South Pacific Studies Vol.42, No.1, 2 2021-2022

Use of Capsicum Peppers in the Karimunjawa Islands,
Central Java, Indonesia
Yamamoto Sota1*, Djarwaningsih Tutie2 and Wiriadinata Harry2

1: International Center for Island Studies, Kagoshima University, Korimoto 1-21-24,
Kagoshima, 890-8580 Japan
2: Research Center for Biology, Research Organization for Life Sciences, National Researchand Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong, West Java, 16911 Indonesia*Corresponding author: sotayama@cpi.kagoshima-u.ac.jp

Abstract
We conducted a field survey of Capsicum peppers in the Karimunjawa Islands, Central Java,
Indonesia, to investigate the local nomenclature for, and distribution and usage of, Capsicum peppers.
There were two species in the Karimunjawa Islands: C. annuum and C. frutescens. The general namefor Capsicum peppers is lombok for Javanese, ladang, cabe, or cabe-cabe for Buginese, and cabih for
Madurese. Fresh and dried fruit and fruit soaked in sweet soy sauce are used as spices and condiments.
Some people use Capsicum leaves as a vegetable. Medicinally, leaves are applied to boils and roots areused to treat stomach-ache. The fruit are used as offerings in Javanese rituals and to stop rain. It is also
widely believed that women should not eat any (or too many) fruit while pregnant or breastfeeding.
Key words:

Capsicum frutescens, ethnobotany, leaves as a vegetable, local nomenclature, medicinaluse, rituals――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
Received: 18 November, 2021
Accepted: 3 January, 2022

20South Pacific Studies Vol.42, No.1, 2 2021-2022

Introduction
Approximately 35 species of Capsicum peppers are currently recognized (Carrizo
García et al. 2016). They are native to tropical and temperate regions of the Americas(Eshbaugh 1993) and are thought to have been introduced to Europe in 1493 by Columbus(Boswell 1949) and to Southeast Asia, via Africa and India, in the sixteenth century(Andrews 1995, Sturtevant 1885). Capsicum peppers are an essential spice/condiment indaily meals and very important economically in Indonesia, with 2,588,633 tons of “chilies
and peppers, green” produced in 2019, making Indonesia the fourth largest producer ofCapsicum peppers globally (FAO 2019).
In Southeast Asia, C. annuum and C. frutescens are primarily used as food, while the
distributions of other species were unknown until recently. Yamamoto et al. (2013, 2016)
revealed that C. pubescens, which originated at mid-elevations in Bolivia (Eshbaugh1975), is cultivated in highland areas on Java, Sumatra, and Sulawesi islands. Moreover,Yamamoto et al. (2014) found that C. chinense, which was domesticated in the lowlands
east of the Andes Mountains (Pickersgill 1969), is distributed widely in Indonesia, withseveral morphologically different fruit types on Java, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi islands.
Outside the Americas, Indonesia is unique in having four domesticated species: C. annuum,
C. frutescens, C. pubescens, and C. chinense.
Despite the importance of Capsicum peppers, few studies have examined the local
nomenclature for, and use and distribution of, Capsicum peppers in Indonesia, especiallyon remote islands. Recently, Yamamoto and Girsang (2021) reported a detailed study ofCapsicum peppers on the islands of Maluku Province, in eastern Indonesia. Here, we reportan ethnobotanical survey of Capsicum peppers in the Karimunjawa Islands, Central Java,
which is geographically distant from Maluku Province, to investigate the distribution of
Capsicum peppers and compare the local nomenclature and usage with those in Maluku
Province and other Asia-Pacific areas to understand relationships between people in the
Karimunjawa Islands and Capsicum peppers.

Study Site and Data Collection
Fieldwork was conducted in June 2011 on the islands of Karimunjawa, Kemujan,
Parang, Nyamuk, and Genting, the Karimunjawa Islands, Central Java, Indonesia (Fig. 1).
This consisted of interviews and visual observations of Capsicum peppers in local markets,
home gardens, and fields. Twenty-six people (15 males and 11 females; 18 Javanese, five
Buginese, and three Madurese) were interviewed regarding the local nomenclature for,and use of, Capsicum peppers, the perceptions of pungent Capsicum peppers, knowledgeof weedy forms of Capsicum peppers, bird behavior toward Capsicum fruit, use as acondiment, vegetable, or medicine, and rituals and popular beliefs related to this genus. Theinterviewees ranged in age from 17 to 90 (median 52.5) years.

Yamamoto et al.: Use of Capsicum Peppers in the Karimunjawa Islands, Central Java, Indonesia

Jakarta0Indonesia
1000km■21■

Jepara●●Parang Island

Kemujan Island
●
●
●
●●●
●
●
●
●
●

●

Nyamuk Island●●

GentingIsland●●●The Karimunjawa Islands
0
10km

●
●

Karimunjawa
IslandFig. 1. The study sites (●) in the Karimunjawa Islands, Central Java, Indonesia.

Results and Discussion
Local nomenclature for Capsicum peppers and perceptions of pungent peppers
The survey indicated that C. annuum and C. frutescens are cultivated and used in
the Karimunjawa Islands, while C. pubescens and C. chinense are not. General names for
Capsicum peppers in the Karimunjawa Islands are lombok in Javanese, ladang, cabe, orcabe-cabe in Buginese, and cabih in Madurese (Table 1). Some Buginese used ladang for C.
frutescens and cabe for C. annuum.
Among the 26 interviewees, 12 recognized two kinds of pungent Capsicum pepper,
seven recognized three kinds, six recognized four kinds, and one recognized five kinds (Table2). Local terms such as keriting, which means curly (fruit length 10-15 cm, fruit width ±1
cm; Fig. 2A), besar, which means big (fruit length 10-15 cm, fruit width 1.5-2 cm), andpanjang, which means long (similar to the besar type), are commonly used to describe C.
annuum fruit in the Karimunjawa Islands (Table 1). These are well-known terms throughout
Indonesia. C. frutescens fruit are also described using lete, baecu, cilik, or rawit, whichmeans small, and puteh or putih, which means white (especially for cultivars with fruit thatare greenish-yellow when immature).
Eight Javanese said that lombok caplak (= louse/fleas), lombok jemprit, or lombok
murutu, which is a C. frutescens cultivar with very small fruit that are green when immature,
was present once, but they had not seen any during the 1960s to 1980s depending on the22South Pacific Studies Vol.42, No.1, 2 2021-2022

Table 1. Local names for Capsicum peppers in the Karimunjawa Islands, Central Java, Indonesia.
Mainly C. frutescens
Mainly C. annuum

Immature fruit color
Green

Greenish-yellow

cabe Arab (=Arab people)

cabe-cabe mereni

cabih petak

cabe hijau (=green)

cabih biru (=blue)

ladang puteh (=white)cabe hitam (=black)cabih lete (=small)lombok cempluk

cabe keriting (=curly)

cabih rajeh (=big)lombok cilik

cabe-cabe meraya

ladang baecu (=small)lombok hibrida (=hybrid)ladang cala' (=red)ladang merica

lombok nyonya (=madam/lady)

ladang jawa (=Java I. or Javanese)

lombok caplak (=louse/fleas) lombok petak

ladang prigi

lombok cilik (=small)lombok plonto

lombok ageng

lombok hijau

lombok puteh

lombok besar (=big)lombok hijau cilik

lombok putih (=white)

lombok bodong (=a protruding navel) lombok ijo

lombok rawit

lombok dowo (gede [=big])

lombok jemprit

lombok rawit putih

lombok grompiong

lombok merutu

lombok retak

lombok hijau besar

lombok rawit (=fine/small)lombok ijo (=green)

lombok rawit hijau

lombok jamgan
lombok keriting
lombok merah (=red)
lombok merica
lombok panjang (=long)
lombok rawit hijau
lombok sayur (=vegetable)

Table 2. Perceptions of pungent Capsicum peppers in the Karimunjawa Islands, Central Java, Indonesia.
How many kinds ofpungent Capsicum
peppers do you know?
2

3

4

5 Total

12 7

6

1

*1

26

Questions for 26 interviewees
Which fruit is hotter?
C. f.*1
23[GR:11, GY:4, B:8]*2

Which fruit smells better?

C. a.*1 S*1
30

Which fruit do you
prefer to eat?

C. f.

C. a. S

C. f.

C. a. S21
[GR:11, GY:4, B:6]2

22
[GR:11, GY:4, B:7]

2

3

2

: C.f.: C. frutescens, C.a.: C. annuum, and S: same.
[]*2: GR: fruit (fruit length: 1-5 cm) with green immature fruit color, GY: fruit (fruit length: 2-5 cm) with greenishyellow immature fruit color, and B: both of GR and GY.

Yamamoto et al.: Use of Capsicum Peppers in the Karimunjawa Islands, Central Java, Indonesia

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

Fig. 2. Capsicum peppers and their use in the Karimunjawa Islands, Central Java, Indonesia.
Cultivars of C. annuum (A, keriting type) and C. frutescens [fruit that are (B) green and (C) aregreenish-yellow when immature]. Fish soup called pindang serani (D) and a spicy paste calledsambal (E). Ritual offerings: sego [nasi] bucet (F); offerings put on the ground at an intersection
for tolak bala [to ward off misfortune] (G); and offerings for sunatan [circumcision] (H).

23

24

South Pacific Studies Vol.42, No.1, 2 2021-2022

interviewee. Some people also stated that lombok jemprit/lombok chaplak grew naturally inthe forest. Two Buginese and two Madurese referred to the same fruit as ladang merica orladang baecu in Buginese and cabih lete in Madurese. A 55-year old Madura man said that
all the cultivars currently on the Karimunjawa Islands had been introduced from Jepara on
Java Island (approximately 80 km to the southeast; ferries operate between Karimunjawa
Island and Jepara).
The 26 interviewees were asked to comment on each pepper’s spiciness and smell,
and which pepper they preferred (Table 2). Overall, 11 considered a C. frutescens cultivar
with green immature fruit (“GR” type hereafter; Fig. 2B) to be hotter, four favored a C.
frutescens cultivar with greenish-yellow immature fruit (“GY” type hereafter; Fig. 2C), eight
just preferred “small” fruit, i.e., they favored both the GR and GY types (“B” hereafter),and three favored C. annuum. Many people remarked that smaller fruit were much hotter
and those who preferred spicy flavors tended to prefer the GR type, whereas others tended
to prefer the GY type or C. annuum cultivars. Some people nostalgically said that lombok
chaplak (lombok jemprit, ladang merica, cabih lete, etc.) was the hottest cultivar. Regarding
aroma, 21 people thought that C. frutescens smelled better (GR 11, GY 4, and B 6), twothought that C. annuum smelled better, and three thought that there was no difference inaroma between the two species. As for eating preferences, 22 respondents preferred C.
frutescens (GR 11, GY 4, and B 7), two preferred C. annuum, and two had no preference.
These perceptions and preferences are very similar to those reported from Maluku Province,
Indonesia (Yamamoto and Girsang 2021), the Batanes Islands, Philippines (Yamamoto2010b), the Federated States of Micronesia (Yamamoto 2011, 2012, 2013, 2021), andCambodia (Yamamoto and Matsumoto 2008).
Weedy forms of Capsicum peppers and bird behavior toward Capsicum fruit
Weedy forms of Capsicum peppers, especially those of C. frutescens, are often foundalong forest edges, in fields or orchards, and along roadsides in the Asia-Pacific region.
Of the 26 interviewees, 16 had seen weedy forms of Capsicum peppers (Table 3), alower percentage (61.5%) than in Maluku Province, Indonesia (79.5%; Yamamoto andGirsang 2021), the Batanes Islands, Philippines (94.1%; Yamamoto 2010b), and Yap(100%; Yamamoto 2021), Chuuk (90.8%; Yamamoto 2012), Pohnpei (100%; Yamamoto

Table 3. Perceptions of weedy forms of Capsicum peppers in the Karimunjawa Islands, Central Java,
Indonesia.
Do you know weedy forms of
Capsicum peppers?

*1

Do you have Capsicum plants inyour home garden?

How did you get the plants?*2

Yes

No

Yes

No

Seeds or plantsfrom villagers

16*1

10

23

3

23

Weedy
forms*30: probably C. frutescens.
: questions for 23 interviewees who had Capsicum plants in their home gardens.
*3: including transplantation of weedy forms growing in the villages or fields to their home gardens.
*2

Yamamoto et al.: Use of Capsicum Peppers in the Karimunjawa Islands, Central Java, Indonesia

25

Table 4. Bird behavior toward Capsicum fruit in the Karimunjawa Islands, Central Java, Indonesia.
Do you know birds eat
Capsicum fruit?
Yes

No

21

5

What kinds of birds eat its fruit?*1
Trucukan*2

Commondomestic fowl

Betet*2

Jalak*2

Others

16

3

3

2

2

*1

: questions for 21 interviewees who knew birds eat Capsicum fruit. Multiple answers allowed.
: trucukan would belong to Pycnonotidae, betet would belong to Psittaculidae, and jalak would
belong to Sturnidae.
*22011), and Kosrae states (81.8%; Yamamoto 2013) of the Federated States of Micronesia,
and Cambodia (91.0%; Yamamoto and Matsumoto 2008). Of the 23 interviewees whogrew Capsicum in their home gardens, all started seedlings from available fruit themselves
or obtained seeds (or plants) from other villagers or markets in Jepara; nobody transplanted
weedy forms of Capsicum peppers growing in the villages or fields to their home gardens. It
is unclear why the above percentages are very low and no one transplanted weedy forms of
Capsicum to their home gardens, but a possible reason is related to the disappearance of thecultivar lombok chaplak, which once grew naturally in the forest.
More than 80% of the interviewees knew that birds eat Capsicum fruit or haveobserved such behavior (Table 4). Birds eating Capsicum fruits included trucukan (would
belong to Pycnonotidae), common domestic fowl, betet (would belong to Psittaculidae),jalak (would belong to Sturnidae), jangkrik, and peking. These birds are well-known
dispersers of Capsicum seeds in the Asia-Pacific region: Hypsipetes (synonym Microscelis)
spp. (in Pycnonotidae) in the Batanes Islands, Philippines (Yamamoto 2010b), and Japan(Yamamoto 2010a); Aplonis spp. (in Sturnidae) in Maluku Province, Indonesia (Yamamoto
and Girsang 2021), and the Federated States of Micronesia (Yamamoto 2011, 2012, 2013,2021); and common domestic fowl in all regions mentioned above.
Use of Capsicum peppers
Fresh, dried, or preserved fruits as spices and condiments
Fresh Capsicum fruit are added to many kinds of dish (e.g., lalapan, a vegetable dishwith a spicy sauce and ikan pindang, a fish soup; Fig. 2D) to make them spicy. People
who prefer spicy flavors like to bite fresh fruit when they eat rice and other dishes. They
also consume a spicy paste called sambal that is made by combining Capsicum fruit withkemiri (candle nuts), garlic, shallots, tomato, terasi (a fish or shrimp paste), sugar, and otheringredients (Fig. 2E).
Twelve of the 26 interviewees dried Capsicum fruit in several ways: eight steamed
fresh fruit, dried it in the sun, and then kept it in bottles; three dried fresh fruit in the sun
and kept it in bottles or plastic bags; and one poured hot water on fresh fruit, dried it in thesun, and kept it in bottles. One respondent also soaked fresh fruit in kecap manis (sweet soy
sauce). Dried/preserved Capsicum fruit can be used for at least 3 months.

26South Pacific Studies Vol.42, No.1, 2 2021-2022

Table 5. Uses of the leaves of Capsicum peppers (mainly C. frutescens) in the Karimunjawa Islands,
Central Java, Indonesia.
Uses of the leaves of Capsicum peppers as a vegetable

Frequency of use*1

Yes

No

Total

Several times per
month

9

17

26

4

A few times per
year
5

*1

: questions for 9 interviewees who eat leaves of Capsicum peppers.

Use of Capsicum leaves (mainly those of C. frutescens)
Capsicum leaves, especially those of C. frutescens, are used in soups called sayur
bening or sayur kunci in the Karimunjawa Islands. However, only 9 of the 26 interviewees
still used Capsicum leaves as food (Table 5). Far fewer people (34.6%) eat Capsicum leaves
in the Karimunjawa Islands than in the Batanes Islands, Philippines (89.7%; Yamamoto2010b), Yap (100%; Yamamoto 2021), Chuuk (64.5%; Yamamoto 2012), Pohnpei (81.3%;
Yamamoto 2011), and Kosrae states (77.3%; Yamamoto 2013) of the Federated States ofMicronesia, and Cambodia (95.1%; Yamamoto and Matsumoto 2008). The frequency ofleaf use was also much lower than in the countries and areas mentioned above. Yamamoto(2009) reported that the indigenous peoples of Taiwan used to add C. frutescens leaves togruel or soups as a vegetable, but today the leaves are rarely used because other vegetables
can be bought in markets.
Only 19.2% of the population of Maluku Province, Indonesia, still eat Capsicum
leaves, and the frequency of leaf consumption was also low (Yamamoto and Girsang2021), which is consistent with our results. C. frutescens leaves are sometimes sold in local
markets in Cambodia and the Batanes Islands, but they were not observed in local markets
in the Karimunjawa Islands or on islands in Maluku Province. It is not clear why few
people use Capsicum leaves as food; the frequency of leaf consumption was also low in the
Karimunjawa Islands.
Medicinal, ritual, and other uses of Capsicum peppers
A 55-year old Madura male said that Capsicum leaves are used to treat bisul (boils) bygrinding Capsicum leaves and turmeric and applying the mixture to boils. The medicinal
usage of Capsicum leaves for boils is well known in many parts of the Pacific region,
including Maluku Province, Indonesia (Yamamoto and Girsang 2021), Pohnpei and Kosrae
states of the Federated States of Micronesia (Yamamoto 2011, 2013), Tonga (Whistler
1992b), Samoa (Uhe 1974), the Cook Islands, and Tahiti (Whistler 1992a). A 46-year old
Buginese male reported that roots of Capsicum pepper, Imperata cylindrica, Cocos nucifera,
and Cymbopogon nardus are pounded together, added to hot water, and strained and theliquid is taken for stomach-ache.

Yamamoto et al.: Use of Capsicum Peppers in the Karimunjawa Islands, Central Java, Indonesia

27

Offerings (e.g., sego [nasi] bucet or nasi barikan; Fig. 2F) including Capsicum fruit
were used for tolak bala (warding off misfortune) in Javanese marriage rituals, krayanan(childbirth), among-among (once a month for a baby from childbirth to 18 months), puputan(when a baby’s umbilical cord drops off), selapanan (when a baby is 35 days old), sunatan(circumcision), jumat wage (joint Fridays in the 5-day [Java Calendar] and 5-day [Gregorian
Calendar] weeks, which recur every 35 days). Two Madurese interviewees had alreadyadapted to these Javanese rituals.
A 28-year-old Javanese woman mentioned that Capsicum fruit, shallots, and turmericattached to the tips of a broom are put under a baby’s bed for tolak bala until the baby is
35 days old. A 50-year-old Javanese woman said that Capsicum fruit attached to the tip ofa broom is put on the ground with the tips facing up to stop or prevent rain. A 46-year-old
Buginese man reported that one would be stronger in battle after consuming many Capsicum
fruits. Ten respondents stated that women should not eat any (or too many) Capsicum fruit
while pregnant or breastfeeding. One respondent reported that eating of Capsicum seeds
would cause appendicitis.

Conclusion
Capsicum peppers are called lombok in Javanese, ladang, cabe, or cabe-cabe in
Buginese, and cabih in Madurese; two species are used in the Karimunjawa Islands, C.
annuum and C. frutescens. The perceptions of, and preferences for, pungent Capsicum
peppers in the Karimunjawa Islands are similar to those in other parts of Indonesia andthe Pacific islands. Few people use Capsicum leaves as food, and the frequency of leaf
consumption was also low compared to previous studies in the Asia-Pacific region.
However, it is unclear whether this was due to modernization or because using Capsicum
leaves as a vegetable is not popular in Indonesia. Few studies have examined the use of
Capsicum leaf and root in the Asia-Pacific region because studies of Capsicum fruit usuallyfocus on its economic importance. Additional ethnobotanical research, including studiesof the use of leaves as food and plant parts as local medicines and for rituals, are needed
to elucidate how Capsicum peppers have been integrated into cultures in the Asia-Pacificregion.

Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to all the interviewees in the Karimunjawa Islands, Central Java,
Indonesia, for their great hospitality, kindness, and openness. We are also grateful to theIndonesian government, State Ministry of Research and Technology (RISTEK; Research
Permit Number: 0112/SIP/FRP/V/2011), and the local government staff on each island
for helping us with the study. This work was partly supported by the Japan Society for the
Promotion of Science (Project code: No. 18H03446).

28South Pacific Studies Vol.42, No.1, 2 2021-2022

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