201517

2015

17

JACET KANSAI JOURNAL
THE JOURNAL OF THE KANSAI CHAPTER OF
THE JAPAN ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGE ENGLISH TEACHERS

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE 2015
CHAIRPERSON
Yuko Oguri
University of Shiga Prefecture
MEMBERS
Kaori Nitta
Kinki University
Yasuko Sato
Otemon Gakuin University
Tomoko Yashima
Kansai University
EDITORIAL OFFICE
Yoshihito Kamakura
Aichi University
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the following colleagues who served as
reviewers of the papers considered for publication during the preparation of JACET
Kansai Journal No. 17:
LIST OF REVIEWERS (in alphabetical order)
Sonoko Harada (Emeritus, Kobe College)
Takaichi Okuda (Kansai Univ.)
Keiko Hayashi (Hiroshima Jogakuin Univ.)
Osato Shiki (Kwansei Gakuin Univ.)
Nobuyuki Hino (Osaka Univ.)
Osamu Takeuchi (Kansai Univ.)
Yuko Ikuma (Osaka Kyoiku Univ.)
Midori Tanimura (Kyoto Univ. of Foreign
Keiichi Ishikawa (Kyoto Women’s Univ.)
Studies)
Shin’ichiro Ishikawa (Kobe Univ.)
Kinko Tamamaki (Kobe Pharmaceutical Univ.)
Emiko Izumi (Kyoto Univ. of Education)
Tazu Togo (Kyoto Notre Dame Univ.)
Shuhei Kadota (Kwansei Gakuin Univ.)
Kazunari Tsuji (Mukogawa Women’s Univ.)
Eiko Kawagoe (Kobe College)
Virginia Peng㸦Ritsumeikan Univ.㸧
Toshiyuki Kanamaru (Kyoto Univ.)
Kazuhito Yamato (Kobe Univ.)
Toshiko Koyama (Osaka Ohtani Univ.)
Haruyo Yoshida (Osaka Kyoiku Univ.)
Kei Mihara (Kinki Univ.)
Toshiko Yoshimura (Hanazono Univ.)
Hiromi Murakami (Kansai Gaidai College)
Shinsuke Yoshida (Kansai Univ.)
Kazunori Nozawa (Ritsumeikan Univ.)
Copying All content in this journal is protected by the Japanese copyright law. All rights reserved.
The material therein may be reproduced free of charge in any format or medium provided it isreproduced accurately and not used in a misleading context after permission has been granted fromthe Kansai Chapter of JACET. If any of the items with copyright in this journal are republished or
copied, the source of the material must be identified and the copyright status acknowledged.
Instructions for Contributors can be found in the appendix and via http://www.jacet-kansai.org/old/kako.html#kiyou
ᥖ㍕ㄽᩥࡣ㸪JACET 㛵すᨭ㒊㸪࠾ࡼࡧ JACET 㛵す⣖せ⦅㞟ጤဨ఍ࡢ⪃࠼᪉ࢆ཯ᫎࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࡶࡢ࡛
ࡣ࠶ࡾࡲࡏࢇࠋ

The articles published herein do not reflect the opinions of JACET Kansai Chapter or the JACET
Kansai Journal Editorial Committee.
© Kansai Chapter, The Japan Association of College English Teachers, 2015

JACET Kansai Journal
No. 17 March 2015

Editorialiii

ᑠᰩ⿱Ꮚ
Research Articles
Rieko NISHIDA
A Two-year Longitudinal Study of Listening Abilities and Affective Factors among Children
Learning English in the Japanese EFL

1

21
Kohei SUZUKI, Yoshiki NAKAMURA, Miho FUJIEDA, Naoki SAKATA, Eri TANAKA
Gaps and Similarities between Medical Teachers’ Expectations and Students’ Self-assessed Needs
for Englishᰘ⏣࠿ࡼᏊ
▱ぬືモ feel ࡢ୺ㄒ┬␎࡟㛵ࡍࡿព࿡ㄽⓗศᯒ

41

Research Notes
Kazumi TSUTADA
Increase in Syntactic Knowledge Using English News and its Correlation with Development of
Reading and Writing Skills

53

73
Koichi YAMAOKA
The Effects of Chunk Combination Practice on a Picture Description Task in a Second Language
Miho YAMASHITA
93
An Analysis of English Argumentative Essays Written by Japanese University Students Based on
Four Analytical Frameworks to Identify Coherence Breaks᳃ୗ⨾࿴᪥ᮏேⱥㄒᩍဨ࡟ࡼࡿ All in English ࡢᤵᴗ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚㸸ᐇ㊶࡜࢔ࣥࢣ࣮ࢺㄪᰝ

113

Kansai Chapter
The Japan Association of College English Teachers

Kanako YAMAOKA
An Investigation into the Changes of Remedial Students’ Recognition of the Diversity of EIL
through Experience in Singapore

128

Application Report
Kate MAHER
141
Use of a Self-Evaluation System in a University EFL Course in Japan: Helping Students Improve
Learner Motivation
AppendicesࠗJACET Kansai Journal㸦JACET 㛵す⣖せ㸧࠘ห⾜つᐃࠗJACET Kansai Journal㸦JACET 㛵す⣖せ㸧࠘ᢞ✏つᐃ

155
157

⦅㞟⪅ࡢࡘࡪࡸࡁ ኱Ꮫⱥㄒᩍ⫱Ꮫ఍㛵すᨭ㒊⣖せ⦅㞟ጤဨ఍ࡣࠊJACET KANSAI JOURNAL No.17 ࢆ࠾ᒆࡅ࠸ࡓࡋࡲࡍࠋ ᮏࡢᢞ✏ㄽᩥࡢ࠺ࡕ᭱⤊ᰝㄞࢆ⤒࡚᥇ᢥࡉࢀࡓ  ᮏࡢㄽᩥࢆᥦฟࡉࢀࡓ
㡰࡟ᥖ㍕ࡋࡲࡋࡓࠋᑂᰝ࡟ࡈᑾຊࡃࡔࡉࡗࡓᰝㄞጤဨࡢඛ⏕᪉࡟ᚰࡼࡾ࠾♩⏦ࡋୖࡆࡲࡍࠋ
ࡲࡓࠊ㈶ຓ఍ဨࡢⓙᵝ࡟ࡣࠊᗈ࿌ࡢᥖ㍕ࢆ㏻ࡋ࡚ᨭ㒊άື࡟ከ኱࡞ࡈᨭ᥼ࢆ࠸ࡓࡔࡁࡲࡋ
ࡓࠋ㛵ಀྛ఩࡟ཌࡃ࠾♩⏦ࡋୖࡆࡲࡍࠋຍ࠼࡚ࠊ㔝ཱྀᨭ㒊㛗ࡣࡌࡵᖿ஦ࡢࡳ࡞ࡉࢇࡢᝰࡋ
ࡳ࡞࠸ࡈ༠ຊ࡟࠾♩⏦ࡋୖࡆࡲࡍࠋ⦅㞟ጤဨࡢ᪂⏣㤶⧊ඛ⏕ࠊబ⸨ᜤᏊඛ⏕ࠊඵᓥᬛᏊඛ
⏕ࠊࡑࡋ࡚ጤဨ఍࡜ᢞ✏⪅࠾ࡼࡧᰝㄞ⪅ࡢ㛫࡛⥾ࡵษࡾࢆẼ࡟ࡋ࡞ࡀࡽ㎿㏿࡟ᑐᛂࡋ࡚ࡃ
ࡔࡉࡗࡓ஦ົᒁ㛗ࡢ㙊಴⩏ኈඛ⏕࡟ࡶឤㅰࡢពࢆ⾲ࡋࡓ࠸࡜ᛮ࠸ࡲࡍࠋ ࡉ࡚ࠊᡃࠎ⦅㞟ጤဨࡢ௙஦ࡣ 10 ᭶࠿ࡽ 6 ࣨ᭶࡯࡝࡟㞟୰ࡋࡲࡍࠋᢞ✏ㄽᩥࡢ⥾ࡵษࡾ㛫㏆࡟࡞ࡿ࡜ࠊࡓࡃࡉࢇࡢᛂເࡀ࠶ࡗࡓ࠿࡝࠺࠿ࡀẼ࡟࡞ࡾࡔࡋࡲࡍࠋ⥾ࡵษࡾ᪥ࡢ⩣᪥ண᝿௨ୖ࡟ከࡃࡢᢞ✏ࡀ࠶ࡗࡓሙྜࡣࠊࡑࡢᚰ㓄ࡀᰝㄞጤဨࡀ༑ศ☜ಖ࡛ࡁࡿ࠿࡜࠸࠺ࡶ
ࡢ࡟ኚࢃࡗ࡚࠸ࡁࡲࡍࠋ㏆ᖺ࡝ࡢ኱Ꮫࡶᰯົࡀቑ࠼ࠊᩍဨࡶከᛁ࡟࡞ࡗ࡚ࡁ࡚࠸ࡲࡍࠋࡑ
ࢇ࡞୰࡛ᰝㄞࢆ࠾㢪࠸ࡋ࡞ࡅࢀࡤ࡞ࡾࡲࡏࢇࠋ࠸ࡘࡶ㢗ࡾ࡟ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿᰝㄞᢸᙜࡢඛ⏕᪉ࡢඃࡋ࠸㸦᫬࡟ࡣཝࡋ࠸㸧㢦ࡀᾋ࠿ࢇ࡛ࡁࡲࡍࠋ࡝࠺࠿ከ⏝➼࡛᩿ࢃࡽࢀࡲࡏࡠࡼ࠺࡟࡜♳ࡾ࡞ࡀࡽࠊ⦅㞟ጤဨ఍࡟⮫ࡳࡲࡍࠋࡇࡇ࡛ࡣྛㄽᩥࢆ࡝ࡢᰝㄞጤဨ࡟౫㢗ࡍࡿࡢ࠿ࢆࡵࡄࡗ࡚ពぢࡀ஺ࢃࡉࢀࡲࡍࠋ ᰝㄞ⤖ᯝࡀጤဨ఍࡟ᒆࡅࡽࢀࡓᚋࡶࡲࡓ኱ኚ࡛ࡍࠋ⤖ᯝࡀྠࡌ࡛࠶ࢀࡤၥ㢟ࡣ࠶ࡾࡲࡏ
ࢇࡀࠊ኱ࡁࡃ㐪ࡗࡓሙྜࡣጤဨ఍࡛࡝࠺ࡍࡿ࠿ࡢヰࡋྜ࠸㸦୺࡟࣓࣮࡛ࣝ㸧ࡀᣢࡓࢀࡲࡍࠋ
࣓࣮࡛ࣝࡢࡸࡾ࡜ࡾࢆఱᗘࡶ⧞ࡾ㏉ࡋࡓᚋࠊࡸࡗ࡜┠ḟ࡜࣮࣌ࢪᩘࡀỴᐃࡋࡲࡍࠋࡑࡢ㛫஦ົᒁ㛗ࡣ⤯࠼ࡎ࣓࣮ࣝࢆ☜ㄆࡋࠊ࠸࠿࡟ᑐᛂࡍࡿ࠿ⓗ☜࡞ุ᩿ࢆࡋ࡞ࡅࢀࡤ࡞ࡾࡲࡏࢇࠋ
㙊಴ඛ⏕ࠊᮏᙜ࡟࠾⑂ࢀࡉࡲ࡛ࡋࡓࠋ ࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡞≧ἣࢆᩘᖺ⥆ࡅ࡚ࡁࡲࡋࡓࡀࠊ⦅㞟ጤဨ఍࡟࡜ࡗ࡚ᑡࡋࡔࡅవ⿱ࡢ࠶ࡿห⾜᪥⛬࡟ኚ᭦࠸ࡓࡋࡲࡋࡓࠋᛂເࡉࢀࡿ᪉ࡣห⾜つᐃࢆࡈ☜ㄆࡃࡔࡉ࠸ࠋ JKJ 17 ྕࡀ఍ဨࡢࡳ࡞ࡉࡲ࡟࡜ࡗ่࡚⃭࠶ࡿ◊✲⣖せ࡛࠶ࡾࡲࡍࡇ࡜ࢆ⦅㞟⪅୍ྠ㢪ࡗ࡚࠾ࡾࡲࡍࠋ                                       

JKJ ⣖せጤဨ఍ࢆ௦⾲ࡋ࡚                            ᑠᰩ⿱Ꮚ                            2015 ᖺ 3 ᭶ 7 ᪥                     


iii
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JACET Kansai Journal, 17
17, 1-20. (2015) ©JACET Kansai Chapter
ISSN 1880-2281

Printed in JAPAN.

A Two-Year Longitudinal Study of Listening Abilities and Affective Factors
among Children Learning English in the Japanese EFL Context
Rieko Nishida
Osaka University
ABSTRACTThe present study describes a two-year longitudinal study of listening abilities and psychologicalfactors, including intrinsic motivation, perceived autonomy, competency, and relatedness, Can-Do,
and willingness to communicate in L2 and L2 ideal selves, among children aged between 10 and 12
years old learning English in the Japanese EFL context. In this study, in order to examine changes instudents, a mixed method of quantitative and qualitative designs was adopted. The study was
conducted between 2012 and 2014, and listening tests and questionnaires were administered to
students in July 2012, February 2013, July 2013 and February 2014. The study revealed thatstudents’ listening abilities showed an increase throughout the course, and motivation and otherpsychological factors seemed to have been retained as well. In addition to quantitative studies,observation notes revealed six different patterns of classroom interactions.
Keywords: motivation, affect, longitudinal studies, elementary school students

I. INTRODUCTION
In 2011, “foreign language activities” commenced in all public elementary schools for 5th and6th grade students across the country in Japan. As the purposes of “foreign language activities” areto “actively engage in communication in a foreign language” and “to deepen the experiential
understanding of the language and cultures of Japan and foreign countries”, it can be said that thefocus of “foreign language activity” is students’ affect in language learning, which includes
motivation, willingness to communicate, interest in foreign countries and other affective factors.
Several series of studies on motivation, willingness to communicate in L2 (hereinafter, L2WTC),
interest in languages and cultures and other affective factors in cross-sectional studies among
elementary school students have been carried out (Adachi, 2011a, 2011b; Carreira, 2006a, 2006b;
Nishida, 2008, 2011, 2012; Nishida & Yashima, 2009, 2010), but further research is needed into
affective factors and linguistic competency including listening and speaking, especially in alongitudinal manner. There is also a need for longitudinal analysis to gain a deeper understanding of
the process of language learning as it occurs in “foreign language activities” in elementary schools,
as there has been very little longitudinal analysis of how motivation and affective factors, as well as
listening abilities, develop; nor has the way in which the process of learning changes during thecourse of studies been identified. These points clearly need further attention, as they appear to be so
closely related to classroom practice in language learning.
1

Rieko NISHIDA

II. LITERATURE REVIEWIn the L2 field, motivation research has been a subject of much interest to researchers andpractitioners (e.g., Dörnyei, 1990, 2005; Gardner, 1985; Gardner, Masgoret, Tennant & Mihic, 2004,
among others), as motivation is known to affect individuals’ language learning. During the 1990s,
the focus shifted to attempts to understand the actual language classroom in practice, and selfdetermination theory in particular has been adopted in L2 contexts as the theory is especially wellsuited to the needs of practitioners. Deci and Ryan (1985, 2002) conceptualized self-determination
theory, which focuses on human motivation, as a continuum from extrinsic motivation (less selfdetermined) to intrinsic motivation (most self-determined). Intrinsic motivation refers to learners’
enjoyment in learning, with its rewards related to learning itself; it involves feelings of pleasure thatare derived from the sense that one has freely chosen to perform an activity and develop
competency, with engagement in learning being supported by others. Intrinsic motivation can befulfilled when the three psychological needs of motivation (perceived autonomy, perceived
competency and perceived relatedness) are enhanced. More recently, after the year 2000, theprocess of language learning, rather than the product, has received significant attention. Dörnyei &Ottò (1998) proposed a process model which emphasized dynamic characteristics and temporalvariation in motivation in language learning. As learners’ motivation shows continuous fluctuations
over the course of time, the integration of the “time” factor can be crucial in understanding
motivational changes among language learners. In this period, the new theory of ‘future possible
selves’ was conceptualized as an L2 motivational theory: it elaborated two categories involved inlanguage learning, the ‘L2 ideal self’ which refers to what a person hopes and wishes to become in
the future, and the ‘L2 ought to self’, which refers to what a person feels obligated to become.
When learners’ self images are elaborative and vivid, it is said to enhance their motivational impact
on ‘future possible selves’.
Another affective factor involved in language learning, willingness to communicate (one of
the constructs which lies within the area of individual differences in L2 learning), has received a lotof attention. In the case of Japan, this is partly because one of the focuses of foreign language
activities as laid out by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science & Technology(hereinafter, MEXT), is to foster a positive attitude toward communication, thus attracting theinterest of both researchers and practitioners. Since the L2WTC model was proposed by MacIntyre,
Clément, Dörnyei, and Noels (1998), it has stimulated a series of studies which included otherlearner characteristics associated with the L2WTC context, focusing on social support and language
learning. In a Japanese university context, Yashima (2002) examined L2WTC, perceived
competency, language learning motivation and international posture (defined as having an interestin foreign or international affairs and a readiness to interact with intercultural partners). In thismodel, perceived competency was strongly linked to L2WTC. In Yashima (2002) and Yashima,
Zenuk-Nishide and Shimizu (2004), by using structural equation modeling, it was found that L2
learning motivation influenced L2 communication confidence which, in turn, influenced L2WTC.
Based on Yashima (2002) and Yashima et.al. (2004), Nishida and Yashima (2009) conducted a2

A Two-year Longitudinal Study of Listening Abilities and Affective Factors
among Children Learning English in the Japanese EFL Context

study focusing on L2WTC and interest in foreign countries in a Japanese elementary school context
in which the structural equation model showed perceived competence is a predictor for L2WTC inchildren learning English.
III. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Although past studies investigated motivation and affect in language learning, these studies
did not clarify students’ changes in a longitudinal manner regarding listening, motivation and otheraffective factors among elementary school students. Also, while many of the past studies wereconducted in a quantitative manner, a mixed design including quantitative and qualitative factors
was needed in order to fully capture the development of students’ language learning in alongitudinal manner.
The objectives of the present study were:1)
To capture how elementary school students’ listening abilities, intrinsic motivation,
psychological needs of motivation (perceived autonomy, competency and relatedness), interest in
cultures and languages, L2WTC, Can-Do, and L2 ideal selves would change in two years, with thedata collected in July 2012, February 2013, July 2013, and February 2014.
2) To carry out cluster analysis to identify the underlying individual characteristics in listening
abilities as well as affective factors to see how these change in a longitudinal manner.
3) To briefly describe qualitative data to see how teachers would perceive students’ changes inlistening abilities and affective factors throughout the course.
IV. STUDY CONTEXT
1㸬㸬The Study Context
The focus of this study was Public Elementary School A in Osaka Prefecture in Japan. The
city was rather small and there were only 224 students in total aged between 6 and 12 years old (1stto 6th grade). During the period of the present research, an assistant language teacher (hereinafter,
ALT) organized curricula for the City Board of Education for the 5th and 6th grades at School A
where the ALT was visiting once a week, totaling 35 hours of foreign language activities. Also, at
this school, the third and the fourth grade students made use of comprehensive study hours to study
English for approximately 10 hours annually. All lesson plans were prepared for the ALT but theactivities and games that students liked were decided in discussion with homeroom teachers(hereinafter, HRT).
2. Team-teaching Styles
The ALT was born in Korea and emigrated to Canada when she was a teenager. She had
experience in teaching as a homeroom teacher at elementary school in the UK, and this was the firstyear for her to teach in a Japanese elementary school setting. She was also taking a CELTA course(Certificate in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) and was enthusiastic about3

Rieko NISHIDA

teaching children and making all sorts of teaching materials for them. Team-teaching was carriedout with the ALT and HRT in the class. Teacher A, the HRT, was rather shy in English lessons; hisrole was trying to explain in Japanese to students. He was able to team-teach with the ALT by using
both Japanese and English. The HRT had a short meeting with the ALT and they knew their roles in
the class; the ALT had the main role in teaching while the HRT had a subordinate role. In addition
to the ALT and HRTs, depending on the day and the month, two to three volunteer students fromone of the graduate schools in Osaka also assisted in the foreign language class.
3. Annual Curricula and Lesson Plans
Curricula were organized in Public Elementary School A to integrate topics from “Hi, friends!
1” and “Hi, friends! 2” (see Tables 1 & 2). Toward the end of the term, small projects were
integrated including “making a picture book”, “group presentation project”, and “making a play”.
Students in both 5th and 6th grades were involved in the projects and expressed their ideas in front of
the class. In every lesson, lesson plans were organized as follows: greetings (5 min), review (5 min),main activities (10 min for introducing words and sentences, and 20 min for main tasks), and wrap
up (5 min). Teaching material included the textbooks, DVDs, picture cards, and games. Students
followed the lesson plans and seemed to like the materials that the ALT had created. As an example,
following is a description of how the picture book project was conducted. “The Very Hungry
Caterpillar” by Eric Carle (1969) was chosen as a model for the sixth grade to create their own
picture book. In this book, a small caterpillar eats many different kinds of food from Monday toSaturday, and then it becomes a beautiful butterfly. Students in each group needed to think about“the very hungry something” becoming “the very beautiful something”, and what he/she eats for aweek. One of the groups created a story in which “the very hungry mouse” becomes “the very big
panda bear” by eating many different foods for a week. Six different students in a group drew a
picture of an apple and bananas indicating “on Monday, he ate a big apple” and “on Tuesday, he ate
two bananas”, respectively. Then on the presentation day, students presented their picture book in
front of the class. While students were creating the picture books, teachers assisted students to read
and write English words to be able to complete the book. They practiced how to pronounce thewords and the sentences before presenting the books in front of the class.
Table 1. Annual Curricula for Grade 5
Hi, friends! 1
Key sentences
April
What's your name? Hello, my name is ______. Nice to meet you.
May Lesson 1, 2
Hello! I'm happy! Learning "Hello" in different languages and learning emotional expressions.
June Lesson 3
How many? Learning "numbers" in different languages.
July
Project 1: Picture Book Project. Based on "Brown Bear Brown Bear, What Do you see".
Sept Lesson 4
I like apples. I don't like apples. Expressing what you like and what you don't like.
Oct Lesson 5
What do you like? Learning colors and shapes. Making a T-shirt.
Project 2: Group Presentation ProjectNov
Dec Lesson 6
What do you want? Learning alphabet. Big "A" and small "a".
Jan Lesson 7
What's this? Pointing games. It's a --.
Feb
Project 3. Making a Play.

4

A Two-year Longitudinal Study of Listening Abilities and Affective Factors
among Children Learning English in the Japanese EFL Context

Table 2. Annual Curricula for Grade 6
Hi, friends! 2
April
May Lesson 1, 2
June Lesson 3
July
Sept Lesson 4
Oct
Nov
Dec Lesson 5
Jan Lesson 6
Feb Lesson 7

Key sentences
What's your name? Hello, my name is ______. Nice to meet you.
Do you have "a"? Yes, I do. No, I don't. My birthday is --.
My birthday is --. I can--. I can't --. Can you --?
Project 1: Picture Book Project. Based on "The Very Hungry Caterpillar".
Direction: Go straight, turn right, turn left, where is the --? Let's go to Italy!
To make own T-shirts. What T-shirt? What shape? What color? How many starts?
Project 2: Group Presentation Project
I can./ I can't play--. (play soccer, play baaseball, play the piano..)Let's try "clock". What time is it now? It's 10:30 p.m. What time do you go to school?
Project 3. Making a Play.

V. METHOD
1. Participants
A total of 34 students participated in the study. When students took listening tests andquestionnaires, they were in the fifth and sixth grade, aged between 10 and 12 years old. Thesestudents were in the same class when they were in the 5th and 6th grades. The same HRT, Teacher A,
was in charge of these students for two years.
2. Procedures
A listening test according to the STEP Bronze test (ALC Press, 2007) was prepared based on
students’ abilities and understanding (Table 3). The listening tests consisted of 15 questions with thelevel adjusted according to the students’ level of understanding, and included some challenging
questions. The motivation questionnaire included the following scales: intrinsic motivation (3items), perceived autonomy (4 items), perceived competency (4 items) and perceived relatedness (4items), interest in cultures and languages (3 items), Can-Do (4 items), L2 WTC (2 items), and L2
Ideal selves (3 items) (see Table 4 for Cronbach’s Alpha). A five-point Likert scale was used for thequestionnaire items.

Table 3. Examples of Listening Test
1) 1. This is a hippopotamus. 2. This is a sheep. 3. This is a house.
2) 1. I have two pineapples. 2. I have two pears. 3. I have two oranges.
3) 1. I play the violin. 2. I play the guitar. 3. I play the harmonica.

5

Rieko NISHIDA

Table 4. The Scales and Cronbach’s Alphas
References

Jul-12

Feb-13

Jul-13

Feb-14

Perceived Autonomy

Į.70

Į.81

Į.75

Į.69

Perceived Competency

Į.79

Į.85

Į.84

Į.86

Į.64

Į.86

Į.65

Į.77

Į.94

Į.92

Į.84

Į.70

Į.71

Į.41

Į.64

Į.63

Hiromori (2006)

Perceived Relatedness
Intrinsic Motivation
Interest in Cultures and Languages

Nishida (2008)

Can-DoNakahira et.al. (2011)

Į.69

Į.72

Į.49

Į.64

L2WTC

Yashima (2002)

Į.92

Į.74

Į.81

Į.72

L2Ideal Selves

Ryan (2009)

Į.84

Į.61

Į.77

Į.73

VI. RESULTS OF THE QUANTITATIVE STUDY
To investigate the first research question, to capture how elementary school students’ listening
abilities, intrinsic motivation, psychological needs of motivation (perceived autonomy, competency
and relatedness), interest in cultures and languages, L2WTC, Can-Do, and L2 ideal selves wouldchange in two years, a statistical analysis was conducted with the data collected in July 2012,
February 2013, July 2013, and February 2014. Descriptive statistics were estimated using SPSS
ver.19. Listening abilities showed an increase throughout the course; in particular, there seemed to
be a sharp increase between July 2012 and February 2013 when students were in the 5th grade. The
results for July 2013 and February 2014 showed that students’ listening abilities seemed to havebeen maintained through the 6th grade (see Figure 1). Also, although scores in most of the affective
factors seemed to have been maintained throughout the course, perceived autonomy and intrinsic
motivation seemed to have declined during the 6th grade (see Figures 2-3).

13.79

13.41

14.00

11.62

July 2012 (5th)February 2013 (5th)July 2013 (6th)February 2014 (6th)Figure 1. Longitudinal Analysis of Listening Abilities Between April 2012 and March 2014

6

A Two-year Longitudinal Study of Listening Abilities and Affective Factors
among Children Learning English in the Japanese EFL Context

Changes in Intrinsic Motivation andThree Psychological Needs
5

4

3

2

July 2012 (5th)February 2013 (5th)Autonomy

July 2013 (6th)Competency

Relatedness

February 2014 (6th)Intrinsic Motivation

Chanages in Interest, CanDo, L2WTC
and L2 Ideal Selves
5

4

3

2

July 2012 (5th)February 2013 (5th)Interest in Languages and Cultures

July 2013 (6th)Can-DoL2WTCFebruary 2014 (6th)
L2Ideal Selves

Figure 2. Changes in Intrinsic Motivation and Three Psychological Needs
Figure 3. Changes in Other Affective Factors
To investigate the second research question, to identify the underlying individual
characteristics in listening abilities as well as affective factors to see how these change in alongitudinal manner, cluster analysis was conducted. Hierarchical cluster method in the use of
Euclidean distance was applied and to decide the cut-off points, a dendrogram indicating thehierarchical clustering structure was decided. Four clusters were identified: Cluster 1 with 6
students, Cluster 2 with 4 students, Cluster 3 with 19 students and Cluster 4 with 5 students (seeTable 5) (see Figures 4-12).
Cluster 1 (Figures 5-6) showed the highest listening and affective factors among the fourclusters. In particular, listening maintained its level throughout the course after a sharp increase in
February 2013, and scores in affective factors were maintained, but relatedness, intrinsic motivation,
7

Rieko NISHIDA

interest in languages and culture and Can-Do showed decreasing tendencies after July 2013. Cluster
1 showed the highest scores in intrinsic motivation and the three psychological needs of motivation
among the four clusters, with higher scores in motivation, the three psychological needs and otheraffective factors in July 2012, and February 2013, then showing a slight decline in July 2013 before
recovering somewhat in February 2014.
Cluster 2 (Figures 7-8) revealed a sharp increase in listening. In July 2012, students showed alow score on listening (M=8.25), but a half year later, they showed a sharp increase (M=11.50), then
their listening abilities showed constant increase toward the end of the year. Most of the affective
factors including autonomy, competency, intrinsic motivation, interest in languages and culture,
L2WTC and L2 ideal selves, on the contrary, showed a decreasing tendency throughout the course.
Cluster 3 (Figures 9-10) included 19 students, making up nearly 55 % of students in total.
These students showed middling tendencies in both listening and affective factors. In July 2012,listening showed the second highest among four clusters, increasing afterwards. Most of theaffective factors maintained their levels throughout the course. This cluster showed middle range
scores on intrinsic motivation and the three psychological needs of motivation, and these weremaintained throughout the course, though autonomy showed a decline after July 2013. As for otheraffective factors, Cluster 3 also showed middle range scores for these affective factors and thesefactors seemed to be maintained over the course of time.
Cluster 4 (Figures 11-12) also showed high scores on listening, with a slight decline
afterwards. This cluster showed the lowest scores for intrinsic motivation and the threepsychological needs of motivation among the four clusters, but it showed an increasing tendency inintrinsic motivation, and autonomy, while scores in relatedness and competency were maintained
throughout the course. Cluster 4 also showed the lowest affective factors among the four clusters,
but all these factors seem to have been enhanced over the duration of the course.
Table 5. Descriptions of Each Cluster
Listening AffectDescriptions of Each Cluster

Cluster 1 (6)

High

High

High in listening and affect.

Cluster 2 (4)LowMiddleLow in listening and high in affect, but showing a sharp increase in listening.

Cluster 3 (19) Middle Middle
Cluster 4 (5) Middle

Low

Middle in listening and affect.
Middle in listening and low in affect, but showed increase in affect.

8

A Two-year Longitudinal Study of Listening Abilities and Affective Factors
among Children Learning English in the Japanese EFL Context

Listening Test
15

14
13
12

11
10
9

8
Time 1Time 2Cluster 1 (6)Time 3Cluster 2 (4)Time 4Cluster 3 (19)Cluster 4 (5)Figure 4. Changes in Listening Test on Each Cluster

Cluster 1: Intrinsic Motivation and Three
Psychological Needs
5
4
3
2

1
Time 1Time 2Time 3Time 4AutonomyCompetency

Relatedness

Motivation

Cluster 1: Other Affective Factors
5

4
3
2

1
Time 1

Interest

Time 2Time 3

Can-DoL2WTCTime 4L2 Ideal Selves

Figure 5. Cluster 1: Intrinsic Motivation and Three Psychological Needs
Figure 6. Cluster 1: Other Affective Factors
9

Rieko NISHIDA

Cluster 2: Intrinsic Motivation and Three
Psychological Needs
5
4
3
2
1

Time 1Time 2Time 3Time 4AutonomyCompetency

Relatedness

Motivation

Cluster 2: Other Affective Factors
5
4
3

2
1
Time 1
Interest

Time 2Time 3

Can-DoL2WTCTime 4L2 Ideal Selves

Figure 7. Cluster 2: Intrinsic Motivation and Three Psychological Needs
Figure 8. Cluster 2: Other Affective Factors

10

A Two-year Longitudinal Study of Listening Abilities and Affective Factors
among Children Learning English in the Japanese EFL Context

Cluster 3: Intrinsic Motivation andThree Psychological Needs
5
4
3
2
1

Time 1Time 2Time 3Time 4AutonomyCompetency

Relatedness

Motivation

Cluster 3: Other Affective Factors
5

4
3
2
1
Time 1

Interest

Time 2Time 3

Can-DoL2WTCTime 4L2 Ideal Selves

Figure 9. Cluster 3: Intrinsic Motivation and Three Psychological Needs
Figure 10. Cluster 3: Other Affective Factors

11

Rieko NISHIDA

Cluster 4: Intrinsic Motivation andThree Psychological Needs
5

4
3
2
1
Time 1Time 2Time 3Time 4AutonomyCompetency

Relatedness

Motivation

Cluster 4: Other Affective Factors
5
4
3
2
1

Time 1
Interest

Time 2Time 3

Can-DoL2WTCTime 4L2 Ideal Selves

Figure 11. Cluster 4: Intrinsic Motivation and Three Psychological Needs
Figure 12. Cluster 4: Other Affective Factors
Repeated measurements of analysis of variance (ANOVA) were conducted and main effectwithin subject was observed in listening and intrinsic motivation (see Table 6). Factors concerning
between subject, listening, autonomy, competency, intrinsic motivation, interest in languages andculture, Can-Do, and L2 ideal selves showed statistical differences among the four clusters (seeTable 7).

12

A Two-year Longitudinal Study of Listening Abilities and Affective Factors
among Children Learning English in the Japanese EFL Context

Table 6. Mixed Design of Repeated Measurement of ANOVA: Within Subject
Within Subject (Main Effect)
Type IIISum ofSquares
Listening
126.11
Autonomy
2.25
Competency
1.51
Relatedness
1.64
Intrinsic Motivation 5.46
Interest
0.60
Can-Do
0.60
L2WTC
1.59
L2 Ideal Selves
0.62
Factordf

Mean
Square

F

p

Ș2

1, 87
3, 90
3, 90
3, 90
3, 90
3, 90
3, 90
3, 90
3, 90

67.45
0.75
0.50
0.55
1.82
0.20
0.20
0.53
0.21

22.09
3.07
1.49
3.07
4.82
0.44
0.70
0.83
0.52

0.00
0.03
0.22
0.03
0.00
0.72
0.55
0.48
0.67

0.42
0.09
0.05
0.09
0.14
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.02

Table 7. Mixed Design of Repeated Measurement of ANOVA: Between Subject
Between Subject
Type IIISum of
Factors
Squares
Listening
51.38
Autonomy
58.30
Competency
38.85
Relatedenss
5.72
Intrinsic Motivation 58.87
Interest
27.15
Can-Do
16.94
L2WTC
5.93
L2Ideal Selve
23.47

df

Mean
Square

F

p

Ș2

3, 30
3, 30
3, 30
3, 30
3, 30
3, 30
3, 30
3, 30
3, 30

17.13
19.43
12.95
1.91
19.62
9.05
5.65
1.98
7.82

6.39
54.71
18.74
1.71
32.75
10.13
9.05
1.19
5.73

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.19
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.33
0.00

0.39
0.85
0.65
0.15
0.77
0.50
0.48
0.11
0.36

VII. RESULTS OF THE QUALITATIVE STUDY
To investigate the third research question, which was concerned with changes in classroom
dynamics, observation notes and teachers’ interviews were closely examined with a view to
identifying aspects of these changes. Also, the flow of the lessons and the changes in dynamics inclassroom interactions between teachers and students were identified and closely examined.
Observation notes of classroom lessons were made in every lesson, including impressions of
the classroom atmosphere created by students and teachers, and teachers’ and students’ behavioral
reactions, which were transcribed into a written format for analysis in a spread sheet. The
observation notes included reflections on lessons and teaching materials and these were also closely
examined in order to identify what was happening in the classroom. The transcriptions ofobservation notes were open-coded based on the use of Grounded Theory Approach, referring to
Cobin and Strauss (2008), and similar ideas were abstracted to axial coding. Six main classroom
interactions featuring the use of assistance by the ALT were identified, examples of which are given
13

Rieko NISHIDA

below in Table 8.
Table 8. Axial Coding and Examples of Open-coding
Axial Coding
Examples of Open Coding"teachers' use of gesture with 'OK'", "Good and/or very
good with thumbs up gesture", "a teacher uses gestures for
Teachers' Use of Gesture'what do you see' with her OK gesture on her eyes", "gestureuse for facial and emotional expressions (e.g., hungry,
angry, happy, sad, ..)"a teacher uses Japanese to explain English words and/or
sentences", "a teacher uses Japanese to explain teachers'
Teachers' Support in the Use of
instruction of activities and/or games", "a teacher uses
JapaneseJapanese when students have trouble understanding what
ALT was saying in the class".
"teachers praise students by saying "good job" and/or "verygood", "teachers smile at students", "a teacher patted
Teachers' Emotional Support
students' heads", "teachers give students some stamps and/or
stickers".
Class-focused Support: Modeling- "ALT modeled sentences and students repeated after her",repetition"ALT models words and students repeated after her".
"teachers look around the class to help group work","teachers help students in a group to do a group presentation
Group-focused Support
activity", "volunteers help students to pronounce words
and/or sentences".
"teachers help an individual student to say words and/or
sentences in English", "a teacher helps a student in order to
Individual-focused Support
correct mispronounciation of words and/or sentences","teachers help a student in order to enhance the student's
participation in the activities".

1. Teachers’ Use of Gesture (May 8, 2012)“The ALT was trying to use gestures a lot. Especially when she tries to teach new words andsentences to students, she often uses gestures. For example, when she tries to teach ‘expressions’ tostudents including ‘I’m hungry and I’m angry’, she puts her hands on her stomach and/or made herangry face and puts her hand out stiffly. Then students imitated her when they tried to say ‘I’m
hungry’ and/or ‘I’m angry’”
When the ALT introduced new words and/or sentences, and when students were unable tounderstand these words and sentences, she tried to use gestures to express these words andsentences to students. Her gesture use and students repetition in the use of gesture were often seen
when new words and sentences were introduced and this was gradually reduced as students
acquired the language.

14

A Two-year Longitudinal Study of Listening Abilities and Affective Factors
among Children Learning English in the Japanese EFL Context

2. Teachers’ Support in the Use of Japanese (June, 5, 2012)“Although the HRT tried to use English only, she sometimes used Japanese to explain English
words and/or sentences. For example, when students did not understand the word ‘play’ soccer, theHRT used the Japanese “Soccer wo surutoki ha play wo kuwaemasu” (When you use the word“soccer”, you need to use “play”). But she used Japanese only when students did not understandwhat was happening; then the HRT used Japanese for them in order to truly understand how to say
the words and sentences.”
The HRT recognized that students were not able to understand the word “play”, so she used
Japanese to explain what students did not understand. On many occasions, the HRT and the ALT
avoided using Japanese to explain the new words and sentences, but made use of gestures, picture
cards, and/or handwriting on the blackboard to explain. Sometimes, and only when students wereunable to understand the new words and/or sentences, they would use Japanese.
3. Teachers’ Emotional Support (June 12, 2012).
“The teachers, both the ALT and the HRT, often praised students by saying ‘very good’ and‘good job’. Whenever students were able to say the words and/or sentences in English, they praised
them. In addition to praising students verbally, the teachers smiled at students, patted them on thehead, and/or held them when they were having trouble in learning.”
When students had done enough repetitions and the ALT saw them doing well, she always
praised them by saying “Good”, “Very good”, and/or “Good job” together with a thumbs up gesture.
Teachers often confirmed students’ progress in the class and students seemed to be pleased toreceive their praise. As the observation notes indicate, teachers were trying to comfort students
especially when they had trouble saying the words and sentences in English. They tried not to pushthem but supported them with a warm smile and praise.
4. Class-Focused Support: Modeling-Repetition (June 12, 2012)“When the ALT tries to teach new words/or sentences, she modeled them and the students
repeated them after her. She quite often did this modeling-repetition, until the students were used tosaying the words and/or sentences. For example, when she tried to teach ‘I can read a book’, firstly,
she showed them a picture card and said ‘read a book’, then she added ‘I can read a book’ as asentence, then students repeated ‘I can read a book’”.
On this day, the ALT was trying to introduce new sentences using “I can/ I can’t” to thestudents as well as several other new words and sentences. When new words and/or sentences wereintroduced to students, the ALT said “repeat after me”, modeling them, and students repeated themseveral times, until the ALT saw the students were comfortable enough to say these words and/or
sentences.
5. Group-Focused Support (June 5, 2013)“After having enough modeling-repetition in the class, the HRT often focused practices within
15

Rieko NISHIDA

the group to do group presentation activities and/or games. Then both the ALT and the HRT tried tolook around the group to see if the group was doing well in activities and/or games”.
After practicing the words and/or sentences in the class, students were often divided into
groups to use and/or practice English in games and/or activities within the group. Teachers often
went around the class to look into the group to check that they were able to do the games and/or
activities as a group.
6. Individual-Focused Support (June, 5, 2012)“The ALT and HRT tried to focus on helping individual students to say the words andsentences when he/she had trouble saying something in English. For example, when the student A(Kazuma: pseudonymous) had trouble remembering ‘piano’, the ALT interacted with him by saying‘So, Kazuma, what is it?’. Kazuma says ‘Organ’. ALT says ‘not Organ… pi..’. ‘Piano!’ Kazuma
said happily. By giving him a hint, the student was able to say the words and/or sentences inEnglish.”In the class, teachers’ support with individual students was often observed. After practicing
the words and/or sentences by modeling and repetition, students were divided into groups and/or
picked out to use these words and/or sentences. On many occasions, students were able to say thewords and/or sentences correctly. However, when they could not, the ALT helped individual
students to be able to say the words and/or sentences.
VIII. DISCUSSION
The current study has yielded a number of findings on listening abilities as well as affective
factors including intrinsic motivation, the three psychological needs of motivation (perceived
autonomy, perceived competency and perceived relatedness), interest in languages and culture, CanDo, L2WTC and L2 ideal selves over the period of two years. Quantitative results showed changes
in students’ tendencies overall in listening abilities and affective factors, and also qualitative data
showed teachers’ perspectives on students’ changes in linguistic and affective factors.
Quantitatively, the present study recorded an increase in listening abilities over the course oftime. This increase was particularly apparent during the first grade, although listening abilities
continued to show an increase throughout the course. The study result is meaningful, as there are
only a few reports concerning listening and speaking among children learning English in a Japanesecontext. This lack of studies concerning linguistic abilities is partially due to the focus of “foreign
language activities” stipulated by MEXT. “Foreign language activities” are supposed to focus on
students’ affect, aiming to develop a “positive attitude toward English” and “to deepen
understanding of other countries”. However, it would be beneficial to have data on the extent towhich students’ linguistic abilities, including listening ability, are affected by “foreign language
activities”, as “foreign language activities” will be an official subject in the year 2020 for the 5th and6th grades (MEXT, 2014). In this study, the data showed that students’ listening abilities (based ona listening test) showed an increase in February 2013, half a year after initial testing. In the test, as
16

A Two-year Longitudinal Study of Listening Abilities and Affective Factors
among Children Learning English in the Japanese EFL Context

the questionnaire was carefully organized in consideration of the students’ levels of understanding,most students showed high scores and growth in learning, which might have led to an increase in
students’ competency in learning as indicated in the quantitative results.
In the study, quantitatively, affective factors including intrinsic motivation, the threepsychological needs of motivation (perceived autonomy, perceived competency, perceived
relatedness), interest in language and culture, Can-Do, L2WTC and L2 ideal selves were alsomeasured to identify students’ changes in a longitudinal manner. Overall tendencies showed thatmost of the factors remained stable throughout the course, except perceived autonomy and intrinsic
motivation. Throughout the course, perceived relatedness was the highest factor among all, and it
perhaps is because students in the class were friendly to each other from the beginning as well as
the relationship between teachers and students remaining good for 2 years. As an observer myself
for the first year, the classroom was well controlled by teachers and the relationship between the
HRT, ALT and volunteers and students was good and a warm and comfortable classroom
atmosphere was created. Can-Do was the second highest factor, showing a slight increase in
February 2013 and July 2013 (during the fifth and the sixth grades respectively); this level was
retained through February 2014.
In order to identify individual differences, students were clustered to see underlying
tendencies in listening ability, intrinsic motivation, the three psychological needs of motivation,interest in languages and cultures, Can-Do, L2WTC as well as L2 ideal selves, enabling a division
into four groups. All four groups showed different patterns in listening, motivation and otheraffective factors over the course of time. The study results indicated that students in Cluster 1
showed the highest scores in listening and affect among the four clusters. Listening ability wasmaintained throughout the course, while motivation and other affective factors seemed to have been
maintained, or showed decreasing tendencies throughout the course. Students in Cluster 2 scoredlow on listening and high on motivation and affect but revealed a sharp increase in listening overthe course of time, while motivation and other affective factors revealed decreasing tendencies
throughout the course. Cluster 3, involving nearly half the students in the class, showed middlingtendencies in listening, motivation and other affective factors. Listening results were the second
highest among the four clusters. Autonomy and competency seemed to have declined throughout
the course, but the rest of the motivational and affective factors seemed to have retained their levels
over the course of time. Cluster 4 revealed middle range scores on listening and low scores on affect,
but motivation and other affective factors showed an increase throughout the course. These results
indicated that there are many different underlying learner tendencies in the language class. As
students have different individual characteristics in language learning, practitioners need to be
conscious about how they can bring out students’ listening abilities as well as enhancing students’motivation and affect thoughout the course.
In order to see what was happening in the foreign language classroom from a qualitative pointof view, the observation notes were closely analyzed. Regarding the changing dynamics of thelanguage classroom, the notes indicated that changes had occurred in teacher-student interactional
17

Rieko NISHIDA

patterns throughout the course. This included teachers’ use of support with gestures and Japanese,and the use of support focusing on the class as a whole, groups and individual students. The focus
of teachers’ support in lessons from day to day and within each lesson tended to vary; for example,
they might use modeling and repetition at the beginning of the lessons, focusing on the whole class;later, the focus of their assistance was changed to groups and individuals to allow them to be able toperform their activities and games. Also, at the beginning of the lessons, the ALT often usedgestures in order to elicit student utterances, and the use of Japanese was sometimes observed when
students were unable to say the words and sentences. By assisting students in this manner, students
seemed to have developed and were able to use language to say what they wanted. Such processes
were observed in every lesson, and throughout the course, and as students received sufficientassistance from teachers, this may have enhanced their listening abilities as well as motivation andother affective factors. Similar patterns were identified in the previous study (Nishida, 2013), and if
these processes are consistent in the classroom where students’ motivation and affect might beenhanced, further detailed analysis is needed, as it could benefit teaching practice. In this study,
quantitative findings show an increase in students’ motivation, affect and listening abilities: this isperhaps because of teachers’ assistance in students’ learning, as seen in the qualitative data. In eachlesson, as well as the project-type learning, students were carefully assisted by the teachers.
Teachers watched the class carefully to see which individual students were having trouble andneeded help. As students were provided with assistance from teachers for every aspect of theirforeign language learning, this might have increased their listening abilities as well as motivation
and affect in language learning.
IX. CONCLUSION
In this paper, a year-long analysis of listening ability and affective factors was conducted tosee the changes in students over the course of time using quantitative and qualitative data. The
study identified the dynamic changes in students’ abilities in listening and affect through teachers’
use of language and emotional support. As the study identifies changes in students’ learning
processes, emphasizing the importance of teachers’ use of support and suggests this can be one of
the instrumental methods in improving both motivational factors and linguistic ability, it is hopedthat the study results will provide both stimulation and encouragement for those involved inteaching languages to children.
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JACET Kansai Journal, 17, 21-40. (2015) ©JACET Kansai Chapter
ISSN 1880-2281

Printed in JAPAN.

Gaps and Similarities between Medical Teachers’ Expectations andStudents’ Self-assessed Needs for English
Kohei Suzuki
Mie University

Yoshiki Nakamura
Osaka Medical College

Miho Fujieda
Kyoto College of Medical Science

Naoki Sakata
Kurume University

Eri Tanaka
Osaka Medical College
ABSTRACT
In order to clarify the goal of medical English education, this study: 1) developed Can-Do
Statements for English for Medical Purposes (EMP) and English for General Purposes (EGP), and2) conducted questionnaire surveys to articulate students’ needs and self-assessed abilities for
EMP and general English proficiency, as well as teachers’ expectations for EMP and EGP.
According to our research, receptive skills, especially reading, were recognized as the mostnecessary by both students and medical teachers, whereas differences of opinion between themwere found in such areas as perceived English needs for interactive situations. Among reading
skills, abstract reading was the only skill that the teachers and the students had very different
opinions about. Further, this study revealed medical teachers’ expectations for the students’general English proficiency level. Analyzing the responses to the questionnaires based on the
TOEIC Can-Do Guide, we found that students need a minimum score of 460 (230 each for
Listening and Reading), with an ideal score of 860 (430 each for Listening and Reading) on thescale of TOEIC. These findings exert a beneficial impact on medical English education.
Keywords: English for Medical Purposes (EMP), needs, Can-Do Statements, self-assessed
abilities

I. INTRODUCTION
The aim of this paper is to present a needs analysis result of medical English education bycontrasting students’ and medical teachers’ needs from a multi-faceted point of view. It has been
claimed that English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses, including EMP, should be based on theneeds analysis of the discourse community in question to determine teaching materials, methods,
and curriculum (e.g., Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998; Miyama, 2000). Our needs analysis focuses
21

Kohei SUZUKI, Yoshiki NAKAMURA, Miho FUJIEDA, Naoki SAKATA, Eri TANAKA

on the identification of the gaps (and similarities) between students’ and medical teachers’ needs,
thereby providing a clue to the development of a better EMP course.
Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) mentions the following eight aspects of needs analysis:
A. Professional information about the learners: the tasks and activities the learners
are/will be using English for—target situation analysis and objective needs
B. Personal information about the learners: factors that may affect the way they learn,such as previous learning experiences, cultural information, reasons for attending thecourse and expectations of it, attitude to English—wants, means, subjective needs
C. English language information about the learners: what their current skills andlanguage use are—present situation analysis
D. The learners’ lacks: the gap between (C) and (A)—lacks
E. Language learning information: effective ways of learning the skills and language
identified as lacking in (D)—learning needs
F. Professional communication information related to (A): knowledge of how
language and skills are used in the target situation—linguistic analysis, discourse
analysis, genre analysis
G. What is wanted from the course
H. Information about the environment in which the course will be run—means
analysis (p. 125, slightly modified)
Most of the previous analyses of needs for EMP, as far as the authors can see, have focusedon (A): Hishida and Ohki (2000), for example, conducted an alumni survey of a total of 133
doctors who had 9-, 16-, or 19-year careers after graduation from a Japanese medical school, inorder to investigate the actual situations where English is used in their practice. Although theyalso asked them what, based on their professional experience, should be included inundergraduate EMP courses, their answers are clearly not about their present needs. In this sense,
Hishida and Ohki (2000) does not include a present situation analysis.
The importance of property (C) for the development of a better EMP course is clear: theproper curriculum of any language courses should fill the “gap” between the current skills oflearners and the target skills. Yokoyama, Yamauchi, Nakano, Yasunami, and Kawakita (2005) isanother needs analysis study, which contains information about the gap in needs between students
and medical teachers. They conducted a survey of 300 undergraduates and 168 medical teachers
in the form of a questionnaire and found that although the students and medical teachers shared anunderstanding that “English is necessary for a doctor,” the teachers felt more strongly that English
is necessary than the students did. Furthermore, the students felt strongly that medical English isneeded for comprehensive reading of articles, conversation, and making a presentation, whereas
the teachers felt strongly that English is needed for conversation, presentation, and comprehensive
reading of articles. They also reported that 67 % of the teachers feel that their students’ level of22

Gaps and Similarities between Medical Teachers’ Expectations andStudents’ Self-assessed Needs for English

English is not sufficient to read textbook English, make an oral presentation, and comprehend
spoken English.
Although Yokoyama et al.’s (2005) generalizations about the needs of both students andmedical teachers and the gaps between them are correct, we can point out at least two problems.
First, the study lacks analysis of the present situation: the authors do not provide information
about the students’ present English proficiency. Furthermore, we do not believe that their study
successfully identified the levels of English proficiency that teachers think are necessary. They
included one question for the medical teachers asking them what levels of English proficiency arenecessary for their students; for reference, they used the levels provided by the existing
standardized tests, such as STEP Eiken, TOEIC, and TOEFL. The problem is, however, that it is
not probable that they provided the medical teachers with links between the performances onthese standardized tests and abilities to perform a variety of everyday and medical language tasks
in English; thus, the medical teachers may not have known what these proficiency levels reallyindicate.
The second problem with Yokoyama et al. (2005) is that their questionnaire items may be too
general in some cases. For example, they asked the students to answer a question about what
English skills they want to improve in college by choosing among skills in the areas of reading,speaking, listening, and writing. In actual situations, however, the needs for reading papers andreading abstracts could be different. To fully understand the needs that EMP education must fulfill,
we need to examine the relevant types of situations in more detail.
Naruenatwatana and Vijchulata’s (2001) study in Thailand is a good first step in solving
these problems. Their question items are more concrete than those in other studies: they asked 297
students and 10 medical teachers about the need for “reading medical textbooks,” “reading
professional journals,” “reading medical reports,” and so on. The respondents were asked to rank
the needs according to a 5-point scale. They used the same question items for both the students
and the teachers so that they could see the differences/similarities between the two groups. With
these detailed situation/scene setting skill items, they succeeded in identifying more EMP needs inmore detail. However, they asked only 10 medical teachers, which would not be enough for ageneralization about the needs of all medical teachers.
None of the studies seems to elucidate the gaps in objective English proficiency levels. We
believe that information about both the gaps in subjective needs and objective needs is necessary
to develop a proper curriculum. Incorporating the method adopted by Naruenatwatana andVijchulata (2001), we utilized two sets of questionnaires: one is to ask about general English
skills and the other to ask about English skills specific to medical situations. The items for general
English are set to be compatible with an existing standardized English proficiency test, TOEIC, so
that we can compare the needs of medical teachers and students’ present English proficiency.
In sum, the present study utilized a new method to identify the gaps between medical
students’ English skill levels and the levels perceived as necessary by medical teachers; both thegaps in English skills specific to medical situations and the gaps in general English skills were
23

Kohei SUZUKI, Yoshiki NAKAMURA, Miho FUJIEDA, Naoki SAKATA, Eri TANAKA

investigated.
II. METHOD
In order to comprehensively grasp the needs of medical English education, our research
focused on such concerns as skill- and situation-specific needs, differences in needs within andamong groups (of students and teachers), and correlations between students’ proficiency levels
and their and medical teachers’ needs. To achieve this purpose, we conducted a total survey inrelation to students’ needs for EMP and EGP, teachers’ needs for EMP and EGP, students’
self-assessment about their English proficiency (“Can-Do”), and the objective level of theirEnglish proficiency (as indicated by TOEIC-IP scores). We thus worked on the following fivetasks (“T” indicates task):
T1: Development of Can-Do Statements for EMP
T2: Development of Can-Do Statements for EGP
T3: Survey on students’ needs and self-assessed abilities for EMP and EGP
T4: Survey on teachers’ needs for EMP and EGP
T5: Measurement of the level of English proficiency of students
1. Participants
1.1 Students
Four hundred thirty-four students covering first to fourth years of a private medical college(all Japanese) participated in our survey. The students fell into three groups according to theirlevel of English proficiency;1 the number of students in each of the three groups is shown in Table
1.
Table 1. Classification of Students According to Their English Proficiency Level
Proficiency Level

L

M

H

Corresponding TOEIC-IP Score-445

450–595

600-

Students

162

173

100

total

435

1.2 Teachers
Ninety-one medical teachers from two private medical colleges (all Japanese) participated inour survey. According to what we got from the preliminary questions in the survey, the teachers’
attributes are shown in Table 2:24

Gaps and Similarities between Medical Teachers’ Expectations andStudents’ Self-assessed Needs for English

Table 2. Attributes of Teachers
Medical License
Possession
No

Yes

Years of Experience

Affiliation

>5

6–10

11–20

㻌

21–30

31 <

Other

Total

Clinical Medicine

㻌

㻌

㻌

㻌

㻌

1

1

Basic Medicine

㻌

㻌

㻌

㻌

㻌

16

16

General Education

㻌

㻌

㻌

㻌

㻌

3

3

Subtotal

㻌

㻌

㻌

㻌

㻌

20

20

Clinical Medicine

13

4

13

16

4

㻌

50

Basic Medicine

0

1

4

4

6

㻌

15

General Education

0

1

0

0

1

㻌

2

No response

0

0

1

2

0

㻌

3

Subtotal

13

6

18

22

11

㻌

70

No response

㻌

Total

Clinical Medicine

13

4

13

16

㻌

Basic Medicine

0

1

4

㻌

General Education

0

1

㻌

No response

0

㻌

Total

13

㻌

1

1

4

1

51

4

6

16

31

0

0

1

3

5

0

1

2

0

1

4

6

18

22

11

21

91

㻌

㻌

㻌

㻌

2. Materials
2.1 Can-Do Statements for EMP (T1)
For a needs and self-assessment (“Can-Do”) analysis of medical English education, wedeveloped Can-Do Statements for EMP by adapting the Can-Do Statements published as the
TOEIC Can-Do Guide (Chauncey Group International, 2000; Powers, Kim, & Weng, 2008) by
Educational Testing Service (ETS) to our design. The Can-Do statements list by ETS contains a
total of 75 items under five skills—Listening, Reading, Interactive Skills, Writing, and Speaking.
The Guide estimates the degree to which a score holder can perform particular tasks in English
based on the range that holder’s score falls into. Table 3 is an example showing one task includedin the Listening category.
Table 3. Task Performance Based on Score Range Categories
In Standard English, I can:Understand explanations about how to
perform a routine task related to my job

5–100

105–225

230–350

355–425

430–495

×

×

‫ټ‬

‫ټ‬

ż

In Table 3, “×,” “‫ټ‬,” and “ż” under each score range show to what degree a score holder ofthe Listening Comprehension section can perform the given task, meaning “cannot do,” “can do
25

Kohei SUZUKI, Yoshiki NAKAMURA, Miho FUJIEDA, Naoki SAKATA, Eri TANAKA

with difficulty,” and “can do” respectively. Thus, those whose score is within the range of 5–100
or 105–225 “cannot” understand explanations about how to perform a routine task related to theirjob, while those with the score between 230–350 or 355–425 “can do it with difficulty.”
We first applied this Can-Do Statements questionnaire by ETS to medical and clinicalsituations, and, through the pilot survey conducted with 68 students and 15 teachers, reorganized
it into a new questionnaire consisting of a total of 50 items under four skills (11 for Listening, 14
for Reading, nine for Writing, and 16 for Speaking) (see Appendix and Tanaka, Nakamura, &Nakagawa, 2013). Though not displayed on the questionnaire, each item can also be sorted into
any of six “task-situations”—“Healthcare workers” (interacting with healthcare workers),“Patients” (interacting with patients), “Research/Conferences” (interacting in research and atacademic conferences), “Words” (using medical vocabulary), “Classes” (using English in class),and “General/News” (using English for general purposes including such media literacy aslistening to news reports) so that they could be analyzed in terms of both skill and situation
factors. What characterizes this Can-Do Statement list is that it corresponds to quite detailed
needs based on clinical and educational situations for medicine, and also covers a wide range of
proficiency levels from using basic vocabulary to professional interaction.
2.2 Can-Do Statements for EGP (T2)
For our survey on needs for EGP, we translated Can-Do Statements by ETS into Japaneseand sorted its 75 items into two groups based on skill—GRWI (Reading, Writing, and Interactive
Skills, totaling 45 items) and GLS (Listening and Speaking, totaling 30). As for the EGP survey
for teachers (for T4), to save them the time and effort required to answer all of the items and toensure that we would obtain their responses without fail, we divided them into five groups, eachof which was asked to answer an inventory that included 15 statements; each inventory consistedof three (out of the total of 15) tasks from each of the five skill groups.
2.3 The form of the questionnaire (for T3 and T4)
In order to collect data regarding students’ needs and self-assessed abilities (T3), the Can-Do
Statements for EMP and Can-Do Statements for EGP were designed such that each respondent
had to answer two types of questions (A: needs; B: self-assessed abilities) on a five-point scale.
The following directions are provided in the questionnaire (note that the actually distributed
questionnaire is printed in Japanese):26

Gaps and Similarities between Medical Teachers’ Expectations andStudents’ Self-assessed Needs for English
A. Regarding the following items, to what extent do you think it necessary for yourself to acquire each at the
point of graduation (at the start of residency)?
B. Regarding the same items, to what extent do you consider yourself proficient in each at present?

Mark sheet
answerValue (notdisplayed)(I think)(I think) rather

Can’t say(I think) rather(I think)

not necessary

not necessary(Yes and No)

necessarynecessary

a

b

c

d

e

1

2

3

4

5

For the survey for teachers (T4), though, the same questionnaires as those for students wereused, but the direction given was adjusted as follows:
Regarding the following items, to what extent do you think it necessary for undergraduates to acquire each at
the point of graduation (at the start of residency)?

3. Procedure
A series of surveys were conducted in 2012 and 2013. Four hundred thirty-four students
responded to the printed version of the Can-Do Statements for EMP for our investigation on
students’ needs and self-assessed abilities for EMP (T3). They also took either TOEIC-IP or
CASEC (an online English assessment test whose score is closely correlated with that of TOEIC)
so that we could have the same amount of corresponding data on the level of English proficiency(T5). The scores were divided into three proficiency groups in reference to the “indication ofscore” published by ETS (see 1.1).
As for students’ needs and self-assessed abilities for EGP, we received 54 responses to
GRWI and 50 to GLS from first-year students (T3).
Ninety-one teachers responded to our survey on teachers’ needs by the Can-Do Statements
for EMP and Can-Do Statements for EGP conducted by means of printed questionnaires andSurvey Monkey (a web survey service) (T4).
III. RESULTS
1. Needs and self-assessed abilities for medical English
The tables below summarize the results of the questionnaires for medical English. Table 4shows that the needs of the students were slightly higher (3.9) than those of the medical teachers(3.7), but both groups’ needs for the four skills look similar. They both had stronger needs forreceptive skills, such as listening and reading, than productive skills, such as speaking and writing.
Table 5 shows some differences in needs by situation: needs in the area of English forcommunicating with patients and healthcare workers were rated slightly higher by the students

27

Kohei SUZUKI, Yoshiki NAKAMURA, Miho FUJIEDA, Naoki SAKATA, Eri TANAKA(3.9 and 3.8 respectively) than by the teachers (3.6 and 3.5 respectively). At the same time, thestudents reported they are better at receptive skills than at productive skills. Overall, judging by
the needs and skills data, it can be said that the more necessary a skill is for the students, thebetter they are at it.
Table 4. Needs and Self-assessed Abilities in Total for the Four Skills
Total

Listening

Reading

Speaking

Writing

Student needs

3.9

3.9

4.0

3.7

3.7

Teacher needs

3.7

3.8

4.1

3.5

3.5

Self-assessed abilities (students)

1.8

1.9

2.1

1.7

1.6

Table 5. Needs and Self-assessed Abilities by Situation
General/Healthcare

Research/

Words

News

Patients

workers

Conferences

Classes

Student needs

4.0

3.9

3.9

3.8

3.7

3.8

Teacher needs

4.0

3.9

3.6

3.5

3.6

3.7

2.0

2.1

1.8

1.7

1.7

2.0

Self-assessed abilities(students)

Table 6 and Table 7 show the values of needs minus self-assessed abilities for each skill andsituation. It can be said that the larger the value of needs for a skill or a situation is, the higher theactual necessity of teaching it is since this value reflects the gap between the needs for English
skills and students’ present English ability. Table 6 shows that the teachers felt strongly thatreading should be taught more, but students thought that listening, speaking, and writing are morenecessary. In line with the results shown in Table 5, Table 7 shows that the students felt morestrongly than the teachers that English for interaction with patients and healthcare workers should
be taught more.
Table 6. Student and Teacher Needs Minus Self-assessed Abilities (Four Skills)
Listening

Reading

Speaking

Writing

Student needs – Student Can-Dos

2.0

1.9

2.1

2.1

Teacher needs – Student Can-Dos

1.8

2.0

1.8

1.9

28

Gaps and Similarities between Medical Teachers’ Expectations andStudents’ Self-assessed Needs for English

Table 7. Student and Teacher Needs Minus Self-assessed Abilities (Situations)
General/Healthcare

Research/

Words

News

Patients

workers

Conferences

Classes

2.0

1.8

2.1

2.1

2.0

1.8

2.0

1.7

1.8

1.9

1.9

1.7

Student needs –Student self-assessed abilities
Teacher needs –Student self-assessed abilities

The values in Table 8 (and later in this section) are deviation values that were calculated
within each group. To know for which skill or situation a group feels more needs than othergroups, it is necessary to standardize each group’s score since raw average scores were different
among the groups. To compare the groups’ needs easily, deviations were adopted here.
Table 8 and Table 9 show the needs by student or teacher group and by skill or situation.
First, it was found that student proficiency did not affect their needs for specific skills or
situations very much except for the situation of interacting with patients. The students withmiddle or high proficiency felt the necessity to communicate with patients, although low
proficiency students did not. Fujieda, Sakata, Tanaka, Nakamura, and Suzuki (2013) shows that
medical teachers with less experience tend to respond that communicating with patients in
English is important. The students in the present study, except for the low proficiency ones, s eem
to have the same opinion.
Second, regarding medical teacher needs, the younger teachers considered listening andcommunicating with patients a more necessary skill than the older teachers did. Plus, it wasnotable that experienced teachers felt more needs for teaching writing. It might also be a natural
outcome that teachers of clinical medicine felt moderate needs for the use of English withpatients.
Third, comparing the student needs and the needs of different teacher groups, it was foundthat the student needs are similar to those of the younger teachers and teachers of clinicalmedicine. When the teachers were grouped by experience, the correlation coefficient with thestudent needs of the teachers with up to five-year experience was the highest (.91), whereas thatof the teachers with over 30-year experience was the lowest (.66). The other groups divided bytheir length of experience clearly showed the same tendency: the younger teachers’ needs werecloser to the students’ needs. It was also interesting that the students’ needs were closer to thoseof the teachers of clinical medicine. The correlation coefficient between them was .92, whereas
the coefficient of the teachers of basic medicine was .68 and the coefficient of the teachers ofgeneral education was .78.

29

Kohei SUZUKI, Yoshiki NAKAMURA, Miho FUJIEDA, Naoki SAKATA, Eri TANAKA

Table 8. Needs by Student or Teacher Group and Skill
Listening

Reading

Speaking

Writing

Students with TOEIC-IP -445

56

61

42

41

Students with TOEIC-IP 450–595

57

60

45

38

Students with TOEIC-IP 600-

55

61

45

39

Teachers with up to 5 years’ experience

59

58

40

43

Teachers with 6–10 years’ experience

57

60

42

41

Teachers with 11–20 years’ experience

50

64

42

44

Teachers with 21–30 years’ experience

51

63

45

40

experience

46

63

40

51

Teachers of clinical medicine

54

62

43

41

Teachers of basic medicine

50

63

38

49

Teachers of general education

51

63

39

47

Teachers with over 30 years’30

Gaps and Similarities between Medical Teachers’ Expectations andStudents’ Self-assessed Needs for English

Table 9. Needs by Student or Teacher Group and Situation
General/Healthcare

Research/
Conferences Classes

Words

News

Patients

workers

Students with TOEIC-IP -445

65

57

47

41

39

50

Students with TOEIC-IP 450–595

64

54

58

44

38

43

Students with TOEIC-IP 600-

63

55

55

41

35

51

experience

64

60

51

45

41

39

Teachers with 6–10 years’ experience

63

59

51

36

47

44

61

63

44

39

43

51

65

49

46

37

44

58

experience

62

61

41

43

40

52

Teachers of clinical medicine

65

56

50

38

41

49

Teachers of basic medicine

64

57

39

42

44

54

Teachers of general education

63

62

41

44

42

48

㻌

2

Teachers with up to 5 years’

Teachers with 11–20 years’
experience
Teachers with 21–30 years’
experience
Teachers with over 30 years’

Table 10 shows that spoken uses of English may be limited to certain situations. The teacher
needs show especially clearly that they may have few opportunities for communicating in English
either with healthcare workers or with medical doctors at research conferences.
Table 10. Speaking Needs by Situation
Healthcare
Words

Patients

workers

Research/Conferences

Classes

Student needs

50

51

42

38

41

Teacher needs

55

46

35

37

41

㻌

Table 11 shows that medical doctors may not have many opportunities to write papers in
English. Together with the results shown in Table 12, it can be said that to reach the minimum
goal, students have to focus on their receptive skills first.
31

Kohei SUZUKI, Yoshiki NAKAMURA, Miho FUJIEDA, Naoki SAKATA, Eri TANAKA

Table 11. Writing Needs by Situation
Research/
Words

Healthcare workers

Conferences

Student needs

50

38

33

Teacher needs

53

40

42

㻌

Table 12 shows that the students and teachers have different opinions towards the needs ofEnglish for medical records. At the same time, the opinions also vary according to the teachers’
experience. It may reflect a recent trend in which doctors have to make the records more
understandable to patients.
Table 12. Item Scores:“Understand the Abbreviations and Acronyms of Medical Terms Written in the Medical
Record”
Students

62

Teachers

Teachers (years of experience)(whole)

-5

6–10

11–20

21–30

31-

53

55

47

51

49

60

Table 13 shows that the students and teachers have very different opinions towards the needsof English for reading abstracts of papers. This difference may have been caused by the students’incomplete knowledge of medical practice.
Table 13. Item Scores:“Read and Understand an Abstract”
Students

Teachers

53

66

2. Degree of general English proficiency that medical teachers expect from medical students
This study utilized ETS’s Can-Do Statements to investigate the needs of medical teachers fortheir students’ general English proficiency (for the details of the procedure, see 2.2). The
following tables show the Can-Do Statements whose teacher needs scores are higher than four in
our questionnaire, arranged in the descending order of the needs scores.

32

Gaps and Similarities between Medical Teachers’ Expectations andStudents’ Self-assessed Needs for English

Table 14. Needs of Medical Teachers for English Tasks Relating to TOEIC-IP Reading
Comprehension

Table 15. Needs of Medical Teachers for English Tasks Relating to TOEIC-IP Listening
Comprehension

These tables indicate whether examinees who obtained a certain TOEIC-IP score of
Listening or Reading Comprehension “can do” or “cannot do” each of the given English tasks. As
indicated in the tables, to at least perform all the tasks expected by the medical teachers even with33

Kohei SUZUKI, Yoshiki NAKAMURA, Miho FUJIEDA, Naoki SAKATA, Eri TANAKA

difficulty, all medical students must obtain a score higher than 230 in each TOEIC-IP section.
Further, to perform these tasks easily, they must have high levels of English proficiency (430 ineach section or higher because several listed tasks such as “order food at a restaurant,”“understand a person’s name when she or he gives it to me over the telephone,” and “understand a
co-worker discussing a simple problem that arose at work,” are accomplished with difficulty evenby advanced students).
On the other hand, most of the students who took a TOEIC-IP exam in our survey did notmeet the teachers’ expectations for English proficiency. Fourth year students’ average score of
TOEIC-IP Listening Comprehension was 240.6. Overall, a significant majority of senior students(more than 90%) received a score lower than 430. Further, two-fifths of the students (41%)
obtained a score lower than 230; they cannot perform some of the English tasks expected by the
medical teachers.
A similar pattern was found in TOEIC-IP Reading Comprehension; the average score was
214.7. Few students (less than 10%) can do all the English tasks expected by the medical teachers
easily. Among the medical students, a majority (54%) obtained less than 230. These results showthat slightly more than half of them cannot carry out highly expected English tasks.
IV. DISCUSSION
1. Perceived medical English needs and self-assessed abilities
In terms of skill areas, the overall observations about the needs for medical English weresimilar for the students and the teachers; both showed stronger needs for receptive skills than
productive skills, especially reading (Table 4). It is understandable that receptive skills are morestrongly needed in an EFL context, such as in Japan, as the opportunities to use productive andinteractive English skills on a regular basis are limited. With English being the de facto lingua
franca in scientific research, reading in English is a necessary skill to stay up-to-date with current
medical information. The strong inclination of the teacher needs toward reading was consistent
with the results of previous studies (Yokoyama et al., 2005), which called for improvements ofstudents’ reading comprehension skills in medical English education in Japan.
High self-assessed reading ability ratings by the students probably reflect their learning
experience in the past. English education in the Japanese school system tends to put emphasis on
grammar and reading skill development, as the largest portion of entrance examination questions
are occupied by them. It is possible that the students feel more confident about their reading
ability because they think that they have had a lot of practice in reading through their English
learning experiences up to college. It is notable, however, that there is still a relatively large gap
between the teacher needs and student self-assessed abilities in this skill area (Table 6),
suggesting even higher expectations on the side of the teachers.
In terms of communicative situations, “Words” and “General/News” categories wereperceived as high-needs situations by both groups (Table 5). The fact that all descriptors in the“Words” category across all skill areas received high needs scores in both groups indicates the34Gaps and Similarities between Medical Teachers’ Expectations andStudents’ Self-assessed Needs for English

importance of acquiring medical vocabulary as the foundation of medical English education. As
learning medical vocabulary is one of the most taxing areas for students with non-Latin-related
L1 background (Chia, Johnson, Chia, & Olive, 1999), its teaching should be started early andcontinued throughout the curriculum. Recent corpus-based medical word list studies can shedlight on the learning and teaching of specialized vocabulary (Wang, Liang, & Ge, 2008). Highscores in the “General/News” category suggest that both the teachers and the students recognize
the needs of good command of English in this more accessible, less specialized area. Authentic
medical news reports intended for the general public together with multimedia resources readily
available online can serve as good materials that can be taught by language teachers in courses
with oral/aural training components.
The students’ needs in interactive situations (“Patients” and “Healthcare workers”
categories) were higher than the teachers’ needs. The reason can be that the students, who have noor very limited experience in actual medical practice, assumed that interacting with foreign
patients and other healthcare professionals using English is somewhat commonplace in today’s
medical field. The teachers, on the other hand, are more familiar with the actual situations inJapanese hospitals and medical institutions, and think that such cases are relatively rare, leading
to their relatively low needs scores. We should be cautious to draw conclusions, though, as the
younger and clinically oriented teacher subgroup showed a similar pattern with the students’needs in a more detailed analysis of teacher needs (Sakata, Tanaka, Fujieda, Suzuki, & Nakamura,in press). Language needs can be influenced by social factors such as an increasing number offoreign patients, changes toward more patient-oriented medical practices, and increasingly
available information in English online. Further investigation is necessary to see if English needsvary depending on the medical teachers’ specialty and experience. The same can be said about the
responses to one particular item, “Understand the abbreviations and acronyms of medical terms
written in the medical record” (Table 12), as it can be a reflection of the recent proliferation ofdigital medical record systems and the increased tendency of diagnostic information disclosure topatients.
One area that the teachers and the students had very different opinions about was abstract
reading (Table 13). Abstracts in research journals comprise a particular genre that has a distinct
discourse structure. Nowadays, scientific research articles written in languages other than English
are often required to be accompanied by an abstract in English, and these abstracts are likely to bedigitally archived in databases for later retrieval. Reading abstracts efficiently to find relevant
information is very likely to be a necessary skill for medical students. This genre of academic
reading component can be a good candidate to be included in a medical English curriculum; while
medical teachers can assist in selecting suitable abstracts and providing relevant backgroundinformation, language teachers can help facilitate reading strategies focusing on linguistic featuresby drawing on growing research in genre analysis led by ESP specialists (Swales, 1990, 2004;
Salager-Meyer, 1991, 1992, 1994).

35

Kohei SUZUKI, Yoshiki NAKAMURA, Miho FUJIEDA, Naoki SAKATA, Eri TANAKA

2. Students’ responses by general English proficiency level
The comparison of the three student proficiency groups showed that the group with thelowest proficiency rated the needs to interact with foreign patients lower than the other groups(Tables 8 and 9). Although a more detailed qualitative analysis needs to be conducted toinvestigate the linkage between the perceived medical English needs and general English
proficiency level, it is possible that students with lower proficiency generally have lower
motivation to study English. Such students tend to give lower rating for the items involving
interaction with patients in English. Possible implications from this consideration for designing
medical English curricula are to offer some elective courses that focus on contextualizedinteractive oral communication skills for more motivated students while maintaining corerequired courses that emphasize medical terminology and reading.
3. Expected general English proficiency
The questionnaire with TOEIC Can-Do Statements revealed the level of general English
proficiency expected of students by the medical teachers. In order to be able to carry out highly
rated tasks, students need to have a minimum score of 460 (230 each for Listening and Reading)with an ideal score of 860 (430 each for Listening and Reading). These are very rough figures,
and TOEIC is not designed to gauge medical English proficiency; however, the responses of the
medical teachers, who are familiar with the target discourse community, to a widely known
English language test can give some insights to English curriculum developers and language
teachers. These rough figures can be used, for example, as a guideline to assess if the medical
students are ready to proceed from general to more specific English learning.
4. Limitations of the study and future directions
As the research design of the present study required the use of the same medical English
questionnaires with the students and teachers to gauge the “gap” between the perceptions of thetwo groups, the students had to answer items that they may not be familiar or have no experience
with. Thus, the students’ can-do scores in particular should be interpreted carefully as they may
not necessarily represent the students’ actual ability. The Can-Do Statements for EMP is a newly
developed tool that needs to be refined and validated with other medical populations. In order tomake the list truly valuable in actual teaching contexts, each descriptor should be linked toconcrete tasks that can be performed or practiced in class.
V. CONCLUSION
By administering the two types of can-do list questionnaires and TOEIC-IP test, the present
study investigated: 1) the gap between medical students’ and medical teachers’ perceived needs
for medical English use in Japan, 2) the differences in the perceived needs for medical English by
three general English proficiency groups of medical students, and 3) the level of general English
proficiency expected by medical teachers. While receptive skills, especially reading, were36

Gaps and Similarities between Medical Teachers’ Expectations andStudents’ Self-assessed Needs for English

recognized as the most necessary by both groups, some gaps were seen in such areas as perceived
English needs for interactive situations and recognition for abstracts as an important genre.
Further investigation suggested differences in perceived needs by teacher experience groups aswell as by student proficiency groups. Although the link between general English proficiency andmedical English proficiency needs to be researched in future studies, the expected generalproficiency level suggested by the medical teachers can serve as a general guideline for medical
students who embark on more specialized English study.
Notes
1 The cutting points here are for dividing students as evenly as possible by their relative
proficiency. Therefore, they are not in line with the TOEIC proficiency criteria. The purpose of
the grouping is to observe the students’ differences of needs for English by their relative
proficiency.
2 This value looks odd and is difficult to explain. We need to add, however, that there were only
two items for this situation (Classes). There were many items student proficiency interacted within the whole questionnaire, but the other situations have more items so individual items did notaffect the outcome very much.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Professor Kazushige Nakagawa for his continuous support andencouragement throughout the project. We are also grateful to Professors Yukiko Kuru andTakahiko Yamamori, who helped us with the data collection and offered insightful comments.
This study was supported by KAKENHI (23520775).
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niokeru Can-Do Statements wo riyou-shita niizu chousa to sono kekka [Research with
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37

Kohei SUZUKI, Yoshiki NAKAMURA, Miho FUJIEDA, Naoki SAKATA, Eri TANAKA

Hishida, H. & Ohki, T. (2000). The realities of the use of medical English: A survey of the
H.U.S.M. graduates in 1981, 1984, and 1991. Journal of Medical English Education, 1(2),49–53.
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Sanshusha.
Naruenatwatana, N., & Vijchulata, B. (2001). A study of the needs of medical students in the useof academic English perceived by three groups: Medical students, teachers of English andsubject teachers. Studies in Language and Language Teaching 10, 1–23.
Powers, D. E., Kim, H. J., & Weng, V. Z. (2008). The redesigned TOEIC listening and reading
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executive summary (pp. 3–4). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Retrieved fromhttp://www.ets.org/Media/Tests/Test_of_English_for_International_Communication/TOEIC_Can_Do.pdf
Sakata, N., Tanaka, E., Fujieda, M., Suzuki, K., & Nakamura, Y. (in press). Assessing English
needs of medical students using can-do statements: Responses of teachers. Journal of
Medical English Education.
Salager-Meyer, F. (1991). Medical English abstractsௗ: How well are they structuredௗ? Journal of
the American Society for Information Science, 42(7), 528–531.
Salager-Meyer, F. (1992). A text-type and move analysis study of verb tense and modality
distribution in medical English abstracts. English for Specific Purposes, 11, 93–113.
Salager-Meyer, F. (1994). Reading medical English abstracts: A genre study of the interaction
between structural variables and the reader’s linguistico-conceptual competence (L2).
Journal of Research in Reading, 17(2), 120–146. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.1994.tb00059.x
Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis. English in academic and research setting. Cambridge, UK:
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Swales, J. M. (2004). Research genres. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Tanaka, E., Nakamura, Y., & Nakagawa, K. (2013). Igakueigo-kyouiku niokeru Can-Do
Statements wo riyou-shita niizu chousa houkoku [Report of research with Can-Do
Statements on the needs of English teaching for medical students]. Osaka Ikadaigaku Kiyo:
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Wang, J., Liang, S., & Ge, G. (2008). Establishment of a medical academic word list. English forSpecific Purposes, 27 (4), 442–458.
Yokoyama, S., Yamauchi, H., Nakano, H., Yasunami, S., & Kawakita, N. (2005). Research on
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[Report of Current Research supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research in 2004 (No.
15520362)]

38

Gaps and Similarities between Medical Teachers’ Expectations andStudents’ Self-assessed Needs for English

Appendix
Can-Do Statements for EMP (English version)
Skill

Situation

Descriptor (In English, I can …)

L01

Word

ƛ

L02

Word

ƛ

understand the names of clinical departments and specialized fields in

L03

Word

ƛ

understand the names of diseases when I hear other healthcare workers

L04

Word

ƛ

understand the anatomical names of body parts mentioned by other

L05

Healthcare Workers

ƛunderstand the conditions of patients that other healthcare workers are

L06

Patientsƛ

understand an explanation of symptoms, medical history, and lifestyle

L07

General/Newsƛ

understand by listening the content of medical news and radio programs

L08

Healthcare Workers

ƛunderstand job-related explanations and instructions given or discussed

understand the names of body parts in everyday language when I hearthem
medicine when I hear themmention them
healthcare workers
discussing
when I listen to a patientand medical lectures intended for general publicby other healthcare workers (including doctors, nurses, physicaltherapists, and technicians)

L09

Research/Conferencesƛ

understand oral presentations given by other researchers and doctors at

L10

Word

ƛ

understand the medical abbreviations and acronyms mentioned by other

L11

Healthcare Workers

ƛunderstand how to use medical equipment by listening to the instructions

R01

Word

ƛ

read and understand the names of diseases

R02

Word

ƛ

read and understand the names of body parts in everyday language

R03

Research/Conferencesƛ

read and understand an abstract (a short summary of a research paper)

R04

Word

ƛ

read and understand the anatomical names of body parts

R05

Word

ƛ

read and understand the names of clinical departments and specialized

R06

Research/Conferencesƛ

read and understand the general structure of a medical research paper

R07

Class

ƛ

read textbooks written in English

R08

General/Newsƛ

read and understand articles related to medicine in magazines and

R09

Healthcare Workers

ƛread a medical case report and understand the case (i.e., the patient’s

medical conferences
healthcare workers

fields in medicine

newspapers intended for general publiccondition)
R10

Research/Conferencesƛ

understand research results (including statistical processes, tables, and

R11

Healthcare Workers

ƛread and understand prescriptions

R12

General/Newsƛ

read and obtain new treatment information on the Internet

R13

Word

ƛ

understand the abbreviations and acronyms used in medical records

R14

Healthcare Workers

ƛread and understand medical equipment manuals

S01

Word

ƛ

pronounce the names of clinical departments and specialized fields ingraphs) in a medical research paper

medicine

39

Kohei SUZUKI, Yoshiki NAKAMURA, Miho FUJIEDA, Naoki SAKATA, Eri TANAKA

S02

Word

ƛ

pronounce the names of diseases

S03

Word

ƛ

pronounce the anatomical names of body parts

S04

Patientsƛpronounce the names of body parts in everyday language that patients can

S05

Patientsƛorally inform a patient about his/her appointment

S06

Patientsƛgreet the patient and converse smoothly

S07

Class

ƛ

give an oral presentation in a class that relies on group work and/or PBL

S08

Research/Conferencesƛ

give an oral presentation about my own research at a conference

S09

Research/Conferencesƛ

orally summarize the content of a research paper in a presentation tounderstandstyle instruction(excluding Q & A)
other researchers and doctors
S10

Patientsƛorally explain a condition and its treatment options to a patient

S11

Healthcare Workers

ƛorally instruct other healthcare workers (such as doctors, nurses, physicalS12

Research/Conferencesƛ

orally respond to questions at a conference

S13

Research/Conferencesƛ

orally explain the effects of a medicine to a patient

S14

Research/Conferencesƛ

discuss specialized issues such as the condition of a patient and treatment

S15

Healthcare Workers

ƛ

explain the condition of a patient to other healthcare workers over thetherapists, and technicians) to carry out an examination

options with other researchers and doctors
phone
S16

Healthcare Workers

ƛorally notify other healthcare workers (such as doctors, nurses, physicaltherapists, and technicians) about a patient, and give treatment
instructions

W01

Word

ƛ

write the anatomical names of body parts and the names of diseases

W02

Word

ƛ

write the names of body parts using everyday language

W03

Word

ƛ

write medical abbreviations and acronyms

W04

Research/Conferencesƛ

write the abstract of a research paper

W05

Healthcare Workers

ƛwrite emails with specialized content to other researchers and doctors

W06

Healthcare Workers

ƛwrite medical records

W07

Healthcare Workers

ƛwrite a medical referral letter to another hospital or doctor

W08

Research/Conferencesƛ

write a medical research paper

W09

Healthcare Workers

ƛwrite prescriptions

40

JACET Kansai Journal, 17
17, 41-52. (2015) ©JACET Kansai Chapter
ISSN 1880-2281

Printed in JAPAN.

▱ぬືモ feel ࡢ୺ㄒ┬␎࡟㛵ࡍࡿព࿡ㄽⓗศᯒᰘ⏣࠿ࡼᏊி㒔ᗓ❧኱Ꮫ኱Ꮫ㝔
ABSTRACTThis study discusses the subject ellipsis in English, revealing that a semantic factor such as“referentiality” of the subject has a relationship with the occurrence of the subject ellipsis, inaddition to the pragmatic factors. To that end, two investigations using COHA (Corpus of Historical
American English) were conducted. The first one is to investigate the change of grammatical
patterns with the verb feel from the early 1800s to 2000s. The second one is to find grammatical
patterns where the subject ellipsis frequently occurs. As a result, the former investigation shows thatthe patterns have chronologically shifted from sentences with SUBJECT-VERB-OBJECT to thosewith SUBJECT-VERB-COMPLEMENT. In addition, the highly subjectivized patterns whereconceptualizers are not linguistically expressed (Langacker, 2011) have increased with the passageof time. The latter one shows that the subject ellipsis often occurs with the subject “it”, especially“Impersonal it” (Langacker, 2011) after recovering the unexpressed subject based on the immediateand situational context. Considering the properties of vagueness which “Impersonal it” has, it ispossible to say that “Impersonal it” has less information or lower referentiality. Thus, this paper
reveals that “referentiality” of the subject has one of the factors which causes the subject ellipsis.
࣮࣮࢟࣡ࢻ㸸୺ㄒ┬␎ࠊ୺ㄒࡢᣦ♧ᛶࠊ୺య໬ࠊ
ࠕ㠀ே⛠ࡢ itࠖࠊ᭕᫕ᛶ

1. ࡣࡌࡵ࡟
ⱥㄒࡣ୍⯡ⓗ࡟ᩥἲⓗ࡞୺ㄒࢆᚲせ࡜ࡍࡿゝㄒ࡜ㄆ㆑ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࡀࠊ≉ᐃࡢᩥ⬦࡛ࡣ୺ㄒࡀ┬␎ࡉࢀࡿ⏝ἲࡶぢࡽࢀࡿ㸦Carter & McCarthy, 2006㸧
ࠋࡓ࡜࠼ࡤ㸦1㸧ࡢࡼ࠺࡟ࠊ▱ぬືモࢆྵࡴᩥ࡛ࡣࠊ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌࡿࡇ࡜ࡀ࠶ࡿࠋ
㸦1㸧a. “That’s a long way.” “Yeah, feels like it.”b. “Feels good to have them on again, doesn’t it?” 1ࡇࢀࡲ࡛࡟ࠊ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌࡿせᅉ࡜ࡋ࡚ࠊඖࡢᩥ࡟᚟ඖࡀྍ⬟࡛࠶ࡿࡇ࡜㸦ྍ᚟ඖᛶ㸧㸦ஂ㔝, 1978㸧ࠊ┤㏆ࡢࢥࣥࢸ࢟ࢫࢺࡸሙ㠃ࡢࢥࣥࢸ࢟ࢫࢺࠊ఍ヰࢫࢱ࢖ࣝࠊࡲࡓᐃᆺ⾲⌧࡜ࡢඹ㉳㛵ಀࠊ࡞࡝ࡢㄒ⏝ㄽⓗ࡞せᅉࡀ⪃࠼ࡽࢀ࡚ࡁࡓ㸦Carter & McCarthy, 1995㸧ࠋ୍᪉ࠊᮏ◊✲࡛ࡣࠊ▱ぬືモ feel2 ࡢࠕᵓᩥኚ໬ࠖࡸࠊࠕ୺య໬ࠖࡢᩥἲⓗࠊព࿡ⓗኚ໬࡟ὀ┠ࡍࡿࡇ࡜࡛ࠊ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡣㄒ⏝ㄽⓗ࡞せᅉࡔࡅ࡛࡞ࡃࠊ୺ㄒࡢᣦ♧ᛶ㸦referentiality㸧ࡢపࡉ41ᰘ⏣ ࠿ࡼᏊ

ࡀ㛵ࢃࡿࡇ࡜ࢆព࿡ㄽⓗ࡞❧ሙ࠿ࡽ᫂ࡽ࠿࡟ࡍࡿࠋᮏ✏࡛ࡣࠊᣦ♧ᛶ3 ࡟㛵ࡋ࡚ࡣࠕᐇᅾ
≀࡟ቃ⏺⥺ࡀ࠶ࡾಶู໬ࡋ࡚Ꮡᅾࡍࡿሙྜࠊࡑࡢᐇᅾ≀ࡣᣦ♧ᛶࡀ࠶ࡿࠖ࡜࠸࠺ Payne
㸦2011㸧ࡢᐃ⩏ࢆ᥇⏝ࡍࡿࠋ
2. ඛ⾜◊✲ ̿ ୺ㄒ┬␎࡟㛵ࡍࡿㄒ⏝ㄽⓗศᯒ࡜ၥ㢟Ⅼ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌࡿせᅉ࡟㛵ࡋ࡚ࡣࠊࡇࢀࡲ࡛࡟ࠊ୺࡟ㄒ⏝ㄽࡢ❧ሙ࠿ࡽ◊✲ࡀ㐍ࡵࡽࢀ࡚ࡁࡓࠋ౛࠼ࡤࠊThomas 㸦1979㸧 ࡣ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌࡿせᅉ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࠕゝⴥࡢ⤒῭ᛶ4ࠖ
㸦Zipf,
1949㸧ࡸᐃᆺ⾲⌧࡜ࡢඹ㉳㛵ಀࡀ㔜せ࡛࠶ࡿ࡜ㄒ⏝ㄽࡢⅬ࠿ࡽ㏙࡭࡚࠸ࡿࠋCarter &McCarthy㸦1995㸧ࡣࠊぶࡋ࠸㛫᯶࡜ࡢ఍ヰࠊ┤㏆ࡢࢥࣥࢸ࢟ࢫࢺࡸሙ㠃ࡢࢥࣥࢸ࢟ࢫࢺࡀ
୺࡟୺ㄒ┬␎࡜㛵ಀࡍࡿせᅉ࡛࠶ࡿ࡜♧ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋNariyama㸦2004, p. 255㸧ࡣࠊᐃᆺ⾲⌧࡟࠾ࡅࡿࠊ୺ㄒ┬␎ it ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚㸦౛㸸ࠝItࠞdoesn’t matter.ࠝItࠞlooks good.㸧ࠊࠕ୺ㄒ it ࡢ┬␎ᩥ࡛ࡣ୺ㄒ it ࡢほⅬ࠿ࡽ࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊヰ⪅ࡢほⅬ࠿ࡽ⾲⌧ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠖ࡜㏙࡭࡚࠸ࡿࠋ ࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡟ᚑ᮶ࡣࠊྍ᚟ඖᛶࠊゝⴥࡢ⤒῭ᛶࠊࢥࣥࢸ࢟ࢫࢺࠊᐃᆺ⾲⌧࡜ࡢඹ㉳ࡸ఍ヰࢫࢱ࢖ࣝ࡞࡝ࠊ୺࡟ㄒ⏝ㄽࡢほⅬ࠿ࡽ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡀㄽࡌࡽࢀ࡚ࡁࡓࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊࡇࢀࡽࡢほⅬࡔࡅ࡛ࡣࠊḟࡢ୕ࡘࡢၥ㢟ࡀゎỴ࡛ࡁ࡞࠸ࠋ୍ࡘ┠࡟ࠊ࡞ࡐ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡀᚰ⌮ⓗ࡞≧ែࢆ⾲ࡍࡼ࠺࡞≉ᐃࡢືモ࡜ඹ㉳ࡍࡿࡢ࠿ࡀㄝ࡛᫂ࡁ࡞࠸㸦౛㸸Hope so.㸧ࠋ஧ࡘ┠࡟ࠊྠ୍ࡢ▱ぬືモ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡶࠊ⏝࠸ࡽࢀࡿᩥᆺࡢ㐪࠸࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ࠊ࡞ࡐ┬␎ࡢ⏕ࡌ᪉ࡀ㐪࠺ࡢ࠿ࡀㄝ᫂
࡛ࡁ࡞࠸ࠋ୕ࡘ┠࡟ࠊ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡢ⌧㇟࡛ࠊ᚟ඖࡉࢀࡿ୺ㄒ࡟ࡣࠊ఍ヰࡢཧ୚⪅࡛࠶ࡿ୍ே
⛠ࡸ஧ே⛠ࡔࡅ࡛࡞ࡃࠊ୕ே⛠ࡢ it ࡶ⏕ࡌࡿⅬࡀሗ࿌ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࡀ㸦Nariyama, 2004, Carter& McCarthy, 2006㸧ࠊ࡞ࡐ୺ㄒ it ࡟┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌࡸࡍ࠸ࡢ࠿ࡀㄝ࡛᫂ࡁ࡞࠸ࠋ
ᮏ✏࡛ࡣࠊࡇࢀࡽࡢၥ㢟ࡢ୰࡛ࡶࠊୖグ࡛♧ࡋࡓ୕␒┠ࡢၥ㢟࡛࠶ࡿ it ࡢ୺ㄒ┬␎࡟ὀ┠ࡋࠊ࡞ࡐ୺ㄒ it ࡟┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌࡸࡍ࠸ࡢ࠿ࠊ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࢥ࣮ࣃࢫࢆ౑⏝ࡋ࡚ព࿡ㄽⓗほⅬ࠿ࡽ⪃ᐹࡍࡿࠋᮏ✏࡛ࡣࠕᐈほࡢ୺య໬㸫ヰࡋᡭ࠶ࡿ࠸ࡣヰࡋᡭࡢⓎヰ᫬࡟࠾ࡅࡿሙᡤࡸヰࡋᡭ࡜ᐦ᥋࡟࠿࠿ࢃࡿ⌧≧ࡀཧ↷Ⅼ࡜ࡋ࡚ᐈほ࡟ධࡾ㎸ࡴࡇ࡜ࠖ㸦῝⏣, 2001, p. 74㸧࡜࠸࠺Langacker ࡢࠕ୺య໬ࠖ㸦1999㸧࡟ὀ┠ࡋ࡚ feel ࡢᵓᩥኚ໬ࢆㄪᰝࡋࠊ୺ㄒࡢࠕᣦ♧ᛶࠖ࡜୺ㄒ┬␎ࡢ㛵ಀࢆᤊ࠼࡚࠸ࡃࠋ
3㸬᪉ἲㄽᮏ✏࡛ࡣࠊ୺ㄒ┬␎ࢆືᶵ௜ࡅࡿព࿡ⓗ࡞せᅉࢆ⪃ᐹࡍࡿࡓࡵ࡟ࠊCOHA㸦Corpus ofHistorical American English㸧ࢆ⏝࠸࡚ࠊ஧✀㢮ࡢㄪᰝࢆ⾜ࡗࡓࠋCOHA ࡣ 4 ൨ㄒ࠿ࡽ࡞ࡿ
ゝㄒࢥ࣮ࣃࢫ࡛ࠊ1810 ᖺ࠿ࡽ 2009 ᖺ࡟࠾ࡅࡿ㏻಑ᑠㄝࠊࣀࣥࣇ࢕ࢡࢩࣙࣥࠊリࠊ㞧ㄅ➼ࡢ᭩ࡁゝⴥ࡟࠾ࡅࡿ࢔࣓ࣜ࢝ⱥㄒࡀ཰㘓ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࢹ࣮ࢱ཰㞟࡜ࡋ࡚ࡣ 1810 ᖺ࠿ࡽㄪᰝࡀྍ⬟࡛࠶ࡿࡀࠊ1810 ᖺ௦࡟࠾ࡅࡿ㈨ᩱࡢ཰㘓ᩘࡀ feel ࡟㛵ࡋ࡚ 64 ௳࡜ᑡ࡞ࡃࠊㄪᰝ
ࡢࡓࡵࡢࢹ࣮ࢱ࡜ࡋ࡚౑⏝ࡍࡿ࡟ࡣ୙㐺ษ࡜ุ᩿ࡋࠊ1820 ᖺ࠿ࡽ 1859 ᖺࠊ2000 ᖺ࠿ࡽ 2009ᖺࡲ࡛ࢆㄪᰝᑐ㇟࡜ࡋࡓࠋᅗ 1 ࡣ COHA ࡛♧ࡉࢀࡓ 1810 ᖺ࠿ࡽ 2009 ᖺࡲ࡛ࡢືモ feel ࡢฟ⌧㢖ᗘࢆ⾲࡟ࡋࡓࡶࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ

42

㢖ᗘ

▱ぬືモ feel ࡢ୺ㄒ┬␎࡟㛵ࡍࡿព࿡ㄽⓗศᯒ

2000
1500
1000
500
0
ᖺᗘ

ᅗ 1. feel ࡢᖺ௦ูฟ⌧㢖ᗘ㸦COHA㸧ᅗ 1 ࢆぢࡿ࡜ࠊfeel ࡢ㢖ᗘࡣ㏆௦࡛ቑຍࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࡼ࠺࡟ぢ࠼ࡿࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊྛᖺ௦࡛ࡣࢥ
࣮ࣃࢫࡢつᶍࡀ␗࡞ࡿࡓࡵࠊfeel ࡢฟ⌧㢖ᗘࡀቑຍࡋ࡚࠸ࡿ࠿࡝࠺࠿ࡣ᫂ࡽ࠿࡛ࡣ࡞࠸ࠋ
ࡑࡇ࡛ࠊᩘ್ࡢศẕࢆྛᖺ௦㛫࡛ඹ㏻࡟ࡍࡿࡓࡵ࡟ࠊCOHA ࡛♧ࡉࢀࡓྛᖺ௦࡛ࡢ feel ࡢ
100 ୓ㄒෆ࡛ࡢฟ⌧㢖ᗘࢆᅗ 2 ࡟♧ࡋࡓࠋᅗ 1 ࡜ᅗ 2 ࡛♧ࡉࢀࡓᩘ್ࢆᇶ࡟ࠊ⾲ 1 ࡜⾲ 2ࠊ
ᅗ 3 ࡜ᅗ 4 ࡟࠾ࡅࡿ 100 ୓ㄒෆ࡛ࡢฟ⌧㢖ᗘࡢᩘ್ࢆ⟬ฟࡋࡓࠋ

㢖ᗘ


80
60
40
20
0

ᖺᗘ

ᅗ 2. ືモ feel ࡢ 100 ୓ㄒ࠶ࡓࡾࡢฟ⌧㢖ᗘ㸦COHA㸧ㄪᰝ 1 ࡛ࡣືモ feel ࡢᵓᩥኚ໬ࢆࡳࡿࡓࡵ࡟ࠊㄪᰝ 2 ࡛ࡣ feel ࡢ୺ㄒ┬␎ࢆࡳࡿࡓࡵ࡟ㄪ
ᰝࢆ⾜ࡗࡓࠋ
4.

ㄪᰝ

4.1 ㄪᰝ 1㸸ືモ feel ࡢᵓᩥኚ໬࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡢࢹ࣮ࢱ
ㄪᰝ 1 ࡛ࡣ COHA ࢆ౑⏝ࡋ 1800 ᖺ௦ึᮇ࠿ࡽ 1850 ᖺ௦ࠊࡲࡓ 2000 ᖺ௦࡟࠾ࡅࡿືモ feelࡢᵓᩥኚ໬ࢆㄪᰝࡍࡿࠋㄪᰝࡢ⤖ᯝࠊfeel ࢆྵࡴᵓᩥࡣ௨ୗࡢࣃࢱ࣮ࣥࡀほᐹࡉࢀࡓࠋ
㸦2㸧 feel ࡢᵓᩥࣃࢱ࣮ࣥ
ձ A + feels + noun      㸦౛㸸He feels its hot impress.㸧   
ղ A + feels + adj.        㸦౛㸸She feels good.㸧  
ճ A + feels + adj. phr.     㸦౛㸸She feels prepared to…㸧   մյնշA + feels like…   㸦౛㸸She feels like a solemn duty.㸧 
A + feels as if…     㸦౛㸸He feels as if he is a king.㸧  㸦౛㸸It feels good.㸧 It (that, etc.) feels + adj.   
It (that, etc.) feels like…    㸦౛㸸It feels like an hour.㸧  43ᰘ⏣ ࠿ࡼᏊ

ո It feels as if…   㸦౛㸸It feels as if they are dabbling.㸧   չ It feels + adj. + to…  㸦౛㸸It feels good to be home.㸧  պ Others       㸦㸨๓⨨モྃࡀ⿵ㄒྃ࡜࡞ࡿࡶࡢ㸧
㸦A = ᭷⏕≀୺ㄒࠊadj. = ᙧᐜモࠊphr. = ྃ㸧ୖグࡢ ձ ࠿ࡽ յࡣ୺ㄒࡢ఩⨨࡟᭷⏕≀ࡀ⌧ࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋ୍᪉ࠊն ࠿ࡽ չ ࡣ↓⏕≀୺ㄒࡢ౛࡛࠶ࡿࠋᮏ✏࡛ࡣࠊࡇࢀࡽࡢ౛࡟ᑐࡋ࡚ࠊ1820 ᖺ௦࠿ࡽ 1850 ᖺ௦࡜ 2000 ᖺ௦࡟࠾ࡅ
ࡿືモ feel ࡢᵓᩥኚ໬ࢆㄪ࡭ࡓ࡜ࡇࢁࠊ⾲ 1 ࡢ⤖ᯝ࡟࡞ࡗࡓࠋྛิࡢୖẁࠊࡲࡓࡣᕥഃ࡟
♧ࡉࢀࡓᩘ್ࡣࡑࢀࡒࢀࡢᵓᩥࡢฟ⌧㢖ᗘࢆ⾲ࡍࠋ୍᪉ࠊᣓᘼෆࡢᩘ್ࡣ 100 ୓ㄒ࠶ࡓࡾ
ࡢᵓᩥࡢฟ⌧㢖ᗘࢆ⾲ࡍࠋᅗ 3 ࡣ⾲ 1 ࡛♧ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿ feel ࡢ 100 ୓ㄒ࠶ࡓࡾࡢᵓᩥูฟ⌧㢖ᗘࢆࢢࣛࣇ࡛♧ࡋࡓࡶࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ
⾲ 1. ືモ feel ࡢᖺ௦ูᵓᩥኚ໬㸦COHA㸧
1820s

1830s

1840s

1850s

2000s

1. A+ feels + noun

181 (26.06)

340 (24.48)

209 (29.67)

398 (23.88)

338(20.08)

2. A + feels+ adj.

12 (1.72)

42 (3.02)

31 (4.40)

69 (4.14)

165 (9.80)

3. A + feels + adj. phr.

19 (2.73)

27 (1.94)

14 (1.98)

36 (2.16)

33 (1.96)

4. A + feels like

2 (0.28)

1 (0.07)4 (0.56)

9 (0.54)

48 (2.85)

5. A + feels as if

3 (0.42)7 (0.50)

3 (0.42)5 (0.30)

16 (0.95)

6. It (that, etc.) feels +adj.

6 (0.86)

10 (0.72)

11 (1.56)

6 (0.36)222 (13.19)

7. It (that, etc.) feelslike

1 (0.14)1 (0.07)2 (0.26)

2 (0.12)132 (7.84)

8. It feels as if

2 (0.28)

1 (0.07)0

2 (0.12)16 (0.95)

9. It feels + adj.+ to00

1 (0.14)1 (0.06)20 (1.18)

10. Others03 (0.21)3 (0.42)4 (0.24)

10 (0.59)

226(32.49)432(31.08)278(39.41)532(31.92)

1,000(59.39)ᵓᩥ  

ྜィ

ᖺᗘ

44

▱ぬືモ feel ࡢ୺ㄒ┬␎࡟㛵ࡍࡿព࿡ㄽⓗศᯒ

35
30
25
㢖ᗘ

20
15
10
5
0
1820s

1830s

ᖺᗘ

1840s

1850s

2000s

㸦ྛᖺ௦࡛ 10 ᮏࡢᲬࢢࣛࣇࡣࠊᕥഃ࠿ࡽࠊ⾲ 1 ࡢ 1 ࠿ࡽ 10 ࡲ࡛ࡢᵓᩥ࡟ᑐᛂࡍࡿ㸧ᅗ 3. ືモ feel ࡢ 100 ୓ㄒ࠶ࡓࡾࡢᵓᩥูฟ⌧㢖ᗘ㸦COHA㸧
4.2 ㄪᰝ 1㸸ືモ feel ࡢᵓᩥኚ໬࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡢ⪃ᐹ
1800 ᖺ௦๓༙࡜ 2000 ᖺ௦࡛౑⏝ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿᵓᩥࡢ✀㢮ࢆẚ㍑ࡋ࡚ࡳࡿ࡜ࠊ㸦2㸧࡟࠾ࡅࡿ ձ ࡢ SVO ᆺࡢᵓᩥ࠿ࡽ ղ ࠿ࡽ չ ࡲ࡛ࡢ SVC ᆺࢆ୰ᚰ࡜ࡋࡓᵓᩥ࡟඲యⓗ࡟ኚ໬ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿ࡜ゝ࠼ࡿࠋゝ࠸᥮࠼ࢀࡤ 1820 ᖺ௦࠿ࡽ 1850 ᖺ௦ࡢ㛫࡛ࡣ SVO ᆺ࡛࠶ࡿ A + feels+ noun㸦౛㸸He feels its hot impress.㸧ᵓᩥࡀከࡃ౑⏝ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࡀࠊ2000 ᖺ௦࡛౑⏝ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿᵓᩥࡢ✀㢮ࡣ SVC ᆺࢆ୰ᚰ࡟ከᵝ໬ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀศ࠿ࡿࠋࡑࡢከᵝ໬ࡀぢࡽࢀࡿ୰࡛ࠊ≉࡟୺ㄒࡀ itࠊthat ➼࡛ጞࡲࡿᵓᩥࠊࡘࡲࡾ㸦2㸧࡟࠾ࡅࡿ ն ࡢ It㸦that, etc.㸧feels+ adj.㸦౛㸸It feels good.㸧ᵓᩥࡸࠊշ ࡢ It㸦that, etc.㸧feels like…㸦౛㸸It feels like an hour.㸧
ᵓᩥࡀቑຍࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀศ࠿ࡗࡓࠋ
ࡓࡔࡋࠊྠᵝ࡟ it ࡛ጞࡲࡿ ո It feels as if…㸦౛㸸It feels as if they are dabbling.㸧ࡸ չ It
feels + adj. + to…㸦౛㸸It feels good to be home.㸧ᵓᩥࡢࡼ࠺࡟ࠊẚ㍑ⓗ, 」㞧࡛㛗࠸ᵓᩥ࡛ࡣ㢖ᗘᩘࡢ኱ᖜ࡞ቑຍࡀぢࡽࢀ࡞࠸ࡇ࡜࠿ࡽࠊ⌧௦࡛ࡣ⡆₩࡛▷࠸ᵓᩥࡀ౑⏝ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿ
ഴྥࡀ࠶ࡿ࡜ゝ࠼ࡿ5ࠋ
ୖグࡢࡼ࠺࡟ it ࡛ጞࡲࡿ୺ㄒࢆᣢࡕ࡞ࡀࡽࡶ 2000 ᖺ௦࡛ቑຍࡀ࠶ࡲࡾぢࡽࢀ࡞࠸ᵓᩥࡶ
࠶ࡿࡀࠊ඲య࡜ࡋ࡚ࡳࡿ࡜ࠊ1800 ᖺ௦๓༙࡜ẚ㍑ࡋ࡚ 2000 ᖺ௦࡛ࠊA + feels + noun ࠿ࡽᴫᛕ໬⪅ࡀゝㄒ໬ࡉࢀ࡞࠸ࠊIt㸦that, etc.㸧feels + adj. ࡸ It㸦that, etc.㸧feels like ᵓᩥ࡬᥎⛣ࡍࡿഴྥࡀࡳࡽࢀࡿ6ࠋ
4.3 ㄪᰝ 2㸸୺ㄒ┬␎࡜ືモ feel ࡢᵓᩥ࡜ࡢ㛵ಀ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡢࢹ࣮ࢱ
ㄪᰝ 2 ࡣㄪᰝ 1 ࡢືモ feel ࡀ࡜ࡿᵓᩥࡢṔྐⓗኚ໬ㄪᰝࡢ⤖ᯝ࡟ᇶ࡙࠸࡚ࠊfeel ࡀฟ⌧ࡍࡿᵓᩥ࡜୺ㄒ┬␎ࡢ㛵ಀࢆㄪᰝࡋࡓࡶࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ⾲ 2 ࡜ᅗ 4 ࡣࠊࡑࡢㄪᰝ⤖ᯝࢆ⾲ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋ45ᰘ⏣ ࠿ࡼᏊ

⾲ 2. ୺ㄒ┬␎࡜ືモ feel ࡢᵓᩥ࡜ࡢ㛵ಀ㸦COHA㸧ᵓᩥ       ᖺᗘ  

1820s

1830s

1840s

1850s

2000s

1. A + feels + noun

3 (0.42)

11 (0.79)

1 (0.14)6 (0.36)

3 (0.17)

2. A + feels + adj.

0

0

0

2 (0.12)0

3. A + feels + adj. phr.

001 (0.14)0

0

4. A + feels like

0

0

0

0

0

5. A + feels as if

0

0

0

0

0

6. It (that, etc.) feels + adj.

0

0

0

0

7 (0.37)

7. It (that, etc.) feels like00

1 (0.14)0

10 (0.59)

8. It feels as if

0

0

0

0

0

9. It feels + adj. to

0

0

0

0

0

10. Others

0

0

0

0

0

3/226
(0.42)

11/432(0.79)

3/278(0.42)

8/532(0.48)

20/1000(1.13)

ྜィ

0.9
0.8
0.7
㢖ᗘ

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1820s

1830s ᖺᗘ 1840s

1850s

2000s

㸦ྛᖺ௦࡛ 10 ᮏࡢᲬࢢࣛࣇࡣࠊᕥഃ࠿ࡽࠊ⾲ 2 ࡢ 1 ࠿ࡽ 10 ࡲ࡛ࡢᵓᩥ࡟ᑐᛂࡍࡿ㸧ᅗ 4. ୺ㄒ┬␎࡜ືモ feel ࡢᵓᩥ࡜ࡢ㛵ಀ㸦100 ୓ㄒ࠶ࡓࡾࡢฟ⌧㢖ᗘ㸧㸦COHA㸧ᩘ್ࡢ⟬ฟࠊ୪ࡧ࡟ᩘ್ࡢ⾲♧ἲࡣㄪᰝ 1 ࡜ྠᵝࡢ᪉ἲ࡛ᐇ᪋ࡋࡓࠋ⾲ 2 ࡟࠾ࡅࡿྛิࡢ
ᕥഃࡢᩘ್ࡣ㢖ᗘࢆ⾲ࡋࠊᣓᘼෆࡢᩘ್ࡣ 100 ୓ㄒ࡟ᑐࡍࡿฟ⌧㢖ᗘࡀ♧ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋㄪ
ᰝ 2 ࡛ࡣ୺ㄒࡢ᚟ඖసᴗࢆ⾜ࡗࡓࡀࠊࡑࡢ᪉ἲࡣࠊࢥ࣮ࣃࢫ࠿ࡽ཰㞟ࡋࡓ౛ᩥࡀ཰㘓ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿᩥ⬦඲యࢆཧ↷ࡍࡿࡇ࡜࡛ࠊ୺࡟┤㏆ࡢࢥࣥࢸ࢟ࢫࢺࡸሙ㠃ࡢࢥࣥࢸ࢟ࢫࢺ࡟ᇶ࡙
ࡁࠊ┬␎๓ࡢ୺ㄒࢆᑟࡁฟࡍ᪉ἲࢆྲྀࡗࡓࠋ
4.4 ㄪᰝ 2㸸୺ㄒ┬␎࡜ືモ feel ࡢᵓᩥ࡜ࡢ㛵ಀ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡢ⪃ᐹ ㄪᰝ࡟ࡼࡿ࡜ࠊ1820 ᖺ௦࠿ࡽ 1850 ᖺ௦࡛ࡣ୺࡟㸦2㸧࡟࠾ࡅࡿ ձࡢ A + feels + noun ࡢ46▱ぬືモ feel ࡢ୺ㄒ┬␎࡟㛵ࡍࡿព࿡ㄽⓗศᯒᵓᩥ࡛┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌ࡚࠸ࡿࡀࠊ2000 ᖺ௦࡛ࡣ A + feels + noun ࡼࡾࡶ նࡢ It㸦that, etc.㸧feels+ adj. ࡸ շࡢ It㸦that, etc.㸧feels like ࡢᵓᩥ࡛┬␎ࡀࡼࡾከࡃ⏕ࡌ࡚࠸ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀࢃ࠿ࡗࡓࠋն ࡜ շ ࡢᵓᩥࡢቑຍࢆㄝ᫂ࡍࡿࡓࡵ࡟஧ࡘࡢ⌮⏤ࡀྍ⬟ᛶ࡜ࡋ࡚ᣲࡆࡽࢀࡿࠋ
➨୍ࡢ⌮⏤࡜ࡋ࡚ࡣࠊ༢⣧࡟ It㸦that, etc.㸧feels + adj. ࡜ It (that, etc.㸧feels like ᵓᩥࡢ⏕ࡌ࡚࠸ࡿฟ⌧㢖ᗘࡀቑຍࡋࡓࡓࡵ࡟ࠊ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡢ㢖ᗘࡶ㐃ືࡋ࡚ቑຍࡋࡓྍ⬟ᛶࡀ⪃࠼ࡽࢀࡿࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊㄪᰝ 1 ࡛ 2000 ᖺ௦࡟ࠊղࡢ A + feels + adj. ᵓᩥࡢ⏕ࡌࡓ㢖ᗘࡀ 100 ୓ㄒ
࠶ࡓࡾࠊ9.80 ௳㸦⾲ 1 ࢆཧ↷㸧࡛࠶ࡿࡀࠊㄪᰝ 2 ࡛ࡣྠࡌᵓᩥࡀ 0 ௳㸦⾲ 2 ࢆཧ↷㸧࡛࠶ࡿࡇ࡜ࢆ⪃៖ࡍࡿ࡜ࠊᵓᩥࡢฟ⌧㢖ᗘࡢቑຍ࡟క࠸ࠊ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡢ㢖ᗘࡶᚲࡎࡋࡶ㧗ࡃ࡞ࡿ࡜ࡣ㝈ࡽ࡞࠸ࡇ࡜ࡀࢃ࠿ࡿࠋᚑࡗ࡚ࠊᵓᩥࡢ⏕ࡌࡿᩘ್࡜୺ㄒ┬␎ࡢᩘ್࡜ࡣ㐃ືࡍࡿྍ⬟ᛶࡣప࠸࡜⪃࠼ࡽࢀࡿࠋ
஧ࡘ┠ࡢ⌮⏤࡜ࡋ࡚ࡣࠊ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡣ୺య໬ࡢ㐍ࢇࡔᵓᩥ࡛⏕ࡌࡿྍ⬟ᛶࡀ࠶ࡿ࡜⪃࠼ࡽࢀࡿࠋ Langacker㸦1999㸧ࡢ୺య໬ࡢ㆟ㄽ࡛ࡣࠊᴫᛕ໬⪅ࡀゝㄒ໬ࡉࢀ࡞࠸⾲⌧ࡣࠊᴫᛕ໬⪅ࡀ⌧ሙࡸฟ᮶஦ࡢ୰࡟῝ࡃධࡾ㎸ࢇ࡛࠸ࡿࡓࡵࠊゝㄒ໬ࡉࢀࡿ⾲⌧࡜ẚ࡭࡚ࠊ୺య໬
ࡀ㐍ࢇ࡛࠸ࡿ࡜ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࡍ࡞ࢃࡕࠊ2000 ᖺ௦࡟ It㸦that, etc.㸧feels + adj. ࡜ It㸦that, etc.㸧
feels like ࡢᵓᩥ࡛㸦⾲ 2 ࡢᵓᩥ 6 ࡜ᵓᩥ 7㸧
ࠊྜィ 17 ௳ࡢ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌ࡚࠸ࡓࡀࠊୗグࡢ౛㸦3㸧࠿ࡽ㸦6㸧ࡀ♧ࡍࡼ࠺࡟ࠊ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌ࡚࠸ࡿ඲࡚ࡢᩥ࡛ࡣ୺ㄒࡢ఩⨨࡟▱ぬᑐ㇟ࡀ⌧ࢀࠊᴫᛕ໬⪅ࡀゝㄒ໬ࡉࢀ࡞࠸࡜࠸࠺Ⅼ࡛୺య໬ࡀ㐍ࢇࡔ⾲⌧࡛࠶ࡗࡓࠋ⫼ᬒ໬ࡉࢀࡓᴫᛕ໬⪅ࡣ୺ㄒ࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊto me ࡲࡓࡣ to us ࡢࡼ࠺࡞ᙧ࡛᚟ඖࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡀ࡛ࡁࡿࠋ
౛ᩥ㸦3㸧࠿ࡽ㸦6㸧࡟࠾ࡅࡿ▮༳ྑഃࡢᩥࡣᕥഃࡢ౛ᩥࢆ┤㏆ࡢࢥࣥࢸ࢟ࢫࢺࡸሙ㠃ࡢࢥࣥࢸ࢟ࢫࢺ࡟ᇶ࡙ࡁᩥ㢌ࡢ୺ㄒࢆ᚟ඖࡋࠊᴫᛕ໬⪅ࡶゝㄒ໬ࡉࢀࡓሙྜࡢᩥࢆ⾲⌧ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋ
㸦3㸧Usually feels great, while we’re doing it. > (It, etc.) usually feels great (to us)…
㸦4㸧Feels fine. What’s your name? > (It, etc.) feels fine to (to me).
㸦5㸧Feels like sweat slipping beneath my breast. > (It, etc.) feels like sweat slipping… (to me).
㸦6㸧Feels like my arm’s about to fall off. > (It, etc.) feels like my arm’s about to fall off (to me).
ࡉࡽ࡟ࠊࡇࢀࡽࡢ୺య໬ࡢ㐍ࢇࡔᩥ࡛ࠊ᚟ඖࡉࢀࡓ୺ㄒࡀఱࢆ♧ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿ࠿ࢆㄪᰝࡋ࡚ࡳ
ࡿ࡜ࠊከࡃࡢ୺ㄒࡀ₍↛࡜ࡋࡓ≧ἣࡸ⤒㦂ࡉࢀࡓฟ᮶஦ࠊࡘࡲࡾ᭕᫕ᛶࢆᣢࡘࠕ㠀ே⛠ࡢ
it7࡛ࠖ࠶ࡾࠊලయⓗ࡞ᣦ♧ᑐ㇟ࢆᣢࡘ୺ㄒࡣᑡ࡞࠿ࡗࡓࠋࡇࡢⅬ࠿ࡽࠊ୺ㄒࡀලయⓗ࡞ᣦ♧≀ࢆ⾲ࡍሙྜࡼࡾࠊ୺ㄒࡀ᭕᫕ᛶࢆᣢࡘࠕ㠀ே⛠ࡢ itࠖࡢሙྜ࡟୺ㄒ┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌࡸࡍ࠸ࡇ࡜ࡀࢃ࠿ࡿࠋୗグ㸦7㸧࠿ࡽ㸦10㸧ࡢ౛࡛ࡶྠᵝࡢ᣺ࡿ⯙࠸ࡀぢࡽࢀࡿࠋ㸦7㸧Street breathing up your legs. Can’t even get no breeze from them big church fans at St.
Jack’s8. Feels like a dog’s licking you.
㸦7㸧ࡢୗ⥺㒊ࡣࠕ㸦๓ࡢΰ㞧ࡢ≧ἣࡣࠊேࡀከࡃ࡚ே࡜᥋ゐࡋ㸧ࡲࡿ࡛≟࡟࡞ࡵࡽࢀ࡚࠸
ࡿࡼ࠺࡞Ẽศࡀࡍࡿࠖ࡜࠸࠺ព࿡ࢆ⾲ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࡇࡢᩥ࡛ࡣࠊ₍↛࡜ࡋࡓሙࡢ≧ἣࢆ♧ࡋ

47

ᰘ⏣ ࠿ࡼᏊ

ࡓゝⴥࡀ┬␎ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࡲࡓᩥ୰࡟ᴫᛕ໬⪅ࡶ⾲⌧໬ࡉࢀ࡚࠸࡞࠸ࠋ
㸦8㸧Once I found her lying on the grass in a random-looking sprawl, the palms of her hands turned
up to the drizzle. “The Corpse,” she explained later. “Feels wonderful”.
㸦8㸧ࡢඛ⾜ᩥ⬦࡛ࡣࠊࠕࣚ࢞ࡢ࣏࣮ࢬ࡟ࡣ୙ྍゎ࡞ྡ๓ࡀ௜ࡅࡽࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠖ࡜࠸࠺ෆᐜࡢ
ヰࡀࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋ㸦8㸧࡛ࡣࠊࠕ㸦ヰ⪅࡛࠶ࡿ㸧⚾ࡣᙼዪࡀⲡࡢୖ࡟ᶓࡓࢃࡗ࡚࠸ࡓࠖጼࢆぢࡓࠋᚋ࡟ࠊᙼዪࡣࠊࡑࡢ࣏࣮ࢬࡣࠕṚయ࡛ࠖ࠶ࡿ࡜ㄝ᫂ࡋࠕ⣲ᬕࡽࡋ࠸Ẽศࡔࠖ࡜㏙࡭࡚
࠸ࡿࠋࡘࡲࡾࠊ┬␎ࡉࢀࡓ୺ㄒࡣᐇᅾ≀࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊ࣏࣮ࢬࢆࡋ࡚࠸ࡓ᫬ࡢᙼዪࡢẼศࢆ⾲ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋ౛㸦8㸧ࡣ㸦7㸧࡜ྠᵝ࡟ to meࠊto us ࡞࡝ࡢᴫᛕ໬⪅ࡢ⾲⌧ࡣࡉࢀ࡚࠸࡞࠸ࠋ
㸦9㸧Robert heaved a sigh and sat down beside me. “Looks bad”. “Feels worse”.
㸦9㸧ࡢඛ⾜ᩥ⬦࡛ࡣࠊࣟࣂ࣮ࢺ࡜ヰ⪅࡛࠶ࡿ⚾ࡀヰࢆࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠊࡑࡢෆᐜ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࣟࣂ࣮
ࢺࡣ⮬ศࡢឤ᝿࡜ࡋ࡚ࠊୖグࡢ౛ࡢࡼ࠺࡟ࠕᝏࡑ࠺ࡔࠖ
ࠊࠕẼศࡣࡶࡗ࡜ᝏ࠸ࠖ࡜㏙࡭࡚࠸
ࡿࡇ࡜࠿ࡽࠊᐇᅾ≀࡟ࡘ࠸࡚࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊ๓࡟ㄒࡽࢀࡓヰ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡢヰ⪅ࡢẼᣢࡕࢆ⾲ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࡲࡓࠊᴫᛕ໬⪅ࡢ⾲⌧ࡶ࡞࠸ࠋ
㸦10㸧More food? Wonderful. I am famished. Feels like I am eating for twelve. Set it down here.
㸦10㸧ࡢ౛ࡣ▱ேࡢᐙ᪘ࡢ࿧ࡧ࠿ࡅ࡟ᑐࡋ࡚ࠊ
ࠕࡶࡗ࡜㣗࡭≀ࡀ࠶ࡿࡢࠋ⣲ᬕࡽࡋ࠸ࢃࠋ࠾
⭡ࡀ࡮ࡇ࡮ࡇࡼࠋ12 ᫬㸦᫨㣗㸧࡟㣗࡭࡚࠸ࡿࡼ࠺࡞ឤࡌࡔࠋࠖ࡜⟅࠼࡚࠾ࡾࠊ㣗࡭≀ࡑࡢࡶࡢࡸࠊఱࡽ࠿ࡢᐇᅾ≀ࢆ♧ࡍࡢ࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊ㣗࡭ࡿ≧ἣ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚㏙࡭࡚࠸ࡿࠋ㸦8㸧ࡸ㸦9㸧ࡢ౛࡜ྠᵝ࡟ᴫᛕ໬⪅ to me ࡸ to us ࡢ⾲⌧ࡶ♧ࡉࢀ࡚࠸࡞࠸ࠋࡇࢀࡽࡢ౛ࢆศᯒࡍࡿ࡜ࠊ
᚟ඖࡉࢀࡓ୺ㄒࡣලయⓗ࡞ᣦ♧≀ࢆ⾲ࡍࡼࡾࡶࠊ₍↛࡜ࡋࡓ≧ἣࡸẼᣢࡕࢆ⾲ࡍ࡞࡝ࠊ᭕
᫕ᛶࢆᣢࡘࠕ㠀ே⛠ࡢ itࠖ࡜┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌࡸࡍ࠸ࡇ࡜ࡀࢃ࠿ࡿࠋ
ḟ࡟⾲ 2 ࡢᵓᩥ 1 ࡛࠶ࡿ A + feels + noun ᵓᩥࡢ୺ㄒ┬␎࡟ὀ┠ࡋ࡚ࡳࡿࠋࡇࡢᵓᩥ࡛ࡣࠊ
≉࡟ 1830 ᖺ௦࡛୺ㄒ┬␎ࡀከࡃ⏕ࡌ࡚࠸ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀࢃ࠿ࡿࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊ┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌ࡚࠸ࡿᩥࡢ
✀㢮ࢆㄪ࡭࡚ࡳࡿ࡜ࠊ11 ௳୰ࠊリࡀ 5 ௳ࠊᑠㄝࡀ 5 ௳ࠊ㞧ㄅࡀ 1 ௳࡛࠶ࡗࡓࠋㄪᰝ࡛ࡣྜ
ィ 11 ௳ࡢ┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌ࡚࠸ࡓࡀࠊリࢆ㝖ࡃ࡜ 6 ௳࡜࡞ࡿࠋリࡣ⊂≉ࡢᩥయࢆᣢࡕࠊᮏ✏ࡀᑐ㇟࡜ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿᩥయ࡛࠶ࡿࠊࠕ᭩ࡁゝⴥ࡛⏕ࡌࡿㄯヰࠖ࡜ࡣᛶ㉁ࡀ␗࡞ࡗ࡚࠸ࡿࡶࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ
ᵓᩥ 1 ࡟㛵ࡋ࡚௚ࡢᖺ௦࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡶྠᵝࡢㄪᰝࢆࡍࡿ࡜ࠊ1820 ᖺ௦࡛ࡣ 3 ௳୰ 2 ௳ࠊࡲࡓࠊ┬␎㢖ᗘࡀࡸࡸከ࠸ 1850 ᖺ௦࡛ࡣࠊ6 ௳୰ 3 ௳ࡀリ࡛࠶ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀࢃ࠿ࡗࡓࠋࡇࢀࡽࡢ
ࡇ࡜࠿ࡽḟࡢ஧ࡘࡢࡇ࡜ࡀゝ࠼ࡿࠋ୍ࡘ┠࡟ࠊ1820 ᖺ௦࠿ࡽ 1850 ᖺ௦࡟࠾ࡅࡿ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡣࠊリ࡛⏕ࡌ࡚࠸ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀẚ㍑ⓗከ࠸ࠋ஧ࡘ┠࡟ࠊ1830 ᖺ௦ࡢ A + feels + noun ᵓᩥ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࠊ୍ぢࡍࡿ࡜୺ㄒ┬␎ࡢ㢖ᗘࡀ㧗࠸ࡼ࠺࡟ぢ࠼ࡿࡀࠊリࢆ㝖࠸ࡓࠊᐇ㝿࡟ㄪᰝᑐ㇟࡜࡞ࡿᵓᩥࡢ୺ㄒ┬␎㢖ᗘ㸦ࡘࡲࡾ
6 ௳ࠊࡲࡓࡣ 100 ୓ㄒෆ࡛⏕ࡌࡿᩘ್ࡣ 0.43 ௳㸧࠿ࡽุ᩿ࡍࡿ࡜ࠊ┬␎㢖ᗘࡣࠊࡉ࡯࡝㧗48

▱ぬືモ feel ࡢ୺ㄒ┬␎࡟㛵ࡍࡿព࿡ㄽⓗศᯒ࠸ᩘ್࡛ࡣ࡞࠸ࡇ࡜ࡀࢃ࠿ࡿࠋ
ᮏ⠇ࡢ⤖ᯝࢆࡲ࡜ࡵࡿ࡜ḟࡢࡼ࠺࡟࡞ࡿࠋࡲࡎࠊ≀ࢆ୺ㄒ࡟ྲྀࡿ SVC ᆺᵓᩥ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࠊ
୺ㄒ┬␎ࡣḟࡢࡼ࠺࡞஧ࡘࡢሙྜ࡟⏕ࡌࡿࠋ➨୍࡟ࠊලయⓗ࡞≀ࢆ♧ࡍᐇయࠊࡲࡓࡣලయ
ⓗ࡞ᣦ♧≀ࢆ⾲ࡍ it ࢆ୺ㄒ࡟ྲྀࡿሙྜࠋ➨஧࡟ࠊලయⓗ࡞≀ࢆ♧ࡉࡎࠊ≧ἣࡸ⤒㦂ࡋࡓฟ᮶஦ࢆ⾲ࡍ୺ㄒࠊࡲࡓࡣ᭕᫕ᛶࢆࡶࡘࠕ㠀ே⛠ࡢ itࠖࢆ୺ㄒ࡟ྲྀࡿሙྜࠋᮏㄪᰝࡢ⤖ᯝࡣࠊᚋ⪅࡛┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌࡸࡍ࠸Ⅼࢆ♧၀ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋḟ⠇࡛ࡣ୺ㄒࡢ♧ࡍᣦ♧ᑐ㇟࡟ὀ┠ࡋ࡚ືモ
feel ࢆศ㢮ࡍࡿࠋ5㸬㸬୺ㄒ┬␎࡜ࠕ୺య໬ࠖ
4 ⠇ࡢࢥ࣮ࣃࢫㄪᰝࡢ⤖ᯝࠊㄪᰝ 1 ࠿ࡽ SVC ᆺࡢᵓᩥࡢ୰࡛ࡶࠊ୺ㄒ it㸦ලయⓗ࡞ᣦ♧≀ࢆ⾲ࡍ it ࡜ࠊලయⓗ࡞ᣦ♧≀ࢆ⾲ࡉ࡞࠸ it ࢆྵࡴ㸧࡛ጞࡲࡿᵓᩥࡀࠊ㏆ᖺ࡛ቑຍࡋ
࡚࠸ࡿࡇ࡜ࢆ☜ㄆࡋࡓࠋㄪᰝ 2 ࠿ࡽ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡣලయⓗ࡞≀ࢆ⾲ࡍ୺ㄒࡼࡾࡶࠊලయⓗ࡞≀ࢆ⾲ࡉ࡞࠸ࠊ≉࡟ࠕ㠀ே⛠ࡢ itࠖࠊ࡟ࡼࡾ㢖⦾࡟⏕ࡌ࡚࠸ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀࢃ࠿ࡗࡓࠋ
ࡇࢀࡽࡢㄪᰝ⤖ᯝ࠿ࡽࠊ▱ぬືモࡢඛ⾜◊✲࡟࠾ࡅࡿศ㢮ࢆ⢭⦓໬ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡀ࡛ࡁࡿࠋᚑ᮶ࠊ▱ぬືモࡢ◊✲࡛ࡣࠊ▱ぬືモࡣ୕✀㢮㸦⤒㦂ࠊάືࠊ▱ぬ㸧࡟ศ㢮ࡉࢀࠊ▱ぬࡢ
SVC ᆺࡢᩥᆺࡣ୍ࡘ࡟ࡲ࡜ࡵࡽࢀ࡚࠸ࡓ䠄Ibarretxe-Antuñano, 1999, p. 45䠅䚹ࡋ࠿ࡋㄪᰝ 1 ࠿ࡽࠊfeel ࡢ SVC ᆺ࡟ࡣࠕே+ feels + adj.ࠖࡢࡼ࠺࡟ࠊ⤒㦂⪅ࡀ୺ㄒ࡟࡞ࡿ
ࡶࡢ࡜㸦౛㸸He feels good.㸧ࠊࠕ≀+ feels + adj.ࠖࡢࡼ࠺࡟ࠊ⤒㦂⪅ࡀ⫼ᬒ໬ࡉࢀࠊ▱ぬᑐ㇟ࡀ୺ㄒ࡟࡞ࡿࡶࡢ࡟ࢃ࠿ࢀࡿⅬࡀ♧ࡉࢀࡿࠋࡲࡓࠊㄪᰝ 2 ࠿ࡽࠊ▱ぬᑐ㇟ࡀ୺ㄒ࡜࡞ࡿሙ
ྜ࡛࠶ࡗ࡚ࡶࠊ୺ㄒࡀලయⓗ࡞≀࡛࠶ࡿሙྜ࡜㸦౛㸸This pen feels good.㸧ࠊ₍↛࡜ࡋࡓ≧ἣࢆ⾲ࡍሙྜ㸦౛㸸It feels good.㸧࡜࡛ࡣࠊᩥἲⓗࠊព࿡ⓗ᣺ࡿ⯙࠸ࡀ㐪࠺ࡇ࡜ࡀ☜ㄆࡉࢀࡓࠋ
୧⪅ࢆẚ࡭ࡓሙྜࠊ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡣᚋ⪅࡛ࡼࡾ㢖⦾࡟㉳ࡇࡿࡇ࡜࠿ࡽࠊ୧⪅ࡣᩥἲⓗࠊព࿡ⓗ࡟␗࡞ࡿ≉ᚩࢆᣢࡘᵓᩥ࡜ࡋ࡚ศ㢮࡛ࡁࡿࠋ௨ୖࡢࡇ࡜࠿ࡽࠊfeel ࡣᅗ 5 ࡢࡼ࠺࡟⾲ࡍࡇ࡜ࡀ࡛ࡁࡿࠋ

feel
SVO ᆺ

㸦i㸧 ே+ feel + adj.

SVC ᆺ㸦ii㸧 ≀ + feel + adj.

㸦iia㸧≀ 㸦ලయⓗ࡞ᣦ♧≀࠶ࡾࠊit㸧 +㸦iib㸧 ≀ 㸦ලయⓗ࡞ᣦ♧≀࡞ࡋࠊit㸧 + feel + adj.

feel + adj.

㸦⤒㦂ࡋࡓฟ᮶஦ࠊ≧ἣࠊ㠀ே⛠ࡢ it㸧ᅗ 5. feel ࡢ SVC ᆺࡢศ㢮㸦adj. = ᙧᐜモ㸧49ᰘ⏣ ࠿ࡼᏊ

ᅗ 5 ࡀ♧ࡍࡼ࠺࡟ࠊᚑ᮶ SVC ᆺ࡜ࡋ࡚ࡲ࡜ࡵࡽࢀ࡚࠸ࡓᵓᩥ࡟ࡣ௨ୗࡢࡼ࠺࡟୕ࡘࡢࣃ
ࢱ࣮ࣥࡀ࠶ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀࢃ࠿ࡿࠋ
㸦11㸧㸦i㸧ே + feel + adj.
㸦iia㸧≀㸦ලయⓗ࡞ᣦ♧≀࠶ࡾࠊit㸧+ feel + adj. 㸦iib㸧≀㸦ලయⓗ࡞ᣦ♧≀࡞ࡋࠊit㸧+ feel + adj.
ࠝ㸨㸦iia㸧ࠊ㸦iib㸧ࡢࣃࢱ࣮ࣥࡣ⾲ 1 ࡜⾲ 2 ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡣᵓᩥ 6 ࡢ୰࡟ྵࡲࢀࡿࠞ

ࡇࢀࡽࡢᵓᩥࢆẚ㍑ࡍࡿ࡜ࠊㄪᰝ 1 ࠿ࡽࠊ୕ࡘࡢࣃࢱ࣮ࣥ඲࡚࡟࠾࠸࡚ࠊ1800 ᖺ௦ึᮇ࡜
ẚ࡭ 2000 ᖺ௦࡛ࠊ100 ୓ㄒෆ࡟ฟ⌧ࡍࡿᵓᩥࡢ㢖ᗘ࡟ቑຍࡀぢࡽࢀࡿ㸦⾲ 1ࠊᅗ 3㸧ࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊ≉࡟㸦iia㸧ᆺ࡜㸦iib㸧ᆺࡢࡼ࠺࡟ࠊ
ࠕ୺య໬ࠖ㸦▱ぬ⪅ࡢ⫼ᬒ໬㸧ࡀ㐍ࢇࡔᵓᩥ࡛ⴭࡋ
࠸ቑຍࡀほᐹࡉࢀࡿࠋࡘࡲࡾࠊ᫬௦ࡀ㐍ࡴ࡟ࡘࢀࠊ
ࠕ㠀ே⛠ࡢ itࠖࢆྵࡴࠕ≀୺ㄒࠖࡢ౑⏝㢖ᗘࡀ┠❧ࡗ࡚ቑຍࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࠕே୺ㄒࠖ࠿ࡽࠕ≀୺ㄒࠖ࡬ࡢኚ໬ࡣ Langacker㸦1999, p.
301-302㸧ࡢ୺ᙇࡍࡿࠕ୺య໬ࠖ࡟ぢࡽࢀࡿ 4 ࡘࡢࣃ࣓ࣛࢱ࣮ࡢᕼⷧ໬ࡢ 1 ࡘࠕ↔Ⅼࡢኚ໬
9ࠖ࡜ྜ⮴ࡍࡿࠋ
ࡲࡓㄪᰝ 2 ࡛ࡣࠊ㸦iib㸧ࡢࣃࢱ࣮ࣥࡢࠕ㠀ே⛠ࡢ itࠖࡢࡼ࠺࡞ලయⓗ࡞ᣦ♧≀ࢆᣢࡓ࡞࠸
୺ㄒ࡛ࠊࡼࡾ┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌ࡚࠸ࡿࡇ࡜࠿ࡽࠊ୺ㄒࡢᣦ♧ᛶ㸦referentiality㸧ࡢపࡉࡀ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡢ୍せᅉ࡛࠶ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀࢃ࠿ࡗࡓࠋࡍ࡞ࢃࡕࠊලయⓗ࡞ᣦ♧≀ࢆᣢࡓ࡞࠸୺ㄒࡢሙྜࠊ୺ㄒ
ࡀ⾲ࡍᣦ♧ᑐ㇟ࡣቃ⏺⥺ࡀ↓ࡃಶู໬ࡉࢀ࡞࠸Ⅼ࡛ᣦ♧ᛶࡀపࡃ࡞ࡿࡀࠊࡇࡢሙྜࠊ₍↛࡜ࡋࡓ≧ἣࢆᣦࡍࡇ࡜࠿ࡽࠊព࿡᝟ሗࡀᑡ࡞࠸ࡓࡵࠊ┬␎ࡀࡉࢀࡸࡍࡃ࡞ࡿ࡜⪃࠼ࡽࢀࡿࠋ㸬⤖ㄽ6㸬
 ᮏ✏࡟࠾ࡅࡿㄪᰝࡢ⤖ᯝࠊ௨ୗࡢ஧ࡘࡢ♧၀ࡀᚓࡽࢀࡓࠋ➨୍࡟ࠊㄪᰝ 1 ࡛ࡣ feel ࡣࠊ᫬௦ࡢὶࢀࡢ୰࡛ SVO ᆺ୰ᚰ࠿ࡽ SVC ᆺ࡬࡜ኚ໬ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿⅬࡀ᫂ࡽ࠿࡟࡞ࡗࡓࠋࡉࡽ࡟ࠊ
SVC ᆺࡢ୰࡛ࡣࠊ୺ㄒ࡟᭷⏕≀ࢆࡶࡘᵓᩥ࠿ࡽ㸦౛㸸He feels good.㸧ࠊᴫᛕ໬⪅ to meࠊto us➼ࡀゝㄒ໬ࡉࢀ࡞࠸ࠕ୺య໬ࠖࡋࡓᵓᩥ୰ᚰ࡬࡜᥎⛣ࡋࡓ㸦౛㸸It feels good.㸧Ⅼࡀ᫂ࡽ࠿࡟࡞ࡗࡓࠋ➨஧࡟ࠊㄪᰝ 2 ࡛ࡣࠊ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡣᅗ 5 ࡢ㸦iia㸧ࡢලయⓗ࡞ᣦ♧≀ࢆ♧ࡍ୺ㄒࡢሙྜࡼࡾ
ࡶࠊ
㸦iib㸧ࡢලయⓗ࡞ᣦ♧≀ࢆ♧ࡉ࡞࠸୺ㄒ࡛ࠊࡼࡾከࡃ⏕ࡌ࡚࠸ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀࢃ࠿ࡗࡓࠋࡇࢀ
ࡽࡢ୺ㄒ࡛ࡣࠊ
ࠕ㠀ே⛠ࡢ itࠖࢆࡣࡌࡵࠊ୺ㄒࡀ⾲ࡍᑐ㇟ࡀ₍↛࡜ࡋ࡚᝟ሗ㔞ࡀᑡ࡞࠸ࡇ࡜
࠿ࡽࠊ୺ㄒࡢᣦ♧ᛶ㸦referentiality㸧ࡀప࠸࡜࠸࠼ࡿࠋࡑࡢⅬ࠿ࡽࠊ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡣᣦ♧ᛶࡢప࠸୺ㄒ࡟⏕ࡌࡸࡍ࠸࡜࠸࠼ࡿࠋ
௨ୖࡢ⤖ᯝ࠿ࡽࠊᮏ✏ࡢㄪᰝ࡛ࡣࠊ୺ㄒ┬␎࡟ࡣྍ᚟ඖᛶࡸࢥࣥࢸ࢟ࢫࢺ➼ࡢㄒ⏝ㄽⓗ࡞せᅉࡔࡅ࡛࡞ࡃࠊ୺ㄒࡢᣦ♧ᛶ㸦referentiality㸧ࡢࡼ࠺࡞ព࿡ㄽⓗ࡞せᅉࡀ㛵ࢃࡿⅬࢆ᫂ࡽ࠿࡟ࡋࡓࠋ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌࡿせᅉࢆࡲ࡜ࡵࡿ࡜⾲ 3 ࡢࡼ࠺࡟࡞ࡿࠋ

50▱ぬືモ feel ࡢ୺ㄒ┬␎࡟㛵ࡍࡿព࿡ㄽⓗศᯒ⾲ 3. ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌࡿせᅉㄒ⏝ㄽⓗせᅉ
ྍ᚟ඖᛶ┤㏆ࡢࢥࣥࢸ࢟ࢫࢺࠊሙ㠃ࡢࢥࣥࢸ࢟ࢫࢺ
఍ヰࢫࢱ࢖ࣝ㸦౛㸸ぶࡋ࠸㛫᯶࡛ࡢ఍ヰ㸧ゝⴥࡢ⤒῭ᛶ
ᐃᆺ⾲⌧࡜ࡢඹ㉳ព࿡ㄽⓗせᅉ
୺ㄒࡢᣦ♧ᛶࡢపࡉ

᭱ᚋ࡟௒ᚋࡢㄢ㢟ࢆグࡍࠋᮏ✏࡛ࡣࠊ⤒㦂⪅ࡀ⫼ᬒ໬ࡉࢀࠊ▱ぬᑐ㇟ࡀ୺ㄒ࡜࡞ࡿᵓᩥ
㸦౛㸸This pen feels good. It feels good.㸧࡟↔Ⅼࢆ࠶࡚ㄪᰝࢆ⾜ࡗ࡚ࡁࡓࠋ௒ᚋࡢㄢ㢟࡜ࡋ࡚ࠊ▱ぬᑐ㇟ࡀ୺ㄒࡢ఩⨨࡟⌧ࢀࡿ࡜࠸࠺Ⅼ࡛ࠊᮏ✏࡟࠾࠸࡚ㄽࡌࡓᵓᩥ࡜ྠᵝࡢ≉ᛶࢆᣢࡘ୰㛫ᵓᩥ࡟ὀ┠ࡍࡿࡇ࡜࡛ࠊ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡢせᅉ࡟ᵓᩥࡀ࡝ࡢࡼ࠺࡟㛵୚ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿ࠿ࢆࡉࡽ࡟
ศᯒࡋ࡚࠸ࡁࡓ࠸ࠋཧ⪃ᩥ⊩῝⏣ᬛ㻌 䠄2001䠅 㺀“Subjectification” ࡜ࡣఱ࠿㸸ゝㄒ⾲⌧ࡢព࿡ࡢ᰿※ࢆ᥈ࡿࠖ ࠗゝㄒ⛉Ꮫㄽ㞟࠘No. 7, 61-89.
ᮏ⏣ၨ㸦2005㸧
ࠗ࢔ࣇ࢛࣮ࢲࣥࢫࡢㄆ▱ព࿡ㄽ̿⏕ែᚰ⌮Ꮫ࠿ࡽぢࡓᩥἲ⌧㇟࠘ᮾி኱Ꮫฟ
∧఍.
ஂ㔝ᬿ㸦1978㸧ࠗㄯヰࡢᩥἲ࠘኱ಟ㤋᭩ᗑ. 

Bolinger, D. 䠄1977䠅. Meaning and form. London: Longman.
Ibarretxe-Antuñano, I. B. 䠄1999䠅. Polysemy and metaphor in perception verbs: A Cross-linguistic
study. PhD Dissertation, University of Edinburgh.
Langacker, R. W.㻌 䠄1999䠅. Grammar and conceptualization. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Langacker, R. W. 䠄2011䠅. On the subject of impersonals. In Mario Brdar, Stefan Th. Gries andMilena Žic Fuchs 䠄Eds.䠅, Cognitive Linguistics. Convergence and Expansion, 䠄pp.179-217䠅.
Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
McCarthy, M. J. & Carter, R. A.㸦1995㸧. Grammar and the spoken language. Applied Linguistics, 16㸦2㸧, 141-158.

51

ᰘ⏣ ࠿ࡼᏊ

McCarthy, M. J. & Carter, R. A. 䠄2006䠅. Cambridge grammar of English. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Nariyama, S. 㸦2004㸧. Subject ellipsis in English. Journal of Pragmatics, 36, 237-264.
Payne, T. E. 㸦2011㸧. Understanding English grammar: a linguistic introduction. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Thomas, A. L. 䠄1979䠅. Ellipsis: The interplay of sentence structure and context. Lingua, 47, 43-68.
Zipf, G. K. 䠄 1949 䠅 . Human behavior and the principle of least effort. Cambridge, MA:
Addison-Wesley Press.
ὀ1. ᮏ✏ࡢࡍ࡭࡚ࡢ౛ࡣ COHA ࠿ࡽࡢᘬ⏝࡛࠶ࡿࠋ. ᮏ◊✲࡛ࡣࠊ
ࠕே୺ㄒࠖ࠿ࡽࠕ≀୺ㄒࠖ࡬ࡢኚ໬ࡀ୺࡞⪃ᐹᑐ㇟࡛࠶ࡿࡓࡵࠊືモ feel ඲య࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊfeels ࢆᑐ㇟࡜ࡋࡓࠋfeel ඲యࡢㄪᰝࡣ௒ᚋࡢㄢ㢟࡜ࡍࡿࠋ3. ᣦ♧ᛶ࡟ࡣࠕᐈほⓗᣦ♧ᛶ㸦objective referentiality㸧ࠖ࡜ࠕㄯヰⓗᣦ♧ᛶ 㸦discourse
referentiality㸧ࠖࡢ஧✀㢮ࡀ࠶ࡿ㸦Payne, 2011, p. 365㸧࡜ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋᮏ✏࡛㏙࡭ࡿᣦ♧ᛶࡣࠊ๓⪅ࡢࠕᐈほⓗᣦ♧ᛶࠖࡢࡇ࡜ࢆ♧ࡍࠋᣦ♧ᛶ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡣ 5 ❶࡛ࡶ㏙࡭ࡿࠋ
4.ࠕゝⴥࡢ⤒῭ᛶࠖ㸦Zipf, 1949㸧࡜ࡣࠕேࡣ㌟㏆࡟࠶ࡿၥ㢟ࢆゎỴࡍࡿ㝿࡟ࠖࠊࠕ㉳ࡇࡾ࠺ࡿ
ປാᾘ㈝ࡢᖹᆒ⋡ࢆ᭱ᑠ㝈࡟ࡋࡼ࠺࡜ࡍࡿࠖ࡜࠸࠺⪃࠼ࢆᇶ࡟ゝⴥ࡟ᑐࡋ࡚ᛂ⏝ࡋࡓࡶࡢࠋ୺ᚋ┬␎ࡀ⏕ࡌࡿせᅉࡢ୍ࡘ࡜⪃࠼ࡽࢀࡿࠋ
5. ࡇࢀࡣ Zipf㸦1949㸧ࡢ㏙࡭ࡿࠕゝⴥࡢ⤒῭ᛶࠖ࡜㛵㐃ࡍࡿ࡜ᛮࢃࢀࡿࠋ
6. ▱ぬືモ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࠊ⤒㦂⪅࠿ࡽ่⃭࡬࡜୺ㄒࡀ⛣⾜ࡍࡿࡇࡢ⌧㇟ࡣࠊᩥἲⓗ࡟ࡳࡿ࡜ࠊ
┠ⓗㄒࡀ୺ㄒࡢ఩⨨࡟⌧ࢀࡿ⌧㇟࡜ࡋ࡚ᤊ࠼ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀ࡛ࡁࡿࠋྠᵝ࡟ࠊ┠ⓗㄒࡀ୺ㄒ఩
⨨࡟⌧ࢀࡿᵓᩥ࡟୰㛫ᵓᩥࡀ࠶ࡿ㸦ᮏ⏣, 2005㸧ࠋ୰㛫ᵓᩥ࡜▱ぬືモᵓᩥࡢ㛵㐃࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡣ㠀ᖖ࡟⯆࿡῝ࡃࠊ⌧ᅾㄪᰝ୰࡛࠶ࡾࠊ௒ᚋࡢㄢ㢟࡜ࡍࡿࠋ7.ࠕ㠀ே⛠ࡢ itࠖࡣࠕ᭱ࡶ₍↛࡜ࡋ࡚ቃ⏺ࡢ↓࠸ࡶࡢࠖࡲࡓࡣࠕ᭕᫕࡛࠶ࡿࠖ࡜ᐃ⩏ࡉࢀࡿ
㸦Langacker, 2011, p. 204㸧ࠋᮏ✏࡛ㄽࡌࡓ୺ㄒ┬␎ࡀ㢖⦾࡟⏕ࡌࡿࠕ⤒㦂ࡋࡓฟ᮶஦ࠊ≧ἣࠖࢆ⾲ࡍᐇయࡣࠊලయⓗ࡞ᣦ♧≀ࢆᣢࡓ࡞࠸Ⅼࡀࠊࠕ㠀ே⛠ࡢ itࠖ࡜ඹ㏻ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࡲ
ࡓࠊࠕ㠀ே⛠ࡢ itࠖࡣࠊ඲ࡃྠࡌ࡛ࡣ࡞࠸ࡶࡢࡢࠊBolinger㸦1977㸧࡛ࡶࠕ≧ἣࡢ itࠖ
㸦ambientit㸧
㸦p. 77-87㸧࡜ࡋ࡚㏙࡭࡚࠸ࡿࡀࠊᮏ✏࡛ࡣ Langacker㸦1999㸧ࡢᥦၐࡍࡿࠕ୺య໬ࠖ
ࢆ⏝࠸࡚ศᯒࢆࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࡓࡵࠊࠕ㠀ே⛠ࡢ itࠖ㸦Langacker, 2011, p. 204㸧ࢆ᥇⏝ࡍࡿࠋ
8. Can’t even get ࡛ጞࡲࡿࡇࡢᩥࡶ┬␎ࢆྵࡴᩥ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ┤㏆ࡢࢥࣥࢸ࢟ࢫࢺࡸሙ㠃ࡢࢥࣥࢸ࢟ࢫࢺ࡟ࡼࡾุ᩿ࡍࡿ࡜ࠊࡇࡢᩥ࡛ࡣࠊyou ࡀ┬␎ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿ࡜⪃࠼ࡽࢀࡿࠋ
9. Langacker㸦1999, p. 301㸧ࡣࠕ୺య໬ࠖ࡟ࡣᑡ࡞ࡃ࡜ࡶ 4 ࡘࡢࠕᕼⷧ໬ࠖ̿ࠕ≧ែࡢኚ໬ࠖ
ࠊࠕ↔Ⅼࡢኚ໬ࠖࠊࠕ㡿ᇦࡢ㌿᥮ࠖࠊࠕάືࡲࡓࡣ₯ᅾຊࡢሙࡢኚ໬ࠖࡀほᐹࡉࢀࡿ࡜㏙࡭࡚
࠸ࡿࠋࡑࡢ୰࡛ࠕே୺ㄒࠖ࠿ࡽࠕ≀୺ㄒࠖࡸࠕit ୺ㄒࠖ࡬ࡢኚ໬ࡣࠊࠕ↔Ⅼࡢኚ໬ࠖࠊࡲ
ࡓࡣࠕࣉࣟࣇ࢓࢖ࣝࡢኚ໬ࠖ࡜ゝ࠼ࡿࠋ㸨ᮏ✏ࡣ᪥ᮏⱥㄒᏛ఍ᅜ㝿᫓Ꮨࣇ࢛࣮࣒ࣛ➨  ᅇ኱఍㸦 ᖺ  ᭶  ᪥ࠊ ᪥ࠊྠᚿ♫኱Ꮫ㸧࡛ࡢཱྀ㢌Ⓨ⾲࡟ຍ➹ࠊಟṇࢆຍ࠼ࡓࡶࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋᮏ◊✲ࢆࡲ࡜ࡵࡿ࡟㝿ࡋ࡚ࠊ኱㇂┤㍤ඛ⏕ࠊ῝⏣ᬛඛ⏕࡟ࡼࡾࠊ㈗㔜࡞ࡈᣦ᦬ࡸࡈຓゝࢆ㈷ࡗࡓࠋࡑࡋ࡚ࠊ༏ྡࡢᰝ
ㄞ⪅ࡢ᪉ࠎ࠿ࡽ᭷┈࡛ᘓタⓗ࡞ࡈពぢࢆ㡬࠸ࡓࠋࡇࡇ࡟グࡋ࡚ࠊឤㅰ⏦ࡋୖࡆࡓ࠸ࠋ࡞
࠾ࠊᮏ✏ࡢ୙ഛࠊㄗࡾࡣ඲࡚➹⪅ࡢ㈐௵࡛࠶ࡿࠋ
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