forunderstanding the meaning of life aesthetically rather than ethically or
metaphysically’ (Kitagawa, 1987:268). One of Hoshino’s walking pilgrims describedarriving at the final temple and ‘being able, for the first time to indulge in a momentof bliss,’ (‘hoetsu’ to iu shifuku no shunkan ni hitaru koto ga dekita). (Hoshino,

19

This book had disappeared from the library when I went to check the page number.

53

1999:60). This reflects Bashō’s ‘ecstasy,’ noted above, and could illustrate
Kitagawa’s assertion.
At the root of these contrasting ideas of pilgrimage is the different nature of
religion in each culture. Turner and Turner (1978) describe how, in western nations:
Religion . . . has been moved into the leisure sphere . . .On the other hand, work .
. . has been totally segregated from religion . . . Thus, under the influence of thedivision between work-time and leisure-time, religion has become less serious
but more solemn . . . it has become specialized to establish ethical standards andbehavior in a social milieu characterized by . . . large scale secularization.
(Turner and Turner, 1978:35-6).

The current revival of interest in the sacred may be a reaction to consumerism and an
excessively secular society. Books such as Phil Cousineau’s (see p. 52) aim to help
those jaded with conventional tourism to transform their travel experiences. Some
believe it necessary to perform a pilgrimage as closely as possible to the way it would
have been done in the past, emulating the ascetic monks. The material aspects of the
Shikoku pilgrimage are offensive to those seeking an exclusively sacred experience;
yet pilgrimage has always combined sacred and profane. As Turner and Turner note:‘The great medieval pilgrimages, in Islam as in Christianity, were usually associatedwith great fairs and fiestas, as indeed they are in Shinto Japan.’20 (Turner and Turner,
1978:36). Sumption (1975) reports a knight offering to buy an indulgence from a
servant who had travelled to Assisi, for the amount he had spent getting there.
(Sumption, 1975:295). This could be compared to buying a scroll with all the
Shikoku eighty-eight hōin on it.
The Japanese, however, as reported in Chapter Two, do not clearly separate
secular and sacred behaviour, and ritual is more central to religion than belief.
Pilgrimage appears to be more of an inner journey; perhaps it may be considered as aritual of purification – a calming and cleansing of the spirit and a reorienting themind, to put the pilgrim into a right relationship with the gods and nature (one person
described this as a humbling feeling, not a heroic one) – enabling him or her then to
return to the structured life of everyday urban society, feeling refreshed and renewed
and able once again to interact with others in the busy city. Since they do not strictly20

Not just Shinto, but Buddhist Japan too, I would suggest. Tō-ji, Kōbō Daishi’s former temple in
Kyōto, holds a flea market on the 21st of each month, to mark the day the saint ‘entered into nirvana.’

54

separate the sacred from the profane, perhaps the modern manifestations do not
offend them so much – particularly as the majority are benefitting from theconvenience – although, as seen in the last chapter, there were certainly someJapanese who criticised the temples for ‘becoming like merchants.’
When the western pilgrims describe the intensity of their experiences using
terms like ‘amazing’, ‘sublime’, ‘exhilarating’, ‘empowering’ and ‘life-altering’ they
are conforming to Huston Smith’s ‘challenge’, ‘adventure’ and ‘self-conquest:’ this ispilgrimage as a mythic voyage of self-discovery. Whereas, when Japanese pilgrims
describe feeling ‘cleansed,’ or ‘refreshed’ or ‘flooded with a strange peace and afeeling of fulfilment’ they are reporting experiences consistent with their concept ofpilgrimage as an inner journey of renewal and purification. Thus pilgrims from both
cultures are performing the pilgrimage according to their own notions of whatpilgrimage represents for them, and their impressions echo those concepts.
As for the role that the pilgrimage plays in contemporary Japanese life: if the
Shikoku pilgrimage were to be considered as a ritual, the fact that the majority ofparticipants come in spring means that it could fit conveniently between January’s
hatsumōde (New Year visits to shrines and temples) and the summer o-bon festival(when the ancestral spirits are believed to return to their homes) as a cyclical ritual ofrefreshment, renewal, and reintegration into Japanese society.

55

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