From Tokyo 1964 to Tokyo 2021, the Paralympic Games Seen through the Lens of Paris
2024: From the Celebration of Differences to Achievement Through Technical Progress

From Tokyo 1964 to Tokyo 2021, theParalympic Games Seen through the Lens ofParis 2024: From the Celebration of Differences
to Achievement Through Technical Progress
Sylvain Ferez（University of Montpellier, France）

It was during a meeting of the International Olympic Committee（IOC）, which took
place in Oslo in 1935, that the city hosting the Olympic Games of 1940 was designated.
At the time, Tokyo hoped to organise the first Games of the Far East, while
Scandinavian countries supported the candidacy of Helsinki. The Japanese capitalwon the bid, with the support of its future allies, Germany and Italy（with the latter
cancelling their own bid at the last minute）. In 1937 and following the Japanese
occupation of China, America which was close to the Chinese regime, threatened toboycott the Games of 1940. The president of the IOC considered changing the locationof the Olympics. In July 1938, they were relocated to Helsinki. The Second World
War would later be the cause of their cancellation1.
In 1964, the Tokyo Games marked the return of Japan within the circle of peacefulnations. At the time, only Rome had proposed Games for paraplegic individuals on thesame site as the Olympics, four years previously, in 1960（by relocating the event
which had taken place every summer at Stoke Mandeville since 1948）. During the
opening ceremony of the Paralympic Games of 2021, Seiko Hashimoto, president ofTokyo 2020 , thus reminded us that it was during these 1964 Games that thename “Paralympic Games” was used for the first time. Tokyo therefore became
the first city to host these Games twice2.
This work sets out to study the distance that has been travelled between 1964 and2021, by adopting a French perspective. The first part will cover the 1964 Games andthe debates surrounding the extension of competitions, aimed only at paraplegic
individuals at the time, to every kind of disability. The second part will take an interestin the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the 2020-2021 Games. Lastly, the third part23

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will shed light on the evolutions that have taken place in order to conceive theParalympics as a lever for inclusion policies（associated, amongst other things, withtechnological development）and the celebration of differences. On 6th September 2021,
as the Tokyo Games were barely over, the daily sports journal L’Équipe commented:“It’s over. Or actually, it’s beginning. The closing ceremony of the Tokyo Paralympic
Games turned the final page of the Japanese adventure. Make way for Paris! 3

1- Tokyo 1964: a bid for the opening to “every disability” carriedby war veterans
Three years after the creation of the Amicale sportive des mutilés de France（ASMF）［sports association for the wounded of France］, their official bulletin spokeof Japan for the first time in the column dedicated to “the Wounded and Sport
throughout the World”, in November 19574. In referencing a note by Yasusada
Takase, the Director of the National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with
Disabilities in Japan, the article reminded us that, in this country, sport was
introduced into Army and Navy hospitals during the war in order to “allow war
amputees to rehabilitate their stumps”. Equipped with “metal legs”, the amputees
took part in military exercises （marching, cycling, fencing, and climbing）: “Somemen even managed to scale Mount Fuji（3,778 meters）which is the highest in Japan”.
For the professional National Rehabilitation Center for the wounded in action, the aim
was both rehabilitation and health improvement, but also a desire to “give confidence”
and “provide professional training”5.
The note also indicated that, since 1951 and the “Social Law in favour of thedisabled”, policies which were instigated by the central government and local
authorities allowed for important progress in the fields of scientific techniques andrehabilitation institutes for civilian disabled people. Although only a small number of“sports for the disabled” were proposed in certain regions, meetings for civilian
disabled individuals were regularly organised: “a combined sporting event, under thepatronage of all the institutes for the Deaf and the Blind of Tokyo, is organised every
autumn, under the auspices of the metropolitan government of Tokyo”. At the
National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, sports hold a central
position, both for acquiring physical strength and in order to “develop a spirit ofcompetition”. In the case of swimming, “some who suffered from the effects of polio
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From Tokyo 1964 to Tokyo 2021, the Paralympic Games Seen through the Lens of Paris
2024: From the Celebration of Differences to Achievement Through Technical Progress

can hold themselves above water without any assistance if they are able to overcome
their fear and regain sufficient confidence”6. Those who are visually impaired often
practice different types of wrestling, such as « sumo » or « judo », but also « runningin a straight line alongside a rope » or « in circles whilst holding the end of a rope
fixed to a central stake », as well as table-tennis, baseball, badminton, and basketball,with special rules and equipment.

1-1- The stakes of making sports for the disabled international
In February 1961, Okino Matao, director of the Japanese branch of the World
Veterans Federation（WVF）, came to Paris in order to request material assistancefrom the head office of the WVF7. He used this trip as an opportunity for meetingwith Ludwig Guttmann, the neurosurgeon at the origin of the Stoke Mandevillegames and founder of the first “World Paralympic Games” in Rome（1960）. Following
the success of the latter, which united 400 paraplegic individuals from 21 countries,
the prospect of a second edition taking place in Tokyo was under study8. The WVF
most definitely wanted a part in this. In 1961, the International Stoke MandevilleGames Committee（ISMGC）confirmed the organisation of the 1964 Games in Tokyo9.
Japan prepared for this by instigating, for the first time, national sporting events forparaplegic athletes.
In summer 1961, the General Secretary of the ASMF presented the position ofFrance within the “world movement of sports for the disabled”, of which it had
recently become a part: the country defended “a grouping, with no distinction
between disabilities, nor between their origin”10. Thus, the ASMF put a motion to thevote for the opening of events “to all types of disability”. They hoped that “disabledathletes, whoever they are, could claim to participate in the selection phases ofinternational events, including those of Stoke Mandeville and the next Games（Tokyo,
1964）”11. In summer 1962, the impulse for opening the Paralympics of 1964 to “every
type of disability” was reiterated to the ISMGC. Guttmann, however, believed that
this was premature. In July 1963, when the 29 French paraplegic athletesparticipating in the Stoke Mandeville games brought home 48 medals（20 gold, 15
silver, and 13 bronze）, the sights were already set on Tokyo12.
When the time came to set out for Tokyo, it was therefore a vision in favour of theintegration of all types of deficiency（rather than events for paraplegic people only）,
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founded on the idea of sporting competition（rather than rehabilitation）, which took
on a primary position in France. Simultaneously, an international workgroup focusing
on disabled sports, initiated by the ASMF and the WVF at the end of the 1950s, led
to the creation of the International Sport Organisation for the Disabled: “The ISOD,
created in 1964 on the impulse of France and the World Veteran Federation, is aninternational sporting organisation that aims to assemble all the countries which
provide sporting practices for the disabled”13. It included representatives from 12
countries. The first two presidents, Curtis Champaign and Norman Acton, came fromthe WVF. While grouping together amputees with those classified within the “Others”
category in Stoke Mandeville, notably visually-impaired people, the ISOD took an
active part in organising the Tokyo Games, alongside the International Stoke
Mandeville Wheelchair Sports Federation（ISMWSF）, which had recently taken overfrom the ISMGC.
In 1960, in Rome, the opening of the first para-Olympic Games had taken place inthe presence of the English Minister of Health: “by presenting these athletes as
patients first and foremost, organisers, perhaps unintentionally, promoted a viewsimilar to earlier paternalistic attitudes that treated those with disabilities as a groupoutside ‘normal’ society who needed special assistance from medical experts”14. In
1964, in Tokyo, a new balance was found between structures that had been foundedby doctors（including the ISMWSF）and organisations that were linked to veterans.
The latter held much power in Japan and, similarly to France and Germany, those
who were wounded in action （amputees and visually impaired especially） werenumerous. This is why a big event including all types of impairment was organisedalongside the Paralympic Games of 1964, which were once more open only toparaplegic athletes, as per the recommendations of the ISMWSF and Guttmann.

1-2- French perspective on the 1964 Tokyo GamesIn September 1964, shortly before leaving for the PG, the cover page of the very
new bulletin for the Sports Federation for the Physically Disabled of France（FSHPF）highlighted Tokyo. The president of the Federation addressed his manythanks “to all those who worked hard for the FSHPF to be able to send a French
team to participate in the 2nd International Paralympic Games”15. In December 1964,
five articles within this bulletin concerned the event, which was already over by then.
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From Tokyo 1964 to Tokyo 2021, the Paralympic Games Seen through the Lens of Paris
2024: From the Celebration of Differences to Achievement Through Technical Progress

The first one detailed the rankings of the twenty French individuals who participatedin athletics, basketball, fencing, weight-lifting, swimming, Ping-Pong, and archerycompetitions, and who obtained 4 gold, 2 silver, and 7 bronze medals, as well as 12
runner-up prizes and the gold sabre16. In the second article, the president of the
FSHPF stated: “The 18th Olympic Games are now over, and for us, disabled athletes,our 2nd Paralympics （the word “Paralympics” not being used here as “Games for
Paraplegics”, but in a wider sense as “in parallel to the Olympics”）”, before adding thefollowing: “Considering all the different international events to which France has
participated, I have to admit that I have never yet seen any Games take place in suchsplendour, all the while maintaining the level of simplicity that such an event requires
throughout its organic occurrence （…）. Thank you, organising members of theJapanese Committee, we will remember these Tokyo Games of the year 1964!”17.
A third article was accompanied by photographs18. On the latter, the Frenchdelegation could be observed as it paraded during the opening ceremony, as well as aJapanese athlete in front of Doctor Nakamura（director of the Orthopaedic Service in
the National Hospital of Beppu and of the Oita sporting association for disabled
people）and a picture of the closing ceremony within the basketball court.

Images 1, 2, 3: Second souffle , 4, 1964, p. 6, p. 9.
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A fourth article covered a reception which had been organised by the French
Ambassador in Japan, François Missoffe19. The associated photographs also came withcommentaries.

Image 4: « Three of our athletes nicely surrounded by charming Japanese ladies »,Second souffle , 4, 1964, p. 14.

Lastly, “From the difficulties to adapt to the rites of the Far-East…to the pleasureof watching gracious Japanese ladies go by”, the final article provided two series ofphotographs with commentaries. The first captured four members of the Frenchdelegation, including its president Philippe Berthe, “struggling with chopsticks in a
20
. The second exposed four pictures of a show, with
Chinese restaurant”（image 5）
21.
the following explanation: “Several typical dances”（image 6）

Image 528

Image 6

From Tokyo 1964 to Tokyo 2021, the Paralympic Games Seen through the Lens of Paris
2024: From the Celebration of Differences to Achievement Through Technical ProgressThis outlook, stamped by a feeling of exoticism and orientalism, could also be foundin the first bulletin of 1965, which covered the “Memories and particularities of a stayin Tokyo, Olympic city”22 and published many anecdotes relating experiences ofcultural gaps（linked to the rules of interactions and of hygiene, such as the necessityof removing shoes, or the use of toilets, etc.）that the Western traveller had been
faced with. Additionally, the bulletin also went back over the “Press conference/
cocktail of 17th December 1964” organised in the Salons de Rhin-et-Danube23 under
the presidency of Maurice Herzog, State Secretary for Youth and Sports, and in thepresence of “His Excellency Kitaha, Plenipotentiary Minister of Japan”24.

Image 7: «
 M. Maurice Herzog, State Secretary for Youth and Sports, awarding M.
Philippe Berthe, President of the FSHPF, a cheque from the Prime Ministerwith a commendation from the Government »25.
All in all, the 1964 Paralympics were an opportunity for France to strengthen its
voice among international instances, which would lead, in the 1970s, to the integrationof the different categories of disability26 and to increasingly leave behind rehabilitation
practices, so as to value competitive sports on the same model as the Olympics27.

2- From Tokyo 2020 to Tokyo 2021: composing with the pandemic
With the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic, the question of cancelling or
rescheduling the 2020 Tokyo Games came up several times. The choice of postponing
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them until the summer of 2021 was controversial. From 23rd July to 8th August, theGames took place with no spectators. Following this, the epidemiologic indicators
deteriorated. In this context, the organisation of the Paralympics, scheduled to begin
on 25th August, remained a matter of debate right up to the end. Indeed, thepreparation and the unfolding of these Games were strongly affected by the politicalstakes linked to the manner in which the health crisis was being managed by theorganising committee and the public authorities.

2-1- An event that was jeopardized until the last moment
Filtering and analysing every French-language publication on the Internet
mentioning both “Paralympic” and “COVID”, between 15th August and 15th September
2021 provided insight into these political stakes. In total, 1 131 publications wereidentified over that period, with three spikes around 16th August, 24th August, and 6th
September （graph 1）. The second one, which is also the strongest one （152
publications）, took place just at the opening of the Paralympics. The third spike（61publications）happened the day after the closing ceremony.

Graph 1: Publications mentioning « Paralympic » and « COVID »（15th August-15th
September 2021）
Before this, on 15th August, the website of the weekly journal Le Point read: “Covid:
between Olympic and Paralympic Games, epidemic upsurge in Japan”. On the sameday, Directinfo titled: “Paralympics-2020: the now ineluctable spectre of closed-door
events”28. The next day, the number of publications soared（65 in total）when Japanannounced the ban on spectators attending the Paralympic sites in Tokyo and its
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From Tokyo 1964 to Tokyo 2021, the Paralympic Games Seen through the Lens of Paris
2024: From the Celebration of Differences to Achievement Through Technical Progresssurrounding areas, aside from certain schoolchildren29. The deterioration of theepidemic situation was confirmed over the course of the next few days. On 20th
August, while the Paralympic Torch had arrived in Tokyo, and the city’s hospitals
became saturated, the organisers communicated the fact that the Games would takeplace in circumstances that were “very difficult”30. The FranceInfo website reported
the uncertainty that was casting a shadow over the Paralympics due to the record
number of COVID-19 cases in Japan31. In this context, the site of Radio Télévision
Luxembourg（ RTL） read: “the Japanese authorities are still not certain about theproper unfolding of the Tokyo 2021 Paralympics as the Covid-19 pandemic reaches
record levels in the Country of the Rising Sun.”32
On 21st August, the reaction of the organisers was relayed through the media, withthe announcement of stricter health measures, including an increase in the number oftests and movement limitations33. The next day, the French Press Agency （AFP）
confirmed these strengthened measures, as well as the strong concern stemmingfrom the evolution of the number of contaminations in Japan34. On 22nd August, threedays before the opening of the Games, the number of positive cases amongst thepeople involved in the organisation had increased to 131（since 12th August）, with 30
new cases in 24 hours, including two athletes35. The daily newspaper, Libération,
wrote “at the dawn of the Paralympics, a devastating fifth wave”, before adding that,in Tokyo, “between the 2nd and 15th August, out of 3 927 requests for emergency
transport to the hospital for COVID-19 victims, 2 373 were turned away due to thelack of space, representing 60% of requests”36. On 23rd August, the French media
were thus the reflection of a questioning which was arising in Japan: to what extent
did the Olympics, finished 15 days previously, contribute to the increase in number ofcases? Whatever the answer, one observation seemed clear: “the organisers in Japanare under pressure to cancel the Paralympics as a new wave of COVID-19 is tearing
the population apart”37.
The day before the Paralympics opened, Japan thus found itself faced with a fifth
wave of COVID-19. As the event was, once again, subjected to reconsideration, theorganisers exhorted each and every person to closely follow the health measures that
had recently been strengthened38. Tokyo did its best to “play the game”: attempting
to give the Paralympics a new visibility in spite of a highly tense situation（with astrong level of defiance towards elites）and the necessity of organising the events31

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behind closed doors39. Did the organisers hope that, with the start of competitions, themedal-count would allow the number of contaminations to be forgotten?40

2-2- A sports approach to the pandemic
The sports journal L’Équipe, the biggest-selling national daily paper in France,
began covering the Paralympics on 23rd August, with an interview of Sophie Cluzel,
State Secretary to the Prime Minister, in charge of disabled people. The latter
asserted: “Of course, we are sad that there are no spectators”, before adding: “It’s ashame, but this is the price of having the Games41”. The next day, the paper related
the media controversy sparked in Japan by the arrival of Thomas Bach, the presidentof the IOC. While the epidemic curve was at its highest42 and the city mayor, Yuriko
Koike, was imploring citizens to limit their outings until 12th September, his request
to be exempt from quarantine caused an “outcry”. It must be said that, as early on as
the month of July, with the Olympics, Thomas Bach appeared as “a man whose
entourage is disconnected from reality”43, following a series of photographs thattriggered controversy: he could be seen strolling through the luxury district of Ginza,with his hands in his pockets or taking selfies with passers-by. His attempt to forgo
quarantine in order to attend the opening of the Paralympics was found to be
offending, while simultaneously, a majority of parents and school heads werecriticizing the prospect of schoolchildren being able to attend the competitions within
the different stadiums44. L’Équipe concluded:“This noxious atmosphere should not affect the bubble within which the athletes
evolve. The Japanese people see the difference between the leaders – which they
denounce – and the athletes – whom they respect. In the bookstores, many are theguides that are dedicated to the Paralympics. Presentations of local heroes,
explanations of rare disciplines, such as goalball or boccia”45.
Aside from this, the pandemic and its management were very rarely mentioned in
L’Équipe. On 24th August, they were associated to a string of problems anddifficulties, all mixed together in a jumble, “heavily exceeding the budget, thepandemic, the one-year delay, the strong defiance of the Japanese”46. The article wascomplemented by a photograph of “two representatives of Japanese healthcare
workers handing the Olympic Torch to Wakako Tsuchida, a Paralympic athlete,during the opening ceremony of the Tokyo Olympic Games on 23rd July”47. When the32

From Tokyo 1964 to Tokyo 2021, the Paralympic Games Seen through the Lens of Paris
2024: From the Celebration of Differences to Achievement Through Technical Progresstime came to open the Paralympics, the author added:“An impression of déjà vu, always the same announcements as days go by.
Cancelling the Olympic Torch relay, events held behind closed doors, healthrestrictions linked to the state of emergency, the increase in Covid-19 cases
throughout the territory… And this diffuse feeling that the Paralympics, the opening
ceremony of which is planned for today in Tokyo, could very well lack soul. Unlessthe magic still manages to happen, as it did for their older sister, the Olympics.
Through the grace of sport, of its members, of the emotions that they were able toprovoke and transmit in spite of the lack of live spectators, the 2021 edition which
ended just two weeks ago, had finally revealed itself as being breath-taking”48.
On 24th August, Le Monde newspaper wrote that the Paralympics were beginningon “a background of an out of control health crisis”49. Les Échos, for its part,highlighted the fact that, in the midst of a fifth wave, “the stands of the Tokyo
national stadium remained empty for the kick-off of the Paralympics”50. A delegation,from New Zealand, even opted to not participate in the opening ceremony in fear of
the virus, as reported by Le Parisien51. On 25th August, while the Paralympic
competition had begun, French media related a dispatch from the AFP, announcingthat Japan was going to extend to the larger part of its territory certain healthmeasures already in place in certain parts of the country52. Three days later, on 28th
August, 22 new cases of COVID-19 were announced by the organising committee,
passing the mark of 200 cumulative cases reported in relation to the Paralympics
over the span of two weeks53. On 30th August, the Forbes website published theinformation that a person involved in the Games – not an athlete – had been taken to
hospital because of their infection: 15 new cases were also reported, including two
athletes who were staying in the Paralympic village54.
On 3rd September, the total number of contaminations amongst people who held
Paralympic accreditations was close to 27555. On 4th September, the players of theAustralian team of wheelchair basketball were submitted to a stronger protocol after
having been in close contact with a confirmed coronavirus case56. On 6th September,the day after the closing ceremony and following the discovery of six new cases in 24
hours, the number of cumulative cases was re-evaluated to 31657. On 9th September,the assessment made by the organising committee counted a total of 863 confirmed
cases, 547 for the Olympics and 316 for the Paralympics – including 41 athletes, 50
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media professionals and 29 leading figures of the organising committee58.

2-3- Sports news and political news
During the 13 days of the Paralympic competitions（24th August – 5th September）,
the intensity with which the sporting information relating to the event was treatedovershadowed reports relating to the pandemic. The latter nevertheless remained at
the heart of the political news in Japan. Thus, on 27th August, the removal by theJapanese Minister of Health of more than 1.6 million doses of unused Moderna antiCovid vaccine led to the beginnings of a crisis, on a background of “Paralympic
anxiety”59. In France, the left-wing daily paper Libération wrote of the start of a“health scandal” the very next day60. On 2nd September, the Courrier International
noted: “impurities were detected within several tubes of vaccine against Covid-19,
leading the Japanese authorities to recall all the batches from which they originated”61.
In the same stride, on 3rd September, the AFP communicated that the Prime Minister
Yoshihide Suga had surprisingly announced that he would not run to be the leader ofhis political party on 29th September, and that he renounced prolonging his position ashead of the government. “Weighed by low levels of popularity due to his contested
management of the Covid-19 pandemic”62, the latter declared: “Impossible to lead anelectoral campaign at the same time as the fight against Covid-19, this would exact anenormous amount of energy, and I have decided to not run for office again”63.
On 5th September, during the last moments of the closing ceremony of the
Paralympics, a spot was dedicated to the hard work of the volunteers who had been
filmed cleaning the equipment and facilities with respect to the health measures.
When this ceremony was broadcast on France Television, the commentator took theopportunity to add that the organising committee had managed the crisis “to themillimetre”, thus “guaranteeing the safety” of athletes through strict procedures andnumerous tests. The political journalists’ perspective, however, was not quite as
positive as the one of the sports consultants. Indeed, the French national press
established a contrasted final assessment of the Paralympics for Japan, “between
performance and health crisis”. On 5th September, while Le Monde made use of irony
concerning the title chosen for the finale “Harmonious cacophony”64, in Belgium, Le
Soir reported “an adequate tally, nothing more”65. Of course, a sanitary catastrophe
was able to be avoided, but it was often necessary to compose with “the34

From Tokyo 1964 to Tokyo 2021, the Paralympic Games Seen through the Lens of Paris
2024: From the Celebration of Differences to Achievement Through Technical Progressdisorganisation, even the amateurism”, as was noted by the Belgian regional daily
newspaper, La Meuse, on 6th September66.

3- From Tokyo 2021 to Paris 2024: technological imaginary andinclusion
Someity, the pink mascot of the Tokyo 2021 Paralympics – a twin to the blue oneof the Olympics – offered the image of a harmonious mix between tradition andmodernity. This “cute extra-terrestrial with its ears made out of Japanese cherrytrees （the ancestral variety of somei yoshino）”67 allied a futuristic technologicalimaginary and the reference to an identity that was incarnated by a mythologicalvegetal symbol. In addition, it constructed the image of a “rather introvert child that
only realises the extent of its superpowers when it is on the playing field”68.

3-1- Celebrating differences by scripting the alliance between desire,technology and collective work
The daily sports journal L’Équipe briefly mentioned the opening ceremony of 24th
August 2021. It emphasized a certain sobriety, citing a “show on the theme of taking
off and aviation, with a girl in a wheelchair as central hero, barely troubled by a rockband revisiting the theme to the movie Kill Bill, composed by Tomoyasu Hotei…”69.
The demonstration of hostility toward the organisation of the Games which took placeclose to the stadium was only briefly reported.
During the retransmission on the channels of France Television, the commentators
noted that this opening ceremony was certainly within the “theme of wind andwings”. The first scene of the show was most clearly based on circus techniques.
Indeed, it put into play a “wind triggering” machine, the idea of which originated in17th century Japan. On top of it could be seen a “large automaton” and its numerous
cogwheels going in motion through the coordinated action of a crowd of people, someof whom were disabled. The aim, explained the commentators, was “to create wind
for the planes to fly”. In the background, there was the suggestion of a technicalprogress imaginary, associated with the project of producing air through a mechanicalgame.
But there was more. The scene was also the symbol of the birth or rebirth ofdesire. Indeed, the technological project that involved a collective organisation aimed,
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above all, to animate or reanimate those with no breath: in short, to give back life andmovement. In this manner, that which is vital and that which is social can be rejoined,
through their materialistic and technologised expressions. A young girl then came on
the scene. She was in a wheelchair-plane with only one wing. The “Para” airport andits wind machine needed to help her take a step towards take-off. The show ended
when, carried by the forces produced by technical means, organisation and collective
genius, the girl managed to rise into the air. The slogan of the opening ceremonythen appeared in large letters “We have wings!” The French commentators
summarized this with three key words: inclusion, performance, change of outlook.
On 5th September, the closing ceremony of the Paralympics used as a theme “thecity where differences shine”. The first set of the show employed images to show the
impact of the event on the transformation of Tokyo. Colourful buildings and edifices,made from recycled materials, entered the stadium, carried by volunteers. They were
the symbol of a living and liveable city: a durable city, where differences could be
expressed. Next, the volunteers united their efforts in order to erect a great tower, as
if to complete the advent of a new city. Colourful and festive, this show once again
highlighted technological innovation. In contrast to the urban flurry, another scene of
the show however, took on a more naturalistic approach. This was based on themetaphor of the water drop, a symbol of every type of birth, but also of the state ofnature. Finally, the drop of water merged with the organised diversity of the city. It
was a time to celebrate all the differences, in an ensemble that appeared bothcolourful and harmonious.
This ceremony was also the opportunity to recognise the initiatives of threeschools, in the context of the “I’m possible” operation, for projects supporting
inclusion and led hand-in-hand with the Paralympic movement. More generally, theopening and closing ceremonies of the Tokyo Paralympics worked hard to represent
all the ages of life and all the situations of disability, with active roles given tochildren and to older people（along with their carers）, to women and to men, topeople with physical, intellectual or sensory impairments, in a manual or an electric
wheelchair. Beyond the narrative produced on the themes of social and vital elements,
on modernity（notably with technological expressions）and on tradition, it was theprospect of leaving a legacy of the Games that appeared.

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2024: From the Celebration of Differences to Achievement Through Technical Progress

3-2- Constructing the legacy of Paris 2024 and using the experience ofTokyo 2021
The trip to Japan made by Sophie Cluzel, State Secretary to the French Prime
Minister, in charge of disabled people, clearly had one aim: to benefit from Japaneseexperience in order to prepare the legacy of Paris 2024 on the topic of disabled people
inclusion. On 23rd August, one day after her arrival and on the eve of the opening
ceremony, she spoke to L’Équipe. She explained that she had come to support the
French delegation -138 athletes and 15 guides taking part in 19 of the 22 sports on
the Tokyo program - 70 but also because of “meetings with her internationalcounterparts and visiting the Japanese transports – “They［the Japanese］are rather
exemplary on the topic of accessibility” – in view of organising Paris 2024”71. On the
one hand, the goal of 35 French medals was clearly advertised72. On the other hand, S.
Cluzel was preparing Paris 2024, in order to make it “an accelerator” for accessibility
to transport and sports facilities. In this context, the Olympic village of 2024 isconceived as “a real laboratory for universal accessibility”: “We are making it thefocus of all our attention for its legacy to be a truly inclusive city, which will allow us
to take great leaps forward in the construction of the cities of tomorrow”73.
This question disappeared from the columns of L’Équipe during the Paralympic
fortnight, when the paper focused on medalled French athletes or on the promise of
medals in 202474. It remained, however, on the agenda of S. Cluzel. On 29th August, on
her Twitter account, the latter relayed two messages of the French Embassy inJapan（@ambafrancejp）. The first one concerned the visit of a company developing
Cybersports, founded by Mr. Yoshiaki Sawabe. Three photographs （10, 11, 12）
showed her getting ready to play CyberBoccia75 and with a virtual simulation helmet（for a wheelchair race）. The tweet explained: “When technology reduces differences
for a more inclusive practice of sports”.
On the same day, the French Embassy posted a second tweet: “The State
Secretary Sophie Cluzel has met with certain Japanese agents of technologicalinnovation at the service of a more inclusive society: robotics, virtual reality, newmaterials, Fablab and 3D printing, in order to make sports accessible to the greaternumber”. In the same stride, S. Cluzel posted another message, alongside somephotographs （11, 12, 13）, which was swiftly re-tweeted by Frédérique Vidal, the37

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Images 8, 9, 10
French Minister for Higher Education, Research and Innovation: “#TechForGood |Between two medals, meeting with engineers, scientists and artists who set
innovation at the service of a more inclusive society, and demonstration of « cyberparasports »”.

Images 11, 12, 13On 6th September, the international press related the positive experience of the
Indian table-tennis player Bhavinaben Patel76 with a training robot: “When the
COVID-19 pandemic derailed her training program for the Paralympic Games,［she］
found the perfect training partner in a robot provided by the Sports Authority of38

From Tokyo 1964 to Tokyo 2021, the Paralympic Games Seen through the Lens of Paris
2024: From the Celebration of Differences to Achievement Through Technical Progress

India, a help which, according to her, made all the difference in her historical silver
medal”77. The day after the closing of the Paralympics, L’Équipe re-centered thequestion of inclusive legacy at the heart of discussions by making projections for2024. The president of Paris 2024, Tony Estanguet, then insisted on the fact that “TheParalympics are not small Games”, before adding, “We are trying to make it so that,in every direction of the Organising Committee, there is a Paralympic dimension. It’s
the same team who is working on both events”78. Paris 2024 intends to multiply theunifying symbols of the Olympics and the Paralympics. For the first time, they will
have one same and single logo79.
Beyond this quest for unification, Tokyo’s organisation was closely scrutinized. The
staff for Paris 2024, travelled in mass in order to “take the measure of the task” to beundertaken before 202480. T. Estanguet claimed to be impressed by the importance ofthe transports logistics that would need to be deployed in order to ensure the proper
unfolding of the Paralympic competitions. This is emphasized by the fact that the
French authorities wish to take advantage of these Games to improve the access toParisian public transports for everyone. The main issue will be to render universally
accessible certain key metro stations.
Another major work for the Paris 2024 legacy, on the topic of inclusion, willconcern the production and broadcasting of inspiring tales. Notably, the goal will be
to “use the champions of today as vectors of influence for youths who are living insituations of disability” in view of “democratizing para-sport”81. On this point, T.
Estanguet has noted the progress already accomplished in order to promote thesporting dimension of the competitions and increase the understanding of the
Paralympics’ specificities: “This has to go through clearer presentations during theGames in order for the Paralympic athletes’ performance to be better understood. I
found that it was better in Tokyo than in Rio, but there is still room for improvement.
And also, in the earlier stages, we will need to acculturate the French public”82.
However, this wish to bring closer together the Olympics and Paralympics in viewof the cardinal value of sporting performance does not preclude consideration fordifferences. The President of Paris 2024 thus assumes a hope of producing a narrativethat will highlight the “different values” associated to the Paralympics: “TheParalympic Games go beyond sport. It is the third time that I see them as a spectator:
it is sport as well as life lessons. It’s incredible. It’s good for the soul. There is a39

Journal of Paralympic Research Group vol.17

potential that needs to be optimized, we must manage to do it…”83

Conclusion
As seen from Paris, the 1964 Tokyo Paralympics can seem, on the face of it, quite
distant and marked by oriental exoticism, leading to a perspective that is not devoidof clichés. A certain proximity can however be found in the vision of sport for thephysically disabled. Strongly affected by the Second World War, Japan and France
were both close to international veteran associations and were in favour of theintegration of all disabilities into Games which had been, up until then, reserved for
those with spinal cord injuries and placed under the tutoring of medical science,incarnated by the neurosurgeon Ludwig Guttmann, founder of the Stoke MandevilleGames.
Half a century later, the 2021 Paralympics attest to the success of the projectaiming to open the Games to every disability and of the vision founded on competitive
sport（rather than rehabilitation）. In this way, a three-part thought process imposes
itself in order to grasp the outlook that was constructed for these Games from
France. Firstly, there is the truly sporting premise of monitoring performances andcounting medals obtained by national athletes, as attested by their treatment by
L’Équipe. Next, the attention given to the event’s unfolding, as well as to its
organisational aspects, is linked to the fact that the next edition will take place inParis in 2024. Thirdly, the goal is to use Tokyo’s experience in order to find answers
to the constraints which are now imposed to all the hosting cities, notably in terms ofbudgetary sobriety, sustainable development and reconversion of installations84.
These constraints come from a vision of the material and social legacy of theGames which progressively took hold in the years 200085: organising the event must
involve the citizens, offer a lever for “political and social” changes86, and promote“technological mutations”87. In this context, inclusion has become an indisputable value
which the Paralympics seek to incarnate. The time is no longer one for including
every disability, but for celebrating differences. In spite of the practical difficulties
and certain unthought matters, the hosting cities endeavour to be exemplary on thispoint88, on which the associated States wish to demonstrate their leadership.
On 5th September 2021, following the closing ceremony, Sami El Gueddari, former
40

From Tokyo 1964 to Tokyo 2021, the Paralympic Games Seen through the Lens of Paris
2024: From the Celebration of Differences to Achievement Through Technical Progress

Paralympic swimmer become consultant for France Television for the duration of the
Paralympics, resumed what made the success of this latest edition, using his own
words: the lack of interference from the Japanese government, the absence of clichés
concerning Japan, the production of signs of opening from a country that is otherwise
known for its strict adherence to norms. For him, the Japanese had been “vectors ofserenity in a difficult context”. A hypothesis was drawn up just before going back tothe studio: are the Paralympics not the future of the Olympics?
References
1

J.-P. Augustin and P. Gillon, Les Jeux du monde. Géopolitique de la flamme olympique, Paris,

2

F. Dabadie, « Tokyo joue le jeu quand même », L’Équipe, 24/08/2021, p. 10.

A. Colin, 2021.
3« It is a particular moment because we are realising that it is our turn, said Etienne
Thobois, the general director of Paris 2024, smiling from Japan. We are doing it with a little
apprehension, but a lot of determination », M. Ventouillac, « Paris prend la main », L’Équipe,
06/09/2021, p. 26.

4

Revue des Mutilés de France, 8, 1957.

5 In this context, amputated individuals were more particularly encouraged to practice cycling（due to the possibilities for moving around that it provided, but also for its health benefits）.
Thus, a team of 26 men（12 of whom were amputated from a leg, and 9 from an arm）
covered a distance of 119.2 km in 7h25, a performance that is “comparable to normal people’s”（Idem）.
6

Idem.

7

D. J. Frost, « Tokyo’s Other Games: The Origins and Impact of the 1964 Paralympics », The

8

H. R. Cassirer（UNESCO）, « Les infirmes et le sport », ASMF Magazine, 23, 1961.

International Journal for the History of Sports, 29（4）,2012, pp. 619-637.
9

M. Boubée, « Rapport de la Réunion du Comité International de Stoke Mandeville Games »,ASMF Magazine, 22, 1961. Boubée represented the ASMF（for which he was the technicaladvisor）at this meeting that also included M. Guttmann（England）, M. Maglio（Italy）, M.
Tricot（Belgium）and Captain Tjebbes（Holland）.

10

J. Martin, « Sections de province », ASMF Magazine, 23, 1961.

11

Idem.

12

ASMF Magazine, 31, 1963.

13

Leclerc, « Assemblée générale de l’ISOD（3-6 décembre 1981）», Second souffle, 19, 1982, p. 8 ;«［ISOD］offered opportunities for those athletes who could not affiliate to the International
Stoke Mandeville Games: visually impaired, amputees, persons with cerebral palsy andparaplegics »（http://www.paralympic.org/the-ipc/history-of-the-movement）.

14

D. J. Frost, « Tokyo’s Other Games: The Origins and Impact of the 1964 Paralympics », The
International Journal for the History of Sports, 29（4）,2012, p. 634.

15

P. Berthe, « Merci », Second souffle, 3, 1964, p. 2. Aside from the State and Public Authorities,
and most prominently the State Secretary for Youth and Sports, the president of thefederation also mentioned more than twenty partners.

41

Journal of Paralympic Research Group vol.17
16« Le palmarès français à Tokyo », Second souffle, 4, 1964, p. 2.

17

P. Berthe, « 18es Olympiades – 2es Jeux paralympiques », Second souffle, 4, 1964, p. 5.

18« La délégation française à Tokyo », Second souffle, 4, 1964, pp. 6-11.

19

The latter became the Minister for Youth and Sports between 1966 and 1968, following
Maurice Herzog, the State Secretary for Youth and Sports at the time of the Tokyo Games.

20« From the difficulties to adapt to the rites of the Far-East…to the pleasure of watchinggracious Japanese ladies go by », Second souffle, 4, 1964, p. 16.

21

Idem, p. 17.

22

Second souffle, 5, 1965, p. 23.

23

A military circle within which the French movement was constituted in 1954.

24

Second souffle, 5, 1965, p. 12-14.

25

Idem, p. 12.

26

D. J. Frost, « Tokyo’s Other Games: The Origins and Impact of the 1964 Paralympics », The
International Journal for the History of Sports, 29（4）,2012, pp. 619-637.

27

S. Ruffié, S. Ferez, E. Lantz, “From the Institutionalization of ‘all disabilities’ toComprehensive Sports Integration: The Enrolment of France in the Paralympic Movement（1954-2012）, The International Journal of the History of Sport, 31（17）,2014, pp. 2245-2265; S.
Ferez, S. Ruffié, N. Bancel, “From Sport as an instrument in Rehabilitation to the adoption ofCompetitive Sport: Genesis of a Delegatee Sports Federation in France for those with
Physical Disabilities（1954-1972）”, Sport History Review, 47（2）,2016, pp. 146-171.

28

https://directinfo.webmanagercenter.com/2021/08/15/jeux-paralympiques-2020-le-spectredu-huis-clos-desormais-ineluctable-presse/

29

https://news-24.fr/le-japon-interdira-aux-spectateurs-les-sites-paralympiques-de-tokyo-et-desenvirons-a-lexception-de-certains-ecoliers/

30

https://news-24.fr/les-organisateurs-disent-que-la-situation-est-tres-difficile-alors-que-leshopitaux-sont-etires-par-les-cas-de-covid-19/

31

https://www.francetvinfo.fr/jeux-paralympiques/jeux-paralympiques-2021-la-flamme-arrive-atokyo-record-de-cas-de-covid-19-au-japon_4743365.html

32

https://www.rtl.fr/sport/autres-sports/jeux-paralympiques-2021-la-competition-est-ellemenacee-7900062869

33

https://news-24.fr/les-organisateurs-des-jeux-paralympiques-resserrent-les-regles-relativesaux-virus-alors-que-les-cas-augmentent/

34« Jeux paralympiques 2020 : les mesures sanitaires renforcées par les organisateurs », AFP,
22/08/2021 ; « La flamme paralympique à l’épreuve des vents du Covid à Tokyo », AFP,
22/08/2021.

35

https://news-24.fr/30-autres-tests-positifs-aux-jeux-paralympiques-alors-que-les-organisateursadoptent-des-mesures-plus-strictes/

36« Japon : à l’aube des Jeux paralympiques, une cinquième vague dévastatrice », Libération,
22/08/2021.

37

https://news-24.fr/covid-19-les-jeux-olympiques-de-tokyo-ont-ils-provoque-une-recrudescencedes-infections-au-japon-nouvelles-du-monde/38

https://fr.euronews.com/2021/08/23/a-la-veille-des-jeux-paralympiques-de-tokyo-unecinquieme-vague-inquietante-des-cas-de-cov

39« Tokyo joue le jeu quand même », L’Équipe, 23/08/2021.

40« Jeux paralympiques 2020 : le Covid, l’ombre au tableau des médailles », AFP, 23/08/2021.
42

From Tokyo 1964 to Tokyo 2021, the Paralympic Games Seen through the Lens of Paris
2024: From the Celebration of Differences to Achievement Through Technical Progress
41

S. Cluzel, « Sur les Jeux Paris, on a de très gros enjeux », L’Équipe, 23/08/2021, p. 30.

42

4 700 cases per day in the city on average since the beginning of August.

43

F. Dabadie, « Tokyo joue le jeu quand même », L’Équipe, 24/08/2021, p. 10.

44

In a context where the Minister of Education had banned the organisation of any nature
trips throughout the summer.

45

F. Dabadie, « Tokyo joue le jeu quand même », L’Équipe, 24/08/2021, p. 10.

46

C. Nony, « Entretenir la flamme », L’Équipe, 24/08/2021, p. 2.

47

Idem, p. 3. On 24th August, a similar picture can be seen during the Paralympics opening
ceremony, where a doctor, a nurse, and a prosthetist cover the penultimate relay of theTorch.

48

C. Nony, « Entretenir la flamme », L’Équipe, 24/08/2021, p. 2.

49« Les Jeux paralympiques de Tokyo débutent sur fond d’une crise sanitaire hors de contrôle »,Le Monde, 24/08/2021.

50« En pleine cinquième vague, le Japon donne le coup d'envoi des Jeux Paralympiques », Les Échos,
24/08/2021.

51

https://www.leparisien.fr/sports/JO/jeux-paralympiques-la-nouvelle-zelande-renonce-a-laceremonie-douverture-par-crainte-du-covid-19-24-08-2021-SDAL22HRUJHOLGJA2WUOH3BNNE.
php

52
53

« Covid-19 : le Japon va encore étendre ses mesures sanitaires », AFP, 25/08/2021.
https://www.nouvelles-du-monde.com/les-cas-de-covid-19-lies-aux-jeux-paralympiques-detokyo-depassent-les-200-en-2-semaines/

54

https://www.forbes.fr/business/les-jeux-paralympiques-de-tokyo-signalent-la-premierehospitalisation-dun-patient-atteint-de-covid-19/

55
56

https://www.tap.info.tn/fr/Portail-Sports-FR/14350904-paralympiques-2020
https://pressfrom.info/fr/actualite/culture/-1151337-coronavirus-effraye-pour-les-rouleauxdans-tokyo.html

57

https://news-24.fr/total-de-316-cas-signales-aux-jeux-paralympiques-six-au-cours-desdernieres-24-heures/

58

https://www.aa.com.tr/fr/sport/jeux-olympiques-et-paralympiques-de-tokyo-863-cas-dinfections-à-la-covid-19-recensées/2360286

59

https://www.nouvelles-du-monde.com/le-japon-retire-16-million-de-doses-de-vaccin-covidcontre-la-peur-de-la-contamination-alors-que-la-propagation-du-covid-provoque-le-chagrin-etlanxiete-paralympique/60« Impuretés dans des vaccins Moderna au Japon : enquête ouverte après deux morts, de61« Chiffre du jour. Le Japon rappelle 1,6 million de doses du vaccin de Moderna », Courrier

nouveaux lots retirés », Libération, 28/08/2021.
International, 02/09/2021.
62« Japon : fin de partie pour l’éphémère Premier ministre Suga, plombé par sa gestion du
Covid-19 », L’Express, 03/09/2021.

63« Japon : le Premier ministre Suga abandonne la partie », Libération, 03/09/2021.

64« Entre performances et crise sanitaire, un bilan des Jeux paralympiques contrasté pour leJapon », Le Monde, 05/09/2021.

65

https://www.lesoir.be/393121/article/2021-09-05/jeux-olympiques-et-paralympiques-vu-detokyo-un-bilan-passable-sans-plus

66« Vu de Tokyo, un bilan passable, sans plus », La Meuse, 06/09/2021.
43

Journal of Paralympic Research Group vol.17
67

F. Dabadie, « Tokyo joue le jeu quand même », L’Équipe, 2408/2021, p. 10.

68

Idem.

69

C. N., « L’envol des Bleus », L’Équipe, 25/08/2021, p. 20.

70

C. Nony, « Entretenir la flamme », L’Équipe, 24/08/2021, p. 2.

71

S. Cluzel, « Sur les Jeux Paris, on a de très gros enjeux », L’Équipe, 23/08/2021, p. 30.

72

France finally won 54（11 gold, 15 silver and 28 bronze）, ranking 14th among nations. It had
obtained 28 in Rio in 2016（9 gold, 5 silver, 14 bronze）where it ranked 12th among nations.

73

S. Cluzel, « Sur les Jeux Paris, on a de très gros enjeux », L’Équipe, 23/08/2021, p. 31.

74

The article « À la recherche de la génération 2024［In search of the 2024 generation］»（L’Équipe, 23/08/2021, p. 31）is a good example of this line aiming to highlight the work ofFrench sport agencies to “allow a young generation to emerge” or “scout Paralympic
talents”.

75

Boccia is one of the 22 Paralympic competitions: a sport of precision, played with leather

76

The latter was a polio victim during infancy.

77

https://news-24.fr/le-robot-tt-facilite-par-sai-ma-aide-a-creer-lhistoire-aux-jeux-paralympiques-

78

M. Ventouillac, « Paris prend la main », L’Équipe, 06/09/2021, p. 26.

79

É. Thibois, general director of Paris 2024, reminds us that ambition is identical for both, evenballs, close to boules sports.

declare-bhavina/

if the Paralympics will be shorter（12 days against 17）, will include fewer athletes（4 500
against 10 500）and involve fewer volunteers（15 000 against 30 000）than the Olympics.
80

M. Ventouillac, « Paris prend la main », L’Équipe, 06/09/2021, p. 26.

81

C. Nony, « Hâte d’y être », L’Équipe, 06/09/2021, p. 27.

82

M. Ventouillac, « Paris prend la main », L’Équipe, 06/09/2021, p. 27.

83

Idem.

84

J.-P. Augustin et P. Gillon, Les Jeux du monde. Géopolitique de la flamme olympique, Paris,

85

R. Richard et al., « Construire et assurer l’héritage des Jeux olympiques et paralympiques.

A. Colin, 2021, p. 167.
Pour une inclusion sportive durable des personnes vivant des situations de handicap », MovSport Sci, 107, 2020, pp. 41-52.
86

J.-P. Augustin et P. Gillon, Les Jeux du monde. Géopolitique de la flamme olympique, Paris,
A. Colin, 2021, p. 185.

87

Idem, p. 186.

88

S. Ferez et al., “Inclusion through Sport: A Critical View on Paralympic Legacy from a
Historical Perspective”, Social inclusion, 8（3）,2020, DOI: 10.17645/si.v8i3.2735

44

東京1964から東京2020へ，パリ2024の視点から見たパラリンピック競技大会：
違いの尊重から技術進歩による達成へ

東京1964から東京2020へ，パリ2024の視点から見たパラリンピック競技大会：
違いの尊重から技術進歩による達成へ
シルヴァン・フェレズ（フランス・モンペリエ大学）

本稿では，1964年と2021年に開催されたそれぞれの東京パラリンピック競技大会に対するフランスの見方を検討することによって，パラリンピック競技大会および日本に対する考え方の変化を検証する。パラリンピックの名称が初めて登場した1964年の大会
は，パリから見れば，遠く離れたエキゾチックなものであった。とはいえ，フランスと日本における身体障がい者のためのスポーツという見方では，類似点も見えてくる。両国ともに，ストーク・マンデビル競技大会の創始者である神経外科医ルートヴィヒ・
グットマン博士により実現した医療機関の管理下に置かれている脊髄損傷患者を対象としていたそれまでのスポーツ競技会の変革に取り組んでいた。また，フランスも日本も，
第二次世界大戦の影響を大きく受けていたことから，すべての障がい者が等しく参加できる競技大会にしたいという退役軍人会に近い考えを持っていたのである。
2021年に開催された東京2020パラリンピック競技大会は，すべての障がい者に開かれたものにするという取り組みとして，そしてリハビリテーションではなく競技性の高い大会にするというビジョンとしての両面において，成功を遂げた。この大会がフランスからの視点ではどのように捉えられたか，二つの捉え方が指摘できる。ひとつは，厳密にスポーツとしての観点で，国の代表選手の成績とメダルの数に関するものである。もうひとつは，東京2020パラリンピック競技大会の開催に関連した問題と課題に対する反応であり，これはパリ2024大会の準備に関係してくるものである。本稿の目的は，予算の抑制，施設の改築，持続可能な開発の点において開催都市が直面せざるを得ない数々の制約に対応する上で，東京の経験を参考にすることにある。
現在，舞台裏では，パラリンピックの物質的レガシーと社会的レガシーの構想の構築が進められている。これまで20年余りにおいて，パラリンピックの開催は社会的および技術的なイノベーションにレバレッジ効果をもたらすことが求められると理解されてきた。社会的イノベーションの点では，インクルージョン（包摂）が極めて重要な価値となった。パラリンピックは，その先頭に立つことを目指すものである。課題は，1964年
45

パラリンピック研究会

紀要 vol.17

当時とは異なり，あらゆる種類の障がいを組み込むことではもはやない。今やパラリン
ピックは，違いを称える機会として捉えられており，開催都市そして国にとって，模範的コミットメントを実証する機会となるものである。

46