COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN THE JAPANESE CRIMINAL JUSTICESYSTEM SPECIFICALLY FOCUSING UPON THE VOLUNTEERPROBATION OFFICER (VPO) SYSTEM IN THE COMMUNITY-BASEDTREATMENT OF OFFENDERS
ByMr. Kei SOMEDA,
Professor, UNAFEII.

INTRODUCTION

Japan has a long tradition of community involvement in the criminal justice system whichranges from the police to probation services (community based treatment of offenders). Many
citizens participate voluntarily to engage in the following activities;(i) Crime prevention activities(ii) Assistance to juvenile delinquents(iii) Helping offender rehabilitation in correctional institutions(iv) Providing support for offender rehabilitation in the community and helping theirreintegration into society
II. OVERVIEW OF COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN THE JAPANESE CRIMINALJUSTICE SYSTEMA.

PoliceThere are two types of crime prevention volunteers working for the police. Firstly, Local
Community Crime Prevention Volunteers are mainly engaged in general crime prevention
activities. Secondly, Juvenile Guidance Volunteers work for juvenile crime/delinquent prevention
activities and give assistance to juvenile victims of crime. Both have a wide network; school
teachers associations, Women’s Association for Rehabilitation Aid (WARA), police stations andthe Parents and Teachers Association (PTA).
1.

Local Community Crime Prevention Volunteers

Local Community Crime Prevention Volunteers are appointed by the police and their termof office is two years. Their main duties are dissemination of crime prevention ideas, vigilance
activities in the local community, cooperation with police, organized crime prevention activities
and networking with community resources for crime prevention. Some cities have municipal
crime prevention committees consisting of crime prevention volunteers.
2.

Juvenile Guidance Volunteers

Candidates to be Juvenile Guidance Volunteers are selected by the local community andschools and are appointed by the police. They have a national organization called the Corporate
Juridical Person of Juvenile Guidance Volunteers Association and 47 prefectural organizations.
This national organization has 60,082 members. Juvenile Guidance Volunteers carry out juvenile
crime/delinquent prevention activities such as holding local symposiums for the sound−165−

development of youth, organize social participation activities in the local community and assist
juvenile victims of crime.
B.

Court

The Japanese family court has jurisdiction to dispose of juvenile delinquents/offenders andfamily matters such as divorce, parental authority and inheritance. Members of the Juvenile
Friendship Volunteer Association for the Family Court work to assist juvenile
delinquents/offenders. They mainly support juvenile delinquents/offenders who are undertentative probationary supervision by family court probation officers. They support study, soundleisure activities and befriending activities.
C.

Correction Service

The correction service of Japan is in charge of both juveniles and adults. For adult inmates,
the correction service has the Volunteer Prison Visitor System. Under this system, Volunteer
Visitors for Inmates visit adult correctional institutions, meet inmates and provide them withvarious kinds of support such as counseling, entertainment and participation in events in prisons.
The correction service also utilizes chaplains/religious ministers to ease the feelings of inmates
and to help their introspection.
D.

Probation Service

The probation service of Japan has a long tradition of community involvement andextensive use of volunteers in the community-based treatment of offenders. The probation service
has the following types of volunteer systems ;(i) Volunteer Probation Officer (VPO)(ii) Juridical Person for Rehabilitation Services(iii) Members of the Women’s Association for Rehabilitation Aid (WARA)(iv) Members of the Brothers and Sisters (BBS) Movement(v) Cooperative Employer (CE)
There are 48,931 VPOs, 164 Juridical Persons for Offenders Rehabilitation, 200,445
WARA members, 6,100 BBS members and 4,957 cooperative employers throughout Japan (as ofApril 1, 2002).
A brief explanation about WARA, BBS and CE is given in this section and a detailed
explanation about VPOs and Juridical Persons for Rehabilitation Services will be given in thenext section.
1.

Women’s Association for Rehabilitation Aid (WARA)

This association is an autonomous group that conducts crime prevention activities in thecommunity and helps juvenile delinquents/offenders and adult offenders rehabilitate themselves
by making use of their experience as women and mothers. For example, it organizes crime
prevention activities for local community residents, including junior high school students andgives material support to VPOs, halfway houses and BBS associations. They also visit inmates injuvenile training schools or adult correctional institutions and encourage them to rehabilitate
themselves. Currently, more emphasis is placed on supporting young mothers who find−166−

difficulties in bringing up their children. As of April 1, 2002 the national membership totaled
200,445. Membership is open to any woman in the community.
2.

Big Brothers and Sisters (BBS) Association

BBS is an organization of youths who support juvenile delinquents/offenders and young
adult offenders with a proper understanding of their problems and needs. As of April 1, 2002,
there were 6,100 members throughout Japan and there are 581 associations, some of which arecertified as university clubs. Regardless of educational or occupational background, any person
aged mainly from their twenties to thirties, is able to be a member engaged in providing thefollowing activities such as organizing sports events, doing volunteer work in the homes of
elderly people, doing group work outdoors and assistance for study. Their activities are
conducted based on the entrustment of professional probation officers, the family courts, childconsultation centers, local police and so forth.
Since the average age of BBS members is much younger than VPOs, their activities arevery helpful to reduce the generation gap problem between juvenile delinquents and VPOs.
3.

Cooperative Employers

They help juvenile delinquents/offenders and adult offenders by offering stable
employment in spite of their criminal history. There are 4,957 cooperative employers who
employ 566 adult offenders and juveniles (as of April 1, 2002).
III.

EXTENSIVE USE OF VOLUNTEER PROBATION OFFICERS (VPOs)

A.

What is a VPO?

Volunteer Probation Officers (VPOs) are private citizens and they assist professional
probation officers (PPOs), aid offenders of all ages to rehabilitate themselves at all levels in thecommunity and enhance crime prevention in the community. Legally, the VPOs are defined as
non-permanent government officials.
B.

Introduction to the Actual Activities of Volunteer Probation Officers (VPOs)This is a model juvenile parole case based upon a number of actual cases.

A is a 16 year old girl who is under the parole supervision and support of a probation
office. Initially, A committed thefts and was glue sniffing and sent to a juvenile training school bya family court. When A was released on parole from juvenile training school based upon adecision of the regional parole board, her parole supervision was started.
A is now in the second grade of part-time high school and has three family members suchas her father (46 years old), a company employee, her mother (42 years old), a nurse and her
younger brother (13 years old), a junior high school student.
Mr. Yamamoto (a fictitious name) is the volunteer probation officer (VPO) in charge ofthis parole supervision case. He was assigned this case by the director of the probation office atthe beginning when A was in the juvenile training school. After that, he took care of this caseunder the close collaboration of a professional probation officer (PPO) working for the probation−167−

office in charge of this case.
Under the Japanese probation and parole system, the through care process begins
immediately after a person is committed to a correctional institution by a family court or acriminal court. The purpose of the through care is to ensure the smooth transition of inmates fromcorrectional institutions to society and to help themselves rehabilitate in the community. The
through care process consists of four parts; (1) treatment of offenders in correctional institutions,(2) environmental adjustment process, (3) parole examination and decision to release on parole
by the regional parole board and (4) parole supervision and support in the community. Functions(2) and (4) are carried out by probation offices and the VPO plays an important role in thesefunctions.
The following are the actual activities of a VPO in the through care process. Mr.
Yamamoto (VPO) started home condition enquiries (a part of (2)) when he received aclassification summary made by the juvenile training school from the probation office. He started
to contact the parents of A and asked them to accept her as guarantors after her release on parole.
But the parents refused initially because A had committed various kinds of offences and finally
she had been sent to a correctional institution. Therefore, the relationship between A and herparents was very bad. Mr. Yamamoto did not give up and continued to visit her parent’s homeseveral times to ease their negative feelings. Mr. Yamamoto accompanied her parents to juvenile
training school to attend an open day on the occasion of an athletic meeting of inmates and otherevents.
He also visited the juvenile training school several times to listen to her feelings and toencourage her to live a better life. The attitude of A was not frank at the beginning, but she
gradually came out of her shell and finally she wrote many letters to Mr. Yamamoto.
He also asked for support from a wide range of community resources at the same timesuch as the teachers of A’s part-time high school (where A was on the register to continue to go
to school), and cooperative employers in order to find suitable temporary work and members of
the Big Brothers and Sisters (BBS) Association to help her study and spend meaningful leisuretime.
After about one year of enthusiastic effort by Mr. Yamamoto during the environmental
adjustment process, the parents of A finally agreed to be guarantors and agreed to let her live withthem after her release on parole.
Under close collaboration between Mr. Yamamoto and a professional probation officer(PPO), A started her new life in the community She tried hard with her studies and temporary
work, but there were still many bad peer groups in the community which she had relationships
with before she was committed to juvenile training school. They disturbed her rehabilitation and
A committed minor offences several times because of these influences. Mr. Yamamoto always
went to the police station to meet her straightaway even in the middle of the night when he wascalled by a police officer.
He also met the parents, the teachers, the cooperative employer and members of the BBS
association regularly to exchange information, asking for further support and enhancing
cooperation among them. Mr. Yamamoto submitted a monthly progress report to the probation
office every month and reported on A. He also communicated with E professional probation
officer (PPO) by telephone when urgent incidents occurred.
−168−

Through the devoted work of Mr. Yamamoto and the ardent and warm hearted support ofher parents, the teachers, the cooperative employer and members of the BBS association, she
gradually became more stable.
After Eighteen months of parole supervision and support of A, the regional parole board
decided to give her an early discharge from parole supervision because of her good conduct andcontinuing stable life (low possibility of reoffending) for six months. She is now preparing for an
entrance examination to go to university.
C.

Outline of the Volunteer Probation Officer (VPO) System

1.

Some Characteristics of VPOs

The actual number of VPOs has increased from 48,000 to 49,000 in this decade, ascompared with the maximum number of VPOs provided by the VPO Law of 52,500. As of 1
Apri1 2002, there are 48,931 VPOs (male 37,056, female 11,875) and the average age is 63.5
years. The Proportion of females has increased to 24.3%.
As to occupation, VPOs represent almost every sector of society. As of 1 January 2002,
the largest group (27%) comprises of housewives (14.5%) and retired persons (12.5%), followedby firm employees (21%), those engaged in primary industries (12%), such as farming andfishing and the religious profession (11%). Other individuals serving as VPOs include company
owners, government officials, manufacturers, social workers, schoolteachers, medical doctors
and private lawyers.
Concerning length of service, half of all VPOs have been working as such for more thanten years. In spite of the hard and complicated nature of a VPO’s duties, many continue to do thiswork willingly.
2.

Activities of VPOs

The activities of VPOs are generally classified into two categories such as (i)rehabilitation aid activities and (ii) crime prevention activities.
Helping Offenders Rehabilitate Themselves in the Community
VPOs conduct the following rehabilitation aid activities based on the referral of the casefrom the director of the probation office. The case referral procedure is taken by professional
probation officers (PPOs).
(i) To supervise and assist the probationers and parolees assigned to the VPO(ii) To inquire into the environment where an inmate of a correctional institution is expected tolive after release and adjust any problems there;(iii) To locate a probationer or parolee who has moved to the VPO’s residential area with orwithout permission of the director of the probation office in advance and to take over theirsupervisory casework; and(iv) To conduct preliminary investigations for a candidate for pardon.
While the PPO is involved in the case as a specialist in the treatment of offenders, as well−169−

as a law enforcement official, the VPO works as a neighbor to the offender, assisting them onbehalf of the community. Furthermore, some VPOs make use of their special knowledge aboutcommunity resources such as employment in a specific area.
VPOs must submit a monthly progress report for each case to the probation office by thefifth day of every month. In this report, VPOs are required to show their opinions about early
discharge from supervision and revocation of probation to the probation office, although theycannot participate in the decision-making for them.
Crime Prevention Activities
To achieve effective crime prevention, establishment and maintenance ofsocial/community support networks for offenders rehabilitation should be emphasized so that isdeveloped and strengthened. From this point of view, VPOs carry out many forms of crime
prevention activities in the community in close collaboration with probation offices, Ministry ofJustice and other national government ministries and agencies, local government, schools, police,other volunteers and voluntary organizations (NGOs) such as the Women’s Association for
Rehabilitation Aid (WARA) and Big Brothers and Sisters (BBS) Association.
The following activities are carried out in the community as well as in campaigns tocombat crime.
(i) Public relations activities in public places. For example, campaign parades, various kinds ofevents such as music concerts, exhibitions, distributing various kinds of campaign goods,
crime prevention campaign slogans on TV, radio commercials, newspapers (public andcommercial), huge curtains and electrical bulletin boards in downtown areas and sports
stadiums.
(ii) Public symposiums or forums about juvenile delinquency problems(iii) Small discussion meetings in local neighborhoods(iv) Support activities in the community. For example, support activities for child rearing,holding tentative child guidance or counseling center/clinics, organizing community service
activities.
(v) Fund raising activities for rehabilitation aid. For example, charity concerts, charity bazaars,
asking for donations from big companies and so forth.
VPOs play an important role in these activities with their experience in helping offenders
rehabilitation, utilizing their locality as much as possible. The target of these activities are
ordinary citizens, residents in the local community, students/pupils of elementary, junior high andhigh school and so forth.
These activities are held throughout the year. We also have a special period forstrengthening these activities every July. This annual crime prevention event is held nationwide
in collaboration with the above mentioned individuals and bodies under the auspices of the
Ministry of Justice to promote public understanding for the rehabilitation of offenders.
Additionally, the national government conducts a nationwide campaign using the mass
media. However, without such grass-roots activities led by volunteers, the Movement to combat
crime would not be effective.

−170−

3.

Background

The precursors of the present halfway houses emerged in the 1880s, some of which
appointed volunteer workers to provide ex-prisoners with counseling and assistance. When the
old Juvenile Law established the probation system for juvenile delinquents, the shortage of
regular staff was supplemented through an increased number of juvenile VPO. In 1939, theJuridical Rehabilitation Service Law was enacted which provided a basic framework for“Rehabilitation Workers” (predecessors of the VPO). In the beginning, approximately 13,000
Rehabilitation Workers were appointed.
After World War II there followed a discussion over whether or not probation and parole
services should be established as a professional service and the new organization (current
system) came into being in the form of a combined system that consisted of professional staff(PPOs) and volunteer citizens (VPOs).
4.

Legal Basis

The Volunteer Probation Officer Law (1950, VPO Law) stipulates administrative officeconditions for VPOs. The VPO Law was amended and partially came into force on 1 April 1999.
The new law has three main points:(a) Community organizing and networking activities for crime prevention and the mobilization ofsocial resources are defined as major activities of VPOs;(b) VPO’s association is defined as a public organization certified by the Law, to which every
VPO is affiliated without exception depending on their residence; and(c) Cooperation of municipal governments with VPOs and VPO associations is emphasized.
5.

Legal Status of VPOs

Legally, the VPOs are defined as non-permanent government officials and are entitled tothe benefit of national compensation when any bodily injury is inflicted on them in theperformance of their duties. However, they are not paid any remuneration for their services. The
government may pay only the total expenses incurred in discharging their duties, or a part thereof.
In practice, the VPO is reimbursed a certain amount for their expenditures.
The term of service of the VPO is two years with the possibility of re-appointment. In
practice, most of them are re-appointed repeatedly for a number of years, because the duties of
the VPO requires long-term experience with much knowledge and skill about the treatment ofoffenders.
As in any other fields of volunteer work, what constantly motivates VPOs is a sense of
mission and gratification from helping others. Of course, some social prestige attached to thevolunteer’s activity may also be an incentive. Manifest recognition of meritorious service, which
is awarded regularly on formal occasions by the Emperor or other authorities at different levels,
has traditionally been a practical means of encouraging voluntary service in Japan.
6.

Recruitment of VPOs

A VPO’s character and personality contribute substantially to their role. The VPO Law
requires VPOs should be:−171−(i) Evaluated thoroughly with respect to their character and conduct in the community;(ii) Enthusiastic and sufficiently available to work;(iii) Financially stable; and(iv) Healthy and active.
To recruit VPOs, the directors of the 50 probation offices prepare a list of candidates basedof the information gathered from various sources in the community. In effect, the list reflects to agreat extent the opinion of representatives of the VPO’s Association. Further screening is madeby a VPO Screening Commission, an advisory committee to the Ministry of Justice that isestablished in 50 locations corresponding to probation offices. This committee consists ofrepresentatives of the court, prosecution, the bar association, correctional institutions, probationand parole services, other public commissions in the community and learned citizens. The
Minister of Justice then appoints the candidates who pass the screening process as VPOs.
7.

Training

VPOs shall assist professional probation officers (PPOs) (Art. 20 of Offenders
Rehabilitation Law), aid offenders of all ages and levels in the community to rehabilitate
themselves and enhance crime prevention in the community. To perform these duties effectively,
training of VPOs plays a crucial role.
There are five types of systematic training courses for VPOs such as (i) Initial Training
designed for providing essential knowledge and information for newly assigned VPOs, (ii)Primary Training designed for providing practical knowledge of various procedures onsupervision and other care for the offenders for VPOs with less than 2 years experience, (iii)
Secondary Training designed for providing basic knowledge and skills of treatment methods for
VPOs with between 2 to 4 years of experience, (iv) Regional Regular Training designed forproviding knowledge and skills of rehabilitation service for All VPOs and (v) Special Training
designed for providing special knowledge and skills of treatment methods for various types ofoffenders for VPOs selected by the director of the probation office.
8.

Organization of the VPOs

The volunteers are assigned on the basis of their place of residence to one of 904
Administrative Areas for Offenders Rehabilitation in the whole country. VPOs form a Volunteer
Probation Officers’ Association in each area. Every VPO is affiliated with one such association
depending on their residence. A PPO is normally assigned in charge of one or two areas.
Presidents of VPOs’ associations form organizations at prefectural, regional and national levels,
which play crucial roles in facilitating better VPO activities by means of organizing systematictraining, giving awards to excellent VPOs and other services.
9.

Advantages of the VPO system

There are three main advantages of the VPO system such as (i) locality, (ii) nongovernment official status and (iii) continuity of activities.
Since both the VPO and the parolee live in the same community, a parolee can make
immediate contact with a VPO (immediate contact).

−172−

The VPO can provide the offender with various social resources and useful information
about the community to help them rehabilitate in the community (social resources).
The VPO is in a more advantageous position in bringing about a change in the public’s
attitude towards the offender and in mobilizing social resources (practices based on community
needs).
The offender and their relatives look upon a VPO as a neighbor, rather than as arepresentative of the government. As a fellow citizen, he/she can demonstrate purely fraternal
concern about the welfare of the offender and even intervene more smoothly in the offender’sfamily relationship. Experiencing such a relationship with the volunteer undoubtedly helps theoffender regain their self-respect and identify himself or herself with law- abiding culture; sincemost offenders have never previously experienced such warm concern for them (close
relationship).
VPOs live continuously in the community, and therefore, can establish relationships on amore continuous basis. A PPO sometimes fails to keep close relationships because he/she moves
to other offices every two or three years. Furthermore, even after the expiration of the parole
period, private relationships between the offenders and the VPO may continue in theircommunity, and the VPO may provide them with various services even though there is no legal
requirement to do so. This continuation of providing services may contribute to the rehabilitationof offenders (continuous support).
10.

Problems

Since the system for community-based treatment of offenders (probation and parole
services) is a part of the governmental criminal justice system, it should provide the same level ofsupervision and support to all the offenders. But VPOs, as laymen, are inclined to treat offenders
in accordance with their personal or inherent views that have been established through their lives.
This might lead to wide differences in the treatment of offenders from one VPO to another.
Although treatment methods should be individualized based on the needs and risks of offenders,
partial treatment may result in partial disposition. And so, these kinds of partiality should be
minimized.
The average age of VPOs tends to become older year after year and it has reached 63.3
years on average (as of 1 January 2002). On the other hand, approximately 70 percent of thedelinquents/offenders under supervision are under 20 years of age. Therefore, there is aconsiderable gap in generation and a gap in the way of thinking between the elder VPOs andjuvenile delinquents/offenders. This gap may disturb smooth communication with each other andinvalidate positive influences from VPOs on the offenders.
11.

Future Prospects

In order to solve the problems relating to the VPO system, enhancing the systematictraining of VPOs might be an effective way to minimize the partiality in the treatment ofoffenders.
The introduction of a semi-professional VPO system should be considered. This new
system will assume stronger supervision and enrich the various kinds of support for offenders.
For this purpose, VPOs with special expertise and professional experience in human services−173−

should be recruited and assigned to special tasks such as psychological counseling and legal
assistance.
In terms of the generation gap and the difficulty in securing qualified candidates for VPOs
in urban areas, the recruitment procedure should be reconsidered so as to get younger volunteers
and specialists serving as VPOs. We should consider the introduction of an age-limit on theappointment of a VPO, diversification of recruitment methods such as a more open recruitment
system in which people can apply to be a VPO candidate more freely (public advertisement for
the recruitment of VPOs). Since interest in volunteer activities among young people has been
increasing, new ways of recruitment will be effective and also strengthen ties with othervoluntary activities.
IV.

OUTLINE OF THE JURIDICAL PERSON FOR REHABILITATION SERVICES

A.

Introduction - Three functions of the Juridical Person for Rehabilitation Services

The Law for Offenders Rehabilitation Services established the juridical person foroffenders rehabilitation in the form of a non-profit organization for offender rehabilitation
services such as (1) accommodating offenders in halfway houses, (2) providing material aid, and(3) financially supporting other rehabilitation organizations under the supervision of a probation
office. As of 1 April 2001, there are 164 juridical persons for offenders rehabilitation, 99 of themrun 101 adult and juvenile halfway houses and 66 of them provide services (2) and (3) throughthe Rehabilitation Aid Associations. These associations also have the legal status of juridical
persons for offenders rehabilitation.
B.

Halfway Houses

1.

Basic function

The basic functions of halfway houses are the smooth transition and aftercare of offenders.
The successful re-integration of offenders into society may be impossible without their smoothtransition from custody to the community. Halfway houses can provide an opportunity for themto deal with sudden changes, and they can be provided with the necessary aftercare services suchas accommodation and counseling. As the family structure has changed due to urbanization andindustrialization, the family has been less accepting and assumed less responsibility for the careof offenders than before. Drastic changes in social structure may deteriorate the positive factors
which support the upbringing of juveniles and prevent them from committing crime. Thus, theestablishment and development of halfway houses and aftercare services should be emphasized.
Halfway houses are important and special institutions for the treatment of offenders.
Halfway houses primarily provide room, board and guidance to juvenile and/or adultprobationers, parolees and other discharged offenders. Moreover, halfway houses not only help
their residents secure employment within the community or in the workshops which are available
in some halfway houses, but also provide offenders with treatment for alcoholism, social skills
training, and special vocational guidance etc.
They accommodate nearly a quarter of prison parolees lacking a suitable place to live. In
Japan, those inmates who do not have a suitable place to return to after release from prison are
not allowed to be released on parole. It is fair to say that it would impossible to maintain thepresent parole system without the involvement of halfway houses. In addition, a program−174−

designating selected halfway houses for parolees serving sentences of eight years or more waslaunched in 1979. Under this scheme parolees are accommodated for the first month after releaseon parole and receive intensive group counseling, as well as assistance and guidance, for copingwith ordinary social life from which they have been excluded from for many years.
Those released from imprisonment and detention can get shelter aid services within six
months after release. Also prior to a final disposition, the Family Court often refers juveniles tohalfway houses for guidance and observation of their behavior.
2.

Current Situation

As mentioned earlier, at present, juridical persons for offenders rehabilitation run 101
halfway houses under the authority of the Ministry of Justice (1 April 2001). Among them, 5houses accommodate only juveniles, 22 houses are only for adults, and 74 houses are for bothjuveniles and adults. In terms of gender, 91 houses accommodate only men, 7 houses for womenand 3 houses for both men and women. The total capacity of the halfway houses is 2,271
individuals including adults and juveniles. For adults, the capacity is 1,802 men and 98 women.
For juveniles, the capacity is 371 individuals (321 boys and 50 girls, as of April 1, 2001).
The national government (the Rehabilitation Bureau, Ministry of Justice) supervises andprovides financial support to the halfway houses. In the fiscal year 2000, halfway houses
received approximately 78 percent of their budget from the national government.
In terms of regular staff strength, there are a total of 553 employees nationally; an averageof six regular staff per facility. Among them, 367 employees (66.4%) are appointed as VPOs
concurrently (April 1, 2000) and there is at least one regular staff member who is appointed as a
VPO working for each halfway house. This means that the function of halfway houses is not only
to provide accommodation and meals but also to provide various kinds of effective treatment
programs for residents of halfway houses under close collaboration with professional probation
officers.
3.

Historical Development

Similar facilities have existed since the 1880s in Japan. At that time, many facilities fordischarged prisoners were established by individual volunteers and organizations. Until the endof World War II, volunteer associations also operated juvenile institutions, which acted
simultaneously as a juvenile training school and probation home. After World War II, thesefacilities accommodated mainly discharged prisoners for aftercare services under the Law for
Aftercare of Discharged Offenders (1950)1 . Since the 1970s, the adult offenders who have beenreleased on parole from prisons have replaced the discharged offenders, so that these facilities arecharacterized by their function as “halfway houses.”C.

Rehabilitation Aid Associations

Rehabilitation Aid Associations represent another type of juridical persons for offender
rehabilitation services. There are 66 such associations throughout the country, at least one inevery prefecture (1 April 2001). They contribute to rehabilitation services in two ways. One is to
1 The Law fo r Aftercare of Discharged Offenders (1950) was abolished and replaced by the Law for Offenders Rehabilitation Services in 1995, which regulates judicial persons foroffenders rehabilitation services including halfway house.

−175−provide temporary aid such as meals, clothing, and medical care and travel fares to offenders
experiencing difficulties in their daily lives. The other is to provide liaison and assistanceservices to persons and organizations working in rehabilitation services, such as halfway houses,
VPO associations and other volunteer organizations. They accomplish the latter by providing
subsidies, textbooks for training, tools and materials for crime prevention activities, andeducating the public on crime issues.
V.

CONCLUSION(i) Japan has a long tradition of community involvement in the criminal justice system whichranges from the police to probation services (community based treatment of offenders).
(ii) Especially there are five types of well organized volunteer systems such as the VPO andothers working for community based treatment of offenders.
(iii) But to cultivate and to organize those volunteers well take long term. Nevertheless,introduction of practical and extensive use of volunteers and community resources andenhancement of community networks will definitely enrich the contents of offender’streatment and strengthen offender’s support.
(iv) The first step which we recommend is to find existed volunteers in local community andexpand their ability. At the same time, to utilize public advertisement effectively and to recruit
capable volunteers are vital step. After recruitment, we have to establish a sustainability
mechanism for volunteers such as awarding system, reimbursement scheme and systematictraining.
If you establish and manage those mechanisms and systems, you will succeed to have awell organized volunteer system working for your criminal justice system.

−176−

REFORM OF THE TREATMENT OF OFFENDERS – COMMUNITYINVOLVEMENT
By
Mr. Adi SUYATNO, SH, Bc. IP
Director General Corrections, Indonesia
I.

INTRODUCTION

Indonesia has a population of 210 million which is spread over many islands. The
population consists of groups of people with very different cultures and customs, as well as
traditions. Within this diversity, it is obvious these conditions have the potential to create someproblems or social conflict. This conflict is being recognized as a battle between good and bad orit could also be defined as crime.
Emile Durkheim said “Crime is a normal phenomenon of society, the natural andinevitable product of collective life and social evolution. The collective conscience of a people
defines what is crime” 1 , it is obvious that we as members of the community should be directly
responsible for what we’ve done or the results of our actions. Based on the statement above we,therefore, must reconsider the notion of punishment within the social approach.
Correctional systems have become a new system for the treatment of offenders inIndonesia based on the idea that correction is part of society’s agencies of social control that
attempts to rehabilitate or neutralize the deviant behavior carried out by adult criminals andjuvenile delinquents. It functions with social and legal authority after the criminal courts haveheld an adult to be guilty of a violation of the law, or when the juvenile court acts in a child’sinterests after a complaint or referral has been made alleging a delinquent act. In practice somecorrectional function precedes the formal assumption of responsibility by agencies for theadministration of justice.2 Since 1964, the Indonesian former Minister of Justice, Sahardjo, has
implemented significant changes in regard to the treatment of offenders by revealing acorrectional concept that contains Ten Correctional Principles for the treatment of offenders. The
principles state that:(i) To protect and to provide the offender with a proper and useful role in the community;(ii) Punishment is not a form of revenge by the State;(iii) To provide the offender/prisoner guidance on repentance, not incarceration;(iv) The State shall not be responsible for the offender’s further deterioration;(v) Loss of freedom should not constitute total isolation from the community, the offender muststay tuned to the rhythm of society;(vi) The offenders shall not be given jobs that benefit only the institution or state, the job should
develop the offender’s skills;(vii) The educational aspect of correctional treatment must be paramount;(viii) Treat the offender/prisoner as a human being, their dignity and rights as humans must be
respected;
1 Davis Dressler editor, Reading in Criminology and Penology, judul Crime as normal behavior diangkat dari karangan Emile Durkheim “Rules of sociological Method” (NewYork and London: Colombia University Press 1972) hal. 3.
2 Vernon Fox: Introduction to Corrections, Englewood cliffs: Prentice Hall. Inc. (1972) hal. 1−177−

(ix) The offender/prisoner shall suffer punishment only in the form of loss of freedom;(x) All correctional structures and facilities must support the rehabilitative and educational
function of the correctional system.
The implementation of the correctional system in Indonesia is a part of the law’senhancement in particular and national development in general. It is also strongly related to theimpacts of the regional situation, as well as the continuous rapid development, both within thenational and international sphere. Problems and changes emerging from globalization also affectthe degree, form, types and subjects of crime and includes transnational crime, organized crime
and white collar crime etc. These phenomenon affect the correctional system in Indonesia.
On the one hand, the basic concepts behind the need for treatment and correctional
programs are to improve the professional qualities of the prisoners and try to eliminate thenegative effects of their criminal acts. On the other hand, the concepts also aim at developing
responsibility in the offender so they are aware of human values, social morality and social
responsibility in their everyday interactions.
In implementing its discretion, the Directorate General of Correction refers to its Vision
and Mission. The Vision states that the correctional process is aimed at restoring relationships,
living, and life support (social reintegration), which uphold the principle of protection, care andguardianship for the society. As for the Mission, the correctional process should optimize theimplementation of prisoner treatment and management of state confiscated goods should be
utilized for law enforcement and human rights.
II.

INTERNAL POLICIESThe correctional process has four phases. The process begins after the convicted offenderis given his final sentence from the criminal court judge.
A.

The First PhaseAt the First phase there is admission, orientation, and observation. This phase takes abouta month. The offender is introduced to the environment of the correctional institution. This isnecessary to ease the burden of transition and to avoid the possibility of friction with otherinmates. This phase could take as long as 1/3 of the sentence period. In this period the offender is
kept under maximum security.
B.

The Second Phase

This phase is the continuation of the first phase, however in the second phase the offenderis given training in business, small industry, and all kinds of support skills. This training will be
adjusted according to the offender’s talent and interest. This phase will take as long as one third
to a half of the sentence period. In this period the offender is kept under medium security.
C.

The Third Phase

In this phase the offender is introduced to the assimilation process, the assimilation
process is a process to assimilate the offender back into society. This process includes academic
studies, religious worship, furloughs, social work and working for third parties etc. The offenderis entitled to receive all of this treatment. This phase will take as long as a half to two-thirds of−178−

the sentence period. In this period the offender is kept under medium security.
D.

The Fourth Phase/Final Phase

The integration phase, in this phase the offender is entitled to have parole and pre-releasetreatment. He or she no longer has to stay at the correctional institution, however the offender has
to report regularly to the parole office. This phase takes place at the final third of the sentence
period. The security level is minimum.
These phases are designed to treat the offender in accordance with correctional discretionand the offender’s basic human rights.
III.

EXTERNAL POLICIESIn line with the policy above, cooperation with other resources in society is beneficial to
the treatment of offenders. Among those resources are:A.

Related Institutions

Some institutions that have worked together in the implementation of correctional
treatments are:1.

The Ministry of Health

The cooperation involves medical treatment for the prisoners and offenders, theassignment of doctors and paramedics as well as medications for ill prisoners. It also covers
research on prisoners involved with drugs. The results will be used by the Directorate General of
Corrections to formulate policies for the treatment and rehabilitation of offenders in drug cases.
2.

The Ministry of National Education.

The Ministry assists formal and informal education of the young and adult prisoners
including the illiteracy eradication program. The assistance covers the assignment of teachers,
learning modules and opportunities to study in schools outside the correctional institutions.
3.

The Ministry of Manpower

The cooperation includes training in certain skills. The programs are designed to giveknowledge and skills to prisoners so that they can make a living for themselves and their families
in the future. The aim is to create a productive, useful and independent citizen. The programs are:(i) Entrepreneurship programs like handicrafts, home industry, machine and electronic repair, etc.
(ii)Small-scale business programs like raw material processing, snack processing andpreservation, brick making, etc.
(iii) Skill training programs related to their interests.
4.

The Ministry of Religious Affairs

The Ministry gives spiritual guidance to offenders through religious talks, Qur’an reciting,Arabic lessons for the Qur’an for Moslems and other religious teaching for followers of other−179−religions. Another program is the Qur’an reading (Musabaqoh Tilawatil Qur’an) competition.
5.

The Ministry of Social Affairs

The Ministry has participated in giving treatment, especially for children, at thecorrectional institutions, as well as for offenders who have been released in a program called theAfter Care Program. Meanwhile, children under state supervision are allowed to join theassimilation program at the Ministry by taking some lessons at school or outside school, as well
as some vocational training programs. The juveniles who, based on the court’s verdict, are sent to
the Ministry of Social Affairs will also get some guidance programs conducted by the Ministry incooperation with the correctional institutions. Another kind of cooperation between thecorrectional institutions and the Ministry of Social Affairs has been established in order torehabilitate offenders in drug cases, in which the Ministry of Social Affairs supplies somemodules on the Therapeutic Community Method based on a fixed standard.
6.

The National Drugs Organization

The Organization provides assistance in handling offenders who are involved in drugs,
either as users or dealers. It is realized that handling drug problems requires solid teamwork
among many parties, including correctional institutions. This is based on the fact that drug use
has spread to many places and reached many people, including inmates who happen to be users
or dealers, their number has been increasing significantly. The situation has worsened, as the drug
dealers have been successful in circulating drugs everywhere, including to children, young
people, adults, and eve n intellectual communities. Since the government has shown concern in
handling drug problems by establishing the National Drug Organization, which is supported by
non-government organizations, the war against drugs has been intensively executed.
B.

Social Organization

Society has the following three elements, which should be encouraged to actively work
together in implementing the treatment program for offenders within the community.
1.

Social Organization/Non-Government Organization

Social organizations have played a significant role in the treatment of offenders. They help
lessen the state burden. They participate in giving treatments such as religious and health services,training programs, legal advice as well as character building programs. There are also somesocial organizations which accommodate ex-offenders and offer vocational courses at somecompanies. At the same time, these non-government organizations train some of the correctional
officers. In regard to skills training, some women’s correctional institutions have cooperated withcompanies to give courses in make up and hairdressing.
2.

Prominent Figures

Some people in the community are prominent figures because they have a strong desire toeliminate crime. For this reason, these priceless resources have become close partners in
conducting programs for the treatment of offenders. They usually take part in supervising andguiding offenders who are in assimilation programs, furlough programs to visit family members,
pre-release furlough or parole under the coordination of the correctional institution.

−180−

3.

Members of Society

Society’s role in participating in the treatment of offenders is very important. Members ofsociety show their concern by working individually or in groups in aiding in the treatment ofoffenders, both the physical and mental aspect.
C.

Cooperation with Third Parties

Offender’s employment is one of the programs included in the treatment program, and it isarranged based on the offender’s ability. “The offender’s employment philosophy is that theoffender is a member of society and as such has a basic need to live life, and any job or
employment given is indeed very important and has a strategic value in the process of thetreatment of offenders. According to a paper presented by The Queensland Corrective Service
Commission at the 17th Asian and Pacific Correctional Administrators which stated that
“Correctional administrators need to give careful consideration to the degree to which bothtraining and work in prison are designed to meet opportunities for employment in the generalcommunity. It is essential for prison industries to keep pace with industries in the community interms of modernization and productivity and vocational training in prisons should be closely
related to training standards and employment opportunities in the community” (The Queensland
Correctional Services Commission, 1997) 3 . In order to support the treatment of offenders,correctional institutions have cooperated with companies to provide employment for offenders.
Correctional Institutions are responsible for:(i) Selecting the offenders who will be hired(ii) Providing a place to run the business(iii) Supervising the security and guaranteeing the appropriate implementation.
The job given should match the offender’s qualifications and during their time in prison
the offender shouldn’t be isolated from the community. In accordance with the treatment process,an offender who has reached half of his/her period of sentence is entitled to assimilation. The
offender will likely use this opportunity to get a job placement outside the correctional institution.
In 2001, 980 offenders (0.03% of the total) entitled to assimilation worked for third parties inmany companies, meanwhile there were 1,872 offenders (0.052% of the total) who received
parole and 435 offenders (0.012%) who were given pre-release furlough.
D.

Academic Institutions

Some academic institutions have also shown their concern for the implementation oftreatment programs in correctional services by conducting research on the subject. Either they
help through research or by giving legal aid or legal advice or by giving some other advice,guidance and counseling services. They also offer psychological treatment programs to theoffenders.
IV.

CURRENT POLICIESIn the last five years, many problems concerning correctional issues have surfaced which
need to be addressed by the government. Including drugs, overcrowding and comprehensively
3 Sujatno,; Adi, SH, Bc. IP, Negara Tanpa Penjara,Direktur Jenderal Pemasyarakatan, Jakarta, 2001, ha1. 30.

−181−

adopting human rights concepts into the Indonesian correctional system.
A.

Drugs and Prisoners.

The Asian and Pacific Correctional Conference Administrators in Chiang Mai, Thailand
observed that the number of drug offenders has been increasing by 10% a year in several
members’ jurisdictions. The General Assembly has also declared that drug offender issues havebecome a problem for all the members of the conference. Because of a significant number ofdrug offenders, the Indonesian government, particularly the Directorate General of Correctional
Services has a strategic plan to deal with the treatment of drug offenders. They need special
treatment because they commit crime as a result of the substances they are addicted to. One
response is the establishment of 9 special correctional institutions for drugs offenders in someregions of Indonesia. These special institutions must be fully equipped with special equipment
and officers. However, this would require a huge budget, which the government can’t afford andthe number of officers that are trained in dealing with drug offenders is also insufficient.
B.

Overcrowding

Based on the last five years of correctional data, the comparison between institutional
capacity and the number of prisoners is as follows:
Table. 1
Correctional Institution/Detention House Capacity
Year
Capacity Lapas/Rulan

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

64,61928,82633,072

34,38538,041

45,520Percentage

66.13%

86.17%

84.50%

92.06%

114.20%Even though there was a percentage decrease in 2000, since then the number has
continuously been approaching the limit of capacity. Overcrowding has been a big problem atsome metropolitan institutions which could directly affect the treatment of offenders. Since thenthe Indonesian government has a policy of rebuilding or renovating some institutions, andbuilding more institutions, particularly since the Autonomous Act was implemented. For example
in: Central Java, Western Sumatran and West South East Island (Nusa Tenggara Barat). Gradually,
it plans to build a number of childrens institutions, womens institutions, special drug institutions,and traffic violation prisons. Currently, the number of correctional technical units are:Table. 2
Correctional Technical Unit and Correctional Officers
State Treasury
Correctional
Detention
for
Parole OfficeTotal
Institution
House
ConfiscatedGoods
Amount

148

230

48

−182−

7

433

Correctional
Officers

23,015

The ratio is very staggering, it is 1 correctional officer for every 80 prisoners/offenders or(1 : 80).
C.

Adopting the Human Rights Concept

Some appropriate words to indicate the implementation of human rights concepts are:assimilation, parole, pre-release treatment, and family visits.

Table. 3
The Amount of Assimilation, Parole, Pre-Release Treatment andFamily Visits Received by the Offenders/Prisoners
No

Description

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

1

Assimilation

328

338

163

372

765

2

Parole

1,507

1,467

891

1,614

1,526

3

Pre-Release
Treatment

365

322

114

134

279

4

Family Visits

427

295

138

101

395

Generally the number of assimilation, parole, pre-release treatment and family visits has
increased. Nevertheless compared to some Asian and Pacific countries, Indonesian noninstitutional treatment is still low. The 18th APCCA conference in 1998 stated that noninstitutional treatment accounts for 2% of all cases in Indonesia, 19.2% for the Philippines, and32.3% for Thailand.
The cause of the low numbers for non-institutional treatment in Indonesia is the lack ofcommunity acceptance for this program. They still don’t accept such treatment for reasonsconcerning equity in the community and social interactions.
To provide for the increasing non-institutional treatment, the Directorate General has
stipulated a new policy, whereby some offenders will be granted a special remission inconsideration of a national day of religion. In 2001 the data was as follows:
Table. 4
Special Remission Received by Offenders/Prisoners
No

Contains

Idul Fitri Natal Nyepi Waisak Jumlah

1 RK I (Special Remission-Partial)

14,993

1,799

2

13

16,797

2 RB II (Special Remission-Complete)

978

90

0

0

1,068

15,971

1,889

2

13

17,865

Total

−183−

V.

CONCLUSION

After almost 38 years of correctional implementation in Indonesia, the treatment program
policies for offenders has significantly progressed even though it is still not up to standard,
compared with neighbouring countries in Asia and the Pacific.
After deeply searching the many factors that influence the successful treatment ofoffenders, I believe the goal should be to return offenders to the good will of society who will
fully support the program undertaken by the government. A community role which as stated byEmile Durkheim is absolutely necessary, due to the fact that crime is produced by the community
itself and those most responsible for this matter are the community.
No matter how sophisticated the criminal justice system is in Indonesia, if the community
still does not have an awareness and feels distrust against the system, it will be impossible toreduce the number of criminals in Indonesia.
If community awareness could be reached and achieved, it is possible this country could
become a country without prisons.

−184−THE URGENT NEED TO REFORM TREATMENT TOWARDSCORRUPTION OFFENDERS IN INDONESIA
By
Prof. Dr. Tb Ronny Rahman NITIBASKARA,
UI, Indonesia
There was a story that used to be quoted about criminal punishment in the era of Queen
Victoria. England was experiencing a very long dry season. The economic crisis, as always,
triggered an increase in the property crime rate, especially that of theft. The Kingdom employeda variety of solutions, but theft still increased due, understandably, to the increase in the numberof hungry people.
Eventually, the Kingdom decided to employ a very harsh punishment: Those who werecaught stealing, would have the ir hands cut off in public. When the new policy was about to be
executed, the people rushed to the city square park where the punishment was to be carried out.
But just after the execution, with the splash of the thief’s blood still fresh in the memory of theaudience, a noisy roar suddenly came from some of the spectators - shouting that their wallets
had been stolen.
The above story perhaps illustrates that harsh punishments will not always decrease thecrime rate, if the social-economic condition of the society is still deprived. The story did not tell
us about the condition of the elite and the privileged class at that time, and whether or not theyalso suffered from hunger. If the ‘blue blood’ group had enough food, the theft cases could be
another form of public disobedience towards the rulers.
There are two factors which are often neglected in penology studies that ought to attract
our attention in the treatment of criminal offenders.
Firstly, the actual condition of the society. In this regard, living values among the society
which are usually changed should be carefully observed through legal culture studies. From sodoing we will know the trend of development regarding legal ideals of the majority of the public.
In a democratic society, these ideals will directly influence the national legal policy as well as theperformance of law enforcement institutions. This first factor can also be considered as a form ofcommunity involvement.
The somewhat higher participation in political matters among our society lately, hasstrongly influenced the realities of law enforcement ideals in Indonesia. For example, the strong
inclination towards a good and clean government has triggered enthusiasm among the people toeliminate corruption without discrimination. Perhaps the enthusiasm was there all along, but the
momentum to realize it was very small then, due to the government being the key player in thiskind of crime. As the regime has changed, the enthusiasm to eliminate corruption has beenrenewed, as reflected in the willingness to employ the harshest possible punishment towards
corrupters generally.
It was due to such enthusiasm, that when the idea to adopt a policy of release anddischarge towards several major corruption offenders came about, a wave of opposition arose insociety. Eventually as a result, the President, the Supreme Public Attorney, the Finance Minister−185−as well as the Chairman of the Indonesian Banks Restructuring Agency (IBRA) did not dare sign
the decision, and even seemed to throw the responsibilities to each other (Media Indonesia, 2002).
These realities confirmed how community involvement in a democratic society could sharply
influence the ideals of law enforcement, especially regarding the treatment of corruption
offenders.
The enthusiasm to prioritize the elimination of corruption through employing harshpunishment towards offenders has also arisen among religious leaders. The willingness wasclearly shown among members of Nahdatul Ulama (NU)-the biggest grass roots Islamicorganization in Indonesia. At their latest national congress (Mahsul Masail NU 2002) at the Haj
Boarding House Pondok Gede, Jakarta last August, among other things it was stated:A.

On National Debt(i) A national debt is not an individual debt of every citizen.
(ii) Those who are responsible to pay is the state, with a detailed note that, the debt which wasused for the benefit of the people, will be paid by the state with state’s money; whilst national
debt, which was the result of corruption by state officials and their cronies, will be paid by thestate with the funds derived from the corruptors themselves.
(iii) As warasatul anbiya or the inheritors of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him),
following one of his examples, NU members should not pray for the dead bodies of Moslem
officials who corrupted the state’s money, before they have given back the assets resulting
from their corruption.
B.

On Corruption(i) From the Islamic laws (syariat) viewpoint, corruption is a very deceitful act (ghulul) towards
the people ’s trust (amanah). And from it’s practice and impact, corruption can be categorized
as stealing (sariqah) or robbery (nahb).
(ii) The giving back of money resulting from corruption does not cancel out the punishment.
Because, the claim of punishment belongs to God’s (Allah) right, whilst the giving back of
corruption money to the state is that of the public’s (adamiy) right.
(iii) The proper punishment for corruptors ranges from cutting-off their hands up to that of capital
punishment (death sentence).
(iv) Political gifts given (in money or other things) to influence and/or deviate the just andobjective decisions, in syariat’s view is, a kind of bribery (risywah) which is cursed by Allah,
whether it is the givers (raasyi), the receivers (murfasyi) or the mediators (raaisy). (Gatra,
2002)
Such formal guidance (fatwa) as mentioned above, although it might have been issued
before, is not as severe as the present. We can see here, for example, a kind of social punishmentof not being prayed for when the offender dies (as it should for a Moslem according to Islamiclaw). These are the new guidance policies of the NU. Other important things to be noted in thedecisions were a) that lawsuit claims were not cancelled and b) the severity of the punishment.
So the suggested solutions given by several parties regarding big corruption cases in Indonesia, i.
−186−

e. “get the person but not the assets”, or “get the assets/money but not the persons” are not valid.
Perhaps the later solution was the thinking behind the Release & Discharge policy speciallydesigned for the biggest corruptors.
If we accept the NU’s guidance, which is also the opinion of most Indonesian people, theexpected solution should be aligned with the existing law, “get the money and the person”. No
other dichotomy choices. What is more, such an alternative, including the effort to makecorruption cases civil (perdata) ones, is suspected as being a trick to avoid responsibility before
the law. These realities show how strong the current thinking in Indonesia regarding hard
punishment toward corruptors is today. Such an actual condition cannot be neglected, should wewant to reform the treatment of such offenders.
From a study of a society’s actual condition, it is easier for us to understand the ways
certain nations or states treat their offenders. In Japan, where the life of an individual is strongly
integrated within a group, social punishment in the form of re-integrative shaming is more
effective as a deterrence compared to other forms of punishment. In other words, for ahomogenous society which has a strong group cohesiveness like that of Japan, the concept of deinstitutionalization of punishment is more appropriately employed. The concept of shaming has
more usefulness for society than that of taking one’s freedom and putting him/her into an
institution for a long period of time. For not being acknowledged or alienated by his/her group isa disaster for a Japanese person. Because it is within a group that an individuals life has meaning.
So to preserve the group, is identical to preserving ones individual existence (Bayley, 1986).
Therefore, criminal acts could also be interpreted as a deceitfulness or shaming towards one’s
group. And to compensate such a shaming experience, it is common to pay the price with one ’slife, i. e. through suicides (sepuku or harakriri). According to Newsweek magazine (2002), atleast 30,000 Japanese commit suicide every year. And we have reason to believe, that the causeof such a high suicide rate is due to the shaming factor.
Meanwhile, unlike what happens in Japan, in the Bamboo Curtain’s country (People’s
Republic of China), the treatment towards offenders is viewed from the level of dangerousness(serious or minor) of the wrong deeds. According to Edward J. Epstein and Simon Hing yan
Wong (1996), there are two concepts of dangerousness in China ’s criminal justice system. The
first, the dangerousness to society (She Hui Weihaixng) which is considered as a fundamental
characteristic of crime. Corruption belongs to this concept, and therefore it is appropriate for theoffenders to be punished severely, including the death sentence. Secondly, individual
dangerousness (Renshen Weixianxing), i. e. crimes that are being done by individuals who haveanti-social tendencies. Both concepts are applied in sentencing, remission, parole, and themethods employed to reform convicted persons.
What happens in China is additional proof, that the idea of reforming treatment towards
offenders cannot be separated from the emerging concept about crime and that of criminals
within society. Therefore, the conflicting discourse in penology of social rehabilitation andreintegration on one side versus punitive strategies on the other may become less relevant if theactual conditions and needs of the nation are referred to. What is considered important and urgent
by certain states may be different for other countries. Corruption in Singapore, for example, is
not an urgent case. Meanwhile for other countries, the same crime is very urgent because it isthreatening the livelihood of both the nation and the country. Therefore, the meaning of reform in
the treatment of offenders can also be in a form of additions (pemberatan-pemberatan) to the
execution of the existing punishment system. In short, it depends on the actual condition of thenation. And because it has a characteristic of actuality, it is likely to be renewed in the future.
−187−

These realities have been a contemporary phenomena throughout the world.
Currently, many parties (including most of the human rights defenders within the U. S) areprotesting the treatment by the United States of America of the prisoners alleged to have been
involved in the terrorist activities on September 11, 2001 that destroyed the WTC buildings.
Although their cruel treatment received much support from the American people, with 68%
agreeing to it, according to a Newsweek (10/12/2001) poll at the same time they are expecting
the prisoners to receive justice through the open court process. Here lies a big question thatshould be answered, and the Newsweek magazine used the question as the title of it’s front
cover: “Justice vs Terror. How Far Should We Go?”
Under the Anti- Terrorism Act (USA Patriot 2001), the U. S. has employed very harshtreatment towards people alleged to be terrorists. They are sentenced to the most secure prison
there is today, i. e. at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. The prisoners therein are being treated inhumanely.
And as a consequence, the U. S. has many critics, including U. N. officials, among others the
Chairlady of the Human Rights Commission, Mary Robinson.
As the victim of such a massive terrorist attack, it is understandable that the U. S.
employed such a policy. Besides, the September 11th attacks are also hurting the “national pride”
of the U. S. as being the only superpower. Terrorism has changed the consciousness of theAmerican people, that such a crime could be so devastating, and therefore the elimination of thethreat should be prioritized. However, despite the hatred towards the terrorists, the U. S. shouldstill abide by the law and justice. What is more if we bear in mind that the U. S. is often referred
to as the champion of democracy, then justice must be seen to prevail whatever happens.
Undoubtedly, in treating convicted criminals we should always keep in mind the balance
between justice and national security. The implementation of such a principle will bring us to thesecond factor that has to be studied regarding the treatment of criminal offenders, i. e. the varietyof crimes. How a society views many kinds of crime is important to study, in order to further our
knowledge about the ways the state and society treat offenders. Due to the limitation of space, it
is impossible to discuss here all forms of crime regarding treatment reform towards offenders.
Consequently, we have to limit our focus to only one kind of crime, and we choose the one that isassumed to have the most destructive power. It is indeed relative as to what kind of crime is themost dangerous. But the elimination of crimes that are considered most threatening for the safetyof all are unusually prioritized, and the offenders are punished the most severely.
For the U S., the first priority is terrorism, because the people consider it the mostthreatening to their national security. In other countries, the priorities may be different. In Iraq,
for instance, the highest crime is if someone were to become a spy for the U. S. Meanwhile inIndonesia, the most targeted crime in the eyes of the public is, as we know, that of corruption.
How a society views the level of dangerousness of certain crimes, depends greatly on the actual
conditions that are experienced by that society.
Those realities show, that the view that is developing in the society regarding crime will
influence the treatment of the offenders. The way a certain crime is viewed between one society
to another, also influences the ways in which they reform treatment towards certain offenders.
Thus, the second factor is closely related to the first one, i. e. the actual conditions of the society.
Therefore the reform of treatment towards corrupters in other countries cannot be adopted here
just like that. What is appropriate in Japan, for example, is not necessarily so in Indonesia. The
need to fulfill the ideals to be realized are different. When China wanted to push economic−188−

development, they did it together with a campaign to eliminate economic crime. Since the launchof the campaign in 1982, more than 30 people have been sentenced to death or sent to prison forlife (Epstein and Wong, 1996).
In any part of the world, the corrupters are usually educated persons who generally holdan official office of some kind. Therefore it could also be concluded that this type of offender ismore rational in comparison with other criminals. Before they carried out the crime, they thought
about it time and again based on it’s benefit-cost ratio. So in carrying out their crime, theseoffenders are always in a conscious mode. Therefore, it is very strange to treat them with mental
rehabilitation concepts and the like. Besides, according to Clayton A. Hartjen (1976), thoserehabilitation concepts contain two flaws “The first argument suggest that rehabilitative activities
are somewhat less than painful. But convicts do not seem to agree. Most would rather be left
alone to do their time. The second argument is erroneous because it is assumed that humane
treatment will automatically lead an individual to reform his ways. This is not only untrue, butalso potentially self defeating”.
Based on the consideration of actual conditions in our country, what the corruptors havedone is already threatening our national security. Therefore, there is no other proper way to treat
them except with punitive strategies, one of which is through long term imprisonment.
To implement this strategy, it seems we need to heed the advice of David Garland (1966),
that: “This punitiveness has complex roots. It is by now a deep rooted aspect of our culture,embedded in the common-sense of the public, the police and the judiciary. Meaning that toseverely punish the corruptors we have to follow a long and winding road, because there is somuch to be set in order. But we have to continuously make such an effort anyway. And in order
not to experience the pointlessness of harsh punishment as illustrated in the opening story of thisarticle, all kinds of discrimination should be avoided. If discrimination does exist, it could be asign that judicial corruption has taken place. In this regard, we are only able to read theindicators, because to expose and bring corruption cases to court is very difficult. Although,according to Garland, the court also needs to be reformed before we start reforming the treatment
of offenders.
These realities tell us, that if we really want to reform the treatment of convicted
corruptors, we have to eliminate the culture of corruption. One way to do so is to give a shock
wave in the form of severe punishment to every corruption offender. Again, in order not toimitate what happened in the opening story, I repeat, all discrimination in establishing thepunishment of corruptors should be avoided. The great prophet Muhammad (p. b. u. h) taught useven if his own daughter is caught stealing, her hand should be cut off. Thus the key to reformsuggested herein is harsh punishment and indiscrimination.
REFERENCES:
1. Aslop, Ronald J (Ed),1998. – “The Wall Street Journal Almanac”, New York, Dow Jones &Company Inc.
2. Bayley, David H. 1986. – “Lessons in Order” in Robert H. (ed), “A Cross Cultural
Perspective”, Plymouth State College.
3. Epstein, Edward J & Wong, Simon Hin yan. 1996 – “The Concept of ‘Dangerousness’ in the
People’s Republic of China and it s Impact on the Treatment of Prisoners”, in The British−189−

Journal of Criminology, Oxford University Press, Vol. 30, no. 4.
4. Garland, David. 1996. – “The Limits of the Sovereign State: Strategies of Crime Control in aContemporary State”, The British Journal of Criminology, Oxford University Press, Vol. 30,
No. 4.
5. Harian “Media Indonesia”, - November 23, 2002.
6. Hartjen, Clayton A. - 1979. “Crime and Criminalization”, New York, Praeger Publisher.
7. Majalah “Gatra”, - August 10, 2002.
8. “Newsweek Magazine”, - December 10, 2001.
9. Nitibaskara, Tb Ronny Rahman. 2002. – “The Culture of Law as a Medium of Resolution for
Business Conflict”, A Paper.
10. Sykes, Gresham M. 1958. – “The Society of Captives: A Study of Maximum Security Prisons”,
New Jersey, Princeton University Press−190−