ISSN 0388－5402

第46巻第１号（通巻47号）

論

文
Toward Academic Reading (I): From General Reading to
Research Papers in Cell Biology･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ Masamichi WASHITAKE（ 3 ）An EFL Learner’s Continuum･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ Heather DOIRON（ 25 ）President Trump on Twitter･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ Yuko OKADO-GOUGH（ 43 ）VOA英語学習教材に見られる書き言葉と話し言葉の言語的特徴
──選択体系機能言語学の視点から──････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 水野 友 貴（ 67 ）Masking the Face while Showing the Person
in COVID-19 Reporting･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ David DYKES（ 89 ）研究ノート
今の「在日」を考えること
──立原正秋にたどりつくまで──

････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 李

承2021年１月

愛知学院大学語学研究所

俊（107）

目論

次文
Toward Academic Reading (I): From General Reading to
Research Papers in Cell Biology･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ Masamichi WASHITAKE（ 3 ）An EFL Learner’s Continuum･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ Heather DOIRON（ 25 ）President Trump on Twitter･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ Yuko OKADO-GOUGH（ 43 ）VOA 英語学習教材に見られる書き言葉と話し言葉の言語的特徴
──選択体系機能言語学の視点から──････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 水野 友 貴（ 67 ）Masking the Face while Showing the Person
in COVID-19 Reporting･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ David DYKES（ 89 ）研究ノート
今の「在日」を考えること
──立原正秋にたどりつくまで──

････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 李承俊（107）

3

Toward Academic Reading (I):
From General Reading to Research Papers in Cell Biology

Masamichi WASHITAKE

Abstract
This paper is an attempt to identify lexicogrammatical characteristics thatcan cause problems in understanding scientific papers written in English,
aiming to help students improve their reading skills. It uses Systemic
Functional Linguistics as a research tool and explores two academic
papers in cell biology as examples. In reading these papers, the following
lexicogrammatical characteristics that can cause difficulty in understanding
scientific academic papers are identified: lexical density, syntactic ambiguity,
grammatical metaphor, peculiar usage and two types of ‘A shows B’. This
paper analyzes these characteristics from the Systemic Functional perspective
and suggests some reading skills that English teachers can share with theirstudents: 1) the skill to unpack nominalization; 2) the skill to identify logicalrelations; 3) the skill to recognize ambiguity in text; 4) the skill to identify
peculiar usage as technical terms; and 5) the skill to recognize two types of‘A shows B’. It concludes that students have difficulty in reading scientificpapers not just because they are not good at English or they do not understand‘special’ English, but because they are not familiar with the lexicogrammaticalresources of English that scientific discourse tends to exploit.

1. Introduction
The importance of first-year university experience has been increasing these4days, and so has English learning as freshmen. Most freshmen in Japanese
universities have studied English for at least six years, but in general their skill
seems far below an academic level. Nevertheless, they are required to readacademic papers in their fields when they move up to junior (or fifth year insix-year schools).
Liberal arts education provides a variety of English courses for students
and many English teachers have devoted themselves to teaching both in andout class. Yet from the viewpoint of academic reading, there is room fordisagreement that their efforts have represented sufficient results. This is partly
because the policy of liberal arts education is not to improve students’ technicalknowledge and thinking, but to help students cultivate their basic academic
ability, a wide variety of knowledge and sense of values and deep insight(see e.g., Policies of the Division of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Aichi Gakuin
University, http://kyouyou.agu.ac.jp/policy/index.html). It seems that this policy
is widely accepted, and English teachers generally teach sougou eigo (general
English) in obligatory courses even though they focus on one or more skills
such as listening, speaking, reading and writing. To discuss this matter is not the
purpose of this paper, but it is worth emphasizing that English teachers should
direct their efforts to students’ academic success; reading academic papers is
not a job for teachers who conduct English courses in liberal arts, but assisting
students in improving their skills to read academic papers can be consideredpart of their job.
This paper is an attempt to show problems in understanding academic papers
on cell biology written in English. Its goal is to help students improve English
skills that are instrumental in understanding academic papers. It will start byintroducing Systemic Functional Linguistics as a research tool. Then, it will
explore two academic papers on cell biology. Finally, it will conclude withwhat English teachers can share with their students to improve their academic

5

reading skills (although teaching methods are not the present pursue of thispaper).

2. Systemic Functional Linguistics as a Research Tool
This paper uses the theoretical framework of Systemic Functional Linguistics(hereafter, SFL) as a research tool. SFL views language as a meaning-making
system and meaning potential (Halliday, 2003) rather than a set of rules.
From the Systemic Functional perspective, language is a stratified resource
differentiated according to order of abstraction: it is organized into semantics(the system of meaning), lexicogrammar (the system of wording) andphonology (the system of sounding). The relationship between strata is referred
to as realization: semantics is realized by lexicogrammar, and lexicogrammar
is realized by phonology. For example, transform (event) in semantics iscongruently realized as a verb (process) in lexicogrammar. However, as we
will see in section 3.2, since semantics and lexicogrammar are separate,transform can be reconstrued metaphorically as a noun, transformation (cf.
thing in semantics is congruently realized as a noun). When this shift between
categories happens, transformation has two statuses, process + thing. Thistranscategorization and fusion is called grammatical metaphor (Halliday andMatthiessen, 1999).
Another perspective on language is metafunction: ideational metafunction
is concerned with construing experience; interpersonal metafunction isconcerned with enacting interpersonal relations through language; and textual
metafunction is concerned with organizing text (Halliday, 1994; Halliday andMatthiessen, 1999). Text analysis conducted in this paper focuses on ideational
metafunction. SFL is also a theory that has been applied to a wide variety

6of purposes (Halliday, 1994: xxix-xxx), one of which is analyzing scientificdiscourse.
A large number of studies have been conducted on the language of sciencefrom the Systemic Functional perspective (e.g., Banks, 2008; Halliday,
2003; Halliday and Martin, 1993; Lemke, 1990; Martin and Rose, 1998).
Halliday’s (1993) discussion identifies the difficulties in learning the languageof science. He argues that “(t)he difficulty lies more with the grammar thanthe vocabulary”, suggesting seven headings in order to illustrate and discussdifficulties in scientific English: 1) interlocking definitions; 2) technicaltaxonomies; 3) special expressions; 4) lexical density; 5) syntactic ambiguity;
6) grammatical metaphor; and 7) semantic discontinuity. These headings may
apply to the language of science in general. However, since science includes awide range of genres (Martin, 1992; Martin and Rose, 2006) ––from primaryschool mathematical textbooks to technical books and research papers––, it is
not certain whether or not these characteristics apply to academic papers. Thus,
it seems reasonable to focus on academic papers and reconsider the headings.
In reading two research papers on cell biology, the following characteristics
that may cause difficulty were identified (three of which apply to Halliday’s(1993) study):
		lexical density
		syntactic ambiguity
		grammatical metaphor
		peculiar usage
		 two types of ‘A shows B’
These characteristics are generally identified across texts. As we will see,they are interrelated and keep laypersons away while contributing to organizing
text and constructing knowledge.

7

3. Analyzing Research Papers
In this section, I will illustrate characteristics that can make it difficult tounderstand research papers by exploring the summaries from two research papers:
Cosgrove, B. D. et al. (2016) ‘N-cadherin adhesive interactions modulate matrix
mechanosensing and fate commitment of mesenchymal stem cells’ (Extract 1)
and Gan, W. J. et al. (2018) ‘Local Integrin Activation in Pancreatic β Cells
Targets Insulin Secretion to the Vasculature’ (Extract 2), both of which wereread in classes of a foreign book reading course for fifth year pharmaceuticalstudents at Aichi Gakuin University in the 2019 academic year.
		Extract 1
		 During mesenchymal development, the microenvironment graduallytransitions from one that is rich in cell-cell interactions to one that is
dominated by cell-ECM (extracellular matrix) interactions. Because thesecues cannot readily be decoupled in vitro or in vivo, how they converge
to regulate mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) mechanosensing is not fully
understood. Here, we show that a hyaluronic acid hydrogel systemenables, across a physiological range of ECM stiffness, the independent
co-presentation of the HAVDI adhesive motif from the EC1 domain ofN-cadherin and the RGD adhesive motif from fibronectin. Decoupledpresentation of these cues revealed that HAVDI ligation (at constant
RGD ligation) reduced the contractile state and thereby nuclear YAP/TAZ
localization in MSCs, resulting in altered interpretation of ECM stiffness
and subsequent changes in downstream cell proliferation and differentiation.
Our findings reveal that, in an evolving developmental context, HAVDI/
N-cadherin interactions can alter stem cell perception of the stiffening
extracellular microenvironment

[from Cosgrove, B. D. et al. (2016)]

8

		Extract 2
		 The extracellular matrix (ECM) critically affects β cell functions via
integrin activation. But whether these ECM actions drive the spatialorganization of β cells, as they do in epithelial cells, is unknown. Here,
we show that within islets of Langerhans, focal adhesion activation in β
cells occurs exclusively where they contact the capillary ECM (vascularface). In cultured β cells, 3D mapping shows enriched insulin granulefusion where the cells contact ECM-coated coverslips, which depends on
β1 integrin receptor activation. Culture on micro-contact printed stripesof E-cadherin and fibronectin shows that β cell contact at the fibronectin
stripe selectively activates focal adhesions and enriches exocyticmachinery and insulin granule fusion. Culture of cells in high glucose, asa model of glucotoxicity, abolishes granule targeting. We conclude that
local integrin activation targets insulin secretion to the islet capillaries.
This mechanism might be important for islet function and may change indisease. [from Gan, W. J. et al. (2018)]

3.1 Lexical Density
In both extracts, structures of clauses and clause complexes are relatively
simple. For example, the second sentence from Extract 1 and the third sentencefrom Extract 2, one of the most intricate sentences in each extract, can beanalyzed as follows.

9(1)
Because these cues cannot readily be decoupled in vitro or in vivo,
dependent clause[[how they converge to regulate mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) mechanosensing]]
is not fully understood.
dominant clause(2)Here, we show
dominant clausethat within islets of Langerhans, focal adhesion activation in β cells occurs
exclusively [[where they contact the capillary ECM (vascular face)]].
dependent clause(1) is structured as dependent clause + dominant clause. The dependent
clause is passive, and in the dominant clause, a rankshifted clause (enclosed
in brackets) serves as if it were a noun. (2) is structured as dominant clause +dependent clause, and in the dependent clause, a rankshifted clause acts as if itwere a prepositional phrase. They are not intricate compared with sentences inEnglish textbooks for Japanese high school students.
Instead, lexical density is high in both extracts. Lexical density “is a measureof the density of information in any passage of text, according to how tightly thelexical items (content words) have been packed into the grammatical structure”(Halliday, 1993: 76). It can be measured as the number of lexical words per
clause. On an average, the score is around 1-2 in casual speech and around 6-10
in technical writings (Halliday, 2002; Halliday, 2004b). For example, since
the first sentence in Extract 2 include 10 lexical words and a clause, its lexicaldensity is 10. Average score of lexical density in Extract 1 is 7.9 and in Extract
2, it is 6.4. This is no wonder because when we move from everyday discourse
to technical writings, grammatical intricacy tends to decrease, while lexical10density tends to increase. However, this can be a problem in reading texts. As
Halliday (1993: 76) points out, the difficulty in the language of science depends
not only on the particular lexical items but also the lexical density in that it
can cause grammatical ambiguity. For example, integrin activation in the first
sentence from Extract 1 can mean ‘integrin activates something’, ‘integrin
is activated by something’ or ‘integrin activates itself’. Another example iseven trickier; enriched insulin granule fusion in the fourth sentence from
Extract 2 can mean ‘more insulin granule fuse into something’, ‘something isincreasingly fused into insulin granule’, ‘insulin granule fuse into something
more quickly’, ‘something is fused into insulin granule more quickly’, ‘more
insulin granule fuse into something more quickly’ or ‘something is increasingly
fused into insulin granule more quickly’. There are various reasons for theambiguity, but the main cause is, as already illustrated, that clauses are turned
into nouns (Halliday, 1993: 78). This issue is deeply related to grammaticalmetaphor, which we will explore in the next section.
3.2 Grammatical Metaphor
As briefly mentioned earlier, grammatical metaphor is the expansion of
meaning by choosing different options in realization: choices in semantics andlexicogrammar can be congruent or metaphoric. For instance, a sequence (arepresentation of a series of related experience) is realized by a clause complex
congruently, but it can also be realized by a clause metaphorically. Figure 1
shows the congruent pattern of realization:

11

Figure 1: The congruent pattern of realization
semantic unit

is realized bygrammatical classexamplesequence↘

clause complex

John stayed home because
it was rainy.

figure↘

clauseJohn stayed home.

process↘

verbal groupJohn

participant↘

nominal groupstayedlogical relation↘

conjunction

becauseadapted from Halliday and Matthiessen (1999: 236), examples by the author

Grammatical metaphor includes both class shift (shift between grammaticalclasses, e.g. a process that is metaphorically realized by a nominal groupinstead of a verbal group) and rank shift1 (shift between grammatical units,e.g. a sequence that is metaphorically realized by a clause instead of a clausecomplex). For example, since culture of cells in high glucose in the seventh
sentence in Extract 2 is construed as a figure, it is congruently realized bya clause, but actually, it is metaphorically realized by a nominal group; theprocess culture is metaphorically realized by a noun; cells that serves as
participant is metaphorically realized by prepositional phrase instead of anoun and serves as Qualifier2 of the nominal group culture of cells; and inhigh glucose metaphorically functions as Qualifier instead of congruently
functioning as circumstance of a clause.
The two types of grammatical metaphor, nominalization and metaphoricalshift from logical relations characterize both Extract 1 and 2. Here, I will briefly
describe these phenomena and analyze the texts.
i) Nominalization
Nominalization is a shift to thing: quality, event and even a series of eventsare ‘packed’ into a nominal group. Halliday (1994: 352) explains nominalization
as follows:12		 Nominalizing is the most powerful resource for creating grammaticalmetaphor. By this device, processes (congruently worded as verbs) andproperties (congruently worded as adjectives) are reworded metaphoricallyas nouns; instead of functioning in the clause, as Process or Attribute, theyfunction as Thing in the nominal group.
Types of grammatical metaphor in which elements are realized as noun is given
in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Types of grammatical metaphor (shift to noun)

semantic element

grammatical classexamplequality to entity

adjective to noun

unstable = instability

process to entity (i)verb to noun

transform = transformation

process to entity (ii) verb (auxiliary) to noun

will = prospect, try to = attempt,
can = possibility/ potential

circumstance toentitypreposition to noun

with = accompaniment,
to = destination

relator to entity

conjunction to nounso = cause/ proof, if = condition
adapted from Halliday (2004: 41–42)

As has already been pointed out (e.g. Halliday, 1993; Halliday, 2004b; Martin
and Veel, 1998), nominalization is a characteristic in the language of science.
It can be a problem in that it increases lexical density and ambiguity, but it also
makes a significant contribution to organizing scientific writing.
A way to ease this difficulty is ‘unpacking’: the process that re-words
metaphorical wordings into more congruent wordings. For example, cultureof cells in high glucose illustrated above can be unpacked as the following
clauses3: someone cultures cells in high glucose or cells are cultured in highglucose. Figure 3 shows the analysis.

13

Figure 3: Example of unpacking text
original text
grammatical class/grammatical function(metaphorical form)
grammatical class/grammatical function(congruent form)
unpacked text: example

cultureof cells

in high glucose

nominal groupnoun/ Thing

prepositional
phrase/ Qualifier

prepositional phrase/
Qualifierclauseverb/
Processnoun/ participant(Goal)

prepositional phrase/circumstance(Location)

someone cultures cells in high glucose
cells are cultured in high glucose

It may be noticed that unpacked text does not have the same meaning as
the original one and looks clumsy. It is not the case that congruent forms are
the orthodox, unmarked way of meaning; grammatical metaphor is not just an
additional, different way of meaning but it is an inherent resource in language.
Nominalization works in combination with other phenomena in grammaticalmetaphor. The next section will observe how nominalization and metaphoricallyrealized logical relations work together.
ii) Obscure Logical Relations
Through grammatical metaphor, logical relations which are congruently
realized by conjunction can be realized by other grammatical classes. For
example:		 Excessive consumption of alcohol is a major cause of motor vehicle
accidents. (adopted from Butt et al., 2012: 97)

In this clause, a logical relation is realized by a noun cause. Here, thismessage includes two nominalizations Excessive consumption of alcohol and amajor cause of motor vehicle accidents. The logical relation can be realized as averb and of course congruently as a conjunction:

14

		 People who drink too much alcohol and drive often cause motor vehicle
accidents.
		 If you drink too much alcohol when you drive your car, you are likely tohave an accident. (adopted from Butt et al., 2012: 98)

It should be noticed that in these clause complexes, nominalized eventsare ‘unpacked’ (Halliday, 2004b) and realized in more congruent forms.
Grammatical features including grammatical metaphor tend to work together
rather than happen as a single phenomenon to form a semantic tendency.
Figure 4 shows types of grammatical metaphor in which logical relations aremetaphorically realized.
Figure 4: Types of grammatical metaphor (shift from relator)
semantic element

grammatical classexamplerelator to entity

conjunction to nounso = cause/ proof, if = condition

relator to quality

conjunction to adjective

then = subsequent,so = resulting

relator to process

conjunction to verb

then = follow, so = cause,
and = complement

relator tocircumstanceconjunction to
preposition/ prepositional
group

when = in times of,
if = under conditions ofadapted from Halliday (2004: 41-42)

Other elements may be metaphorically realized. Figure 5 shows the principle ofmetaphoric shit.
Having overviewed the phenomena of transcategorization concerning
grammatical metaphor, it should now be possible to illustrate unpacking texts.
The following analysis may serve as an example:

15

		 Decoupled presentation of these cues revealed that HAVDI ligation (atconstant RGD ligation) reduced the contractile state and thereby nuclear
YAP/TAZ localization in MSCs, resulting in altered interpretation of ECM
stiffness and subsequent changes in downstream cell proliferation anddifferentiation.

(from Extract 1)

In this sentence, seven nominalized expressions are found: Decoupledpresentation of these cues, HAVDI ligation, constant RGD ligation, contractile
state, nuclear YAP/TAZ localization in MSCs, altered interpretation of
ECM stiffness, and subsequent changes in downstream cell proliferationand differentiation. In addition, it includes three logical relations that are
Figure 5: Direction of Metaphorization
relatorcircumstanceprocessqualitycongruentcongruentcongruentcongruentcongruentcongruentcongruentcongruentcongruentcongruentmetaphorical

thing

examplequickly →metaphoricalspeed
metaphoricaltransform →transformation

metaphoricalwith →
accompaniment

metaphoricalso →
cause, proof

metaphorical congruent

was/ used to →previous
government →governmental

metaphoricalwith →
accompanying

metaphoricalbefore →previous

metaphoricalinstead of →replacemetaphoricalso → cause
when → in timesofadapted from Halliday and Matthiessen (1999; 246-247, 264)

16

metaphorically realized: revealed, thereby, resulting in and subsequent.
It has to be mentioned here that technical terms are not metaphorical form
but congruent form of wordings; they are complex virtual things whose
metaphors are dead and cannot be unpacked (Halliday and Matthiessen, 1999:
261; Halliday, 2004b: 38-39). For example, ligation is a technical term that is,for example, defined as “the joining of two DNA strands or other molecules
by a phosphorate ester linkage4”. Thus, its agnate terms HAVDI ligation andconstant RGD ligation are regarded as technical terms and cannot be unpacked.
The following shows the result of unpacking (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Unpacking nominalizations in Extract 1
Key to figure:original text
grammatical class/ grammatical function (metaphorical form)
grammatical class/ grammatical function (congruent form)
unpacked text: example
Decoupledpresentationof these cues

past participle/ Classifier

noun/ Thing

prepositional phrase/ Qualifier

adverb/ circumstantial (Manner)verb/ Process

noun/ participant (Goal)

these cues are presented (to cells) separately
revealed
verb/ Process
conjunction/ Conjunctive
since/ because

17

reducedverb/ Processadverb/ circumstantial (Quality), adjective/ Numerative in nominal groupless (adverb)/ less (adjective)
contractilestateadjective/ Classifier

noun/ Thing

adjective/ participant (Attribute)verb/ Process

become contractile
thereby

nuclear

YAP/TAZ

localizationin MSCs

adverb/circumstanceadjective/
Classifier

noun/Classifier

noun/
Thing

prepositional
phrase/ Qualifier

conjunction/
Conjunctive

prepositional
phrase/circumstantial(Location)

noun/
Actor

verb/
Process

prepositional
phrase/circumstantial(Location)

so YAP/TAZ localizes in nucleus in MSCs
resulting in
preposition/ Minor Process
conjunction/ Conjunctivesoalteredinterpretationof ECM stiffness

past participle/
Classifier

noun/ Thing

prepositional phrase/ Qualifier

adverb/ circumstantial(Manner)verb/ Process

noun/ participant(Carrier)(cells) interpret how much ECM is stiff in a different way

adjective/ participant(Attribute)18

subsequentchanges

adjective/
Classifier

noun/
Thing

conjunction/
Conjunctive

verb/
Process

indownstream

cellproliferation anddifferentiation

prepositional phrase/ Qualifier
adjective/
Classifier

noun/ Classifier

noun/ Thing

conjunction/
Conjunctive

noun/ participant(Actor)verb/ Process

then so how cells proliferate and differentiate change

As a result of the analysis, the sentence may be reworded as:		 Since these cues were presented to cells separately, (we saw thefollowings): HAVDI ligation (at constant RGB ligation) becomes lesscontractile, so less YAP/TAZ localizes in nuclear in MSCs; so cells
interpret how much ECM is stiff in a different way; then so, how cells
proliferate and differentiate change.
This looks clumsy and unnatural and does not keep the meaning that theoriginal text has. Experts do not need the process of unpacking. However, thisprocess can be a solution to the problems that students face when they readscientific papers on, for example, cell biology in English.
3.3 Peculiar Usage
Technical discourse tends to use general words as technical terms. Since
specialists are too familiar with these usages, they often seem unaware ofthem. Perhaps these usages might be unconscious technical terms. Examples
identified in the two papers are shown in Figure 7.
This may be not a matter of English teachers, but they can at least encourage
their students to consult with science dictionaries or to ask questions to theirteachers in their field when they come across the words that look general, but
the usage is peculiar to a given field.

19

Figure 7: Words whose usage is peculiar to (cell) biology
item

definition in the field of cell biology

development

the process by which a multicellular organism, beginning witha single cell, goes through a series of changes, taking on the
successive forms that characterize its life cycle5

presentation

effect/ action that specific stimuli produce (a possible
interpretation)6

interpretation

response to specific stimuli or matters (a possible interpretation)7

differentiation

the process by which different types of cells arise, leading to cellswith specific structures and functions8

3.4 Two types of ‘A shows B’
Research papers often use such sentences starting with: we show …, weconclude …, and our findings reveal … in order to present their aims andcontributions. For example, the third sentence from Extract 2 can be analyzed as:
(3)
Here,

we

show

participant (Sayer)

Process: verbal

dominant clauseexclusively where they
contact the capillary ECM(vascular face)that within islets ofLangerhans,

focal adhesion
activation in β cells

occurscircumstanceparticipant (Actor)

Process circumstancedependent clause (Projection)

This type of relationship between clauses are called Projection: dependent
clause is ‘projected’ through dominant clause.
Howerer, this type of verbs may function as a different process. For example,
The graph shows the result of the final exam. can be analyzed as:

20

(4)
The graphshows

the result of the final exam

participant (Identified)

Process: relational

participant (Identifier)In (3), the process show functions as verbal; processes of saying withdependent clause as projected idea, while in (4), the process shows functions as
relational: processes of being. A significant difference between the two is that(4) indicates a relation between the two entities (the graph is a sign of the resultof the final exam), whereas (3) does not.
These different usages of ‘A shows B’ are identified in Extract 1. The fourth
sentence from Extract 1 can be analyzed as:(5)
Decoupledpresentationof these cues

revealed

that HAVDI ligation (atconstant RGD ligation)
reduced the contractile state
and thereby nuclear YAP/TAZ localization in MSCs,

Identified

Process:
relational

Identifier [rankshiftedclause]resulting in alteredinterpretation of ECM
stiffness and subsequentchanges in downstream
cell proliferation anddifferentiation.
circumstanceOn the other hand, the last sentence from Extract 1 can be analyzed as:(6)
Our findings

reveal

Sayer

Process: verbal

dominant clause

that, in an evolving
developmental context,HAVDI/N-cadherininteractions

can alterstem cell perceptionof the stiffening
extracellular
microenvironment.

Circumstance

Actor

ProcessGoaldependent clause (Projection)

21

In (5), the process reveals shows the relation between the two participants,
Identified and Identifier (Identifier is a sign of Identified). On the other hand,reveal in (6) function as saying and projects the dependent clause. In addition,
as we saw in 3.2, the Process revealed in (5) is a metaphorical realization oflogical relations; (5) implies a logical relation (cause: reason), whereas (6) doesnot.
Verbs such as imply, indicate, show, demonstrate, signify, suggest may
function either as verbal or being (a sign of) (Halliday, 1994: 142), and theborderline between the two are not necessarily sharp. However, in order to
identify ‘vailed’ relations, this analysis is worth conducting.

4. Conclusion
The five lexicogrammatical characteristics, lexical density, syntactic
ambiguity, grammatical metaphor (nominalization and obscure logicalrelations), peculiar usage and two types of ‘A shows B’ have been analyzed
and discussed. The results of the text analysis have brought us the following
question: what can English teachers share with their students? It does not seemreasonable that they try to be English teachers of their students’ specialty:
teaching technical terms and reading technical papers together are not the mainjob for teachers conducting English courses in liberal arts. It also does notnecessary to teach terms and theory of SFL; it is just an unnecessary burden toboth students and teachers. However, it might be useful for English teachers to
be familiar with SFL (this does not mean that they have to be SFL researchers.).
It seems reasonable for English teachers to share with students thelexicogrammatical features that may cause problems in reading academic texts
and skills to overcome the difficulty. Items that English teachers can share with

22

their students, in terms of the discussion in this paper, are listed as:		 1. the skill to unpack nominalization
		 2. the skill to identify logical relations
		 3. the skill to recognize ambiguity in text
		 4. the skill to identify peculiar usage as technical terms
		 5. the skill to recognize two types of ‘A shows B’Students have difficulty in reading scientific academic papers not justbecause they are not good at English or they do not understand ‘special’
English, but because they are not familiar with the lexicogrammatical resourcesof English that scientific academic papers tend to exploit. To provide students
with practical assistance, identifying causes of problems and taking efficientand possible measure are the two wheels of a cart: analyzing texts in order
to identify the characteristics of the language in a given field is an importantmission of linguists and developing teaching methods to share skills in order toovercome difficulties that arise from the characteristics is an important missionof English teachers.

Acknowledgement
I wish to thank Professor Tadahide Furuno for valuable advice on cell biology.
But responsibility for the text (with any remaining errors) rests entirely upon theauthor.

Notes
1		 Note that rank shift is not always metaphorical. For example, in But whether
these ECM actions drive the spatial organization of β cells, as they do in epithelial
cells, is unknown. (from Extract 2), the clause whether these ECM actions drive
the spatial organization of β cells serves as a participant although it is still a23clause. Also see 3.1.
2		 According to Halliday (1994: 191), a nominal group is interpreted as:
those

two

Deictic Numerative

splendid old
EpithetAttitudeQualityelectric

trainswith pantographs

Classifier Thing Qualifier

3		 A clause consists of a process, participant that takes part in the process andoptional circumstances. Each element has more specific types. For example,
English has six types of Process: material, relational, mental verbal, behaviouraland existential. Each process includes accompanying participants. For example,
process of material includes Actor and may include Goal. There are nine typesof circumstantial element: Extent, Location, Manner, Cause, Contingency,
Accompaniment, Role, Manner and Angle.
4		 Oxford Dictionary of English (ODE), Second Edition revised (2005).
5		 Life: the science of biology p. 393
6		 Furuno, Tadahide (e-mail communication, September 28, 2020)
7		 Furuno, Tadahide (e-mail communication, September 28, 2020)
8		 Life: the science of biology p. 393

References
Banks, D. (2008) The Development of Scientific Writing: linguistics feathers andhistorical context. London and Oakville: Equinox.
Butt, D. et al. (2102) Using Functional Grammar: an explorer’s guide (3rd ed).
South Yara, Victoria: Palgrave Macmillan.
Cosgrove, B. D. et al. (2016) ‘N-cadherin adhesive interactions modulate matrix
mechanosensing and fate commitment of mesenchymal stem cells’ in Nature
Materials Vol. 15. 1297–1307
Gan, W. J. et al. (2018) ‘Local Integrin Activation in Pancreatic β Cells Targets
Insulin Secretion to the Vasculature’ in Cell Reports 24. 2819–2826
Halliday, M. A. K. (1993) ‘Chapter 4 Some Grammatical Problems in ScientificEnglish’. In Halliday, M. A. K. and Martin, J. R. (eds.) Writing Science: literacy
and discursive power 69–85. London: Falmer.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1994) An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2nd ed.).
London: Arnold.

24

Halliday, M. A. K. (2002) ‘Chapter 12 Spoken and Written Modes of Meaning’. In
Webster, J. J. (ed.) On Grammar (Volume 1 in the Collected Works of M. A. K.
Halliday) 323–351. London and New York: Continuum.
Halliday, M. A. K. (2003) ‘Chapter 12 Linguistics as Metaphor’. In Webster, J. J.
(ed.) On Language and Linguistics (Volume 3 in the Collected Works of M. A. K.
Halliday) 248–270. London and New York: Continuum.
Halliday, M. A. K. (2004a) (Webster, J. J. ed.) The Language of Science (Volume 5 in
the Collected Works of M. A. K. Halliday). London and New York: Continuum.
Halliday, M. A. K. (2004b) ‘Chapter 2 Language and Knowledge: the ‘Unpacking’ of
Text’. In Webster, J. J. (ed.) The Language of Science (Volume 5 in the Collected
Works of M. A. K. Halliday) 24–48. London and New York: Continuum.
Halliday, M. A. K. and Martin, J. R. (eds.) (1993) Writing Science: literacy anddiscursive power. London: Falmer.
Halliday, M. A. K. and Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (1999) Construing Experiencethrough Meaning: a language based approach to cognition. London and New
York: Continuum.
Lemke, J. L. (1990) Talking Science: language, learning and values. London: Ablex
Publishing
Martin, J. R. (1992) English Text: system and structure. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Martin, J. R. and Rose, D. (2007) Working with Discourse: meaning beyond theclause. London: Continuum.
Martin, J. R. and Rose, D. (2008) Genre Relations: mapping culture. London:
Equinox.
Martin, J. R. and Veel, R. (1998) Reading Science: critical and functional
perspectives on discourse of science. London: Routledge.
Sadava, D. et al. (2014) Life: the science of biology (10th ed.). Gordonsville,
Virginia: W. H. Freeman.
Thompson, G. (2014) Introducing Functional Grammar (3rd ed.). London:
Routledge.
Division of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Aichi Gakuin University (no date) “Policiesof the Division of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Aichi Gakuin University” [Online]
Available: http://kyouyou.agu.ac.jp/policy/index.html [2020, September 5]

25

An EFL Learner’s Continuum

Heather DOIRON

Abstract
Corrective feedback within the structure of Gibbons’ process based onteacher mediation and mode continuum (2003) provides an integrated
approach to language learning that can potentially suit the language learningneeds in many Japanese EFL settings. The first section of this paper will
provide a brief overview of literature in reference to: error correction, teacher
mediation, mode continuum and a common Japanese EFL setting. The final
section of this paper will identify and analyze nonstandard features of one
Japanese EFL student’s interlanguage and also address the issue of facilitating
error correction, through the use of Gibbons’ integration of teacher mediationand mode continuum.

Error correction often strikes up debate in ESL/EFL teaching communities.
In many Japanese EFL contexts, few opportunities exist for students to
speak English outside the classroom. This reality is further augmented by“considerable linguistic and conceptual distance between teacher and students,
especially when they do not share the same language, assumptions, and life
experiences” (Gibbons, 2003, p. 248). Using the constructs of teacher mediationand mode continuum, this paper proposes the facilitation of error correction
as a co-constructive process between student and teacher which provides thenecessary focused practice and proper consultation to help Japanese EFL

26learners develop practice skills to maintain English language learning.The firstsection of this paper will provide a brief overview of the literature in reference
to: error correction, teacher mediation, mode continuum and concludes witha description of a Japanese EFL setting. The final section of this paper will
identify and analyze nonstandard features of one Japanese EFL student’s
interlanguage, while error correction is facilitated through a modified version of
Gibbons’ combined method of teacher mediation and mode continuum.

Error correction
Error correction is a form of information intended to restructure or reteach a
student’s incorrect answers. Panova and Lyster (2002) list seven types of error
correction: recasts, translation, clarification requests, metalinguistic feedback,elicitation, explicit correction,and repetition (p. 582–583). The authors also
recommend that it is best to use various types of error correction rather thanfocusing on just one method (p. 592). In a Japanese EFL setting, Sato’s study
on the effects of error correction in the form of recasts indicated student
recognition and repair of errors, culminated in a higher quality of student
writing (2012). Another EFL study based in a Japanese university, which
examined the practice of teacher error correction in the form of recasts reported
student requests for more learner autonomy in order to address their own errors.
Results also indicated that teachers should be more competent in explaining
grammar issues (Deng, 2016). Arguments have been made against error
correction based on ineffective teacher feedback strategies and poor student
response (Truscott, 2007, Zamel, 1985 as cited in Deng, 2016).Yet, in supportof error correction, Lightbrown, and Spada (2001) state that if students are notaware of their errors, they may not see how their errors differ from the teacher’s27

discourse (p. 212). A similar paradigm is suggested by Ellis, who states that “…
in both structural and communicative approaches to language teaching, [formsof error correction are] viewed as a means of fostering learner motivation andensuring linguistic accuracy” (2009, p. 3). With such limited access to practice
speaking English, the Japanese L2 classroom needs to be a place that facilitates
student use of the language, as well as provide examples of proper use oflanguage; as stated by Norton “learning cannot proceed without exposure andpractice … the more exposure and practice, the more proficient the learner will
become” (Norton, 1995, p. 7). An argument which further supports the use oferror correction can be found in Nation and Yamamoto’s integrated approachto language learning, which suggests that “time on task” is essential to themastering of language (2012). In layman’s terms the authors state that in orderto improve skills, a certain amount of practice time is required in order to makean effective difference (p. 180). Practice time in the form of error correction can
provide students with a map of where to take the next learning step because,
without error correction, how can students determine what they need to learn,
or if there is any improvement in their language learning efforts.

Gibbons: Teacher Mediation-Mode Continuum
Drawing on Vygotsky’s idea that learning originates in social interactions(Louw et al., 1998), Gibbons’ introduces Vysgotsy’s sociocultural perspectiveof mediation by contrasting the relationship between lawyer and client to therelationship between teacher and student. The difference being that the client is
continually dependent on the lawyer’s mediation of legal language. In contrast,
Vygotsky believed that teachers mediate student learning while facilitating a pathto student autonomy (Gibbons, p. 249). Gibbons’ use of Vygotsky’s reference

28

Figure 1: Supporting Students in the Move from Spoken to Written Language,
Derewianka, (2016, p.167)

to the teacher as a mediator (2003) bears a resemblance to research whichsuggests that the L2 teacher’s role is to gradually pass over the responsibility oflanguage learning to students while the mediator/teacher stands back and offers
guidance when necessary (Nation and Yamamoto 2012; Jensen, 2008, Lantolf
and Thorne, 2007). From a systemic functional linguistics perspective, Gibbons
describes mode (reading and writing) continuum as the student’s journey
from” expressing their firsthand experience in oral language to … expressing
academic knowledge in writing (p. 250)”. Derewianka’s description of mode
continuum in figure 1, illustrates the move from spoken to written language
as “language accompanying action at one end, language as in reflection at theother, and with a variety of intermediate states along the way” (2016, p. 167).
Combining the constructs of teacher mediation and mode continuum,
Gibbons’ research which draws on two ESL elementary school science classes(examining the laws of attraction) shows evidence of an increase in student talktime and a decrease of teacher talk-time. Also the study implicated an increase29

in student autonomy in the correct reconstruction of student discourse and is
illustrated in figure 2 (Gibbons, 2003, p. 264). Using a mode of continuum,
Gibbons (see Figure 2) demonstrates how a teacher mediates a studentcentered approach to learning that allows students to observe their language
skills develop in “real-time” (2003). Figure 2 also demonstrates a group effort
to bring “… students firsthand experience in oral language to [the expressing]of academic knowledge in writing” (p. 253). Additionally, figure 2 clearly
illustrates how the teacher acts as a guide with her students, and engages inminimal teacher-talk, yet mediates just often enough to encourage and increase
student talk.
Similar to the work of many researchers, Gibbons promotes exposure to language
learning skills while encouraging students to notice grammatical points such as
articles or verb-ed endings (Gibbons, 2003; Nation and Yamaoto, 2012; Schmit,

Figure 2: Mode continuum demonstrates how a teacher mediates a student-centeredapproach.Gibbons. (2003,p.264)30

2010; Lightbrown and Spada, 2001; Wajnryb,1990). The opportunity for students
to be aware of their developing language exemplified in Gibbons’ process
shares a similarity with Schmidt’s noticing hypothesis in which the author
states, “people learn about the things that they attend to and do not learn muchabout the things they do not attend to” (2010).
Gibbons use of scaffolding also promotes noticing, in that students see within
the continuum the difference between their first attempts at speaking and their
final product, which illustrates a more refined academic approach to speaking
that is much closer to academic writing. Furthermore, it should be notedthat Gibbons’ use of signaling as a way to invite students, to encourage thereformulation of language further aligns with noticing as the teacher (mediator)
draws learner attention (2003) to parts of language learning that students need
to attend to (Schmidt, 2010).
Gibbons’ process for teaching content in the ESL classroom in a grouporiented, student-centered and teacher-mediated manner also aligns wellwith Rebecca Oxford’s social strategies, which cite that vast L2 learning
opportunities are available in “asking questions, asking for clarification, andasking for help …via interaction with others … (Oxford, 2003, p. 14; Ehrman
et al., 2003, p. 317). While Gibbons’ process (2003) focuses on ESL instruction,
its emphasis on “… understanding the dynamics that motivate … inter-groupdynamics (Ehrman and Dörnyei​1998; as cited in Ehrman et al., 2003, p. 322)
provides great potential for application in Japanese EFL settings.

A Japanese EFL setting
In Japan, the origins of foreign language instruction and the influence ofthe grammar-translation method dates back to the Meiji period (1868–1913).

31

From that point on, foreign language teaching in Japan emphasized reading andwriting. Language instruction basically remained the same in Japan until thelate 1980s (Yamaoka, 2010) when in the spirit of introducing communicative
language teaching into the education system, the Japanese government hired
foreign language assistant teachers in Japanese high schools (Nishino, 2008,
p. 29). The transition was not so easy, because, for many Japanese high school
English teachers, the grammar-translation method was all they had ever known
in terms of English language instruction (Gorsuch, 1998). Even in Japan today,with the pressures of university entrance exams and with the often forty plus
students in high school English classes, grammar translation still reigns as
a popular method of instruction. (Gorsuch, 1998; Mitchel, 2017; Taguchi,
2005; Goto Butler, 2015). According to Yamaoka in the traditional grammartranslation class, teachers read passages and had the students translate thepassages sentence by sentence, followed by a teacher-led correction of thetranslation. Essentially reading and writing skills dominated instruction in
the form of fill in the blanks or copying the teacher’s notes with often littleemphasis placed on speaking and listening skills (2010). In a Japan-based
behavioral study drawing from a population of 924 university students atnine different universities, King concludes that “loss of face” appears to havea purely negative effect on Japanese EFL learners’ level of oral production(2011). Studies also found that many Japanese teachers of English in both
high school and university settings conducted classes entirely in Japanese.
The study also reported that teachers often declined to speak English based oneither inability or fear of making a mistake (King, 2011; Gorsuch, 1998). Kingfurther states that “silence as a strategy to maintain a positive face appeared toemanate from learners’ second language anxiety and is [further compounded]by their preoccupation with providing ‘correct’ answers” (p. 84). Aspinal (2006)
concludes that oral production in the Japanese EFL classroom is also hampered

32

by the notion that there is only one correct answer (as cited in Hosoki, 2011, p.
12). As a veteran foreign teacher in the Japanese education system, adjusting
to the cultural significance of silence and the student’s pursuit of one correct
answer, can often leave an EFL educator frustrated and drained of motivation.
However, a valuable resource can be found in Gibbons’ notion that studentteacher co-construction of language facilitates a natural progression of language
learning which draws on choices “rather than a finite rule for all” (Gibbons
250–251).
Proper application of Gibbons’ approach can capitalize on Japanese EFL
students’ knowledge of grammar and further build on that knowledge tofacilitate more integrated language learning opportunities.
The purpose of the first section of this paper is to help the reader understandthe validity of using Gibbons’ (2003) method based on teacher mediationand mode continuum to facilitate error correction in a Japanese EFL setting.
This is significant because by doing error correction through studentteacher collaboration based on a modified version of Gibbons’ method, EFL
practitioners in Japan can model lessons to capitalize on what is, more often
than not, the Japanese student’s extensive experience of studying grammar.

Analysis
Considering the history of EFL instruction in Japan, the mention of studying
English to many middle-aged or older Japanese people often sparks memories
of long boring teacher-centered classes. This section of the paper will focus
on my teaching experience with a 65-year-old Japanese EFL student to whom
I give the pseudonym, Mari. A combination of teacher mediation and use of amodified mode continuum (Gibbons, 2003) to suit Mari’s language needs (see33figures 3 and 4) provided an in-depth look at establishing a “linguistic bridge”,
between Mari’s current language ability and how she reformulated her language
to “represent a more standard form of writing and speaking” (Gibbons, 2003, p.
259).
Mari believes that conversation with a native English speaker is the best
way to improve her language skills. She has made several trips abroad toEnglish speaking countries and has had several opportunities to use English
in social situations, but admits she had little advice on error correction (Mari,
2019). Schmidt suggests that L2 reliance on social interaction and exposure to
English alone often results in an inability to grasp native-like norms of clear
grammatical accuracy” (2011). Like Schmidt, many researchers attribute thisinaccuracy to an inability to notice the language (Ellis, 2009; Ellis, 1997;
Jensen, 2008; Richards, 2006; Schmidt, 2010). “In order to show that it makes
more sense to have a range of ways to help … facilitate the learning process”(Nation and Yamamoto (2012, p. 168), Mari was encouraged throughout theprocess to engage the use of all four language skills: reading, writing, speaking,and listening.

Mari’s Continuum
Mari prepared a written text (an overseas trip with cousin) which provided
content for two lessons that took place within the context of a face to face setting.
In contrast to Gibbons’ mode continuum/ teacher mediated method based on group
work in a L2 science class (2003), Mari’s continuum focused on her individual
language needs which expressed the necessary grammar corrections needed in her
prepared written text. Similar to Gibbons’ method, Mari’s learning process is basedon clarification requests1, meta-linguistic clues2, student talk and student-teacher

34

collaboration.
Like many L2 speakers who have not had the opportunity to notice andcorrect their mistakes, aspects of Mari’s “interlanguage have fossilized” (Ellis,
1997, p. 29). In order not to overwhelm her with corrections, we focusedon only the following two errors: 1) those involving misuse of collocations
involving the verb “play” and 2) those involving misuse of the two conjunctions“and/but”. Schmidt states “thatknowledge of rules and metalinguistic

awareness of all kinds belong to [a] higher level of awareness and proposes that
noticing is necessary for second language acquisition and that understandingis facilitative but not required”( 2010, p.5). In Mari’s case, it seemed that bothnoticing and understanding facilitated more accuracy.
Figure 3 illustrates that by isolating collocations with play, through the use ofgrammar sheets (see index) Mari viewed a broader picture of the collocations,and then was able to return to reformulate her own text; Ellis refers to this as“noticing the gap” (1997, p. 57). In Mari’s case, noticing her mistakes allowed
her to apply the knowledge she learned from the worksheet (Figure 3) to reform
her sentences to represent a more “standard form of written English” (Gibbons
2003, p.250).

Figure 3: Mari’s Continuum-A. Doiron. (2019).

At this point in the lesson, Mari mentions that she can’t remember everlearning about the concept of collocations, though she thinks it might have been
covered in a junior or senior high class (Mari, 2019).
Mari’s comments align with Gibbons’ suggestion that “meanings are constructed

35

between rather than within individuals and are shaped by the social activity in which
they arise and the collaborative nature of the interaction” (2003, p. 238). While
the material may have been covered somewhere in Mari’s pre-tertiary EFL
classes of over 40 students, it was most likely in the form of a fill in the blanks
or multiple-choice format. The difference in this lesson was that Mari could
now directly speak, read, write and listen while focusing on a specific aspect of
the target language and was able to use the specific target language to describe
a situation in her life. Rather than end the learning process with a grammar
worksheet based on content which has no relation to Mari’s context, she can
now remember the process in relation to her own thoughts. Referring to figure
4, Teacher: Mari, is it possible to combine the two sentences together? Mari’s
immediate reaction is to use “and.” Then in order to “push [her] to engage inthe process of producing the correct form” (Panova and Lyster, 2002 p. 576),
she is asked to justify why she used “and” rather than another conjunction. On
realizing that what she is saying about her interest in golf is different from what
she is saying about her cousin, so she changes and to “but”. When further asked
to clarify her decision she said, “We are different. I don’t like golf, but mycousin likes golf” (Mari, 2019).
Mari’s process also synchronizes well with Lantolf and Thorne’s adaptationof Vygotsky’s work on mediation in the form of regulation (2007). Using threestages of regulation (object, other and self) Lantolf and Thorne demonstrate how
external resources such as building blocks can promote mathematical learning,and how as each stage becomes more complex the resource may change or
be unnecessary (2007, p. 200). In Mari’s learning situation, in the first stage:
object regulation, the grammar sheet serves as an object to help regulate Mari’s
mental activity. In the second stage:other regulation, Mari received teacher
encouragement to apply what she learned from the worksheet to her own
text. In the final stage of self-regulation as Mari independently self corrects,

36

it appears that the process has facilitated what Lantolf and Thorne refer to as“internalization-the process of making what was once external assistance a resourcethat is internally available to the individual …” (p. 200). Unfortunatelly, the lack ofopportunity for many Japanese EFL students to practice speaking English often
results in inability to retain information, and as suggested by Lightbrown andSpada, short term instruction or lack of opportunity to review target language
may truncate any long-term effect (p. 2016). Mari’s lessons reinforced what
she learned by speaking, reading, writing, and listening. Through conversation,
Mari identified mistakes, which she could rectify after reading and completing
the worksheet. Then through teacher-student discussion, she listened to thereformulation of her mistakes made into the correct form. As stated by Nation,
there is a uniqueness between the language skills of listening, speaking, reading,and the inclusion of all four skills provide more balanced learning opportunities(2007). Japanese EFL students need opportunities to reinforce and recycle
language learning skills. Most ESL students will undoubtably meet collocations
associated with play or the proper use of conjunctions in day to day activities,
but Mari as an EFL student in Japan, will have to figure out a way to work in
the correct use of the language points into her memory.

Figure 4: Mari’s Continuum -B. Doiron. (2019)

37

Figure 5: Teacher acts ad guide and through an interactive process, the student
becomes more independent. Doiron. (2019)

Discussion
Observing Mari’s efforts to correct her text certainly contributes to reflections onteaching practice in regard to the importance of striving for the most effective
path to facilitate student learning. The role of mediator/teacher in Mari’s process
is reminiscent of research by Rogers and Freiberg (1994) which suggests thatteacher effectiveness can be facilitated by helping students find resources that
promote learning which in turn encourages student autonomy and student
self-evaluation (p. 170). In order for Mari to reach a higher level of language
accuracy, she needs error correction in a learning context based on a processsimilar to Gibbons’ mode continuum/teacher mediated process, which includes
regulated activity that draws on ELL grammar resources. It would also be
helpful to read in English on a daily basis, which is an easy method to guarantee
regular exposure to how English works. The above suggested resources could
be facilitated through grammar worksheets, extensive reading, or watching
English movies with English subtitles. It should also be noted here that while
Mari’s continuum started with speaking, ideally a student’s continuum should
start with the skill they are most comfortable in or the skill that is most practical38

to the learning context.

Conclusion
In summary, this paper argued the importance of error correction based on an
adaptation of Gibbons’ mode continuum teacher mediated process in a Japanese
EFL setting. Language inaccuracy issues such Mari’s (this paper’s EFL
learner research subject) are common within the Japanese EFL setting; further
research on issues discussed in this paper drawing on a larger subject scale isrecommended in order to determine what provides the best path of study forJapanese EFL students.

Note
1 Clarification request is a form of error correction in which the teacher directs thestudent to the teacher indicates that the student message needs to be clarified andreformulated (Tedick &Gotari,1998).
2 Metalinguistic clues are a form of error correction in which, the teacher refrainsfrom giving the correct answers but uses questions based on the content toencourage the student to reformulate mistakes (Tedick &Gotari,1998).

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nottingham.ac.uk/13498/1/555328.pdf
Louw, D., Botha, A. and Grobbelaar, P., 1998. Human Development. Cape Town:
Pearson,. p. 88. http://diysolarpanelsv.com/green-alien-spaceship-clipart.html
Lantolf, J. & Thorne, S. L. (2007). “Sociocultural theory and second language
learning”. In. B. van Patten & J. Williams (eds.), Theories in Second Language
Acquisition (pp. 197–221). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2000). “Do They Know What Theyre Doing”?
L2 LearnersAwareness of L1 Influence. Language Awareness, 9 (4), 198–217.

40

doi:10.1080/09658410008667146 Socio-cognitive Approach in Second Language
Acquisition Research. National College of Nursing Japan, 3 (1), 2–10
Mari. Student lessons March 11th & 18th, 2019
Nation, P., & Yamamoto, A. (2012). “APPLYING THE FOUR STRANDS TOLANGUAGE LEARNING”. International Journal of Innovation in EnglishLanguage
1Teaching, 1 (2). Retrieved February 28th, 2019, from https://www.victoria.
ac.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/…/2012-Yamamoto-Four-strands.pdf.
Nation, (2007) The Four Strands, Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching,
1:1, 2–13, DOI: 10.2167/illt039.0
Nishino, T. (2008). “Japanese Secondary School Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices
Regarding Communicative Language Teaching: An Exploratory Survey”. JALT
Journa l, 30 (1), 27–51. Retrieved March 22, 2019, from https://jalt-publications.
org/files/pdf-article/jj-23.1-art3.pdf.
Panova, I., & Lyster, R. (2002). “Patterns of error correction and uptake in adult ESLClassroom”. TESOL Quarterly, 36 (4), 573–595.
Oxford, R. L. (2003). “Language learning styles and strategies: Concepts andRelationships”. IRAL – International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language
Teaching, 41 (4). doi: 10. 1515/iral. 2003. 012 http://personnel.mcgill.ca/files/roy.
lyster/Panova_Lyster2002_TESOLQ.pdf
Rogers, C. R., & Freiberg, H. J. (1994). Freedom to learn. New York: Merrill.
Sato, R. (2012). “The Effects of Written Feedback in the Form of Recasts”. The
Journal of Asia TEFL, 9 (4), 27–50. Retrieved March 9, 2019, from www.asiatefl.
org/main/download_pdf.php?i=80&c=1419299024&fn=9_4
Schmidt, R. (2010). “Attention, awareness, and individual differences in language
Learning”. In W. M. Chan, S. Chi, K. N. Cin, J. Istanto, M. Nagami, J. W. Sew, T.
Suthiwan, & I. Walker, Proceedings of CLaSIC 2010, Singapore, December 2–4(pp. 721–737). Singapore: National University of Singapore, Centre for Language
Studies.
Taguchi, N. (2005). “The communicative approach in Japanese secondary schools:
Teachers’ perceptions and practice”. The Language Teacher, 29 (3), 3–12.
Retrieved March 29, 2019, from https://jalt-publications.org/files/pdf/the_language_
teacher/03_2005tlt.pdf.
Tedick, D., & Gortari, B. (1998). Types of Corrective Feedback. Research on Error
Correction and Implications for Classroom Teaching. The Bridge, ACIE Newsletter.

41

Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition, University of Minnesota,
v1http://www.carla.umn.edu/immersion/acie/vol1/May1998.pd.
Wajnryb, R., (1990). Grammar Dictation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Yamaoka, K. ( 2010). “The Current Situation and Future Prospects of JapaneseEnglish Teaching” Retrieved July 7, 2018, from http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/re/
k-rsc/lcs/kiyou/pdf_22–1/Rits LCS_22.1pp. 59–66_Yamaoka.pdf
Appendix: worksheets used in Mari’s class accessed a
https://www.allthingsgrammar.com/do--go--play.html

43

President Trump on Twitter

Yuko OKADO-GOUGH

Abstract
Following the death of George Floyd in police custody on May 25,
2020, race relations in the United States worsened as it highlighted thedisproportionate police brutality against members of the black community.
Combined with the frustration caused by the Coronavirus pandemic, the Black
Lives Matter movement took to the streets. Although the Trump administrationis neither the cause of institutional and systematic discrimination nor police
brutality against black Americans, the President’s handling of the protests,
including his barrage of tweets and retweets, has been heavily criticized for
not being helpful, and maybe even detrimental, to the situation. In order to
identify how his words may be influencing American society, a selectionof his tweets between May 25 and June 9 were analysed using van Dijk’ssociocognitive model of discourse and cognition to outline how certain events
or social actors are framed in his tweets and understood by the recipients,
which then become a part of social belief.
Keywords: Donald Trump, Twitter, tweets, discourse, analysis, cognition,
CDA, mental model

Introduction
On May 25, 2020, the harrowing video footage of a black US citizen, George

44

Floyd, being choked to death by a white police officer went, viral on social
media and shocked the world. The 46-year-old African-American man was
handcuffed and pinned down onto the ground by a uniformed officer withhis knee on Floyd’s neck. Floyd was heard complaining repeatedly that hecould not breathe until he eventually stopped moving under the officer’s knee.
This incident highlighted the disproportionate police brutality against black
Americans once again, and Black Lives Matter (BLM) protests which began
on May 26 rocked Minneapolis. The BLM protests spread to all 50 states
thereafter, and in some cities, demonstrations descended into unrest. Fuelled by
the frustration amid the unprecedented pandemic, which has affected minority
communities more severely, the nation seemed to be devoured by racial hatredand distrust as antiracism protests and counter protests raged across the country.
The United States has a long history of institutional and systematic racism
from its birth to the present day. It was not until 1965 when the Voting Rights
Act was passed that all black Americans were able to exercise their right tovote, yet discriminatory sales of properties were found to be still practiced in
20191. Furthermore, race relations seem to have worsened since Donald Trump
took the oath of office of the President almost four years ago. He has always
been very outspoken, even before his presidency. As a businessperson and TV
celebrity, his abrasiveness was rather entertaining, but as a head of the state, his“inflammatory language”2 and “dangerous rhetoric”3 as well as his “raciallycharged”4 tweets and rallies have alarmed many political pundits. Within a yearof his electoral victory, a survey by the Pew Research Centre found that 60%
of Americans said Trump’s election had led to worse race relations in the US,
compared to 13% in 2009, a year after Barack Obama was elected5 despite theclaim by the current President that his administration has “done more for black
Americans than any president since Lincoln.”6This essay will examine a selection of his tweets in order to identify what

45

is so “toxic”7 about his tweets and attempt to understand how his words may
be affecting American society. It will outline how a communicative event or asocial actor is framed in his tweets, because it can have a significant bearing
on mental models of the recipients through which they understand what thediscourse is about and retain them as knowledge. This process and the role ofdiscourse in cognition will be explained using van Dijk’s sociocognitive modelof discourse and cognition. In order to identify Trump’s referential choices,close attention will also be paid to the representation of social actors8, 9 in theanalysis of some of the selected tweets.
Amid mounting criticism of police heavy-handedness and his handling of theprotests he tweeted on May 29:10 (all dates shown on screenshots are JST)

This refers to Section 230 of the Decent Communications Act, which originallyprovided social networking platforms immunity from third party content. It haslater been amended to require the removal of certain content which violates
copyright, hate speech and sex trafficking laws. President Trump “threatened to‘strongly regulate’ or close down social media platforms”11 after Twitter placed
warnings on some of his tweets, and he called to have the law revoked.12 This
clearly demonstrates that he appreciates the influence Twitter has on society,especially on his support base.

Roles of Discourse in Cognition
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is primarily interested in, and motivated by,46

pressing social issues such as racism, dominance, inequality and power abuse,
and in order to better understand such complex issues, it pays close attention to
the relation between society, discourse and social cognition.13 In other words,
it accounts both “for the social, political and cultural aspects of discourse andfor the subjective ways individual social actors produce and reproduce social
representations as well as social structure.”14
The relationship between dominance and discourse is not straightforward.
It is not just a case of “more or less direct or overt support, enhancement,
representation, legitimation, denial, mitigation or concealment of dominance.”15
It can be implicit, benign, and deeply embedded in everyday communication.
Thus, it is necessary to examine the role of social representations in the mindsof social actors,16 that is, to identify the role of text and talk in the formationof mental models about communicative events. Mental models are pivotal in
discourse and knowledge production because they are “both the starting point
and the intended results of discourse.”17 They are what the recipients construe
and retain during their understanding, and recall later, rather than the exact
wording or even the local meanings of discourse.
Discourse and knowledge are deeply intertwined, for a large portion of
our knowledge is acquired through discourse, while some is gained via firsthand and multimodal, that is, visual, auditory, tactile, or osmic, experiences.18
Knowledge is defined here as more “relativistic and contextual”19 beliefs thanneutral, justified and absolutely ‘true’ beliefs as defined traditionally. In otherwords, the relevance of knowledge to the communicative situation is more
important than its universality. Therefore, what is justified as knowledge in one
epistemic community may only be a (false) belief or superstition in another.
Knowledge plays a fundamental role in discourse comprehension andproduction, because an extensive amount of knowledge is required for one toconstrue a mental model20 in order to process new information contained in47

discourse. In this process, the vast multimodal complexity of experiences isreduced and organised in less complex representations that define situationally
relevant information of our daily experiences. This forms the cognitive
foundation of discourse and communication about such experiences on the
one hand, and on the other hand, generalization and abstraction of similar
models produce generic knowledge of the world, which in turn is used in theconstruction of new models of experience.21 A participant of a communicative
situation needs to activate a large volume of knowledge and make inferencesfrom both generic and personal knowledge to fill in any missing informationand to form a cognitive representation of what the discourse is about.22 It
constructs a version of reality to aid the comprehension of discursive eventsand to form the basis on which an individual participant forms an opinion or
ideology,23 which in turn will influence the referential choices they make indiscourse production in another communicative situation.
Furthermore, these models are shared among members of the same epistemic
community, as both personal and social knowledge is usually acquired andchanged in social situations, that is, through social interaction and discourse,and such personal experiences and knowledge are communicated and sharedwith others.24 Hence, discourses and the models they express and convey are
the primary means of reproduction of knowledge in society.25
When producing discourse, a speaker can presuppose what recipients alreadyknow about a particular topic and omit certain details. The speaker chooses
which details to include and how they are described, for example, using a
metaphor or analogy, which can create more concrete visual aspect of a mental
model. This process is controlled by the mental model that the speaker has
about the event, its context and recipients. Thus, a mental model is a subjective
representation of an event and it functions as “the necessary interface”26
between socially shared cultural, societal or political cognition and personal

48

beliefs.
There are a number of potential ways “in which social actors can be
represented”27 in English discourse, and the choices made by a speaker canhave a significant effect on the kind of mental models each recipient may
have about an event or person. These referential choices greatly enhance therecipients’ ability to form more multimodal and vivid mental models of theevent and social actors. Social actors may be classified in different ways to add
ideological effects. For example, they can be personalised or impersonalised,
to express representation as an individual or a group of people. They can also
be individualised or collectivised, to express both physical and emotional
distance between them and recipients.28 The use of functional honorifics, suchas ‘Judge’, ‘Minister’ or ‘President’, may add specialization of role, importanceor a different levels of authority to a social actor.29 Different methods ofclassifications and their effects will be noted in the analysis of President’s
tweets.

Analysis of Trump’s Tweets
Twitter saw a surge of the use of the #blacklivesmatter hashtag, reachingeight million on May 28,30 following the death of George Floyd. Its users
posting their messages of support included many celebrities31 and some
corporations, although there have been allegations by employees that these are
mere gestures.32 The President also took to his favourite social media platform,
Twitter. According to USA Today, in the 15 days between George Floyd’s
death and his funeral service in Houston on June 9, Trump sent 769 tweets andretweets, 200 of which were related to the protests and “focused on unrest, law
and order, and threat of military use.”33 Ten samples have been selected from49

these 769 tweets, not all of them related to the protests. His retweets will not be
included in the selection.
The President’s @realDonaldTrump account has 80.5 million followers asof August 2020, while his @POTUS account has 31.2 million. Although all his
followers may not be his supporters, his tweets directly and indirectly reach asignificant number of Twitter users. His frequent use of social media is so wellknown that some journalists have referred to him as the “tweeter in chief”34, 35
for he tweeted more than 6,000 times in the first half of 2020, averaging
33.2 tweets a day,36 and his tweets are considered official statements fromthe president. Although he also uses other social media platforms including
Instagram, with 21.7 followers, and Facebook with 30.1 million, he has more
followers and is most active on Twitter by far.
As of September 2020, a total of five of his tweets have been hidden under
Twitter’s rules and policies, under which they have been flagged up as engaging
in or containing glorification of violence,37 synthetic and manipulated media,38
abusive behaviour,39 and misleading health claims. On May 26, Twitter placed afact-check advisory on Trump’s tweet for the first time under its Civic Integrity
Policy40 created in 2018 and extended in 2020. He tweeted:41

50

In this tweet, he refers to ‘the Governor of California’ by his title rather than his
name, Gavin Newsom, whereby he is functionalised. The social and politicalstatus of the social actor’s position as a governor increases the gravity of thesituation to his unsubstantiated claim by sounding “more official.”42 He also
claims that ‘professionals’ will be “telling all those people” for whom to vote.
As well as functionalising, he collectivises43 the participants. It distancesthem from the readers, as opposed to bringing them closer by nomination andindividualising. In both instances, the governor and professionals “are activatedupon”44 millions of people, given a perpetuator-like role in their representation.
The use of fully capitalised words also adds the perceived authority and strength
by grabbing the recipients’ attention45 to his claim. Another group of social
actors in this tweet are the “millions of people” whom he describes “anyone …
living in the state, no matter who they are or how they got there,” insinuatingthat they may include illegal immigrants, a group often targeted by Trump andhis base. Collectivisation also creates the sense of ‘otherness’ by its distancing
effect and signifies the distance between ‘us’ and ‘them.’
The next violation came on May 29, when Twitter hid one of his tweets “for‘glorifying violence’,”46 in which he warned the protesters in Minneapolis that
he would send the military to intervene should there be any difficulties. He
wrote:47

51

He singles out Jacob Frey, the city’s Democratic mayor, for his “weak”
leadership and adds the adjectives “Radical” and “Left” to his functional
honorific, neither of which would be a popular word amongst the President’s
supporters. He collectivises and functionalises the protesters as “THUGS”
which diminishes the legitimacy of legal, peaceful protests. On the contrary
to blaming the “Radical Left” Mayor, he personalises and nominates the
Minnesota Governor, Tim Walz. He legitimises the use of military in order to“assume control” by appearing to side with the Democratic governor in ‘getting
the job right.’ He ends the tweet by quoting a former Miami police chief who
in 1967 promised violent reprisals to protests over stop-and-frisk tactics48 withthe words “when looting starts, shooting starts,” which would probably be a
popular phrase amongst the right-leaning population of the country.
Name-calling is Trump’s favourite tactic for denigrating anyone who opposeshim. As well as many prominent Democrats, mainstream media outlets, which
are not sympathetic towards his administration, such as Cable News Network(CNN) and Microsoft/National Broadcasting Company (MSNBC), who
frequently receive a similar treatment. This undermines the role of media asa credible source of information. The phrase “Fake News” appeared 18 times

52

during these two weeks, often referring to CNN and other mainstream media
outlets. Trump made an allegation that Twitter was meddling with the 2020
Presidential elections and “stifling FREE SPEECH” the day after Twitter placed
fact-check warning on his fraudulent mail-in ballots claim:49

They are depicted as perpetrators, thus undermining their credibility, while
Trump added functional honorific, “President” to himself, promoting his
authority and legitimacy.
On June 1, in a speech in the White House’s Rose Garden, Trump issued
a threat to deploy the military if cities and states did not take actions tobring protests under control, which was criticized heavily. Shortly after this,protesters were tear-gassed and forcibly dispersed away from Lafayette Squareand surrounding streets by national guardsmen and federal officers, just so thatPresident Trump could walk from the White House to St John’s Chapel for a
photo op, which further inflamed the criticism. Trump introduced an online
article which defended the use of tear gas as a “must read” on June 3:50

53

In this tweet, he depicts “Fake News” media is an enemy of “our Country”
whose coverage on the protests is false. He uses a line from the article, word
for word, which describes the demonstrations as “Violent Riots” and calls
protesters “Rioters,” criminalising them and delegitimatises the BLM protests.
He substantiates his claim by referencing to an article by a right-leaning online
magazine, the Federalist, which many of his supporters would find moreplausible than CNN. He also mentions the burning down of churches, which
would anger the fundamentalist Christian base among his supporters, although
the fire was small and isolated to the basement nursery room and St John’s
Church was not burnt down.
Fox News is the mainstream media outlet that Trump trusts most. Amongst
the three main cable television news networks in the US, it currently has the54largest viewership with about 3.97 million primetime viewers in June 2020,
followed by CNN with 2.5 million and MSNBC with 2.2 million,51 and 60% of
its regular viewers identify themselves as conservative.52 As well as frequently
retweeting, he quotes journalists from Fox News in his tweets to validate his
claim that the BLM protesters are responsible for the “Chaos, lawlessness, anddestruction”53 of New York whose governor should promptly seek help from his
administration.

As the 2020 Presidential election looms, Joe Biden, the Democratic
Presidential nominee, frequently appeared in Trump’s tweets. Trump mentioned“Biden” 35 times, 16 times of which were accompanied by the adjective‘sleepy’.

The word “Sleepy”54 gives an impression of Biden being a dull, inactive,
drowsy and maybe lethargic old man, who is totally controlled by ‘Radical’
leftist Democrats. He presents a doomsday scenario that “Anarchists”, who are
not expected to respect authority, law and order, will be freed out of jail, should
Biden be elected President. In this tweet, Democrats are depicted as instigatorsof anarchy by being “activated upon”55 in their representation. He also mentions

55“tax increase for all” which is a hallmark image of the left, alarming his
supporters of a possible realisation of socialism.
Trump again attacks Biden for his weakness and ineffectiveness and claims
that he will not be able to “beat anarchists, looters or thugs,” thus requiring“LAW & ORDER!” to bring an end to the ongoing protests.56

He continues with his attack on Biden by quoting a New York Post journalist,
Michael Goodwin:57

Goodwin attacks Biden for his criticism on police and siding with protesters.
He also criminalises the BLM protesters by referring to them as “arsonists”
and “looters,” which also undermines Biden’s reputation. By referencing acomment of an established journalist, Trump validates his opinion and presents
this allegation about Biden and the protesters as a fact.
“Lamestream” is another term he regularly uses when referring to mainstream
media outlets. As the etymology of the term “lame” + “mainstream” embodies,
it refers disparagingly to the traditional media.58 On June 8, he tweeted:59

56

This was a criticism towards mainstream media whose coverage was dominatedby the ongoing BLM protests, and not reporting on the drop in unemployment,
as announced by Department of Labor on June 5, despite the decrease being
attributed possibly to “many states reopening their economies and sending
people back to work, often against advice from healthcare and policy
professionals.”60
On June 9, footage of an elderly protester being knocked down by a police
officer in riot gear went viral on social and traditional media. In response to theoutrage, he tweeted:61

Antifa is an anti-fascist and left-wing political movement started in 1980s, andis opposed to neo-Nazis, neo-fascism, white supremacists, racism and the altright.62 It is not a centralised movement, however. Its disruptive tactics andwillingness to use violence63 have resulted in the right-wing’s claim that it isa terrorist organisation, and a petition was lodged in August 2017 to have it
recognized as a terror group.64 The response from the White House was thatfederal laws provide no mechanism to formally designate a domestic terrorist
organisation,65 yet, there is a tendency among the right-wing to consider the
movement a terror group, as it has often been called as such by many prominent

57

figures including Donald Trump and Attorney General William Barr. As oneof the far-right and pro-Trump news outlets, One America News Network(OANN) shares this view and the station aired a program titled “America Under
Siege: Antifa”66 in 2017. In its report on an antiracism protest in Buffalo on
June 9, OANN described 75-year-old Martin Gugino as “a well-known activist,
bragging on social media of far-left views.”67 The President cites OANN as
the source of information, which may add credibility to this claim, comingfrom a traditional media outlet. With the image of Antifa being terrorists, on an
equal level with ISIS and Al Qaeda, he describes the 75-year-old protestor as apossible “ANTIFA provocateur”, which functionalises the man as a member ofa terrorist organization. The use of the term ‘provocateur’, which is a synonym
for words including agitator, demagogue and inciter, adds maliciousness andaggressiveness to both Antifa and the protestor, reenforcing the image of the
movement as terroristic, although neither does he commit to the claim nor
declare his belief with the use of a modal ‘could’ to hedge the possibility.68 By
degrading the protester to a possible terrorist, he simultaneously legitimises thepolice officer’s action.

Conclusion
The mental models President Trump expresses and conveys suit a certain
type of scenario, in which Democrats are rigging elections by getting illegal
immigrants to vote for them, and the Black Lives Matter protests are mere
thuggery orchestrated by Antifa, and therefore, a heavy-handed response by
the police and the military is totally justified. He also insinuates that, if elected,“Radical Left” Democrats and their ‘puppet’ leader Biden will release criminals
from prison, and cities will be overwhelmed by anarchists and lawlessness.

58

These allegations are supported with references and retweets, while Trumphimself stops short of declaring that he believes they are true. Neither does heappear interested in convincing everybody of his beliefs nor garnering support
from a large majority, as these images will not go down well with those withdifferent sets of knowledge, for example, of the history of police brutality oreven the very history of the United States itself. However, those in the same
epistemic community, who tend to consume the same news sources and sharea similar set of social knowledge, will not have much difficulty in accepting
and retaining the mental models construed from the President’s tweets asknowledge, which can be recalled and used in order to understand otherdiscursive events.
Mental models are the starting point of discourse. Discourse is informed
by, and produced based on, the mental models of a speaker. At the same time,they are the intended result of discourse. Recipients construe and retain amental model in their comprehension of discourse by activating vast amount ofknowledge. This validates, justifies and confirms even the most biased briefs
and ideologies and facilitates the sharing of such briefs with other members inthe same epistemic community.
Embedded in Internet culture, especially in the United States, lies almost
evangelical commitment to the First Amendment and therefore the freedomof speech. Pew Research Centre found that Americans are more tolerant of
all forms of freedom of expression than others worldwide. A large majority
in the U.S. think it is acceptable to make offensive comments about minority
groups or their religious beliefs, and nearly half (44%) think calls for violent
protests should be allowed.69 This tendency is evident in the President’s
tweets and comments, for which he has been accused of racism,70 “shamelessmisogyny,”71 blatant lies72 and conspiracy theories.73 His words are often
described as, “toxic”74 dangerous75 and irresponsible.76 When asked why they

59

support the President, however, one of his supporters listed “his honesty” and“determination” for her reasons, while another described him as the “strong
leader” that the US needs.77 The stark differences of his reception are amanifestation of this radical libertarianism towards free speech, and if it does
not translate into the responsibility that comes with it, it only seems appropriate
to grant social networking sites the power to mediate and possibly remove suchaccounts or posts that can aggravate social issues such as racism, inequality,
dominance or power abuse.

Notes
1		 Rothstein, “The myth of de facto segregation,” Sage journal.
2		 Applebaum, “The dark history behind Trump’s inflammatory Language,” The
Washington Post, (June 22, 2020).
3		 Mercieca, “A field guide to Trump’s dangerous rhetoric,” The Conversation,(June 19, 2020).
4		 BBC, “President Trump defends racially charged Twitter attack,” BBC News,(July 15, 2019).
5		 “Most Americans Say Trump’s Election Has Led,” Pew Research Centre, (De­cem­ber 19, 2020).
6		 Kessler, “Trump’s claim that he’s done more for black Americans,” The
Washington Post, (June 5, 2020).
7		 Zelizer, “Don’t downplay Trump’s toxic tweet,” USA Today, (January 16,2020).
8		 van Leeuwen, “Representation of social actors,” (1995).
9		 Machin and Mayer, How to do Critical Discourse Analysis, p. 79.
10		 Trump, Twitter (May 29, 2020), https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/
1266387743996870656
11		 McCarthy, “Trump threatens social media,” The Guardian, (May 27, 2020).
12		 Pietsch, “Trump and Biden both want to revoke Section 230,” Business Insider(May 30, 2020).
13		 van Dijk, “Principles of critical discourse analysis,” pp. 251–252.

60

14		

van Dijk, Discourse and Knowledge, p. 13.

15		 van Dijk, “Principles of critical discourse analysis,” p. 250.
16		 van Dijk, “Principles of critical discourse analysis,” p. 251.
17		

van Dijk, Discourse and Knowledge, p. 53.

18		

van Dijk, Discourse and Knowledge, p. 68.

19		

van Dijk, Discourse and Knowledge, p. 16.

20		

van Dijk, Discourse and Knowledge, p. 7.

21		

van Dijk, Discourse and Knowledge, p. 49.

22		

van Dijk, Discourse and Knowledge, p. 26.

23		

van Dijk, Discourse and Knowledge, p. 11.

24		

van Dijk, Discourse and Knowledge, p. 94.

25		

van Dijk, Discourse and Knowledge, p. 53.

26		 van Dijk, “Political Discourse and Political Cognition,” p. 207.
27		 van Leeuwen, “Representation of social actors,” p. 32.
28		 Machin and Meyer, How to do, p. 80.
29		 Machin and Meyer, How to do, p. 82.
30		 Anderson, Barthel, Perrin and Vogels, “#BlackLivesMatter surges on Twitter,”(June 10, 2020).
31		 Rao, “Celebrities are rushing to support,” The Washington Post, (June 11,2020).
32		 Harper, “Corporations say they support Black Lives Matter,” The Washington
Post, (June 16, 2020).
33		 Petras, “200 of Trump’s tweets singled out protests,” USA Today, (June 11,2020).
34		 Horsey, “Tweeter in chief,” The Seattle Times, (December 13, 2019).
35		 “Fact-checking the tweeter in chief,” The Washington Post, (June 2, 2020).
36		

Trump Tweeter Archive, http://www.trumptwitterarchive.com/

37		

https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/glorification-of-violence38		

https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/manipulated-media39		

https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/abusive-behavior

40		

https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/election-integrity-policy

41		 Trump on Twitter, (May 26, 2020), https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/
1265255835124539392
42		 Machin and Mayer, How to do Critical Discourse Analysis, p. 81.
43		 Machin and Mayer, How to do Critical Discourse Analysis, p. 80.

6144		 van Leeuwen, “Representation of Social Actors,” p. 45.
45		

Machin, Introduction to Multimodal Analysis, p. 89.

46		 Hern, “Twitter hides Donald Trump tweet for ‘glorifying violence’,” The
Guardian, (May 29, 2020).
47		 Trump on Twitter, (May 29, 2020), https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/
1266231100780744704
48		 Hern, “Twitter hides Donald Trump tweet for ‘glorifying violence’,” The
Guardian, (May 29, 2020).
49		 Trump on Twitter, (May 26, 2020), https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/
1265427538140188676
50		 Trump on Twitter, (June 3, 2020), https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/
1268009894885634054
51		 “Leading cable news networks in the United States,” Statista.
52		 Pew Research Centre, “Demographics and Political Views of News Audiences”.
53		 Trump on Twitter, (June 2, 2020), https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/
1268013914178142209
54		 Trump on Twitter, (June 1, 2020), https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/
1267445910826627078
55		 van Leeuwen, “Representation of Social Actors,” p. 45.
56		 Trump on Twitter, (June 2, 2020), https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/
1267907954537312256
57		 Trump on Twitter, (June 8, 2020), https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/
1269730875769487361
58		

Oxford Languages.

59		 Trump on Twitter, (June 8, 2020), https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/
1269976902665752576
60		 Ryland, “Trump Attacks “Lamestream Media”,” Politicus USA, (Jun 8, 2020).
61		 Trump on Twitter, (June 9, 2020), https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/
1270333484528214018
62		 “Seven things you need to know about Antifa,” Seriously…, BBC Radio 4
podcast.
63		 “Seven things you need to know about Antifa,” Seriously…, BBC Radio 4
podcast.
64		 Miller, “White House answers online petitions,” Associated Press News,(February 26, 2020).

6265		 Miller, “White House answers online petitions,” Associated Press News,(February 26, 2020).
66		 “One America News Network to Air ‘America Under Siege: Antifa’,” OANN,(September 25, 2017).
67		 “Report: Shoved Buffalo Protester,” OANN, (June 9, 2020) tweeted by
Matthew Gertz, (June 9, 2020).
68		 Machin and Mayr, How to do, p. 187.
69		 Wike and Simmons, “Global Support for the Principle,” Pew Research Centre.
70		 BBC, “Trump denies new accusations,” BBC News, (July 29, 2019); Gabbat
and Smith, “Trump accused of racism,” The Guardian, (May 12, 2020); Reston,“Trump’s birther lie about Kamala Harris,” CNN, (August 15, 2020).
71		 Openheim, “Trump accused of ‘shameless misogyny’,” The Independent,(February 7, 2020).
72		 “Trump is the king of lies,” The Washington Post, (July 23, 2020).
73		 “Conspiracy Theorist in Chief,” Los Angeles Times, (April 6, 2020);“Conspiracy theorist in chief?” The Washington Post, (March 5, 2017); Avlon,“Our conspiracy theorist-in-chief,” CNN, (August 12, 2019).
74		 Zelizer, “Don’t downplay Trump’s toxic tweet,” USA Today, (January 16,2020)..
75		 Mercieca, “A field guide to Trump’s dangerous rhetoric,” The Conversation,(June 19, 2020).
76		 Cuomo on NBC News, in Collins, “President Donald Trump,” NBC News,(June 10, 2020).
77		 “Trump Nation,” USA Today.

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67

VOA 英語学習教材に見られる書き言葉と話し言葉の言語的特徴

──選択体系機能言語学の視点から──

水

野

友

貴

Abstract
Characteristic differences between the features of spoken and written
language have a decisive effect in making a text what it is in a certain context.
There is a temptation to explain these differences only in terms ofappropriateness and awkwardness when it might be more explicitly explainedby looking closely at the grammatical and lexical features through whichmeanings are constructed. A functional linguistic perspective would focus on
the inseparable relationship between language context and structure, and fromthere show how particular texts come to be constructed through choices oflexico-grammar. In this paper, the characteristics of an English learningmaterial, VOA (Voice of America) “Let’s Learn English!”, are analyzed fromthe perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) theory: register,
lexical density, grammatical intricacy, thematic progression, and cohesion.
Stress is laid on the importance of making characteristic differences between
spoken and written language explicit. In this way, teachers can be given
access to a valuable set of tools that will help students to identify linguisticfeatures of spoken and written language, which should open up a way todevelop higher levels of English literacy.
Keywords: Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), functional grammar,
registar, lexical density, spoken language, written language,
thematic progression, cohesion

68キーワード：選択体系機能言語学、機能文法、レジスター（言語使用域）、語彙密度、話し言葉、書き言葉、主題進行、結束性

１．はじめに
今年の春学期は未曾有のコロナ禍において、各大学は遠隔授業をする
ことが余儀なくされた。筆者の担当授業（１年生、２年生）では、指定教科書の学習に加え、ウエブサイトを活用した英語学習を採り入れる絶好の機会となった。
「英語学習」もしくは「English Learning」と検索するとヒットする膨大な数の英語学習サイトの中でも、米国の Voice ofAmerica（以下 VOA）と英国の BBC の英語学習サイトは世界中の英語学習者および英語教育者向けに様々な情報に関するマルチメディア教材
を無料で提供しており、最新ニュース、最新トピック、英会話、文法、発音などの各項目別に自律的な英語学習を支援するためのツールが一体化した、非常に優れた英語学習教材を提供している。
筆者担当の授業では、VOA「Learning English」の数々の無料学習プロ
グラムの中から初級レベルの「Let’s Learn English!（以下 LLE）Level 1」を補助教材として活用し、日常的によく使われる語彙・表現、基礎文法
知識に加えて、米国の歴史、職場、友人関係、食べ物、年中行事などの文化的知識を学習した。LLE（Level 1 and 2）は VOA の言語学習専門家
である Jill Robbins 博士によって Language Learning Strategy Instruction（LLSI）を統合したオンライン型のマルチメディア英語学習教材として世界中の EFL、ESL 学習者の自律的学習を支援するために開発された（Robbins, 2018）。また、教師向けにも各レッスンの scope & sequence お
よび learning strategies が準備されており、非常に優れた教材である。筆者担当の受講生からは、「楽しみながら英語学習ができた」、「苦手な英語が好きになった」、「日常会話に応用できる聞く力や話す力が向上し

69

た」、さらに「教科書の読解力が向上した」などの好反応を多数得ることができた。
外国語教育において文部科学省は「４技能（聞く・話す・読む・書く）のコミュニケーション力強化」の到達目標を掲げており、グローバル化に対応した新たな英語教育改革実施計画（2013年 12 月公表）では、小・中・高を通じて一貫した学習到達目標を設定している。小学校中学年から始まる外国語（英語）の言語活動は主に話し言葉である。高等学校での高度な言語活動（発表、討論、交渉）のために必要な書き言葉の言語能力を発展させるためには、日常会話のインフォーマルな対話的言語である話し言葉の英語と、大学の専門科目や後学の社会生活などのフォー
マルで高度に構成された書き言葉の英語の言語的特徴の違いが、その言語が使われる状況やコンテクストと、その言語が構築される語彙・文法の選択に大きく依存することを理解することが重要である。
選択体系機能言語学（Systemic Functional Grammar 以下適宜 SFL と呼ぶ）では、「誰が、誰に対して、どのような場面で、どのような方法を通じて、何について話しているのか」という伝達状況や伝達方法を表す「状況のコンテクスト」と、伝達内容を表す「テクスト」の語彙・文法の言語的特徴の不可分な関連性を様々な分析によって明示することが可能である。SFL 的分析によって、話し言葉と書き言葉の語彙、文法、テ
クスト構成などの言語的特徴を顕在化することができるため、コンテク
ストとテクストを関連づけた言語的意識を高め、その場に相応しい会話力の養成だけでなく、アカデミックな上級リテラシー能力の育成へとつながる重要な礎を築くツールとなることが示唆される。本稿では、SFL理論を鍵概念として、英語の書き言葉と話し言葉の「なんとなく異なっている」と感じるテクストは、特定の状況のコンテクストを具現するための語彙文法の言語資源の選択によって構築されていることを、VOA
英語学習教材における言語的特徴に SFL 的焦点を当てて検証し、英語

70

教育への応用を考察する。

２．話し言葉と書き言葉に関する先行研究
日本の英語教育における話し言葉の研究では、話し言葉文法を学ぶことは、言語形式への意識を高め、正誤に基づいた規範的規則だけでなく、
コンテクストに応じた言語使用能力の育成において有意義であることが示唆されている（山崎，2017）。また、大学１年生の日本語を外国語とする学習者を対象とした研究では、意思伝達および文法の正確性にもかかわらず、日本語母語話者にはどこか「座りの悪さ」を覚えてしまう箇所について、学習者の言語的知識の欠如による話し言葉と書き言葉の使
い分けの不適切さに起因していることが指摘されている（山本・大西，
2003）。さらに、大学初年次教育における日本語の話し言葉と書き言葉に関する研究では、学生は話し言葉と書き言葉を感覚的に区別しているが、実証的かつ体系的に示すことは非常に困難であり、日本人学部生が話し言葉と書き言葉の混在した説明文中の話し言葉を書き言葉に修正する作業において「動詞を名詞化するなど、統語的なレベルでの話し言葉性が看過されやすい」ことが問題の一つとして指摘されている（石黒，2011）。
SFL 理論を応用した多くの言語教育研究においては、話し言葉と書き言葉の違いを認識することは、高学年になるにつれて必要となる、複雑に構成されたテクストのリテラシー能力の育成にとってきわめて重要であることが示唆されている。日常会話における双方的な話し言葉は、学
校教育における口頭発表などの言語活動を通して、学校で期待され、高く評価される学問的、また後学の社会で要求される形式的な書き言葉へと発達する。この過程において語彙・文法の選択がどのようにテクスト

71

全体を形成するために機能しているかを SFL 理論に基づいて分析し、明示することの言語教育における有効性が多くの先行研究によって示されている（Christie, 1985; Halliday & Hasan, 1985; Schleppegrell, 2004; 佐々木，2006a, 2006b, 2009）。
SFL 理論では、各場面で異なる「状況のコンテクスト」を具現する言語使用域（register）は、活動領域（field）
・対人関係（tenor）
・伝達様式（mode）の３つの変動要素の語彙・文法的言語資源を通じて３つの意味
を 同 時 に 解 釈 構 築 す る と 捉 え る。 活 動 領 域 で は 観 念 構 成 的 意 味（ideational）、対人関係では対人的意味（interpersonal）、伝達様式ではテ
クスト形成的意味（textual）が同時に協働してテクストとして具現される。これら「状況のコンテクスト」の３つの変動要素の語彙・文法的選
択と連動して解釈構築される３つの意味が、同時に協働して「その場面に相応しいテクスト」を構築する。そのため、話し言葉や書き言葉の「感覚的な座りの悪さ」の言語的特徴を顕在化させることによって、学習者の理解を促す手助けとなり得る。Schleppegrell（2004）は、社会言語学、
応用言語学、談話分析による諸研究において上級リテラシー能力に求められる「脱文脈性（decontextualization）」、「明示性（explicitness）」、「複雑性（complexity）」、「認知的要求度（cognitive demand）」について、従来の研究では十分に顕在化されていなかった語彙・文法などの言語的特徴を SFL 的視点から分析、検証し、学校教育のレジスターが日常会話のレジスターとは異なった言語資源の選択から構築されていることを示唆している。上級になるにつれて、生徒は学校教育で要求される学問的タスクを解釈構築するための新しい方法を発達させる必要があり、その新しい方法は、語彙・文法の言語資源の選択によって可能となるため、文法知識の重要性が指摘されている（Schleppegrell, 2004）。

72

３．SFL における話し言葉と書き言葉の言語的特徴
Halliday（1994）は、テクストの意味（解釈）とその効果（評価）を明らかにするための談話分析はテクストとその要素の機能と意味とに目を向けるものでなければならないとし、テクストの言語的側面を明示的な形式で説明すると同時に、テクストが産出される状況のコンテクストと文化のコンテクストの非言語的側面とを関係づける基盤となる文法の重要性について言及している。機能文法は、テクストの語結合における語彙・文法の選択が機能的に「意味」を解釈構築していることを明示することができる。テープレコーダーの発明によって、伝統的には書き言
葉の文法を話し言葉の文法として体系化することが可能となり、話し言
葉の無意識性（unconsciousness）を一般的な原理とした上で、以下の２つの理由から話し言葉の重要性が指摘されている。
One is that spoken language responds continually to the small but subtle
changes in its environment, both verbal and non-verbal, and in so doing
exhibits a rich pattern of semantic, and hence also of grammatical,
variation that does not get explored in writing … The second reason is thatmuch of what the written language achieves lexically is achieved by the
spoken language through the grammar (Halliday, 1994; xxiii–xxiv).
話し言葉の言語的特徴の理解が重要である第１の理由は、話し言葉は
言語的、非言語的の流動的なコンテクストにおいて意味的変差と文法的変差が連動しているため、主題や情報などのテクスト構成や、時制やモダリティのようなコンテクストの変化に対応するための選択体系のパターンが書き言葉と比較してかなり豊富であることである。また、第２の理由は、話し言葉のテクストの意味が語彙よりも文法に大きく依存する

73

ことによる複雑性が示されているためである。また、話し言葉の特徴の記述がない理論的枠組みでは、言語体系についての貧弱な見解しか示すことができないという観点から、英語の話し言葉に固有の特性（リズム、
情報焦点（音調配分）、心的姿勢（音調）に加えて、主題、節複合、モダリティ）についても言及されている（Halliday, 1994）。
また、書き言葉の言語的特徴として、独話的、非対話的、非対面、非コンテクスト依存型、明確な論理的構成などがあり、これらの言語的特
徴は、上級の語彙、標準的文法の言語資源の選択によって具現され、文
法的複雑性と語彙選択による語彙密度と深く関連している（Eggins,
2004）。書き言葉は、多くの語を１つの節に詰め込むため、話し言葉では節として表現されるものが、名詞群に置き換えられる文法的比喩が関与することによって、書き言葉の複雑性の本質的な性質が示される（Halliday, 1994）。次章では、VOA の LLE Level 1の一例における書き言
葉と話し言葉の言語的特徴について SFL 理論に基づいて分析し、話し
言葉と書き言葉の言語的特徴を考察する。

４．テクスト分析による話し言葉と書き言葉の比較
VOA の LLE では、アメリカ人主人公の Anna の Washington, D.C. での日常生活における様々な場面を通じて、アメリカ英語（口語）とアメリカ文化を学ぶことができる。言語学習方略（Language Learning Strategy Instruction（LLSI））を統合した初級レベルの自律的英語学習教材であり、各レッスンでは学習項目（資料１）が示されている。本章では、LLE の全 52レッスン（レベル１）の中から、ニュースキャスターの Annaとディレクターの Caty（Ms. Weaver）とのニュース番組収録現場での会話が登場する「Lesson 18: She Always Does That!」の発話（テクスト１）

74において、登場人物が同じ場面を共有しているにもかかわらず、話し言
葉と書き言葉が混在していることを SFL 的分析によって検証する。

4. 1. 言語使用域（register）
最初に SFL のレジスターの概念に基づいて、テクスト１の状況のコ
ンテクストの３つの要素を考察する。レジスターは、誰がどのような状
況で誰に何をするかについての観念を提示する「活動領域（field）」、誰と誰が何のために話しているのかについての立場の取り方を示す「役割関係（tenor）」、どのような手段で話しているのかによるテクストの構造を示す「伝達様式（mode）」の３つの要素によって同時に構築される。
言語がどのように多種多様なコンテクストを具現するかを３つの変動要素の分析によって明示することが可能になる。
テクスト１は、登場人物 Anna と Caty（Ms. Weaver）の二人のみの発話で構成される口頭言語のテクストである。Anna と Caty のやりとりの場面であるレジスター
レジスターと、Anna がニュースを読み上げる場面であるにおいて、話し言葉と書き言葉のレジスターが具現されていることを SFL 的分析によって検証するために２つのレジスターを節単位で表記する（表１）。各レジスターの活動領域、役割関係、伝達様式の３つの変動要素の違いによって、異なった状況のコンテクストが具現されていることを以下のように明示することができる（表２）。

4. 2. 語彙密度（lexical density）と文法的錯綜性（grammatical intricacy）
話し言葉と書き言葉は、テクストの総語数と内容語（名詞、動詞、形
容詞、副詞）数との比率である「語彙密度」と、テクストの文と節の数との比率である「文法的錯綜性」の違いによって示すことができる。書
き言葉は話し言葉よりも語彙密度が高く、話し言葉は書き言葉よりも文法 的 錯 綜 性 が 高 い こ と が 特 徴 で あ る（Halliday, 1994: Eggins, 2004;

75

表１

テクスト１における２つのレジスター
節（Clause）番号

レジスター

6‒14, 20‒30, 37‒43, 48‒55, 64‒79, 86‒96

レジスター

16‒19, 32‒36, 45‒47, 57‒62, 81‒85

表２

レジスター

／

の状況のコンテクスト

レジスター

レジスター

活動領域 ニュース番組収録現場

ニュース番組上司（番組ディレクター）と役割関係 部下（ニュースキャスター）指示を与える

専門家（ニュースキャスター）と一般人（番組視聴者）
情報を伝える

伝達様式 口頭、対話的、対面（双方向） 口頭、権威的、非対面（一方向）
表３
節＃
‒1

6‒14

‒1

15‒19

‒2

20‒30

‒2
‒3
‒3
‒4
‒4
‒5
‒5
‒6

レジスター

／

の語彙密度と文法錯綜性

レジスター

レジスター

語彙密度（％） 文法的錯綜性 語彙密度（％） 文法的錯綜性
66.67

1.1

59.46

1

53.57

1

45.1

1.1

45.1

1.2

86‒96

42.22

1.2

平均値

53.02

1.1

31‒36
37‒43
44‒47
48‒55
56‒62
64‒79
80‒85

50

1

53.33

1

46.67

2

46.88

2

53.33

1.5

50.04

1.5

（注）語彙密度はウエブサイト Analyze My Writing を使用（資料２参照）

Schleppegrell, 2004; McCabe, 2017）。分析の結果、レジスター
彙密度の平均値はの方が高く、文法的錯綜性は／の語の方が高いことが示され（表３）、この数値からすると話し言葉と書き言葉の特徴と一致し76ない。その理由として、１つ目にこのテクストが初級英語学習教材であるため本物のニュースで使用される言語とは異なること、２つ目に、ニュースの言語は書き言葉であると認識されるけれども、ニュースの内容
によっては話し言葉に近くなる傾向があるかもしれないことが示唆される。この２点については、筆者自身の見解であり、今後の研究において検証すべき課題としたい。

4. 3. 主題進行（thematic progression）と結束装置（cohesive devices）
レジスター

／

の言語的違いが最も顕著に表れているのが主題である（表４）。話し言葉と書き言葉の違いは主題（Theme）と題述（Rheme）の 構 造 に も 現 れ る（Halliday, 1994; Eggins, 2004; Schleppegrell, 2004;
McCabe, 2017）。主題は、レジスターの活動領域における「経験的意味」と役割関係における「対人的意味」を線状（linear）に捉えた時に生じる、節における単語（語彙）間の配列である伝達様式の「テクスト形成的意味」を具現し、テクスト全体の首尾一貫性を構築する（龍城，2006）。
すべての選択には動機があり、節頭に話し手の関心事が具現されるので、主題は、テクストの経験的意味、対人的意味へと聞き手を導く「旅の出発点」としての道標であり、題述は、その意味の方向性を示す「旅の目的地」となる（Halliday, 1994）。主題と題述の２つの部分に分割して統語構造を捉える分析法は、話し手と聞き手の機能的な観点にその基礎をなしており、機能主義の最たるものである（龍城，2006）。
主題は、典型的にテクスト形成的主題 ^ 対人的主題 ^ 話題的主題の順
番で具現される。
「話題的主題」は、過程構成の参与要素（名詞群）、過程中核部（動詞群）、状況要素（副詞節、前置詞群）によって構成され、最も大切な内容を示す。
「対人的主題」には、呼称、モーダル、叙述表
示的な要素が含まれ、「テクスト形成的主題」には、先行テクストとの関係が含まれる。以下の例では、
経験的意味（誰がどこで何をしたか）と、

77

対人的意味（叙法、モダリティ）は同じであるが、主題（下線）が異なっている。文２、文３は、状況要素が主題となるため、主語（太字）は題述となり、有標として捉えられる。
主題

題述

1. The lion

beat the unicorn all round the town.

2. All round the town

the lion beat the unicorn.

3. By the lion

the unicorn was beaten all round the town.

4. The unicorn

was beaten all round the town by the lion.
(Butt, D. et al., 2000: 136)

主題の選択は、話し手が伝えようとする内容における大切な部分に焦点をあてることによって、テクストに語彙的、文法的な結束性をもたせる。結束性は、語彙的言語資源（反復、意味関係、等価、類似）と文法的言語資源（照応、接続、省略、代用）の結束装置（cohesive devices）
によって具現され、テクストに首尾一貫性を与える（Halliday, 1994;
Halliday and Hasan, 1985; Gibbons, 1991; Eggins, 2004）
。
レジスター

／

の主題分析の結果、両方のレジスターにおいて話題的主題が最も多く、呼称や叙法を具現する対人的主題は、であるのに対し、では０％であり、では 24％

が呼びかけや疑問文が多い日常

会話のコンテクストを具現していることが示されている（表４）。
さらに、話題的主題分析の結果、

では、35％が過程中核部、つまり命令文が３割以上を占めており、ディレクター（Caty）がニュースキャ
スター（Anna）に指示を与えるコンテクストが具現されていることが示される（表４）。一方、では、89％が参与要素、11％が状況要素であり、過程中核部は全くないことから、ニュース報道の目的である情報伝達が具現されていることが示される（表５）。また、状況要素（In

78

表４

レジスター

／

の主題分析

主題

54

19

テクスト形成的主題

10（18.5％）0（ 0％）

対人的主題

10（18.5％）0（ 0％）

話題的主題

51（24％）

19（18.5％）

表５

レジスター

／

の話題的主題

1

2

3

4

5

6

計

1

2

3

4

5

計

参与要素

5

6

4

2

10

6

33
4
（65％）

5

0

4

4

17
（89％）

過程中核部

2

3

3

3

4

3

18
0
（35％）

0

0

0

0

0
（0％）

状況要素

0

0

0

0

0

0

0
0
（0％）

0

1

1

0

2
（11％）

計

7

9

7

5

14

9

51

5

1

5

4

19

4

Indiana）が節頭に具現することによって、そのニュースの場所が強調されていると考えられる。
次に、文法的結束装置を分析することによって、２つのレジスターの特性を示す。照応の分析では、

は双方向的な対面の談話のコンテクス

トを共有する人称代名詞による外部照応が多いが、は一方向的な発話であるため、代名詞は全て前方照応であり、脱文脈的なニュース報道の情報伝達における書き言葉のレジスターを具現していることが明示される（表６）。また、テクスト形成的話題では、においては、相手の発話に繋がりを持たせるために機能する接続詞が多いのに対し、では、ニュース報道の論理構成を示すシグナルワードとして機能している（表７）。省略・代用に関しても、はと比較して 80％以上多く具現していることから、話し言葉の特徴を顕示していることが分析結果により示

79

表６

レジスター

前方照応／人称要素／の照応の分析

0（ 7％）

10（43％）

前方照応／指示要素

5（ 9％）

8（35％）

外部照応／人称要素

23（42％）

0（ 0％）

外部照応／指示要素

11（20％）

0（ 0％）

自己照応

15（29％）

5（22％）

計
表７

レジスター

54

23

／

の接続詞の分析

逆接（but）

3（30％）

2（67％）時（when）

2（20％）

1（33％）

追加（and, now）

5（50％）

0（ 0％）

計

10

3

表８

レジスター

／

の省略／代用の数

省略

10

0

代用

2

1

された（表８）。
最後に、主題進行においてもレジスター間に顕著な違いが見られることを示すことができる。テクスト１の例はレジスター‒1 における主

題進行の場合、主題（Theme）は、発話の当事者（Anna ‒ Theme 1; Caty ‒Theme 2; Anna and Caty ‒ Theme 3）のみで進行している一方で、様々な題述（Rheme）が混在し、Rheme 2（read the news）が談話の主な関心事
項であることが示される。一方、ニュース報道における書き言葉のレジ
スターを具現する‒2は、新刊本（Theme 1 ‒ A new book）とその主人

公（Rheme 3 ‒ a lost duckling）がニュースの関心事項であることが示さ

80［レジスター‒1 の主題進行］

Theme 1

Rheme 1

Theme 2Rheme 2↓
Theme 2Rheme 3↓
Theme 2Rheme 4

Theme 1

（Rheme 2）↓↓

Theme 1

（Rheme 2）

Theme 3

Rheme 5［レジスター‒2 の主題進行］

Theme 1

Rheme 1↓
Theme 1→

Rheme 2→Rheme 3↓
Theme 1↓
Theme 2Rheme 3

Theme 3

Rheme 3↓れる。
このように、SFL 理論に基づいて、テクスト形成的意味を解釈構築す
る主題をさまざまな角度から分析することが可能となる。分析結果を数
字、図式などで可視化することによって、テクストの語彙的・文法的言81

語的特徴を明示することができるため、「主語−動詞」の統語構造と主
題選択とを関連づけて、効果的にメッセージを伝達する方法を理解する
手助けとなり、英語教育における応用が期待できる。

６．まとめと今後の課題
学生が身近に感じる話し言葉と学門的、社会的に必要とされる書き言
葉の言語的特徴に対する意識を高めることによって、言語がどのように使用され、どのように機能しているのかを言語的側面と非言語的側面とを関連付けて認識できるようになることが、話し言葉に焦点を当てた言
語的知識習得の意義であろう。そして、そのような言語的側面を理解するためには、語彙・文法規則の知識が必須である。
数年にわたり、筆者の担当授業の受講生の 80％以上が英語学習の個
人目標を「話す力、聞く力の向上」と回答している。多くの学生の英会
話力を向上させつつ、上級リテラシーに必要な「読む力、書く力」を発達させるためには、
話し言葉と書き言葉の間に優劣をつけるのではなく、それぞれの異なった種類の言語が、意思伝達において異なった目的を達成するために、異なった言語使用方法をするための語彙・文法によって構成されていることを可視化することによって学習者の理解を促すことが重要であり、高等教育や社会で必要な高度で複雑なテクスト構成を理解し、上級リテラシーや批判的思考力向上へと繋げるための有意義な言
語知識となるにちがいない。
本稿では、SFL 理論に基づいた分析が話し言葉と書き言葉の言語的特徴を様々な観点から明示するための有効なツールとなり得ることが検証された。コンテクストとテクストの関連性に加えて、語彙・文法の選択によるテクスト構成の側面から話し言葉と書き言葉の違いを顕在化し、

82

言語が果たしている役割や機能に対する言語的意識を高めるための手助けとして、英語教育での応用も期待できる。今後の課題としては、今回の分析をもとに、話し言葉と書き言葉のテクストを SFL 的視点から比較分析することによって、主題の選択が結束装置と共にテクスト全体の首尾一貫性や論理的構成おいて重要な役割を果たしていることを検証したい。
テクスト１．VOE Let’s Learn English! Lesson 18: She Always Does That!
主題−テクスト形成的主題／対人的主題／話題的主題
主語
結束装置
1,2,3
照応：a,b,c 接続詞：（
レジスター

­1

­1

）省略：▷

◁代用：｛｛｝｝埋め込み節

文
#

節
Cl#

1

1

Hello, from Washington, D.C.!

2

2

Today at work I am reading the news for the first time.

3

3

I am really nervous.

4

4
5

But my boss, Ms. Weaver, is here
to help me.

5

6

Now a, Anna, remember.

6

7
8

When b we 1 read the (1) news
we 1 are always reading facts.

7

9

We 1 never show our 1 feelings.

810Sure thing, Ms. Weaver.

9

11Great.

10

12

Are you 2 ready (to read the (1) news)?

11

13

Yes I 2 am ready (to read the (1) news).

12

14

Okay, let ’s 1 try the (2) first story!

83

­1

­2

­2

­3

13

15

Hello, and welcome to The News.

14

16

A new book 3 is very popular with children and families.

15

17This 3 is it 3.

16

18

It 3 is about a lost duckling 4.

17

19

The duck’s 4 mother cannot find him 4.

18

20

Stop !

19

21
22

Anna, when c you 2 say the (3) words “duck” and “duckling”
you 2 look really sad.

20

23

I 2 do look sad ?

21

24

Yes (you do look sad)22

25

Sad is a feeling.

23

26

Sad is not a fact.

24

27

Sorry.

25

28

Let me 2 try again.

26

29

Okay, she 2 ’s trying again!

27

30

And d go.

28

31

Hello, and welcome to The News.

29

32

A new book 3 is very popular with children and families.

30

33This 3 is it 3.

31

34

It 3 is about a lost duckling 4.

32

35

The(4) duck’s 4 mother can not find him 4.

33

36

But e a family gives him 4 a home.

34

37

Stop!

35

38

Anna, you 2 are doing it 6 ▷showing emotion◁ again.

36

39This 3 story is very sad.

37

40

I 6 have an idea.

38

41

Let ’s 1 read the (5) second story.

84

­3

­3

­4

39

42

She 2’s reading the (5) second story.

40

43

And f … go!

41

44

Hello, and welcome to The News.

42

45
46

In Indiana, a grandmother 7 is the(6) first 80-year-old woman{{to win The(7) Race Car 500}} 7.

43

47

That 8 is awesome!

44

48

Stop!

45

49

Stop!

46

50

Anna, please (show) ̶ no feelings.

47

51

Right.

48

52
53

But g it 8 is awesomethat an 80-year-old grandmother 7 wins a car race.

49

54(You should tell) Just the (8) facts, Anna.

50

55

Right.

51

56

Hello, and welcome to The News.

52

57
58

In Indiana, a grandmother is the(6) first 80-year-old woman
to win The(8) Race Car 500 7.

5359

She 7 rarely talks to reporters.

54

60
61
62

But h when i she 7 does ▷talk to reporters◁,
she 7 often says,

55

63

I 2 am very happy for her 7!

56

64
65
66

Stop,
stop,
stop!!

57

67
68

Anna, you 2 cannot say{{that you 2 are happy}}.

58

69

But j I 2 am happy.

­4­5“Nothing can stop me 7 now!”

85

­5

­5

­6

­6

59

70

But k you 2 can’t say it 9.

6071

Why (can’t I say that I’m happy)?

61

72

This 8 is the (1) News.

62

73

Happy and sad are feelings.

63

74

You 2 can’t have them 9 in The (1) News.

64

75

Okay.

65

76

I 2 got it 10.

66

77

Okay.

67

78

Let’s try the (9) third story.

68

79

She 2 ʼ s reading the (9) third story!

69

80

Hello and welcome to The News.

70

81
82

City politicians in Big Town are using city money
to have a big party on a cruise ship.

71

83

They 11 are taking the (10) money for the (11) party from the (12)children’s library.

72

84

What?!

73

85

That 12 makes me 2 very angry.

74

86

No, no, no! (you can’t say you are angry.)

75

87
88

Anna, you 2 cannot say
you 2 are angry!

7689This 13 is The (1) News!!!

77

90

What can I 2do, Ms. Weaver 6?

78

91
92

(I) Take out my (2) feelings

79

93

Yes, yes.

80

94

That 16’s right!

81

95

Now you 2’ve got it 16!

and l (I) put them 14 here 15… on the (13) news desk 15?

86
­6

82

96

Let ’s 1 repeat the (2) first story.

83

97

This 17 is going to be a very long day.

84

98

Until next time!

資料１

VOA Learning English Lesson 18の学習項目

資料２

Analyze My Writing による分析結果（抜粋）References（参考文献）
石黒圭（2011）「話し言葉と書き言葉：初年次教育の基礎資料として」一橋大学『言語文化』Vol. 48，pp. 15‒35
佐々木真（2006a）「英語の文法的比喩とその英語教育への応用について」『愛
知学院大学短期大学部研究紀要』第 14 号，pp. 47‒61

87

佐々木真（2006b）「ことばを教える」『ことばは生きている』龍城正明（編）
くろしお出版，pp. 135‒154
佐々木真（2009）「日本における SFL の英語教育への応用：５文型と be 動
詞を中心として」日本機能言語学会『Proceedings of JASFL』Vol. 3，pp.
73‒84
龍城正明編（2006）『ことばは生きている：選択体系機能言語学序説』くろしお出版
山崎のぞみ（2017）「話し言葉に対する意識を高めるための言語活動の意義と方法：文法教材を調査を通して」関西外国語大学『研究論集』第 106号，
pp. 27‒44
山本雅子、大西五郎（2003）「話し言葉と書き言葉の相互関係：日本語教育のために」愛知大学語学教育研究室『言語と文化』８，pp. 73‒90

Butt, D., Fahey, R., Feea, S., Spinks, S. and Yallop, C. (2000) Using Functional
Grammar 2nd ed. National Center for English Language Teaching and Research
Macquarie University.

Christie, F. (1985) Language education. Deakin University. Oxford University Press.

Eggins, S. (2004) An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics. 2nd ed.
London: Bloomsbury.

Gibbons, P. (1991) Learning to learn in a second language. Newton: Primary
English Teaching Association.

Halliday, M. A. K. (1994) An Introduction to Functional Grammar 2nd ed. London:
Edward Arnold.

Halliday, M. A. K. & Hasan, R. (1985) Language, context and text: Aspects oflanguage in a social-semiotic perspective. Deakin University. Oxford University
Press.

McCabe, A. (2017) An Introduction to Linguistics and Language Studies. 2nd ed.
Sheffield: Equinox.

Robbins, J. (2018) Teaching Language Learning Strategies With Technology. In A. U.
Chamot and V. Harris, Eds. Learning Strategies Instruction in the Language
Classroom: Issues and Implementation. Bristol, U.K.: Multilingual Matters.

Schleppegrell, M. J. (2004) The Language of Schooling A Functional Linguistics
Perspective. New York and London: Rutledge.
文部科学省 外国語教育 https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/kokusai/gaikokugo/index.
htm
Analyze My Writing https://www.analyzemywriting.com/index.html

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VOA Learning English “Let’s Learn English!” ‒ Lesson 18 https://learningenglish.
voanews.com/a/lets-learn-english-lesson-18-she-always-does-that/3357748.html

89

Masking the Face while Showing the Person
in COVID-19 ReportingDavid DYKES

1. Introduction
The local section of the Chunichi Shinbun newspaper Mikawa edition
includes an occasional feature series ‘Mikawa Dayori’ (三河だより, ‘Word
from Mikawa’) in which reporters share their experiences of reporting in thearea. The layout has an illustration-style portrait of the reporter above a map ofMikawa Bay. Then comes the feature title surrounded by a text of around 430
Japanese characters, equivalent to roughly 210 words in English. This year,
several of the features have been observations on the impacts of the COVID-19
virus on reporting work. One such piece by reporter Suzuki Hiroto (鈴木弘人) of the newspaper’s Tahara office was headed ‘Reporting in the corona

emergency’ (コロナ禍の取材) (Suzuki 2020).
A lot of local reporting combines a coverage of some representative activity
with an interview and photo of someone engaged in it and often the reporter
doubles as the photographer. The photo needs to capture the interviewee’s rolein a way that strikes the reader as both committed and relaxed. One way toachieve this is to coax the interviewee into a mood and then snap the picture atjust the right moment. But this becomes harder to do ‘in the corona emergency’
when the reporter and interviewee are wearing face masks. Also, with the

90mouth area of the interviewee’s face invisible, the eyes not only need to be as
expressive as ever; if anything, there is a need of enhanced expressiveness tomake up for the unseen mouth.
This is a fairly light text, and my interest in it will be not so much fromthe point of view of the cultural or social meanings of face concealment, butmore in relation with linguistic expressions of role relationships, at the wholetext, or at any rate at a substantial text passage level. I will be on the lookout
for language patterns typical of frequently encountered social activities andof the text types associated with them. I will also be interested in the kind ofinteraction difficulties that arise from stresses of role displacement at times ofsocial turbulence such as the COVID-19 pandemic that the world is at present
passing through.

2. Texts for the sharing of experiences and texts that recommend
actions
The text ‘Reporting in the corona emergency’ can be found in an appendix
at the back of this paper. Apart from its topical interest, another reason forchoosing this as an example is for its rich textual variety, which I will explain
shortly. The Japanese text (Appendix [J]) is quoted in full, and followed up
with an English translation (Appendix [E]). This translation aims to preserve
linguistic features of the Japanese original as far as is comfortably possible,
including for example the distributions of main and subordinate clauses.
Occasionally, this may result in small oddities, as when I translate the closing
stage of a photo-taking session in the form:
		 Then waiting for the stiff smile to settle into a more natural expression
while engaging in small talk, press the shutter.

Suzuki 2020 [3]91This is from a longer episode describing the several stages of taking aninterview photo that the local news reporter would have gone through in thepast. The part ‘press the shutter’ is offered as a match for シャッターを切る(‘shatta- o kiru’) but this is not connected up within the sentence. If it links
with the sentence before, it can be accommodated as ‘Then … I would press
the shutter’ (habitually speaking). But it could also be taken as an explanation
closure: ‘press the shutter’ (that’s the last thing to do). As both interpretations
are viable and the Japanese has no trace of a past tense, I keep to that in thetranslation, even though it is not the choice I would go for myself. Similarly, I
would prefer instinctively to say ‘I engage in small talk while waiting for the
stiff smile to settle into a more natural expression so that I can press the shutter’
but in the Japanese the waiting precedes the small talk and ‘press’ is the mainclause verb. That are limits to how much order straining is tolerable, but I havegenerally gone about as far as I dare.
Now let me proceed to some theory, which I will try to compress to aminimum. In recent years, linguists in Hong Kong Polytechnic University havedrawn up a topology of text types occurring with particular socio-semiotic
activities (Matthiessen, Teruya and Lam 2010: 179–180). ‘Socio-semiotic’means based on socially shared signing systems, such as speech (Halliday1978). These activities can be displayed on a segmented disc, with more direct
and simply described interactions at the base and more elaborate and less directones at the top. Figure 1 partially reproduces this scheme, but with many finer
details omitted. The suggested direction arrows and the question glosses more
direct? and less direct? reflect my own views on this layout and are not featuresof the source diagrams:

92

less direct?
Exploring? ?

Expounding

Recommending

Reporting

Enabling

Recreating

Doing

Sharing
more direct?

Figure 1 Socio-semiotic activity types, abbreviated from Halliday andMatthiessen 2014: 37(Note: The direction arrows and the questions in italics are my additions
and reflect my own views on this layout)

In addition to what I see as a rise in interactional complexity from bottom to
top of the figure, it is also possible to make out a difference in mood, or metamood, between an imperative-like concern for action outcomes on the left side
and an indicative-like concern for experience sharing on the right. Halliday
and Matthiessen’s terms for these meta-mood functions are ‘proposals’ for theimperative-like ones and ‘propositions’ for the indicative-like ones (Halliday
and Matthiessen 2014: 138–139). On the left side, at the bottom, a ‘Doing’
text or passage might be a request for compliance, while ‘Enabling’ would
also take account of what is possible or permitted and might take the formof a set of rules or instructions. ‘Recommending’ would further bring in theinterests of the hearer or some other party, while ‘Exploring’ would extend toa broader scope and offer a moral or practical overview of options. Similarly,
on the right, ‘Sharing’ at the bottom might be the telling of an experience or
feeling, ‘Recreating’ would involve some additional process of narration or
performance, ‘Reporting’ is a sorting of experience into relevant categoriesof place, time and circumstance, and ‘Expounding’, again, would provide an
overview. These eight types of interaction do not cover everything that can be93done in a text, but they cover a great deal. Below, I list passages of Suzuki’s text
which can be claimed (at a micro level) to be representative of the eight types.
Perhaps the reader may agree that there is a lot of variety here. I am assuming,
I should add, that these text type distinctions can be applied to this text both inEnglish and Japanese, but the reader should verify this. For texts with culturespecific roots, it may not always be true.
Table 1. Micro passages that seem locally representative of the eight interaction types
Candidate examples for micro level interactions of Doing
Exploring… go to more trouble over the expressions I use in the write-up.
What was the tone of voice? How was the gesture?
Recommending … thinking all the while “Must look about right now,” I’ll bepressing on the shutter.
Enabling… Then, waiting for the stiff smile to settle into a more naturalexpression while engaging in small talk, press the shutter.
Doing“Riight! Smiile now!”
Candidate examples for micro level interactions of Sharing
Expounding

Reporting
Recreating
Sharing

But with a mask on, the expression is hard to make out. Thesedays, I point the camera and wait for the smile to appear aroundthe eyes.
… in the newspaper, the number of photos taken of people with
their masks on has increased.
“Left it behind again.” On my way to an interview, I realise I’m
not wearing a mask and have to return to the car park.
… it’s still a relief that I noticed before getting there.

Originally, these interaction types are meant as interpretation schemes forwhole texts or extended passages. Taken in that scope, ‘Reporting in the corona
emergency’, which tells of recent problems encountered by a reporter on photoassignments, seems to conform most easily to the ‘Sharing’ type. The headingof the article, which refers to the writer’s job experiences, is consistent withthis. At the same time, particular parts taken in a micro context can also be read94

in other ways, as shown in the table. For example, the opening speech “Leftit behind again”, if cut off there, could be the start of a drama scenario, or cut
off a line later, it could be the start of a narrative. Either of these would be a
subtype of ‘Recreating’.
Which type of ‘doing’ or ‘sharing’ is going on may not always be
immediately clear, but could depend on what criteria are given priority, or
whether the outcome is expected or emerges only gradually. Sometimes, it may
be unclear to the end whether the writer is ‘Sharing’ an experience, offering
options (‘Enabling’) or writing in favour of something (‘Recommending’).
Examples of this kind of ambivalence are plentiful recently in user reviews (ofrestaurants, medical practices) or visitor reviews (of trip destinations). Here isan extract from a trip review that I analysed some years ago (Dykes 2014) on
the travel site TripAdvisor®. The trip being reviewed was a climb up Mount
Fuji from the Yoshida Trail Head:		If you go at a normal pace, you arrive at the ninth station by 2am/3am. It’s
recommended to have a rest here as the main hut is very pleasant and the
hot chocolate is rejuvenating. Then continue straight to the top. Mid July
the sunrise is around 4am. We started descending at 5am and got downby 10 (but we rested a lot on the way—we weren’t in a hurry as our bus
back to Tokyo was at 12.
		You go through layers of cloud at least four times—twice going up andtwice coming down. You need therefore showerproof jacket and warm
clothing.

(Underlining and bold type added.)

Excluding parts with no personal subject for the time being, it can be seen thatthe passage starts out with ‘you’ <subject + verb> sets (underlined) up to thetime ‘4am’, then switches to ‘we’ sets (in bold) from there up to ‘12’. After95

that, there is a switch back to ‘you’. These three phases turn out to correspond
topically to 1) the climb up, 2) the climb down, and 3) a concluding overview.
Let me now focus on each of the three phases in turn.
1) The climb up: This can be mainly read as an ‘Enabling’ passage giving
instructions. But in the midst of this, ‘It’s recommended …’ adds more general‘Recommending’ support, which the reader accesses simply by accepting thatthe hut is pleasant and the hot chocolate rejuvenating for me (the reader), too.
Similarly, the 4am sunrise time is a general ‘Reporting’ support, which mostreaders would understand as a motive for me, too, to ‘continue straight to thetop’.
2) The climb down: Here, there is an abrupt change to ‘Sharing’. The
reviewer shares what she and her companion did and experienced, with some
added ‘Reporting’ about the bus time to account for why they had time to rest alot. There is no direct pressure for the reader to apply this descent information
to their own case, but most readers would tend to do so. “If I, too, went back onthat bus, I could rest on the way.”3) Concluding overview: The third phase passage returns to cover the climb
and descent together. I would read ‘You need’ as ‘Recommending’, and ‘You
go’ as ‘Reporting’ support: ‘You go’ is not a direct report about the reader: This
is what happens to most people generally, so it will most likely happen to you,too.
The appearance is that ‘Enabling’ and ‘Recommending’ passages are being
used for severe parts of this undertaking, while the descent stage is offered as‘Sharing’. This may be one way of accounting for the ‘you’/’we’ alternations,which is a distinctive language feature of review texts. However, the difference
between the two styles is not as great as might be expected. The review does
not collapse if the ‘you’ and ‘we’ subject phases are swapped round:96

		We went at a normal pace and arrived at the ninth station by 2am/3am.
It’s recommended to have a rest here as the main hut is very pleasant andthe hot chocolate is rejuvenating. Then we continued straight to the top.
Mid July the sunrise is around 4am. If you start descending at 5am, you
can get down by 10, resting a lot on the way. You won’t need to be in ahurry if you book your bus back to Tokyo for 12.
		We went through layers of cloud at least four times—twice going up andtwice coming down. We certainly needed a showerproof jacket and warm
clothing therefore.
Knowing that the text has been tampered with, it is possible to detect
more foregrounding of the reviewer’s experiences here, and see that some
instructions are hypothetical and tied to conditions (‘if you book your bus
back for 12’). But even so, it is striking to see how little difference it makes
to the practical function of the text to replace ‘you arrive’ by ‘we arrived’.
My explanation would be that this effective role reversibility comes from thecollaborative nature of most user or visitor reviews. In a guidebook written by aprofessed expert for non-experts, the roles are fixed, apart from small gesturesof humility. But on review sites, the balancing out of values replaces expertise
except at the most verifiable public or technical points (‘Mid July the sunrise isaround 4am’), which are rarely associated with personal subjects anyway. Whenentering into an exchange like this with masses of people bonding throughsimilar experiences, you may need to preserve enough critical distance todistrust outlier accounts or remember that bonding is no substitute for publishedbus times. But by and large, a great deal of enablement can be offered andobtained in this way.

97

3. From experiences in particular to actions in generalIn this next section, I mean to examine the possibility that ‘Reporting in thecorona emergency’ is grounded, in a different way, on a similar principle ofbonding between reader and writer and that, here again, this combines witha matter of practical interest. Suzuki’s article consists of five paragraphs, ofwhich the first two are more general in content and the last three are about aspecific difficulty of how to interview and photograph someone in a face mask.
In terms of interaction, I will argue in the first case that there is a progression
from the reporter sharing his own experiences to reporting more broadly onchanges in the nature of the job. In the part involving photography, I will thentrace another progression from sharing a personal response to this change
in the job, to engaging in more far-reaching strategies to counter the corona
emergency. More theoretically, I will continue to argue for the position that atext and its context are not always reducible to a single text type realising just
one socio-semiotic activity.
Here are the first two paragraphs, to which I have added paragraphnumbering.
Word from Mikawa
Reporting in the corona emergency[1] “Left it behind again.” On my way to an interview, I realise I’m not wearing amask and have to return for it to the parking area where I left the car. This happens
often, but annoyed as I am at my own forgetfulness, it’s a relief to have noticed
before meeting the interviewee.
[2] For some months now, it has been normal to wear a mask when going out. In
newspapers, too, the number of photos being carried of people with their masks on
has increased.

Paragraphs [1] and [2] both read as expansions of the article heading, first

98

in the narrow scope of the reporter’s own experience and then in the broader
context of workplace practice. In [1], the writer is ‘Sharing’ a representative
experience of inconvenience that stands for a more cumulative sense ofannoyance. Elements of drama (direct speech) and narration (‘On my way toan interview …’) provide highlights. On a micro scale, these are two variantsof ‘Recreating’. The viewpoint remains first-person throughout. ‘This happens’
means ‘This happens to me’ and ‘it’s a relief’ means ‘a relief to me’. As arepresentative illustration, paragraph [1] lacks any definite anchoring in time,
place or circumstance. But it achieves the topical purpose of establishing facemasks as a new presence to be reckoned with at work.
Paragraph [2] supplies the more definite settings typical of ‘Reporting’engagement: when? (‘for several months now’), ‘in what circumstances?’ (‘goingout’, ‘with their masks on’), ‘where?’ (‘in newspapers’). To judge from the article
heading, ‘going out’ and ‘photos of people with their masks on’ are mainly intended
to be read with reporting assignments in mind. If so, ‘photos of people with theirmasks on’ is the effective transition link from the unspecified interview trip ofparagraph [1] to the blocked interviewer / interviewee interaction that will be
supplying the problem context for the sharper focused second half of the article.
In the two paragraphs so far, I think, there has been no active sense that theexperience shared by the reporter is being offered as guidance for readers tofollow. What the reporter has more in focus is his own need for resilience in theface of this blockage. Individual readers might always pick up hints from thistoo. But there is no general indication yet that they are being advised to calm
down, for example, or to remember to take a mask when going out on a job. A
prolongation of [2] after the manner found in the Mount Fuji text, e. g.:
		 … the number of photos being carried of people with their masks on has
increased. Nobody needs to feel self-conscious about this.

99

would fail to fit in with the actual continuation in paragraphs [3]–[5], which
involves matters quite far removed from the everyday sphere of most readers,
as we shall now see.
Here is the rest of the text. Again, I have inserted paragraph numbering:[3] “Riight! Smiile now!” That’s what I regularly say when taking a picture ofsomeone. Then waiting for the stiff smile to settle into a more natural expression
while engaging in small talk, press the shutter.
[4] But with a mask on, the expression is hard to make out. These days I point
the camera and wait for the smile to appear around the eyes, and then, thinking all
the while “Must look about right now,” I’ll be pressing on the shutter.
[5] Now that it’s harder to judge someone’s true self from a photo, I aim to go tomore trouble over the expressions I use in the write-up. What was the tone of voice?
How was the gesture? In this way, I hope to be able to convey an overall sense of
the person in a way that is easy to follow.
(Suzuki Hiroto)

Note the vivid direct speech opening: “Riight! Smiile now!” in [3], recalling“Left it behind again” in paragraph [1]. ‘This is a stock phrase from photographposing, and its use here as a curtain raiser, followed by a crop of camera shot
vocabulary (‘press the shutter’, ‘smile’, ‘expression’, ‘hard to make out’) gives
a further supporting reason, in my view, for dividing the text here.
Rather than being an active command, “Riight! Smiile now!”, like
“Cheeese!”, can also be taken as an unanalysed warning that the camera shot isimminent. The equivalent stretched vowels in the Japanese text are はーい、じゃあわらってくださあい (‘Haai jaa waratte kudasaai’). However, there is also

an accompanying reporting clause and commentary in the next sentence: ‘That’s
what I regularly say when taking a picture of someone’, and this can certainly
be read as an implied instance of ‘Enabling’: This is the kind of thing thatyou, too, Reader, might well want to say if placed in the same situation. The

100

predominant ‘Sharing’ function, therefore, does come with a parallel instruction
potential in this second part of the text. Admittedly, the instruction fits preCOVID conditions, and is currently unhelpful.
This accounts for the disruptions that take over in paragraph [4]. Under the
new working norm of having to photograph interviewees with their maskson, posing calls and small talk now take second place to self-dialogue (“Mustlook about right now”) on the part of the reporter. What is crucial now is thechallenge of how to detect and capture a smile when the interviewee’s mouth
is hidden. The best strategy, says this reporter, is to wait for it to appear aroundthe eyes. The suspense implied appears to affect even hand movements, and the
aspect details of the verb grammar reflect this: The last step is no longer ‘press
the shutter’ (シャッターを切る, ‘shatta- o kiru’), but ‘be pressing on the shutter’(シャッターを切っている, ‘shatta- o kitte iru’). This seems to mean that the
movement has to be trained and set. A similar change also appears with the verb
ending ‘-nagara’ (～ながら, ‘while [doing something]’), a feature associatedwith multitasking. Photos before the pandemic are recalled as having beentaken ‘while engaging in small talk’. But photos now need to be taken ‘thinking
all the while’ of when is the right moment.
Stepping back a moment and viewing paragraphs [3] and [4] as a selfcontained pair, which any reader is free to do by choosing that as a reading
scope, this part of the experience sharing can also be thought of as a local‘problem-solution pattern’ (Hoey 2001). Against the background of the earlier
practice of waiting for a smile to settle (situation), the settled natural expressionof an interviewee in a face mask is ‘hard to make out’ (problem). The bestalternative plan is to watch for other signs of smiling, mainly around the eyes(solution). But while this is possible, it requires a greater outlay in practice,time and effort.
Paragraph [5], finally, moves right away from facial photography to focus on

101

other means that the reporter still has for conveying a person’s true self (人となり, ‘hito to nari’). The tone of voice and gestures are the possibilities mentioned.

But general body posture and movements also come to mind, even when notorganised into gestures. It is worth noting in this connection that internet sites
in June, 2020, when this article was written, were awash with articles exploring‘How face masks affect our communication’ (Ong 2020)’. One view upheld inmany such pieces was that even in ordinary life it is a question of habituation.
After due adjustment: “Humans tend to process faces as a whole, rather thanfocusing on individual features” (Ong 2020: 3).
One final lexical note is needed about the Japanese words translated by‘expression’ in paragraphs [3]–[5]. The word in [3] and [4] is 表情 (‘hyōjō’): amood or emotion stimulus perceived usually from people’s faces but also fromwatching behaviours, actions or displays. In Japanese, 表 (‘hyō’) is taken as
equivalent to 表す (‘arawasu’, to ‘display’) or 表れる (‘arawareru’, to ‘appear’).
As a noun, it can mean a summary ‘table’ or ‘chart’. The second element of
the word, 情 (‘jō’), signifies ‘mood’ or ‘emotion’, often in contexts of social
attachment. Thus the ‘natural expression’ appearing out of relaxing stiffness in[3] is a kind of social bonding, giving access to the social ‘true self’ (‘hito tonari’: ‘personality’) in [5] that the reporter hopes to portray. The need to wear
masks drives this hope into a double impasse: First, the expression becomes‘hard to make out’ for the reporter, and second, through the limitations of what
the mask will let through, even the best possible camera shot will still leave theinterviewee’s personality ‘harder to judge’ for readers.
The last use of ‘expression’, in [5], comes in a context that has left
photography behind: ‘I aim to go to more trouble over the expressions I use
in the write-up’. The Japanese word here is 表現 (‘hyōgen’), which even for a
Japanese reader stands in a close relation with 表情 (‘hyōjō’), the term outlined
above. But the change from 情 (‘jō’) to 現 (‘gen’) is important. ‘Gen’, like102

‘hyō’ can be read as 表す (‘arawasu’) or 表れる (‘arawareru’), but in a different
nuance of ‘realising’ something or of something being ‘real’ or bodily present.
Applying this nuance to ‘expressions’ in [5], we see that the reporter is sharing
his main aspiration here: Whatever refinements he brings to the camera play, he
can only reduce the interference from face masks so far. While sharpening his
interpreting and timing skills as far as he can and learning to take pictures thathighlight more holistic features of smile sharing, he still needs to go further andput expressivity into his write-ups as well. A straightforward example would bein the wording ‘wait for the smile to appear around the eyes’, where ‘to appear’(～なるまで) is an irrealis (uncertain future) expression that helps the reader
form an anticipatory picture of more than is shown by a photograph. Here, too,
there is an ‘Enabling’ role at work alongside the ‘Sharing’ one.
My feeling about Suzuki Hiroto’s article overall is that under an unassumingrole of merely sharing experience, he manages creditably well to guide readers
into adapting to the constraints forced on local news reporting by the corona
emergency.

4. Conclusion
This is the latest of several analyses I have attempted within the frameworkof ‘socio-semiotic activity’ elaborated by Matthiessen, Teruya and Lam (2010)
and integrated since 2014 into Systemic Functional Linguistics theory (Halliday
and Matthiessen 2014). This analytic framework was developed with workplacelanguage training in mind, so that priority is given to identifying typical patterns
and features and reducing them to a robustly teachable core form.
My interest has been on the counter-side to this: how to pursue
complementary analyses by teasing out an underside pattern beneath each

103

overside one. Thus the sharing of a climb up Mount Fuji has an undersidethat supplies future climbers with options, recommendations, and warnings. If
activities and their text types were arbitrary constructs, it might seem suspect
to match each overside with an underside in this way. But this is where theprimary imperative and indicative moods help out. Generally, it is enough tomatch one imperative-like take of an experience (How to climb Mount Fuji)
with one indicative-like take (How we climbed Mount Fuji). Then each of thesecan also be matched to one of the degrees of interactive complexity set out in
Figure 1. There is a difficulty, however, that precisely under the recent influenceof online reviews, asymmetric layouts of advice, instruction giving and so on
are on the wane, while a more egalitarian discourse of sharing, in less definedrole relationships, is gaining ground. In circumstances where participants areeither hard to differentiate or near to equal in status and experience, there is nosuch great difference between saying: ‘We decided not to climb all the way’ and‘You don’t need to’ climb all the way’.
The text that I have analysed here was an account of recent changes ininterviewing work shared in a kind of diary feature by a member of a local
reporting team. But it was also a reflection on what changes are viable forcountering the constraints imposed on interviewing activities by the COVID-19
pandemic. While these changes may meet with mixed success in themselves,
they also add up to an implied ‘Enabling’ pattern of activity with ad hoc or
methodic response options. This is the serious implied underside to this article
with its lighter ‘Sharing’ overside. Assuming that masks are likely to remaina feature of interviewing for a year or more still to come, it is worth asking
whether it is enough to rely on ad hoc steps only as has been done so far, or
whether the aim should be extended to take in deliberate changes to the written
copy of interview reports to make up for the current visual shortcomings.
Space will not allow me to pursue this expanding argument any further here.

104

Let me end with a skimming overview of what other points might be considered
before making such changes to the text copy.
As face masks became widespread in many countries in the first half of2020, there was a plethora of discussions, reviews and tuitions in the media
on aspects of mask wearing. Not many of them shared Suzuki’s concern for
how to catch and convey an interviewee’s personality. More were about what
individuals could do to project their social presence in spite of wearing a mask.
By February, an American celebrity called Tyra Banks had been credited withcoining a word ‘smizing” for smiling with the eyes only (Anonymous 2020).
Other articles have focused on religious communities in which believers(usually women) mask their faces in public. In the case of the niqab headdressfrom the Arabian Peninsula, the eyes remain visible through a broad slit, andfor that reason this headdress has received close attention. Some commentators
say that niqab wearers learn to adapt to their limited visibility resources byengaging in livelier eye expression than unveiled people (Ong 2020: 5–6).
Just as I complete this manuscript, a political bombshell has gone off in theUSA, with an apparent cluster contagion in the top tiers of the Republican
Party just before the presidential elections, probably due to a rejection of mask
wearing and distancing codes at a gathering in the White House grounds. This
looks sure to develop into an ideological issue again, as rigour or laxness in
COVID-19 precautions has been a point of dispute all year.
It is hard to say which of these mask stories would support a mood-based
analysis taking in complementary views of what is happening indicatively (onthe one hand) and what is to be done imperatively (on the other). But from astandpoint of basic language functions, it is probably better to stay clear of
belief clashes unless we can see more objectively how people’s views of thingsin the present interact with their wishes for how things might be in the future.

105

References
Anonymous, 2020. ‘How to smize’. Coauthored with WikiHow staff. 7 February.
URL https://www. wikihow.com/smize
Dykes, David, 2014. ‘Is TripAdviser® a travel site or an advice site, and does it makea difference?’ Japan Association of Systemic Functional Linguistics. Proceedingsof JASFL, 8: 27–35.
Halliday, Michael A. K., 1978. Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Inter–
pretation of Language and Meaning. London: Arnold.
Halliday. Michael, A. K. and Matthiessen, Christian M. I. M., 2014. Halliday’s
Introduction to Functional Grammar. Fourth Edition. London: Routledge.
Hoey, Michael, 2001. Textual Interaction: An Introduction to Written Discourse
Analysis. London: Routledge.
Matthiessen, Christian M. I. M., Teruya, Kazuhiro, and Lam, Marvin, 2010. Key
Terms in Systemic Functional Linguistics. London: Continuum.
Ong, Sandy, 2020. ‘How face masks affect our communication’. British Broadcasting
Corporation, BBC Future. 9 June.
URL https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200609-how-face-masks-affect-ourcommunication
Suzuki, Hiroto (鈴木弘人), 2020. ‘Korona ka no shuzai’ 「( コロナ禍の取材」).
Chūnichi Shinbun, Mikawa area. 18 June, daytime edition: 18.

106

Appendix [J]. The text ‘Reporting in the corona emergency’
三河だより
コロナ禍の取材「また忘れちゃったよ」。取材先に向かう途中にマスクをしていないことに気付いて駐車場に止めた車に戻ることが頻繁にある。忘れっぽい自分に嫌気が差しながらも取材相手に会う前で良かったとも思う。
外出時にマスクをすることが当たり前になって数か月がたつ。新聞紙面
でもマスクをしたままの写真が掲載される例が増えた。
「はーい、じゃあ、笑ってくださーい」。通常、取材相手の写真を撮る時によくそう声を掛ける。こわばった笑顔が自然な表情になるまで雑談しながらシャッターを切る。
しかし、マスクをしていると表情が分かりづらい。このごろは、カメラを向けて少しずつ目元がニッコリしてくると、「今いい表情なんだろうな」と考えながらシャッターを切っている。
写真でひととなりが分かりづらくなり、いつも以上に記事の表現に気を使っているつもりだ。どういう口調、しぐさだったか、文章の描写で取材相手の雰囲気を分かりやすく伝えていきたい。
（鈴木弘人）

Appendix [E] English translation
Word from Mikawa
Reporting in the corona emergency“Left it behind again.” On my way to an interview, I realise I’m not wearing amask and have to return to the car park. This happens quite regularly. But irritatedas I am at my own forgetfulness, it’s still a relief that I noticed before getting
there.
For several months now, it has been normal to wear a mask when going out.
And in the newspaper, the number of photos taken of people with their masks on
has increased.
“Riight! Smiile now!” That’s what I regularly say when taking a picture ofsomeone. Then waiting for the stiff smile to settle into a more natural expression
while engaging in small talk, press the shutter.
But with a mask on, the expression is hard to make out. These days, I point thecamera and wait for the smile to appear around the eyes, and then, thinking all thewhile “Must look about right now,” I’ll be pressing on the shutter.
Now that it’s harder to judge someone’s true self from a photo, I aim to go tomore trouble over the expressions I use in the write-up. What was the tone ofvoice? How was the gesture? In this way, I hope to be able to convey an overall
sense of the person in a way that is easy to follow.
(Suzuki Hiroto)

107

今の「在日」を考えること
１

──立原正秋にたどりつくまで──

李

承

俊

「混血」が、一方で、社会秩序を撹乱することを象徴し、他方で、植民地主義の屈辱の徴として忌諱されるのも、この文脈においてである。
酒井直樹「レイシズム・スタディーズへの視座」
鵜飼哲、酒井直樹、テッサ・モーリス＝スズキ、李孝
徳『レイシズム・スタディーズ序説』以文社、2012

１

若者と「在日」韓国文化に関する授業では、
在日朝鮮人・在日韓国人・在日コリアン、
すなわち朝鮮半島が日本の植民地になってから日本に渡ってきて住むよ
うになった、朝鮮半島にルーツを持つ人々およびその子孫のことを取り上げている（以下、「在日」とする）。教え手としての意図は、「在日」の歴史と文化を、韓国という名で呼ばれているネーション・ステートのものとして、あるいは南と北にそれぞれの国を両立させたまま緊張関係が保たれている朝鮮半島の歴史と文化として、簡単に決めつけたり位置
づけたりするところにない。帝国主義と植民地支配の残滓を自らの身体をもって背負ったまま、祖国の土ではない日本という国で、祖国の人ではない日本人とともに生活を営為しなければならなかった彼女ら・彼ら

108の生そのものはいかなるものであったかに関して、たとえば関東大震災の時の朝鮮人虐殺事件を事例に紹介する。そのような出来事に巻き込まれながら生きてきた「在日」にとって、現在の生はいかなるものになっているのかに関しては、新型コロナウイルスの危機に際して、さいたま市がウイルス感染防止政策として市内の幼稚園や保育園、放課後児童ク
ラブに備蓄マスクを配布することを決定したものの、「直接に指導監督する施設ではない」という理由で朝鮮学校を配布対象から排除したという事例を紹介する。かつて、震災という国家的な危機の時に虐殺の対象となった「在日」と、同じく新型コロナウイルスという（世界規模の）国家的な危機の時に排除の対象となった「在日」を結びつけてみること
で、日本の内なる他者としての「在日」の生を直視できるような視座を学生に提供したかった。ただし、韓国人の講師として、日本という国の残酷さや無責任さを、ひたすら日本と日本人に突きつけることを目的とするわけでもない。このような事例は、朝鮮半島にルーツを持っている
人々にまつわる出来事である限り、韓国と無関係なものではない（同様の意味で北朝鮮も、である。しかし、本稿では日韓だけの問題に絞ることにする）。同時に、日本で生じている出来事である限り、日本と無関係なものでもない。このような日本と韓国というネーション・ステートの狭間に置かれた人々の剥き出しの生を見せたかった。
このような内容の授業を行った後、学生から提出された授業に対する感想文では、まるで口を揃えたかのように、〈差別〉という鍵語が引き出されていた。それははからずも、学生にとってはちょうど海外においてリアルタイムで生じた、「Black Lives Matter」というスローガンに象徴される、ジョージ・フロイドの死とそれに触発された黒人への人種差
別に対する反対運動にまで想像と思考の射程が広がったようであった。
「私」と違う他者を差別してはいけない、黒人に対する差別も、「在日」
に対する差別も、〈私〉と何かが違うから生じてしまうのではないだろ109

うか、という問題提起が学生の内部から自然に出されたわけである。

２ 「在日」と「混血」「在日」の存在を単に「私」とは違う他者として綺麗に峻別しようとする欲望には警戒すべきであろう。
「在日」という問題は、日韓に限って言えば、日本人というネーションと韓国人というネーションの両方に関わるものである。関東大震災の朝鮮人虐殺事件とさいたま市の朝鮮学校へのマスク配布の拒否という出来事は、日本と韓国という名を持つネーション・ステートの両方に関わるものである。一国主義的な考えでは、国境線が画定する物理的なバウンダリーが、そのまま人々の想像と思考のバウンダリーとして働く場合がしばしばある。しかし、「在日」という問題が、国境線をまたがる問題として立ちあらわれるということを、〈差別〉を鍵語に自由に広がっていく学生たちの想像と思考がよくあらわしている。
「在日」という問題を、一国主義に基づく枠組みから有効にとらえることができるだろうか。あえて本稿の立場を言えば、答えは、できない、である。日本において「在日」の人権が守られ、多様なルーツが容認されることが、差別的かつ排他的な体質から抜け出して国際化された先進社会となる道につながるとする見解は、一見妥当なもののように響きながらも、「在日」という問題の射程を、日本という一国の発展と先進化に収斂させてしまう恐れがある、ということを指摘することは不可能で２はない。
だが、本稿は、このような指摘が可能であることを踏まえつつも、「在日」という問題を、抽象的な次元のものとしてではなく、「在日」と名指される彼女ら・彼らの生そのものをとらえなおすための視座を獲得す110るためには、いかなる道筋があり得るのかをめぐってのものである。というのも、上記の日本における「在日」差別の撤廃と日本国の国際化や先進化とが結びつけられる思考は、ほかならぬ「在日」としてのアイデ
ンティティーを有する者によるものだからである。端的に言えば、日本
人としての（ナショナル）アイデンティティーを有する者によって上記のような見解が出された場合、それを批判したり突きつけたりすることは容易である。けれども、「在日」が日本という国の先進化に対する提言を行うことは、自らの生が営まれている場所が、より良くなることを願うからではないかと思われる。
「在日」という存在を生み出した日本の植民地支配や帝国主義の過去と過失を容赦する、などの次元の話とは多分異なるだろう。ただ、「日」に「在」る者として、日本で生きる存在として、自分の生の場所が、日本と呼ばれる国がより良くなることで、自分の生もより良くなるかもしれない、という素朴な願いのあらわれではないだろうか。自分自身の生をより良いものにしようとする人間の願
望を否定することなど、誰にもできない。
いうまでもないが、「在日」は一枚岩的な存在ではない。激動の時代をくぐり抜けた１世や２世、高度経済成長の恩恵を受けた３世やその後の世代など、もはや世代論的な区分そのものが有効なのかどうかということが問われる時代が到来したと見るべきなのではないだろうか。国籍の問題、名前の問題を軸に、たとえば日本に帰化したから朝鮮半島のア
イデンティティーを自ら投げ捨てたなどと言いながら「在日」ではなくて日本人だ、名前を日本式にしたから「在日」ではなくて日本人だ、な
ど線引きすることはできないし、それは無意味である。
「在日コリアン
社会は急速にハイブリッド化しているのである。朝鮮半島に両親が、または母親か父親がルーツを持つコリアンのアイデンティティーも複雑で３ある」。
このような状況を、「私」日本にルーツを持つ者と、朝鮮半島にルー111ツを持つ他者としての「在日」との間の境界が、崩れつつある、両者が混ざり込みつつある、というふうに言い直すことも可能であろう。それなら、「私」と他者を綺麗に峻別できる基準など崩壊しつつあるのであり、したがって峻別の欲望と連動する形で発生する〈差別〉は、減少しつつあるのであろうか。残念ながら、そうではない。「在日」に代弁される外国人への〈差別〉を全面に打ち出しながら政治活動を展開している桜
井誠や「在日特権を許さない市民の会」を支持する人々は決して少数ではない。この事実は、2020年東京都知事選挙で約 17 万８千票を得票した結果からしても明らかである。これを機械的に換算すると、東京都に住んでいる有権者の中で約17万８千人は、「在日」を〈差別〉してもいいという考えを持っているかそれに反対するつもりはない、ということになる。また、「在日」の母親を持つ芸能人の水原希子に対する SNS 上の中傷誹謗も、決して「在日」差別と無関係とは思われない。SNS な
ど新しいメディアにおいて、匿名性を武器に「在日」に対する〈差別〉の言説、すなわちヘイトスピーチは、むしろ SNS などが発達する前の４時代より、一層可視化されていると見ることができる。
ここで、水原希子がそうであるように、「母親か父親がルーツを持つコリアンのアイデンティティー」の問題について考えてみたい。1979
年９月、埼玉県上福岡市第三中学校の一年の少年が、高層マンションの屋上から投身自殺をした事件が発生した。当初は、学校内のいじめに原因が求められた（「いじめられる学校いやだ

空手着姿で飛び降り」『読売新聞』1979年９月10日）。ところで、このような捜査結果に納得できなかった両親などの調査によって、少年の自殺の背景には、「在日」に対する差別があることが明らかになった（「民族差別認め両親に謝罪文
生徒の自殺で上福岡市教委」『読売新聞』1980年７月 25 日）。少年の父
親は「在日」であるが、母親は日本人であった。いわば「ハーフ」とも呼ばれる「在日」の少年は、自分の生物学的なアイデンティティーの半112

分を日本人から受け継いだのであり、しかも生まれの場所も生の場所も日本であったがために朝鮮半島の伝統や文化より日本の伝統や文化により親しみを感じていたはずである。なのに、「純日本人」の人々から差別を受けた。
「母親か父親がルーツを持つコリアンのアイデンティティー」の問題が重要な理由は、
「ハーフ」
「ダブル」
「クォーター」などさまざまな呼び方が付与され、呼び方そのものには日本人の「私」と同じ伝統や文化や習慣など（ナショナル）アイデンティティーを決定づける因子を一定
は共有・分有していることが明視されているにもかかわらず、結局「在日」における、パーフェクトで100% で純血な日本人の「私」との同質性ではなく異質性のほうが強調され重視されることで〈差別〉してもいい対象に振り回されるからである。つまり、どこまで同じなのかなど問題ではない、どこが違うのかが問題なのだ。
このような純血主義は、もしかして、「在日」という問題を想定する際にも無意識的に作動してはいなかっただろうか。
「在日」の民族運動が高まりを見せていた時期に、「母親か父親がルーツを持つ」「在日」の５「混血」の意味づけをめぐって展開された運動は少数派であったという。
はたして、純血の「在日」と純血の「日本人」が何人いるのか、正確に数えることができるだろうか。今後、純血の「在日」と純血の「日本人」は増えるだろうか、あるいは、減るだろうか。そもそも、純血というものは存在しているのだろうか。小熊英二が「単一民族」主義ではな
く「単一民族神話」とした理由は、純血同士の婚姻と出産によって生物学的に担保される「単一民族」の起源や歴史を成り立たせようとする努
力など、「神話」づくりにすぎない、ということを言いたかったからで６はないだろうか。

113
７

３ 「在日」の文学と「混血」──立原正秋
長老達が退場を声明したとき、私は、若手の会での雑誌発刊を提案
したが、会をつなぐ中軸が〈近代文学〉という雑誌にある以上、果たして順調に運ぶかどうかの危惧はあった。なにより私達は長老達のように文学上の連帯意識を持ちあわせていなかったし、理想があったにしても、それはめいめいが異る理想を抱いていた。しかし、今日の社会で、共通の文学理想を掲げるのは困難ではないか、ともかく出発してみることだ、と私は考えた。
立原正秋「創刊の辞」『犀』１号、1964 年 11 月
まことに腹だたしい限りですが、ことおしなべて無性格な世に聊かなりとも鮮明な文学誌をおくろうとするためには、編集長の著名による言挙がのぞましい、という後藤明生、高井有一、三浦哲郎の発言により、このような風変りな復刊の辞を誌す次第です。だいたい、この復刊の辞は、前記三人の共同製作文を発表するはずだったのですが、彼等は当代の文殊で、三人寄っているうちに無性格な文を制作してしまい、意に言挙を編集長におしつけて逃亡してしまいました。
立原正秋「復刊の辞」『早稲田文学（第７次）』1969 年１月
磯貝治良・黒古一夫編『〈在日〉文学全集』の第16 巻（勉誠出版、
2006）は「作品集Ⅱ」となっている。そこには、立原正秋の短編「剣ヶ崎」（1965）が収録されている。田中実による「解説」では本小説を、「日
本と朝鮮の混血のもたらす罪悪・矛盾・悲劇をめぐっての物語である」とされている。
「在日」の作家である立原正秋の文学を読み解く鍵語の一つは、
「混血」

114

である。純文学と大衆文学を自由自在に往来できる才能の持ち主でありながらも、主に大衆文学者として振る舞うことを躊躇しなかった立原には、「剣ヶ崎」や「冬のかたみに」（1975）などの純文学志向の結果として生み出された作品では、日韓の「混血」という問題が題材となっている。
立原正秋が取り上げられる際は、暗黙のルールが働いている印象を払拭することができない。それを前景化するために、あえて長々と引用文を冒頭に置いた。立原は、本多秋五や埴谷雄高など『近代文学』グルー
プの「長老達」と話し合い、『近代文学』を批判的に継承する形で、新
たな戦後文学を目指して同人誌『犀』を創刊した。また、若手作家のための「公器」たるものを目がけて『早稲田文学』の復刊を手がけた。両誌は、古井由吉、後藤明生、高井有一、佐江衆一など、1970 年前後に活躍する新人作家を世に出す役割を果たした。その背後に立原の存在感が影さしていることはいうをまたない。
立原正秋を取り巻く暗黙のルールは、朝鮮半島を出生地とし、日本に定着するために苦労せざるを得なかった、いわゆる「在日」朝鮮人作家と位置づけた上で、その文学に投影されている「在日」としての苦労を読み解いていかなければならない、というようなものであろう。立原の文学が、もし〈「在日」文学〉とジャンル化されるに値するものである
ならば、そこには「在日」と呼ばれる人々の歴史と連動する苦悩の痕跡が散りばめられていることになろう。だが、たとえば大原康恵は、朝鮮人や日本人といった、ナショナル・アイデンティティーの規定を断念す
８ることが「剣ヶ崎」に描かれていると論じる。立原に対する取り上げ方を図式化すれば、一方では〈「在日」文学〉たる性質が担保された文学として取り上げ、片方では〈「在日」文学〉になりきれない性質が内在された文学として取り上げているのである。
忘れてならないのは、（こういう言い方が可能であれば、ではあるが）

115

純血の朝鮮人として生まれて日本に渡ってきた、つまり純血の「在日」として生きることができた立原が、自らの出自に虚構を加え、「混血」
としての自画像を構築しようとした事実である。
「在日」の文学の書き手たる「在日」として生きることを放棄するかのように、朝鮮人と日本人の血が混ざった「混血」として生まれた出自を自ら作り上げ、それに肉づけするかのような小説を書いた、立原の個人史そのものが、彼の文学が常に問題として差し出す「混血」と密接に結びついていることをいかに考えるべきか、ともいうことができる。
立原正秋の文学を、たやすく〈「在日」文学〉にしてはならない。日
本人として生きることに徹底し、戦後日本文学における文壇内で影響力を駆使した立原の文学的な旅程は、むしろ日本文学の流れに寄り添うものであった。かといって、立原の文学をたやすく日本文学にしてはならない。自ら努力を注いで手に得た、彼を日本人とする世間の眼差しの裏
面には、ルーツの朝鮮半島との繋がりを常に意識し、それを断ち切ろうとする緊張関係が漂っているからである。
朝鮮人でありながらも日本人であると同時に、朝鮮人でもなく日本人でもない「混血」、立原正秋。
高井有一は、立原正秋がなぜあれほどまで自らの出自と経歴を、そも
そもの純血の「在日」である自らの過去を切り捨て、日韓「混血」とし９て作り上げようとしたかをめぐっ て、さまざまな可能性を検証して化いく。これに関する本格的な論考は今後の課題としつつ、ここでは、２点だけ記しておく。日本の中世の美意識を起点とする立原の文学的な営
為は、日本人よりも完璧な日本人になろうと努力した彼の人生が、実は完璧な日本人になることができないからこそ永遠なる努力を繰り広げなければならないものであり、したがって完璧＝純血の日本人ははたして存在するのかどうか、という根本的な問いまでつながる批評性を有するものであるということ。この批評性を文学研究につなげて考えれば、一116

国主義的な枠組みと連動する純血主義的な想像と思考に支えられる〈日本文化〉を相対化するために用いられる「在日」の文学という発想の裏に、「在日」の多様なアイデンティティーを一枚岩的に決めつけようとする欲望が働いてはいないか、常に警戒すべきである。そして、「混血」という虚構の出自にこだわった彼の人生そのものが、見えない形で一国主義的な枠組みと連動する純血主義的な想像と思考を相対化させる力を有しているということ。
「ハーフ」や「ダブル」としての「在日」の社会運動が活性化されない理由は、一国主義的な枠組みと連動する純血主
義的な想像と思考がそのような動きを抑制しているからではないだろうか。

注
本稿の一部は、国際日本文化研究センターと慶熙大学校共同主催シンポ１

ジウム「ポストコロニアル批評の最前線」（2018年８月 14日、於慶熙大学
校）による。

２

李裕淑「世界に暮らすコリアン──その適応力とパワー」小倉紀蔵編『現４1990 年代以後、新たなメディアの発展とともに多様な様相を呈しなが代韓国を学ぶ』有斐閣、2012、p. 321。
３ 注１の文献、p. 316。

ら展開される「在日」への中傷誹謗やヘイトスピーチに関しては、伊藤昌
亮『ネット右派の歴史社会学──アンダーグラウンド平成史 1990‒2000年代』青弓社、2019、が参考になる。
下地ローレンス吉孝『「混血」と「日本人」──ハーフ・ダブル・ミッ

５

クスの社会史』青土社、2018、pp.168‒170。本書の著者の名前を見てほしい。
一国主義と連動する民族主義が蔓延する際、本書の著者の生そのものが危機に晒されかねない立場であることを、読者は見逃すべきではない。
小熊英二『単一民族神話の起源──〈日本人〉の自画像の系譜』新曜社、
1995。

６
７

本稿は、
「在日」の人々による文学を特定のジャンルとして取り扱ったり、

117

また特定のものとしてカテゴライズするものではない。
８

大原泰恵「「剣ヶ崎」──断念と美意識」武田勝彦編『立原正秋

人と９

本格的に立原正秋の出自における虚構性が論じられるようになるのは、化

高井有一『立原正秋』新潮社、1991。

文学』創林社、1981。
武田勝彦「立原正秋の二つの私──〈公けの私〉と〈内なる私〉」（『新潮』
1985 年９月）からである。

119

愛知学院大学語学研究所規程（名称・所属）第１条

本研究所は愛知学院大学語学研究所（以下「本研究所」という）と称し、愛知学院大学教養部に設置する。
（目的）
第２条

本研究所は建学の精神に則り、外国語の総合的研究につとめ、外国語教育の向上を目的とする。
（事業）
第３条

本研究所は下記の事業を行う。

（1） 外国語及び外国語教育に関する組織的研究（2） 外国語教育活動の調査と分析（3） 研究成果の発表及び調査・分析の報告のための研究所報の刊行（4） その他設立の目的を達成するに必要な事業
（組織）
第４条

本研究所の所員は本学教養部語学担当の専任教員から成る。

（役員・任期）第５条

本研究所に次の役員をおく。

所長１名、副所長１名、委員若干名
任期はいずれも２ヵ年とし、再任を妨げない。
（所長）
第６条

所長は、所員会議の議を経て、学長これを委嘱する。
所長は本研究所を代表し、運営全般を統括する。

２

（副所長）
第７条

副所長は所員会議の議を経て、所員の中から研究所長これを委

嘱する。

120

副所長は所長を補佐する。

２（運営委員会）第８条

本研究所に運営委員会をおく。
運営委員会は、所長、副所長、委員から成り、所長は運営委員長

２を兼務する。運営委員会の規程は別に定める。
（所員会議）
第９条

本研究所に所員会議をおく。
所員会議は全所員をもって構成し、その過半数の出席をもって成２立する。
所員会議は所長が召集し、その議長となる。但し、全所員の４分

３の１以上の請求があった場合、その請求より２週間以内に所長は所員会議を開催しなければならない。
（経費）
第10条

本研究所の経常費は愛知学院大学の年間予算をもってこれにあてる。
（規程の改正）第11条

本規程の改正は、全所員の３分の２以上の賛同をえ、教養部教授会の議を経て、学長の承認をうることを要する。
附

則

本規程は、昭和50年４月１日より施行する。
本規程は、平成11年２月12日より改正施行する。

121『語研紀要』投稿規定（投稿資格）
第１条

本誌に投稿する資格をもつ者は、原則として、語学研究所所員とする。
（転載の禁止）第２条

他の雑誌に掲載された論文・研究ノート・資料・翻訳は、これを採用しない。
（著作権）
第３条

本誌の著作権は当研究所に、個々の著作物の著作権は著者本人に帰属する。
（インターネット上の公開）
第４条

本誌はインターネット上でも公開する。

（原稿の形式）第５条

投稿に際しては、つぎの要領にしたがって、本文・図および表を作成する。
（1）原稿は原則として電子媒体による入稿とし、プリントアウトを一部添付する。
（2）本文の前に、別紙で、つぎの３項目を、この順序で付する。
（ⅰ）題名および執筆者名（ⅱ）欧文の題名および執筆者名（ⅲ）論文・研究ノート・資料・翻訳の区別（3）原稿の欧文個所は、手書きの場合、すべて活字体で書く。
（4）図は、白紙または淡青色の方眼紙を墨書し、縮尺を指定する。
（5）写真に、文字または印を入れるときは、直接せずに、トレーシン
グ・ペーパーを重ねて、それに書き入れる。

122（6）原稿は、原則として、刷り上り18 ページ（和文で約 16,000 字）以内とする。
（原稿の提出）第６条

投稿希望者は、運営委員会の公示する提出期限までに、同委員会に提出する。

締切日以降に提出された原稿は、掲載されないことがある。ただし、申込者が、所定の数に達しないか、または、それを超える場合には、同委員会がこれを調整する。
（原稿修正の制限）
第７条

投稿後の原稿の修正は、原則として、これを行わないものとする。やむをえない場合は、初校において修正し、その範囲は最小限にとどめる。大幅な修正の結果、印刷費が追加されたときは、追加費用を個人負担とすることがある。
（校正）
第８条

校正は、原則として、第２校までとし、本文については執筆者がこれに当り、表紙・奥付その他については、編集委員がこれに当る。
（抜き刷り）
第９条

抜き刷りは、論文・研究ノート・資料・翻訳各１篇につき、30部までを無料とする。これを超える分については、実費を執筆者の負担とする。
付則
１． 本規定の改正には、
語学研究所所員の３分の２以上の賛成を要する。
２．本規定は、平成３年４月12日から施行する。
３．本規定は、平成13年４月27日に改正し、即日施行する。
４．本規定は、平成14年５月９日に改正し、即日施行する。
５．本規定は、平成14年10月15日に改正し、即日施行する。
６．本規定は、平成28年11 月25日に改正し、即日施行する。

123

申合わせ事項◇ 第１条の「投稿する資格をもつ者」には、運営委員会が予め審議した上で投稿を認めた非所員を含むことができる。
◇ 運営委員会が、非所員の投稿の可否を審議対象とするのは、以下の場合である。
（1）語学研究所所員との共同執筆による投稿（2）語学研究所所員が推薦する本学教養部の外国語科目担当非常勤講師（本学非常勤講師と学外者の共同執筆も含める）の投稿（3）語学研究所の講演に基づいて作成されたものの投稿◇ 上記（1）（2）（3）に該当する投稿希望者がある場合は、運営委員会を開いて投稿の可否を決定し、その投稿希望者に通知する。
◇ 投稿原稿の掲載に際しては、次のようにする。
上記（1）（3）の場合は原稿料および抜き刷りは１篇分とする。
上記（2）の場合は抜き刷りは１篇分とし、原稿料は支払わない。
◇ 第４条に関連して、本誌は国立情報学研究所が電子化した上でインターネット上に公表し、利用者が無料で閲覧できるものとする。
◇ インターネット上の公開は第28巻第１号から適用する。

124

語学研究所 第 24回講演会
日時：令和２年 11月 27日金

17時 00分～18 時 30 分

会場：

日進キャンパス２号館１階

講師：

北村 陽子

2108教室名古屋大学大学院人文学研究科

准教授

演題： 「軍隊と動物─世界大戦期ドイツにおける盲導犬の発展─」語学研究所 第 35回研究発表会
日時：令和２年 10月 23日金

17時 00分～18 時30 分

会場：日進キャンパス１号館３階 1302 教室
講師：

川口 勇作

教養部専任講師

演題： 「Microsoft Teams を用いたジグソーリーディング活動」

講師：

山口

均

教養部教授

演題： 「想像力と遊び心─オンデマンド型授業の可能性」

125

執筆者紹介（掲載順）

鷲

嶽

正

道 ：

本学准教授・英語担当

Heather L. Doiron ：本学外国人教師・英語担当

大門ゴーフ裕子 ：本学非常勤講師・英語担当

水貴 ：本学非常勤講師・英語担当

David Dykes ：本学非常勤講師・英語担当

李本学非常勤講師・韓国語担当

野

友
承

俊 ：

126

語学研究所 所員一覧

ドイツ語

英語
石川一久

糸井川

川口勇作

福山

近藤

修（委員）
悟

浩（副所長）

佐々木

真

中国語

澤田真由美

勝股高志

杉浦克哉

朱

西谷茉莉子

中村

新建
綾（委員）

藤田淳志
山口

均

山下あや

フランス語
堀田敏幸（委員）

吉井浩司郎（所長）〇鷲嶽正道
R. Jeffrey Blair

韓国語
文

嬉眞（委員）〇Heather L. Doiron
Glenn D. Gagne
Jane A. LightburnRussell L. NotestineDavid A. Pomatti（〇印は本号執筆者）

127

編

集

後

記

『語研紀要』第46 巻第１号をお届け致します。本誌には論文５篇、研究ノート１編の玉稿をお寄せいただきました。ご寄稿頂いた先生方に厚くお礼申し上げます。
昨年度の編集後記に「更に来年度からは、日進キャンパスに加えて、名城公園キャンパスや楠元キャンパスに出向いて授業を担当される先生方が多数おられます。研究時間の確保という点で工夫を要するかもしれませんが、そのような中でも、今後もますますの投稿を切にお願いする次第です。」と書いていますが、それは、研究時間の確保という点で、大変な年になるだろうと予測してのことでした。
しかし、今年度はそのような状況を吹き飛ばすような事態が招来されました。言うまでもなく、新型コロナウイルスの感染拡大です。春学期は、すべての授業が遠隔授業となりました。授業の準備に追われることになったのは
私一人だけではありませんでした。ほとんどの先生方がそうだったでしょう。
そして、秋学期が始まるや、『語研紀要』第46 巻第１号に投稿論文が果たして集まるだろかという不安の毎日でした。原稿提出締切日を控えたその週の火曜日の時点で、提出原稿なし、の状態でした。この事態を受けて、締め切りを延期するかどうかを諮るため、急遽、ウェブ上で、語研の運営委員会を開催しました。延期しても原稿は増えないだろうというのが大勢でした。それで、締切日をそのまま迎えることになったのです。結果、最初に述べたよ
うに貴重な投稿論文が集まりました。感謝以外のなにものでもありません。
本当にありがとうございました。
コロナ禍で、例年春学期に開催される講演会が11月27日に延期になり、名古屋大学大学院人文学研究科の准教授北村陽子先生に、「軍隊と動物─世界大戦期ドイツにおける盲導犬の発展─」という演題で講演をしていただきました。また10月23日には、Teams を使ってのオンライン授業と WebCampus を使用してのオンデマンド型授業について、研究発表会が開催されました。
日々Teams 等で格闘をしている私たちにとって刺激と示唆に富んだ内容でした。
私たち大学に勤める者にとって、教育と研究は両輪だといってよいでしょう。今年度はその両輪を動かすことが本当に大変な年でした。この経験を踏
まえ、来年度には研究にも成果を残したいものです。
（吉井浩司郎 記）令和３年１月 20日

印刷

令和３年１月 30日

発行

（非売品）

愛知学院大学教養部
語研紀要
編集責任者
発 行 所

語学研究所

所報

第 46巻第１号（通巻第 47号）
所長

愛知学院大学 語〒 470–0195

学

吉井 浩司郎研

究所

愛 知 県 日 進 市 岩 崎 町 阿 良 池 12
Te l . 0 5 6 1 － 7 3 － 1111 ～ 5 番
印 刷 所

株

式

会

社

あ

る

む

名 古 屋 市 中 区 千 代 田 ３ － １ － 12
Te l . 0 5 2 － 3 3 2 － 0 8 6 1

CONTENTS
ARTICLES
Toward Academic Reading (I): From General Reading to
Research Papers in Cell Biology･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ Masamichi WASHITAKE（ 3 ）An EFL Learner’s Continuum･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ Heather DOIRON（ 25 ）President Trump on Twitter･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ Yuko OKADO-GOUGH（ 43 ）Linguistic Features of Spoken Language in the English Learning Materialsof VOA (Voice of America)—from the perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ Yuki MIZUNO（ 67 ）Masking the Face while Showing the Person
in COVID-19 Reporting･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ David DYKES（ 89 ）NOTE
Thinking about Zainichi from now— Arriving at Tachihara Masaaki —････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ LEE Seungjun（107）Vol. 46 No. 1 (WHOLE NUMBER 47)
ARTICLES
Toward Academic Reading (I): From General Reading to
Research Papers in Cell Biology･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ Masamichi WASHITAKE（ 3 ）An EFL Learner’s Continuum･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ Heather DOIRON（ 25 ）President Trump on Twitter･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ Yuko OKADO-GOUGH（ 43 ）Linguistic Features of Spoken Language in the English Learning Materialsof VOA (Voice of America)
̶from the perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ Yuki MIZUNO（ 67 ）Masking the Face while Showing the Person
in COVID-19 Reporting･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ David DYKES（ 89 ）NOTE
Thinking about Zainichi from now̶ Arriving at Tachihara Masaaki ̶････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ LEE Seungjun（107）Published by Foreign Languages Institute

AICHI-GAKUIN UNIVERSITY
Nagoya Japan,

January 2021