115TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSEREPORTS OF THE COURSEGROUP 3CURRENT TRENDS AND PROBLEMS OF PRISONERS,AND MEASURES FOR EFFECTIVE TREATMENT
Chairperson
Co-Chairperson(Sub-topic 1)
Co-Chairperson(Sub-topic 2)
Co-Chairperson(Sub-topic 3)
Rapporteur
Co-Rapporteur(Sub-topic 1)
Co-Rapporteur(Sub-topic 2)
Co-Rapporteur(Sub-topic 3)
Advisors

Mr. Wayne Albert Moody(Belize)

Mr. Akihiko Sakamoto(Japan)Mr. Takahiro Terasaki(Japan)Ms. Hiromi Kobayashi
Ms. Sivakorn Kuratanavej(Japan)(Thailand)

Mr. Shigeru Nakasato(Japan)Mr. Gunarathna Kuruppu(Sri Lanka)

Ms. Martina Davila Jimenez
Deputy Director Keiichi Aizawa
Prof. Hiroshi Tsutomi
Prof. Akihiro Nosaka(Peru)(UNAFEI)(UNAFEI)(UNAFEI)

I. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Acknowledgement is made to Deputy
Director Keiichi Aizawa, Professors Hiroshi
Tsutomi and Akihiro Nosaka who haveadvised us throughout the whole discussion
process. Special mention must also bemade to our visiting experts, especially Mr.
Luke Grant and Dr. Larry Motiuk, whose
contributions have been immeasurable.
We are indebted to all participants who
contributed to the accessing of relevant
information and gave their input in ourgroup discussion in order that their views
could be reflected. We also felt mostgrateful for our linguistic advisor and ourinterpreters for having made great
contributions for the completion of thisdocument.
II. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The discussion of Group 3 highlighted
trends, conditions, and treatment of threegroups of prisoners: foreign, drug-related,
and female prisoners. These are groups ofprisoners who definitely have special
needs. Mention must be made to otherspecial groups that are as important but
were unable to be highlighted such as
young, elderly, hard-core, AIDS/HIV
infected, mentally ill and indigenous/
minority prisoners. In view of theworldwide trend of change, we attempted
to draw out the problems concerning thetreatment programs for these three groups
of prisoners and to highlight the effective
countermeasures.
Participants related to foreign, drugrelated, and female prisoners were
proportionally allocated to the group,
giving rise to three sub-groups that wereadequately able to address the sub-topics.
The participants of each sub-group have
utilized their expertise in discussions andhave provided a rich outcome in this415

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 57
document. Each sub-group has smoothly
facilitated the plenary meetings related totheir sub-topics.
III. FOREIGN PRISONERS
A. Introduction
According to the worldwide trend, thephenomenon of globalization has effected
every sphere of life including the capacity
to move from one place to another. People
get more access to travel across borders
bringing their diversified cultures andlanguages. When such persons violate thelaws of other countries, they have to receive
the results that may come in the form ofdetention or incarceration. One of the
problems that correctional systems invarious countries have encountered is theincreasing number of foreign prisoners.
As paragraph 6 of the Standard
Minimum Rules For The Treatment of
Foreign Prisoners (hereinafter referred to
as “SMRs”) stated, “The following rules
shall be applied impartially. There shall be
no discrimination on grounds of race,
colour, sex, language, religion, political orother opinion, national or social origin,property, birth or other status.” As for thetreatment of foreign prisoners these rules
should be respected. Due respect should
also be given to the “Recommendations on
the treatment of foreign prisoners”
approved by the Seventh United Nations
Congress on the Prevention of Crime andthe Treatment of Offenders in 1985.
B. Definition
1. Differences in Definition of
Foreign Prisoner
The term “foreign prisoner” has many
shades of meaning. Generally speaking, itmeans a prisoner who has a foreign
nationality, but sometimes it includes“foreign-born prisoner” or “foreigndetainee”. It was found during thediscussion that each country has a different

416

definition of foreign prisoners. Somecountries like Peru, Sri Lanka, and Belizedefine foreign prisoners as persons ofdifferent citizenship or nationality, whilein Thailand, foreign prisoners cover anumber of hill tribes or minority groups
who have no nationality but reside in the
country. Japan defines foreign prisoners
as those with foreign nationalities, but
designates those offenders who needdifferent treatment from local prisoners as
F-class prisoners.
2. Definition Resulting from
Discussion
On the ground that each country has its
own definition, the group has broadly
discussed and has unified an appropriate
definition of foreign prisoners. It is agreed
that citizenship or nationality is the firstimportant component. The othersupporting component that should be taken
into account are the prisoners’ needs fordifferent treatment and the fact that theyshall be deported to their respective
country after the end of their detention.
Resulting from the discussion, our grouphas come out with the definition of foreignprisoners as those persons having
citizenship and/or nationality of anothercountry, who are in custody. Such persons
have special needs related to theirtreatment and welfare, and are normallydeported after completion of sentence or
detention.
C. Trends (See Annex 1)
Although some countries lack statistics
corroborating this upward trend, in many
countries the number of foreign prisoners
seems to be on the increase. As for the typeof crimes committed by these prisoners,
most countries reported that drug-related
crimes are shooting up.
The characteristics of crime classified bynationality, in Japan, larceny is the most

115TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSEREPORTS OF THE COURSE
prevalent offenses committed by foreigners.
In Belize reports, illegal entry andprostitution account for most foreignprisoners. In Sri Lanka, there are many
foreigners committing child abuse. Peru
reports that members of terrorist groups
who come from neighboring countries arein custody.
As for Thailand, a lot of foreign prisoners
have committed drug-related crimes,
mostly drug trafficking. Since drugtrafficking is considered as one of the mostserious crimes, the offenders shall receive
the most severe punishment, whichconsequently result in the long-term
imprisonment of foreign prisoners. While
for Japan, there is not a high number oflong-term foreign prisoners. Other
countries like Belize, Peru and Sri Lanka
have reported relatively low rates of foreignprisoners. Annex 1 shows the rate offoreign prisoners in some countries
discussed by the group.
D. Problems
1. Difficulty in Communication
Being in custody in a foreign land withdifferent languages, one will certainly havea lot of difficulties in adapting himself/
herself. The stress, anxiety, and frustration
are compounded by the fact that
communication is minimal.
Foreign prisoners who can not speak the
local language shall inevitably havedifficulties in communication with local
prisoners. Due to language barriers, theycannot express their feelings, their waysof thinking, and the differences in custom.
Lack of communication aggravates
misunderstanding and may cause serious
conflicts with local prisoners.
Foreign prisoners also havedisadvantages in communicating withprison officers. They cannot easily
understand prison regulations and the

instructions of officers. Gradually, someforeign prisoners come to feel estranged
and reflect their problems by filingobjections to various authorities expressing
negative reports on prison administrations.
2. Difference in Lifestyle (Culture,
Food, and Religion)
Foreign prisoners have different life
styles, in terms of culture, food, andreligion, which need to be taken care of. If
the prison does not take good care of thisproblem, the prisoners may suffer fromserious loss in their mental/physical health.
For effective treatment of foreign prisoners,
some specific facilities and activities haveto be provided to satisfy the need of healthcare, religious practice and food restriction.
However, this may not be practiced in somecountries due to budgetary constraints.
3. Difficulty in Obtaining
Information Concerning thePrisoners
It is difficult to obtain information
concerning the prisoners from agencies,
namely criminal justice agencies of thehome country of the prisoners, because
criminal justice agencies of different
countries do not share information on aregular basis. In some countries, there isno system of identifying or classifying
foreign offenders, which result ininsufficient information. Lack of
information may lead to anunderestimation of risks, such as thepossibility of escape. In this regard, thetreatment of foreign prisoners can not be
handled in an effective way.
4. Lack of Assistance from Family/
Relatives
Unlike local prisoners, foreign prisoners
have less possibilities to receive assistancefrom their relatives or friends. They
basically have to depend upon theirdiplomatic representatives. However they
are not able to provide personal care which

417

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 57
should be provided by the family, relatives
and friends. Without such assistance,
foreign prisoners may have moredifficulties in adapting themselves to life
in prisons.

officers to get sufficient information, so thatproper custodial measurements and/or
rehabilitative programs can be arranged.
In this regard, careful assessment has tobe conducted for each foreign prisoner.

5. Less Chance of Obtaining
Privileges
Due to administrative and/or legal
reasons, foreign prisoners are sometimes
not allowed to have access to early release
scheme such as parole or conditional
release. In some countries, an early releasemechanism is performed with an unequalbasis among local and foreign prisoners.
While Japan grants parole to both local andforeign prisoners, Sri Lanka and Belize, on
the contrary, apply parole to only local
prisoners, but not to foreign prisoners. In
the correctional services of Peru, remission
days are accumulated upon the work ofeach prisoner. The prisoners, both local
and foreign, who engage in the work
remission scheme are applicable for early
release. As for Thailand, the early release
derived from good conduct allowancesystem is awarded only to local prisoners,
but not to foreign nationals.

2. Provision of Materials to Facilitate
Communication
On entering an institution it isimportant that all relevant information ismade available to the inmates. This is evenmore needed for foreign prisoners. The
production of materials or publications canalleviate many basic problems that would
normally arise and can facilitate better
communication. Rules and regulations,prepared in the languages of the prisoners
will be an assistance to better
communication. In the case where theprisoners are illiterate, video productions
can be used to give such relevant
information. As paragraph 30 (3) of SMRs
prescribes the arrangement forinterpreters should be made in thedisciplinary punishment procedures.

In the same vein, they sometimes haveless chances of being allowed leave, work
release, etc. Also, they may be more likely
to put in a maximum-security institution(which itself could lead to longer
imprisonment). Such disparity found in
the treatment of foreign prisoners may
invite criticism calling such practice a formof discrimination.
E. Coutntermeasures
1. Careful Assessment
Having a foreign prisoner in custody canbe problematic if prison officers do not havesufficient information on that prisoner.
Individual assessment is one of theactivities that should be done upon theintake of each prisoner. In case of foreignprisoners, it is important for the prison

418

3. Staffing and Training
In order to communicate with foreignprisoners, it is necessary to have basic
knowledge in foreign languages.
This problem can be solved by:(i) Recruitment and training of staff andvolunteers that are able tocommunicate in foreign languages, andproviding them with necessary training(ii) Providing of local language courses forforeign prisoners(iii)Exchange of skilled staff should be
encouraged as it relates to different
institutions.
4. The Cooperation with Volunteers
and NGOs
In order to deal with foreign prisoners,
it is worthy to search for the assistancefrom volunteers and NGOs in thecommunity. Appeals can be made to115TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSEREPORTS OF THE COURSE
volunteers to assist in language barrier
problems that come with difference inlanguages such as letter writing andcensoring. Volunteers and NGOs can also
perform other rehabilitative activities withforeign prisoners within the prisons as well
as aftercare programs. For example, an
NGO named “Ansar Burni Advocate” inPakistan provides some programs whichassist foreign prisoners be deported.
5. Promoting Cultural AwarenessThe need for cultural awareness isanother countermeasure that can alleviate
unnecessary stress caused by lack ofunderstanding. Such events as culturalawareness weeks or months can be a very
good means of sensitizing the foreignprisoners, local prisoners, and the staff.
This will also result in more harmony inthe diverse groups being held in custody.
There should also be meetings between theparties involved in the life of foreignprisoners, so as to seek better treatment
programs.
6. Cooperation with Embassies
Assistance extended by embassies isvaluable because it comes from theprisoner’s compatriots and it makes alinkage of the foreign prisoners with theirrespective countries. Paragraph 38 of
SMRs guarantees the foreign prisoners theright to contact the diplomatic or consular
representatives of their own countries.
Prison officers should seek cooperation
with embassies of foreign prisoners. The
contact with embassies can also lead tosmooth implementation of deportation ortransfer of foreign prisoners.
7. Provision of Special Resources
Attending to the Needs of
Prisoners
Recognizing that foreign prisoners arethose in need of special treatment, prison
officers should provide special resources
attending to their needs. In this regard,

certain facilities and necessities should be
provided such as books, newspapers, food,religious ornaments and specific room for
prayers. As paragraph 41 of SMRs
prescribes, specific consideration should begiven to the religious needs of foreignprisoners.
8. Legislative and/or Administrative
Changes to Offer Equal Treatment
to Foreign Prisoners
Legal and administrative changes are
required to overcome obstacles resulting inunequal practices such as unfair
application of early release mechanisms toforeign prisoners. Relevant bodies,
legislative and/or administrative, should
recognize the fact that the problem exists
and should pay efforts to minimize it.
9. Reducing the Number of Foreign
Prisoners
The following are steps that can assist
in alleviating the overpopulation of foreignprisoners:(i) Deportation: Deportation can render
the speedy return of inmates out of thecorrectional system instead of a longdetention period. This would assist
greatly as it relates to illegal-entry
inmates. Prior to deportation, themechanisms such as diversion, early
release, and speedy trial should be
encouraged.
(ii) Transfer of Prisoners: Treaties
between states which allow sentences
to be carried out in the country of theforeign offender. Thailand is an
example where foreign inmates aretransferred back to their home where
the sentence is carried out. Suchtreaties are bilateral.
F. Conclusion
It is quite obvious that all countries needto review their policies and procedures as
it relates to the treatment of foreign

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RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 57
offenders. In many cases, there is no clear
and concise account of what the missionis, with respect to care, custody and control.
When there are clear statements ofprinciple that should be applied to the lifeof such inmates, there are measurable
components that can be used to evaluate
whether the mission is being accomplished.
It is the hope that serious considerations
and actions would be taken as it relates tothe countermeasures suggested in thispaper.
IV. DRUG-RELATED PRISONERS
A. Introduction
Substances such as heroin, cocaine,cannabis and amphetamines have adependency nature. Therefore many
people are hooked on drug abuse and facedifficulty to dissociate themselves from thespell of drugs. In view of the globalizationof production, trafficking and theconsumption of these drugs, we discussed
the problems and countermeasures of drugrelated prisoners.
B. Definition
This group has defined “drug-related
prisoners” as prisoners who are in custodyfor drug offenses as well as those who arein custody for other offences and are
dependent on drugs. In the prisons of somecountries, even in those countries where
drug abuse does not constitute criminal
offence, there are many drug-dependent
prisoners who are imprisoned for othercrimes such as theft or robbery.
In addition we define “drug offenders inprison” as those who are in custody for drug
offences.
C. Situation & Trend (See Annex 2)
The ratio of drug-offenders in prison to
the total prisoner population is relatively
high in each country. In Thailand, it was
58.6% in 1999, the highest portion among420

the countries respected in our group. Next
comes Sri Lanka with 39.4%. In four offive countries we surveyed drug offenders
occupy more than a quarter of their prison
population. The ratio of drug-related
prisoners is expected to be much higher
than this.
Furthermore, the number of drug
offenders in prisons is on the increase inmost of the countries firstly by more active
law enforcement efforts and harsher
sentencing usually accompanied by legal
reforms asking for heavier punishment
drug offenders, and secondly by theinfusion of drug abuse into society.
Consequently, the number of drug-related
prisoners is also on the increase.
Other common trends found in many
countries are as follows:- There is an increasing number offemale drug-related prisoners.
- In some countries, the recreationaluse of drugs among juveniles is
becoming prevalent.
- Drug distributors and smugglers arefound to be involved with gangsters.
- There is a relationship between
poverty and drug trafficking.
However, the situations are notcompletely the same in each country. First
there are differences in the legal system of
each country. For instance in Peru, drug
abuse is not a crime, while in othercountries, it is a crime to which penal
sanction is applied. Thus, in Peruvian andThai Prisons, the number of drugtraffickers is more than that of the numberof abusers while in Belizian and Sri Lankan
prisons, the number is almost the same.
Japan is the only country where thenumber of abusers overwhelms the numberof traffickers.
Also, there are differences in types ofdrugs socially causing problems. In

115TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSEREPORTS OF THE COURSE
Central America, the most serious problem
is cocaine. In South Asia and the Southeastern part of Asia, the heroin problem ishistorically serious and, in Eastern Asia
and recently Southeastern Asia, somecountries are affected by the wide spreadof amphetamines. The globalization of
drug trafficking is making the situation
more complicated than ever.
D. Problems
1. Access to Drugs in Prison
In some countries, it has been the mostserious problem that prisoners get accessto drugs within the prison. Some inmates
may receive drugs from visitors, from mail,or from other smuggling means. Thus,
prisoners develop a drug-trafficking
network within prison. Further, it was
found that some prison officers
intentionally overlooked the traffic of drugs
in prisons, and sometimes, themselves
traffic drugs. If drugs exist inside theprison, it is quite clear that the control ofprisoners becomes more difficult, that drug
dependants cannot get rid of their habit,
and that treatment programs cannot be
implemented properly.
2. High Recidivism Rate of DrugDependents
Drug-dependents have a high tendencyof recidivism: upon their release fromprisons, they have to go back to the samecommunity where drugs are available.
High recidivism rates can lead toconcentration of drug dependents inprisons, which pushes up the prison
population.
In contrast, it is found out that therecidivism of traffickers is not high, andthat they benefit from treatment programs
offered to general offenders such as
vocational training. So the issue of reoffending of traffickers will not be discussed
in this paper.

3. Physical and Mental Health
Problems
Narcotic drugs basically do harm to thephysical/mental conditions of the abusers.
For example, heroin addicts are physicallydependent on drugs and have to go througha physically tormenting period when they
undergo detoxification. Also, long-termabuse of amphetamine/methamphetamine
may cause a symptom called “flash back”
that refers to a sudden and unintended reexperiencing of the situation which theabuser experienced when he/she abused
the drug even when he/she is sober. In
addition, it is known that the mental
conditions of drug-dependants are usually
volatile and unstable. The treatment ofdrug-related prisoners consequently needs
to take into consideration the conditions of
their physical and mental health.
E. Countermeasures
1. The Control of Drugs in Prison
Drug control efforts in prison arebasically categorized into two parts. First,
there are efforts to eradicate the access to
drugs available in prison. For example, thecheck of incoming mail and the inspectionof carried-in personal belongings, body/patsearch of visitors, officers and new
prisoners entering the institution, and therestriction of the sale of goods allowed to
be brought into premises of institutions toauthorized stores, are carried out.
Second, there are efforts to deter drug
abuse by maximizing the probability ofdetection of drug abuse. These efforts
include cell searches, urine testing andintelligence work (e.g. cooperation with
police, use of informers, etc.). In addition,
to coordinate these efforts, theestablishment of an anti-drug committee
within institutions are considered to beeffective. If the incident is found,perpetrators should be sanctioned
accordingly. For example, if an officer
conspires in the drug trafficking, he/she

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RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 57
should get not only receive penal sanction,
but also an administrative sanction suchas discharge.
Of course the prison staff should be welltrained so that they are experienced in theimplementation of all the drug control
efforts.
2. Treatment Programs to Prevent
Drug Recidivism
Tr e a t m e n t p r o g r a m s f o r d r u gdependants should focus on the core
problems of drug abuse: physicaldependence and mental dependence.
To d e a l w i t h f i r s t d e p e n d e n c e ,medication is available for some types ofsubstances. For example, methadone,
known as a substitute for heroin, is themost widely used and reliable medication.
H o w e v e r, m e d i c a t i o n f o r c o c a i n edependents and amphetamine/
methamphetamine dependents are not yet
developed and are still at the research
stage.
Mental dependence should be dealt bypsychological treatment. Although there
are so many types of psychologicaltreatment, a treatment method which has
been found to be the most effective is
cognitive-behavioral treatment. Cognitivebehavioral treatment has been used in
Canada, the U.S., the U.K. and othercountries and evaluated favorably. TC(Therapeutic Community: a program whichallows prisoners to run a drug-free unit as
a community) and similar self-help typegroups have been found to be effective andnow introduced to Asian countries such as
Malaysia and Thailand. Some TC
programs have religious backgrounds andthis testifies to the success of spiritual/religious programs such as conducted in Sri
Lanka.

422

Support from family members as well as
peers is also crucial. Schemes facilitating
the interaction with family members suchas Family Days (when an institution is
open to family members) should be
introduced and encouraged.
Supplementary programs including
vocational, educational, PE (physicaleducational) and recreational programs arealso expected to contribute to the reductionof recidivism by stabilizing the drug
dependent prisoners into the normal life.
Aftercare services such as halfway
houses and continued community
treatment are also essential because readaptation to social life is the key to thesuccess of drug treatment. Lay/professional volunteers, NGOs and othercommunity service organizations will bebeneficial in this respect.
Programs discussed in this section are
mainly available to convicted prisoners, but
the correctional authority has to pay every
effort to put their inmates in contact witheffective programs.
3. Reduction of Contact with DrugRelated Prisoners
Further, the influence of drug-related
prisoners on non-abusers cannot be
overlooked. Through interaction with drugrelated prisoners, non-abusers may beintroduced to and get interested in drug
abuse.
Regulation of contact with/among drugrelated prisoners is necessary to control
drug abuse in prison, prevent the formationof drug offender networks, and nurture theprison environment conducive to thesuccess of drug treatment programs.
To reduce contact, classification,categorization, and/or segregation must be
utilized. This should be based upon the

115TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSEREPORTS OF THE COURSE
introduction as to how offenders wererelated to each other before they enter theprison.
In addition, the control of movement ofinmates, which do not allow the interactionof inmates belonging to different groups(e.g. groups set up according to workshop,
wings, etc.), is effective to cut off thetrafficking of goods within institutions.
Also the control of conversation of inmates
which is meant to reduce the exchange of
information on occasions where
supervision is minimal is effective to reduce
communication related to drug abuse/traffic within institutions.
4. Medical and Psychological Care
To provide special medical/psychologicalcare, meeting the unique needs of drug
abusers, correctional institutions need tocarefully assess drug dependent prisoners.
To meet their medical needs, correctional
institutions need to recruit psychiatricdoctors, nurses and other competent staff.
These staff are required to monitor theconditions of the drug dependent prisoners
who need special health care, to counsel
and provide medication and to advise
custodial staff. Wise and careful use of
single cells should be made upon therecommendation of medical staff.
To take care of their psychological needs,interviewer schemes which enableprisoners to talk to officers/volunteers whoare psychologically trained at any timeshould be developed.
F. Conclusion
Many countries in the world are afflictedwith the plague of drug abuse. Severe
health, social and economic problems are
emerging associated with the abuse ofdrugs. It is also turning law abiding young
people into criminals.

From the statistics shown in Annex 2, itis seen that more than a quarter ofprisoners are drug offenders except in
Belize. It is easily seen that drug-related
offenders occupy a much higher percentage(conceivably, almost half) of the prisoner
population.
With the influx of this large number ofdrug related offenders, many countries are
now confronted with a host of new problems
hitherto not experienced in the past.
First of all it is necessary to keep the
drug abusers separated from othercategories of offenders in their own interestand that of others. But it is not an easytask to keep them separated inovercrowded institutions, thus there is agreat possibility of their mixing with others
and promoting the habit of drugs amongst
other offenders.
With these difficulties drug related
offenders who are in the penal institutions
must be assisted by correctional officials
in order to return to society to lead a normal
and productive life.
These
countermeasures and treatment programs
which we highlighted here in this reportin detail, should be applied effectively with
their cost-effectiveness being monitored
regularly.
V. FEMALE PRISONERS
A. Introduction
Paragraph 6 of SMRs, which is cited,
relating to the treatment of foreign
offenders, states that there shall be nodiscrimination on the grounds of sex.
However, the discrimination does exist andvarious reasons have been given for thelack of priority for treatment of female
prisoners. One such is the fact that they
make up such a small proportion of thecorrectional population, secondly thecriminality is not serious. Also the423

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 57
correctional system has failed to recognize
the diversity among female prisoners by
putting them into one category. However,in recent years, the number of female
prisoners has been increasing in a lot ofcountries.
In view of this situation, the treatment
system for female prisoners should takeaccount of their specific needs which are
different from that of male prisoners while
attending to their individual variety.
Therefore, we discussed the effective
treatment system for female prisoners,
based on the actual circumstances in eachcountry.
B. Characters & Trends (See Annex 3)
In recent years, the number of female
prisoners has increased. There are different
social backgrounds in female criminality.
The penal system in each country differs
too. In some countries, female prisoners areincarcerated in the same prisons with maleprisoners, but are placed in separate wingsof the prisons. In this case, female
prisoners may not be able to get access to
sufficient treatment of the prisons.
Characteristics and trends of female
prisoners found in the discussion are:1. Female prisoners represent a
minority scale compared to maleprisoners (5 % - 15 %).
2. There is an increasing trend of
population of female prisoners inmany countries.
3. There is an increasing trend of female
prisoners committing drug related
crime and crime against property(theft/robbery).
4. Most female prisoners have low
education backgrounds and are
unemployed.
5. Most female prisoners are victims ofabuse or are forced/introduced tocrimes by male partners.

424

C. Problems
Since female prisoners make up only asmall proportion of the total prison
population, treatment services andprograms are basically designed for malerather than for female prisoners. Upon thediscussion, the group has found that mostservices and programs are male-centered,
which have led to problems concerning thetreatment of female prisoners as follows:
1. Male-Centered Services(i) Male-Centered Allocation of SpaceIn some countries, there are correctional
institutions for female prisoners, while inother countries, female prisoners areincarcerated in a section within the same
campus of male prisoners. Relating to thispoint, paragraph 8 of SMRs recommends
that different categories of prisoners shallbe kept in separate institutions or parts ofinstitutions taking account of their sex andspecifically that men and women shall as
far as possible be detained in separate
institutions; in an institution which
receives both sexes the whole of thepremises allocated to women shall beentirely separate.
However, space and facilities provided
for female prisoners are overlooked and are
relatively small. It is found that female
prisons or female sections become easily
overcrowded due to the prison authority’s
delay in responding to the increase of
female prisoners and in adjusting the space
allocation between male and female
prisoners. For example, it is recognized by
Japan and Peru that sizes of female
sections in male prisons and, in case ofJapan, female prisons are small and do notshare an equal space allocation to that ofmale prisoners Also, it should be pointed
out that there is a tendency that female
sections specially set up within maleprisons suffer from worse conditions thanfemale prisons do.

115TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSEREPORTS OF THE COURSE(ii) Male-Centered Attention to Daily Basic
Needs
Women in general have specific needs forunderwear, cosmetics, and some otherfeminine necessities. Although these are
the basic needs of women, correctional
systems often do not recognize them anddo not allocate enough budget to satisfy
these needs. This is another reflection of
male-centeredness of correctional
treatment. Basically, Thailand provided
clothes for prisoners, but there is nodifference between male and female; andthe clothes are likely to be more useful tomen. In Japan, even though some special
necessities such as underwear are provided
for female prisoners, there are still
problems concerning the quality andvariety of those necessities that do notserve the real needs of female prisoners.
(iii)Male-Centered Provision of HealthCare (including Insufficient ChildCare)
A lot of correctional institutions forfemales do not have sufficient health careservices. Despite the fact that women needspecial medical services such as
genealogical medical care, breast cancer
and uterine cancer checks, most female
institutions are poorly equipped and staffedin terms of medical services.
An extreme example can be seen in
Thailand. The only correction hospital of
the country lacked an in-patient ward forfemale prisoners for very long time. In caseof operation, female prisoners would
receive an operation and would be broughtback to women’s prison within the sameday. In recent years a female ward has
been established within the said hospital.
Apart from general needs of medicalcare, female prisoners sometimes needextra services concerning their pregnancy
and child care. These needs require special
food, clothes, and facilities, but they tend

to be overlooked in prisons.
2. Male-Centered Programming(i) M a l e - C e n t e r e d Av a i l a b i l i t y o f
Programs
Female prisoners have historically not
been given the same range of opportunities
as male prisoners. Their special needs havebeen overlooked when programs have been
designed and resources allocated.
Treatment facilities for education,
vocational training, sports and recreation
are always located in the main part of theprisons where only male prisoners can get
access. This problem does not occur insome countries like Japan and Sri Lanka;
but it is found quite seriously incorrectional systems of Belize, Peru, andThailand.
However, in cases where those programs
are available to female prisoners, thevarieties of the programs are more
restricted than that arranged for maleprisoners. The smaller number of female
prisoners and the smaller size of female
prisons have been used as an excuse for
not providing female prisoners with equal
opportunities to choose programs. This
program management has generally put
the female prisoners at a disadvantage.
(ii) Male-Centered Content of Programs
Most programs provided for prisoners
have been historically introduced andpracticed in prisons for a very long time,
regardless of the change of market needs.
Prisoners are given works or vocational
training programs that are alreadyavailable in prisons. In Peru, female
prisoners will get access to works andvocational programs such as cooking,clothes making, hair dressing, andhandicraft making. Actually, these types
of work do not respond to the need of thelabor market that needs more modern
skills such as using computers. When new
programs are introduced into prisons, they425

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 57
are likely to be practiced in male sections
first.

family, peer, anti-social associates, andanti-social cognition.

Female prisoners have needs for special
programs. Because their job market isdifferent from that of male prisoners, thecontent of vocational training should not
be the same. Also, they have their specifictaste for recreational activities that isdifferent from male prisoners. However,these needs specific to women are not welltaken into consideration, and, as a result,the content of programs available to female
prisoners does not differ much from thatavailable to male prisoners.

3. Establishing Programs for Female
Prisoners(i) Educational Programs
Since it is found that female prisoners
have low levels of education, which relates
to unemployment, it is necessary to provide
them with education programs; so that they
can have sufficient backgrounds, which canlead to employment after their release.

D. Countermeasures
Considering the characteristics,
trends, and problems of female prisoners,
the group has found those necessary
countermeasures to be operated so as toalleviate the problems of treatment offemale prisoners and to increase
effectiveness in the treatment programs.
1. Fair Allocation of Resources
Fair allocation of resources, taking
specific needs of female prisoners, is themost important countermeasure to betaken. Physical resources (e.g. space andfacility), financial resources (e.g. budget fordaily goods such as underwear) and humanresources (e.g. the number and qualified
staff) should be equally available to female
prisoners. Further, it is recommended toestablish separate institutions for female
prisoners where treatment programs
specially catering for the needs of female
prisoners are provided by female staff. This
recommendation is related to paragraph 53
of SMRs.
2. Assessment and Classification
Assessment and classification regarding
the specific needs of female prisoners
should be conducted to attain thetreatment programs responsive to theirneeds. The specific need areas include

426(ii) Vocational Programs
Vocational training programs suitablefor females are encouraged in regards tothe unemployment problem. It was also
found that female prisoners have been
abused or forced/introduced to commit
crime by male gangsters. It may be helpful
if the female prisoners can afford somevocational skills that enable them to findwork and avoid being abused by malegangsters.
(iii)Drug/Substance Abuse Prevention
ProgramMany female prisoners are drug/
substance abusers. To change their drug/
substance abusing behavior, correctional
institutions should provide drug/substanceabuse programs specially modified for
women prisoners. Different from programsfor men, programs for women need toemphasize the effect of drugs/substances
on a reproductive system, on an effect of
their association with male partners (ondrugs/substance abuse), on a constructive
use of leisure time, and on a building of
support systems.
(iv) V i c t i m s o f A b u s e P r o g r a m /Relationships Program
Women prisoners have a history of being
abused or forced/introduced to commit
crime by male partners. To help themrecover from trauma related to physical,
mental and emotional abuse, and to help

115TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSEREPORTS OF THE COURSE
them reconstruct their relationships with
their male partners, special programs
should be provided. These should help
them recognize the destructive effects of
their relationships with intimate partners
and motivate them to change their way ofbuilding interpersonal relationships.
4. Establishing Health and Child
Care Services(i) Health Services
Recognizing that women have somespecific needs concerning their physicalhealth as is mentioned in Paragraph 23(1)of SMRs, it is necessary to provide themwith sufficient medical care, especiallygenealogical care. Firstly, female
prisoners, if pregnant, need to be takencare of according to their progress ofpregnancy, even after the delivery of theirchildren. Secondly, female prisoners, ingeneral, should get access to regularphysical checks (e.g. breast cancer checks,etc.).
(ii) Child Care Services
Most countries adopt the practice ofallowing the female prisoners to raise theirchildren in prison for a period of time,
which may range from 1 year to 3 years.
During this period, correctional
institutions are required to guarantee theaccess to milk diet, and other items
necessary to the development of children.
Further, it is desirable to establish anursery center for children within theprison compound or vicinity, as isrecommended in SMRs paragraph 23(2).
In cases where children become older than
the specific age and are looked after outside
the prisons, the prison authority is also
expected to pay extra attention to facilitate
the contact between imprisoned mothers
and their children. For example, in the
U.S., a center established within acorrectional institution provides activities,
mostly initiated by inmates, such as taperecording of mothers reading books;

summer camps (for children housed withneighborhood host families); and overnight
weekend visiting programs.
E. Conclusion
Female prisoners have been long
disadvantaged in prisons. However, in
accordance with the international society’s
emphasis on the improvement of situationsof women in general, the situations ofimprisoned women need to be focused on.
Female prisoners should be recognized ashaving specific needs, and “equality” needs
to be redefined as providing opportunities
relevant to their needs, not as providing
equal resources based the number of maleand female inmates. Our discussion is aneffort to step forward to this direction.
VI. GENERAL CONCLUSION
It is quite obvious that “Foreignprisoners”, “Drug-related prisoners” and“Female prisoners” all have specific needs
and require special treatment. The
correctional system of each country must
consider what necessary action can betaken. In some countries, there may belimitation of resources; but this must not
be an excuse for sitting back and doing
nothing. It is the intention of theparticipants of this group to motivate theconcerned systems to take actions that areappropriate and applicable to each country.
With available human resources, there canbe some effective and measurable changes.
We cannot change the world, but we canchange the part of the world where we are.

427

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 57
ANNEX 1 (Foreign Prisoners)
Table 1
Trend of Belize
1996
1,544
492
31.9%

Number of Prisoners
Number of Foreign Prisoners
Rate of Foreign Prisoners

1997
1,389
446
32.1%

1998
1,193
397
33.3%

1999
1,313
451
34.3%

*Total number of admissions of each year

Table 2
Trend of Japan
Year
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Number of
50,481 46,858 45,193 45,082 45,525 46,120 47,398 49,414 50,897 52,715
Prisoners
Number of
1,505 1,380 1,342 1,369 1,424 1,568 1,801 2,038 2,153 2,359
Foreign Prisoners
Rate of
3.0% 2.9% 3.0% 3.0% 3.1% 3.4% 3.8% 4.1% 4.2% 4.5%
Foreign Prisoners*As of 31 December of each year

Table 3
Trend of Sri Lanka
1993
18,6442
0.0%

Number of Prisoners
Number of Foreign Prisoners
Rate of Foreign Prisoners

1994
16,241
9
0.1%

1995
15,89326
0.2%* Total number of admissions of each year

Table 4
Trend of Thailand

Number of Prisoners
Number of Foreign Prisoners
Rate of Foreign Prisoners* As of 30 September of each year

428

1997
125,955
4,579
3.6%

1998
164,451
4,931
3.0%

1999
205,340
5,235
2.5%

2000
200,3105,526
2.8%

115TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSEREPORTS OF THE COURSE
Figure 1:
Number of Prisoners and Foreign Prisoners (Belize)
1,544

1,600

1,600
1,313

1,400

1,400

Number of Prisoners

1,193
1,200

1,200

1,000

1,000

800

800

600

600

492
446

451

397

400

400

200

200

Number of Foreign Prisoners

1,389

0

0
1996

1997

1998

Number of Prisoners

1999

Number of Foreign Prisoners

Figure 2
Number of Prisoners and Foreign Prisoners (Japan)
6,000

60,00050,481

Number of Prisoners

50,00046,85845,00047,398 49,414

50,8975,000

45,193 45,082 45,525 46,120

40,0004,000

35,00030,000

3,000
2,153

25,00020,0002,359

1,801 2,038
1,505 1,380

15,0002,000

1,342 1,369 1,424 1,568

10,000

Number of Foreign Prisoners

55,00052,715

1,000

5,000
0

0
1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

Year
Number of Prisoners

Number of Foreign Prisoners

429

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 57
Figure 3
Number of Prisoners and Foreign Prisoners (Sri Lanka)
200

18,644

Number of Prisoners

18,000180

16,241

15,89316,000160

14,000140

12,000120

10,000

100

8,000

80

6,000

60

4,000
2,000

Number of Foreign Prisoners

20,000

40

26
9

20

2

0

0
1993

1994

Number of Prisoners

1995
Number of Foreign Prisoners

Figure 4
Number of Prisoners and Foreign Prisoners (Thailand)
250,000
205,340

200,310

Number of Prisoners

200,000

20,000164,451

150,000

15,000125,955

100,000

10,000
4,579

4,931

5,235

5,526

50,000

5,000

0

0
1997

1998

Number of Prisoners

430

1999

2000

Number of Foreign Prisoners

Number of Foreign Prisoners

25,000115TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSEREPORTS OF THE COURSE
ANNEX 2 (Drug-related Prisoners)
Table 1
Number of Drug Offenders
Belize127
12.5%(1999)

Japan
12,60529.1%(1998)

Peru
7,004
25.6%
(1999)

Sri Lanka
8,199
39.4%
(1998)

Thailand
67,473
58.6%(1999)

Table 2The Comparison of the Number of Drug Traffickers
and Drug Abusers among the Prison Population
BelizeThe number of Drug Traffickers are more than that ofnumber of Abusers
The number of Drug Traffickers
X
are almost the same as that ofnumber of Abusers
The number of Drug Traffickers are less than that ofnumber of Abusers• In Peru, drug abuse is not a crime.

Japan

Peru

Sri Lanka Thailand

X

X

X

X

Table 3
Types of Prevalent Drugs
BelizeCannabis
CocaineJapan
Amphetamines

Peru
CocaineSri Lanka
HeroinCannabis

ThailandAmphetamines
HeroinTable 4
Trends of Drug offenders
BelizeJapan
Increase
Increase
127
10,555 12,650
N.A. (1999) (1994) (1998)

Peru
Increase
4,727 7,004(1995) (1999)

Sri Lanka
Thailand
Increase
Increase
7,139 8,199 24,523 67,473(1997) (1998) (1995) (1999)

431

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 57
ANNEX 3 (Female Prisoners)
Table 1: Number
Belize88
9.2%(1999)

Japan
1,199
5.2%
(1998)

Peru
2,353
8.6%
(1999)

Sri Lanka
5,441
6.3%
(1995)

Thailand
32,72015.9%(1999)

Sri Lanka
Increase
4,270 5,441(1994) (1995)

Thailand
Increase
6,401 19,235(1996) (1999)

Table 2
TrendsBelizeIncrease
88
N.A. (1999)

Japan
Increase
1,071 1,199(1996) (1998)

Peru
Increase
1,836 2,353(1996) (1999)

For Thailand, the number of convicted prisoners is only available.

Table 3
Institutions
Country

Belize

Japan

Peru

for female prisoners

0

6

8

0

6

Prisons with separate
wing for female prisoners

1

184

62

9

115

Institutions

Sri Lanka Thailand

Table 4
Type of Offense
4.1 Belize(1999)
Type of Offense
Drug related
Robbery /Theft
Assault
Illegal Entry
OthersTotal

432

Number
20
14
9
37
0
88

%
22.8
16.0
10.2
42.0
0.0
100

115TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSEREPORTS OF THE COURSE
4.2 Japan (Convicted prisoners only)(1998)
Type of Offense
Drug related
Against property
Assault
MurderOthers
Total

Number
583
373
37
55
151
1,199

%
48.3
31.3
5.1
4.6
10.7
100

4.3 Sri Lanka (Convicted prisoners only)(1995)
Type of Offense
Drug relatedExcise Offense
Prostitution
MurderTheft
Others
Total

Number
47
203
135
5
68
65
523

%
9.0
38.8
25.8
0.1
13.0
12.3
100

Number
612
894
259
588
2,353

%
26.0
38.0
11.0
25.0
100

4.4 Peru(1999)
Type of Offense
Drug related
Against property, Assault
Murder, against life
OthersTotal

4.5 Thailand (Convicted prisoners only)(1999)
Type of Offense
Drug related
Against property
Assault
MurderOthers
Total

Number
4,604
13,314120308
889
19,235

%
23.9
69.2
0.6
1.6
4.6
100

433

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 57
REFERENCES-

Lightfoot Lynn O. Offender Substance
Abuse Pre-Release Program.
Correctional Service Canada-

Carroll, Kathleen M. Therapy Manuals
for Drug Addiction -A CognitiveBehavioral Approach.
U.S.
Department of Health and Human
Services-

Jeremy, Travis. Women Offenders:
Programming Needs and Promising
Approaches. National Institute ofJustice/ U.S. Department of Justice-Amnesty International. United Statesof America “Not Part of My Sentence”
Violations of the Human Rights of
Wo m e n i n C u s t o d y. A m n e s t y
International434