REPORTS
OF THECOURSERESOURCE MATERIALSERIES
No. 58
GROUP 1PHASE 1ANALYSIS OF CURRENT SITUATION ON ILLICIT DRUG
TRAFFICKLNG
Chairperson
Co-Chairperson
Rapporteurs
Co-Rapporteurs
Members

Advisors

Mr. Mustafa Abdullah
Mr. Ruy Gomes Silva
Mr. Kamya John
Mr. Satomi Kouno
Mr. Wang Xue Qin
Mr. Genot Hariyanto
Mr. Yoshihiko Hatanaka
Mr. Masashi Shibata
Mr. Tetsuji Tamagoshi
Prof. Chikara Satou
Prof. Hiroshi Tsutomi
Prof. Mikiko Kakihara

I. INTRODUCTION
Crime is increasing in scope, intensity
and sophistication. It threatens the safetyof citizens around the world and hampers
countries in their social, economic andcultural development. Globalization has
provided the environment for a growinginternationalization of criminal activities.
Multinational organized criminal
syndicates have significantly broadened
the range of their illegal operations andillicit drug trafficking in particular, figuresvery prominently in transnationalorganized crime (TOC). In most countries,
despite years of drug suppression andprevention efforts, the cycle of the drugtrafficking and drug abuse continues. If
allowed to remain unabated, the drug
menace will considerably destroy thequality of life of the people. The cost to theworld community due to this menace
includes not only lost billions of dollars, Iostof life and physical injuries, but also entails
substantial public corruption. The
combined effect of these adverse
consequences tends to undermine the208(Malaysia)(Brazil)(Uganda)(Japan)( China)(Indonesia)(Japan)(Japan)(Japan)(UNAFEI)(UNAFEI)(UNAFEI)

security and stability of governments
themselves.
Drug trafficking and abuse are serious
issues confronting both developing anddeveloped nations. The large consumption
and demand for drugs worldwide has givena wide opportunity for traffickers to carryout their illegal activities which give thema lucrative returns. According to 1994
report of United Nation International Drug
Control Programme (UNDCP), it isestimated that out of one trillion dollars
worldwide profits of organized crimeannually, US$500 billion comes from drugtrade. In USA alone, in 1995, theAmericans spent approximately US$57
billion on drugs including US$38 billion topurchase cocaine and US$10 billion on
heroin from overseas sources. Meanwhile
in Pakistan where average per capita
income is only about US$500 annually, theamount of consumer expenditure on heroin
alone is estimated US$1.2 billion per year.
This scenario points towards theheinousness of the situation, which is

116TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSEREPORTS OF THE COURSE
becoming worst with everyday passing.
This paper attempts to analyze thegeneral trend of the drug trafficking
worldwide which includes production,
trade and consumption of illicit drugs. It
will also address related issues such as
modus operandi, seizures and organizedmafia drug trafficking groups.
II. TYPES OF DRUG AND SOURCECOUNTRIES
Though there are several types of drugs
produced all over the world each type ofdrugs has the prominent producing areas.
Such source countries are those which have
either weak political systems or unstable
governments. Recently, the productionlevels of particular types of drugs show
fluctuation, whereas others remain
constant. According to the “Global Illicit
Drug Trend 2000 (DRAFT)” edited by
UNDCP, the situations of each type ofdrugs are as follows:
A. Opiates (Opium, Morphine andHeroin)
The well known opium poppy producing
areas are the “Golden Triangle (Myanmar,
Laos and Thailand), the “Golden Crescent”(stretching from the Pakistan Afghanistanboarder to northern part of Iran), Central
and South America such as Mexico andColombia. However, Myanmar andAfghanistan are by far the largest countriesof those.
Myanmar which used to be top ranking
country in the cultivation of opium poppy
has declined since 1999. The cultivation
went down from 130,300 kilograms in 1998
to 89,500 Idlograms in 1999. On thecontrary, the production in Afghanistan has
increased considerably by about 41%, from63,674 kilograms in 1998 to 90,983
kilograms in 1999. There was also. a
considerable shift of opium production fromSouth East to South West Asia in 1999. In
Laos, Pakistan and Thailand, thecultivation of poppy has declined. However,globally opium production has increased by
one-third in 1999 although opium poppy
cultivation on the whole decreased by
20,000 hectares.
B. Cocaine
The South American region especially
Colombia, Peru and Bolivia are the leading
cocaine producing countries in the world.
However, Columbia is still leading among
the three. In 1999 there was reported
decline in coca bush cultivation in Bolivia(43%) and Peru (24%) respectively,
resulting in lower coca leaf and potential
cocaine production. On the other hand,
20% increase in coca bush cultivation in
Colombia had been reported by the USA
Government.
Although the total world output of
cocaine declined in 1999 as a result of theabove, the UNDCP still contends that there
is no significant effect because cocaine
consumption had an overall increaseduring the last few years.
C. Cannabis
There are 120 countries having reported
illicit cultivation of cannabis all over theworld. The INTERPOL has listed Morocco,
South Africa, Nigeria, Afghanistan,
Pakistan, Mexico. Colombia and Jamaica
as the “primary” source countries forcannabis in its “Cannabis World Report
1999”.
D. Amphetamine-Type Stimulants(ATS) such as Methamphetamine,
Ecstasy, LSD etc
Generally the main ATS manufactureareas are also the main ATS consumption
areas such as East and South-East Asia,
North America and Western Europe,
reflecting the fact that transit trade is lessimportant for ATS than for other drugs

209

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 58
such as heroin or cocaine. As for Asia,
Thailand emerged as the country of largest
seizures of ATS worldwide, reflecting its
role as a major center of illicit productionof ATS in South-East Asia. In the areas of
the “Golden Triangle” where at one time
was exclusively being used for the refiningof heroin are now being used for
manufacturing of methamphetamine aswell. Myanmar has emerged as anotherimportant location for illicit
methamphetamine manufacture in theregion.
III. CONSUMPTION
The consumption of drug worldwide hasreached alarming level that if allowed tocontinue unabated, the consequences to theworld community can be more severe. In
the US for example about 13 million people(6.1% of the total population) used drug ona casual or a monthly basis in the year
1996. In 1995, there were approximately
3.3 million chronic users of cocaine and 0.5
million people addicted to heroin. Estimate
indicates that 5 million Americans have
tried methamphetamine in their life time,
an illicit drug associated with particularly
violent behavior. This therefore indicatesthat the USA has suffered a serious
problem of drug use.
Disturbing enough is the fact that othercountries are also experiencing an increasein the drug abuse. In Pakistan for example,
the number of people addicted to heroin is
estimated to be 1.52 million people in 1995.
It is estimated that 20% of total European
population is affected by drugs in one way
or another. Cocaine consumption is mostwidespread in Spain, UK, Netherlands andGermany. Switzerland and Italy also seemto have rather high level of cocaine
consumption. One recent survey in
Switzerland revealed that 2-3%of the 1545 years age-group had consumed cocaine
in 1998. Abuse of cocaine is also reported

210

to spread more widely in Australia,
Western and Southern Africa.
In South East Asia, the abuse of drug
like cannabis and heroin still remains high.
In Malaysia for example, the number ofdrug addicts recorded in 1999 is 191,097(0.9% of the total population of 22 million),out of which 64% are heroin addicts. Oflate the use of ATS like ecstasy and shabu
has gain much ground in this region.
These three types of drugs are also
widely used in Thailand Indonesia thePhilippines and Laos. Other countries like
China, India, Pakistan and Japan are also
abused such drugs. Out of the total drug
users, heroin users in China recorded 60%,
India 53.5% and Pakistan 99.7%. Whilein Brazil and Nigeria, Cocaine is more
popular.
According to UNDCP report in 1998,
Laos has the highest or second highest rateof opium abuse world wide among thepeople of 15 years of age and above. Besides
consuming, countries such as China,
Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Pakistan,Laos, India, Indonesia and Brazil are also
known to be major transit countries usedby the drug traffickers. This is because
those countries are closer to the main drug
resource regions. It is disturbing to notethat some other drug transiting countries
have also been turning into consuming
ones.
IV. MODUS OPERANDI AND
ROUTES
Illicit drug trafficking has been the mostprofitable illegal activity in the world.
According to 1999 report of the Financial
Action Task Force (FATF), between US$40-100 billion is earned from illegal drug peryear in the USA alone. The drug traffickers
have also spread their activities throughout
the world and they resort to use all sort of

116TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSEREPORTS OF THE COURSE
modus operandi to evade detection by theauthorities. Though modus operandi usedby drug traffickers differs from country tocountry, internationally detected modes ofconcealment employed are generally as
follows:(i)
Ingestion, leg casts and body wrap;(ii) Use of false bottoms of luggage,concealment in imported packages
such as electronic equipment,
foods, false cavities of furniture
etc...
(iii) C o n c e a l m e n t m s p e c i a lcompartments in vehicles andships, containers and air freights.
(iv) Delivery by courier services;
In Japan, apart from the above modus
operandi, the drug traffickers also usedmethods such as soaking cloth in drug
solution and melting drugs in whisky.
Cargo container equipped with Global
Positioning System (GPS) also being used
to ferry in large amount ofmethamphetimine. The routes are often
by air, sea and land, depending on
geographical location of the country
concerned.
In Brazil, several routes are used to both
import and export drugs but usually large
amounts are carrying by sea through someof the five Brazilian ports and by air
through international airports placed in
Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Recife,
Fortaleza and Manaus to USA/Europe. In
Japan, due to its long seacoast, it is facing
the problem of trafficking of drug in andout of the country by sea and air. While, in
Laos, China, Pakistan, India, land and airroutes are usually the choice by the drugtraffickers because of the geographicalvicinity to the Golden Triangle and theGolden Crescent.
The drug rings who are engaged in illicit
smuggling of heroin from the Golden
Triangle to USA, Australia and Europe

more often are using the Philippines,
Malaysia and Singapore as theirtransshipment points.
V. DRUG TRAFFICKING MAFIA
Due to the large profits gained fromtrafficking, big criminal organizations are
deeply involved in drug trafficking in theworld, from smuggling to illegal sales up
t o e n d u s e r. J a p a n e s e c r i m i n a lorganization called “Boryokudan” continue
to be deeply involved in illicit drugtrafficking, especially methamphetamines/
amphetamine-type stimulants. The
Boryokudan groups have conspired withforeign Mafia such as Chinese Mafia,
Russian Mafia, Taiwan Mafia, Cocaine
Cartel and so forth. Over 500 kg
methamphetamines were confiscated in
October 1999 along shoreline of Japan and
9 Chinese/Taiwanese and a Japanese werearrested. In this particular case, theBoryokudan groups were involved inplotting drug trafficking from the Korean
Peninsular into Japan with the conspiracy
of a known criminal organization based in
Hong Kong. In recent year, drug-related
offences in Japan involving Iranianorganized drug trafficking groups arerising sharply. Arrests have been made on
charges of possessing illicit drugs forcommercial purposes and/or transiting
them. The Boryokudan groups arereported to have connection with thembehind the scenes.
The Hong Kong-based Triad is a criminalgroup which has come into being as anoffshoot of China’s traditional secretsociety. Triad activities are carried out
mainly within its territory and/or Triadcontrol loose organization in Mainland
China to operate drug trafficking.
However, Triads have become a matter ofconcern not only in Hong Kong, but also inother places where there is a sizable
Chinese community all over the world.

211

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 58
Dawood Ibrahim group is the mostdreaded mafia in India with countrywide
networks and foreign connections. Dawood
Ibrahim has stationed himself in Dubai
since 1995 and has indulged in drugtrafficking in conspiracy with his family
who are pretending to be transacting
legitimate business.
The Colombian Cocaine Cartels are still
the main drug trafficking mafia in South
Anlerican States. However, Nigerian and
Italian groups began to rise in the field of
drug trafficking in Brazil.
Myanmar’s ethnic militia organizationsuch as Kachin Independent Army (KIA),New Democratic Army (NDA), Wa Army
(WA) and Shan Independent Army (SIA)
are carrying out drug trafficking in theGolden Triangle where it extends over
Myanmar, Laos Thailand and China. In
Colombia, it is widely known that the Force
Armed Revolution Columbia (FARC) iscontrolling territorial position and using it
for drug related activities.
VI. DRUG SEIZURES
The data on seizure of illicit drugs is anavailable indicator for underlying
production, trafficking and consumption
trends. The United Nations have compiled
a comparative list of countries regarding
seizure figures alone with the several top
ranking countries in respect of different
drugs.(See Appendix D). As for opium,among 18 countries in 1998, 7 were locatedin Asia region. As for heroin, 6 counties
were located in Asia region. Almost 18
countries reported high seizure of cocaine
were located in the American region. Thisdata shows that some countries in andaround illicit production areas known as
the Golden Triangle and the Golden
Crescent and cocaine production area areexposed to the menace of drug trafficking.
Furthermore, transit countries have212

developed into consumption countries.
In view of the global situation, it ispointed out that ATS has the potential to
become a major drug problem of thetwenty-first century. In fact, the moststriking feature in Asia region was theincreasing level of trafficking in countries
of East and South Asia. While this area
accounted for just 22% of global seizure of
ATS in 1990, its share in global seizure
almost doubled to reach 41% in 1998,
reflecting increasing levels of production,
trafficking and consumption in the region.
The other region with similar growth rates
was Western Europe. ATS seizure inWestern Europe rose from 20% of global
seizure in 1990 to 38% in 1998. ATS seizure
in North America accounted for 18% of
global ATS seizure in 1998, up from 14%
in 1990. Among the 30 countries thatreported the highest seizure, 11 werelocated in South-East Asia, 11 in Western
Europe and 3 in North America. The sevencountries i.e. United Kingdom, Thailand,
USA, China, Netherlands, the Philippines
and Japan, accounted for more than 80%
of global ATS seizure. Thailand emerged
as the country reporting the largest ATS
seizure worldwide, reflecting its role as amajor center of illicit production in SouthEast Asia. From 1997 to 1998 ATS seizurerose in Thailand by 30%, in China by 20%
and tripled in Japan. Furthermore, in
1999, 1.9 tons of methamphetamin wasseized in Japan, which was the highest
amount in the past year. Seizure in
Myanmar tripled, also exceeding those of
the Philippines, and indirectly reflecting
the increasing role of Myanmar as anotherimportant location for illicit
methamphetamine manufacture in theregion.
Several factors contributed to the surgein ATS abuse. On the supply side.
economic incentive were powerful. In somecountries, clandestine manufacture of

116TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSEREPORTS OF THE COURSE
methamphetamine could lead to profit ofnearly 3,000 percent of the cost of raw
materials. Such profitability derived fromthe following: the accessibility andabundance of precursors, which suggested
that clandestine manufacture could be
carried out by non-specialist and close to
the point of final consumption: fewer stages
in the chain of distribution with the
involvement of fewer individual; andshorter distances from production area toconsumption area, reducing the scope for
effective interdiction. In addition, detailed
information on the manufacture of ATS
were widely available to the public at large
through the Internet and other suchnetwork.

menace if we are to have a safer worldcommunity.

VII. CONCLUSION
There is no doubt that the foregoinganalysis indicates a very big threat that
drug pose to the world economies andcountries. The problem is even morecompounded by the existence of strongorganized criminal groups and mafia thatengaged in this trade, scattered around theworld and earning big amount of moneythat makes their financial position stronger
than economies of some independent
states, yet their trade negatively affectworld economies and destroys right ofindividual.
The analysis further shows that formerlytransit countries are progressively
graduating into consuming countries. The
modus operandi of transporting these drug
is changing day after day both in scope andcomplexity that it often requires devising
new method of detection. The figures ofseized drugs are so overwhelming thatindicates that much more drug may be
produced, trafficked and abused without hedetection of law enforcement, agencies. It
is therefore prudent that an international
consorted effort is required to fight this213

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 58
Appendix A
DRUG SEIZURES
Opium
China
India
Indonesia
Japan
Laos
Malaysia
Pakistan
Tanzania
Thailand

(Kg)
1993
3,354
2,908
12.8
369
11.5
4,500
7u
2,530

1994
1,178
2,256
2.6
33.7
293
69.0
14,663
0.15
606

1995
1,110
1,349
0.03
32.8
695
155.1
109,420
0.13
927

1996
l,745
2,876
0.03
31.1
199
2.6
7,423
No Report
381

1997
1,880
3,316
39.0
200
150
7,300
1,150

HeroinBrazilChina
India
Indonesia
Japan
Laos
Malaysia
Nigeria
Pakistan
Philipine
Tanzania
Thailand
Uganda(Kg)
1993
No Report
4,459
1,071
41.2
15.2
6.0
216
288
4,000
17.4
1.9
2,537
1.3

1994
12.8
4,086
1,011
42.8
10.2
44.9
212
91.6
6,444
23.0
1.3
1,295
2.8

1995
0.006
2,375
1,681
1.7
7.7
49.7
119
30.3
10,760
2.8
518
1.5

1996
4,347
1,257
1.7
3.9
16.2
241
19.4
5,872
1.5
No Report
598
2.7

1997
5,477
1,332
20.4
5.9
72.3
276
10.5
6,156
30.0
4.8
323
No Report

Cocaine
1993
Brazil
6,608
India
Indonesia Japan
25.9
Nigeria
1,309
Philippine 8.1
Tanzania 2.2
Thailand 3.2

214

1998
1,215
2,031
l 9.8
No Report
32.7
5,202
1,631

1998
0.95
7,358
655
27.8
3.9
No Report
289
5.8
3,363
1.7
2.7
508
1.3
(Kg)

1994
12,028
1.6
4.4
19.9
90.8
9.4
No Report

1995
5,815
40.0
0.1
36.6
15.2
1.4
No Report

1996
4,070
3.0
0.4
37.1
6.2
1.6
No Report
No Report

1997
4,309
24.0
3.3
25.5
31.9
1.0
0.2
2.4

1998
6,560
1.0
4.7
20.8
9.3
1.1
3.6

116TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSEREPORTS OF THE COURSE
Cannabis Herb

(Kg)

1993
1994
1995
1996
BrazilNo Report 18,836
11,731
22,430China
No Report No Report 466
4,876
Fiji
No Report 5.0
16.9
6.9
India
94,964
187,896
12,87362,992Indonesia 5,785
1,331
444
444
Japan
612
665
208
173
Laos
3,217
115
5,197
l,896
Malasia
962
717
15.9
1,425
Nigeria
7,461
19,732
15,25818,600
Pakistan No Report 20,087
No Report No Report
Philippine 4,638
10,8442,213
2,045
Tanzania 4,012
No Report
Thailand 31,484
8,890
19,88016,720UgandaNo Report 7,910
No Report 259
Papua New Guinea has only a few drug cases.

1997
31,8282,408
No Report
80,866
716
155
7,026
3,889
15,905
No Report
2,227
82,5399,142
No Report

Cannabis Resin

(Kg)

1993
1994
BrazilNo Report 1.4
India
7,979
Indonesia Japan
29.7
96.9
Malasia
No Report No Report
Pakistan 189,000
189,252
Philippine 3.8
126.0
Tanzania Thailand No Report 6,925
UgandaNo Report No Report

1995
6.3
3,629
0.5
130.7
965
357,690
5.8
No Report
No Report

1996
8.5
6,520
2.1
145.1
No Report
192,837
0.03
No report
No report

1997
12.1
3,281
197.4
107,000
0.28
42.2
45.2
No Report

Stimulants
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
Nigeria
Philipine
Thailand

1998
28,982
5.079
No Report
68,221l,071
120
No Report
l,781
16,170
No Report
No Report
4,618
5,582
5,530

1998
10, 106
0.7
214.6
69,909No Report
20.6
25

(Kg)
1993
96.9
No Report
1.8
160.7
1,289.7

1994
25u
315
71,841u
94.3
114.6
812

1995
89.2
45.0
207.6
561

1996
0.33
652.2
No Report
10.6
767.5
442

1997
5.6
173
2.0
309.5
694.5
2,135.9

1998
549.7
No Report
77.8
2,827.9215