South Pacific Studies Vol.34, No.2, 2014

117

Review

Mosquito Fauna in the Federated States of Micronesia:
A Discussion of the Vector Species of the Dengue Virus
NODA Shinichi

Research Center for the Pacific Islands, Kagoshima University
Korimoto 1-21-24, Kagoshima, 890-8580 Japan
E-mail: snoda@cpi.kagoshima-u.ac.jp

Abstract
Several investigations of mosquito fauna in the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) have been
conducted, but there is currently little information on the mosquito species, which may be the vector to
dengue fever. This review is a summary of the geographical distribution and breeding sites of the mosquito
species on four states: Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae, the FSM. Major vectors for dengue fever anddengue hemorrhagic fever are Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus in urban areas of Southeast Asia andin the Western Pacific Resion. Aedes aegypti was collected on Pingelap Island (Pohnpei State) and on
Kosrae Island (Kosrae State), and it was the predominant species on Pingelap Island. Aedes albopictus wascollected on Weno Island (Chuuk State), Pohnpei Island and Kahlap Island (Mokil Atoll) (Pohnpei State),and on Kosrae Island (Kosrae State), and it was the predominant species on Kahlap Island and Kosrae
Island. Entomological investigations designated the native mosquito species, Ae. hensilli, as a vector ofthe dengue virus on Yap Proper. Aedes hensilli was the predominant species on Yap Proper, Ulithi Atoll(Mogmog, Falarop, Asor and Fassarai Island) and Fais Island (Yap State) and Weno Island (Chuuk State),
and it was also distributed on Romanum Island and Piis-Paneu Island (Chuuk State). Therefore, four statesof the FSM seems to be highly dengue-sensitive. Environmental management programs are necessary to
prevent or minimize vector propagation and human contact.
Key words: Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus, Aedes hensilli, dengue fever, Federated States of Micronesia,
mosquito fauna

Introduction
Dengue fever is closely associated with poor environmental sanitation, inferior
housing and inadequate water supplies. Major vectors for dengue fever are Aedes
aegypti and Ae. albopictus. In the Pacific islands, Ae. polynesiensis, a member of theReceived: 18 December, 2013
Accepted: 14 January, 2014

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South Pacific Studies Vol.34, No.2, 2014

Ae. scutellaris complex, has also been designated as a vector, along with several otherminer species (WHO 2003). The dengue fever outbreak in Yap State, the Federated
States of Micronesia (FSM), was reported between June and July 1995 (SAVAGE etal. 1998). Entomological investigations designated the native mosquito species, Ae.
hensilli, as a vector of dengue virus (SAVAGE et al. 1998, NODA et al. 2005). Anotherdengue fever outbreak occurred in Yap State from May 2004 to January 2005 after
Typhoon Sudal, when six cases were transmitted to Japan via a visiting group of school
children; however, there was no known secondary spread from this case (MARTIN 2005,NUKUI et al. 2006). Dengue fever cases have reliably occurred in Yap State every year
since 2007 (WHO 2010). In 2001, dengue infections were identified on three of thesix islands of Hawai`i. During the investigation, 1,644 persons with locally acquired
dengue-like illness were evaluated, and 122 (7%) laboratory-positive dengue infections
were identified. Aedes albopictus was present in all communities surveyed on thesethree islands, but unexpectedly, no Ae. aegypti were found (EFFLER et al. 2005).
The FSM includes four states: Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae. These areas
form the Caroline Island chain together with Palau. Kosrae State is the easternmost
island of the FSM and adjoins the Marshall Islands. An outbreak of dengue fever inthe Marshall Islands was confirmed in October 2011 (MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS OF
JAPAN 2011). It was feared that the dengue virus might be carried into Kosrae State, andunfortunately it was transmitted there in September 2012, and among 230 patients withsuspected dengue infections, 85 were confirmed positive between 26 September and 11
November. The infection rate was extremely high within the total population of Kosrae(MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS OF JAPAN 2012).
Surveys of mosquitoes in Micronesia were carried out by BOHART and INGRAM(1946) and BOHART (1957). However, a few investigations of mosquito fauna in the
FSM were conducted after their surveys, and there is currently little information on themosquito species that may be the vector to the dengue fever. Recently, investigationsof mosquito fauna were carried out in four states of the FMS (NODA et al. 2005, 2013a,
2013b, 2014). This review is a summary of the geographical distribution and breedingsites of mosquito species on four states of the FSM.

Distribution of Mosquitoes on the Federated States of Micronesia
The FSM has 607 islands sprinkled across more than 2.6 million km2 of the
Pacific, and extends 2,900 km from east to west. About 65 islands are inhabited. The
total land area is 705 km2. The average annual temperature is 27 °C (GALBRAITH et al.
2000).
1. Mosquitoes on Yap State
Yap Proper consists of the four tightly clustered islands of Yap, Tomil-Gagil,
Map and Rumung. Yap Proper has 100 km2 of land. The interior regions have gentle

NODA: Mosquito Fauna in the Federated States of Micronesia

119

rolling hills, and the highest point is 174 m. The average annual rainfall is 3,100 mm.
The population is approximately 7,800. Ulithi Atoll is composed of 49 islands with a
total landmass of 4.6 km2. They are mere strands of coral and sand rising precariously
above the water. Ulithi’s inhabited islands, Mogmog, Falarop, Asor and Fassarai
Island, have a total population of just over 1,000. Fais Island is a single island of raised
limestone with just over 2.6 km2. It has a partial fringing reef, sandy beaches, cliffs andsea caves. With an elevation of 18 m, Fais Island is the highest of Yap’s outer islands.
The population of Fais Island is approximately 200. Surveys of larval mosquitoes
on nine municipalities of Yap Proper, except Rumung, were carried out in Octoberand November 1999. Surveys on Ulithi Atoll were carried out in October 2001 andNovember 2008. Surveys on Fais Island were carried out in November 2008.
A total of 1,683 larvae belonging to 12 species, including two unidentified species,
were collected at 155 natural and artificial habitats (Table 1) (N ODA et al. 2005,
unpublished data).
On Yap Proper, a total of 723 larval mosquitoes belonging to 10 species werecollected at 60 habitats. They are identified as Aedes hensilli, Ae. lamelliferus, Ae.
Table 1. T he number of mosquitoes and their habitat types collected on Yap State, Federated States ofMicronesia.
Number of Number ofHabitat types
IslandSpecies
individuals habitats*
Yap Proper Aedes hensilli
506
42
Coconut shell, Tin, Plastic container, Tire, Treehole, Canoe, Metal drum
Aedes lamelliferus
61
8
Coconut shell, Tire, Tree hole, Canoe, Metal drum
Aedes maehleri
9715
Coconut shell, Tire,Tree hole, Canoe
Aedes sp. 1
5
2
Small water pool, Metal drum
Aedeomyia actasticta
7
2
Small water pool, Dam
Culex quinquefasciatus
35
2Tin, Tire
Culex annulirostris
3
2
Coconut shell, Small water pool
Culex sitiens
5
1
Small water pool
Culex sp.
1
1
Tire
Lutzia fuscana
3
2
Tire
Ulithi Atoll
FalalopAedes hensilli
158
25
Coconut shell, Tin, Plastic container, Autoparts,
Plastic water barrel, Metal drum
Culex quinquefasciatus 170
9
Plastic container, Sewage, Plastic water barrel,
Metalc drum
Culex gossi
11
Autoparts
Coconut shell, Tin, Plastic container, Plastic water
MogmogAedes hensilli
98
13
barrel, Metal drum
Culex quinquefasciatus
10
2
Plastic water barrel
Asor
Aedes hensilli
96
13
Coconut shell, Plastic container, Metal drum
Culex quinquefasciatus
49
2
Plastic container, Metal drum
Fassarai
Aedes hensilli
192
16
Coconut shell, Tin, Plastic container, Plastic water
barrel, Metal drum
Culex quinquefasciatus
19
1
Concrete water tank
Fais
Aedes hensilli
103
14
Coconut shell, Plastic container
Culex quinquefasciatus
42
4
Coconut shell, Pipe
Culex nigropunctatus
22
1
Coconut shell*Number of larval mosquito habitats: Yap Island: 60; Falalop Island: 33; Mogmog Island: 14; Asor Island: 14;
Fassarai Island: 17; Fais Island: 17.

120South Pacific Studies Vol.34, No.2, 2014

maehleri, Aedes sp. 1, Aedeomyia catasticta, Culex quinquefasciatus, Cx. annulirostris,
Cx. sitiens, Culex sp. and Lutzia fuscana. Among them, Ae, hensilli was the
predominant species collected (506 larvae, 42 habitats) followed by Ae. maehleri (97larvae, 15 habitats), Ae. lamelliferus (61 larvae, 8 habitats) and Cx. quinquefasciatus (35larvae, 2 habitats).
On four islands of Ulithi Atoll, a total of 793 larval mosquitoes belonging tothree species were collected at 78 habitats. They are identified as Ae. hensilli, Cx.
quinquefasciatus and Cx. gossi. The larvae of Ae. hensilli were collected at 67 habitats
and Cx. quinquefasciatus were collected at 14 habitats.
On Fais Island, a total of 167 larval mosquitoes belonging to three species werecollected at 17 habitats. They are identified as Ae. hensilli, Cx. quinquefasciatus andCx. nigropunctatus. The larvae of Ae. hensilli were collected at 14 habitats, and Cx.
quinquefasciatus were collected at four habitats.
2. Mosquitoes on Chuuk State
Chuuk State is composed of 192 outer islands, which include 15 main islets andmore than 80 smaller islets that make up Chuuk Lagoon. The average annual rainfall
is 3,600 mm in Chuuk Lagoon. About 40 of the state’s islands are inhabited. Chuuk isTable 2. T he number of mosquitoes and their habitat types collected on Chuuk State, Federated States ofMicronesia.
Number of Number ofHabitat types
IslandSpecies
individuals habitats*
Weno
Aedes hensilli
318
44
Coconut shell, Tin, Glass container, Plastic bag,
Plastic container, Metal container, Bucket, Tire,
Freezer, Plastic water barrel
Aedes albopictus
41
10
Coconut shell, Tin, Plastic container, Rubber
container, Tire
Aedes lamelliferus
11
1
Coconut shell
Aedes sp. 2
1
1
Coconut shell
Culex quinquefasciatus
72
6
Coconut shell, Pan, Tire, Washing machine
Culex carolinensis
656
41
Coconut shell, Tin, Plastic container, Rubber
container, Bucket, Tire
Culex annulirostris80
6Tin, Glass container, Bucket, Concrete puddle,
Track loading platform, Taro fieldLutzia vorax
11
Tin
Romanum
Aedes hensilli
23
4
Coconut shell, Tin, Rock pit
Aedes scutoscriptus
99
11
Coconut shell, Banana stump, Tin, Glasscontainer, Rock pit, Plastic container
Culex quinquefasciatus
16
3
Coconut shell, Glass container, Well
Culex carolinensis
66
4
Coconut shell, Glass container, Pan, Plastic
water barrel
Piis-Paneu
Aedes hensilli
82
8
Coconut shell, Tin, Pan
Aedes scutoscriptus
65
10Coconut shell, Tin, Banana stump, Tree hole,
Plastic container
Aedes sp. 3
172
Well, Taro patch
Culex quinquefasciatus
59
3
Tree hole, Concrete puddle, Puddle
Culex carolinensis
105
7
Coconut shell, Tin, Taro patch
Culex annulirostris
49
3
Puddle, Taro patch*Number of larval mosquito habitats: Weno Island: 86; Romanum Island: 21; Piis-Paneu Island: 26.

NODA: Mosquito Fauna in the Federated States of Micronesia

121

one of Micronesia’s most populous islands, with a population of approximately 48,000
people, of which approximately one-third live on Weno Island. Weno Island is the mainisland, and the district center of Chuuk State. At just over 18km2, it is the second largest
island in the lagoon. Tropical forests make up much of the interior, with the highest
point being Mt. Tonoken (370m), which is located in the center of the island. Romanum
Island is also located in the lagoon, and is less than 1 km2. This island is hilly and thehighest point is only 54 m above sea level. Houses are scattered throughout the island,
and the population is approximately 300. Piis-Paneu Island is located on the atoll ring
reef; it is also less than 1 km2. The elevation is consistently near sea level, houses arescattered throughout the island, and the population is approximately 250. Surveysof larval mosquitoes on Weno, Romanum and Piis-Paneu Island were carried out inAugust 2011.
A total of 1,761 larvae belonging to nine species, including one unidentified
species, were collected at 133 natural and artificial habitats (Table 2) (NODA et al.
2014). In Weno Island, a total of 1,180 larvae belonging to eight species, including
one unidentified species were collected at 86 habitats. As the area and populationof Weno Island is large, there were many kinds of sources of mosquito larvae. They
were identified as Ae. hensilli, Ae. albopictus, Ae. lamelliferus, Aedes sp. 2, Cx.
quinquefasciatus, Cx. carolinensis, Cx. annulirostris and Lt. vorax. Culex carolinensis
and Ae. hensilli were the predominant species, and were collected at 41 and 44 habitats,respectively. Aedes albopictus was collected from discarded containers along the mainroad in northwest side of Weno Island.
On Romanum Island, a total of 204 larvae belonging to four species werecollected at 21 habitats. They were identified as Ae. hensilli, Ae. scutoscriptus, Cx.
quinquefasciatus and Cx. carolinensis. Aedes scutoscriptus was the predominat species,
and was collected at 11 habitats.
On Piis-Paneu Island, a total of 377 larvae belonging to six species, including
one unidentified species, were collected at 26 habitats. They were identified as Ae.
hensilli, Ae. scutoscriptus, Aedes sp. 3, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Cx. carolinensis and Cx.
annulirostris. Culex carolinensis was the predominant species collected (7 habitats)followed by Ae. hensilli (8 habitats).
3. Mosquitoes on Pohnpei State
Pohnpei Island is high, volcanic, roughly circular, and its coast is lined withcoves and jutting peninsulas and it is covered with a thick jungle. The interior contains
rugged mountain ridges and deep valleys. It has an average diameter of 21 km and aland area of 334 km2. Pohnpei Island is the largest island in the FSM. The highest peakis Ngihneni at 791m. The coastline is mainly composed of tidal flats and mangroveswamps. The town of Kolonia has an average annual rainfall of 4,800 mm. The
population of Pohnpei State is approximately 34,900, and 90% of the population lives
on Pohnpei Island. Pohnpei State includes eight outlying atolls, each covering an areaof less than 2.6 km2. To the southeast, almost like stepping stones down to Kosrae, are122South Pacific Studies Vol.34, No.2, 2014

Table 3. The number of mosquitoes and their habitat types collected on Pohnpei State, the Federated Statesof Micronesia.
Number of Number ofHabitat types
IslandSpecies
individuals habitats*Pohnpei
Aedes albopictus
8
2
Plastic container, Tire
Aedes hakanssoni
366
34
Coconut shell, Tin, Tire, Plastic container, Rock pit,
Metal container
Aedes oakleyi
132
7
Well, Water pool, Metal drum, Concrete water pool

Mokil Atoll
KahlapCulex quinquefasciatus

118

6

Culex maplei

534

25

Culex annulirostris

3

1

Aedes albopictus

166

20

Aedes marshallensis

172

22

Culex quinquefasciatus

344

12

304

21

Aedes marshallensis

240

16

Aedes vexans noctanus
Culex quinquefasciatus

20
336

1
15

Pingelap Atoll
Pingelap
Aedes aegypti

Coconut shell, Tin, Plastic container, Concretewater pool
Coconut shell, Tin, Plastic container, Metal
container, Coconut casing, Rock pit, Tire, Metal
drum, Concrete water pool
Rock pit
Coconut shell, Tin, Ceramic cup, Bottle, Metal
container
Coconut shell, Tin, Ceramic cup, Plastic container,
Coconut casing
Plastic container, Metal container, Metal drum,
Concrete water tank, Well
Stump of banana, Plastic container, Metal
container, Discarded refrigerator, Plastic water
barrel, Concrete water tank, Metal drum,
Coconut shell, Stump of banana, Plastic container,
Tree hole, Metal drumTaro patch
Plastic container, Plastic water barrel, Concretewater tank, Well, Taro patch, Metal container,
Metal drum, Concrete frame*Number of larval mosquito habitats: Pohnpei Island: 59; Kahlap Island: 49; Pingelap Island: 46.

Mokil Atoll and Pingelap Atoll. Mokil Atoll’s three islets total approximately 1.3 km2
of land. Approximately 100 people live on Kahlap Island, the largest and only inhabited
islet. Pingelap Atoll also has three islets. Approximately 300 people live on Pingelap
Island. Surveys of larval mosquitoes on Pohnpei Island, Mokil Atoll and Pingelap Atoll
were carried out in November 2007 and August 2010.
A total of 2,713 larval mosquitoes belonging to nine species were collected at 154
natural and artificial habitats (Table 3) (NODA et al. 2013a). On Pohnpei Island, a totalof 1,161 larval mosquitoes belonging to six species were collected at 59 habitats. They
were identified as Ae. albopictus, Ae. hakansoni, Ae. oakleyi, Cx. quiquefasciatus, Cx.
maplei and Cx. annulirostris. Aedes albopictus was only collected at two habitats: asmall plastic container and a tire. Aedes hakansoni was the predominant species being
collected at 34 habitats. Culex maplei was collected at 25 habitats. The other three
species were collected at a relatively small number of habitats (1 to 7 habitats).
On Mokil Atoll, a total of 682 larval mosquitoes belonging to three species werecollected at 49 habitats. They were identified as Ae. albopictus, Ae. marshallensis andCx. quiquefasciatus. Aedes albopictus was collected at 20 habitats. Aedes marshallensis
was also collected at 22 habitats. Culex quiquefasciatus was collected at 12 habitats.

NODA: Mosquito Fauna in the Federated States of Micronesia

123

On Pingelap Atoll, a total of 870 larval mosquitoes belonging to four species
were collected at 46 habitats. They were identified as Ae. aegypti, Ae. marshallensis,
Ae. vexans noctunus and Cx. quiquefasciatus. Among them, Ae. aegypti was the
predominant species and was collected at 21 habitats. Aedes marshallensis wascollected at 16 habitats. Aedes vexans noctunus was only collected from a taro patch.
Culex quiquefasciatus was collected at 15 habitats.
4. Mosquitoes in Kosrae State
Kosrae Island is roughly triangular, covering an area of 109 km2. The islandinterior is composed of rugged mountains and river valleys. About 70% of the islandis mountainous, and another 15% is mangrove swamp. Mt. Finkol, the highest peak,rising to a height of 629 m. The average annual rainfall is 5,500 mm. Approximately
7,700 people live on Kosrae Island. Surveys of larval mosquitoes on Kosrae Island
were carried out in three areas, Tafunsak, Tofol, and Utwe, in December 2009, and six
areas, Tafunsak, Lelu, Tofol, Malem, Utwe, and Walung, in June 2012.
A total of 962 larvae belonging to six species were collected at 106 natural andartificial habitats (Table 4) (NODA et al. 2013b). They were identified as Ae. aegypti,
Ae. albopictus, Ae. marshallensis, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Cx. annulirostris, and Cx.
kusaiensis. Aedes albopictus was the predominant species (59 habitats) followed byAe. marshallensis (35 habitats), and these species were distributed in all areas. The
number of Cx. quinquefasciatus and Cx. kusaiensis was relatively large, and they
were collected at 15 and 19 habitats in five areas, respectively. The number of Cx.
annulirostris was relatively small, and it was collected at four habitats in three areas.
Aedes aegypti larvae were collected at only one habitat (a tire) in Tafunsak in 2009, andit was not collected in 2012.

Table 4. The number of mosquitoes and their habitat types collected on Kosrae State, the Federated Statesof Micronesia.
Number of Number ofHabitat types
individuals habitats*
KosraeAedes aegypti
2
1
Tire
Aedes albopictus
412
59
Coconut shell, Tin, Banana stump, Bamboo stump,
Plastic container, Ceramic cup, Pot, Autoparts, Tire,
Boat
Aedes marshallensis 182
35
Coconut shell, Tin, Banana stump, Tree hole,
Plastic container, Paper container, Tire, Pot
Culex quinquefasciatus 154
15
Coconut shell, Metal container, Tin, Plastic
container, Pot, Boat
Culex annulirostris
84
4
Metal container, Puddle, Puddle of fountain,
Concreat tank
Culex kusaiensis
126
19
Coconut shell, Bamboo stump, Tin, Ceramic cup,
Tire, Plastic container*Total number of habitat is 106.

IslandSpecies124South Pacific Studies Vol.34, No.2, 2014

Vector Mosquitoes for the Dengue Fever
The distribution of vector mosquito species in the FSM is summarized in Table 5.
It is a well-known fact that major vectors for dengue fever are Ae. aegypti and Ae.
albopictus in urban areas of Southeast Asia and in the Western Pacific Region (WHO2003). Aedes aegypti was collected on Pingelap Island (Pohnpei State) and on Kosrae
Island (Kosrae State), and it was the predominant species on Pingelap Island. Aedes
albopictus was collected on Weno Island of Chuuk State, Pohnpei Island and Kahlap
Island (Mokil Atoll) of Pohnpei State, and on Kosrae Island. It was the predominant
species on Kahlap Island and Kosrae Island. Entomological investigations designatedthe native mosquito species, Ae. hensilli, as a vector of dengue virus (SAVAGE et al.
1998, NODA et al. 2005). Aedes hensilli was the predominant species on Yap State(Yap Proper, Ulithi Atoll and Fais Island) and Weno Island of Chuuk State, and it wasalso distributed on Romanum and Piis-Paneu Island of Chuuk State. Aedes species lay
eggs in practically all types of artificial containers, and also in some natural containers.
In the FSM, artificial habitats (e.g., tins, plastic containers, plastic bottles, noodle
containers, tires) were seen more frequently than natural habitats (e.g., tree holes,
coconut shells, banana stumps, bamboo stumps). The distribution of vector mosquito
species and habitats for larvae showed that four states of the FSM are highly denguesensitive.
The distribution of Aedes mosquitoes was different from state to state. Aedes
hensilli was distributed on the western area of the FSM. On the other hand, Ae.
albopictus and Ae. aegyoti were mainly distributed on the eastern area of the FSM.
The distribution of Ae. aegypti was recorded on Yap Proper (SAVAGE et al. 1998), andinfestations of Ae. albopictus were discovered on Yap Proper in 1995 (CDC information
on Ae. albopictus, http://www.cdc.bov/ncidod/dvbid/arbor/albopic_new.htm). The
effects of competition can be important because they can impact on native species. On
Yap Proper, both species were not collected by NODA et al. (2005) or in 2008 during
a further survey, and Ae. hensilli was the predominant species. Aedes aegypti and Ae.
albopictus may not be effective competitors against Ae. hensilli on Yap Proper. Aedes
hensilli and Ae. albopictus were collected on Weno Island, but the distribution of Ae.
albopictus was limited along the main road in the northwest. In Pohnpei and Kosrae
State, Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus were collected, but Ae. hensilli was not collected(NODA et al. 2013a, 2013b). In Kosrae, Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus were collected,
and Ae. albopictus was the predominant species. Aedes albopictus larvae werecollected at 59 habitats, and Ae. aegypti larvae were collected at only one habitat (NODAet al. 2013b). Aedes albopictus seems to be superior to Ae. aegypti. In general, there isseasonality in the occurrence of mosquitoes. However, there would be no need in the
FSM to consider the seasonality because the maximum and minimum temperatures do
not change throughout the year and there is no dry season.

NODA: Mosquito Fauna in the Federated States of Micronesia

125

Table 5. Distribution list of mosquitoes in the Federated States of Micronesia.
Yap State

Chuuk State

Pohnpei State

Kosrae State

Ulithi Atoll
Weno

◎

◎
○

○

◎
○

◎

○**

Aedes maehleri

○

△

◎

◎
△

◎

○

○

○
△

△
◎

Aedes scutoscriptus◎

Aedes hakanssoni◎

Aedes oakleyi○

Aedes marshallensis
Aedes vexans noctanus
Aedeomyia actasticta△***

Culex quinquefasciatus
Culex annulirostris△△

Culex sitiens

△

○

○

○

△

○

△
△

○

○
○

◎

○

○

○
△

△

Culex gossi△

Culex nigropunctatus
Culex carolinensis◎

Culex maplei
Culex kusaiensis
Lutzia fuscana
Lutzia vorax◎◎

Aedes aegypti
Aedes lamelliferus

KosraeFais◎

Pingelap

Fassarai◎

KahlapAsor◎

PohnpeiMogmog◎Piis-Paneu

Falalop◎*

Romanum

Yap Proper

Aedes hensilli
Aedes albopictus○△△* ◎ : Larvae were collected at more than 30% habitats.
** ○ : Larvae were collected at between 10 and 30% habitats.
*** △ : Larvae were collected at less than 10% habitats.

Mosquito Control
Diet has changed significantly since World War II in the FSM. Imported rice,
flour, sweet and refined foods, and fatty meats have increasingly replaced local food.
As a result of increased trash produced by the use of artificial containers (e.g., tins,
plastic containers, plastic bottles, noodle containers), they have become habitats for
Aedes mosquito larvae. Coconut shell is also a major habitat for mosquito larvae. The
vectors of dengue fever breed around houses, and can be controlled by appropriate
personal and community action. Destruction or elimination of unwanted natural andartificial containers around human living premises definitely contributes to an overall

126South Pacific Studies Vol.34, No.2, 2014

reduction of the Aedes population (WHO 2003).
In 2007, the Zika virus, a relatively mild disease similar to dengue fever andcharacterized by rash, joint pain, and conjunctives, was reported on Yap Proper.
This was the first report of the Zika virus outside of Africa and Asia (DUFFY et al.
2009, HAYES 2009). Aedes hensilli seemed to be a vector of the Zika virus on Yap
Proper. The Chikungunya virus is also transmitted to humans by virus-carrying Aedes
mosquitoes. Chikungunya has been identified in nearly 40 countries of Africa and Asia.
The Chikungunya virus was brought in to Yap State, and 640 patients were reported
until 22 October, 2013 (MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS OF JAPAN 2013). Community
education, which raise the level of awareness of the dengue fever, is necessary, and thecooperation and participation of the community is vital for the control of dengue fever
and other vector-borne diseases.

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