Diverse Aspects of the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games

Diverse Aspects of the Tokyo 2020
Paralympic Games
Gudrun Doll-Tepper（Freie Universität Berlin, Germany）

1.

Introduction

The Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games took place under extremely difficult conditions
due to the COVID-19 pandemic, as was also the case for the Tokyo 2020 Olympic
Games being organised just a few weeks before the Paralympic Games.
The following article focusses on a variety of aspects in this context through theperspective of a researcher from Germany.
In reports and comments by researchers, sport and media experts – on various
occasions – reference was made to the “International Stoke Mandeville Games inTokyo 1964”, where the term “Paralympic” was already used.
Given the significance of this event in 1964 one chapter is headlined “A historicallook back”. The following chapters give an insight into similarities and differences
regarding the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games and the Tokyo 2020 Paralympics seen
through the lens of the author.
The central aspects of this article include facts, impressions and special issues
related to the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games. For many decades, there have beenclose relations between youth sport in Germany and Japan. Already in 1964 a Germandelegation of young people participated in a youth camp（see: Horn/Mevert 1965）.
In keeping this tradition, a German Olympic Youth Camp – in close cooperation
with Japanese partners – was organised during the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games. Dueto the COVID-19 pandemic it could not be held in Tokyo, but was held in Frankfurt,
Germany, and it included young people with disabilities. Given the significance of thisevent, one chapter is dedicated to this unique youth camp, because it can also serveas an innovative concept to be realised on the occasion of future Olympic and1

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Paralympic Games in order to activate and motivate young people to get involved in
the Olympic and Paralympic Movement. Looking at the future developments of the
Paralympic Games from a broader perspective, not only are “lessons learned” fromthe 2020 Tokyo Games being presented, but also other movements and events for
persons with disabilities are being put into a bigger picture.
Closing comments highlight the enormous complexity and challenges that existed
in hosting the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games and the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Gamesand it was only possible to carry out the events because of the outstanding efforts
made by thousands of people in Tokyo, in Japan and internationally. It was only
thanks to these remarkable contributions of all these persons involved that theathletes were given the opportunity to compete at unforgettable Olympic andParalympic Games.

2.

A historical look backIn many reports in Germany on the 2020 Tokyo Paralympics reference was madeto the “World Games of the Paralysed” – at that time using the term “International
Stoke Mandeville Games Tokyo 1964”. It is interesting to note that the term
“Paralympic” was used in a written form like on this poster（fig. 1）.
Just like at the first games for athletes with a spinal cord injury in Rome 1960, thenumber of participants in Tokyo was relatively small – 370 male and female athletesFig. 1: Poster PARALYMPIC TOKYO 1964
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from 22 countries. Dr Ludwig Guttmann gave a report on “the 1964 International
Stoke Mandeville Games for the Paralysed in Tokyo”（see: Guttmann 1965, 58-61）and
focussed on medical aspects, e.g. if and how persons with paraplegia can tolerate longdistance flights and are challenged by the problem of acclimatisation. Whensummarising medical incidents he mentioned only two cases, one being a pulmonary
infection in a tetraplegic person and a British female athlete who broke an ankle, but
was even able to compete in archery with her leg in plaster and won a silver medal.
The 1964 Tokyo Paralympic Games included the following sports: archery, athletics,
dartchery, snooker, swimming, table tennis, wheelchair basketball, wheelchair fencing
and weightlifting.
Concerning media coverage, many documents highlighted that a large number ofreporters covered the Games, not staying at a Media Village but in the Athletes’ Village.
It is very interesting to compare reports such as the above mentioned article on
the Tokyo 1964 Games written by Guttmann with those published on the Tokyo 2020
Paralympic Games, e.g. regarding the impact of climate on the performance of
athletes. This issue was also discussed regarding athletes participating in the Tokyo
Olympic and Paralympic Games and a number of seminars and workshops had beenorganised in Germany in order to share information and knowledge.
Another interesting fact is that one day after the Closing Ceremony of the Tokyo
1964 Games 480 athletes from across Japan and from West Germany, the only teamfrom outside Japan, came together in Tokyo for an unofficial event – known in Japan
as “the second part of the Paralympics” （see: https://olympics.com/en/news/1964tokyo-paralympics-part-ii）. There were 36 sporting events and athletes with hearing,visual and physical impairments took part. In the Paralympics only athletes with aspinal cord injury could participate, therefore this was a unique opportunity for
persons with other kinds of disabilities to compete. The person who had taken theinitiative to bring the Paralympics to Tokyo was an orthopedic surgeon Yutaka
Nakamura. He had met Ludwig Guttmann in England at the Stoke Mandeville
Hospital and was impressed by the approach of Guttmann to include physical activity
in the rehabilitative process. He then introduced this concept in his work in Japan – atrue pioneer in sport for persons with a disability. More detailed information can befound here: Scruton （1998）, Guttmann （1976）, Bailey （2007）, Westermann （2014）,
Wedemeyer-Kolwe（2011）.
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It is interesting to note that in over 100 years of history of the Olympic Games
there have been athletes with disabilities competing in the Games（see: Deutsche
Olympische Gesellschaft 1971; Chatziefstathiou/Garcia/Séguin 2020; Legg/Fay/Wolff/
Hums 2014）. Examples are:
Ray C. Ewry, an athlete with poliomyelitis who won gold medals in the Olympic
Games in 1900 in Paris, 1904 in St. Louis and 1908 in London.
Marla Runyan, a visually impaired athlete, who participated in the 1992 Olympic
Games in Barcelona and in 1996 in Atlanta.
Natalya Partyka, an arm amputated athlete, competed in all Olympic Games from2000 in Sydney to 2016 in Rio de Janeiro.
Oscar Pistorius, a double amputated athlete, who competed in 2012 in London inboth the Olympic and Paralympic Games. There have also been other athletes withdisabilities who participated in Olympic and Paralympic Games.
Prior to the Tokyo Olympic Games the German athlete Markus Rehm had madestrong efforts to be eligible for participation in the Olympic Games. Due to a
wakeboard accident at the age of 14 he lost one leg below the knee and is using a
prosthesis. At the 2012 Paralympics in London and 2016 Paralympics in Rio deJaneiro he had won gold medals. In Germany, he is a well-known athlete who has thestrong will to become an Olympic athlete. In June 2021 at the European
Championships in Poland he made a world-record jump of 8.62 m. With this jump he
was even better than the Greek longjumper Miltiadis Tentoglou who won the gold
medal with 8.41 m at the Tokyo Olympics. However, Rehm had not been successful
with his efforts to participate in the Olympics due to decisions that were made byWorld Athletics and confirmed by the Court of Arbitration for Sports （CAS）,
published on 23 July 2021. This verdict closed the door for him to compete in the
Olympic Games in Tokyo. In interviews he stated that he was extremely disappointed
and that it was a missed opportunity to set a sign for inclusion.
The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities – UNCRPD（see:https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-ofpersons-with-disabilities.html）was adopted in 2006 and entered into force in 2008.
The Convention includes an article related to sport. Article 30 focusses on“Participation in cultural life, recreation, leisure and sport” and calls for action of4

Diverse Aspects of the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games

member states to ensure participation of persons with a disability in sport at alllevels, either in disability – specific or mainstream recreational, leisure and sporting
activities. In Germany, the discussions about the participation of Markus Rehm in theTokyo Olympics made in some cases reference to the UNCRPD. In general, however,it has to be emphasised that the implementation of the Convention in German society
is focussing on inclusion in broader terms and is high on the political agenda,
including sport at all levels.

3. Facts, Comments and Impressions – The 2020 Olympic andParalympic Games Tokyo
In reports and comments prior to the Games, various controversial issues werediscussed after the postponement in 2020. Should the Olympic and Paralympic Games
take place in 2021 under the serious COVID-19 pandemic situation? Both from the IOC
and IPC leadership, it was emphasised how important it was to carry out both Games.
IOC President Dr Thomas Bach put the athletes in the centre and argued that it isvery important for the athletes that the Olympic Games take place and that it is thetask for the media to spread the news worldwide.
IOC President Dr Bach explained at the Opening Ceremony why the Olympic
Games should take place:“This is the unifying power of sport. This is the message of solidarity, the message ofpeace and the message of resilience. This gives all of us hope for our further journey
together.” He highlighted the outstanding efforts made by the Japanese people, theJapanese authorities and the Organising Committee and expressed deep gratitude. He
addressed all the Olympic athletes, including those of the Refugee Olympic Team andhe emphasised the need to stand together. That is why the IOC had adapted the
Olympic motto to our times: “Faster, Higher, Stronger –Together”（see: IOC https://
olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-president-s-speech-tokyo-2020-opening-ceremony）.
IPC President Andrew Parsons also emphasised why the Games should take placeat the Opening Ceremony of the Paralympic Games:“Many doubted this day would happen. Many thought it impossible. But thanks tothe efforts of many, the most transformative sport event on Earth is about to begin.
… We thank our hosts for trusting we can deliver safe Games for the athletes andthe officials, but also for Japanese society. From the bottom of my heart, arigato
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Japan! Arigato, Tokyo.”（see: IPC https://paralympic.org/news/ipc-president-andrewparsons-tokyo-2020-opening-ceremony-speech）
He stressed the goal to change the entire world and announced the launch of the
WeThe15, an initiative which was spearheaded by the IPC and the International
Disability Alliance, which aims to bring a positive change in the lives of 1.2 billion
people with disabilities which make up 15% of the world’s population.
Here are some impressions from Olympic athletes of Team Germany attending theOpening Ceremony:
Very emotional comments were given by the two German flag bearers, byspringboard diver Patrick Hausding and beach volleyball player Laura Ludwig. Theyboth said that a dream had come true. The IOC had announced prior to the Tokyo
Games that each NOC was invited to select one female and one male athlete to jointly
carry their flag during the Opening Ceremony. This initiative of the IOC received
very positive reactions from German athletes as well as from the general public.
Team Germany athletes expressed satisfaction that they could participate in the
Games being fully aware of the difficult situation due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Here are some impressions from Paralympics athletes of Team Germany attending
the Opening Ceremony. Paralympic athletes from Germany were very excited thatthey were able to compete in Tokyo. The German team at the Opening Ceremony
had two flag bearers – like in the Olympics – and these were paracyclist Michael
Teuber and wheelchair basketball player Mareike Müller.
German media focussed a lot on the members of the Paralympic Refugee Team.
Here is one example:
A member of this team was Anas Al Kahlifa, a refugee from Syria, who came toGermany in 2016 and now lives in Germany. Since 2018, after an accident at work, hehas been sitting in a wheelchair. During his first training in paracanoeing his coach
told him that he would make it to Tokyo. In a newspaper interview he said with asmile: “I was confused. I didn’t know… what is this Tokyo and why should I go
there?”（see: Tagesspiegel, Berlin, 23 August 2021）. But he started to train hard andfinally qualified for the Paralympic Refugee Team in Tokyo where he competed at
the Sea Forest Waterway in two races. It is remarkable that Paralympic athletes likehim received great attention from the media and the general public which continued
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Diverse Aspects of the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Gamesduring and after the Games.
In comparing the Olympic and Paralympic Games it is impressive that in the
Olympic Games, five new sports were included: Baseball/softball, Karate, Sport
climbing, Surfing and Skateboarding. And in the Paralympic Games, two new sports
were part of the programme: Para-badminton and Para-taekwondo.
The media coverage in Germany for both the Olympic and the Paralympic Games
was quite extensive. TV sport reporters were accompanied by former Olympic andParalympic athletes respectively. For the Olympic Games Britta Heidemann, a gold
medallist in fencing, served as an expert, whereas for the Paralympic Games Matthias
Berg, a Paralympic gold medallist in skiing and athletics, Heinrich Popow, a Paralympic
athlete and gold medallist in sprint, and Kirsten Bruhn, a Paralympic gold medallist in
swimming, were involved as experts. This was an excellent way of sharing knowledge
about different sports and disciplines, including information from the inside.
Regarding the COVID-19 situation during the Olympic and Paralympic Games –from a German perspective – a comparison between the situation during the Olympic
and Paralympic Games shows clear differences: the situation during the Olympic
Games was more challenging due to the fact that we had one athlete（cyclist）who
tested positive at the beginning of the Games and could not compete. One staff
member of the German Modern Pentathlon team tested positive on the last day of
the Games and had to stay in quarantine in Japan.
In the German Paralympic team we had no COVID 19 cases.

4. Competitions and Medals – Expectations, Disappointments,
Surprises
In both the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games we encountered very emotional
stories of athletes, who shared their experiences at the Games.
Here are some examples:
At the Olympic Games it was absolutely surprising that Jonathan Hilbert won thesilver medal in the men’s 50km race walk. He was fully overwhelmed by winning thismedal and said immediately after the race: “This is also for you, Anna.” Every day forhours he had communicated with his girlfriend in Germany who strongly encouraged
and inspired him.
At the Paralympic Games many athletes shared their Paralympic special moments,
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such as Edina Müller, the paracanoeing gold medallist, who was accompanied by her
two-year old son.
Very emotional reactions were also shown by Markus Rehm, the outstanding
Paralympic athlete mentioned above, with high ambitions to also participate in the
Olympic Games in the future.
In summary, it can be said that the athletes were very thankful that the Olympic
Games and Paralympic Games took place – despite the lack of audience due to thepandemic.
134 athletes and 3 guides were part of the Paralympic Team Germany. The age of theathletes ranged from 16 years to 66 years. The youngest athlete in the German team wasLise Petersen, who participated in javelin throw and ranked in 7th place. The oldest
athlete of the German team – and of the Tokyo Paralympic Games – was a 66-year-old
female athlete, Heidemarie Dresing, who participated in dressage in her first Paralympic
Games, and she ranked in 4th place in individual freestyle and 7th in team competition.
Several athletes from the Paralympic Team Germany met great expectations, e.g.
Markus Rehm in long jump, or even exceeded expectations like Valentin Baus intable tennis, Denise Schindler in cycling, Verena Schott in swimming, Thomas
Schmidberger in table tennis, Leon Schäfer in long jump, Martin Schulz in triathlon,
Frances Hermann in javelin throw, Felix Streng in the 100m, Annika Zeyen in
handbiking, Jana Majunke in cycling, Natascha Hiltrup in shooting, Taliso Engel inswimming, Elena Krawzow in swimming, Irmgard Bensusan in swimming, Johannes
Floors in the 400m and Edina Müller in paracanoeing. These are just some examples
of medal winners of the German team. Some athletes competed as favourites, likeMarkus Rehm, and others reached a personal best and won a medal.
In some sports where expectations had been high, however, in some cases athletes
were very disappointed about their results, e.g. in goalball, in wheelchair basketball toname but a few.
Currently, the processs of analysing all results of the German Paralympic teamcontinues.
Comparisons are also made with the progress and results of other teams in order
to find out more about training opportunities, coaches training, talent identificationand talent development（TID）. International comparative studies have been carriedout during the past years（see: Radtke/Doll-Tepper 2014; Paralympics Australia 2021;
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Hutzler, Y./Higgs, C. 2016）.
Some media reports focussed on personal tragedies and less on sport performanceof the athletes. However, in general, it can be stated that the media in Germany, both
TV and online and printed newspapers, provided objective and factual information
complemented by personal stories.
In this context a special initiative, a “Paralympics Newspaper” in Berlin, needs to bementioned. Since the Paralympic Games 2004 in Athens, the Berlin newspaper “DerTagesspiegel” together with the “German Social Accident Insurance” publish a“Paralympics Newspaper” where young people with and without disabilities contributeto the contents by writing articles, producing pictures, etc. At previous Paralympic
Games the team worked on-site. However, for the Tokyo Paralympic Games this was
not possible, so they had to work from home in Berlin. The Paralympics Newspaperon 24 August 2021 included a welcome message of Chancellor Angela Merkel, who
was over many years closely linked to this very special media initiative.
From the German perspective not all expectations were met at the Tokyo 2020
Olympic and Paralympic Games（see table 1）.
Table 1: Talley tables
Olympic Games

Paralympic GamesTop 10

Top 12

1 USA
2 China
3 Japan
4 UK
5 ROC
6 Australia
7 The Netherlands
8 France
9 Germany
10 Italy

1 China
2 UK
3 USA
4 Russian PC
5 The Netherlands
6 Ukraine
7 Brazil
8 Australia
9 Italy
10 Azerbaijan
11 Japan
12 Germany

Compared to the Rio de Janeiro 2016 Olympic Games where Germany was ranked
in 5th place, and the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games where Germany ranked in 6th place,
it is clear that there existed some disappointment.
Each National Olympic Committee and National Paralympic Committee analyses in9

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detail the performances of the athletes and the results of the Tokyo Games, and compares
them with those of previous Games. From a German perspective, the rankings at
previous Olympic and Paralympic Games were clearly better than these in Tokyo, which
is now leading to a critical reflection of the German high performance approach andsystem, both with regard to the Olympic and Paralympic athletes. It can be assumed thatsimilar measures are being taken in other Olympic and Paralympic Committees in viewof the next Olympic and Paralympic Games in 2024 in Paris and beyond.

5.

Special Issues

In the following section, some special issues are addressed which were discussed inGermany:− Female athletes, pregnancy and bringing babies to the GamesAt previous Olympic and Paralympic Games there was very little – if at all –mention about athletes being pregnant or having small children.
Recently interviews have been conducted in order to identify the challenges female
athletes are facing regarding pregnancy and a sporting career at the highest level. Several
examples both at the Olympic and Paralympic Games indicated that there are more andmore top athletes who are mothers. However, the situation at the Tokyo Olympic andParalympic Games was very special due to the restrictions caused by the COVID-19
pandemic. In this context it is interesting to follow the reports of Olympic athletes Mandy
Bujold, Alison Felix and Helen Glover. Paralympic athletes also participated in the Tokyo
Games bringing with them their baby, such as the above mentioned Edina Müller.
However, they could not stay together at the village, but in a hotel outside.

− Mental health problems of Olympic and Paralympic athletes
The issue of mental health problems of elite athletes has been discussed for sometime and has been the focus of research in recent years（see: Kühnle 2019）. During theTokyo Olympic Games two prominent athletes Simone Biles, the famous gymnast fromthe USA, and Naomi Osaka, the outstanding tennis player from Japan, were facing
enormous pressure because of high expectations which they felt they could not fulfil.
Because of their enormous popularity these two individuals contributed to making
10Diverse Aspects of the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games

this issue public, a situation that might be shared by other top athletes as well. In thecontext of the Paralympic Games in Tokyo it was announced that two German
athletes could not travel to Tokyo because of mental health problems.
In some cases – based on interviews and reports – there might also be a connection
to misbehaviour of persons in contact with the athletes. This is an extremely sensitive
issue and has led in Germany to a decision that all sport organisations had to commit
themselves to implementing a plan towards fighting physical, sexual andpsychological harassment and abuse（see: DOSB-Stufenmodelll 2020）.
At this point, comments of the Olympic and Paralympic Games in Tokyo can besummarised. Despite the enormous challenges due to the COVID-19 pandemic there
was an overwhelming positive response from the athletes that they were very happy
that the Games could take place with all the support from the people in Japan. Their
contribution was highly respected and appreciated.
Particularly highlighted were the opening and the closing ceremonies – athletes
were very emotionally touched and very impressed. Many of them said that theseGames were extremely special and unforgettable.
In the context of the Olympic and Paralympic Games some discussions focussed on
the idea of organising both Games together.
As early as in the 1990’s, this issue was already addressed at the first VISTA
conference of the IPC held in Jasper, Canada in 1993, by Doll-Tepper and von Selzam（see: Doll-Tepper/von Selzam 1994）.
Reflecting the development of the Olympic and Paralympic Movement in recent
decades, it remains to be seen if the IOC and the IPC and their respective member
organisations will put this topic on the agenda of their upcoming joint meetings.
In the following section some selected themes and topics regarding the Paralympics
will be presented based on reports and observations shared by athletes, coaches,
sports officials and the media.

− Classification
Since the beginning of the Paralympic Games classification has been one of themost controversial issues. It is therefore not a surprise that also prior to and during
the Paralympic Games in Tokyo, classification was discussed from different points ofview. The IPC and the respective disability sport federations, like CP-ISRA, IBSA,
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IWAS and VIRTUS are involved in setting up the rules and regulations as well as
their implementation. The main purpose of classification is to ensure fair competitions
between people of different types and degrees of disability. In reports of German
media, issues related to classification were raised. However, given the fact that TV
stations had invited former Paralympic athletes, detailed information was given bythem to the general public and provided explanations.

− Participation of athletes with an intellectual disability/VIRTUS
In 1986 INAS-FMH, an international sport organisation for athletes with an
intellectual disability, was founded, which joined the IPC in 1989, when the IPC wasestablished. INAS-FMH was from the start a separate organisation from Special
Olympics following a different approach and philosophy. During the Sydney
Paralympic Games 2000 athletes from Spain won the gold medal in basketball,announcing at their return home that they did not have an intellectual disability. As
a result, athletes with an intellectual disability were not eligible for participation until
the 2012 Paralympic Games in London. INAS-FMH changed the name of theorganisation to INAS-FID in 1994, and after another name change in 2020, theorganisation is now called VIRTUS: World Intellectual Impairment Sport. 63 medal
events of athletes with an intellectual disability were included in the Tokyo
Paralympic Games in three sports: athletics, swimming and table tennis. 161 athletes
representing VIRTUS competed in these Games. Amongst the medal winners were
athletes from Brazil, Australia, Russian Paralympic Committee, Japan, Spain, GreatBritain, Ecuador, Ukraine, Poland, Hungary and France. However, no athlete with an
intellectual disability was sent to Tokyo from the German Paralympic Committee.
The next VIRTUS Global Games are scheduled for 4-10 June 2023 in Vichy, France,in the same year and month when the Special Olympics World Games 17-24 June
2023 will be held in Berlin, Germany.

6.

A Special Event: German Olympic Youth Camp Tokyo 2020

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic the German Olympic Youth Camp – which was
normally organised during the Olympic Summer and Winter Games – could not takeplace in Tokyo as it was originally planned. The German Olympic Youth camp has a
12Diverse Aspects of the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Gamesvery long tradition and was already organised on the occasion of the Olympic Gamesin 1964 in Tokyo. Since 1967 there has existed a formal cooperation between the“German Sport Youth” and the Japanese Sport Youth.
Ever since that time both organisations worked together, which in 1974 led to the socalled “simultaneous exchange of the German and Japanese Sport Youth”, a programmebringing together German and Japanese youth. More than 10,000 young people from
Germany and Japan have participated in this intercultural exchange so far.
Based on these close relations it was planned to organise the German Olympic
Youth Camp together with their Japanese counterparts, the Japan Junior Sport Clubs
Association（JJSA）, as a German-Japanese Youth Camp in Tokyo.
Preparations in Germany were carried out by the “German Sport Youth” which ispart of the “German Olympic Sports Confederation” – the umbrella sport organisationin Germany – and the “German Olympic Academy” which focusses on activities
related to the Olympic Movement and produces teaching material for primary andsecondary schools prior to Olympic and Paralympic Games, entitled: “Olympia is
calling: Join in”. Here is an example of the cover of the teaching material:
42 young people met in Frankfurt from 29 July to 5 August 2021 in the camp from Japan, 30 young people attended the programme.
This included a variety of sporting activities, workshops and a digital intercultural
exchange. One key topic which was addressed by both groups was sustainability.

Fig. 2: Teaching material “Olympia is calling: Join in” by the German Olympic
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Fig. 3: German Olympic Youth Camp in cooperation with JJSA

Despite the geographical distance, young people experienced interactively insights
into the Olympic Movement, and got an impression of the culture and traditions of
the other country. Part of the German group were three young persons with adisability who shared their experiences as young athletes with a disability, thus
making a connection to the Paralympic Games. In addition, lectures and workshops
were offered by representatives of the sport organisations highlighting developments
and activities in the area of “Sport and Inclusion”, a topic which is one of the key
themes in sport and in society in general.

7.

Future of the Paralympics

The focus is now placed on the next Paralympic Games in 2022 in Beijing, in 2024
in Paris and beyond.
Currently, preparations are moving quickly for the upcoming Winter Olympic andParalympic Games in Beijing in February and March 2022.
Due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic situation, strict rules and regulations will
apply for all athletes, coaches, team officials as well as for the members of theorganising committee and other staff. It is important that “lessons learned” at theTokyo Olympic and Paralympic Games will serve as a blueprint for the next Games.
Also, athletes in winter sports have experienced competitions and qualifications
during the past months which were organised under severe health restrictions.
From a German perspective, preparations for both the Olympic and Paralympic
Games are well underway. The current relationship between the IOC and the IPC
14

Diverse Aspects of the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Gamesseems to be functioning well. Regarding the next Summer Olympic and Paralympic
Games in 2024 in Paris, it can be observed that enormous efforts are being made by
the organisers to closely link the Olympic Games to the Paralympic Games.
Due to the fact that I had an opportunity to follow the media for some time inFrance during the Paralympic Games in Tokyo, it was very impressive how muchmedia coverage existed on TV. Similar to the television broadcasting in Germany,
Paralympic athletes were involved sharing explanations about classification, different
kinds of disabilities, and rules of sport disciplines to name but a few.
Regarding the preparations for Paris 2024, many initiatives exist which indicate theambition of the organisers to give Para athletes even more visibility and recognition.
Tony Estanguet, President of the Paris 2024 Organising Committee, said that Paris2024 is convinced that sport can be a powerful driver of social inclusion, selfacceptance and openness to others. He expressed this in the context of officiallysubmitting a request for the creation of Paralympic emojis（see: Mackay 2021）.
It has been announced that the organising committee plans to make the city ofParis a big Olympic and Paralympic Park. Efforts are also being made to engage withthe general public and to implement a school-based programme with an Olympic andParalympic week which will be organised every year. It has also been announced
that the organisers wish to reach out to cities and regions all over France and notjust to the cities where the competitions will take place. This initiative has alreadystarted under the label “Terre de Jeux”. It is also planned to take the opening
ceremony out of the Stade de France and on to the streets. One of main goals is toensure accessibility to venues and events for people with disabilities based oncommon standards. Following up on the reports and announcements being made by
the organisers of the Paris 2024 Olympic and Paralympic Games, it is evident thatthey try to break new ground.
Hopefully, the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic will be successful so that theplans can become reality. Concerning the future of the Paralympic Movement
including the Paralympic Games, it is noteworthy that new directions have started inTokyo with the launch of the WeThe15, which might develop a unique momentum asa global movement that goes far beyond sports and is directed towards social change
and the creation of more opportunities for persons with disabilities in all parts of theworld. These innovative developments are closely connected to issues of Paralympic
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legacies which have been addressed by researchers for several years（see: Legg/
Gilbert 2011）.
In discussing historical and current developments of the Paralympic Movement
and Paralympic Games, it is also important to focus on international sport events for
persons with disabilities which are linked to international organisations.

− The Deaflympics
Already established in 1924 in Paris, the “Comité des Sports des Sourds”（CISS） held their first Summer Games there and started to organise WinterGames in 1949 in Seefeld, Austria. CISS changed their French acronym into
“International Committee for the Deaf”（ICSD）. Every four years, Summer andWinter Games are held, including many of the Olympic Sports. Their logo
symbolises strong bonds between deaf people using their own form ofcommunication, sign language. When in 1989 the International Paralympic
Committee （IPC） was established, the ICSD joined the IPC. However, theydecided to leave the organisation in 1995, because they wanted to keep their own
Games and not to be absorbed.
Until today, ICSD keeps Summer and Winter Deaflympics as events of theirown.

− The Special Olympics
The Special Olympics Movement started in the 1960’s in the United States. It
was founded by Eunice Kennedy-Shriver to encourage persons with intellectual
disabilities to practise sport and take part in competition. The first Special
Olympics Games were held in 1969 in Chicago. Since then the Special Olympics
Movement has grown tremendously, and the Special Olympics World Games are
now one of the biggest sport events worldwide. The last Special Olympics World
Winter Games were held in 2017 in Austria with 2700 athletes participating in 27
events（9 sports）.
Abu Dhabi hosted the last Special Olympics World Summer Games in 2019with more than 7000 athletes participating. Currently, preparations are underway
for the Special Olympics World Winter Games 2021, which had to be postponeddue to the COVID-19 pandemic to January 2023. The host city will be Kazan in
16

Diverse Aspects of the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games

Russia. The next Special Olympics World Summer Games will be organised in
Berlin, Germany in 2023 with a strong focus on inclusion（see: Special Olympics
World Games Berlin 2023: https://www.berlin2023.org）.

− Invictus GamesThe first Invictus Games were held in 2014 in London based on the initiative of
the Invictus Games Foundation and the Duke of Sussex, who had visited theWarrior Games in the United States of America in 2012. Participants arewounded, injured and sick servicemen and servicewomen. Following the Gamesin London, Orlando, USA（2016）, Toronto, Canada（2017）, and Sydney, Australia（2018）were hosts of the Invictus Games. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic thenext Games had to be postponed and are now being planned to be in The Hague,
The Netherlands, in 2022 and in Düsseldorf, Germany, in 2023. It remains to be
seen in which way these Games will develop and if they will stay separate fromthe IPC and the Paralympic Movement.
It is interesting to note that several organisations have been established over the
past decades offering sport competitions for persons with different kinds ofdisabilities, in events only for persons with a disability. The Special Olympics
Movement – during the past years – has taken a different approach and offers sportcompetition for athletes with intellectual disabilities only and competitions in so-called“unified sports”, for athletes with and without disabilities. In this context, it needs tobe emphasised that the sport structures differ a lot from country to country and thatsome of the above mentioned organisations are part of the National Olympic
Committees/National Olympic and Sport Confederations or are separate bodies
besides the national sport organisations（see: Doll-Tepper/Tiemann 2021）.

8.

Closing Comments

Never before in history had Olympic and Paralympic Games been organised undersuch serious conditions and circumstances as the 2020 Tokyo Games due to the
COVID-19 pandemic. Already in 2020, the decision had to be taken to postpone bothGames to 2021. Discussions continued at local, national and international levels
17Journal of Paralympic Research Group vol.17

regarding the meaningfulness and justifiability of organising such mega sports events
under pandemic conditions. Discussions included very controversial positions inJapan, in Germany and worldwide. Finally, the decision was taken to carry out bothGames under strict health rules and regulations.
From a retrospective view it can be stated that this decision was perceived in apositive way by the Olympic and Paralympic athletes and by their respective
international bodies, the IOC and the IPC.
In Germany, several surveys were carried out in order to give the athletes a voice
and make their positions an integral part of important decisions in German sport.
During and after the Tokyo Olympic and Paralympic Games, discussions continued
regarding the health risks for the athletes and their entourage and about healthdangers for the Japanese hosts. No general final answer was given. However, certain
expectations are directed towards the future of mega sports events, not only underpandemic conditions, but regarding essential requirements for the future. Key aspects
for bidding and hosting mega sports events include a clear commitment of all persons
and entities involved to make sure that all relevant measures are being implemented
towards sustainability and the prevention of the worst impacts of climate change.
The IOC and the IPC have expressed their dedication to tackle this issue and to takea lead in a global action plan.
Both organisations, the IOC and the IPC, as well as the organising committees for2022 Beijing, 2024 Paris, 2026 Cortina d’Ampezzo and 2028 Los Angeles will be
evaluated regarding keeping their promises in this respect, and it would be advisableto base their work on the knowledge and experiences of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic andParalympic Games.
On a final note, regarding both Games, athletes, coaches, and other members of theGerman teams expressed their thankfulness and gratitude to the hosts in Tokyo andin Japan for their kindness and support in welcoming our athletes in such a respectfulmanner despite the unfortunate and challenging circumstances.
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Chatziefstathiou, D./Garcia, B./Séguin, B.（Eds.）（2020）.Routledge Handbook of the Olympic
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Deutsche Olympische Gesellschaft （Eds.）（1971）. Olympisches Lesebuch. Schroedel:
Hannover, 2nd revised edition.
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4

Doll-Tepper, G./Tiemann, H. （2021）. Deaflympics – Paralympics – Special Olympics: Die
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DOSB （2020）. DOSB-Stufenmodell zur Prävention und zum Schutz vor sexualisierter
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15Legg, D./Gilbert, K.（Eds.）（2011）. Paralympic Legacies. Human Kinetics: Champaign.

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Mackay, D.（2021）. Paris 2024 officially submits request for creation of Paralympic emojis.
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Coach Webinar 20 March 2021.

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Radtke, S./Doll-Tepper, G.（2014）. A cross-cultural comparison of talent identification anddevelopment in Paralympic sports – Perceptions and opinion of athletes, coaches andofficials. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287491912_A_cross-cultural_comparison_of_talent_identification_and_development_in_Paralympic_sports_Perceptions_and_opinions_of_athletes_coaches_and_officials, retrieved 1 December 2021.

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19パラリンピック研究会

紀要 vol.17

東京2020パラリンピック競技大会の多様な側面について
グドルン・ドルテッパー（ドイツ・ベルリン自由大学）

本稿では，新型コロナウイルス感染症パンデミックのため極めて困難で挑戦的な条
件・環境下で開催された東京2020パラリンピック競技大会のさまざまな側面に焦点を当てる。
東京2020オリンピック競技大会も，同様の困難な問題を抱えるなか，パラリンピックに先行して実施されたが，賛否両論を引き起こした。こうしたメガスポーツ・イベントを開催・主催することの意義や正当性について，さまざまな問題・課題が日本，ドイツをはじめ世界各国で議論された。主導組織である国際オリンピック委員会（IOC）と国
際パラリンピック委員会（IPC）は，責任担当諸機関・組織と連携して，厳格な保健規則・制限の下で両競技大会を開催することを最終的に決定した。
本稿では，東京2020オリンピック・パラリンピック競技大会に対する全体的な認識においてどのような側面が特に注目されたかについて，ドイツの一研究者の立場から詳細に検証する。本稿第一部では，1964年に東京で開催され，早くも「パラリンピック」という名称が使用される大会となった「第13回国際ストーク・マンデビル競技大会」に特に焦点を当てる。東京2020オリンピック・パラリンピック競技大会に関しては，オリンピック選手およびパラリンピック選手の考えを考慮に入れると，特定の類似点と相違点がいくつか確認できる。オリンピックおよびパラリンピックのドイツ選手団の成績や結果に対する期待と実績などの主題を明示し，批判的に考察する。ドイツ人の視点から言えば，例えば選手のメンタルヘルスの問題，オリンピック競技大会への障がいのある選手の参加，パラリンピックスポーツにおけるクラス分けなど，スポーツ界においてのみ
ならずメディアによっても議論された特定の問題がいくつか挙げられる。
本稿ではまた，パラリンピック・ムーブメントおよびパラリンピック競技大会にとどまらず障がい者スポーツの過去および現在の動向についても取り上げる。
さらに，ドイツと日本のスポーツ，とりわけユーススポーツにおいては，緊密な関係が存在することから，ドイツ・オリンピック・ユースキャンプ東京2020およびオリン20

東京2020パラリンピック競技大会の多様な側面について

ピック期間中の青少年のオンライン交流について報告するとともに，パラリンピックス
ポーツの動向，障がい者と健常者のための包摂的なアプローチについても考察する。
東京2020オリンピック・パラリンピック競技大会が終了した今，私たちは皆，どのような教訓を得たのかを自問する必要がある。東京2020と同様にパンデミックの課題に立
ち向かいながら北京2022オリンピック・パラリンピック冬季競技大会に向けて，さらにはパリ2024オリンピック・パラリンピック競技大会，そしてそれ以降に向けての準備が進められている。
将来のメガスポーツ・イベントの重要な側面として挙げられるのは，すべての当事者が負うべき責務として，サステナビリティ（持続可能性），および気候変動の最悪の影
響の予防を考慮し，またそれらのための対策を実施することが含まれる。来るオリン
ピック・パラリンピック競技大会に向けて，IOC および IPC は，気候変動への対応に全力で取り組み，グローバルなアクションプランにおいて先導的役割を果たすことを表明している。

21