South Pacific Studies Vol.33, No.2, 201387

Use of Capsicum on Kosrae Island,Federated States of Micronesia
YAMAMOTO Sota

Research Center for the Pacific Islands, Kagoshima University,
Korimoto 1-21-24, Kagoshima, 890-8580 Japan
E-mail: sotayama@cpi.kagoshima-u.ac.jp

Abstract
I surveyed the nomenclature and usage of Capsicum, in particular C. frutescens on Kosrae Island,
Kosrae State, Federated States of Micronesia, to identify the relationship between people and Capsicum.
Three species of Capsicum are cultivated on Kosrae Island: C. annuum, C. frutescens, and C. chinense.
Many cultivars of C. annuum and one accession of C. chinense are thought to have been introduced to
Kosrae Island quite recently. In contrast to C. annuum and C. chinense, C. frutescens, especially the green
type, is a common seasoning in the daily diet of locals and has become an important and indispensablecondiment on Kosrae Island. People called it “Kosraen pepper,” “native,” or “local.” This terminology may
imply that people on Kosrae Island are more attached to C. frutescens than they are to the other speciesof Capsicum. Capsicum peppers are called pwepuh on Kosrae Island, which seems to be related to pfeffer
in German or pepper in English. Kosrae Island residents do not have any specific names for the various
pungent types of Capsicum peppers. They view Capsicum peppers in various ways: as a condiment (freshor salted fruits and hot sauces), vegetable (leaves of C. frutescens), and medicine (fruits and/or seeds for
toothaches, fruits for diarrhea, and leaves for curing boils and wounds). However, the uses of Capsicum spp.
as a medicine are very limited on Kosrae Island compared to other small and remote islands in the Pacific,
and people there have been eating fewer C. frutescens leaves in recent years partly due to modernization of
the culture.
Key words: C apsicum annuum, C. chinense, C. frutescens, ethnobotany, leaves as vegetable, medicinaluse, naturalized plants

Introduction
Capsicum peppers, approximately 25 species belonging to the Solanaceae family,
are native to both tropical and temperate regions of the Americas (ESHBAUGH 1993).
Capsicum frutescens is a semi-domesticated species characterized by seed dormancy,
small fruit size, slow growing, deciduous fruit, and the inhibition of flowering under
Received: 7 December, 2012
Accepted: 29 January, 2013

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South Pacific Studies Vol.33, No.2, 2013

prolonged illumination (YAMAMOTO and NAWATA 2006, 2009a, YAMAMOTO et al. 2007,2008). It is widely distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of theworld and is economically important as a condiment, vegetable, and medicine.
The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) consists of four states (Yap, Chuuk,
Pohnpei, and Kosrae, from west to east) composed of approximately 600 small islands,
which amount to an area of approximately 700 km2. However, FSM is spread overmore than 2,600,000 km2 of the Pacific Ocean and spans approximately 2,500 km fromeast to west. In the 1950s people in FSM still ate a traditional diet based on starchy
staple crops (e.g., bread fruit, root and tuber crops, banana) and marine resources(MURAI 1954), but this began to be replaced by a diet rich in rice, flour, sugar, fatty
foods, and other imported or processed foods after the United States Department ofAgriculture started its supplementary feeding program in the 1960s (ENGLBERGER et al.
2003). This phenomenon accelerated after a Compact of Free Association was signed
between FSM and the United States in 1986 (HEZEL 2004). Since then, FSM has faced
serious public health problems, such as heart disease, stroke, and diabetes, etc., due
to this new diet and other lifestyle changes, and the government, non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs), and researchers have attempted to promote a return to local
foods because of their higher carotenoid and vitamin contents compared to modern
foods (e.g., ENGLBERGER et al. 2009). However, the outlook for this program is bleak,partly due to local inexperience in cultivating such crops. On small islands and atolls,
imported foods and medicines may not arrive for more than a month if a typhoon or an
oil crisis occurs. Therefore, it is very important to re-discover plants already naturalizedon each island, for food security.
Even though Capsicum did not originate in FSM, it has been cultivated andconsumed there for an estimated 300－400 years and thus it is reasonable to consider
it a traditional local food. The importance of this plant as a nutritious and local foodin this region has been largely overlooked despite the fact that the fruits and leaves
are rich in carotenoids and vitamins (R ESOURCES C OUNCIL OF THE S CIENCE ANDTECHNOLOGY AGENCY 2001). In addition, information on Capsicum usage itself isvery limited. Therefore, in the present study, I surveyed the local nomenclature, usage,
and distribution of Capsicum on Kosrae Island to investigate the relationship between
people and Capsicum with a focus on ethnobotany and food security and compare
these factors to the results of Capsicum usage in Pohnpei State (YAMAMOTO 2011) and
Chuuk Atoll (YAMAMOTO 2012).

Study Site and Data Collection
Fieldwork was conducted for 2 weeks in June 2012 on Kosrae Island, Kosrae
State, FSM. Research consisted of interviewing locals, documenting local knowledge
and use of Capsicum species, and observing plants. Figure 1 shows the study sites.
A total of 22 people (12 males and 10 females in Tafunsak, Lelu, Malem, Utwe, andYAMAMOTO: Use of Capsicum on Kosrae Island, Federated States of Micronesia

89Fig. 1. Study sites (●) on Kosrae Island, Kosrae State, Federated States of Micronesia.

)LJ6WXG\VLWHV Ɣ RQ.RVUDH,VODQG.RVUDH6WDWH)HGHUDWHG6WDWHVRI0LFURQHVLDWalung villages) were interviewed regarding the local nomenclature and use of theCapsicum, in terms of perception of pungent Capsicum; knowledge of weed forms of C.
frutescens; bird behavior toward fruits of Capsicum; usage as a condiment, vegetable,
and/or medicine; and popular beliefs, agricultural rituals, and taboos related to thisgenus. The interviewees were 23 to 81 years old, with a median age of 52. Kosraean
words are given following LEE (1976).

Results and Discussion
Local nomenclature for Capsicum and perception of pungent Capsicum on Kosrae
IslandThree species of Capsicum are cultivated on Kosrae Island: C. annuum, C.
frutescens, and C. chinense (morphological characteristics of Capsicum species
collected on Kosrae Island are shown in Table 1). Compared to several islands in
Pohnpei State (YAMAMOTO 2011) and Chuuk Atoll (YAMAMOTO 2012), more pungent

90South Pacific Studies Vol.33, No.2, 2013

cultivars of C. annuum were found on Kosrae Island (Fig. 2A－1 to 2A－3). A nonpungent type, or bell pepper, was also found to be cultivated (Fig. 2A－4). Almost all
people who cultivated these cultivars of C. annuum reported that they had obtained
the seeds or seedlings for $0.10 － 0.30/plant from agricultural sections in theirmunicipalities and planted them within 1 year. Some people had gotten seeds of C.
annuum cultivars recently from Hawai`i or the US mainland from their relatives. A
64-year-old male in Malem said that he had obtained several kinds of C. annuum seeds
and seedlings from the agricultural section of Kosrae Island 7 years ago. These results
suggest that many cultivars of C. annuum were probably introduced into Kosrae Islandvery recently.
Two types of C. frutescens, which had a green or greenish-yellow color whenimmature, respectively, were found on Kosrae island (Fig. 2B－1&2). These two types
are also well known in Pohnpei and Chuuk states (YAMAMOTO 2011, 2012). In contrast
to C. annuum, C. frutescens, in particular the green type, is a common seasoning in thedaily diet of locals and has become an important and indispensable condiment on theisland. Interestingly, C. chinense was cultivated in a home garden in Malem (Fig. 2C)
although this species has not been reported in other areas in FSM. A 43-year-old malecultivating C. chinense plants said that he had never seen it when he was young, whichsuggests its recent introduction to Kosrae Island.
Capsicum peppers are called pwepuh on Kosrae Island. In Marshall, to the eastof Kosrae Island, people call them peybah or pepah (ABO et al. 1976: 236, 240).
Considering the countries that have colonized Micronesia, these local names seemto be related to pfeffer in German or pepper in English. YAMAMOTO (2011) reported
that local names for Capsicum in Pohnpei State, located to the west of Kosrae Island,
include sele and jeli, possibly derived from chile in Spanish or English. Other regional
names, such as mwik (mwiik) in Chuuk State (YAMAMOTO 2012), t’eebil in Yap State(JENSEN 1977: 71), and meringel in Palau (JOSEPHS 1990: 192), all located to the westof Pohnpei State, are of unknown origin. Further linguistic studies in Micronesia may
serve to elucidate the dispersal routes of Capsicum.
Among the 22 interviewees, 3 recognized only one kind of pungent Capsicum(Table 2), which was a cultivar of C. frutescens with small green fruits (Fig. 2B－1).
The other 19 interviewees (86%) recognized more than two types of pungent Capsicum
with the highest number being five types, although they did not have any specificnames for each type. This percentage (86%) was much higher than that in Pohnpei
State (67%) (YAMAMOTO 2011) and Chuuk Atoll (61%) (YAMAMOTO 2012), whichis thought to be the result of the recent and active introduction and promotion of
Capsicum peppers by Kosrae Island’s agricultural sector. Almost all people surveyed
thought that the C. frutescens cultivar with small green fruits was native to theirregion and they called it “Kosraen pepper,” “native,” or “local” － a phenomenon also
confirmed in Pohnpei and Chuuk (YAMAMOTO 2011, 2012). These results may imply
that people in FSM are more attached to the small fruits of C. frutescens. People
thought that the other Capsicum peppers were introduced from the outside after Worldpwepuh

pwepuhpwepuhpwepuhpwepuhpwepuhbell pepper

pwepuhC. frutescens

C. annuum

C. annuum

C. annuum

C. annuum

C. frutescens

C. chinense

C. frutescens

KOS-12

KOS-13

KOS-14

KOS-15

KOS-16

KOS-17

KOS-18

KOS-19

blue

blue

blue

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

blue

blue

blue

blue

blue

blue

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

blue

green

green

green

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

purple

green

green

green

green

purple

green

green

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

little purple

little purple

Filament
color

Flower*no spotno spotno spot

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

purpleno spotno spotno spotno spotno spotno spotno spot

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

no spotno spot

Spot

green

yellowish green

green

green

green

green

green

yellowish green

green

green

green

green

green

green

green

yellowish green

green

green

green

Immature
fruit color*referred to YAMAMOTO and NAWATA (2004) and INTERNATIONAL BOARD FOR PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES (1983).

pwepuhC. frutescens

C. annuum

KOS-8

KOS-11blue

pwepuhC. frutescens

KOS-7

pwepuhpwepuhC. frutescens

KOS-6

pwepuhpwepuhC. annuum

KOS-5

C. frutescens

pwepuhC. annuum

KOS-4

C. frutescens

pwepuhC. annuum

KOS-3

KOS-9

pwepuhC. frutescens

KOS-2

KOS-10blue

pwepuhC. frutescens

KOS-1

blue

pwepuhSpecies
Stamen
color

Local
name

Accession
No.

Table 1. Morphological characteristics of genus Capsicum collected on Kosrae Island.

elongate

campanulate

elongateelongateelongateelongateround

conicalelongateelongateelongateround

elongateelongateelongateelongate

triangularelongateelongate

Fruit
shape

erect

pendent

erectpendent

erectpendent

erect

erect

erect

erect

erect

erect

erect

erect

pendent

pendent

erect

erect

erect

Fruit
position

Fruit*

1-2cm

3-5cm

1-2cm

5-7cm

3-5cm

5-7cm

1-2cm

2-4cm

1-2cm

1-2cm

1-2cm

1-2cm

1-2cm

1-2cm

15cm

10cm

3-4cm

1-2cm

1-2cm

Fruit
lengthcultivatedcultivatedspontaneous

cultivatedcultivatedcultivatedcultivatedcultivatedcultivatedspontaneous

cultivatedcultivatedcultivatedcultivatedcultivatedcultivatedcultivatedcultivatedcultivated

Growth type

YAMAMOTO: Use of Capsicum on Kosrae Island, Federated States of Micronesia
9192

South Pacific Studies Vol.33, No.2, 2013

Ａ－１

Ａ－ 2

Ａ－ 3

Ａ－ 4

B－１

B－２

C

Ｄ－１

Ｄ－２

Ｅ－１

Ｅ－２

Ｆ－１

Ｆ－２

Ｆ－３

Ｆ－４

Fig. 2. Use of Capsicum peppers on Kosrae Island.
Cultivars of C. annuum (A－1: erect fruit, A－2: round fruit, A－3: pendent long fruit, and A－4: bell
pepper). A green immature fruit color type (B－1) and a greenish-yellow fruit color type (B－2) of C.
frutescens. A flower and fruit of C. chinense (C). A weed plant of C. frutescens found growing on a deadstump (D－1&D－2). Plants of Capsicum grown in a field of taro (Colocasia esculenta) (E－1) and in ahome garden (E－2). Hot sauces (F－1) and salted fruits of Capsicum (F－2&F－3) made on Kosrae Island
sold in small shops. Materials for hot sauces (F－4).

YAMAMOTO: Use of Capsicum on Kosrae Island, Federated States of Micronesia

93

Table 2. Perception of pungent Capsicum on Kosrae Island.
How many kinds ofpungent Capsicum
do you know?
1*1
Kosrae 3

2
9

more
10

total
22

Questions for 19 interviewees who knew several kinds of pungent Capsicum
Which fruits are hotter?
C. f.*2
18 [GR:18, GY:0]*3

Which fruits smell better?

Which fruits do you
prefer to eat?

C. a.*2

S*2

C. f.

C. a. S

C. f.

C. a. S1

08 [GR:8, GY:0]412 [GR:12, GY:0]

7

7

0

*1: people know only C. frutescens (small fruits of which immature fruit color was green).
*2: C.f.: C. frutescens, C.a.: C. annuum, and S: same.
[]*3: GR: small fruits of which immature fruit color was green, GY: fruits of which immature fruit color was greenish yellow.

War II. RAGONE et al. (2001) assumed that C. frutescens was introduced to Pohnpei
Island, FSM, during the early westerner contact period (1830－1886) and also during
the American Trust Territory period (1945 － 1986). However, T AKAYAMA (1993:248) reported that Japanese castaways, who reached Belau (Palau) in 1821, observed
Capsicum peppers (it could have been C. frutescens because they mentioned that it wasa “tree plant”). YAMAMOTO (2011) revealed that at least two kinds of C. frutescens,
including those with greenish-yellow fruits, were found in Oceania before 1945 during
a specimen survey at the Bishop Museum, Hawai`i. Further botanical and literaturestudies in Micronesia are necessary to elucidate the genetic distribution, diversity, anddispersal routes of C. frutescens.
The 19 people who recognized more than two types of pungent Capsicum wereasked to comment on each pepper’s spiciness and smell, and which pepper they
preferred (Table 2). Eighteen people considered C. frutescens to be hotter, and all ofthese people reported that the small, green fruit type (GR) was hotter than the greenishyellow type (GY). Of the remaining respondent, a 62-year-old male in Lelu, indicatedthat the round fruit cultivar of C. annuum (Fig. 2A－2) was hotter. Many people
remarked that smaller fruits were much hotter. These results are very similar to those in
Pohnpei and Chuuk (YAMAMOTO 2011, 2012). Regarding aroma, eight people thoughtthat C. frutescens smelled better (GR: 8, GY: 0), four thought that C. annuum smelled
better, and seven thought there was no difference in aroma between the two species. As
for preference, 12 people preferred to eat C. frutescens (GR: 12, GY: 0) and 7 preferred
C. annuum. Those who preferred spicy flavors tended to prefer C. frutescens, whereas
others tended to prefer C. annuum.
Weed forms of C. frutescens and bird behavior toward fruits
Among three species, C. annuum, C. frutescens, and C. chinense, weed forms of C.
frutescens are found at forest edge or along roadsides in Asia and Oceania because of
its semi-domesticated characteristics, such as small fruit size and deciduous fruit, which
are attractive to birds. They were also found along the roadside or around houses on
Kosrae Island (Fig. 2D－1&2). More than 81% of interviewees had seen weed formsof C. frutescens (Table 3), which was slightly lower that in Pohnpei (100%) and Chuuk(91%) (YAMAMOTO 2011, 2012), and the same percentage knew of or had seen birds

94South Pacific Studies Vol.33, No.2, 2013

Table 3. Perception of weedy forms of C. frutescens and bird behavior toward fruits on Kosrae Island.
Do you know weedy

Do you know birds eat

Do you have its plants

its fruits?

in your home garden?

forms of C. frutescens?
KosraeHow did you get the plants?*1
Seeds or plants

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

from villagers

18

4

20

2

8

14

6

Weedy forms*2
2*1: questions for 8 people who had C. frutescens plants in their home garden.
*2: including transplantation from weedy forms in home garden or village.

Table 4. Local names of birds that eat fruits of C. frutescens on Kosrae Island.
Local namePeople answered

chuko (: common domestic fowl)

16

darum (: Zosterops cinerea subspp.)*7

srisri (: Myzomela cardinalis subspp.)*6

wac (: Aplonis opacus subspp.)*3*referred to ENGBRING et al. (1990).

eating fruits of C. frutescens. These birds included species known as chuko (common
domestic fowl), darum (Zosterops cinerea subspp.), srisri (Myzomela cardinalis
subspp.), and wac (Aplonis opaca subspp.; the scientific names of these birds are takenfrom ENGBRING et al. (1990); Table 4). These birds are known to disseminate seeds ofC. frutescens in Pohnpei and Chuuk (YAMAMOTO 2011, 2012), and a common domestic
fowl and birds belonging to the genus Zosterops are also known as disseminators
in Japan (YAMAMOTO 2010a), Taiwan (YAMAMOTO 2009), the Batanes Islands, thePhilippines (YAMAMOTO 2010b), and Cambodia (YAMAMOTO et al. 2011).
Use of Capsicum on Kosrae Island
Fresh or dried fruits
Locals who preferred spicy flavors ate fresh C. frutescens fruits raw or together
with fried turkey tails. Some added fresh fruits to soups and/or fried food, and someused them to make a dipping sauce (a mix of fruits, salt, soy sauce, and lime juice,occasionally with coconut milk, garlic, onion, and/or black pepper) to eat with raw andfried fish. People throughout Kosrae Island appeared to use dried fruits only rarely,
similar to people in Pohnpei and Chuuk (YAMAMOTO 2011, 2012) and the Batanes
Islands (YAMAMOTO 2010b). This is likely because the relatively warm temperaturesand generally plentiful rainfall throughout the year on Kosrae Island enable people tocollect fresh fruits of Capsicum peppers, especially C. frutescens, year-round.
Processed or preserved fruits
Salted fruits and hot sauces of Capsicum peppers were found to be sold in small
shops (Fig. 2F－1&2). People mashed fruits and salt together and put the mixture
into cups for home consumption and also to sell it ($4.50/cup; Fig. 2F－3), which issimilar to the usage in Pohnpei State (YAMAMOTO 2011). At least two ladies produced

YAMAMOTO: Use of Capsicum on Kosrae Island, Federated States of Micronesia

95

hot sauces of Capsicum peppers ($4.50－5.00/bottle) on Kosrae Island by boiling
Capsicum fruits with vinegar and other ingredients (Fig. 2F－4). People in Pohnpei
and Chuuk states soak Capsicum fruits in the fermented water of mature coconuts(Y AMAMOTO 2011, 2012), which may be common throughout Oceania, but thiscondiment was not observed on Kosrae Island in this study.
Use of leaves of C. frutescens
The leaves of Capsicum, especially C. frutescens, are used in soups and in mixesof vegetables on Kosrae Island; in contrast, no one reported eating the roots as a spiceor vegetable. On Kosrae Island, 17 of 22 people indicated that they still use Capsicum
leaves for food although the frequency was very low (Table 5). Y AMAMOTO (2011)
reported that, in Pohnpei State, the frequency of using the leaves is much higher inremote atolls, such as Mokil and Pingelap, than on the main island, Pohnpei Island.
People in Pohnpei Island said that young people no longer liked to eat the leaves of C.
frutescens and that people had stopped eating the leaves because they could not findC. frutescens plants growing as wild forms around their home or because they could
buy other leaf vegetables at the market (YAMAMOTO 2011). This phenomenon was also
confirmed in Chuuk Atoll (YAMAMOTO 2012). It is known that the lifestyle on Pohnpei
Island is more modernized than that on Mokil and Pingelap atolls (KAWAI et al. 2010),
which seems to have affected the use of C. frutescens leaves. YAMAMOTO (2009) also
reported that the indigenous people of Taiwan seem to rarely use the leaves of C.
frutescens because they can buy other vegetables at markets. These results suggest thatthe leaves of C. frutescens may be used less in modern society.
Medicinal uses of Capsicum
A 54-year-old female in Tafunsak mentioned the consumption of Capsicum fruits
for treating diarrhea. A similar remedy was also reported in Taiwan, the Batanes Islands(YAMAMOTO and NAWATA 2009b) and Cambodia (YAMAMOTO and MATSUMOTO 2008).
Scientific studies have demonstrated that certain extracts and essential oils of Capsicum
have negative effects on the growth of some bacteria (ABDOU et al. 1972, GALLI et al.
1985).
Table 5. Use of leaves of C. frutescens on Kosrae Island.
Frequency of use of leaves ofC. frutescens per*2

Use of leaves of C. frutescens
as vegetable
Yes
Kosrae 17 [SO:12, FR:12]*1

Week

No

Total

Several
times

5

22

1

Month

Year

One
time

Several
times

One
time

Several
times

0

3

3

10

[]*1: they used leaves for SO: soup and FR: fried vegetables. Results from multiple answer.
*2: questions for 17 people who eat leaves of C. frutescens.

96South Pacific Studies Vol.33, No.2, 2013

A 52-year-old female in Utwe explained that young leaves were mashed andapplied to boils and wounds. This remedy is well-known in many parts of Oceania
including Pohnpei (YAMAMOTO 2011), Tonga (WHISTLER 1992b), Samoa (UHE 1974,
COX 1993), the Cook Islands, Tahiti (WHISTLER 1992a), and Fiji (unpublished data).
WHISTLER (1992a) indicated that Polynesians cultivated several species of Solanum ascondiments before the European Era, but these have been largely neglected and lost,and Capsicum peppers have assumed many of their medicinal uses.
The same female from Utwe also mentioned placing seeds near the site of atoothache. This remedy was also reported in Chuuk (YAMAMOTO 2012) and is known
in Japan (YAMAMOTO 2010a). In other regions of Oceania, the fruits and/or seeds areused to treat various ailments such as painful joints in Pohnpei (YAMAMOTO 2011),
back pain in Samoa (UHE 1974), aching muscles and body pains in Hawai`i (WHISTLER
1992a), sore throats in the Cook Islands (HOLDSWORTH 1990), body pains and aches in
the Admiralty Islands (HOLDSWORTH and WAMOI 1982), and aches and pains, especiallychest pains, on New Britain Island (H OLDSWORTH 1992). Capsaicin, the pungent
ingredient in hot peppers, has a long-lasting suppressive effect on sensory neuron
activity, and this compound is used to relieve pain caused by arthritis and pruritus inmodern medicines (CRAFT and PORRECA 1992).
Other uses of Capsicum
Nine people responded that they squash the fruits of Capsicum and apply the juice
to diseased eyes of domestic fowl, which is also known in Pohnpei (YAMAMOTO 2011),
Chuuk (YAMAMOTO 2012), Japan (YAMAMOTO 2010a), and Taiwan and the Batanes
Islands (YAMAMOTO and NAWATA 2009b). Capsicum peppers are also featured in erotic
stories using the symbol of Capsicum, “hotness.” They have been found to play a rolein popular beliefs, agricultural rituals, and taboos in many areas of Southeast and East
Asia, and they are also used to produce rice malt and in rituals related to rice malt
production (YOSHIDA 1993, YAMAMOTO 2009, 2010a). However, in the present survey,
there was no evidence of any of these uses on Kosrae Island, as in Pohnpei and Chuuk.

Conclusion
Among Capsicum peppers, C. frutescens remains a very important spice,vegetable, and medicine on Kosrae Island. However, its use as a medicine is very
limited on Kosrae Island compared to other small and remote Pacific islands. Moreover,people on Kosrae Island have been eating less C. frutescens leaves in recent years. To
improve public health on Pacific islands, there should be a renewed focus on plants thatare already naturalized on each island. From this perspective, an important candidate
plant is C. frutescens, which can serve not only as a spice but also as a vegetable richin carotenoids and vitamins, because it has long been naturalized in these regions. It is
still unclear when Capsicum peppers (especially C. frutescens) were first introduced

YAMAMOTO: Use of Capsicum on Kosrae Island, Federated States of Micronesia

97

to Micronesia. Further literature reviews including reports in Spanish, German, andJapanese and botanical analyses on C. frutescens in Micronesia are necessary to further
elucidate its distribution, diversity, and dispersal routes.

Acknowledgements
I am very grateful to all of the interviewees from Kosrae Island for their great
hospitality, kindness, and openness. I am also grateful to the Honorable Lyndon H.
Jackson, Governor of Kosrae State, the Honorable Renster P. Andrew, Deputy Chief ofMission in Embassy of the Federated States of Micronesia in Japan, and Dr. Livinson
Taulung, Director of Department of Health Services in Kosrae State, who helped me
conduct research on Kosrae Island. I wish to thank Mr. Norlin Livaie and Mr. Isaac S.
Isaac for arranging my surveys. I could not have made efficient surveys without their
warmhearted and persevering help.

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