An Examination of The Applicability of Nonaka’s Theory in
The Empirical Context of UK Urban Regeneration: A Case
Study of The Creative Town Initiative in Huddersfield (2)− Placing the Creative Town Initiative in Huddersfield in context −ADACHI Yoshimichi
Abstract
A series of papers aims to examine the applicability of Nonaka’s theory of organizational knowledge creation
to the empirical context of urban regeneration in the UK and the Creative Town Initiative (CTI) in Huddersfieldin particular. In so doing, in this paper Huddersfield and CTI in particular has been placed in context. After
introducing the theoretical framework to apply to Nonaka’s theory, CTI in Huddersfield has been placed incontexts, including geographical, demographic, historical, local political (and institutional), urban regenerationand cultural. This paper led to be ready to examine the application / relevance of Nonaka’s theoreticalframeworks to urban regeneration using CTI in Huddersfield.
Key words: Case Study, Knowledge, Huddersfield, Creative Town Initiative (CTI)

1. Introductionof Nonaka’s theory of organizational knowledge

There has been little empirical (and theoretical)

creation to the empirical context of urban regeneration

research which has focused on ‘knowledge’ andin the UK and the Creative Town Initiative (CTI) in‘knowledge creation’ in the context of (strategy-

Huddersfield in particular. In so doing, as argued in

making for) urban regeneration in the UK, where

the previous paper 1）, the integrated framework of

public-private partnerships are widespread. In an

the TEAM linguistic structure and Nonaka’s five-attempt to contribute to filling this gap, a series ofphase model of organizational knowledge creation

papers aims to examine the applicability of Nonaka’s

provided the case study’s theoretical propositions,

theory of organizational knowledge creation to thewhich incorporates the four modes of knowledge

empirical context of urban regeneration in the UK andconversion, including the socialization, externalization,

the Creative Town Initiative (CTI) in Huddersfieldcombination and internalization modes, which are thein particular. In so doing, before examining themain concepts of Nonaka’s theory (see Figure 1). A

application / relevance of Nonaka’s theoreticalseries of papers follow the theoretical propositions

framework to urban regeneration, in this paper

to examine the applicability of Nonaka’s theory of

Huddersfield and CTI in particular will be placed inorganizational knowledge creation to the empiricalcontext.

context of urban regeneration in the UK and theCreative Town Initiative (CTI) in Huddersfield.

2. Theoretical framework to apply to Nonaka’s
theoryThe five conditions including organizational intention,

A series of papers aims to examine the applicability

autonomy, fluctuation / creative chaos, information

山梨県立大学 国際政策学部 総合政策学科
Department of Policy Management, Faculty of Glocal Policy Management and Communications, Yamanashi Prefectural
University− 73 −

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 11（2016）

Explicitness(Externality)
Phase3:
Justifying

Phase4: Building an archetype

Phase2: Creating concepts

Combination mode
(Systemic knowledge)

Externalization mode
(Conceptual knowledge)

concepts

Identity(Space)Difference(Time)
Phase5: Cross-leveling of knowledge

Phase1: Sharing tacit knowledge

Internalization mode
(Operational knowledge)

Socialization mode
(Sympathized knowledge)

Implicitness(Internality)

Figure1: Integrated framework of the TEAM linguistic structure and Nonaka’s
five-phase model (Source: Author)
redundancy and requisite variety, which Nonaka

is recognized as the area of employment, retail andassumes facilitate organizational knowledge creation2）,

culture (KMC, 2002).

were also regarded as the theoretical prepositions to be

3.2 Demographic overview

followed during data collection for the case study.

The population in Kirklees has risen slowly since 1900

3. Placing the Creative Town Initiative in(KMC, 2003). In 1989 the population of Kirklees

Huddersfield in context
3.1 Geographical overview
Huddersfield is located midway between the major
cities of Leeds and Manchester and is just north of
Sheffield in the UK (see Figure 2 & Figure 3). Its
administrative centre is Kirklees, which is the thirdlargest Metropolitan District in West Yorkshire and theseventh largest of the 36 Metropolitan Districts in the
country and the largest district not based in a major
city (see CTI, 1996; KMC, 2002).
Kirklees, with an area of 408 km², constitutes a varied
and complex topography and the north and south ofthe district have very different characteristics and local
identities. There are significant contrasts and diversity
between the rural and urban communities and withincommunities, with wide variations of affluence andpoverty and settlement and industrial development.
Huddersfield is located in the south of Kirklees, which− 74 −

Figure 2: Location of Huddersfield in the UK

An Examination of The Applicability of Nonaka’s Theory in The Empirical Context of UK Urban Regeneration: A Case Study of The Creative Town Initiative in Huddersfield (2)Figure3: Location of Huddersfield
Table1: Changes of population in Kirklees (Source: NOMIS)
Year
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014

Kirklees
377,300
377,700
379,000
380,100
382,100
382,700
383,200
383,800
383,900
384,700
385,300
386,900
389,000
392,100
394,500
397,500
400,700
404,300
408,000
411,800
414,800
418,300
423,000
425,500
428,300
431,000

Yorkshire and The Humber
4,912,400
4,921,000
4,936,100
4,949,000
4,954,100
4,960,100
4,960,600
4,961,300
4,957,600
4,957,700
4,956,300
4,958,600
4,976,600
5,000,100
5,026,300
5,063,200
5,108,400
5,134,000
5,164,100
5,198,700
5,223,300
5,254,800
5,288,200
5,316,700
5,337,700
5,360,000(Note:Figures are midyear population estimates)− 75 −

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 11（2016）

was 377,300 and it had increased to 431,000 by 2014

Because of their over-dependence on a declining(see Table 1). Huddersfield itself had a population of

manufacturing sector and failure to adapt to globally

121,620 in 2001 (ONS, 2003) and 162,949 in 2011changing economic and social environments from the(census) and the total increase has been 51% between

1970s onwards, the region, and inner Huddersfield

1900 and 2000 (KMC, 2003).

in particular, like other industrial cities or towns in
the UK, have suffered from ‘urban problems’ such

Moreover, Kirklees is culturally diverse with aas unemployment, social exclusion, ethnic tension,

mix traditions and religions and therefore 21% ofhigh crime rates and physical dereliction of vacatedits population is from ethnic minority groups andareas (KMC, 2002). For example, in 1991 the rate ofthis proportion is continuing to rise (2011 census).

unemployment in Kirklees was 10%, which included

91% of the minority ethnic citizens live in 12 of theapproximately 7,000 unemployed young people (38.5%

24 wards. The largest ethnic minority group is theof the total number) (see KMC, 2003). Kirklees was

Pakistani community with 10% of the total population

also ranked the 19th of 354 for unemployment withof Kirklees, followed by the Indian community with

13% of the population living in the most deprived 10

5%, and the Black community with less than 3% (2011% of wards in England in the 1998 index of Local

census).

Deprivation developed by the Centre for Urban Policy
Studies at the University of Manchester (see KMC,

3.3 Historical overview

2002). The loss of employment meant that the best of

The earliest roots in Huddersfield can be traced toits local talent moved to places like London or evenCastle Hill, where there is evidence of an Iron Age fort

further afield and the commutable distance to bigger

and a Norman Castle. However, Huddersfield, as it isneighbouring cities, such as Leeds and Manchester,thth

today, took shape during the 18 and 19 centuries,

also led to the draining of skills and talent (see CTI,

leading to the confirmation of county borough status

1996). Moreover, there is a concentration of povertyth

in 1868. Huddersfield grew rapidly in the 19 andthamongst its mainly Asian ethnic minority (seeearly 20 centuries on an industrial and manufacturing

Landry, 2000a). In 2014 the late of unemployment

base of woollen textiles, engineering and chemicals

has recovered with 6.5% of the population, which is(see Landry, 2000a). In this sense, Huddersfield has

the number of 12,766. However, unemployed young

a history as a leading world centre of textiles andpeople remain high.

engineering (KMC, 2002) and has thus been shaped
as an essentially urban industrial town surrounded by

3.4 Local political (and institutional) context

moorland countryside. From the early 1970s onwards,

The boundaries of Kirklees have no historical oras textile production increasingly moved towards

geographical significance (Pratt, 1998). In 1974, as

the Far East, industry decreased and textiles andthe result of local government re-organization, theengineering declined by more than 75%. Although theboundaries of Kirklees administrative district were

decline was initially off-set by growth in chemicals

artificially created from 11 constituent authorities.

and food and drink production, there was no growthThis legacy has brought problems of trying to develop

in the high-tech sector (see Pratt, 1998). Huddersfielda public identity within the Kirklees Metropolitan

still has more manufacturing than the national average,

Council (KMC) in an area of diversity and a longa less qualified workforce and lower pay (see Pratt,tradition of locality and independence (KMC, 2002).

1998; KMC, 2002).

Therefore, by the late 1970s, the administration was
driven by many internal conflicts and in disarray (see− 76 −

An Examination of The Applicability of Nonaka’s Theory in The Empirical Context of UK Urban Regeneration: A Case Study of The Creative Town Initiative in Huddersfield (2)Pratt, 1998).

its budget over the next three years (BBC,19 February2015).

In 1988, the Kirklees municipality was reviewed by
the Institute of Local Government (INLOGOV), a

3.5 The urban regeneration context

respected specialist public sector consultancy, which

The political and institutional changes made in the

concluded that Kirklees was administratively andearly 1990s have not only helped develop officers’organizationally one of the most problematic local

and Members’ capacity for change, but also beenauthorities that it had encountered (see KMC, 2002).

concentrated on urban regeneration activity in Kirklees

According to the analysis made by INLOGOV, theand Huddersfield in particular. The Council adopted

Council was filled with a culture of fear and blame.

a vision for the regeneration of Kirklees and set itself

There was no corporate working in the Council,

three key goals as follows:each department behaving like a self-contained
barony (with rigid departmentalism). Officials were

◯ A Thriving Economy

controlled in such a way that they had no autonomy◯ A Flourishing Community

and therefore their motivation wasn’t well developed.

◯ A Healthy Environment

Moreover, there was political infighting and thepolitical leadership hadn’t been created. There were

New forms of partnership with public agencies, theno partnerships with the voluntary or private sector,

private sector, local people and central government

no openness to new ideas and there was no room forwere created to accelerate urban regeneration increating knowledge about how to adapt to the changing

Kirklees. Kirklees’ first significant partnership wassocial conditions (see e.g. Pratt, 1998; Landry, 2000;

a 1989 joint venture with the Henry Boot building

KMC, 2002).

company to redevelop council property for housing,retail and industrial uses (see Leadbeater & Goss,

In responding to this negative analysis, a major

1998). The partnership’s largest project was theupheaval in both office structures and Members’

redevelopment of part of Huddersfield town centre.

processes occurred in the 1989/90, which required

The partnership gave the council a share of profits

tenacity and a certain ruthlessness (Leadbeater &from the development. More importantly, the long-

Goss, 1998). The Council recognized the changing

term relationship with a private company brought

institutional map in Britain, which included

Kirklees access to expertise which has allowed it tocompetition within local authority services, the transfer

address urban development issues, which had beenof certain functions out of the Council altogether, andmore difficult to tackle before (see Leadbeater & Goss,the growth of unelected agencies -Quangos- which

1998).

controlled more resources than the local authority
itself (Landry, 2000a). The Council established an

The Kirklees - Henry Boot Partnership paved the wayorganization committed to devolved management, thefor the council to form the partnership to develop

separation of strategic and operational management

the McAlpine Stadium, providing a new home forroles and instituted external partnerships working with

Huddersfield’s football and rugby clubs. The stadium,an ever-growing range of other agencies. It also had

which has a global reputation, is a modern monument

a clear vision for improving the area (KMC, 2002).

to civic entrepreneurship (see Leadbeater & Goss,

In 2015 the council announced that more than 1,000

1998). The private sector could not have built it on

jobs will be lost as Kirklees Council cuts £69m fromits own. The local football and rugby clubs did not− 77 −

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 11（2016）

Table2: Urban regeneration projects in Kirklees (1990-1996) (Source, CTI, 1996)
Name of projects

Name of funds

BudgetPeriodBatley Action

City Challenge£ 45.75 million

1993-1998

Huddersfield PrideSingle Regeneration Budget£ 15.25 million

1995-2002

Routeways to SuccessSingle Regeneration Budget£ 9.15 million

1995-2002

Dewsbury: Fabric for the Future

Single Regeneration Budget£ 18.3 million

1996-2003

have the resources, nor did the public sector. Instead

Council has also been a partner in two successful

Kirklees brokered a public-private partnership, whichbids under Regeneration Challenge for the TeCH

has built a stadium that is neither purely public nor

Programme and for the 1998 Year of Photography andpurely private and it has become a community asset.

the Electronic Image. Moreover, it is also a partnerin two other Article 10 bids. One is a transactional

KMC also utilized the partnership approach to urban

information society bid entitled Trans-Europe Liaison

regeneration to obtain government budgets. Following

Network (Tel-Net), which is being led by the Souththe then Conservative government guidelines

West Regional Authority of the Republic of Ireland.

and directives, KMC used bids for government

The other is a bid entitled the Virtual European Market

money in order to effectively carry out urban

Plaza (EuroWeb Plaza), which is being led by the city

regeneration projects to improve its environment,of Leeuwarden in the Netherlands (CTI, 1996). KMC

tackle disadvantage and inequality and enhance its

has also accessed Neighbourhood Renewal Funds andbuilt heritage, as well as creating the conditions for

13 wards qualify for Objective 2 for the period 2000-

enterprise of all sorts to flourish. For example, in2006. Much though remains to be done to tackle urban

1990, the Council set up Huddersfield Pride Ltd, a

problems such as poverty and inequality (KMC, 2002).

regeneration company, in order to deliver the SRB
programmes as a partnership company. This approach

The UK National Lottery has also been used effectively

was called the ‘Kirklees bidding machine’ and has

to further the Council’s regeneration aims (CTI, 1996).

been copied elsewhere and is being mainstreamed

Kirklees has the highest success rate of any local

in the UK (Landry, 2000a). In other words, KMC

authority in bidding to two of the five distributing

pragmatically turned government constraints into

bodies: the Sports Council and the National Heritage

advantages and learnt that by collaboration it could

Memorial Fund. It has also submitted a bid to thewin access to public funds. As a result, over a seven-

Millennium Commission entitled The Knowledge

year period between 1990 and 1996 Kirklees achieved

Mill, a bid for £ 19.2 million for a project to widen

a 100 % success rate in winning support from theaccess to computing and information technology for

UK government, such as from City Challenge andthe general public.

Single Regeneration Budget, which competitively won
approximately £ 90 million of public resources for the

Kirklees council continued to recognise the importancetown (Table 2, also see CTI, 1996).

of new technologies to regenerate local areas andgrow their economies. It started collaborate with a

In addressing urban regeneration, KMC also usedcompany that uses digital technology to make spaces

other funds such as the application of EC Structuralfor civic engagement. The project, called ‘Who Owns

Funds, notably the ERDF, based on a variety of

My Neighbourhood’ has opened the council's land-

partnership delivery mechanisms (KMC, 2002). The

ownership data to the public, which enables residents− 78 −

An Examination of The Applicability of Nonaka’s Theory in The Empirical Context of UK Urban Regeneration: A Case Study of The Creative Town Initiative in Huddersfield (2)to connect with others who care about their area

national organizations have moved there and, for those(Guardian, 20 August 2013).

specialising in these activities, Huddersfield’s image
has changed (see Landry & Bianchini, 1995).

3.6 Cultural context
There is a historically strong link between culture and

KMC has established a strong strategic framework forthe development of Huddersfield. At the height of thethe development of culture and the Cultural Services

industrial revolution, mills supported the establishment

Department in KMC has played a significant role inof brass bands and choirs to fill the leisure time oflinking culture and urban regeneration. From early on,

their employees. Much of the town’s architectural

this department adopted a broad definition of culture,and cultural infrastructure was also established atembracing issues well beyond the development of art

this time, such as the fine Town Hall, Concert Hall

forms. For example, arts were utilized for community

and the magnificent railway station facade. Althoughdevelopment and as a potential economic driver. In

many of the mills are now gone, Huddersfield

1989, the Cultural Services Department helped toremains a strongly musical town. The Huddersfield

set up Cultural Industries in Kirklees (CIK), a highlyand District Brass Band Association is today the

motivated grass roots agency which published astrongest organization of its kind in the UK, whilst

major document called ‘A Chance to Participate: thethe Huddersfield Choral Society is world-renowned

potential of cultural industries and community arts

(see CTI, 1996). There are high levels of participationin the economic and social regeneration of Kirklees’in such musical activities at school, amateur and(CIK, 1989). This was followed in 1994 with theprofessional levels. Ensuring that this tradition remains

adoption by the Council of a cultural policy ‘Made

alive, a forward looking Music Festival is organizedin Kirklees’ (KMC, 1994). This has the following

called the Huddersfield Contemporary Music Festival.

corporate themes;This is the UK’s premier event for modern music,
which since 1978 has provided a dynamic annual◯ Celebrating Diversity

interaction between the world’s greatest living◯ Maintaining Distinctivenesscomposers and the local public. In this sense, the◯ Harnessing Creativity

musical tradition lives on in Huddersfield.
The principles of the Policy are summarised as follows:More recent years have seen a broadening anddeepening of the town’s cultural life Confirmation◯ Local cultural identity and pride are an essentialof this was provided recently when the town was

pre-condition of achieving economic, community

awarded first prize in the Arts Council/British Gas

and environmental regeneration

Properties’ ‘Working For Cities’ Awards, recognizing◯ Imagination and creativity are essential elements

it as the town in the UK which had done the mostin achieving both local identity and personal

to integrate culture within an overall programme ofdevelopment

urban regeneration. Huddersfield was also chosen◯ Diversity of lifestyle, livelihood, culture andas British poetry’s capital. Low rents and the low

habitat is an asset and through the understanding

costs of living have attracted a number of poets andand celebrating of this a tolerant society can be

through their own contacts and support from KMC adeveloped.

snowball effect has been created so that poetry events◯ Local distinctiveness takes centuries to develop, but

of national significance are held regularly. Related

can be lost overnight and so must be defended and− 79 −

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 11（2016）

nurtured.

relevance of Nonaka’s theoretical frameworks to urban◯ Local culture is dynamic, not static, and thereforechange and development are an essential partners

regeneration using CTI in Huddersfield itself. The next
paper will examine it.

to protection and conservation.
◯ Through investment, empowerment and education

Notes

the creative abilities which exist in all citizens

１）See Adachi, H. (2015) Global Studies No.10

can be released for the good of the individual, the２）See Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H. (1995)

community and the economy.

References
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Adachi, y. (2015), An Examination of The Applicability

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The Creative Town Initiative in Huddersfield (1)proposal to the European Commission under the— Methodology —, Ymanashi Global studies, No.

auspices of the Urban Pilot Projects (UPP) scheme.

10, pp1-15
BBC (19 February 2015), Kirklees Council to cut over

4. Conclusions

1,000 jobs

This paper had placed Huddersfield and CTI in

Creative Town Initiative (KMC) (1996), Huddersfield

the contexts including geographical, demographic,

Creative Town Initiative: An Urban Pilot Project

historical, local political (and institutional), urban

under article 10 of the ERDF Regulation

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Cultural Industries in Kirklees (1989), A Chance tobecause of their over-dependence on a declining

Participate: Kirklees, Kirklees Metropolitan

manufacturing sector and failure to adapt to globally

Councilchanging economic and social environments from

Guardian (20 August 2013), Four ways that 'smart'

the 1970s onwards, Huddersfield has been suffering

councils are using technology to regenerate areasfrom ‘urban problems’ such as unemployment, social

Kirklees Metropolitan Council (KMC) (1994), Made
In Kirklees

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Now it has been ready to examine the application /− 80 −

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