South Pacific Studies Vol.33, No.1, 201253

Materials

From Plantation Forestry to the Pulp and Paper Industry:
A Case Study of Vietnam
HIDAYAT Herman1, KONO Yasuyuki2 and LE Xuan Phuong3

1: Research Center for Society and Culture, Researcher of Indonesian Institute of
Sciences, Gatot Subroto Street No. 10, Jakarta 12710, Indonesia
e-mail: hidayat.herman98@yahoo.com
2: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, 46 Shimoadachi-cho,
Yoshida Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501 Japan
3: Vietnam Forestry University, Xuanmai town, Hatay, Vietnam

Abstract
This study aims to discuss plantation forestry and the pulp and paper industry. The writer applies
research methodology using ‘political ecology’ analysis which emphasizes stakeholders’ movement (therole of government, private sector, local community, NGOs, and academics) and their responses from theviewpoint of economic reform, forest policy, forest land distribution and concession, contract farming, andthe incentive of economics on plantation forestry and the pulp and paper industry. The research site wascarried out to interview several informants and stakeholders from government offices, the private sector,
academics, NGOs and households who are active in managing forestry and developing pulp and paper in
Hanoi, Phu Tho Province and Phu Ninh District.
Key words: economic incentive, land tenure, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD),
plantation forestry, political ecology, pulp and paper industry.

Introduction
Generally, the forestry sector is categorized in the agricultural sector in Vietnam(HIEU 2004: 87). In the reform period from 1989 to 2001, Vietnam had high GDP
growth of about 7.1% annually and the role of agriculture in creating employment
in rural communities was significant. As shown in Table 1, in this period the growthrate of the agricultural sector remained stable at an average of 3-5%, while the growthrate in the industry sector was higher, at about 8-14%. From this stable and highgrowth in both sectors, the economic structure of Vietnam gradually shifted into
Received: 29 June, 2012
Accepted: 18 September, 2012

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Table 1. Annual growth rates of industrial and agricultural sector GDP and rural population sharein Vietnam 1990-2001.
Year
1990
1991

Industrial growth(%)
2.27
7.71

Agricultural growth(%)
1.00
2.18

Population(%)
80.5
80.5

1992

12.79

6.88

80.1

1993

12.62

3.28

80.0

1994

13.39

3.37

78.9

1995

13.60

4.80

80.0

1996

14.46

4.40

78.9

1997

12.62

4.33

77.3

1998

8.33

3.53

76.9

1999

7.68

5.23

76.4

2000
2001

10.07
10.32

4.64
2.79

75.8
75.2

Source: General Statistic Organization (2003) and HIEU (2004: 86).

‘industrialization’, which is addressed via the reduction of the agricultural sector
contribution to GDP from 33.1% to 23.6% in 2001 (HIEU 2004: 86).
The main social implication from the reform period was a dramatic reduction in
the poverty rate. The expenditure per capita below the poverty line fell from 70% in
the mid 1980s to 58% in 1993 and to 37% in 1998. Vietnam is one of the few countries
that have succeeded in the twin objectives of increasing the growth rate and reducing
poverty. However over 75% of the population lives in rural areas (Table 1), and about
three-quarters of the rural labor force work in the agriculture and forestry sector, of
which about 25 million people rely on non-timber forest products for their livelihoods.1
Therefore, the establishment of plantation forestry to supply the pulp and paperindustry in the district is very significant for job creation among rural communities. On
the other hand, development of the industrial sector has mainly focused on low jobcreation fields; hence this plantation forestry sector is strong enough to attract surplus
workers from rural areas (CENTRAL INSTITUTE FOR ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT 1999:
27). As a consequence, the slow movement of workers from rural to urban areas anddeclining contribution of agriculture to GDP have led to a widening of the income gap
between urban and rural workers, and 90% of the poor now live in rural areas (FAO
1999).
In Vietnam, all forests are owned by the state under the management of the
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD). The Department of Forestry(DoF), which is under the MARD, has the authority to manage and issue regulations
regarding forests. It emphasizes in articles 22, 24 and 26, Decree No. 108/2006NDCP on 22/9/2006, detailed regulations and guidelines for the implementation of thelaw on investment. Forest rent is stipulated in Decree number 23/2006/NS-CP, dated
1 See CENTRAL INSTITUTE FOR ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT (1999) and HIEU (2004: 87).

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55

03/3/2006, and concerns the implementation of the law on protection and forest
development in 2004. The DoF is to allocate production forests through timber
concessions for three main actors, namely private companies, state enterprises andindividuals or households (under cooperatives). The government provides incentives
to the private sector in the form of easier procedures for obtaining timber concessions,and easier access to financial institutions and tax holidays for the import of machineries
for establishing the pulp industry. According to a government officer, the government
also provides subsidies to households and individual farmers for planting trees by
proving seedlings and fertilizer, with the aim of actively engaging farmers in planting
trees (Interview March 5, 2010). As a result, the programs eventually lead to a boost in
economic development and job creation in rural communities.
Generally, land tenure for the private sector is provided for 50 years, with apossibility of extension based on the stakeholder’s performance. The size of land
private companies could obtain ranges from 5,000-10,000 hectares, for households
from 10-30 hectares and for individual farmers 2-5 hectares. The regulation the timber
concession sizes, monitoring and penalties are managed by the DoF at the provincial
level, because management was decentralized.
According to a MARD report, nearly 8.8 million hectares of forest (50%) havebeen allocated to various targets, of which 2.61 million hectares (29.7 percent of thearea allocated) have been allocated to 450,000 households. An additional 50,000
households have received a total of over 1.86 million hectares of forest on contract
for State Forest Enterprises, protection and special-use forest management, as well as
foreign companies or joint venture companies (DO DINH SAM and LE QUANG TRUNG
2003: 161).
The paper focuses on plantation forestry and the pulp and paper industry fromthe viewpoint of Eucalyptus plantation development in Vietnam, the response fromstakeholders (government, private sector, and local community) on plantations, aswell as working with households, individuals and cooperative sectors to provide
timber supply. Finally, the discussion reviews timber consumption demand and thedevelopment of the pulp and paper industry from the 1980s to the 2000s. This researchfinding could contribute a valuable lesson among other insular regions of Southeast
Asia including Indonesia.

Study Sites and Methodology
This study utilizes ‘political ecology’ as an analytical framework whichemphasizes the stakeholder’s movement (the role of government, private sector, local
farmers, NGOs and academics). We must clarify, what political ecology means. Many
scientists (BLAIKE and BROOKFIELD 1987, BRYANT et al. 1993, PETERSON 2000, LYE
et al. 2003) define it differently. BLAIKE and BROOKFIELD (1987) note that “political
ecology is a framework to understand the complex interrelation between local people,

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national and global political economies and ecosystem.” In this context, political
ecology is a framework to approach to the subjects mentioned. It is a generic term
used for field research connecting two types of study by bringing the point of view ofpolitics into the study of environmental disruption. It includes a small-scaled study
centered on local society (e.g., cultural anthropology, sociology) and a large scaled
study from a national to global standpoint (e.g., politics and political economy).
The field work was carried out in March 2010 in Hanoi with two government
officers, two officers of Research Institute of Pulp and Paper Industry (RIPPI), twomembers of Vietnam Pulp and Paper Association, two academics and two NGOs
staff. Meanwhile, the field study sites were located in Phu Tho Province, Phu Ninh
District (Fig. 1). In-depth interviews were with informants such as two officers of the
Department of Forestry in Phu Tho, two Vinapaco officers, two officers of the ResearchInstitute of Vinapaco and six local farmers.

Fig. 1. Vietnam, where field work is located Phu Tho Province.

Phu Tho Province was chosen to carry out field research. Phu Tho Province has
an integrated allocation model for the establishment of cooperatives for planting trees
and State Forest Enterprises using “contract farming” with farmers and households,
such as Vinapaco and Bapaco. According to a Phu Tho Province forestry officer, theannual budget of the government office covers 1 billion VND to manage forests,
plant trees and conduct monitoring (Interview, March 5, 2010). The amount of forest
registered is 353,261 hectares in Phu Tho Province.2 The DoF in this province has
given 195,000 hectares for timber concessions to households and 144,000 hectares toprivate companies. In case of the State Forest Enterprises, represented by BAPACO, it
has received 60,000 hectares for plantations. The area is divided into 50,000 hectares
2 Forest area in Phu Tho Province is categorized very limited compared with other northeastern provinces such as Cao
Bang 672,462 ha and Lang Son 830,348 ha (DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY 2008).

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57

where BAPACO cooperates with households and has established cooperatives, while
the remaining 10,000 hectares is owned by VINAPACO3 for planting trees.
Under the 661 projects policy, the government is obliged to implement sustainable
forest management. The national budget to cover 661 projects is 20 billion VND,
with a target of planting 10 million hectares of trees located in production, protected
and special use forests. In case of Phu Tho, sustainable forest management is being
implemented with the planting of 17,000 hectares of trees in special-use forest and33,000 in protected forests. The purpose of planting trees in protected forests is aimed
at forest conservation, reducing soil erosion and protecting biodiversity. The districts
within Phu Tho Province have the responsibility to monitor plantations, while theprovince levels functions as a general manager.

Results and Discussion
Eucalyptus plantation development
The Vietnamese forestry sector has never in its history witnessed such an active
participation of the people at large (farmers, the cooperative sector, private companies,etc.) as during these last 10 years (1990s) in Eucalyptus plantations. The driving factorsof this are: (1) Vietnam launched a strategy to recover denuded hill areas for planting
trees and forest conservation. The effort in tree planting in the northern provinces
started in 1975; (2) the government has enabled foreign investors to actively engage inplantation forestry to provide timber for forestry industries and conservation as well.
This policy brought about a positive response from foreign companies and NGOs
to conduct tree planting and (3) economic reform in Vietnam shifted from centrally
planned systems to mechanisms oriented to a market economy (liberal trade). The
main target in the forestry sector has been the application of a policy of land and forest
allocation for farmers, households, the cooperative sector, and private companies. This
scheme leads to encouragement of stakeholders to aim for a better socio-economic lifein the future (TRAN 1993).
Since their development in 1985, Eucalyptus plantations have been developing
nation-wide from north to south under two methods of establishment. The first areconcentrated industrial plantations, which have been carried out by private companies
and State Forest Enterprises. The second are scattered tree planting practices, whichhave been conducted by households, farmers, cooperative sector, people’s leagues, etc.
The areas planted with Eucalyptus have become larger than any planted with othertree species, such as Manglietia glauca, Pinus spp, Styrax tonkinensis, Tectora grandis,
etc. According to a DoF officer, most local tree species are prioritized for planting inprotected forests because they absorb much water and it is better for conservation andprotection from soil erosion. Meanwhile, Eucalyptus trees, as fast growing trees, areplanted in production forests to provide timber for the pulp and paper industry (interview
3 VINAPACO is also State Forest Enterprise, whose major task is providing for planting trees for Bai Bang Paper
Company.

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March 9, 2010).
It seems that Eucalyptus plantations have been playing a significant role inproviding timber for the pulp and paper industry, with about 77,291 hectares planted
over the period 1986-1990. As an illustration, for the period 1986-1990, 303,486
hectares of plantations of all species were established; 50% by State Forest Enterprises
and 50% by other entities such as private companies, farmers and households and
165,000 scattered trees (equivalent to 1,020,000 hectares, counted on the basis of 2,000
trees for 1 hectare) planted. According to MARD, it is estimated that over 50-60% of
the full plantation area was planted with Eucalyptus (300,000-400,000 hectares) and
70-80% of the scattered tree areas were planted with Eucalyptus (700,000-800,000
hectares) (TRAN 1993). Data on Eucalyptus plantation areas established by state-owned
enterprises during the period 1986-1990 are outlined in Table 2.
Table 2. Eucalyptus plantation area 1986-1990 (ha).
Species

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

Total

All tree

99280

64477

63262

35637

40830

303486

Eucalyptus

18084

7058

15045

17104

20000

77291

Source: 30 years (1961-1990) of Forestry Development; the Department of Forestry, 1991.

The above shows that State Forest Enterprises are categorized as the lowest in theplanting of Eucalyptus, as they are located in mountainous areas in which Eucalyptus
is not possible. However, the trend is towards more Eucalyptus plantings in State
Forest Enterprises, such as in the central northern zone, coastal midlands of the northeast, coastal hillsides of northern central Vietnam, coastal hillsides of central Vietnam,
southeastern Vietnam and southwestern Vietnam.
Main species used
Some 30-40 Eucalyptus species have been introduced into Vietnam, but inalmost all areas only one species, namely Eucalyptus camaldulensis, from Petford
District (Australia) has been used for practical plantations. In its development, E.
tereticornis has also been used for some small plantations in the northern Vietnam
and more extensively in the central and southern Vietnam. E.urophilla has shown
good performance on some degraded hillsides of the northern Vietnam, as it wasrecommended by experts from the Forest Research Center (FRC) in Phu Tho to be
most appropriate for infertile land (Interview, March 10, 2010). On the other hand, E.
exserta is popular and used for fuel production by the people in the northern midlands.
The main weakness of the Eucalyptus plantation program in Vietnam is that only
E.camaldulensis has been used and the seeds only come from the district of Petford,
Australia. Meanwhile, the plantation program in Vietnam relies only on a few tree
species and provenance, in particular on Eucalyptus (TRAN 1993).
Which lands can be planted with E. urophylla and Acacia mangium? Based on

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59

an investigation carried out by Do Dinh Sam, General Director of Institute of Tropical
Forest Research and Development, farmers should plant Acacia mangium in good soil
conditions and E. urophylla in degraded soil (DO DINH SAM 2006), because Acacia
mangium has bigger leaves, with an open crown, therefore the sunlight can directly
penetrate the soil, eventually affecting soil fertility in the future. Therefore, Acacia
mangium and Acacia hybrids have only been planted in southern Vietnam. In contrast, E.
urophylla, which has smaller leaves, does not affected soil negatively, then eventually
the hurmus content in the soil will grow. This natural forest process will improve
previously degraded soil, helping it to become fertile again.
The response from stakeholders
The government
The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) plays a significant
role in the managing of forest resources, the agricultural sector and rural developmentin Vietnam. At the central level, MARD is responsible for the administration of forestry
resources, giving land concessions to the private sector, land distribution to household
farmers and managing land functions as production, protection and special use forests.4
The model used for encouraging rural communities to manage and develop
protected and special-use forests is called “the benefit-sharing policy”. In 2001, theprime minister issued two significant decisions on the management of natural forestsand benefit-sharing covering: (1) the rights of households who sign contracts forand invest in protection forests. This regulation highlights that households have an
obligation to plant, protect and regenerate forests, in accordance with the contracts
signed with the forest management boards. As a reward, households have the right tocollect fuel wood and non-wood forest products under the forest canopy (20 percent
in timber forests; 30 percent in bamboo forests) and 85 to 90 percent of harvested
products, after tax) and (2) special-use forests. The forest owners (households orindividuals) are allowed to conduct harvesting, research and ecological tourism
activities in accordance with the laws and regulations.
In brief, the benefit sharing policy deals with protected, special-use and watershed
forests. It is significant in supporting forest conservation and improving the socioeconomic condition of rural communities in Vietnam. Hence, the response from people,
especially households, has been positive and they have actively engaged with theprogram.
After the allocation of forest land, cooperative relationships in forest production
have arisen in many districts. The implication for the social participation ofcommunities has been great. Many households took the initiative and invested capitaland labor to organize production activities, such as tree planting, protecting andpracticing agro forestry. Below are some examples of what activities households haveparticipated in:4 The decree divides special-use forests into: (1) national parks, (2) natural reserves, sub-divided into natural reserves andfauna and flora habitat reserves, and (3) historical, cultural and environmental relics or landscape-protected areas, see DE
JONG et al. (2006).

60South Pacific Studies Vol.33, No.1, 2012a) In Yen Bai Province, 9,500 farms combining forestry and agriculture have been
established, representing 11.9 percent of the total farming households in theprovince;b) In Lao Cai Province, 1,500 farms producing annual revenues of 15 to 20 million
VND each (US$1,200 to $1,600).5 Every farm has an average of three hectaresof fruit trees or industrial crops;c) In Thanh Hoa Province, over 13,000 households are engaged in forest gardens
and forest farm production. The area of each farm is about five to ten hectares,
with an annual income of 5 to 20 million VND per farm;d) Many households that were allocated land that included denuded hillsides ordepleted natural forests have planted trees and are able to produce enoughfirewood and timber for their own use. This effort made significant contributions
to forest conservation, protecting biodiversity and the environment, soil
improvement and much more (Ibid).
The government provides credit for stakeholders to plant trees as forest resources
are considered strategic commodities to be exported as paper products. In the caseof 195,000 hectares of planted trees, Vinapaco Company provides credit, seedlings,
fertilizer, technical assistance, training and a guaranteed market for timber products
to households, the cooperative sector and farmers. The company issued 10-15 million
VND per hectare in the form of seedlings, fertilizer and maintenance until harvesting
after 8 years. Tree planting started from 2008 in Phu Tho and will be harvested after 8
years (in 2016).
Plantation forestry, launched as a national policy to provide timber supply for theforestry industry, is located in production forests, the Department of Forestry (DoF)
and the Department of Forest Protection are MARD’s agencies tasked with focusing onforest administration.
The organizational structure of Vietnam’s forest sector administration has four
administrative levels: the central/national level, provincial level, district level andcommune level. At present, Vietnam has 64 provinces, about 600 districts and 10,000
communes. All administrative levels are under the control of the state.
DoF in Phu Tho working with cooperatives
The role of the provincial DoF in protected, special-use and community forests
is significant because the DoF has an annual budget for conservation forests from thecentral government. The DoF has a program to actively engage households to plant
trees through 48 cooperatives that manage households to actively participate in tree
plantation in Phu Tho Province. One of these, “cooperative X”, in Phu Nich Village, Tu
Da Sub-District, and Phu Ninh District, manages 18 households that own around 0.75-1
hectare each.
The 661 projects scheme obliges all households to plant trees to fulfill a target of
5 One U.S dollar was equivalent to about 12,000-13,000 VND in 2003, but in March 2010 one U.S dollar reached 19,000
VND.

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61

5 million hectares of new forests. The regulation requires the following of households
involved in the scheme: (1) the management of land under the scheme must be
conducted by a cooperative consisting of several households; (2) the size of land
must be at least 1-2 hectares per household; (3) the DoF officer will check the statusof the land in order to obtain government subsidies, such as 1,600/per hectare of freeseedlings and fertilizer.
The land registered for the project is 16 hectares and was initially planted in 2009in Phu Nich Village. According to Nguyen Ngoc Than,6 head of the cooperative, theprogram has had 3 positive impacts: (1) by planting fast growing trees in 2009, suchas Eucalyptus urophylla, they are preventing soil erosion and protecting biodiversity;(2) the farmers get the profit from timber harvests after 7 years, estimated to occur in
2016; and (3) it will improve the socio-economic condition of the local community inthe future (Interview, March 9, 2010).
However, there are some constraints faced by households in developing tree
plantations:1) There is no guaranteed market for the timber. Until now, no company has
provided a guaranteed market for their timber. In this case, the role of the DoF
as mediator between households and companies such as Vinapaco and Bapaco
is necessary;2) They need more seedlings and fertilizer for households, requiring assistancefrom financial institutions, such as banks, aside from the DoF;
3) They also require expert guidance for better performance of the plantation; and
4) The commitment of member households within the cooperative must be improved,
following the regulations on attending regular meetings to solve theirproblemsand innovate planting in the future.
State Forest Enterprises
Vinapaco Company focuses on plantation forestry. The company is the second
largest State Forest Enterprise (Fig. 2), after Bapaco Company. The main task of thecompany is to provide chip wood as raw material for Bai Bang Company. According toVu Ngoc Pha, Manager of Silviculture for Vinapaco, the company created opportunities
for the plantations and household farmers under the contract farming scheme in many
districts. This scheme engages 30 households and the profit agreed by both parties
is 50% for the household and 50% for company at harvest time. The company also
contracts independent farmers to purchase their timber, while the company’s own
plantations total 80,490 hectares. The timber concessions are enough to last about
50 years and could be extended again, based on the company’s performance. The
company pays tax of 4% for land use and the government provides special treatment
for Vinapaco of only 6.9% interest per annum to the government bank in order be able
to accumulate capital for planting trees in huge areas.
6 Nguyen Ngoc Than was born in 1951 and is a retired Vietnam soldier from the 1960-1970s war with America. He waselected head of the cooperative in Phu Nich because of his leadership qualities and wisdom.

62South Pacific Studies Vol.33, No.1, 2012

Fig. 2. Profile of Vinapaco Company in Phu Ninh District.

According to an officer of Vinapaco, there are some constraints to the developmentof the company:
1) The limitation of the production of forest land in Vietnam. The company cannot
expand within Vietnam, so must expand in neighboring countries such as Laosand Cambodia;2) Disputes with local farmers such as those who had been occupying the landpreviously, although they had no certificate from the provincial DoF;
3) Contracting with households at the district level is sometimes difficult becausehouseholds sometimes use the land for agricultural purposes rather thanplantations; and4) Lack of sufficient capital to expand plantations. Therefore, a relationship withbanks and other institutions such as the stock exchange is necessary in order toobtain fresh capital.
Vinapaco functions as a Forest Research Center (FRC) in Phu Tho in order beable to produce better quality seedlings. The FRC cooperates with the Australian
Centre for Agricultural Research (ACIAR) and the Swedish International Development
Agency (SIDA) with funding and research in order to develop quality seedlings. The
research findings highlighted Eucalyptus urophylla (PN2) and Acacia mangium as theplants most suitable for the soil and climate in northern Vietnam (Fig. 3). Also, FRC
developed and produced 3 million seeds of local trees such as Sua, Cho Chi, Tramtrang, Moraceae, Carabian, Mercury and Masrina. These local trees were orderedby the provincial DoF and distributed in protected forest areas for the purpose ofconservation. The production of commercial trees reached 4 million VND annually in
2009, growing again to 5.5 million seeds annually between 2011 and 2012. Seeds forthe domestic market reached 75 percent, and 25 percent were exported. The domestic
market is mainly companies, households and farmers planting for commercial use,
as well as the 661 projects (see above). The export market of seeds is largely forHERMAN et al.: From Plantation Forestry to the Pulp and Paper Industry: A Case Study of Vietnam

63

Taiwanese investors in forest plantations in Vietnam and Cambodia (50,000-60,000
Acacia mangium seeds annually). The cost of seedlings is 700 VND/seed for E.
urophylla, and the price for Acacia mangium is 600 VND/seed. Individual farmers
order between 2,000-3,000 seeds, and households for the cooperative sector purchase
between 15,000-25,000 seeds. Companies purchase on average between 200,000500,000 seeds each year.

Fig. 3. Eucalyptus urophylla seeds in the Forest Research Center.

The constraints faced by the Forest Research Center (FRC) (Fig. 4) are as
follows: (1) a lack of budget for new technology development research. So far, theannual budget of about 15 billion VND is insufficient; (2) the attainment of intellectual
property rights for new tree species findings, which creates difficulties in the selffunding of activities through the sale of products in the market; and (3) an inability to
expand international cooperation to improve seed quality (Ibid).

Fig. 4. The Forest Research Center Office in Phu Ninh District, Phu Tho Province.

64South Pacific Studies Vol.33, No.1, 2012

Models of partnership company with farmers
Vinapaco has been working with 32 cooperatives under a contract farming schemein many districts. In one example of this, fourteen households in Phu Ninh Districtin Phu Tho Province have established a cooperative with a total area of 34.3 hectares
and called Commute Tu Da. The initial planting of Eucalyptus europhylla started in
2005. Ten Lem, the female head of the cooperative, owns approximately 2-4 hectaresof this land. The land was originally owned by a community group in the village andwas infertile and very difficult for growing vegetables and cassava. The community
group then shifted to growing trees by planting Eucalyptus europhylla (Fig. 5). In theeight years it took for these trees to grow to harvestable size (2013), farmers planted
vegetables and rice on their other more fertile land, and maintained livestock such as
cows and pigs, and fish in the river.

Fig. 5. Eucalyptus europhylla planted by households in the formation of a cooperativein Tu Da Village, Phu Ninh District.

The head of community group Tran Thi Thanh Lam approached Vinapaco
Company to establish contract farming and provide seedlings, fertilizer and credit
for households while guaranteeing the market for their products (Interview, March
8, 2010). According to Ten Lem, the planting fee for 34.3 hectares was 96,562,801
VND and 64,859,105 VND for maintenance, creating a total capital expense of about
161,421,905 VND.
What about production?
According to a Vinapaco monitoring officer, the production reached 70 m3 perhectare, making a total production of 2,380 m3 (70 m3/ha × 34 ha) which will be
harvested in 2013. The Vinapaco Company has guaranteed a market for harvested trees,
which will be determined in terms of price per m3 of trees based on the spot market.
Based on the estimation of tree quality and climate, the tree production will be fruitfulHERMAN et al.: From Plantation Forestry to the Pulp and Paper Industry: A Case Study of Vietnam

65

and farmers will obtain a profit from this business.
The profit share, according to a cooperative member, will be re-invested into thenext planting of trees and other socio-economic needs of members, such as educationand health for their children and savings in the bank (Interview, March 8, 2010).
The company has also cooperated with 70 independent farmers who own about
10-20 hectares of land for tree plantations. Buo Vaw Thu is one of these independent
farmers who owns 17 hectares of land in Phu Ninh District and has been working
for several years within the planning division of Vinapaco Company. The land waspreviously in a critical condition, originally owned by local farmers, and appeared
unproductive and infertile, even with cassava crops. When Bu Vaw bought the land five
years ago (2005), the price of which was 20 million VND/hectare. He used about 30
percent of his savings, while the remaining 70 percent of the price was obtained from acommercial bank with interest of 1 percent/month. He says that the total capital he used
was 400 million VND to buy the land and manage the planting of trees in 2005 andthe credit was to be paid back within 10 years, but he is optimistic that the plantation
will yield a profit. He planted mostly Acacia hybrid on his land in 2005 (Fig. 6), someAcacia mangium, and bamboo as fencing. He was provided with the seedlings by the
Forest Research Center (FRC) at a price of 600 VND/seed and bought fertilizer at
2,800 VND/kg from the market. Buo Vaw hopes that his plants will be harvested after
8 years (2013) and he estimates that at harvesting time he will produce 70 m3/hectare,totaling 17 ha × 70 m3 = 1,190 m3 (Interview, March 8, 2010). He estimates the price oftimber will be 620,000 VND/m3 if the product is directly transported to the company,
however, based on information from a company officer, if the company has to buy the
product on the spot (in the plantation site), the price will be reduced to 590,000 VND/
m3. Buo Vaow decided to sell his timber directly to the company, so the price will be
about 620,000 VND/m3. The total amount he will make will be 1,190 × 620,000 VND= 737,800,000 VND, earning a profit in 2013 of 737,800,000-400,000,000 VND =337,800,000.

Fig. 6. Acacia hybrid planted in critical land belong to independent farmer.

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Timber consumption demand
The most rapid development of forestry industries occurred in the 1990s. Its
impact on economic development was assisted by Vietnam joining the World Trade
Organization (WTO). According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development(MARD), on the Anniversary of 50 years of forestry in Vietnam, the export of wood
products such as furniture, veneers, plywood and paper reached US$2.5 billion in 2009.
A total of US$1.1 billion was produced from the furniture and veneer industries, which
accounted for over 42% of the country’s export value in the wood processing industry(CAO DUC PHAT 2009). For this reason, the forestry sector should be maintained anddeveloped for future sustainable economic benefits. The impact of sustainable forest
management was positive in shifting the livelihoods of local farmers, creating new jobs
and attaining foreign exchange earnings.
There is a strong correlation between the demand of timber and the growth ofsustainable timber in Vietnam. From the 1960s to 1980s, Vietnam harvested about 2
million m3 of timber annually for civil and industrial purposes, excluding firewood,
rattan and bamboo. Paper consumption reached 1.7 million tons in 2010 and is
expected to rise again to 2.6 million tons by 2015 and 4 million tons by 2020 (Table 3).
As a result, timber consumption for paper products such as pulpwood, plywood,
sawmill, furniture, etc. will grow to about 5.5 million m3 in 2015 (Table 4). As an
example, Bai Bang Paper Company is producing about 40 percent of all paper in
Vietnam. In 2008 it produced 110,000 tons of paper, twice as much as planned (55,000tons) (http://www.baibang/evn_td.htm).
Table 3. Forecasted paper consumption (1,000 tons).
Products
Newspaper
Writing paper

2003
54.8
159.9

2010
92.8
295.2

2015
133.4
451.0

2020
192.0
690.6

Yearly growth(%)
8-9
9-11

Cardboard

680.1

1240.91880.92856.4

9-11

Others
Total

75.8
970.6

138.3
1767.2209.62674.9318.44057.49-11
9-11

Source: MARD (2006), DE JONG et al. (2006: 20).
Table 4. Forecasted timber and forest product demands (1,000m3).
Products
Timber: domestic and export
Large timber for industry

2003
7420
4561

2010
14004
8030

2015
18620
10266

2020
22160
11993

Small wood for wood based
Panels

1649

2464

2992

1682

Pulpwood
Pitwood

1150
60

3388
120

5271
160

8283
200

Export value of timber products
and NTFPs (million USD)

721

2400

3200

4000

Wood products
NTFPs

567
154

2100
300

2600
600

3200
800

Source: MARD (2006), DE JONG et al. (2006: 20).

HERMAN et al.: From Plantation Forestry to the Pulp and Paper Industry: A Case Study of Vietnam

67

The timber for this industry originally came from both natural and plantation
forests, but the government encouraged a shift towards plantations. The government
provided easier procedures for obtaining timber concessions, easier access to credit
from banks and other financial institutions, and tax relief for the import of machinery,
upgrading infrastructure (port and high ways), the planting of trees, etc.
Development of pulp and paper industry
Challenges and opportunities for development (1970s-1990s)
Vietnam’s first paper machine was established in 1912 and had a capacity of 2,500
tons annually (LE CHI AI 1995: 57). In the 1970s there were three large paper factories
in the northern Vietnam: 1) Viet Tri, with a capacity of 10,000 tons per annum, andconstructed with the assistance of the Chinese government; 2) a 5,000 tons per annum
capacity mill; and 3) a mill south of Hanoi producing wrapping paper (JERVE et al.
1999: 48).7 There are now also three state-owned pulp and paper mills in Vietnam: 1)
Bai Bang (55,000 tons per annum) in Phu Tho Province in the northern Vietnam; 2)
Dong Nai (20,000 tons per annum) in Dong Nai Province in the southern Vietnam; and
3) Tan Mai (48,000 tons per annum) also in Dong Nai Province. In addition there are
100 small-scale pulp and paper mills around the country (PESONEN 1995: 17).
Bai Bang Company
Bai Bang Company was established in 1974 through SIDA8 funding of US$ 170
million. The project was the subject of huge debates in Sweden, especially during the1970s and 1980s. In order to overcome the negative perception of this project, SIDA
published an evaluation which concluded that “Bai Bang has proved to be an example
of a sustainable development cooperation project” (B LOWER et al. 1999: 165). In
total, SIDA contributed US$1 billion to improve Bai Bang mills to produce 55,000
tons per annum. Swedish experts are still obliged to develop Bai Bang mills, because
Vietnam does not have enough qualified technicians to conduct the mill operations andprovide the necessary spare parts and chemicals (SAYER 1991: 239). The first paper
machine was completed in December 1980, the second in March 1982, and the pulp
mill in September 1982 (HAMILTON 1989: 12). In April 2000, the mill employed 3,500
workers. In December 2001 it was announced that a further expansion of the mill
would be conducted, expanding the plant from a capacity of 55,000 tons of paper per
annum to 100,000 tons. The annual pulp capacity will be increased from 48,000 tons to
61,000 tons. This is the first stage of a plan to increase the mill’s annual paper capacity
to 200,000 tons and pulp capacity to 150,000 tons (Vietnam Panorama www 1).
The products of Bai Bang Mill are mainly distributed to the domestic market andregional markets in Malaysia, Hongkong, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, etc. Vietnam is expected
to meet the demands for foreign currency by exporting paper, and SIDA was actively
7 See also, LANG (2002). Available from http://www.wrm.org.uy/plantations/information/Lang1.html (retrieved June 29,2012).
8 Swedish Government Agency for Giving Aid (SIDA) to developing countries, including Vietnam.

68South Pacific Studies Vol.33, No.1, 2012

engaged in promoting this export trade to Korea, Taiwan and Japan (LANG 2002).9
Tan Mai Paper Company
In the early 1990s, Tai Mai Mill and Dong Nai Mill were established in Dong
Nai Province in the south of the country. Tan Mai Company is a state-owned businessbelonging to Vinapimex with a mill paper capacity of 10,000 tons per annum in 1990,
which was later expanded to 48,000 tons per annum in 2000. Newsprint production
accounts for 50 to 60 percent of the company sales. The mill originally sourced pinefrom Lam Dong Province, however, as there was not enough pine to supply the mill,machinery in the mill was adjusted to process eucalyptus. From 1999-2001, the Tan
Mai Company posted more than US$1.1 million in losses as a result of its dependence
on imported raw materials and the fall in the price of paper (SAIGON TODAY 19 June
2001).
Vinapimex Paper Company
Vinapimex is a state-owned paper corporation, established at the end of the
1990s. It is categorized as the largest single producer of paper products because it
owns 11 factories, producing a total of about 170,000 tons a year. In September 2001,
Vinapimex announced a plan to expand the pulp and paper industry in Vietnam,
investing US$ 1.9 billion and involving 16 new pulp and paper production projects andan additional 693,000 hectares of plantations, thereby increasing Vinapimex’s annual
paper production capacity from the current 170,000 tons to 419,000 tons. According toindustry forecasts, demand for paper in Vietnam is predicted to increase by more than
10 percent each year. Vinapimex estimates that US$3 billion needs to be invested inbuying new machinery and plantations over the next 10 years, “to bring the industry
up to scratch” (SAIGON TIMES 30 July 2001) (LANG 2002). According to SAIGON TIMES(29 August 2001), each year the industry is short by 189,000 tons of pulp and recycled
paper, and relies on imports to fill the gap. Domestic pulp and recycled paper prices areabout three times world prices, a fact that the Saigon Times blames on Vietnam’s small
production capacity and non-automated mills with obsolete and decaying machinery(SAIGON TIMES 29 August 2001).
Paper industry (2000s)
Since 2004, Bai Bang Paper has upgraded and expanded annual production to100,000 tons of paper and 61,000 tons of pulp at internationally competitive quality
and environmentally improved to national standards. The Vietnam Paper Corporation,in November 2006, announced plans to invest almost US$300 million to expand theBai Bang Company, while Vinapaco plans to establish 250,000 tons per annum pulp
production line at the Bai Bang site. A further US$100 million will be spent on “material
forest zones” to expand industrial tree plantations, covering a total of 160,000 hectares
9 “Virta, J. 1996. Chairman of Jaakko Poyry Consulting, interview with Chris Lang, 30 August 1996.” in LANG (2002).

HERMAN et al.: From Plantation Forestry to the Pulp and Paper Industry: A Case Study of Vietnam

69

in five provinces.
In May 2006, An Hao Pulp Factory in Tuyen Quang Province was established,planning to produce 130,000 tons a year. Japan’s Marubeni Corp won a US$130
million contract to build the mill, which is now in the second phase and thegovernment has approved an area of 380,000 hectares of forest to supply the mill.
Another project, sponsored by the Saigon Export-Import Company, is an investment
of US$150 million to build a 115,000 tons per annum pulp mill in Nui Thanh District,in the central province of Quang Nam. To supply the raw material for this mill, Quang
Nam authorities have allocated 30,000 hectares of land for Acacia and Eucalyptus
plantations. In September 2008, another company, the Tan Mai Paper Company,
received permission to build four new pulp and paper operations in Quang Ngai
Province: a paper mill in Dong Nai Province, a pulp mill in Lam Dong Nai Province,and pulp and paper mills in the central highlands of Vietnam. The projects will produce
550,000 tons of paper and 460,000 tons of pulp per year. Hence, the Tan Mai Paper
Company plans to establish 10,000 hectares of plantations in Lam Dong Province tofeed its pulp and paper operations. The company is also carrying out a US$30 million
plantation project in Di Linh District in Lam Dong Province.10
In January 2007, Hong Kong based Lee & Man Hau Giang Paper Manufacturing
plans to build a 330,000 tons per annum containerboard paper mill and a 150,000 tons
per annum pulp mill in Vietnam. In line with the construction of paper mills, Lee &Man Hau Giang is reported to also be investing in plantation projects in Vietnam (Table 5).
Table 5. Private companies investing in pulp and paper projects and planned capacity (1,000 tonnes/year).
Company
1.Vietnam Paper Corp
Bai Bang Project-the II Phase
Than Hoa Paper JS Co
Paper machine upgrading
Bai Bang Paper JS Co
2. Tan Mai Group Co
Long Thanh Paper Mill

Pulp
250
100

Paper

Types of products

Year

100
30
50

Bleached chemical hardwood pulp
BCTMP, DIP, newsprint, PW
Printing/writing paper
PW, newsprint, LWC

2011
2011
2010
10/2009

150

Newsprint

2010
2011,
2012
2010
2011

Kon Tum Paper Mill

150

200

BCTMP, coated paper

Quang Ngai Paper Mill
3. Lee & Man Hau Giang Co
4. An Hoa Paper Co

40
330
130
60
100

70
420
130

CTMP, PW, newsprint, packaging
BJKP, packaging
BHKP, coated paper
BCTMP
BCTMP
Packaging
Packaging, tissue, coated paper
BCTMP
Coated paper

5. Quang Nam Pulp& Paper Co
6. My Huong Paper JS Co
7. Sai Gon Paper JS Co
8. Phuong Nam Co
9. Viet Thang Paper Co

45
230
100
50

2009,
2010
2012

2011
2009

Source: VIETNAM PULP AND PAPER ASSOCIATION (2009).
10 Cf LANG (2008), and also see THANH NIEN NEWS, 28 June 2008, “Southern Firm to Build US$36 Million Pulp Factoryin Central Highlands.”

70South Pacific Studies Vol.33, No.1, 2012

In a brief, the government policies on providing easy access to banking,infrastructure, investment mechanisms and tax breaks are encouraging investors toinvest in Vietnam. Therefore, there is a correlation between economic growth andthe consumption of paper in Vietnam. Consumption in 2008 reached 2 million tons
and increased to 2.2 million in 2009. Meanwhile paper production increased from
1,114 million tons in 2008 to 1,133 million tons in 2009 (Table 6). In general, paper
production in 2009 increased only 1.74% compared to 2008 due to a reduction in
newspaper production by 66% compared to 2008. In 2009, only 40% of the total
capacity was utilized, although printing/writing paper production and consumption
increased by 3%. Most producers sold their products at production price, breaking evenor at a loss for many months from the fourth quarter to the early third quarter. On theother hand, packaging production moved up by 15%, as most packaging enterprises
are small-scale, therefore making it easier to restructure operations to match market
conditions. Tissue paper production dropped 6.44% as the 2 tissue paper machines of
New Toyo, with a combined capacity of 30,000 tons/year, were stopped for repairs,
pulling the total output down by 15,000 tons. However, since May 2009, the newly
installed tissue machines began operating again and have covered this downturn.
Table 6. The comparison of paper consumption and production (tons).
Unit
Production
Import2008
1114416
10063942009
11338311141190

2009/2008 (+/-)
1.74%
11.81%

ExportConsumption

117000200381060000
2215021-48.72%
9.54%

Source: VIETNAM PULP AND PAPER ASSOCIATION (2009).

Economists quote a government report saying that it will boost the paper industry
in an effort to make it a key economic sector in the next decade in order to fulfill
paper domestic consumption. The strategy will apply two approaches: inviting foreign
investors to build pulp and paper mills in Vietnam, and direct investment by thegovernment itself. In terms of foreign investors, examples are Thailand’s Siam Cement,
which is investing in building a US$142 million paper mill to produce 220,000 mt/yearof packaging paper by 2009, a joint venture at the An Hoa Pulp & Paper mill between
Hanoi’s General Export and Import Co, and India’s Ballarpur Industries and Thailand’s
Martin Group are building a pulp mill in the northern province of Tuyen Quang worth
US$200 million that will start operating in 2009. Eucalyptus and Acacia plantations
have already been developed to feed these mills. 11 In terms of direct investment,
Vietnam will invest more than USD 1,140 million in implementing 15 projects to
produce pulp and paper, including USD 9 million to build a 15,000 tons tissue paper
factory in Cau Doung.12
11 See “Vietnam Paper Industry: Flying Under the Radar”, retrieved June 29, 2012, from (http://www/glgroup.com/News/
Vietnam-Paper-Industry).
12 See “Paper Industry in Vietnam”, News from Embassy of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in the USA, February 4,
2001.

HERMAN et al.: From Plantation Forestry to the Pulp and Paper Industry: A Case Study of Vietnam

71

How to overcome paper consumption to production gaps?
At the end of 2009 there was indication that some big economies were showing
signs of recovery. Vietnam’s economy had overcome difficulties and seemed to be
recovering, with a GDP growth rate of more than 5.8%. Export, which were in anegative growth rate, started to move back towards a positive growth rate, even thoughforeign direct investments were still low. At the time of the global economic downturn,the Vietnam paper industry restructured its operation and items. Investment in thepaper industry remains continuous, products were sold out and large-scale investment
projects were ahead of schedule. However, according to Vietnam Pulp and Paper
Association, the competitiveness of Vietnam paper products has not significantly
improved, and the products are still of lower quality and higher cost than in otherregional countries. As a result, Vietnam still needs to import pulp and paper products
from neighbors, such as Indonesia and Thailand.
The government, represented by the Ministry of Finance, announced a policy
to reduce the import tax on paper by between 7 and 12 percent in September 2008,
depending on the type of paper.13 Several newspapers reported that the tax cuts werea result of proposals by the Pulp and Paper Association, however, Vu Ngoc Bao,
Secretary General of the Association, told the Vietnam News Agency that the “reduction
would seriously affect local paper producers, who were having difficulties reducing
production costs in face of rising material costs. Foreign giants such as Japan, China,
the US and South Korea challenge the competitive capacity of local producers.”14
Provision of raw material
Due to the effects of a rapid increase in woodchip exports in the past few years, aswell as the appearance of new pulp and paper mills, treeless areas are being covered by
Acacia and Eucalyptus and the government has eased this growth with easy access forforest plantation concessions to private companies. This has greatly contributed to therapid development of the pulp industry in Vietnam. The impact of the development offorestry industries such as pulp, paper, plywood, sawmill, furniture and wood demandis increasing. Vietnamese hardwood imports have increased from 1 million m3 annually
in 2003 to almost 4 million m3 in 2008 and 2009. At least 80% of this imported volume
is re-exported as finished and semi-finished products such as furniture.
Factories must use FSC-certified wood and attain FSC chain of custodycertification if their products are to carry the standard's logo. Because wood productbuyers in Europe, the US and Japan have increasingly demanded FSC-certified wood
products, Vietnam now has a relatively high proportion of FSC chain of custodycertified factories. Bai Bang Company is eager to obtain FSC-certification for its forest
plantations through practicing sustainable forest management under the guidance of
SFMI.15
13 See “Paper Shortage Leads to Import Tax Cut”, VIETNAM NEWS, 5 September 2008.
14 See “Paper Projects Kick off to Cool Down Shortage”, VIETNAM NEWS, 11 September 2008.
15 SFMI is NGOs which actively involved in socialization to obtain FSC-certified forest. It is abbreviation of Sustainable
Forest Management and Forest Certification under the guidance of Dr. Vu Nham, Former chief cooperation andscientific Department of Vietnam Forest University. Interview with Vu Nham, on March 4, 2010 in Hanoi.

72South Pacific Studies Vol.33, No.1, 2012

Another approach to increasing production is by recycling paper, accounting for
67% (2008) of the total amount of raw material used for paper production (except forjoss paper, made by semi-chemical pulp), mainly used to produce containerboards,
boxboards and tissue paper. 35% of waste paper is also used for newsprint. According
to a Pulp and Paper Association officer, the recovery rate of used paper in Vietnam forrecycling remains low, only 26%, accounting for 67% of total waste paper recycled (theremainder is imported) (Interview, March 5, 2010).
In February 2007, the MARD started a program to establish 2.4 million hectaresof plantations over the next five years in the northern mountainous region. The
plantations, according to Hua Duc Nhi, the Vice Minister of MARD, are intended toprovide raw material for the pulp industry, which will annually produce 700,000 tonsof pulp.16 There is also the Five Million Hectares Reforestation Program (5MHRP),
which is intending to plant one million hectares of industrial tree plantations to feed thepulp and paper industry.
Other actors also support the creation of plantations, such as the German
government, which is establishing plantation projects in five northern provinces ofVietnam. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has approved a US$45 million loan for
an afforestation project in the central highlands and the World Bank is funding a Forest
Sector Development Project in four central coastal provinces. These projects intend toplant 66,000 hectares of plantations.

Concluding Remarks
Plantation forestry in Vietnam has developed rapidly since the 1990s and 2000s.
600,000 hectares of plantation forests in 1990 increased to 1.7 million hectares in2000s. This has had a positive impact on domestic and foreign investment, especially inthe pulp and paper industry, providing cash to boost growth in the domestic economy
and strengthening the socio-economic capacity of farmers in district and rural areas.
Domestic paper production achieved 900,000 m3 tons in 2005, 1,114,416 m3 tons in2008 and finally 1,133,831 m3 tons in 2009. The rationale for this success is as follows.
First, the Vietnam government launched an economic reform, shifting froma centrally planned system to a market oriented economy. The main issue in theforestry sector has been the application of a policy of “land distribution” and “timber
concession” areas to stakeholders such as households, individuals, the cooperative
sector, private companies, state forest enterprises, etc. The government encourages‘contract farming’ between the private sector and households, and individuals and thecooperative sector to plant trees as raw material for pulp and paper. This plantation
scheme has impacted on the livelihoods of local farmers and income generation
increased rapidly and the government now obtains annual foreign exchange earnings of
16 See LANG (2006) and also available from http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/115/Vietnam.html (retrieved June 29, 2012).

HERMAN et al.: From Plantation Forestry to the Pulp and Paper Industry: A Case Study of Vietnam73

US$2.5 billion from forestry industry products.
Second, the government has encouraged domestic and foreign investors to also
be involved in a wide range of timber plantation activities, and gives incentives suchas easy accessibility to timber concession areas, financial institutions, and tax relief
on the import of machineries and more. This policy has attracted investors, private
sectors, cooperative sectors, farmers, NGOs, donor agencies from international banks,
such as the World Bank, ADB and foreign agencies such as CIDA, SIDA, JICA,
GTZ, UNSAID, CIFOR, CIAR, etc., to actively engage to tree planting in Vietnam.
The impact of this policy is that today, Eucalyptus urophilla and Acacia mangium
plantations have increased, with a positive response from stakeholders, participatingin the planting of trees on a massive scale. In spite of criticism from NGOs concerning
the ecological damage from a wide range of fast growing trees such as Acacia andEucalyptus, affecting soils, leading to floods and soil erosion during the rainy season,
the government and other stakeholders have been positively engaged in tree planting inconservation and special use forests (protected forest area).
The rapid development of pulp and paper industry and plantation forestry
in Vietnam shows a successful leadership and management, and certainly largely
contributes to insular regions of Southeast Asia and includes Indonesia. One lesson to
be learned concerns how to practice sustainable forest management (SFM), which canbe realized three elements (economic, social and ecology). The government, private
sector and local farmers make collaborative management in providing raw material(timber supply) by holding ‘contract farming’. The private sector (company) provides
seedlings, fertilizer, access credit to banks, and guarantees the market at harvestingtime. The plantation forestry eventually affects the cash flow in rural areas, job creationand socio economic communities. The second lesson to be learned is the significant
role of stakeholders (government, private sector and local farmers). The government
has a significant role in giving concessions to the private sector, land distribution to
the cooperative sector and households (farmers), giving access to financial institutions,relief tax for import machineries, providing infrastructure (port and highways), andencouraging contract farming between the private sector and local farmers. Third
lesson to be learned concerns the purpose of the Forest Research Center (FRC) in termsof being able to produce better quality seedlings. FRC cooperates with other research
centers such as Australian Center for Agricultural Research (ACIAR) and Swedish
International Development Agency (SIDA) to develop quality seedlings with funding
and research.

Acknowledgement
We are very grateful to all stakeholders and informant for getting data findingsin the field work in Hanoi and Phu Tho District. For instance, We mention several
institutions Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) officer, Vietnam

74

South Pacific Studies Vol.33, No.1, 2012

Forestry University, Vietnam Pulp and Paper Association, Vietnam National University,
Hanoi, Research Institute for Sustainable Forest Management and Forest Certification(SFMI), Forest Science Institute of Vietnam, Research Institute of Pulp and Paper
Industry (RIPPI), Vietnam Paper Corporation (VINAPACO) in Phu Ninh District,
Institute of Tropical Forest Research and Development, the Department of Forestry(DoF) officer in Phu Tho Province, Forest Research Center (FRC) in Phu Ninh District,
Cooperative sector in Tu Da Sub-District, Phu Ninh District, and households in Phu
Nich Village. The study and field work was carried out in Hanoi and Phu Tho Province
in March 2010 and was supported by JSPS Postdoctoral Fellowship-Japan for the fiscal
year from 2008-2010.

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HERMAN et al.: From Plantation
South
Forestry
Pacific
to theStudies
PulpVol.33,
and Paper
No.1,
Industry:
2012 A Case Study of Vietnam

Errata: A Markedly Important Aspect of the Human
Ecology of Swidden Cultivation: the Labour Requirements
for Producing Staple Crops in Solomon Islands and North
Thailand
NAKANO Kazutaka

South Pacific Studies 32(2): 71-103 (March 2012)

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