HISTORY AND OVERVIEW OF RIGHTS AND SERVICES FORFEDERAL CRIME VICTIMS WITHIN THE UNITED STATES
I. INTRODUCTION
As a nation, we are often humbled by the remarkable bravery and courage shown bycrime victims in the aftermath of devastating crimes.

Often at great personal sacrifice, victims

of crime press forward with the criminal justice process and encourage others to do the same insearch of a just and fair outcome.

Through their contributions, and the assistance of thousandsof dedicated victim advocates and supporters, the United States has been able to build a strong
network of government and community-based victim assistance programs at all levels of thecriminal justice system.
This paper will provide a brief history of the victims’ movement and discuss the rights
and services available to victims in the United States, focusing primarily on the federal criminal
justice system.
II. BRIEF OVERVIEW OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM IN THE UNITED STATES
Criminal cases in the United States are prosecuted by neutral public officials acting on
behalf of the government, representing “the interests of society as a whole” as opposed to only
the interest of the victim. See Ferri v. Ackerman, 444 U.S. 193, 202-203 (1979); see also Kelly
v. Robinson, 479 U.S. 36, 52 (1986). The United States Constitution grants public officials
within the Executive Branch the power to bring criminal prosecutions.
§ 3; United States v. Armstrong, 517 U.S. 456, 467 (1996).

See U.S. CONST. Art. II,

Moreover, “the United States andits attorneys have the sole power to prosecute criminal cases in the federal courts.”

Maine v.

Taylor, 477 U.S. 131, 136 (1986); see also, e.g., 28 U.S.C. 515(a) (authorizing the Attorney
General to conduct all litigation, “civil or criminal,” on behalf of the United States).
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Today, violations of federal law, such as terrorism, distribution of child pornography,
bank robbery and human trafficking crimes, are prosecuted primarily by the United States
Department of Justice (“DOJ”) through its litigating divisions and 93 United States Attorneys’
Offices.

Federal judges preside over criminal trials, which are decided by a jury of twelve.

Violations of state criminal laws, such as homicides, sexual assaults, and child abuse offenses,
are prosecuted mostly by local prosecutors’ offices (often called district attorney’s offices), andin some cases, by State Attorneys General Offices (depending on the type ofcrime involved). 1

Federal, state, and local prosecutors’ offices and law enforcement agencies employ
victim-witness support personnel, who collectively assist victims and witnesses during all stagesof the criminal justice process.

III. HISTORY OF THE VICTIMS’ RIGHTS MOVEMENT IN THE U.S.
In the modern era, beginning primarily in the 1960s, crime victims sought more
involvement and recognition in the criminal justice process.

Increasing crime rates prompted

President Lyndon Johnson to establish the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and theAdministration of Justice, which conducted the first national victimization surveys.

Surveyresults showed that “victimization rates were far higher than shown in law enforcement figures –and that many non-reporting victims acted out of distrust of the criminal justice system.” See
Dr. Marlene Young and John Stein, The History of the Crime Victims’ Movement in the UnitedStates, April 2005, at 2-3, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc/ncvrw/2005/pg4c.html.
Also in the 1960s, in recognition of the often devastating financial impact of crime, states1

In some states, local prosecutors are called “Commonwealth’s Attorneys,” “County Attorneys,”or “State’s Attorneys.”-2-began to establish crime victim compensation programs.

These programs provided

reimbursement to crime victims for out-of-pocket expenses incurred as a result of the crime.
California established the first program in 1965, followed soon after by New York. Id., at 3.
Twenty-eight states had established compensation programs by the late 1970s, reimbursing
crime victims for medical bills, lost wages, and other expenses. The creation of these programs
spurred increased victim participation in the criminal justice system, in part because victims
were required to file police reports and cooperate with the prosecution to be eligible forcompensation. Id. Today, every state and the District of Columbia has a victim compensation
program.
Feminists concerned about the criminal justice system’s treatment of rape and sexualassault victims also played an important role in developing direct assistance programs for crime
victims. Id., at 3-4.

Two of the first victim assistance programs were rape crisis centers (inWashington, D.C., and in the San Francisco Bay area), both established in 1972.

These

programs contributed significantly to the victims’ movement, in part because they recognized“emotional crisis” as part of the injury suffered by victims and attracted volunteers to provide
support for victims. Id., at 4.
Many courageous victim-survivors also spearheaded new programs, recognizing the needfor additional services in their communities. For example, battered women established sheltersand hotlines for other victims. In 1974, survivors of homicide victims formed “Families andFriends of Missing Persons” in Washington state.

Id., at 5.

Four years later, parents of ayoung murder victim founded “Parents of Murdered Children” to provide support for homicide
survivors. Id.

And in 1980, Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) was co-founded by two-3-women whose children had been killed or injured by drunk drivers.

Id.

By the mid-1970s, victim issues were attracting national attention.

In 1975, the firstnational victims assistance program, the National Organization for Victim Assistance (NOVA),was formed to help “consolidate the purposes and goals of the victim’s movement.” Id., at 5.
NOVA promoted networking opportunities and sponsored training programs for those working
with victims.

Similar organizations continued to grow in strength and number, providing

crisis intervention, counseling, and compensation for victims.
Also in the 1970's, prosecutors’ offices and law enforcement agencies began hiring
victim-support personnel, who assisted with referrals to social service agencies and provided
victims with notification of case-related events. Id.,at 4.

With increasing frequency,

prosecutors sought victims’ views about court-related events such as bail determinations, plea
bargains and sentencing matters. Id.
Victim issues captured the attention of the White House in 1981, with President Ronald
Reagan announcing the first “National Crime Victims Rights Week,” to honor victims and theirsurviving family members.

A year later, President Reagan established a Task Force on Victimsof Crime. See Exec. Order No. 12,360, 47 Fed. Reg. 17, 975 (Apr. 23, 1982).

The Task Forceheld six hearings nationwide and made numerous recommendations for improving the treatmentof victims and witnesses within the criminal justice system. See President’s Task Force on
Victims of Crime, Final Report (1982).

For example, it recommended passage of legislation torequire victim impact statements at sentencing; protection for victims and witnesses from
intimidation; restitution in all cases absent special circumstances; and the development ofguidelines for the “fair treatment of crime victims and witnesses.” Id. at 33.
-4-(1982). The task

force also recommended that Congress provide funding for state crime victims compensation
programs.

Id. at 37.

Shortly after the Task Force issued its report, Congress passed the first major federal
victims rights law, entitled the “Victim and Witness Protection Act of 1982" (“VWPA”). Pub. L.
No. 97-291, 96 Stat. 1248. Among other things, the VWPA prohibited victim or witness
intimidation and strengthened restitution options for victims in certain types of offenses.
18 U.S.C. §§ 1512-1515; see also 18 U.S.C. 3579(a)(1) (1982 ed., Supp. IV). 2

See

In enacting the

VWPA, Congress declared that “without the cooperation of victims and witnesses, the criminal
justice system would cease to function; yet with few exceptions these individuals are either
ignored by the criminal justice system or simply used as tools to identify and punish offenders.”
Id., Section 2 (a) (1).
Congress also directed the Attorney General to develop and implement guidelines
consistent with the purposes of the VWPA.

Accordingly, the Attorney General created the“Attorney General Guidelines for Victim and Witness Assistance” in 1985.

Revisedapproximately every five years, the guidelines are “to be followed by officers and employees ofDepartment of Justice investigative, prosecutorial, and correctional components in the treatment ofvictims of and witnesses to crime.” See Attorney General Guidelines for Victim and Witness
Assistance, Art. III, A. at 7.

Two years after the passage of the VWPA, Congress enacted the “Victims of Crime Actof 1984" (“VOCA”). 42 U.S.C. § 10601 et. seq.

This landmark legislation established the“Crime Victims Fund,” thereby providing a stable funding source for federal, state, local, tribal,
2

Effective November 1, 1987, the VWPA was recodified pursuant to the Sentencing Reform Act
of 1984, 98 Stat. 1987 and as a result, 18 U.S.C. 3579 became 18 U.S.C. 3663.
-5-and non-profit victim assistance programs.

Receiving no tax dollars, the fund is made up of

criminal fines, fees, bond forfeitures, and assessments collected from convicted federal offenders.
The first VOCA funds were distributed in 1986. State and local governments also received
financial assistance from Congress through passage of the Justice Assistance Act in 1984. P.L.
98-473.

In 1990, Congress passed the Crime Control Act, and included within it theVictim Rights and Restitution Act, which provided victims with a list of rights and defined agroup of mandatory services.

See 42 U.S.C. §§ 10606 and 10607.

Although the rights

delineated in§ 10606 were subsequently repealed by the Crime Victims Rights Act (18 U.S.C. § 3771), themandatory service provisions of § 10607 remain in effect.

Pursuant to this provision, at theearliest opportunity after the detection of a crime, employees must provide information to
victims on the status of the case, address their safety concerns, and refer them to services, suchas emergency medical assistance and counseling. 42 U.S.C. § 10607 (c)(1)-(3).
Subsequent legislation continued to expand victims’ rights.

For example, Congress

began to include mandatory victim restitution provisions in the federal criminal code. See e.g.
18 U.S.C. § 228 (“Child Support Recovery Act of 1992") (imposing mandatory restitution for
those convicted of willfully failing to pay child support).

In 1994, Congress establishedmandatory restitution provisions for the crimes of sexual abuse, sexual exploitation and otherabuse of children, domestic violence, and telemarketing fraud, in the Violence Against Women’sAct (“VAWA”).

See 18 U.S.C. Section 2248, 2259, 2264, 2327.

Twelve years later,

Congress enacted the Mandatory Victim Restitution Act (MVRA), Title II of the Antiterrorism
and Effective Death Penalty Act of1996 (Pub. L. No. 104-32, 110 Stat. 1214 (Apr. 24, 1996)),-6-

which made restitution mandatory for many federal crimes, and enhanced measures for enforcing
and collecting restitution.
Laws providing protection for specific categories of victims were enacted with increasing
frequency.

For example, the Violence Against Women Act (“VAWA”), created numerous

grant programs to assist domestic violence victims, initially authorizing $1 billion over five years.
See Pub. L. No.103-322 (1994).

Subsequent amendments to VAWA in 1996 and 2000 madedomestic violence and stalking federal offenses. See 18 U.S.C. § 2261A. In 2000, Congress
legislated protections for immigrant victims of domestic violence, human trafficking and otherviolent crimes in the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act.

See 22 U.S.C. §§7101-7110; 8 U.S.C.§ 1101(a)(15)(U) (creating “T visas” for victims of severe forms of
trafficking and “U” visas for victims of violent crime who cooperate with the investigation andprosecution.)

After the Oklahoma City bombing, Congress passed the Justice for Victims of

Terrorism Act, establishing specific programs for immediate crisis response to victims, and interalia, providing terrorism victims the right to participate in criminal trials.

Pub.L. No. 104-132(1996).
Congress also enacted specialized provisions to protect child victims and witnesses
during the court process, such as creating alternatives for live, in-court testimony in appropriate
circumstances and requiring documents containing child’s names to be filed under seal.
U.S.C. § 3509.

Laws to protect children from sexual predators were passed as well.

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See e.g.

PROTECT Act of 2003, Pub. L. No. 108-21 (2003) (establishing a national Amber Alertcoordinator and prohibiting foreign child sex tourism); see also “Adam Walsh Child Protectionand Safety Act,” Pub. L. 109-248 (2006) (establishing sex offender registration requirements and-7-making failure to register a felony).

Elderly victims also received protections through the Older

Americans Act Reauthorization of 2006, requiring the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services to develop a long-term national response plan for elder abuse prevention, intervention,and treatment.
Despite the significant numbers of laws protecting victims, many crime victims’ rights
advocates were concerned that existing statutory provisions were inadequate and thus began to“push for a constitutional amendment.” See e.g., Cassell, Paul G., Recognizing Victims in theFederal Rules of Criminal Procedure: Proposed Amendments in Light of the Crime Victims’
Rights Act, 2005 B.Y.U.L. Rev. 835, 848-850 (2005). The first proposal to create a Crime
Victims’ Rights amendment to the United States Constitution was introduced in 1996 by
Senators Dianne Feinstein (D-CA), and John Kyl (R-AZ).
withdrawn due to a lack of support.

The proposal was ultimately

Eight years later, the amendment was re-introduced inCongress, but withdrawn again due to insufficient support.

A few months later, however,Congress passed a comprehensive rights bill for federal crime victims, calling it the “Scott
Campbell, Stephanie Roper, Wendy Preston, Loarna Gillis, and Nila Lynn Crime Victims’
Rights Act,” in honor of five homicide victims. Known simply as the “Crime Victims Rights
Act,” or the “CVRA,” the law codifies eight rights for crime victims, and includes provisions
enabling victims to enforce their rights both at the trial and appellate levels in federal court.
See 18 U.S.C. § 3771.

Under the CVRA, a “victim,” is defined as “a person directly andproximately harmed as a result of the commission of a Federal offense or an offense in theDistrict of Columbia.” 3

3

The rights afforded to federal crime victims by the CVRA are as“In the case of a crime victim who is under 18 years of age, incompetent, incapacitated, or
deceased, the legal guardians of the crime victim or the representatives of the crime victim’s-8-follows:(1) The right to be reasonably protected from the accused;(2) The right to reasonable, accurate, and timely notice of any public court proceeding,or any parole proceeding, involving the crime or of any release or escape of theaccused.
(3) The right not to be excluded from any such public court proceeding, unless the court,
after receiving clear and convincing evidence, determines that testimony by thevictim could be materially altered if the victim heard other testimony at thatproceeding.
(4) The right to be reasonably heard at any public proceeding in the district court
involving release, plea, sentencing, or any parole proceeding.
(5) The reasonable right to confer with the attorney for the Government in the case.
(6) The right to full and timely restitution as provided in law.
(7) The right to proceedings free from unreasonable delay.
(8) The right to be treated with fairness and with respect for the victim’s dignity andprivacy.
Additionally, the CVRA directed DOJ to designate an authority to receive and investigate
complaints from federal crime victims alleging violations of their rights. See 18 U.S.C. §3771(f)(1) and (2).

Accordingly, DOJ established the Office of the Victims' Rights

Ombudsman (VRO) in January 2006, within the Executive Office for United States Attorneys.
Victims of federal crimes can file complaints with the VRO against any employee located in a
United States Attorney’s Office, or in one of thirteen DOJ components.

The VRO maintains apublic website providing information about the program and the CVRA, and detailingprocedures for filing complaints.

See www.justice.gov/usao/eousa/vr/index.html.

estate, family members, or any other persons appointed as suitable by the court, may assume thecrime victims’ rights under this chapter, but in no event shall the defendant be named as suchguardian or representative.” 18 U.S.C. § 3771 (e).
-9-IV. VICTIM ASSISTANCE IN FEDERAL PROSECUTOR’S OFFICES AND LAW
ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES
Victim assistance personnel in the United States can generally be divided into two
categories: “system-based” advocates, who work in prosecutors’ offices or law enforcement
agencies and “community-based” advocates, who work for non-profit or community
organizations.

The role of “system-based” advocates is to provide victims with informationand support during the various stages of the criminal justice system - i.e. investigation,prosecution, and post-conviction.

The following is a brief description of some of thesystem-based programs operating in federal prosecutors’ offices and law enforcement agencies
in the United States.
A.

United States Attorneys’ Offices
Every United States Attorney’s Office (“USAO”) has a Victim-Witness Program, usually

led by a Victim Witness Coordinator (“VWC”) and staffed with additional victim witness
personnel. The Executive Office for United States Attorneys, through its Law Enforcement
Coordinator/Victim Witness Staff, provides support and guidance to victim witness personnel in
the USAOs.

Providing information, support and assistance to federal crime victims andwitnesses, these highly-skilled professionals are often a source of great comfort for victims.
Examples of federal crimes in which victim support is often provided include bank robberies,
child pornography, financial crimes, identity theft, hate crimes, terrorism, or violent crimes that
occur on federal or Native lands such as homicide, sexual assault, domestic violence, or childabuse.

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Victim witness personnel assist victims in numerous ways, including notifying them ofcourt proceedings and significant case developments, providing counseling referrals, locating
temporary housing, and assisting with victim impact statements.

VWCs are available to explain

the court process, including the reasons for any delay, and often attend court proceedings withvictims, providing a comforting presence while victims testify or listen to difficult testimony
about their loved ones.

Prior to sentencing hearings, victim witness personnel are available toanswer victims’ questions about victim impact statements.
Victim witness personnel also address witness security concerns, make travel
arrangements and ensure reimbursement for required court appearances.

Working closely withfellow law enforcement advocates and community victims service providers, Victim Witness
personnel often serve on task forces or multi-disciplinary teams and often develop innovative
programs designed to enhance rights and services for specific victim populations.

By way ofexample, the Victim Witness Program in the U.S. Attorney’s Office for the Western District of
Wisconsin, with funding and support from the Office for Victims of Crime, provided community
training and developed an educational video that addressed the devastating problem thatmethamphetamine addiction can have on children.
B.

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) - Office for Victim Assistance (OVA)The Office for Victim Assistance (OVA) within the Federal Bureau of Investigation(FBI), is located at FBI headquarters in Washington, D.C., and is responsible for assisting
victims of crimes investigated by the FBI. See www.fbi.gov/hq/cid/victimassist/resources.htm.
OVA manages the daily operational aspects of its Victim Assistance Program (VAP) in 56 FBI
field offices and international offices.

Among its other responsibilities, OVA provides-11-emergency assistance to victims of terrorist attacks; coordinates victim notification in childpornography cases; oversees the forensic child interviewing program; and provides specialized
assistance to Native American victims of crime.
OVA also manages and supports 122 Victim Specialists located within the FBI field
offices, who provide direct assistance to federal crime victims.

The FBI requires that Victim

Specialists have extensive knowledge and experience in crisis intervention, social services, andvictim assistance.

These professionals also provide notification of case events to victims andrefer them to services within their communities such as compensation programs, rape crisis
centers, and homicide bereavement groups.
Victim Specialists are often a crucial support system for victims and family members,
helping them at some of their most vulnerable moments.

In the aftermath of the Mumbai

terrorist attacks, for example, Victim Specialists quickly assisted in the identification ofAmerican victims, arranged for repatriation of those who had died, and helped evacuate those
who were injured. See Transcript of testimony of Mary Lou Leary, Acting Assistant Attorney
General, Office of Justice Programs, Department of Justice, before the House Judiciary
Committee, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism and Homeland Security (September 29, 2009).
C.

United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement Agency (ICE)ICE investigates a significant number of federal crimes involving human trafficking,child exploitation, child sex tourism, genocide, identity theft, and telemarketing fraud.

ICE’s

Victim Assistance Program, consisting of fifteen full-time Victim Assistance Coordinators in thefield, 350 collateral duty Victim Assistance Coordinators and five headquarters staff, address thephysical, psychological, and financial harms that victims often suffer.
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ICE works often withhuman trafficking victims and child sex tourism victims, providing them shelter, food, interpreter
services, and other basic services in the immediate aftermath of these horrific crimes.
D.

Additional Victim Assistance Programs within DOJ and Federal Government

Agencies
In addition to the agencies described above, many other DOJ components and federal agencies
have programs to support victims of federal crimes, including but not limited to the Criminal
Division, the Civil Rights Division (Criminal Section), the Drug Enforcement Agency, the U.S.
Parole Commission, the Bureau of Prisons; the Bureau of Alcohol Tobacco and Firearms, theOffice of Justice for Victims of Overseas Terrorism, the United States Postal Inspection Service,
the Department of State, the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the U.S. Military.
V. DOJ COMPONENTS THAT PROVIDE LEADERSHIP ON VICTIM ISSUES AND
GRANTS FOR VICTIM ASSISTANCE PROGRAMSAssisting crime victims and protecting their rights, is a “high priority for Attorney
General Holder and the Department of Justice.” See Statement of Mary Lou Leary, Acting
Assistant Attorney General, Office of Justice Programs, Department of Justice, before the House
Judiciary Committee, Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism and Homeland Security (September 29,2009), at 2.

DOJ personnel work hard every day to provide victims with the rights and services

to which they are entitled, notifying them of court proceedings, ensuring that their voices areheard in court, and being available to listen to their concerns. DOJ components and offices thatwork on matters assisting crime victims are too numerous to mention.

Accordingly, this paper

will focus on three offices that support a nationwide effort to assist victims of crime in all levelsof the criminal justice system.

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A.

Office of Justice Programs
Within the Department of Justice, the Office for Justice Programs (OJP) provides

leadership and develops programs to increase public safety and improve the fair administrationof justice.

OJP is comprised of five bureaus and two program offices: the Bureau of JusticeAssistance, the Bureau of Justice Statistics; the National Institute of Justice; the Office ofJuvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, the Office for Victims of Crime, the Community
Capacity Development Office, and the Sex Offender Sentencing, Monitoring, Apprehending,
Registering, and Tracking Office (SMART). See www.ojp.gov. All of OJP’s bureaus andcomponents develop programs and strategies to assist victims and prevent victimization,
however this paper will highlight the work of the Office for Victims of Crime.
B.

Office for Victims of Crime
The Office for Victims of Crime (OVC) was established within OJP through anamendment to the Victims of Crime Act of 1984.

OVC’s primary mission is to “enhance thenation’s capacity to assist crime victims” and to “be a leader in transforming attitudes, polices,andpracticesthat

encourage

justiceandhealingforvictims.”See

www.ovc.gov./about/offices/ovc.htm. OVC also provides training and technical assistance tovictim service providers, prosecutors, law enforcement officers, and other professionals, and also
“works to raise awareness of victims” issues and “to promote compliance with victims’ rights
laws.”

See OVC Report to the Nation, Fiscal Years 2007 - 2008, at ix. OVC also offers awealth of information on its website, such as a comprehensive directory of victim assistanceresources.

Sponsoring national and state victim assistance academies that provide academic

instruction for victim service providers, OVC also offers web forums on such topics as vicarious-14-trauma, working with survivors of traumatic events, and serving victims of stalking.
Perhaps OVC’s most recognizable role is its administration of the Crime Victims Fund(“the fund”).

Notably, no tax payer dollars are used to support the fund, as it is comprised

entirely of criminal fines, bail bond forfeiture, penalties, fees, and special assessments collectedfrom federal convicted offenders, as well as private donations.

Congress imposed a cap on

distributions from the fund in 2000, to control large fluctuations in deposits. See OVC Reportto the Nation (2009), at 4.

In fiscal year 2010, the cap was set at $705 million. Id.

Monies in the fund are disbursed pursuant to a carefully established allocation process.
Earmarks are deducted from the fund first as follows: (1) Children’s Justice Act grants, including
formula grants to states through the United States Department of Health and Human Services,and discretionary grants to tribes for services and programs to improve the investigation andprosecution of child abuse and neglect cases in American Indian and Alaska Native
communities;(2) Victim Witness Coordinators in U.S. Attorneys Offices; (3) Victim

Specialists in the FBI, and (4) the federal Victim Notification System.
Funds are disbursed to state victim compensation programs through formula grants.
The Director of OVC is required to make an annual grant to eligible crime victim compensation
programs that is equal to 60 percent of the amount awarded by the state program to victims ofcrime from state revenues during the fiscal year preceding the year of deposits in the Fund (twoyears prior to the grant year), other than amounts awarded for property damage.

If the amountin the Fund is insufficient to award each state 60 percent of its prior year’s compensation payout
from state revenues, all states will be awarded the same reduced percentage of their prior year
payout from the available funds other than amounts awarded for property damage.
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The

distributions may not exceed 47.5 percent of the remaining Crime Victim Fund balance(available after earmarks and discretionary funds). VOCA requires all state compensation
programs to offer, at a minimum, “reimbursement for expenses related to medical and dental care,counseling, funeral and burial services, and lost wages.” Id., at 17.

However, these programs

may reimburse victims for additional expenses such as “travel, temporary lodging, crime scenecleanup, and dependent care.” Id. 4
State Victim Assistance grants receive 47.5 percent of the amount remaining after
earmarks, plus any amounts not used for victim compensation grants.

States often award

sub-grants to victim service providers in criminal justice agencies, noncriminal justice
government agencies, (including hospitals, public housing offices, hospitals, and social service
and mental health agencies); private, non-profit organizations, including rape crisis centers,
shelters, mental health organizations, religious organizations, hospitals and others; and American
Indian tribes or organizations.

During fiscal years 2007 - 2008, victim assistance funding

supported over 33.7 million specific services to more than 7.89 million victims of crime. See
OVC Report to the Nation (2009), at 23.
OVC discretionary grant amounts are calculated after all program area allocations are
determined, except for formula grants, and may total 5 percent of the remaining balance. Id., at
8.

Discretionary grants serve a vital purpose, helping to meet “emerging needs” and filling“gaps in existing services and support model programs to help strengthen the skills and abilities”
of victim service providers. Id., at 47.

Examples of innovative discretionary grants include

4

Maximum reimbursement amounts for these categories must be established by each state andterritory receiving these funds. OVC Report to the Nation (2009) at 17.
-16-the development of Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner (SANE) and Sexual Assault Response
Teams (SART); promoting cultural change in law enforcement’s response to victims; assisting
victims with disabilities; and supporting resource centers that provide counseling and legal
assistance for identity theft victims.

Id., at 48-49, 52-53, 57-58.

Additionally, OVC receives

specially designated funds that are not part of the Crime Victims Fund, to support “thedevelopment or enhancement of emergency services to assist victims of severe forms of
trafficking.” Id., at 51.
OVC is also authorized to set aside $50 million in an Antiterrorism Emergency Reserve
account to support programs to assist victims of terrorism and mass violence, including theInternational Terrorism Victims Compensation Program. In recent years, these funds havesupported crisis response and victim compensation in the aftermath of several mass shooting
incidents in the United States in which several people were killed.
C.

The Office on Violence Against Women (OVW)
Created in 1995, the Office on Violence Against Women (OVW) assists in developing

the nation's capacity to reduce violence against women through the implementation of theViolence Against Women Act. Through financial and technical assistance to communities
across the U.S., OVW supports programs, policies, and practices aimed at ending domestic
violence, dating violence, sexual assault, and stalking. See www.ovw.usdoj.gov/overview.htm.
Currently, OVW administers two formula grant programs and 17 discretionary grant programs,
and to-date has awarded over $4 billion in grants and cooperative agreements.

-17-http://www.ovw.usdoj.gov/overview.htm. Id.
OVW has also developed a number of special initiatives through its grant programs andcollaborative projects.

One such initiative is the “National Domestic Violence Hotline,” whichis administered by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Hotline advocates takean average of 21,000 calls per month nationwide, from domestic violence victims and theirfriends and family members. The advocates provide immediate crisis counseling and connect
victims with services in their local communities. See Statement of Catherine Pierce, Acting
Director, Office on Violence Against Women, United States Department of Justice, before theUnited States Senate Committee on the Judiciary, at 2 (June 10, 2009).
OVW has also coordinated a series of projects to encourage communities to develop
sexual assault forensic medical exams that are designed to minimize trauma to victims and toincrease the chances of successful prosecution of these cases. Id., at 5.

Toward this end,

OVW assisted in developing a national protocol for Sexual Assault Medical Forensic
Examinations (the SAFE Protocol), as well as national training standards for sexual assault nurse
examiners (SANE). Id.

It currently funds the SAFE Technical Assistance Project, an ongoingcollaboration with the International Association of Forensic Nurses, to assist communities in
implementing the SAFE Protocol. Id.

OVW also supports initiatives to prevent elder abuse,stalking, and teen dating a violence.

Recently, OVW partnered with the Vera Institute ofJustice in an effort to meet the needs of deaf victims of domestic violence. Id., at 7.
VI. NON-GOVERNMENTAL VICTIM SUPPORT GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS

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A.

Advocates
Many community-based advocates provide local support to victims, regardless ofwhether these victims report the crimes to law enforcement agencies.

For example, sexualassault advocates often answer victims’ questions about the law enforcement reporting process,explaining medical exams and evidence collection procedures, and help them to understand theiroptions for treatment of sexually transmitted diseases.

Community-based advocates also

provide support to domestic violence victims through free counseling, safety planning assistance,and shelter referrals.

Many community-based advocates help domestic violence and stalking

victims obtain protection orders as well.
B.

National Victim Assistance Organizations
Grassroots and other community organizations have been essential to establishing astrong victim assistance infrastructure in the United States.

Many national programs began as

small collections of victims and survivors, passionate about helping fellow victims.

Below is abrief description of just a few of the organizations that provide assistance to victims, family
members, service providers, and allied professionals.
1.

National Center for Victims of Crime (NCVC)
Organized in 1985, NCVC is a non-profit organization that works with community

groups and criminal justice agencies throughout the U.S.

NCVC provides direct services andresources to victims of crime, advocates for resources and for victims’ rights’ laws and public
polices; and provides training and technical assistance to victim service organizations,counselors, criminal justice professionals, and others.
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See www.ncvc.org.

NCVC alsomaintains “Victim Law,” a comprehensive, online database of victims’ rights laws and casesummaries.
2.

National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC)Founded in 1984, NCMEC was established as a private, nonprofit organization to assist

in the prevention of child abduction, endangerment and sexual exploitation.

NCMEC operates

a 24-hour, toll-free hotline that takes reports of missing children and receives leads in ongoinginvestigations.

It also provides training, technical assistance and public outreach on theprevention, investigation, and prosecution of cases involving missing and exploited children.
3.

RAINN (Rape Abuse and Incest National Network)
The largest anti-sexual assault organization in the United States, RAINN sponsors

numerous programs to assist victims of sexual assault, rape and incest.

RAINN operates a

24-hour National Sexual Assault Hotline (both a telephone and on-line version) involving acollaboration of more than 1,100 local rape crisis centers.

The organization partners withcelebrities to deliver sexual assault prevention awareness programs. See www.rainn.org.
4.

National Crime Victims’ Law Institute (NCVLI)NCVLI was founded in 1997 as a national resource for crime victims and their lawyers,

and to assist them in asserting victims’ rights in criminal and civil matters. See
www.ncvli.org/history.html. Since 2002, NCVLI has received funding from DOJ, through the
Office for Victims of Crime, to support a comprehensive, national effort to advance the rights ofvictims.

The centerpiece of this effort is a network of pro bono legal clinics that NCVLI-20-

supports across the country that provide direct legal assistance to crime victims in criminal court
proceedings in the enforcement of their statutory rights at the state, federal, and tribal levels.

In

federal court cases, the clinics represent victims in the enforcement of their rights under the
Crime Victims Rights Act.

Along with the funding to the clinics, NCVLI provides them withintensive technical assistance in furtherance of their work.

Additionally, as part of its overall

initiative to advance crime victims’ rights, NCVLI provides education and training on victims’rights, offers legal technical assistance to attorneys around the country who represent victims in
the enforcement of their rights, files amicus curiae briefs in cases nationally, convenes a national
victims’ rights training conference, publishes a bi-annual newsletter on victims’ rights litigationand issues, and facilitates a national network of attorneys and others interested in theenforcement of victims’ rights. Id.
5.

National Crime Victim Bar Association (NCVBA)
Affiliated with NCVC, the NCVBA provides technical support to attorneys who

represent crime victims in civil actions and promotes awareness of the availability of civil
remedies for victims.
VIII. VICTIM ASSISTANCE DURING EACH STAGE OF THE FEDERAL CRIMINALJUSTICE PROCESS
Prosecutors, investigators, victim advocates, and others who work in federal agencies“engaged in the detection, investigation, or prosecution of crime shall make their best efforts tosee that crime victims are notified of, and accorded the rights” set forth in the Crime Victim
Rights Act. See 18 U.S.C. § 3771(c)(1).

Federal employees are also required, pursuant to 42-21-

U.S.C. § 10607, to provide victims with notice, information and services, and with all otherapplicable rights as provided for in other statutes or the rules of criminal procedure.
Department of Justice employees also must adhere to the guidance set forth in the Attorney
General Guidelines on Victim and Witness Assistance (“AG Guidelines”).
Article IV of the AG Guidelines provides detailed steps for addressing victims’ needs
and concerns at the investigative, prosecution, and corrections stages of the criminal justiceprocess.

In addition, the AG Guidelines provide instructions and discuss considerations forworking with specific categories of victims including children and victims of domestic violence,
sexual assault, stalking, identity theft, human trafficking, terrorism and other mass casualties.
See AG Guidelines, Art. VI - X, pp. 48-74.

As an overarching principle, victims must betreated with fairness, dignity, and respect, and the AG Guidelines provide that a strong
presumption exists in favor of providing rather than withholding assistance and services tovictims and witnesses of crime.” Id., Art. II.B., at p. 7; see also 18 U.S.C. § 3771(a)(8).
A.

Investigative Stage

1.

Information, Notice, and Referrals to Services
During the investigative stage of a case, responsible officials (ordinarily case agents),

must identify victims “at the earliest opportunity after the detection of a crime at which it might
be done without interfering with the investigation.” Id., Art.IV.A.2., at p. 22.

Responsible

officials must also provide identified victims with a list of rights and available services, alongwith the name and contact information of a person who is available to answer the victims’-22-questions.

Id., Art.IV.A.3.a.(1), at p. 23.

In addition, victims must be provided information

about where to receive emergency medical or social services; the availability of restitution orother relief (including crime victim compensation programs); counseling programs; the right tomake a statement about pretrial release of a defendant in cases involving interstate domestic
violence, violation of a protection order, or stalking and the availability of services for victims ofthese crimes; the availability of payment for medical testing in sexual assault cases, the option
for being included in the automated Victim Notification System, and available protections from
intimidation or harassment. Id.,,Art. IV.A.3.a.(1)(a)-(k), and e, pp. 23-26.
Information about the status of the investigation shall be provided to the victim, “to theextent that it is appropriate and will not interfere with the investigation”; and the victim shall be
notified of the suspect’s arrest. Id., Art. IV.A.3.a.(3)(a)-(b), at p. 25.

Responsible officials

shall also ensure that any property of the victim that is being held for evidence is maintained ingood condition and ultimately returned to the victim. Id., Art. IV.A.3.c., at p. 25.

Further, if

requested by a victim, responsible officials shall assist in notifying the victim’s employer if thecrime causes the victim to miss work, or the victim’s creditor, if the crime results in the victim’s
inability to make timely payments.
2.

Id., Art. IV.A.3.d.(1)-(2), at p. 25-26.

Protection from Intimidation and Harassment
During a criminal investigation, victims and witnesses often express concerns for theirsafety.

Although witness security and intimidation are common in drug trafficking, homicide,and organized crime cases, threats can arise in any case at any time during the investigation orprosecution.

Law enforcement agencies and federal prosecutors offices have several tools to-23-

address the security concerns of victims and witnesses, although law enforcement officers should
be involved in the determination of how to assist the victim or witness.
Once a defendant has been charged, the prosecutor may, if appropriate, move for pretrial
detention of the defendant. See 18 U.S.C. § 3142.

The prosecutor also may ask that the court

to order the defendant to have no contact with the victim or witnesses. See 18 U.S.C. §3142(C) (1)(B)(v).

As yet another measure, prosecutors may seek a temporary restraining

order prohibiting the defendant from harassing the victim or witness. See 18 U.S.C. § 1514; seealso AG Guidelines, Art. VII.B.4. During court proceedings, a prosecutor or victim witness
advocate should ensure that a separate waiting area is made available to a victim or witness sothat he/she does not have to come into contact with the defendant or his associates.
10607 (c)(4).

42 U.S.C. §In addition, the programs described below may also assist in addressing victim or

witness security concerns.
(i) Emergency Witness Assistance Program
Relocation can be one of the most effective tools available to prosecutors in assisting
threatened and intimidated witnesses.

In recognition of this fact, DOJ created the Emergency

Witness Assistance Program (“EWAP”) in 1977.

The purpose of this program is to provide

United States Attorneys Offices (“USAOs”) a critical tool in assisting witnesses on an
emergency basis “to ensure their well-being and that they will be available for trial, other court
proceedings, or activities related to an ongoing case.”

See Gaines, Crystal, “Witness

Intimidation,” United States Attorney’s Bulletin, January 2003 at 9. The EWAP also addresses
the “physical, mental, or emotional reservations” of a witness or prospective witness regarding-24-

their cooperation with the investigation and prosecution. Id.
Each USAO has its own protocol outlining permissible uses of EWAP funds.

Decisionsas to how, when, and whether to use the funding are left to the discretion of individual USAOs.
Examples of expenses that may be requested through the EWAP include, but are not limited to:transportation to permit a witness to leave his/her neighborhood in order to get away from thedanger area, temporary housing or moving expenses, temporary subsistence (consisting of areasonable portion of the permissible federal per diem amount for the location); emergency
telephone service to permit the witness to remain in touch with the USAO, and transportation
costs for school or immediate medical or counseling needs. Id. at 9.
EWAP’s purpose is not to provide physical protection for a witness, and EWAP services
do not include protective services or a law enforcement presence. Id.

Additionally, a person’s

participation in the EWAP does not relieve him/her of any responsibilities with regard to debt,
custody, child support, court, or other obligations. EWAP is considered “a fund of last resort”
and is limited to those witnesses who are frightened and endangered. Id.
(ii) The Federal Witness Security Program
Another useful tool in assisting threatened or intimidated witnesses is the Federal
Witness Security Program, created in by Attorney General Robert Kennedy in the 1960's toprotect witnesses willing to testify against organized crime defendants. See Ruleman, Eileen,“Witness Security and Special Operations Unit,” United States Attorneys’ Bulletin, January
2007, Vol. 55, No. 1, at 7.

Since the program’s inception, more than 8,000 protected witnesses

have testified against members of major organized criminal groups, resulting in numerous-25-

convictions. Id.

Further, no participant who has followed the program’s rules has been killed orseriously injured due to his or her cooperation with the government. Id.
The current program is administered pursuant to 18 U.S.C. §§ 3521-3528, the “Witness
Security Reform Act of 1984" as well as guidelines established by the Attorney Generalpertaining to the program.

See USAM 9-21.000.

The Office of Enforcement Operations(OEO) within DOJ is in charge of administering the program, with the United States Marshals
Service (USMS) responsible for the relocation components of the program. Ruleman at 7-9.
The Witness Security Program is a program of “last resort,” and applicants must meetstrict criteria before they are approved for the program. Id. at 7.

Applications on behalf ofwitnesses must be submitted and signed by the United States Attorney in the federal jurisdiction
where the investigation or case involving the witness is pending.

Applications must contain thefollowing information, to enable OEO to evaluate whether acceptance into the program isnecessary: the significance of the case must be clearly demonstrated; the importance of thetestimony that the witness will provide, and the lack of alternative sources for it, must be shown;
the existence of a bona fide threat against the life of the witness must be demonstrated; andassurance must be given - if the witness is to be relocated rather than incarcerated - that any
danger the witness might pose to a new community is outweighed by the benefits to be gained byhis or her testimony.
Additionally, the investigating agency sponsoring the applicant must submit a threat
assessment signed by management personnel from the investigating agency’s headquarters thatdetails the believed threat to the witness based on his/her cooperation.
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If a witness (and/or any

family members of the witness) will be relocated to a new community, the threat assessment also
must contain information about any risk the witness, as well as the adult family member, maypose to the new community.

Id. at 8.

Moreover, USMS inspectors must conduct an interview

of non-prisoner applicants as well as any adult family member of the witness who will be
relocated, to assess whether they are appropriate candidates for the program. Id.

Finally, a

psychologist conducts an evaluation of each witness and family member of the witness who is
being sponsored for relocation through the program. Id.
A majority of the program’s participants are prisoner-witnesses who must serve theirprison time before being given a new identity and placed in the program.

While they are still inprison, the witnesses are separated from other prisoners who may represent a threat to them.

Toaddress the security needs of prisoner witnesses who cannot safely be placed in a general inmate
population, the Bureau of Prisons maintains “Protective Custody Units,” which are like “prisons
within prisons.” Id. at 8.

Prisoner witnesses whose families may be at risk as a result of thewitness’s cooperation, may also be eligible for protection through the USMS relocation program.
B.

Prosecution Stage
Beginning with the filing of charges and continuing through the appeals andpost-conviction process, responsible officials in prosecutors’ offices (usually prosecutors or
victim witness personnel), shall ensure that victims receive notice and information regardingcase events and available services, and shall address any security concerns victims may have.
AG Guidelines, Art. IV.B.2., at 27. Once charges are filed, prosecutors must advise victims of
their rights and that they can seek the advice of an attorney with respect to their CVRA rights.

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Id., Art. IV.B.2.b.(1) -(2), at 27.
1. Right to NoticeOnce charges have been filed, prosecutors’ offices are responsible for notifying victimsof the role of the victim in the criminal justice process, their right to attend trial, and provide
information on services and case events, including the scheduling of public court proceedings,
the filing of charges, the release or escape of the accused, the entry and acceptance of guilty
pleas, trial verdicts, and sentencing proceedings. AG Guidelines, Art.IV.B.2.b.(3)-(6). To
assist with notification requirements, DOJ supports an automated, nationwide Victim
Notification System (VNS) in federal cases.

VNS is also used by the FBI, the United States

Postal Inspection Service, and the Bureau of Prisons to assist them in meeting their notification
obligations.

.

Federal crime victims may elect to receive notice through VNS via mail ore-mail, and may view case information online through a password-protected Internet site.
2.

Right to Consult with a Government Attorney
A federal crime victim has the “reasonable right to confer with the attorney for thegovernment in the case,” but this right “shall not be construed to impair prosecutorial discretion.
AG Guidelines, Art.IV.B.2.c(1), at p. 29.

In general, prosecutors should be available to consult

with victims regarding “major case decisions such as dismissals, pre-trial release of the
defendant (where appropriate), plea negotiations and pretrial diversion. Id.

At the request of

victims, prosecutors and victim witness coordinators often meet with victims by telephone or inperson, to address their concerns and questions.

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3.

Right to be Heard
Under the Crime Victims’ Rights Act, federal crime victims have a “right to bereasonably heard” at any public hearing involving the release, plea, sentencing or parole of the
defendant. 18 U.S.C. § 3771(4).

Thus, if victims wish to provide a statement describing theirviews for example, on whether a defendant should be released pending trial, or the terms of aplea agreement, the prosecutor shall request that the Court permit the victim to be heard.
Sentencing hearings are often where victims seek to provide their views to the court.
Prior to sentencing hearings, a responsible official shall notify victims that the U.S. probation
officer is required to prepare a pre-sentence investigation report that includes a section on victim
impact, and shall provide the victim with contact information for the probation officer.
Guidelines, Art. IV.B.3.a.(1)-(2), at 30.

AG

Victim Impact Statements provide a powerfulmechanism for victims to express how they feel about what happened to them as a result of thecrime, and many victims choose to submit them.
Court in person at the sentencing hearing.

Victims may also express their views to the

See Fed.R.Crim.P. 32(i)(4)(B).

In addition, the CVRA provides victims with the right to “full and timely restitution,” andprosecutors, victim-witness coordinators, investigators, probation officers, clerks of court, andfinancial litigation units within USAOs, must work together to ensure that a victim receives therestitution to which he or she is entitled.

AG Guidelines, Art. V.A., at 37.

4. Attending Court Proceedings
Responsible officials also must inform victims of their right to attend the trial, regardless-29-

of whether the victim will testify at trial or present information at sentencing. AG Guidelines,
Art.IV.B.2.b(3). Recognizing the importance to victims of attending court proceedings involving
their victimization, Congress legislated the “right not to be excluded from any such public court
proceeding,” unless the court determines “by clear and convincing evidence,” that a
victim-witness’s testimony would be materially altered by exposure to the testimony of other
witnesses.

18 U.S.C. § 3771 (a)(3).

As noted during the floor debate prior the CVRA’s

passage, the right to attend hearings and trials is “so important because crime victims share aninterest with the government in seeing that justice is done in a criminal case.”REC. S4268 (Apr. 22 2004)(statement of Sen. Kyl).

150 CONG.

In at least two reported cases, federal

prosecutors have filed motions to ensure that victim-witnesses are not excluded, unless the court
finds by clear and convincing evidence that the exclusion is necessary. See e.g. In re Mikhel, 453
F.3d 113, 1139 (9th Cir. 2006); United States v. Johnson, 362 F.Supp.2d 1043 (N.D. Iowa 2005).
C.

Corrections Phase
After a defendant is convicted and sentenced, a responsible official (usually arepresentative from the Bureau of Prisons (BOP)), must provide a victim with notice of (i) thedate on which the offender will be eligible for parole, and the scheduling of any such releasehearing; (ii) the escape, work release, furlough or any other form of release of the offender; and(iii) the death of the offender, if the offender dies while in custody. AG Guidelines, Art.
IV.C.2(a)(2), at p. 34.

BOP maintains on its website, a “federal inmate locator,” which

provides information about the location of every federal inmate within the BOP system. See
www.bop.gov.

If a defendant is being detained pre-trial pending prosecution, notification of-30-

the defendant’s custody status is usually provided by the USAO.
D.

Parole Process
Victims also have the right be notified of parole hearings, and to be heard at theseproceedings. AG Guidelines, Art. IV.C.2.a.(3), at p. 35.

Moreover, within 30 days of an

inmate’s release from prison, responsible officials shall provide victims with notice of the date ofrelease, the city and State where the inmate will be released, and contact information for theinmate’s supervising probation officer, if applicable.

AG Guidelines, Art.IV.C.2.b.(4), at p. 35.

IX. THE VICTIM WITNESS ASSISTANCE UNIT IN THE UNITED STATESATTORNEY’S OFFICE FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
Located in the Nation’s capital, the United States Attorney’s Office for the District ofColumbia (USAO-DC) is unique in that it prosecutes both local and federal crimes, handlingwell over 20,000 cases per year.

Prosecutors, victim witness staff, investigators and othersupport personnel meet daily with victims and family members of victims of all varieties ofcrime, such as homicide, domestic violence, identity theft, human trafficking, and terrorism.
Many years ago, the office established a specialized Victim Witness Assistance Unit(“VWAU”) as a stand-alone section.

The VWAU has always been central to the work of the

USAO-DC, and has always had the strong support of the United States Attorney.

The VWAU

assists thousands of victims and witnesses each year.
The VWAU is by far the largest victim witness program in all of the United States
Attorneys’ Offices.

Comprised of 26 highly trained individuals, the unit is divided into three

sections: Witness Security, Victim/Witness Specialists, and Central Services.
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For the past ten

years, the Chief of the VWAU has been either a prosecutor or an attorney.

The Chief also

provides policy and legal guidance to the office on matters regarding victim and witness rights
and services.
The Witness Security Section employs 5 staff members and a supervisor and addresses
security concerns raised by victims and witnesses who are threatened or perceive that they arethreatened as a result of their participation in a case.

In light of the high rate of homicides,

assaults and violent crime in the District, along with a substantial number of criminalorganizations operating in the city, witness intimidation is a serious problem.

Often, victims

and witnesses are eligible for EWAP, and in certain cases, the prosecutor may request that thewitness be considered for acceptance into the Federal Witness Security Program.

The section

also addresses inmate and prisoner witness security concerns as well, working with the local
Department of Corrections and the Bureau of Prisons.
The VWAU’s Central Services Section is responsible for victim notification in bothfederal and D.C. Superior Court cases, handling tens of thousands of notifications per year.
Specialists in this section also arrange for victim and witness travel for court appearances andwitness conferences, assisting a significant number of international victims and witnesses.
Section members also obtain interpreters and ensure that witnesses receive reimbursement forrequired court appearances.
The Victim/Witness Specialist Section employs 15 highly experienced victim advocates
who are stationed in various trial units within the USAO-DC.

The Section is supervised by adoctor of psychology, and several advocates are licensed clinical social workers.
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Victimadvocates have many responsibilities, including intake, safety planning, lethality assessment,
referring victims to the crime victims’ compensation program and services, and accompanying
them to court.

The advocates are specialized, based on their area of expertise.

Severaladvocates work only with domestic violence victims (with one advocate specializing in elder
abuse as well), while others work only with sexual assault or child abuse victims.

One

advocate works with misdemeanor victims, and two other advocates are responsible for assisting
victims of violent crimes and general felonies.

There is one advocate who assists family

members and loved ones of homicide victims, often attending court appearances on their behalf
and referring them to grief counseling and other support programs. Another advocate is assigned
to the federal crimes section where she routinely assists victims of trafficking, identity theft,child pornography, bank robbery and terrorism.

Several advocates are fluent Spanish speakers,

and the office maintains a dedicated telephone line where Spanish-speaking victims can obtainassistance.

Often, the unit posts case-updates and other information for victims on its public

website.
The VWAU also employs a highly trained child forensic interviewer, who works closelywith a non-profit Child Advocacy Center.

The forensic interviewer is responsible for

conducting the majority of forensic interviews and assessments of victims and witnesses who are
between the ages of two and seventeen or are vulnerable adults.

In addition, she participates in

multi-disciplinary case review sessions to assist law enforcement, prosecution, social service,
and mental health professionals in determining appropriate assistance child victims andwitnesses.

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VWAU staff also collaborate with law enforcement and community partners on projects
designed to assist victims, such as the human trafficking task force, the fatality review board, andthe Domestic Violence Intake Center.
X. CONCLUSION
In the nearly thirty years following the Final Report of the President’s Task Force on
Victims of Crime, the United States has made significant strides in the passage of victims’ rights
laws, the creation of funding mechanisms for victim services, and the development of programs
to address the specific needs of crime victims. Nonetheless, there is more work to be done.
Government and community partners must continue to work together to develop innovative
strategies to ease the suffering of crime victims and to make the criminal justice process a morebearable one.

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