Disclaimer: this image is generated by AI

BABIES VS. PLASTICS

Master of Arts, English
EARTHDAY.ORG“Our reliance on plastics could
be the biggest gamble in thestory of human health, in history.
We are all ingesting and inhaling
microplastics. They are
everywhere. Are we just hoping
they are safe, or is even the
remotest possibility they might
be toxic so terrifying, that we
can’t contemplate it?”

WITH SPECIAL THANKS TO
Lauren Lightcap, Taylor Tagliavia & Alexis Ellis~Kathleen Rogers
President, EARTHDAY.ORG

PRINCIPAL EDITORS

Aidan Charron
Bachelor of Science, Biology
Director, End Plastics Initiatives
EARTHDAY.ORG

Jacob Wunsh

INTRODUCTION

We are living in the Plasticene.
An era in which plastics havepermeated every aspect of our lives
like an epidemic. Microplastics are
impossible to avoid.

know back then? As plastic production
sets to double by 2040 what do
we really know about this non-inert
material and its array of additive
chemicals?

Since the 1950’s when plastics firststarted appearing in our lives wehave been force fed the idea thatthey make our lives better—plastics
were almost good enough to eat.
In a 1997 advert from the American
Plastic Council that is exactly how
they touted plastic wrappings andcontainers. They joked plastics were
the sixth food group, there to keep
contamination out of our foods aswell as extending their shelf life.

This is an EARTHDAY.ORG primer
on plastics, microplastics and theiradditive chemicals, with over 120
sources, capturing what studies
from around the world have been
discovering about how we ingest
microplastics, how they canbioaccumulate inside of us and what
the health consequences might be.
We have included recent studies,pilot studies, studies with large
sample groups and some with far
smaller ones.

We are only now discovering how
pertinent that sentiment is as wefind microplastics in our water andin the food chain itself. We are indeed
almost certainly all eating plastics.
While we can be pretty sure thecopywriter was not laughing at
our expense—the real question is—what did the plastic industry actually

The results, taken collectively, arealarming and demand answers.
We can no longer just ‘trust’ thatplastics are safe, we need themproven to be safe by independent
research. Until such time—theprecautionary principle should
be applied.
01

CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Welcome to the Plasticene
What Exactly Are Microplastics?
Microplastics in Our Homes
Microplastics in Our Atmosphere
Microplastics in Our Food Chain
Plastic Production Is Increasing
The Power of the Precautionary Principle

3–15

CHAPTER 1 | OUR PLASTIC PLANET
Brief History of Plastics
How Are Plastics Made
Plastic Boom = A Microplastic MegaBoom
BPA: A Plastic Snapshot

16–20

CHAPTER 2 | WHY BABIES?
Mouthing, Crawling, Teething
Breast Milk
Toys
Playgrounds
Baby Clothes
Miscarriage
Microplastics in the Placenta
Male Fertility

21–30

CHAPTER 3 | MICROPLASTICS & BIOACCUMULATION
Gastroenteritis & Urinary Systems
Blood
Lungs
Brain

31–36

CHAPTER 4 | HEALTH RISKSThe Endocrine System
AutismLearning Difficulties & Attention Deficit Disorder
Cancers

37–41

CHAPTER 5 | HOW DO YOU SOLVE A PROBLEM
LIKE MICROPLASTICS?
Upstream Issues
Potential Upstream Solutions
Downstream Issues
Global Solutions
Plastics & The Power of Microorganisms
Conclusion
Actions Needed

42–52

END NOTES (SOURCES)

53–59
02

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The full extent of the health risks associated with microplastic exposure
is not yet fully understood. But evidence is mounting that plastics,
microplastics and their additive chemicals pose potentially serious
health risks to humans, with babies and infants being especiallyvulnerable, for reasons we lay out in this report.
• There is evidence that microplastics bioaccumulate in our major organs(including the brain), and evidence that nanoplastics can breach theblood-brain barrier.
• Microplastics have been found in the human placenta.
• Microplastics (and their additive chemicals) have been linked to higher
rates of both miscarriage and male infertility.
• Microplastics have been detected in dairy milk and breast milk.
• There is evidence that babies ingest more microplastics and microfibres
than adults because of key developmental stages—specifically crawling,
teething and their habit of tasting inanimate objects. One study
suggests babies ingest/inhale 10 times the level of microplastics to thatof adults.
• Microplastics (and their additive chemicals) are both shed and leachedfrom plastic toys, clothes, furniture and even the soft ‘crumb tire’ of
playgrounds.
• Studies have shown there is a higher percentage of microplastics inthe air we breathe inside than there are in the air we breathe outside.
Some studies claim babies spend up to 90% of their time indoors.
• Microplastic ingestion, inhalation and bioaccumulation have been linked
to a wide range of health issues in children; one study found thatphthalate exposure (a chemical used in the making of certain types ofplastics) was associated with a 20% higher rate of childhood cancer
overall.
• Weathered microplastics are more damaging than virgin microplastics
as they can absorb toxic chemicals and heavy metals, as well as
potentially carrying viruses and hosting bacteria.

03

It feels as if we are drowningin information—research papers,
articles and headlines—on
the health implications posedby the ingestion and inhalationof microplastics (a derivativeof petroleum) and the additive
chemicals used in the manufactureof plastics. But let’s be clear—
we need MUCH more research on
microplastics and human health.
Secondly, we are of course notchoosing to consume plastics.
But tiny plastic particles, filaments
and microplastics are in the air
we breathe, inside our homes, andin the water and food we consume.
Why? Because plastics truly havebecome ubiquitous in our world.
We wrap our food in plastics,
we use a myriad of different typesof plastic in every facet of industry
and manufacturing: from making
utensils to building cars to creating
computers. Even our clothes containplastics1. Practically everything we
use in the modern world has somecomponent made of plastic2.
This ranges from fishing nets
and furniture to microbeads foundin soaps and toiletries, as well as items
like tires, single-use water bottles,
medical equipment, vitamin
capsules, medicines, and beyond.
Well over 203 different basic typesof plastic are used around the world,
made with petrochemicals andvarious combinations of over
10,000 different chemicals4.
It is virtually impossible to opt outof coming into contact with plastics
or microplastics.

This report seeks to review
a spectrum of the most recent
scientific papers and studies on thissubject, as they relate to the risks
associated with plastics, theirassociated chemical additives,and microplastics—with particularattention to their impact on thewell-being of babies and infants.
Research suggests the health
implications presented by microplastics
extend to children both before
and after birth. There’s evidence
microplastics can interrupt
maternal-fetal communication5
and potentially damage DNA6.
Some studies even report finding
links between microplastic
ingestion and attention deficit
disorder7 (ADHD). Reports havelinked them to autism8, behavioral& developmental issues, endocrine
disruption (which can manifest as
early onset puberty9), and somecancers10, including in the prostate
gland of fetuses11, and much more.
New evidence from a pilot study
suggests babies, perhaps more thanany other demographic group, might
be more susceptible to ingesting
microplastics12. Researchers
discovered that median levelsof some microplastics were over
10 times higher13 in baby feces thanin that of adults. Is it surprising given
their toys, their clothes, their cribs,
their playgrounds, breast milk, can
all contain, leach or shed microplastics?
Babies and infants are inhaling andingesting microplastic particles atnearly every stage of modern life.
So how did we get here, the age ofplastics?

04
13

WELCOME TO
THE PLASTICENEConsumers did not create theplastic problem. The plastic
industry and manufacturers havebeen force feeding us plastic for
decades. They have encouraged
the idea that any issues withplastics center around the ‘trash’
problem - an issue which they claim
could be overcome if we would
embrace recycling14 more. While
plastics do present anever-increasing trash problem,
which recycling cannot solve, thereal issue with plastics is the rapidly
emerging health risks associatedwith them.
The word microplastic is becoming
increasingly common in our
vocabulary for a reason—we areslowly waking up to the potential
harm these tiny plastic particles
and their additive chemicals canhave on human health and on thewell-being of all living creatures.
Secondly the word microplastics is
becoming increasingly common in
our vocabulary for a reason—we areslowly waking up to the potential

harm these tiny plastic particles,
and their additive chemicals,
can have on human health and on
the well-being of all living creatures.
Scientists have speculated thatplastic is so pervasive it will soon
show up in our geological record15,
like dinosaur bones and sandstone
deposits. This truly is the age ofplastics, and what some are now
calling the Plasticene16. They cover
the bottoms of our oceans, even the
deepest part known as the Mariana
Trench, in the west Pacific, some
36,000 feet down17.
They are in our deserts, soils,
and atop the peaks of our tallest
mountains, including Everest18
with an elevation of over 29,000
feet. Plastic filaments have evenbeen discovered entangling thelegs of tiny ants in pine forests19
on the remote volcanic islandof La Palma. Plastics have invaded
our cities, towns, villages, andfarmland. Perhaps most alarminglyof all, plastics and microplastics
have been found bioaccumulating
inside many living species,
including inside us.
05

WHAT EXACTLY ARE
MICROPLASTICS?
In 2004, Professor Richard
Thompson, an oceanographer fromthe University of Plymouth in theUK, coined the term “microplastic.”
This term describes the billions ofminuscule bits of plastic that result
from either the breakdown of larger
pieces of plastic or which havebeen deliberately manufactured
for use in commercial products.
This latter type is known as primary
microplastics. Often nurdles, they
consist of resin pellets approximately
2 to 5 mm in diameter and they areused by industry to manufacture all
manner of plastic products.
Often a range of additive chemicals
are added to imbue the plastic being
produced with specific qualities,
for example softness or durability.
Another form of primary microplastics
are known as microbeads—which
are used in beauty and healthcare
products—such as skin exfoliants
and toothpastes.

The second type of microplastic,
often referred to as secondary
microplastics, are made fromthe fragmentation and weatheringof larger plastic objects.
These microparticles are 5 mm in sizeor less and they are created whenlarger plastic pieces are impacted
by tides, hydrolysis, ultraviolet lightdegradation, wind weathering, andeveryday wear and tear. Gradually
over time the larger plastic pieces
degrade into tiny pieces: commonly
called microplastics. In their moreformal description microplastics aredescribed as “synthetic solid particles
or polymeric matrices20, with regularor irregular shape and with size
ranging from 1 m to 5 mm, of either
primary or secondary manufacturing
origin, which are insoluble in water.”Microplastics come in several forms:
fragments, pellets, beads, fibers, andfilm21. But the simplest explanationis that microplastics are essentiallytiny specks of plastic. Typically smaller
than a grain of rice. Meanwhile,
nanoplastics are far smaller, just 100
nanometres or less (1/5000th ofa grain of rice) and not visible
to the naked eye.

Microplastics are roughly the size of a grain of rice

06

How these microplastics might
potentially harm us is still inthe early stages of research,but it’s clear the adverse effectsof these microplastics can impact
us in one of two ways:• There can be physical effects,
determined by the size, concentration,and shape of the actual microplastics
ingested, often as microfibres orfilaments.
• There can be chemical effects,
which concern the additive
chemicals used in the making ofplastics. These additive chemicals22
can include inert or reinforcing
fillers, plasticizers and phthalates,
antioxidants, UV stabilizers,
lubricants, dyes, and flame-retardants.
• In addition to microplastics being
a contaminant in their own right,
they also act as vectors for othercontaminants and pollutants23
which they attract and adsorb—
such as toxic chemicals like heavy
metals24.
• Microplastics have also been linked
to hosting antibiotic resistant bacteria25
and antibiotic resistance genes.
Now there’s new evidence thatmicroplastics can carry viruses too26.

MICROPLASTICS IN OUR
HOMESMicroplastics are undoubtedly
everywhere27. We know they havebeen found all over the planet28,
even in remote locations, but not
surprisingly babies and children
are most likely to encounter
microplastics in their own homes.
Some research claims it is where
they can spend 90%29 of their time.
A 2022 study published byEnvironmental Pollution30, conductedacross 29 countries and in 108 homes,
collected data on the types of
microplastics found inside dust samples.
Of the total dust discovered in thesehouseholds, scientists recorded thefollowing percentages of synthetic
polymer fibers:
Polyester 9.1%
typically used in clothing
Polyamide 7.7%
typically used in textiles
Polyvinyls 5.8%
typically used in floor varnishes
Polyurethane 4.4%
typically used in coatings
on furniture
Polyethylene 3.6%
typically used in foodcontainers/reusable bags
07

The researchers discovered that thebest way to counter this was throughgood old-fashioned vacuuming.
And while they characterized thisexposure as ‘low risk,’ the total
exposure to microplastics, acrossthe board, was not studied.
This study of dust and its component
parts is not new. In the 1970s
researchers studied household dust
to determine the levels of lead31,
largely originating from lead-based
paints, that children were being
exposed to inside their homes.
The US federal government banned
consumer uses of lead based paints
in 197832.

Exposure to lead is extremely
harmful especially in children33.
It can damage the brain, slow
development, and decrease
the ability to pay attention.
While lead is being phased out
globally34, there are signs thatplastics, their additive chemicals
and microplastics might pose risks
that have not yet been fully taken
into consideration and are only now
beginning to emerge. One of the
key factors that makes the potential
health risks surrounding plastics(and their various constituent
parts) so concerning is just how
pervasive plastics are.

Human exposure to microplastic and nanoplastic particles

Inhalation per year
~121 000 particles
Large particles that are
not caught in the nose
may be deposited andlater eliminated bycoughing, blowing thenose, or sneezingA

Individual inhalation has been estimated to
be 26-130 airborne microplastics per day
People who breathe more through their mouth
are likely to have more particles reach the lungs

Ingestion per year
~52 000 particles

Inhaled particles may activate
T-cells, be phagocytized by macrophages,
and be transported to the lymph nodes

Large particles may be deposities
in the tracheobronchial region
and, if soluble, enter the bodySome coarse particles may
reach the alveolar region

Microplastics inan adult per year
~163 000 particles

Skin

Microplastics may accumulate
in the liver and kidney
Microplastics have been foundin human stools, suggesting particles
may be widespread in the humanfood chain

Nanoparticles
may penetrate
the skinUltra fine particles (UFPs), e.g. in
air pollution hot spots due toroad vehicles, may penetratebiological membranes andtransfer to systemic circulation
Microplastics found in
the human placenta
Illustrated by GRID-Arendal/Studio Atlantis

United Nations Environment Programme (2021). From Pollution to Solution: A global assessment of marine litter and plastic pollution. Nairobi.

08

MICROPLASTICS IN
OUR ATMOSPHERE
Microplastics aren’t just in household
dust accumulating under our furnitureand on our floors—they are present
in the air we breathe.
Research has discovered the average
human being could be inhaling up to
11.3 MP microplastics per hour35. Of
the air sampled in three apartments
in Denmark, the concentration of
microplastics, as a percentage ofparticulates in the air, was on
average 4%. So across all of theapartments and all of their rooms
on average 4% of all the particles in
the air collected was made up of
microplastics. Primarily thesemicroplastics were made frompolyester. But different percentagesof particulates ranged between
apartments by values of 58% andbetween different spaces inside thesame apartments by 16 percent to77 percent36, which suggests thatthe levels of contamination in the air
we breathe can vary significantly
even within the same home.

A 2023 preliminary study39 looking at
the potential risks of microplastics
weathered by ultraviolet radiation
discovered worn microplastics weremore toxic than so called virginmicroplastics, which are notweathered in the same way.
The worn or weathered microplastics
appeared to cause an inflammatory
reaction in human brain tissue.

Furthermore, the quantity of
microplastics detectable in ambient
air also depends on where you arein the world. Airborne microplastic
concentrations range from 0.01
particles37 per cubic meter in partsof the Pacific Ocean to several
thousand particles38 per cubic meterin cities like London and Beijing.

09

MICROPLASTICS IN
OUR FOOD CHAIN
Microplastics are in the food chain40
too. Fish, and all manner of smaller
creatures, consume tiny microplastics
in our waterways and oceans.
When these fish, crustaceans,and sea birds are in turn consumed,
the microplastics inside them keep
traveling up the food chain, througha process called “trophic transfer”41,
until they reach us.
A Nature, Scientific Reports, 2017
study42, which claimed to be thefirst of its kind, discovered plastic

nano-particles43, essentially piecesof plastic that are smaller than
microplastics in a range between
1 to 100 nanometres in diameter,
can penetrate the blood-to-brain
barrier in fish. They observed thischanged fish behavior. Fish that
consumed nano-particles, eventhird-hand, engaged in moredangerous swimming behaviors
vis-à-vis predation.
The study concluded plastic
nano-particles travel upwards
through the food chain to enter
the brain of the apex predator.
The apex predator at the top of
the food chain is often human beings.

HEALTH
PROBLEMS

Plastic Waste

Beauty & Care Items

Land & Water Body

Drinking Water

Food Materials

Fish/Seafood

Microplastics

Liver Toxicity
Digestive Toxicity
Reproductive Toxicity
Immunity Problems
Cancer Risks

Plastic Packaging

Microplastics and nanoplastics travel up through the food chain
10

A study in the journal Environmental
Science and Technology44 claims
humans could be consuming
39,000 to 52,000 microplastic
particles a year. This figure rises
to 74,000 to 121,000 microplastic
particles when particles we inhale
are factored in too (which is annuallyroughly about the weight of a barof soap).

New animal research has discovered
microplastics can accumulate insidemajor organs, like the brain andliver45 of mice as well as humanlung tissue46, as well as the tissueof human hearts47 after surgery
and the urinary and gastrointestinal
systems48of a sample of young
people, aged 16–35 years.

Organs Most Affected by Microplastics

13
11

PLASTIC PRODUCTION IS
INCREASING
There are more plastics now thanthere have ever been andproduction is increasing. In 2021,
over 390 million tons of plastic49
were produced with a market valueof 593 billion US dollars50.
Plastic production already accounts
for 3.4% of global greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions51, a percentagethat will increase as the petrochemicalindustry pivots to plastic production,
partially to counter a consumer
market shifting away frompetroleum-based fuel sources.
And those figures don’t include
the additional GHG contributions
from incineration, landfilling, andother waste management practices.
Unless something is done to curb
this trend, current rates of plastic
production could double by 2040.
Million tons
1 200

Global plastic production and accumulation.... and future trends
Incinerated

1 000 million tons

Still in use
2 900 million tons

1 000

Accumulation

800

1950-2017
9 200 million tons
Recycled

600

700 million tons

Discarded
5 300 million tons

400

200

Yearly production

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000
Year

2010

2020

2030

2040

2050

Illustrated by GRID-Arendal
UNEP (2021). From Pollution to Solution: A global assessment of marine litter and plastic pollution. Nairobi.

12THE PRECAUTIONARY
PRINCIPLE
So, given plastics are ubiquitousand the production of it is on
a trajectory to rapidly increasein the next decade, should webe applying a more precautionary
approach to plastics?
The precautionary principle statesthat the introduction of a new
product or process whose ultimate
effects are disputed or unknown
should be resisted. Or as theEuropean parliament defines it52—“...the precautionary principle
enables decision-makers to adopt
precautionary measures whenscientific evidence about anenvironmental or human healthhazard is uncertain and the stakes
are high.”
What stakes could be higher thanthe possibility that one of the mostprevalent man-made materials on
the planet might be toxic or haveadditive chemicals that aredamaging to human health, if
ingested or inhaled? This isespecially important given that this‘consumption’ of plastics, via
microplastics and micro fibers, isinvoluntary and virtually impossible
to avoid.

The European Union has adopted
the precautionary principle as a key
tenet of EU environmental law—
albeit with checks and balancesthat consider costs and benefits
as factors too. While in the US
the precautionary principle is not
expressly mentioned in any laws
or policies, it is not entirely absent
either.
In 1975, it was ironically a caseinvolving plastics53, The Society of
Plastics Industry, Inc v Occupational
Safety and Health Administration54,
that best exemplifies how
the precautionary principle canbe applied. The plastics industry
challenged the US Occupational
Safety and Health Administration’s(OSHA) worker exposure standard
for vinyl chloride (VC is an additive
chemical used in the makingof some plastics like PVC).
The court stated that it was the OSHA’s
duty to protect workers from higher
levels of VC exposure, even when
existing methodology or research
is deficient, which sounds like
another way of describing the
precautionary principle.

13

The EPA too has won cases using
this principle: The Clean Air Act’s“precautionary and preventive
orientation” approach was upheldby the DC Circuit Court of Appeals
in 1980, in a case involving lead,when the Court agreed with the EPA
that Congress had directed themto “err on the side of caution”
in making necessary decisions.
While the rising Greenhouse Gasses
alone caused by plastic production
are of concern in their own right andunderstood, the potential harmful
impact of microplastic particles onhuman health, as well as the 10,000
chemical additives used to makethem, is only just beginning to beinvestigated in earnest.
It has been calculated that the healthconsequence of PFAS55 alone, anadditive chemical used in everyday
plastics items like food containers,
is an economic burden on Americans,to the tune of somewhere between$5.5 billion and $63 billion annually56.
Medical bills and loss of productivity(due to illness) were both factored in.
Then there’s the cost to theenvironment—the United Nation
Environment Programme57
calculated as far back as 2014 thatplastic waste causes $13 billion US
dollars worth of damage to marine
ecosystems alone—every single year.

14Isn’t it time for the
precautionary principle
to be applied to plastics?

Disclaimer: this image is generated by AI

15

“In product after product,
market after market, plastics
challenged traditional materials
and won, taking the place ofsteel in cars, paper and glassin packaging, and woodin furniture.”~Susan Freinkel
A Toxic Love Story101
OUR PLASTIC PLANETA BRIEF HISTORY OF PLASTICS
So, how did this plastic planet come to be in the first place?
In 19072, Leo Baekeland was looking for a new substance to insulate
electricity cables in a rapidly modernizing US and invented Bakelite.
It was the first synthetic plastic, produced using petrochemicals.
Bakelite was a good insulator as well as being heat resistant anddurable. Perhaps most importantly, it could be mass produced.
Marketeers described Bakelite somewhat prophetically as“the material of a thousand uses,” because it could essentiallybe molded into any shape needed.
16Different types of plastic would
follow Bakelite, each imbued withspecific qualities, such as softness,durability, rigidity etc., madepossible by additive chemicals. As aresult, the production of plastics inthe United States alone increasedby 300%3 during WWII.
After World War II, there was nogoing back to a pre-plastic world;
industry and consumers alikeembraced how plastic4 could be
shaped and molded for practicallyany usage or need.

Oil and natural gas arerefined into short-molecule
chemicals called monomers

HOW PLASTICS ARE MADE
So how is plastic actually made?
The primary ingredient5 in mostplastics is derived from petroleum:
oil, natural gas, or coal. Which means
the fossil fuel companies who helped
create the climate crisis are now
helping to create the plastics crisis
too.
Heating petroleum at very hightemperatures causes it to break
down into molecules, which in theirsimplest definition are groups oftwo or more atoms. The primarytarget of this heating process is
to extract ethylene and propylene
molecules known as monomers.

PLASTIC MANUFACTURING
Monomers such as ethylene and propylene are linked together to form long polymer chains.
Once the polymers have been formed, the hot liquid plastic is cooled and cut into chips or pellets.

+
Oil & Natural Gas

Polymers

Monomers

Additive Chemicals

Plastic Products

RECYCLING

ChemicalRecycling

The recovered
monomers allow you tomake new plastics andother chemical products
such as waxes,
lubricants and fuels

Mechanical
Recycling

Sold toConsumers

Disposal
Plastic waste is
Plastic waste ischemically processed washed and melted
back into monomers back into polymers
Recycled Plastic Is of Inferior Quality
to Virgin Plastics

90% toLandfill

Plastic Lifecycle
17

These extracted chemicals are put
through various chemical processes,
called cracking or polymerization6.
During this process, extracted
monomers are linked together
through a series of complicatedchemical processes, to becomechains of self-repeating monomers,
known as polymers.
Following polymerization, additional
chemicals are added to give thepolymers the specific qualities needed.
For example, additives can make themmore or less flexible or durable—
they can even alter their color.
Many of these additives include
chemicals called phthalates
or plasticizers7, such as PFAS8(Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl
Substances), which make plastics
more flexible. Chemical compounds
like BPA9 (Bisphenol A), whichmake plastics more durable,
are another common additive.
BPA is classified as an Endocrine
Disrupting Chemical (EDC). All ofthese substances have been linked
to various sorts of cancer10.
Once these additives have been
introduced, the resulting plastic islaid into specific molds11 to makewhatever the manufacturingindustry wants to make—be it toys,
packaging, furniture, clothing,utensils, or bibs.

THE PLASTIC BOOM =A MICROPLASTIC MEGA
BOOM
According to the Plastic Health Map
created by the Minderoo Foundation,from 1961 to 1980 only 47 studies
were conducted to assess the humanhealth effects of plastics. Most ofthese studies examined synthetic
polymers which had become
inescapable in the average household.
Brand name polymers such as Nylon,
Teflon, and Mylar were virtually
everywhere. The limited research
focused on the impact polymers
have on the skin as well as thedigestive and immune systems.
It has taken decades for scientificinvestigation to finally start trying
to catch up with plastics production.
Global plastic production haspractically doubled in the last 20
years alone12, and with this there
has been an exponential increasein the amount of microplastics
leached into the environment.
Microplastics can now be foundeverywhere on our planet13 and in
turn, inside the human body14 too.
We are almost certainly only justbeginning to understand how
potentially harmful plastics,
microplastics, and the additives
used to make them could be forhuman health, but it is likely the
demographic most impacted byplastics, microplastics, and theirchemical additives could be babies
and infants15.
18

BPA: A PLASTIC
SNAPSHOT
So what do we really know about
this ubiquitous substance commonly
called plastic, 99% of which isderived from petroleum16 (be it oil,coal, or natural gas)? And what do weknow about the health implications
surrounding it? Increasingly,
researchers are gathering more andmore information about microplastics
as well as the additive chemicals
used to make plastics, but here is asnapshot of just one of the chemicals
found in plastic that has raised
serious alarm bells: Bisphenol A(BPA)17. Bisphenol A (BPA) wasinvented over 120 years ago18 andis currently used in the manufactureof things like hard plastic waterbottles and the lining of metal foodcans.
Long-term studies, carried out over
20 years, have determined there isevidence of BPA in nearly 93% of
the US population19. 2,517 urine
samples from people six years andolder were used to determine this.
The plastic industry20 claims the
low levels of BPA used as industry
norms right now are safe for use
in food packaging. The FDA has
backed those claims21, but theycome with some carve outs.

In July 2012, BPA was banned22 by
the FDA23 from use in baby bottles
and sippy cups—ironically at thebehest of the American Chemical
Council (ACC)24 who filed a foodadditive petition requesting the ban.
The American Chemical Council isjust one organization that represents
the plastic industry in the US:“The Plastics Division of theAmerican Chemistry Council (ACC)
represents leading manufacturers ofplastics, as well as other companies
throughout the entire plastics value
chain and focuses on advocacy
initiatives that promote sustainability
and contribute to a more circular
economy for plastics.”
Ironically the ACC asked for the ban
to reassure worried consumers thatbaby bottles and sippy cups were
now ALL BPA free, after sections of
the industry had begun to voluntarily
limit the use of BPA in these key
items. The ban was a way to reassure
consumers that plastic baby bottles
and sippy cups were safe.
In 2013, a citizen petition filed bythen Rep. Edward Markey (D-MA)25
also prompted the FDA to ban theuse of BPA in infant formulapackaging too.

19

In March 2023, the European Courtof Justice decided the European
Chemicals Agency26 (ECHA) was
right to identify BPA (Bisphenol A)
as a substance of very high concern
with regard to the environment27,
due to its endocrine disrupting
properties - but only after several
failed appeals by the plastic
industry in Europe. It is worth
noting the use of BPA is moreheavily restricted in Austria,
Belgium, Denmark, France andSweden28.

“Legislation and regulation
threaten to fundamentallychange our business model.
We can’t continue to fight backjust at the reactive stage whenthings are emotionally charged.
We have to take the offensive.”~William Carteaux30
Society of the Plastics Industry’s
then-president, talking to his industry
peers in 2009 as reported by
the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel31.

The regulation of plastics is complex,
but the industry in the US employs
preemptive tactics29 to counter
impending plastic restrictions orlegislation at state and federal level,
describing this as going on “theoffensive.”
In 2021, the Canadian government
formally classified plastics32 as toxic
to wildlife under the Canadian
Environmental Protection Act witha detailed assessment of plastic
pollution to back their decision
up33, which means the Canadiangovernment has increased powers
over the manufacture and usage ofplastics.
But the plastic producers arefighting back and this case is now
in court. As of March 2023, there is
still no final ruling and one is notexpected for several more months.

20

02
WHY BABIES?

MOUTHING, CRAWLING & TEETHING
Why are babies and infants adversely impacted by exposure and ingestionof microplastics and additive chemicals? Well first off, they are obviously
smaller than adults, so what may be a small dose for an adult is a muchlarger dose for them, consequently meaning bigger potential effects fora baby or a child.
Plus, babies and infants love to do many things adults don’t. Two of them
are chewing on inanimate objects and crawling on the ground! It is therefore
harder for children and infants to avoid microplastics as both activities
increase their chances of encountering them.
21

Babies and infants rely heavily on
taste to decode their world and thatinvolves putting practically everything
into their mouths. The mouth isfull of sensory nerve endings that
communicate directly with ourbrain. Chewing tells babies if
the item they are mouthing is foodor not, if it is hot or cold, sweetor sour, hard or soft, as well as lotsof other information that babies
seem to want. Typically this ‘tasting’stage stops at around 3 years old1,
but it means babies are essentiallyhardwired to chew on plastics.

“High concentrations of
microplastics in the feces of
one-year-old infants can be
attributed to extensive use ofplastic products/articles suchas baby feeding bottles, sippy
cups, utensils such as spoonsand bowls, plastic teethers,
and toys, among others, duringthat growth stage.”~Kurunthachalam Kannan2
PhD, Department of Pediatrics
NYU Grossman School of Medicine“If you really look at a 1-year-old
baby’s lifestyle, they use lots ofplastic materials, such as toys.
They put everything in theirmouths. Toys are one of themost important sources of
microplastic exposure,"~Kurunthachalam Kannan3
PhD, Department of Pediatrics
NYU Grossman School of Medicine

Babies and small children, fromthe age of 6 months typically until
a year old, also spend a great dealof time crawling on the ground as
they explore their world and embrace
mobility. Which means coming into
contact with household dust, someof which consists of microplastics.
This is probably why the level ofmicroplastics found in the feces ofbabies, as reported by a small study
from 2021 by the NYU Grossman
School of Medicine, appeared to
be over 10 times higher4 than thatfound in adults.
Therefore, in a world where so muchof everything around us is made ofplastic, or coated in plastics, children
by their very nature, partially dictatedby the stages of their development,
appear to be ingesting microplastics
and their additive chemicals at rates
higher than the average adult.
22

Plastic baby bottles account for
80%5 of all baby bottles around theworld, the vast majority of which are
made of a plastic called polypropylene.
A widely reported research paper
published by Nature Food6 foundusing this type of plastic bottle
releases microplastics directly
into the liquid in the baby’s bottle.
Scientists from Trinity College, Dublin
in Ireland published the study7 in
October 2020, and their findings
were shocking to many in the science
community.
They estimated infants could ingest
up to 4.5 million plastic particles per
day when fed from polypropylene
baby bottles. For 21 days the authors
recorded as microplastic release rates
from the plastic bottles fluctuatedfrom just a few thousand to as manyas 16.2 million particles per liter
into the water inside the bottles.
Extrapolating from bottle-feeding
rates from 48 different regions, they
determined infants up to a year old,
fed using polypropylene bottles,
may be exposed to a range of
microplastics from 14,600 to 4.55
million particles8 per infant per day.

Polypropylene
container filledwith clean water

Heated in
microwave
for 3 minutes

Millions of microplastics
are now suspended in
the warm water

Effects of Using a Microwave

Similar research needs to be carriedout on plastic sippy cups, bibs,
utensils, and feeding bowls—all items
which babies and infants use to
consume food and drink from.
What levels of microplastics areleaching into their food from these
items? And what levels of microplastics
are they ingesting from them via
sucking and chewing on them too?
It’s important to note teething canintensify periods of this biting andchewing on inanimate objects as well.
Even using a microwave to heat up
children’s food in plastic containers,
specifically made of polypropylene,
and reusable food pouches madewith polyethylene, can increase
their exposure to microplastics.
A study from a team of researchersat the University of Nebraska-Lincoln9
published in June, 2023, in the journal
Environmental Science & Technology,
indicated microwave heating caused
the highest release of microplastics
and nanoplastics to leach into foodcompared to other usage scenarios,
like refrigeration or storing food atroom temperature. It was found thatsome containers could release morethan 4 million microplastics10 and 2.11
billion nanoplastic particles from only
one square centimeter of plastic area
within 3 minutes of microwave
heating. The Nebraska team reported
three-quarters of cultured, humanembryonic kidney cells died at 1000
g/mL concentration after exposurefor 48 hours.
While the specific health impactsof this exposure to high levelsof microplastics are still largely
unknown, these results demandattention and further research.
23

BREAST MILKIn 2022, a pilot study detected
microplastics in dairy milk11.
They tested 25 milk samples, fromsupermarket cartons, from milk tanks
on farms, and from hand-milking.
They found microplastics in eighteenof the samples, including at least oneof each type.
In October 2022, researchers in Italy12
reported in the journal Polymers
they had detected microplastic inhuman breast milk for the first time.
Samples were taken from 34 healthymothers, a week after giving birthin Rome. The scientists detected
microplastics in 75 percent of them.
The authors of the report concluded:

In a subsequent study from 2023,
published in Environmental Pollution13,
a team of researchers from China
analyzed the quantity, size, andcomposition of microplastics released
into the disposable storage bags
used for expressed breast milk.
They reported finding microplastics,
most commonly polyethylene (PE),polyethylene terephthalate14 (PET),
and nylon-6. This equates tobetween 0.61–0.89 mg/day of
microplastics in the average dailybreastmilk intake by infants drinking
breast milk stored this way.

“In fact, the chemicals possibly
contained in foods, beverages, andpersonal care products consumed
by breastfeeding mothers may betransferred to the offspring,potentially exerting a toxic effect.”

24

TOYS
Plus, most baby and children’s toys
(unless sustainability sourced) will
nearly always contain a componentof plastic. Some reports claim 90%15of the toy market is made of plastic.
Two components commonly used16
are Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) andBisphenol A (BPA). Vinyl chloride(VC), which is used to make PVC, is aknown animal and humancarcinogen17, and could potentiallyleach out of plastic toys made with
PVC when they are chewed. BPA is
used to make plastics more
durable. But as stated earlier in thisprimer, BPA is a known endocrine
disruptor18 that can interfere with the
body’s hormone system, creatinghigh levels of estrogen.

In 2017, the U.S. Consumer Product
Safety Commission (CPSC)19 voted
to prohibit children’s toys and childcare articles containing more than
0.1 percent of certain phthalatechemicals used in the productionof plastics. In total, they have now
restricted 8 phthalates to theselevels. PVC and BPA are not banned.
The Toy Association20 representsmuch of the toy industry in the US.
Their manufacturing members
account for 93% of the US toy andgame market, which as of 2022 inits entirety, is worth $40 billion. In
September 2023, they made theirposition clear:“No federal or state jurisdiction has
restricted the use of BPA in toys.”25

BABY CLOTHES
Today, 69%21 of the fabrics we wear
are made of oil-based plastics:
polyester’s chemical name ispolyethylene terephthalate,acrylics are polyurethane, nylon
is polyhexamethylene adipamide,and spandex is a polyether-polyurea
copolymer.
These synthetic materials create
textiles that don’t need to be ironed,
dry quickly, and are water resistant—qualities parents often like in baby
clothes. As well as some qualities
they don’t like—some synthetics
don’t “breathe” as well as natural
materials and they can trap moisture.
But all of these synthetic fabrics
break down into potentially harmful
microplastics and microfibres. It is
not just clothes either—bedding,furniture, cots and mattresses canalso contain the same synthetic
material. All of them generating
more microplastics and microfibres.
Every time we wash our clothes andbedding, thousands of these tiny
particles (5 mm or less in length)
are discharged into the water.
Globally, 500,000 tons of thesemicrofibers are deposited in oceans
every year from our washingmachines. Of the 171 trillion
microplastics22 floating in oceans,the microfibers from clothing are
responsible for 35%23.

studies are showing that they canaccumulate in living organisms.
These fibers have been found to
impact marine life affecting feeding
and growth24, causing genetic
damage25, oxidative stress26,
impacts on behavior27, fertility
and reproduction and mortality28.
Added to the dilemma are the toxic
chemicals microfibers are coated with—the azo dyes and the formulations
to make clothes wrinkle-free, stainresistant, and water repellent suchas toxic fluorinated compounds(PFCs), PFAS29, PBPA, and phthalates.
Research commissioned30 at an
independent laboratory, to test for
PFAS in baby and children’s textile
products, found fluorine, a reliableindicator of the likely presence of
PFAS, in all 34 samples. PFAS havebeen linked to a range of health issues
from cancer to immune suppression31.
The Department of Epidemiology
at Brown University worked withcolleagues to analyze 16 studies
looking at the side effects ofphthalates and found evidence that
exposure to them during pregnancy
can increase the risk of preterm birthby 12-16%32. Preterm refers to delivery
before 37 weeks.

Research is needed to determine
the health implications of babies
and children inhaling or ingestingthese microfibres but already animal
26

“Ideally, governments would
develop and enforce regulations
to reduce exposure to theseharmful substances. It is
unreasonable to assume
that individual consumers can
avoid these substances andmanufacturers often take thepath of least resistance whenit comes to self-policing.”~ Dr. Joseph M. Braun, Ph. D33,
Associate Professor, Department of
Epidemiology at Brown University,
as quoted in Parents34, August 2023

PLAYGROUNDS
It’s not just items inside the home thatare cause for concern. Playgrounds
need to be further investigated as well.
One recent study35 found playgrounds
could contain more microplastics thanother areas inside an urban park.
Microplastic concentrations inside
the playgrounds were on average 5times greater36 than concentrations
outside the playgrounds, indicating
children playing within the playground
may be exposed to more microplastics
than children playing outside
the playground in the same park.
Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR),
often referred to as crumb rubber37,
is often obtained from scrap tires38
and employed in the constructionof all kinds of facilities for sports,
playing fields, indoor and outdoor
play areas, parks, and other recreational
facilities. It is frequently used to create
the bouncy surface of children’s
playgrounds.

But crumb rubber is believed to havethe potential to release a range ofchemicals and microplastic particles
into the environment, according
to three reports39 from 2007, 2010,
and 2016, by the California Officeof Environmental Health Hazard
Assessment (OEHHA). A 2017 study
by The Open University of theNetherlands40 published in theInternational Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health, estimatedtires accounted for as much as
10 percent of overall microplastic
waste in the world’s oceans. A 2017
report by the International Union forConservation of Nature41 begged todiffer and reported tires accounted
for 28 percent of overall microplastic
waste in the ocean.
In 2019, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)42 in the US determined
there was no increased risk fromplaying on fields made with crumbrubber, but they acknowledged
important data gaps exist andcalled for more research.
In September 2023, the European
Commission took measures43 to
restrict microplastics intentionallyadded to products. This will include
the use of scrap tires (or crumb rubber)in sport fields and playgrounds.
27

Disclaimer: this image is generated by AI

MISCARRIAGE
Perhaps even more concerningly,
exposure to microplastics and theirrelated chemical additives begins
even before birth.
A study44 published by Fertility and
Sterility measured the levels of BPA
in 114 pregnant women in an effort todetermine the relationship between

BPA and miscarriage. They concluded
that the median level of BPA among
women who miscarried was higher
than that among women with live
births. In particular, women withthe highest measured levels of BPA
were 83% more likely than womenwith the lowest levels to miscarryin the first trimester, even whencontrolling for such identity markers
as BMI and age.

Copyright: <a href='https://www.123rf.com/profile_udaix'>udaix</a>28

MICROPLASTICS IN
THE PLACENTA
Newer research has foundmicroplastics inside the placenta
itself. In 2022, a research teamfrom China using laser direct
infrared spectroscopy45 identified
microplastics inside of the placenta46.
The study identified two types of
microplastics as the polymers
polyvinyl chloride and polypropylene.
These two polymers are known to
induce potential health hazards,
such as oxidative stress, reproductive
system dysfunction, carcinogenesis,
and immune system dysfunction.
This study from China came after
a team in Italy, in 2020, investigatedsix human placentas collected (fromsix participating women) and in
this case the team used Raman
Microspectroscopy47 to evaluate
the presence of microplastics.
Italian researchers48 found 12
microplastic fragments (ranging from
5 to 10 m in size) with spherical or
irregular shapes in 4 placentas (5 inthe fetal side, 4 in the maternal side,and 3 in the chorioamniotic
membranes). All of them were
described as pigmented; three wereidentified as stained polypropylene,
a thermoplastic polymer, while forthe other nine it was possible toidentify only the pigments, whichwere all used for man-madecoatings, paints, adhesives, plasters,
finger paints, polymers, cosmetics,
and personal care products.

The placenta allows a fetus to receive
oxygen and nutrients from its mother,and also eliminates waste products
from the baby’s blood. All theseactions are normal and necessary
to allow a fetus to reach full term.
But microplastics accumulating
within the placenta can interrupt
communication between maternal
and fetal environment49, leading tobirth defects. These birth defects
can come from the developmentof preeclampsia50, which is theelevation of blood pressure for apregnant person, which in turn canstress the heart and affect bloodflow into the placenta. This means
fetal development may be restricted
due to a lack of necessary nutrientsflowing into the placenta.
The introduction of microplastics
into the placenta could introduce
Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals to
the fetus51 before they have evenbeen born and experienced
a breath of atmospheric air, a sipof water, or a taste of solid foodon their own. The endocrine systemgoverns our hormones, which is
critical to human development andhealth, especially at the fetal stage.

29

PLASTICS & MALE
FERTILITY
It is worth noting there is evidence
plastics appear to be contributing
to a decrease in male fertility52.
Researchers have begun to connect
plastics, specifically polystyrene
microplastics, with decreased sperm
motility and concentration.
Without ample ability to move,sperm effectiveness and fertilityof the male will drop53.
Another study looked into sea
urchin fertility and discovered how
detrimental plastics were to thelarvae of these creatures54. Other
studies point out the same findings
with fish larvae55 and crustaceans56.

30

03
BIOACCUMULATION

Increasingly animal and human testing is discovering microplastics canaccumulate in specific organs of the mammalian body. Microplastics canwork their way into the hearts, lungs, and brains of mice and “men”—arethey doing the same to babies too?
Here’s what we know: a mixture of animal and human testing has foundmicroplastics in the urinary system1, digestive system2, blood3, heart4,
lungs5, brain6, other major organs and in our feces7. Microplastic
exposure could be affecting many of the major organ systems8 in adeveloping child.
31

GASTROINTESTINAL& DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS
Scientists used to believe microplastics,
if ingested, would benignly passthrough the gastrointestinal tract.
However, recent research9 suggeststhat the smallest pieces of plastic
are able to bioaccumulate in various
parts of the body, including the gut.
Bioaccumulation takes place whena body takes in microplastics fasterthan it can dispose of them.
Once bioaccumulation occurs,
microplastics have been shown tocross cell membranes, such as the
blood-brain barrier (BBB)10. To makematters worse, concentrations appear
to be higher for infants than in adults.
The previously referenced NYU
Grossman School of Medicine
discovered that infants may haveover 10 times more11 microplastics intheir feces than adults - inparticular, PET (polyethylene
terephthalate) microplastic, which iscommonly used in the production of
textile fibers and water bottles. The
research was published in theEnvironmental Science andTechnology Letters12of the American Chemical Society(ACS)13 (not to be confused with theplastic industry’s lobbying group—
the American Chemical Council (ACC)).

on children aged 3 to 17 and a totalof 8 different plasticizers orphthalates were detected.
A study from 202315, published in
Environmental International, discoveredthat polystyrene nanoplastics,
particles of plastic even smaller
than microplastics, can crossthe embryonic gut wall of chicks.
Their research reported that
nanoplastics cause severe defects
in the heart and great vessels, andthey discovered that the nanoplastics
were able to bind to specific cells.
According to these scientists, this was
the first evidence of nanoplastics
disrupting the migration and survivalof an embryonic population of stem
cells16. Nanoplastics, therefore, maypose a health risk to the developing
embryo.
Stem cells are the body’s raw
materials—they are the cells fromwhich all other cells with specialized
functions are generated. Stem cells
become blood cells, brain cells, boneand heart muscle cells, and so on.
No other cell in the body has thisnatural ability to generate new cell
types, only the stem cell. So anythinginterfering with their survival ispotentially very serious, especiallyin these early stages of embryonicdevelopment.

Microplastics have been found inchildren’s urine as well. A 2020 studyin Germany detected some of theplasticizers associated with plastics
in 97-100%14 of morning urine samples
tested. These tests were performed
32

BLOODIn 2022, researchers from Vrije
Universiteit Amsterdam and theAmsterdam University Medical
Center17 analyzed 22 blood samples
from healthy, anonymous living
blood donors for traces of common
synthetic polymers and microplastics
larger than 700 nanometers. They
discovered evidence of several plastics
in the blood across 17 of the 22
samples18.
The microplastics detected included
polyethylene terephthalate (PET)19—
often used in clothing and drinking
bottles—and polymers of styrene20,
which is frequently used in vehicle
parts, carpets, and food containers.
This research was the first to findmicroplastics can get into the humanbloodstream itself. This is key because
if microplastics can enter ourbloodstream, they can potentiallyreach, and even accumulate, in any
organ in the body.
Perhaps not surprisingly given thatmicroplastics have been detectedin the blood, researchers in a small
pilot study22 reported in Environmental
Science & Technology foundmicroplastics in heart tissue
samples of patients undergoingheart surgery.

“It is certainly reasonable tobe concerned. The particles
are there and are transported
throughout the body.”~Study author Dick Vethaak21,
Ecotoxicologist at Vrije Universiteit
Amsterdam

33

“We did not expect to findthe highest number ofparticles in the lower regionsof the lungs, or particles ofthe sizes we found. This is
surprising as the airways are
smaller in the lower parts of
the lungs, and we would haveexpected particles of thesesizes to be filtered out or
trapped before getting thisdeep into the lungs.”~Dr Laura Sadofsky
Author of the study, senior lecturer in
respiratory medicine at Hull York Medical
School

LUNGS
Our lungs not only move oxygen
into the body and carbon dioxide
out of it, but they also act as
gatekeepers: essentially, they are
our filters. Mucus in our lungs
catches and holds dust, germs,
and other foreign bodies that haveentered the lungs. There is growing
evidence that our lungs are breathingin plastic particles floating in the air.
A study23 conducted by researchersat the University of Hull and Hull
York Medical School looked for thepresence of microplastics in humanlung tissue obtained following lung
reduction surgery24 or lung cancer25
surgery. They discovered microplastics
in every region of the lung26, finding
39 microplastics in 11 out of the 13
lung tissue samples.
As plastic production and usage rises,
it is likely the levels of atmosphericmicroplastics will rise too. A researchstudy in 202027 found that breathing
the air inside buildings exposes us tomuch higher levels of microplastics
than breathing air outside.
The effects of these bioaccumulationsof microparticles in the lungs are newand they are currently understudied,but given that we know plastic
particles can include chemicals like
BPA and PFAS, which are linked
directly to various cancers, theseresults are concerning.

34

BRAINOur brain is our chief operating
system and the most complex
organ in our body. Yet the study of
how microplastics might affect thebrain is relatively new. So, what DO
we know about how microplastics
and the additive chemicals used tomake plastics impact our mostprecious organ: the brain28?
A 2023 University of Rhode Island
study29 published in the International
Journal of Molecular Science foundthat acute exposure to microplastics
in mice resulted in accumulation ofsmall plastic particles in every tissue

they examined, including deep in thebrain tissue. The study reported that
small doses of pristine polystyrene
microplastics fed via water orally to
mice over a period of three weeks,caused behaviors similar to dementia.
Separate research has also determinedthat the blood-brain barrier (BBB)30
can be breached by nanoplastics inmice, which can then in turn “trigger
the activation of microglia, and leadto damage of neurons.” Other studies
have linked damage to neurons (notspecifically microplastics) causedby the activation of microglia,
to Parkinson’s31.

35

“In the brain, plastic particles
could increase the risk of
inflammation, neurologicaldisorders or evenneurodegenerative diseases
such as Alzheimer’s orParkinson’s”~Lukas Kenner,
A researcher at the Medical Universityof Vienna in Austria, as reported to
Sustainability Times, April 2023

36

04
HEALTH RISKSTHE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system1 describes a series of interconnected glands
and organs working together within your body to manage metabolism,
reproduction, development, and mood—essentially they ensure yourbody is working properly. Microplastics often contain what are called
Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals2 (EDCs), which disrupt or imitate
hormones within our bodies and can be linked to a large arrayof health issues.
37

Diseases related to endocrine
disruptors3 and our hormone system
include Autism Spectrum Disorder(ASD)4, attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder5, obesity, Type 2 diabetes6,
infertility7, and cancers sensitive tohormone changes8. Many of theadditive chemicals used in the
production of plastic are considered
endocrine disruptors, such as BPA9.
Nearly all of us are being exposed
to varying amounts of microplastic,
but children, due to their natural

exploratory behaviors, encounter themthe most. As cited earlier in this report,
their tendency to put inanimate
objects, often plastics, into theirmouth and their desire to crawl on
the ground for long periods of time
(as they learn to become mobileand eventually walk) are importantfactors in their elevated exposure
and ingestion of micro particles.
Below are just some of the specifichealth and behavioral implicationsof this exposure.

Human health impacts of exposure to plastic-associated chemicals

C

Neurodevelopmental disorders
Health conditions linked to chemicals
associated with plastics

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
AutismNeurobehavioural
IQ
Cognition

Plasticizers (phthalates)and bisphenol (monomer)
Flame retardants

Hormonal

Thyroid disease
Thyroid cancer

Respiratory disease
AsthmaCardiovascular disease

Metabolic disease

Reproductive health - adults
Polycystic ovarian syndrome
Endometriosis
Male sub-fertility
Reduced sperm quality
Delayed time to pregnancy
Abnormal PAP smears
Pregnancy-induced hypertension
and/or pre-eclampsia

Pregnancy outcomes - offspring
Gestational length
Birth weight
Delayed pubertal timing
Genital structure (ano-genital distance)
Pubertal onset

Type 2 diabetes
Childhood obesity
Increased waist circumference

Metabolic disease

Serum lipid levels, e.g. totalcholesterol and LDL cholesterol

Decreased antibody
response to vaccines

Illustrated by GRID-Arendal/Studio Atlantis
United Nations Environment Programme (2021). From Pollution to Solution: A global assessment of marine litter and plastic pollution. Nairobi.
38

AUTISM
Researchers are seeing an uptick10
in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)around the world over the last decade.
The Center for Disease Control andPrevention (CDCP), America’s leading
public health, science-based, datadriven, organization, found an increasein the prevalence of autism amongchildren.
In one CDCP report from 2023,
focused on 8-year-olds11, they found1 out of every 36 children of this age
group had autism. A significant
increase from the 2021 figures
which estimated 1 in 4412 children
had autism, which was a large leap
from the numbers estimated in 2006,
reporting that 1 in 11013 in children had
autism. Of course, better testing anddiagnosis for autism allows for alarge part of this significant leap in
numbers, but there also appears to
be a potential link between certain
plastics such as polyethylene and
ASD-like traits in mice14.
Plastics were found to be accumulatingin the brains of the mice, leading tometabolism and gene expression
issues. These same plastics werealso found to be accumulating in
the microbiomes15 of tested mice.
Microbiomes refers to the microbes,
like bacteria, fungi, viruses, and theirgenes, that naturally live on or inside
our bodies. The linkage between
microbiome health and symptomsof ASD has been studied16 and there
does appear to be a connection.
But ASD is not the only way inwhich plastics might be affecting
development in children and babies.

LEARNING DIFFICULTIES& ADHDThe endocrine disruption can leadto other neurological complications
especially in developing children
and fetuses, this includes hyperactivity
and attention issues. Plasticizers
such as BPA and PFAS have been
linked to decrease in memory andlearning issues17 because of theireffect on the central nervous system18.
While the research is new andunderstudied it is leading someresearchers to believe this may be
a cause in the uptick of attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder19(ADHD). Constant exposure tothese plastics and the chemicals
within seem to have harsh effects
on children’s ability and ease oflearning20, and in some European
countries there is an outcry formore research and studies to be
conducted.
Other researchers are showing alarger amount of BPA and phthalate21
in children with ADHD compared tothose who do not. Further evidence
there is at least a correlation between
plastics and the attention issues
affecting children today.

39

CANCERS
Pediatric cancer rates have increased22
at the same time as those of plastic
production. While correlation in these
two trends does not prove causation
there are studies that have linked
phthalates to childhood cancers.
Phthalates are the synthetic chemicals
which make plastics flexible.
A University of Vermont Cancer Centre
study23 found childhood phthalate
exposure was associated withosteosarcoma and lymphoma before
the age of 19 years. Phthalates are
the chemical additives used to makesome plastics more durable, but they
are also used as inactive ingredientsin some medications, such as antiinflammatory drugs and antibiotics- often to create the capsules for
medication.

The team from Vermont worked
with a team in Denmark24 whichallowed them to utilize data fromthe Danish Medical Birth Registry,the Danish Medicines Agency, andthe Danish Cancer Registry.
Altogether, this data accounted for
all live births in Denmark between
1997 and 2017. This totaled nearly
1.3 million children. In a 2022 article
from the University of Vermont’s
Larner College of Medicine,
Katherine Strotmeyer summarizes
the study’s findings25 as follows:“Among the 2,027 cases of childhood
cancer, researchers measured
associations between gestationaland childhood phthalate exposureand the incidence of specific cancers.
Childhood, but not gestational(in utero) phthalate exposure wasassociated with 20% higher rateof childhood cancer overall, witha nearly three-fold higher rate ofosteosarcoma diagnosis, a bone
cancer, and a two-fold higher rateof lymphoma diagnosis, cancer ofthe blood.”
Researchers have also linked
microplastics to the degradationof DNA within lymphocytes26, which
could be related to cancer risk.
Lymphocytes are a key member ofyour body’s immune system27. They
take out cells that have been damaged
or attacked by outside invaders
such as bacteria or viruses. While
microplastics are not actively
destroying the cells or their ability
to reproduce, they are affecting
the genes and genomic expressionof them. This type of research
specifically on lymphocytes is noveland suggests a possible correlation
between microplastics bioaccumulationand cancer risk.

40

Risks of prostate cancer in men also
have a link to plastic and the chemicals
used throughout. Researchers havefound that those exposed to BPA
early in life have an increased riskof prostate cancer as they age28.
The study also suggested that
BPA was found in all of their study
population29. Prostate cancer is themost common cancer type30 in men
and the connection to plastic andadditives is frightening.
Other studies have linked different
cell types and genome degradationin skin cells31 similar to what has
been seen in lymphocytes, whichamounts to further evidence thatmicroplastics may be contributing
to cancer rates around the world.
Moreover, the Minderoo-Monaco
Commission on Plastics and Human
Health has linked the production ofplastic to increased cancer rates32,
especially in the marginalized
communities where plastic production
plants are often located.

“While there remain gaps inknowledge about plastics’ harms anduncertainties about theirfull magnitude, the evidence available
today demonstrates unequivocally thatthese impacts are great and that they
will increase in severity in the absence ofurgent and effective intervention at
global scale. Manufacture and use of
essential plastics may continue.
However, reckless increases in plastic
production, and especially increases in
the manufacture of an ever-increasingarray of unnecessary single-use plastic
products, need to be curbed. Global
intervention against the plastic crisis isneeded now because the costs offailure to act will be immense.”~Last paragraph of the Summary of the
Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics
and Human Health

Given these findings alone—where
there is evidence that plastics andthe additive chemicals used to makethem are associated with a range ofrecognized health risks—should webe practicing the precautionary
principle33?
“There is no other industry on theplanet allowed to cause as much harm,on the scale, of the fossil fuelcompanies. First climate change andnow the plastic health epidemic. It’stime to wake up to a morally bankrupt
industry that puts profits above people
every single time.”~Kathleen Rogers
President, EARTHDAY.ORG

41

05
HOW DO WE SOLVE A PROBLEM LIKE MICROPLASTICS?

UPSTREAM ISSUES
We need to take drastic action to reduce the exposure of everyone,
especially babies and infants, to microplastics and all of their associatedadditive chemicals. Aside from the personal consequences there’s also
the cost to society as a whole.
42

A 2022, NYU Grossman Schoolof Medicine1 study sampled nearly
5,000 Americans and identified
13 medical conditions that may belinked to PFAS2 (per-and polyfluoroalkyl
substances) such as infertility, diabetes,and endometriosis. They calculated
the economic burden to Americans
was a minimum of $5.5 billion andas high as $63 billion annually3.
Medical bills and loss of productivity(due to illness) were both factored
in. PFAS are chemicals frequently
used in plastic products, like foodcontainers.
As previously stated, there’s a realcost to the environment too. United
Nations Environment Programme4
calculated as far back as 2014 thatplastic waste causes $13 billion US
dollars worth of damage to marine
ecosystems alone, every single year.

Andrew Morlet, CEO of the Ellen
MacArthur Foundation claims thatto clean up the plastic andenvironmental problems in theworld’s oceans would cost $150
billion5.
To diminish the volume of microplastics,
it is best to address the problem
at its source, upstream, and to takeaction to drastically limit the
production of plastic worldwide.
While effective waste management,
recycling, and monitoring are all partof the downstream process andhugely important, without focused
upstream action, plastics andmicroplastics will continue to flood
our environment, our homes, and ourbodies. Which is why EARTHDAY.ORG
is calling for a 60% reduction inplastic production by 20406.

Worldwide Producers of Plastic by Country
43

POTENTIAL UPSTREAM
SOLUTIONSHuman beings have an innate ability
to solve problems and, when we want
to, achieve extraordinary things.
We have landed on the Moon, created
all manner of medical advances,mapped our own genome, andinvented the World Wide Web.
We can find alternatives, sustainable
and biodegradable, to plastics. In theend, science and industry will haveto come together to do this, even if
they are not motivated by altruism,
but profit. Whoever can devise a“new” plastic that does not shedmicroplastics, needs no poisonous
additive chemicals, and truly is
recyclable or easily degradable, will
dominate manufacturing and reap
incalculable rewards.
There are already early signs ofpotential solutions. One such class of
biopolymers are polyhydroxyalkanoates(PHAs)7, which mimic the functionalities
of many of the top-selling plastics
of petrochemical origin. They are stillin the early stages of development
and we cannot be sure if they will
eventually come to fruition, but it
offers us hope solutions are out there.
Some mycelium-composite materials8,
grown on a mixture of sawdust-wheat
bran, are showing signs of developinghydrophobic qualities making thempotential biodegradable candidates
for a new type of plastic-free foodpackaging.
The jury is still out on whether
mycelium9 is the supermaterial of
the future that will one day replace
plastics10, but there are companies
all over the world investing in andresearching it, determined to prove
its potential. Governments shouldbe aligning with them and funding
this research as part of their efforts
to counteract plastic pollution andmicroplastic related health issues.

44

DOWNSTREAM ISSUES
While the long term solution is to
produce drastically less plastic, we
still have to deal with the plastics
downstream—i.e. once we havediscarded them. The “dream” ofrecycling is not the answer. The
undeniable fact is that in the past
40 years, we have recycled lessthan 10%.
Consumers are currently being fed
false promises that recycling willsolve our plastic problem. Globally,a mere 9% of plastic waste11 isactually recycled, and in the UnitedStates, it is only 5%12—a stark
contrast to the 68%13 recycling rate
for paper. Why? Because plastic ischeap to make and the industry has
convinced the consumer thatplastic is infinitely recyclable, andthat mass-scale recycling is being
done. The truth, however, is this:not all plastic is recyclable, and it’slargely going un-recycled globally.

Many of us are familiar with thetriangle formation found on aplethora of plastic products. This
formation surrounds what are
called resin identification codes14(RICs), which range from 1 to 715
and serve to identify both what
type of plastic is present andhow/where it can be disposed of.
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

represents polyethylene
terephthalate (PET), often
used in plastic bottles.
signifies high-density
polyethylene (HDPE),
found in such products as
milk jugs and yogurt
containers.
stands for polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) and makes
up things like detergent
bottles and clear foodpackaging.
low-density polyethylene(LDPE), constitutes manyof the grocery bags at
your local supermarket.
is polypropylene, theplastic behind most takeout containers and cutlery.
polystyrene (PS),comprises disposable
plates and cups.
denotes “Other,” whichacts as a catch-all foracrylic, nylon, fiberglass,and the like.

45

Consumers may assume that a plastic
marked with one of the resin
identification codes above will ultimately
be recycled. Unfortunately, this isfar from the truth. Although RICs
#1–6 are all technically recyclable,
trucks only routinely collect
Plastics #1 and #2 in curbside
recycling bins across the UnitedStates. Meanwhile, those marked #3
and #6, deemed “hard to recycle
materials,” often require special
collection programs. RICs #4 and#5 typically end up in the landfill
because they cost more to recycle
than companies are willing to pay.
Moreover, RIC #7 is virtually neverrecycled.
Even the relatively “easy” to recycle
plastics (RICs #1 and #2) ought tobe rinsed and dried before collectionin order to avoid the contaminationof other recyclables in the bin. Not
to mention that recycling rules varyfrom municipality to municipality16.
One reason why such a large portionof recyclable plastics shares the same
fate as common trash has to do withseparation. As noted above, there
are many different types of plastics;
when they are all in the same streamof waste, it is expensive and difficult17
to sort through them. Different
types of plastic simply cannot berecycled together; in fact, recycling
different types of plastic all in one
process is virtually impossible18.
Certain companies assert that

“advanced recycling” or “chemical
recycling”—a process that entails
melting down plastic for use alongside
mixed plastics—represents thesolution. However, this process
is more energy intensive19 than
traditional mechanical recycling—
up to 73 MJ/kg versus 8.6 MJ/kg.
Which brings us to the second
reason most plastics go to landfill:
it is more expensive to recycle
waste than to simply landfill or
incinerate it. Recycled plastic costs
more to produce20 than virgin plastic
and cannot be utilized for some foodpackaging. Therefore, the market
price of recycled plastic is higher
and the customer base is smaller
compared to their virgin plastic
competitors, so the return on
investment and production is small.
Recycling also emits fossil fuels, uses
more water, and has the potential
to release hazardous chemicals21
into surrounding areas. Due to alack of regulation, recycling plants
are already releasing microplastics
directly into waterways22.
One of the key ways we can effectchange on the plastics downstream,
aside from limiting production, is bytaking legislative action against theuse of plastics, especially single-use
plastics.

46

GLOBAL SOLUTIONSAFRICA Some governments havebegun to take positive steps toaddress the problem of plastics.
Notably, the East African countryof Rwanda23 has had anti-plastic
legislation in place since 2008,
prohibiting the manufacturing, use,sale, and importation of all plasticbags. This led the way for 33 other
African countries to implement
policies restricting throwaway
or single-use plastics.
Regionally, the East African
Community24, comprising Kenya,
Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi,
South Sudan, and the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, introduced
a ban in 2017 on the manufacture,sale, importation, and use ofpolyethylene bags in this region.
INDIA India introduced a ban25
on many single-use plastics.
These types of laws will do little
without enforcement, but if
handled correctly they can be
extremely effective and could goa long way in curbing the plastic

problem. The state of Tamil Nadu,
India26, for example, has had more
success in curbing plastics due toheavier enforcement.
EUROPEAN UNION (EU)The European Union (EU) has
imposed certain restrictions on
single-use plastic27 plates, cutlery,straws, and other items since Julyof 2021. There has also been theimplementation of producer
responsibility programs in the
textile industry in the EU28 to help
separate, sort, reuse, and recycle
textile materials within the EU.
These types of EPR schemes canbe useful in curbing plastic andpush the industry to make changes.
Countries can take steps to curb
plastic on their own, but a strong
Global Plastics Treaty29 incorporating
both the health risks of plastics anda pathway to a reduction in
production is vital if we are tocollectively transition away fromplastics. The treaty should be legallybinding and universal so all countries
are held accountable for their plastic
throughout the lifecycle of the product.

47

PLASTICS & THE POWER
OF MICRO-ORGANISMS
There is also a new way to potentiallymanage microplastic pollution.
This solely addresses waste escaping
from recycling facilities, landfills, andtreatment plants, but this waste isextremely important to address.
There is some promising research on
better ways to degrade microplastic
in waste streams that avoid
incineration or landfilling.

Microorganisms have been degrading
biological materials30 for as long as
there have been microorganisms,
but some studies are finding thepotential of microplastic breakdown
via these microscopic organisms.
This is still very new research, butthere are some suggestions thatthrough genetic manipulation,certain microorganisms can help
remove microplastic from ournatural systems31. It needs to be
noted this is also not a total solution
to the plastic problem, but could bea useful tool32 in the future withfurther research.
48

CONCLUSION
In order to solve the microplasticcrisis, we need to curb plastic
production. It is vital for the Global
Plastics Treaty33, due for draftcompletion by December 2024, toaddress this head on. Right now theTreaty is focused on plastic
pollution.
In order to address pollution there
needs to be a pledge to reduce
plastic production. The Treaty mustalso encompass the full health
implications of plastics. Right now
human health and plastics,
microplastics and their additive
chemicals is a dimension completely
lacking in its current provisions.
Just over 70 years ago we survived
living in a world largely free fromplastics. We were sold the lie thatthey were both disposable andconvenient. But they are rarely ifever disposable and if our relianceon plastic is causing harm to thehealth of our children, perhaps it’shigh time we seriously reconsider
the cost of convenience.
To reduce plastic waste, to end
plastic pollution, to stop poisoning
ourselves and all other species withmicroplastics, we need to drasticallyreduce the volume of plastics we
produce. Why? Because there is clear
evidence plastics, microplastics,
and their additive chemicals haveserious health implications, on animals,
human beings and especially on ourchildren. Yet plastics and healthremains a deeply understudied subject.
We call for urgent action to address
the plastic crisis before it is too late.

49

ACTIONS NEEDED• We need a strong andenforceable Plastic Treaty:
We ask the United Nations
Environmental Programme(UNEP) to formally recognize thehealth implications of exposure
to microplastics, plastics, andtheir additive chemicals to ensure
plastics and health are not justincluded in the Global Plastic
Treaty but are at the heart of it.
EARTHDAY.ORG has launched a
Global Plastic Petition calling forthe inclusion of the health
implications of plastics:
https://action.earthday.org/global-plastics-treaty34• Research & Investigation into
the Health Implications ofMicroplastics: We ask the World
Health Organization to fundmeaningful public health research
into the causal health implicationsof microplastics on human healthwith specific attention to theirimpact on unborn babies, neonates,
and infants. This research should
inform new laws surrounding the
manufacturing and usage of plastics
and their additive chemicals.
• Plastic Production Reduction: 8.3
BILLION Metric Tons (9.1 BILLION
US Tons)35 of plastic has been
produced since plastic wasintroduced in the 1950s. We arecalling for a drastic reduction in
the volume of global plastic
production so that by 2040,
it will be reduced from current
levels by 60%. Specifically in thearea of single-use plastic, which
accounts for nearly 50%36 of ALL
plastic produced.
• Accountability: Plastic producers
need to be held fiscally accountable
for the environmental impactsof plastic pollution. Even moreurgently, they must be held
accountable for the healthconsequences of breathing
and ingesting microparticles.
• End Greenwashing: We callon the plastic industry to behonest and open in rejecting“greenwashing,” the act ofmaking misleading claims about
the environmental benefitsof a product or a practice.
Greenwashing is often associatedwith claims about plastics
recycling.
• End Plastic Subsidies: Evidence
indicates plastic production islargely subsidized, contributing
to and deepening the plastic
pollution crisis. To effectively
achieve the goals of the Plastics
Treaty, many states haverecognized the urgency of
eliminating these subsidies.
We join them in this call.
The Center for International
Environmental Law (CIEL) andRambod Behboodi have preparedthis brief detailing these subsidies
and the issues they provoke:
Tackling Subsidies for Plastic
Production: Key Considerations
for the Plastics Treaty
Negotiations37.
50

• Plastic Industry Disclosure:
We ask the plastic manufacturingindustry to tell us what their own
internal research knows aboutplastics and human health.
By July 1977, EXXON , now
ExxonMobile, knew the burningof fossil fuels would impact the
global climate through therelease of the greenhouse gas
carbon dioxide. They hid theirresearch. It would finally be madeknown by journalists from Inside
Climate News in 2015. Exxon andmany other fossil fuel companies
are now major producers ofplastics.
38

What do plastic manufacturers
know about the impacts of
microplastics on human health?
What if anything are they NOT
telling us?

51

END NOTES (SOURCES)EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

https://www.earthday.org/fast-fashion-our-generations-nuclear-bomb/
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/society/20181116STO19217/microplastics-sources-effects-and-solutions
https://www.mdeplastics.com/20-different-types-of-common-plastic-material
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.estlett.2c00763
https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/21/12743
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0045653521002745?via%3Dihub
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/bdr2.1776
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35134716/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0890623822000545#:~:text=Increasing%20evidence%20shows%20that%20the,prenatal%20BPA%20exposure%20remains%20unknown.

https://academic.oup.com/jnci/article/114/6/885/6531974?login=false
https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/expert-answers/bpa/faq-20058331#:~:text=Exposure%20to%20BPA%20is%20a,2%20diabetes%20and%20cardiovascular%20disease.
12
https://www.wired.com/story/baby-poop-is-loaded-with-microplastics/
13
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00559
14
https://www.plasticsindustry.org/newsroom/plastics-industry-association-launches-recycling-is-real-advocacy-campaign/15
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/01/160127083854.htm
16https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2213305416300029
17
https://www.geochemicalperspectivesletters.org/article1829/#Fig3
18
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/microplastics-found-near-everests-peak-highest-everdetected-world-perpetual-planet
10
11

19

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/ants-first-insects-ensnared-plastic-pollution#:~:text=Finding%20plastic%2Dwrapped%20ants%20suggests,volcanic%20island%20of%20La%20Palma.

20

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18307999?casa_token=PRL-Mgw-CYAAAAAA:0OSv5vr4
LvZsybQnbZWAQuKciGpCPO0lS1iAS5oGMObpGWA_pRBGfrc4oCKfZg1SRulJYV2qd6Y20

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/you-eat-thousands-of-bits-of-plastic-every-year#
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030438941730763X?ref=pdf_download&fr=RR-2&rr=825c0e06b8bc0

22
23

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10413915/#:~:text=As%20well%20as%20being%20a,been%20documented%20in%20the%20literature.

24

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10151227/#B12

25

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666911021000022

26

https://www.uq.edu.au/news/article/2022/11/viruses-can-hitchhike%E2%80%99-microplastics

27

https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/06/02/1073822/microplastics-immune-systems/#:~:text=Yes%2C%20they%20are%20in%20our,deepest%20part%20of%20the%20ocean.

28

https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/environment/2019/06/you-eat-thousands-bits-plastic-every-year29

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3266016/

30

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S026974912201171X?via%3Dihub

31

https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/lmrk095.htm

32

https://www.epa.gov/lead/protect-your-family-sources-lead#:~:text=In%201978%2C%20the%20federal%20government,is%20usually%20not%20a%20problem.

33

https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/features/leadpoisoning/index.html#:~:text=windowsills%2C%20and%20wells.-,Exposure%20to%20lead%20can%20seriously%20harm%20a%20child%27s%20health%2C%20including,and%20hearing%20and%20speech%20problems.

34

https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/era-leaded-petrol-over-eliminating-major-threat-human-and-planetary35

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-45054-w

36

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-45054-w

37

https://www.earthday.org/the-invisible-pollutant-microplastics-in-our-air/

52

38

https://e360.yale.edu/features/plastic-waste-atmosphere-climate-weather#:~:text=Nearly%20a%20dozen%20studies%20have,meter%20in%20London%20and%20Beijing

39

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.116411

40

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0013935123016626

41

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-18849-y42

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-10813-0.pdf

43

https://web.archive.org/web/20101203205130/http://www.epa.gov/apti/bces/module3/category/category.htm

44

https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.0c04032

45

https://www.uri.edu/news/2023/08/microplastics-infiltrate-all-systems-of-body-cause-behavioral-changes/

46

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34492918/

47

https://www.acs.org/pressroom/presspacs/2023/august/microplastics-found-in-human-heart-tissues-before-and-after-surgical-procedures.html#:~:text=A%20pilot%20study%20found%20microplastics,people%20who%20underwent%
20cardiac%20surgery.&text=Everywhere%20scientists%20look%20for%20microplastics,parts%20of%20the%20human%20body.

48

https://www.mdpi.com/2305-6304/11/1/40

49

https://www.statista.com/statistics/282732/global-production-of-plastics-since-1950/#:~:text=The%20worldwide%20production%20of%20plastics,production%20has%20soared%20since%201950s.

50

https://www.statista.com/topics/5266/plastics-industry/#topicOverview

51

https://www.oecd.org/environment/plastics/increased-plastic-leakage-and-greenhouse-gas-emissions.htm#:~:text=
Throughout%20their%20lifecycle%2C%20plastics%20have,of%20global%20greenhouse%20gas%20emissions

52

https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_IDA(2015)573876#:~:text=The%20precautionary%20principle%20enables%20decision,and%20the%20stakes%20are%20high.

53

https://www.bakerinstitute.org/research/plastics-and-precautionary-principle

54

https://www.elr.info/sites/default/files/litigation/5.20157.htm

55

https://www.epa.gov/pfas/pfas-explained56

https://nyulangone.org/news/daily-exposure-forever-chemicals-costs-united-states-billions-health-costs

57

https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/plastic-waste-causes-financial-damage-us13-billionmarine-ecosystems

53

CHAPTER 1
12

https://www.google.com/books/edition/Plastic/9LyGHqqIKT4C?hl=en
https://www.sciencehistory.org/education/classroom-activities/role-playing-games/case-of-plastics/
history-and-future-of-plastics/

3

https://www.sciencehistory.org/education/classroom-activities/role-playing-games/case-of-plastics/
history-and-future-of-plastics/

4

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/tupperware-plastics/
https://thisisplastics.com/plastics-101/how-are-plastics-made/https://www.bpf.co.uk/plastipedia/how-is-plastic-made.aspx#:~:text=Refining%20process%20transforms%20crude%20oil,basic%20building%20blocks%20of%20polymers

5
6

7

https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/Phthalates_FactSheet.html#:~:text=Phthalates%20are%20a%20group%20of,%2C%20shampoos%2C%20hair%20sprays).

8

https://dceg.cancer.gov/research/what-we-study/pfas
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4602822/#:~:text=BPA%20can%20mimic%20estrogen%20to,to%20cancer%20development%20and%20progression

910https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4602822/#:~:text=BPA%20can%20mimic%20estrogen%20to,to%20cancer%20development%20and%20progression.

11

https://www.britannica.com/science/plastic/The-polymers
https://www.oecd.org/environment/plastic-pollution-is-growing-relentlessly-as-waste-management-and-recyclingfall-short.htm

12https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b04535
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.9b04535
15
https://www.openaccessgovernment.org/microplastics-babies/128723/#:~:text=But%20several%20studies%20now%20suggest,This%20makes%20them%20particularly%20vulnerable.
13

14

16

https://www.ciel.org/issue/fossil-fuels-plastic/#:~:text=Over%2099%25%20of%20plastic%20is,in%20the%20US%20and%20beyond.

https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/sya-bpa/index.cfm
https://www.packagingdigest.com/food-safety/history-bpa
19https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/sya-bpa/index.cfm
20
https://thisisplastics.com/safety/bpa-is-it-safe/
21
https://www.fda.gov/food/food-packaging-other-substances-come-contact-food-information-consumers/
bisphenol-bpa-use-food-contact-application#:~:text=Steps%20and%20Collaborations-,Summary%20of%20FDA%27s%20Current%20Perspective%20on%20BPA%20in%20Food%20Contact,current%20levels%20occurring%20in%20foods.
17

18

https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/07/17/156916616/fda-bans-chemical-bpa-in-sippy-cups-and-baby-bottles
https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2012/07/17/2012-17366/indirect-food-additives-polymers
24
https://www.americanchemistry.com/better-policy-regulation/plastics/plastics-division-membership25
https://www.markey.senate.gov/news/press-releases/markey-petition-to-fda-brings-end-to-use-of-toxic-chemicalin-infant-formula-packaging
22

23

26
27

https://echa.europa.eu/about-us
https://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/document.jsf?text=&docid=271068&pageIndex=0&doclang=en&mode=lst&dir=&occ=first&part=1&cid=1069642

28

https://www.bcpp.org/resource/bpa-laws-and-regulations/#:~:text=International%20Regulation&text=However%2C%20some%20EU%20nation%20states,food%20packaging%20as%20of%202013.

29https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/map-shows-the-complicated-landscape-of-plastic-bans#:~:text=In%20Colorado%2C%20an%20industry%20group,statute%20preempts%20local%20plastics%20bans.&text=
New%20York%20State's%20ban%20on,from%20addressing%20bags%20at%20restaurants

30

https://publicintegrity.org/environment/pollution/pushing-plastic/inside-the-long-war-to-protect-plastic/
https://archive.jsonline.com/watchdog/watchdogreports/54195297.html

31
32
33

https://www.nationalobserver.com/2021/05/13/news/canada-officially-tosses-plastic-toxic-bin
https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/evaluating-existing-substances/science-assessment-plastic-pollution.html

54

CHAPTER 2
1
2
3
4

5
6
7

https://www.babycentre.co.uk/x6721/why-does-my-baby-put-everything-in-her-mouth#
https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/babies-infants-adults-microplastics-study-b1925240.html#
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00559
https://www.verywellfamily.com/study-shows-babies-have-more-microplastics-in-their-bodies-than-adults-5205020#:~:text=If%20you%20really%20look%20at,important%20sources%20of%20microplastic%20exposure.
https://www.today.com/health/microplastics-drinking-water-baby-formula-plastic-baby-bottles-shed-particles-t197037#
https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-020-00171-y
https://www.tcd.ie/news_events/articles/bottle-fed-babies-may-consume-millions-of-microplastic-particles-ourresearch-suggests/

https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/oct/19/bottle-fed-babies-swallow-millions-microplastics-day-study
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.3c01942
10
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.3c01942
11https://www.plasticsoupfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Final-Report-pilot-study-plastic-particles-inlivestock-feed-milk-meat-and-blood-SIGNED.pdf
89

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9269371/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0269749123001999
14
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/polyethylene-terephthalate
1213

https://plastics-themag.com/Plastic-shakes-up-the-toy-industry
https://health.ucdavis.edu/mindinstitute/resources/resources_pdf/Plastics_and_Plastic_Toys_7_14.pdf
17https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3327051/#:~:text=A%20model%20example%20of%20carcinogenic,
carcinogen%20vinyl%20chloride%20(VC).
15

16

18

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6864600/#:~:text=BPA%20is%20classified%20as%20an,hormones%20%5B2%2C%208%5D.

19https://www.cpsc.gov/Newsroom/News-Releases/2018/CPSC-Prohibits-Certain-Phthalates-in-Childrens-Toys-andChild-Care-Products

20

https://www.toyassociation.org/PressRoom2/IndustryStatements/statement-on-bisphenol-a.aspx#:~:text=No%20federal%20or%20state%20jurisdiction,highest%20standards%20for%20toy%20safety.

21

http://changingmarkets.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/CM-EX-SUM-FINAL-ENGLISH-SYNTETHIC-ANONYMOUSWEB-.pdf

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0281596
https://www.nytimes.com/wirecutter/blog/reduce-laundry-microfiber-pollution/
24
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2022.991650/full25
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/631/1/012006/pdf#:~:text=Influence%20of%20Microplastics%20on%20Marine%20Fishes&text=The%20microplastics%20can%20have%20a,oxidative%20damage%20and%20abnormal%20behavior.
22

23

https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/23/3797
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8987311/
28
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0166445X21000072
29
https://www.epa.gov/pfas/pfas-explained30
https://www.ewg.org/news-insights/news/2022/11/new-baby-textile-product-tests-show-concerning-levels-toxicforever
26
27

https://www.epa.gov/pfas/our-current-understanding-human-health-and-environmental-risks-pfas
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35816333/
33
https://vivo.brown.edu/display/jb9334
https://www.parents.com/there-are-probably-toxins-in-your-child-s-clothing-here-s-what-you-need-to-know7629291#:~:text=According%20to%20new%20research%20by,kids%27%20health%20long%2Dterm.&text=Staying%20on%20top%20of%20a,like%20a%20full%2Dtime%20job.
31

32

35

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969722059654#:~:text=Built%2Din%20plastic%20structures%20might,found%20on%20leaves%20inside%20playgrounds.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36126714/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142566
38
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/scrap-tyre
39
https://www.parksandrecbusiness.com/articles/the-microplastics-crisis
40
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29053641/
36
37

55

41

https://www.iucn.org/news/secretariat/201702/invisible-plastic-particles-textiles-and-tyres-major-source-ocean-pollution-%E2%80%93-iucn-study

https://www.epa.gov/chemical-research/july-2019-report-tire-crumb-rubber-characterization-0
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_4581
44https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4711263/%23:~:text%3DThe%2520
patients%2520with%2520conjugated%2520BPA,women%2520in%2520the%2520lowest%2520quartile&sa=D&source=doc
s&ust=1699387983108015&usg=AOvVaw3YkI7fSbSilsfA9-BN4Ycl
42

43

https://academic-accelerator.com/encyclopedia/laser-direct-infrared-imaging
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158699
47
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/raman-spectroscopy
48
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33395930/#:~:text=In%20total%2C%2012%20microplastic%20fragments,of%20morphology%20and%20chemical%20composition.
45

46

https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/21/12743
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17952-preeclampsia
51
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412020322297?via%3Dihub
52
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13911-9
53
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320160
54
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0269749118345858?via%3Dihub
55
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0045653515006517
56
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/es504525u
49

50

56

CHAPTER 3
1
2

3
4

5
6
7

https://www.mdpi.com/2305-6304/11/1/40
https://www.mcgill.ca/newsroom/channels/news/microplastics-are-harming-gut-health-348329#:~:text=%E2%80%9CThe%20more%20microplastics%20found%20in,the%20host%2C%E2%80%9D%20says%20Fackelmann.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412022001258
https://www.acs.org/pressroom/presspacs/2023/august/microplastics-found-in-human-heart-tissues-beforeand-after-surgical-procedures.html#:~:text=A%20pilot%20study%20found%20microplastics,people%20who%20underwent%20cardiac%20surgery.&text=Everywhere%20scientists%20look%20for%20microplastics,parts%20of%20the%20human%20body.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34492918/
https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/15/12308
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/microplastics-found-lurking-human-stool-first-time-180970613/?fbclid=IwAR2EqHUvOI8Xk6K8le2tAReLuTFj-1SuPqq_yvh5MCunIlbXy0Du3wm_bPAhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9611505/
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/09/210922090835.htm
10https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134261
11
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00559
12
https://pubs.acs.org/journal/estlcu
13
https://www.acs.org/
14
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1438463919308478?via%3Dihub
15
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1438463919308478?via%3Dihub
16
https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/bone-marrow-transplant/in-depth/stem-cells/art-20048117#:~:text=
What%20are%20stem%20cells%3F,more%20cells%20called%20daughter%20cells.
89https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412022001258
https://vu.nl/en/news/2022/microplastics-found-in-human-bloodstream
19
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate
20
https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/styrene/index.cfm
21
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/microplastics-detected-in-human-blood-180979826/
22
https://www.acs.org/pressroom/presspacs/2023/august/microplastics-found-in-human-heart-tissues-before-andafter-surgical-procedures.html#:~:text=A%20pilot%20study%20found%20microplastics,people%20who%20underwent%20cardiac%20surgery.&text=Everywhere%20scientists%20look%20for%20microplastics,parts%20of%20the%20human%20body.
17

18

23

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969722020009#:~:text=Highlights&text=Microplastics%20were%20identified%20in%20all,human%20lungs%20using%20%CE%BCFTIR%20analysis.&text=Polypropylene%20and%20polyethylene%20terephthalate%20fibres%20were%20the%20most%20abundant.&text=The%20results%20support%20inhalation%20as%20a%20route%20of%20MP%20exposure.

https://www.lung.org/lung-health-diseases/lung-procedures-and-tests/lung-volume-reduction-surgery
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323701
26
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/microplastics-in-humans-after-blood-scientists-find-traces-in-the-lungs#Microplastics-in-human-tissues
2425

https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.9b04535
https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/public-education/brain-basics/brain-basics-know-your-brain
29
https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/15/12308
30
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134261
31
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2951017/#:~:text=Microglia%20can%20become%20chronically%20activated,cumulative%20neuronal%20loss%20with%20time.
27

28

57

CHAPTER 4
1
2
3
4
5

https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/anatomy-of-the-endocrine-system
https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/endocrine/index.cfm
https://ipen.org/sites/default/files/documents/edc_guide_2020_v1_6ew-en.pdf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5913002/#R25
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8910189/#:~:text=All%20three%20human%20studies%20showed%20significant%20effects%20of%20BPA%20on%20hyperactivity.&text=OR%20for%20ADHD%20diagnosis%20associated,ADHD%20with%20phthalates%2Fplasticizers%20exposure.

6

https://www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/blog/bpa-linked-to-type-2-diabetes/#:~:text=Research%20from%20the%20Baker%20Heart,of%20developing%20type%202%20diabetes.

7

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9134445/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4602822/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6864600/#:~:text=BPA%20is%20classified%20as%20an,hormones%20%5B2%2C%208%5D.

7
9

10

https://www.statnews.com/2023/03/23/autism-epidemic-cdc-numbers/#:~:text=In%20a%20pair%20of%20new,
This%20increase%20may%20sound%20scary.

11

https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/ss/ss7202a1.htm?s_cid=ss7202a1_w
https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/autism-prevalence-is-now-1-in-44-signifying-the-eighth-increase-inprevalence-rates-reported-by-the-cdc-since-2000-301436766.html

12

http://www.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/12/17/autism.new.numbers/index.html
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412022000472?via%3Dihub
15
https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/science/microbiome/index.cfm#:~:text=The%20microbiome%20is%20the%20collection,to%20human%20health%20and%20wellness.
13

14

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-42183-0
https://doi.org/10.1002/bdr2.1776
18
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542179/#:~:text=The%20central%20nervous%20system%20is,and%20responding%20to%20sensory%20information.
1617

https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/data.html
https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijerph19052849
21
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0289841
22
https://academic.oup.com/jnci/advance-article/doi/10.1093/jnci/djad115/7219716?searchresult=1&login=false
23
https://www.med.uvm.edu/home/2022/03/16/uvm_cancer_center_research_phthalates
24
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35179607/
25
https://www.med.uvm.edu/home/2022/03/16/uvm_cancer_center_research_phthalates
26
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0045653521002745?via%3Dihub
27
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Lymphocyte#:~:text=A%20lymphocyte%20is%20a%20type,bacteria%2C%20viruses%2C%20and%20toxins.
19

20

28

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bpa-exposure-linked-to-prostate-cancer/

https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es402764d
30
https://www.uclahealth.org/cancer/cancer-services/prostate-cancer/what-prostate-cancer
31
https://www.mdpi.com/2079-4991/9/9/129932
https://annalsofglobalhealth.org/articles/10.5334/aogh.4056#section-2the-plastic-life-cycle-and-its-hazards-tohuman-health29

33

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1240435/

58

CHAPTER 5
1
2

3
4

5
6

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12403-022-00496-y
https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/PFAS_FactSheet.html#:~:text=Print-,Per%2D%20and%20Polyfluorinated%20Substances%20(PFAS),in%20a%20variety%20of%20products.
https://nyulangone.org/news/daily-exposure-forever-chemicals-costs-united-states-billions-health-costs
https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/plastic-waste-causes-financial-damage-us13-billion-marineecosystems
https://www.sustainableplastics.com/news/ocean-plastics-150b-problem
https://www.earthday.org/60x40-a-global-wave-to-halt-plastic-production-and-save-our-planet/#:~:text=EARTHDAY.,future%20for%20generations%20to%20come.

https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering9020074
https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/9/2/210
9https://www.micropia.nl/en/discover/microbiology/mycelium/#:~:text=A%20mycelium%20is%20a%20network,can%20sprout%20from%20a%20mycelium.
10
https://www.theverge.com/23610087/mushroom-plastic-waste-research11
https://www.oecd.org/environment/plastic-pollution-is-growing-relentlessly-as-waste-management-and-recyclingfall-short.htm#:~:text=Only%209%25%20of%20plastic%20waste%20is%20recycled%20(15%25%20is,is%20disposed%20of%20as%20residues).
78

https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2023/09/05/unrecyclable-plastic-pollution#
https://www.afandpa.org/news/2022/unpacking-continuously-high-paper-recycling-rates
14
https://www.colorado.edu/ecenter/2020/10/26/resin-identifications-code15
https://calrecycle.ca.gov/plastics/resins/
16
https://rethinkwaste.org/2020/08/31/why-recycling-is-not-the-same-everywhere/
17
https://cmr.berkeley.edu/2023/05/america-s-broken-recycling-system/
18
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/documentary/plastic-wars/?
19
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acssuschemeng.2c05497
20
https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/05/single-use-plastic-chemical-recycling-disposal/661141/
21
https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/05/single-use-plastic-chemical-recycling-disposal/661141/
22
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2023.100309
23
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frsus.2023.1092107/full#B44
24
https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/141095/News/eala-votes-to-ban-polythene-bags
25
https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1882855#:~:text=Plates%2C%20cups%2C%20glasses%2C%20cutlery,less%20than%20100%20micron%2C%20stirrers.
12

13

26
27

28
29

https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/31/world/asia/india-plastic-ban.html
https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/plastics/single-use-plastics/eu-restrictions-certain-single-use-plastics_
en#:~:text=The%20EU%20is%20acting%20against,of%20the%20EU%20Member%20States.
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_3635
https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/nations-agree-end-plastic-pollution

https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/SAG-16
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10311-022-01552-4
32
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214799320300680?fr=RR-2&ref=pdf_download&rr=
819a2778af187fff
33
https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/nations-agree-end-plastic-pollution34
https://action.earthday.org/global-plastics-treaty
35
https://www.earthday.org/fact-sheet-single-use-plastics/
36
https://www.unep.org/interactives/beat-plastic-pollution/37
https://linkprotect.cudasvc.com/url?a=https%3a%2f%2fwww.ciel.org%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2023%2f10%2fTackling-Subsidies-for-Plastic-Production_FINAL.pdf&c=E,1,bi0aDp7IAsLMypzhCKYKGC5YW5gisELw4y9R82s
UOp8Lsbuxv3FwyWP8qVRORZ8pbLNtX-J4i-_xx3rvvDk1B3TthW92nm7eSfUE_4GppOEPa4UQ&typo=1
30
31

38

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/exxon-knew-about-climate-change-almost-40-years-ago/

59