Religion and Medicine in Mazdaznan
Distinction without Differentiation
Bernadette Bigalke

If Johannes Itten, the early Bauhaus teacher, had not been a staunchadherent of Mazdaznan, a very small religious group, perhaps only
emic historiographies of it would exist in Germany today.1 Within research on the cultural history of the so-called life reform movements(Lebensreform) and the growing body-culture movement around
1900, it became a fringe topic, treated both as an exotic subject andas an ideologically suspect case.2
For scholars of religion, Mazdaznan is of considerable interest since
its diverse teachings combine a variety of religious and scientific currents. Its authoritative texts contain (neo-) Zoroastrian3 and Christian
1

2

3

Paul Citroen, “Mazdaznan am Bauhaus,” in Bauhaus und Bauhäusler: Bekenntnisse und Erinnerungen, ed. Eckhard Neumann (Bern: Hallwag, 1971); Ludger Busch,“Das Bauhaus und Mazdaznan,” in Das frühe Bauhaus und Johannes Itten, ed. Rolf
Bothe et al. (Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje, 1994); Peter Schmitt, “Johannes Itten und derAryana-Bund in Herrliberg,” in Johannes Itten und die Moderne: Beiträge eines wissenschaftlichen Symposions, ed. Christa Lichtenstern (Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje, 2003);
Peter Schmitt, “Teppich, Ornament und esoterische Symbolik bei Johannes Itten,”in Das Bauhaus und die Esoterik, ed. Christoph Wagner (Bielefeld: Kerber, 2005);
Christoph Wagner, “Zwischen Lebensreform und Esoterik: Johannes Ittens Weg ans
Bauhaus in Weimar,” in Das Bauhaus und die Esoterik, ed. Wagener.
For scholarly discussion on race theories that were developed in esoteric groups
and life reform circles around 1900, see Ulrich Linse, “Mazdaznan – die Rassenreligion vom arischen Friedensreich,” in Völkische Religion und Krisen der Moderne: Entwürfe „arteigener“ Glaubenssysteme seit der Jahrhundertwende, ed. Stefanie
von Schnurbein and Justus Ulbricht (Würzburg: Königshausen und Neumann,
2001); Helmut Zander, “Sozialdarwinistische Rassentheorien aus dem okkulten
Untergrund des Kaiserreichs,” in Handbuch zur völkischen Bewegung 1871-1918,
ed. Uwe Puschner, Walter Schmitz, and Justus Ulbricht (München: Saur, 1996);
Peter Staudenmaier, “Occultism, Race and Politics in German-speaking Europe,
1880–1940: A Survey of the Historical Literature,” European History Quarterly 39,
no. 1 (2009); Peter Staudenmaier, “Race and Redemption: Racial and Ethnic Evolution in Rudolf Steiner’s Anthroposophy,” Nova Religio 11, no. 3 (2008).
Michael Stausberg, Die Religion Zarathustras: Geschichte – Gegenwart – Rituale.
Vol. 2 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2002); Michael Stausberg, “Para-Zoroastrianisms:
Memetic transmissions and appropriations,” in Parsis in India and the diaspora,ed. John Hinnels and Alan Williams (London: Routledge, 2007).
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1Companion to the Study of Secularity – Bernadette Bigalke: Religion and Medicine in Mazdaznan

Central to Mazdaznan:
combination of religious
narratives and ‘medical’practices

Mazdaznan influenced
by American bodyculture movement

narratives, as well as the most recent findings of medicine and biology.
Furthermore, Mazdaznan’s teachings preach an ascetic lifestyle in a
Weberian sense: they broach issues like a special diet (fasting and vegetarianism), (intestinal) physiological hygiene, breathing techniques asprophylactic and therapeutic methods, eugenic, sexual and maternal
practices (‘prenatal education’), and musical therapy. All these practices
aimed at mental and physical perfection since Mazdaznan wanted tocreate a ‘new man’ as part of a ‘new human race’ with expanded mental
capacities and transformed bodies.4
With this peculiar combination of religious narratives and allegedly science-based bodily practices, Mazdaznan is a fascinating caseillustrating the existence and acceptance of macro-level conceptual
distinctions – particularly between religious and scientific knowledge – paralleled by their complete irrelevance in terms of structuraldifferentiations at the micro-level.
Historical Context
To understand Mazdaznan, some knowledge of the wider American
cultural and religious context is required. Firstly, it should be notedthat Mazdaznan is clearly influenced by the American body-culture
movement which emerged in the decades around 1900.5 Secondly,
the development and establishment of Mazdaznan was most likely
influenced by the field of healthcare and contemporary health enterprises. An increasingly institutionalised therapeutic landscape for theupper class had developed on the East Coast at that time, of which
the sanatorium of John Harvey Kellogg in Battle Creek, Michigan, isa prominent example. The range of preventive practices and therapies offered in this sanatorium were similar to those that Mazdaznan
demanded from its followers. In his “sanitarium” – as he preferred to452

Bernadett Bigalke, Lebensreform und Esoterik um 1900: Die Leipziger alternativ-religiöse Szene am Beispiel der Internationalen Theosophischen Verbrüderung(Würzburg: Ergon, 2016); Severine Desponds, “Eugenik und die Konstruktion
der weiblichen Übernatur: Eine Fallstudie über die Mazdaznan-Bewegung inden Vierzigerjahren,” in Handbuch Gender und Religion, ed. Anna-Katharina
Höpflinger, Anna Jeffers, and Daria Pezzoli-Oligiati (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck &Ruprecht, 2008); Ramona Jelinek-Menke, “Ein solches Kind ist ein wahrer Erlöser: Eugenik und die Konstruktion menschlicher Normalität bei Mazdaznan,”
Zeitschrift für junge Religionswissenschaft 8 (2013).
Ruth Marie Griffith, Born Again Bodies: Flesh and Spirit in American Christianity(Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2004).

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Companion to the Study of Secularity – Bernadette Bigalke: Religion and Medicine in Mazdaznan

call it – Kellogg placed great emphasis on a vegetarian diet, on breathing and laughing therapy and on regular colon hygiene for his patients.
The sanatorium in Battle Creek was, in its early years, an enterprise
under the tutelage of the Seventh Day Adventists.6 Thirdly, public discourse on religion in the USA changed deeply at this time. Impetus forthat change was also added by an interreligious meeting to enhance
the global dialogue on faiths during the World’s Columbian Expositionin Chicago in 1893, organised by liberal Christians. The audience wasmesmerised by the representative of Theravada Buddhism, Anagarika
Dharmapala, and the representative of Hinduism, Swami Vivekananda.
Both were eloquent and successful as teachers bringing religious andphilosophical wisdom from ‘the East’. Given the extensive media coverage of the event, a wider public sought more of these sorts of religious experts. Since then, the character of the ‘guru’ from Asia with an
all-encompassing teaching and exotic outfit was instilled in the minds
of many US citizens. And many ‘Asian Masters’ would follow in thecourse of the 20th century.7
Zooming in on the religious field in the US, it is plausible toplace Mazdaznan within the spectrum of the religious phenomenon
that came to be known as New Thought religion.8 Groups placed
under this banner shared certain features in terms of both content and678Mazdaznan as New
Thought religion

Albert Wirz, Die Moral auf dem Teller, dargestellt am Leben und Werk von Max
Bircher-Benner und John Harvey Kellogg, zwei Pionieren der modernen Ernährung
in der Tradition der moralischen Physiologie; mit Hinweisen auf die Grammatik
des Essens und die Bedeutung von Birchermues und Cornflakes, Aufstieg und Falldes patriarchalischen Fleischhungers und die Verführung der Pflanzenkost (Zürich:
Chronos, 1993); Bryan Wilson, Dr. John Harvey Kellogg and the religion of biologic
living (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2014). The story of Kellogg andBattle Creek gained fame with a novel by T. C. Boyle, The Road to Wellville (NewYork: Viking Penguin, 1993) and with the subsequent movie The Road to Wellville(1994), directed by Alan Parker, starring Anthony Hopkins as Kellogg.
Richard Hughes Seager, The World’s Parliament of Religions: the East/West encounter, Chicago, 1893 (Bloomington: Viking Penguin, 1995); Maria Sofia Moritz,
Globalizing “Sacred Knowledge”: South Asians and the Theosophical Society, 18791930 (PhD thesis, Jacobs University Bremen: 2017); Jane Naomi Iwamura, Virtualorientalism: Asian religions and American popular culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011); Allen Richardson, “Asian Religions in the United States: The
Role of the 1893 World’s Parliament of Religions in Shaping an Evolving Pluralist
Ideology”, in The Cambridge History of Religions in America, vol. 2: 1790 to 1945,
ed. Stephen J. Stein (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).
Bernadett Bigalke, “Gesundheit und Heil: Eine ideengeschichtliche Spurensuche
zur Einordnung der Mazdaznan-Bewegung in ihren Entstehungskontext,” Gesnerus 69, no. 2 (2012).
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Companion to the Study of Secularity – Bernadette Bigalke: Religion and Medicine in Mazdaznansocial structure. Their adherents were predominantly urban, white,female and liberal protestant in background. There was no dogmaticstandardisation. One finds combinations of scientific, idealistic, spiritualistic, pantheistic, kabbalistic, Theosophical and Christian teachings. The theory was that proper use of one’s ‘mind’ in interdependence with the ‘cosmos’ should lead to ‘higher spiritual development’or a ‘higher self ’, physical and mental health, self-composure and economic well-being.9 Like Theosophists and other esoteric groups, New
Thought adherents were interested in ‘Asian’ philosophy and religions,
thereby creating and promoting an affirmative orientalism.10 Within
this history of fascination for ‘the East’, ‘meditation’ and ‘Yoga’ practices were appropriated and simultaneously recreated both by North
Americans and Europeans.11

Construction of a (Neo-)
Zoroastrian tradition

Otoman Zar-Adusht Hanish and Mazdaznan
Mazdaznan was founded by Otoman Zar-Adusht Hanish12, as he was
known to his followers and in his writings. He authorised his title with
his initiation and ordination in line with the Zoroastrian tradition.
Additionally, the word Zar means ‘prince’ and alludes to an alleged
noble birth. Mazdaznan is also an adaption from Zoroastrian vocabulary, meaning ‘worshiper of Mazda’. Not much is known about
Hanish’s early years except for the hagiographical information ofwhich his spiritual and therapeutic journey to Tibet forms a greatpart. After his own healing and initiation into a ‘temple order’ inTibet was accomplished, he was chosen by this order to spread its
Wouter J. Hanegraaff, “New Thought Movement,” in Dictionary of Gnosis & Western Esotericism, ed. Wouter J. Hanegraaff (Leiden: Brill Academic, 2005).
10 Richard G. Fox, “East of Said,” in Edward Said: a critical reader, ed. Michael
Sprinker (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992); Richard King, Orientalism and religion: postcolonial theory, India and “the mystic East” (London: Routledge, 1999); Christine
Maillard, “Ex oriente lux: Zur Funktion Indiens in der Konstruktion der abendländischen esoterischen Tradition im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert,” in Constructing
Tradition: Means and Myths of Transmission in Western Esotericism, ed. Andreas
Kilcher (Leiden: Brill, 2010).
11 Karl Baier, Meditation und Moderne (Würzburg: Königshausen und Neumann,2009); Mark Singleton, Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice (NewYork: Oxford University Press, 2010).
12 Graul, Nonkonforme Religionen im Visier der Polizei: Eine Untersuchung am Beispiel der Mazdaznan-Religion im Deutschen Kaiserreich (Würzburg: Ergon, 2013),
61. His actual name was most likely Otto Hanisch.
9

4

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Companion to the Study of Secularity – Bernadette Bigalke: Religion and Medicine in Mazdaznan

spiritual knowledge all over the world.13 In 1900, Hanish founded
the Mazdaznan Temple Association of Associates of God in Chicago.
Chicago’s religious scene was very diverse at that time, creating asimultaneous situation of competition and cooperation between
smaller religious groups:
In particular, Chicago was a magnet for emergent spiritual healing
movements. So-called mind cure, faith cure or divine healing, andChristian Science were often conflated by news media by the 1880s,
and they shared a modicum of terms and goals. Closer inspection,
however, revealed a set of distinct groups practicing sometimes radically different teachings. Babel-like, they often failed to communicate
with one another; unlike Babel, it is unclear how much they tried.14

Small branches of Mazdaznan soon emerged in California and laterin Europe too.15 Hanish published books on Health and Breath Culture, Inner Studies and Mazdaznan Home cook book.16 In these books,
he promoted his vegetarian diet, exercises in breathing and concentration, and his instructions for (intestinal) bodily hygiene. His
explicitly religious works Ainyahita (Anahita) und Yehoshua Nazir(Jesus) were published somewhat later.17 Both texts mirror contemporary discourses on founders of religions in the light of growing(popular) knowledge of religious history. In the 19th century, suchdiscourses encompassed the quest for the historical Jesus including
creative interpretations of apocryphal gospels or of newly ‘discovered’ones like the Jesus-was-in-India story.18 Embedded in a Neo-Persian

Creation of analternative Christology

13 Stausberg, “Para-Zoroastrianisms: Memetic transmissions and appropriations,” 242.
14 Amy B. Voorhees, “Understanding the Religious Gulf between Mary Baker Eddy,
Ursula N. Gestefeld, and Their Churches,” Church History 80, no. 4 (2011): 803.
15 For the spreading of Mazdaznan in England, see Julia Twigg, The Vegetarian
Movement in England: 1847-1981. A Study in the Structure of its Ideology (PhD
thesis, University of London: 1981), ch. 7.
16 Otoman Zar-Adusht Hanish, Health and Breath Culture According to Mazdaznan
Philosophy (Sun-Worship) (Chicago: Society of Metaphysicians Ltd., 1902); Otoman Zar-Adusht Hanish, Inner Studies. A Course of Twelve Lessons (Chicago: Sun
Worshiper Publishing, 1902); Otoman Zar-Adusht Hanish, Mazdaznan Encyclopedia of Dietetics and Home Cook Book of Cooked and Uncooked Foods. What toEat and How to Eat It (Chicago: Mazdaznan Publishing Company, 1904).
17 Otoman Zar-Adusht Hanish, Ainyahita in Pearls (Chicago: Mazdaznan Press,
1913); Otoman Zar-Adusht Hanish, Yehoshua Nazir. Jesus the Nazarite. Life of
Christ (Los Angeles: Mazdaznan Press, 1917).
18 Olav Hammer and James R. Lewis, “Introduction,” in The Invention of Sacred
Tradition, ed. James R. Lewis and Olav Hammer (Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 10–11; Hans G. Kippenberg, Die Entdeckung derLeipzig University – HCAS “Multiple Secularities – Beyond the West, Beyond Modernities”, 2019www.multiple-secularities.de/publications/companion

5Companion to the Study of Secularity – Bernadette Bigalke: Religion and Medicine in Mazdaznan

master narrative, Hanish presented an Aryanised biography ofJesus.19 The other central mythological figure in Mazdaznan’s theology was Ainyahita, ‘prophetess’, ‘mother’ and ‘patron’ of the ‘whiterace’, who gave Hanish the ‘precious pearls’ of the Mazdaznan teachings. She is a transfiguration of the Zoroastrian goddess Anahita.20
In 1907, a German branch taking the legal form of an association
was established in Leipzig by a Swiss American from Los Angeles,
David Ammann, and his family. Ammann and his wife assiduously
held lectures and taught cooking classes, managed a monthly
journal and a mail-order business for the dietetic and therapeutic instruments needed as a Mazdaznan adherent. They promoted
themselves as authorised representatives of the ‘Master’ Hanish who
would visit regularly to meet his followers and perform Zoroastrianinspired initiation rites. Mazdaznan adherents saw themselves asliving a modern religion that was suitable for urban middle-classwhite-collar employees, and their needs and capacities.They promoted Mazdaznan as an attractive offer in the growing fieldof life reform activities that also included ‘reform’ religion.21
For Itten, this self-understanding of Mazdaznan as genuinely‘modern’, its texts on education, its teaching of the temperaments,
the breathing techniques and the proposed vegetarianism were theperfect means to train his students at the Bauhaus in Weimar and,ultimately, in a utopian vein, to create the coming ‘new man’.22
Most of the Mazdaznan were members of both the Lutheranchurch and of Mazdaznan. It was not uncommon in the Kingdomof Saxony to be active in religious or ideological (‘weltanschauliche’) associations in addition to being a church member. Hanish

6

Religionsgeschichte: Religionswissenschaft und Moderne (München: Beck, 1997).
19 Olav Hammer, ed., Alternative Christs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
20 Stausberg, “Para-Zoroastrianisms: Memetic transmissions and appropriations,”
243. Anahita is an assimilation of a Greek goddess into the Zoroastrian pantheon;see Mary Boyce, Zoroastrians: Their Religious beliefs and practices (London: Routledge, 2003).
21 Bigalke, Lebensreform und Esoterik um 1900, ch. 3.5.; Ulrich Linse, “Lebensreformund Reformreligion,” in Die Lebensreform. Entwürfe zur Neugestaltung von Leben und
Kunst um 1900, Bd. 1, ed. Kai Buchholz et al. (Darmstadt: Haeusser Media, 2001).
22 Ulrich Linse, Die Mazdaznan-Pädagogik des Bauhaus-Meisters Johannes Itten; online: www.bauhaus.de/de/bauhaus-archiv/2129_publikationen/2132_bauhaus_
vortraege/ (04.02.2019).
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Companion to the Study of Secularity – Bernadette Bigalke: Religion and Medicine in Mazdaznan

and Ammann did not force the Mazdaznan to leave the church.
If they were regular Sunday churchgoers at all, they integrated theMazdaznan diet, the breathing exercises, the weekly meetings of the
Mazdaznan society and the annual ‘Gahanbar’, a festive week withceremonies and intensified spirituality, into their way of life.
Distinction and Differentiation
The teachings of Mazdaznan were presented as being compatible
with modernity, founded on the latest findings of natural science andbacked up by age-old religious wisdom as well as newly made revelations received by Hanish.
Narratives of that sort have their roots in US religious history in
the 19th century. Liberal-oriented Christian groups in the 19th century
had adapted a certain popularised Enlightenment discourse with a
specific understanding of empiricism (Baconianism) which was then
combined with narratives of modernity. Pursuing a ‘scientific worldview’ and being ‘religious’ at the same time was no contradiction at
all in these circles.23 One possible development within this processof adopting Enlightenment discourse into Christian theology wasa movement away from inherited doctrines and an orientation towards modes of knowledge and knowledge itself that were provided
by science, personal experience and cultural cosmopolitanism. Thisline of thought was adopted by the majority of Spiritualist and New
Thought groups as well.24 These cultural and intellectual developments were wrapped up in a growing consumer culture that affected
the book market25, the healthcare market and other societal spheres.

Mazdaznan presented ascompatible with modernity and supporting thecreation of the ‘new man’Influence of Christian
Enlightenment narratives

23 Craig James Hazen, The Village Enlightenment in America. Popular Religion andScience in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000), 10;David Hollinger, After cloven tongues of fire: Protestant liberalism in modern American history (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), ch. 1.
24 Catherine Albanese, A Republic of Mind and Spirit (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 2007); Sally Morita, “Unseen (and Unappreciated) Matters: Understanding
the Reformative Nature of 19th -Century Spiritualism,” American Studies 40, no.
3 (1999); Janet Oppenheim, The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research
in England 1850–1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
25 Matthew Hedstrom, The rise of liberal religion: book culture and American spirituality in the twentieth century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).
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Companion to the Study of Secularity – Bernadette Bigalke: Religion and Medicine in Mazdaznan

Threefold legitimation
through tradition,
revelation, and science

In the social sphere, the behaviour of the Mazdaznan leader Hanish
corresponded to the specifics of the Mazdaznan teaching. The legitimation of his authority was established threefold:
1) He claimed to have had revelations and an initiation into a
specific tradition of ‘religious wisdom’ by the mythical figure
Ainyahita herself.
2) Hanish propagated Zoroastrian knowledge, acting as an intermediary for a very old religious tradition.
3) He bore the title ‘Dr.’ which marked him as a man of naturalscience and an officially recognised therapist. The respectabilityof the medical profession at that time and the symbolic capital it
brought with it were important for Hanish’s reputation.

Hanish (1910) in his ceremonial clothing. This
style of photographic representation was
typical for preachers and missionaries in the
USA at that time. Unknown photographer.

The multiple communication strategies Hanish employed to legitimise
his authority are in line with the performances of other esoteric leading figures in the 20th century and are particularly typical for those thatoffered therapeutic salvation goods.26 His performance as both a priest
wearing exotic and precious clothing and a medical practitioner displaying scientific medical knowledge requires an explanation. Why was hecommunicating in multiple symbolic ways to his audience? He did so at
a time when the social fields of medicine and religion came to be moreexclusive and thereby specialists no longer pursued dual careers.27

8

26 Olav Hammer, Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to
the New Age (Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2001).
27 His appearance as priest and practitioner may have its roots in Romantic Medicine
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Companion to the Study of Secularity – Bernadette Bigalke: Religion and Medicine in Mazdaznan

The specific lifestyle teachings of Mazdaznan mix naturally scientific and religious semantics and argumentations when addressing
normative and anthropological questions. Mazdaznan adherents consciously propagated the compatibility of both spheres of knowledge
although knowing that their social environment sharply differentiated the fields of medicine and religion. The epistemic distinction
was also presupposed by Mazdaznan adherents but was not interpreted as a potential source of conflict. Mazdaznan’s emic conceptsof ‘religion’ and ‘science’ were construed as complementary andreferring reciprocally to one another. Modern science confirming
religious wisdom and vice versa. The group acknowledged the distinction on the macro-level but within the organisation itself there
was no dichotomy resulting in a structural differentiation since bothspheres were seen as complementary.
Conflict with State Authorities
In the USA as well as in Germany, similar conflicts with state authorities arose out of Mazdaznan’s teachings and practices. In the following
section, I will explain the German case and examine it within the frameof the reference problem of religious and cultural heterogeneity.28
In Leipzig, Mazdaznan took on the legal form of an association.
As both a religious and an ideological cultural association it fell under the (potential) supervision of the Political Police department.
Part of the Ministry of the Interior, this department was responsible
for the supervision of associations and press publications. Its role wasto prevent and repress criminal offences, and to protect the social
order. Mazdaznan’s representatives reacted to these hegemonic structures by avoiding, most of the time, presenting Mazdaznan as ‘religion’ so that the association would not be suspected of unauthorised
religious activities.

Mazdaznan: medicine/science and religion
distinct but complementary

Labelling conflicts:
religious or ideologicalcultural association?

where ‘magnetic’ healers were addressed as ‘Priesterarzt’ when engaging in the healingof psychosomatic ailments of their patients; see also Stephanie Gripentrog, Anormalität und Religion: zur Entstehung der Psychologie im Kontext der europäischen Religionsgeschichte des 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhunderts (Würzburg: Ergon, 2016).
28 An in-depth case study of the history of conflict between Mazdaznan and thestate authorities of the former Kingdom of Saxony has been carried out by Johannes Graul, Nonkonforme Religionen im Visier der Polizei: Eine Untersuchungam Beispiel der Mazdaznan-Religion im Deutschen Kaiserreich (Würzburg: Ergon,
2013). I draw on his rich material in this section of the article.
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9Companion to the Study of Secularity – Bernadette Bigalke: Religion and Medicine in Mazdaznan

Allegations by former
supporters, rivals andfamilies of followers

Saxonian healthdepartment: Mazdaznan
practices are “alarming”
and “harmful to health”

10

Initially, internal communications within the Political Police department classified Mazdaznan as one of the many health-oriented andtherapeutic associations that were seen as mostly innocuous. Always
short of personnel resources, the police accepted Mazdaznan’s
self-portrayal as expressed in its publications and public lectures.
The tide turned when various allegations, addressed directly to the
Political Police, were made by former supporters, rivals and angry
family members of followers. The critics came up with pretty much
everything that sect stereotypes in Western Europe have to offer:
fraud, quackery, cases of death, psychic manipulation, authoritarianreligious leadership and homosexuality.29
The continuing external pressure resulted in investigations by
the police to establish whether Mazdaznan potentially posed a danger to the public. However, the state authorities still grappled with
the question of what Mazdaznan actually was. The answer to thisquestion would enable further decisions involving tried and tested
policing methods, and ultimately determine which state department
could provide further ‘professional’ information. This search for aclear definition of the ‘nature’ of the group was mirrored in the dailypress. Here, Mazdaznan was labelled alternately as a “philosophy”, a“system of education”, “lifestyle teaching” and “health teaching”.
For want of a clear label and a sound rationale for any sanction, thepolice came up with the idea of checking whether Mazdaznan poseda danger to public safety (‘gemeingefährlich’) on a mental or physicallevel. One possible danger was seen in the ‘religious exaggeration’ of
the health teachings, since the religious and thereby normative framing of certain physical techniques might eventually be harmful. An
enquiry was first lodged with the Ministry of Culture (competent forreligious associations) which deemed itself not responsible. An enquiry was then made with the medical authorities. A hastily written
report by the Saxonian health department solely based on the association’s main guide books (e. g. Inner Studies) classified the proposed
strict fasting rules, the regular colon hygiene through enemas, theself-medication in case of sexual diseases and the explicit advice on
29 Otto Rauth, “David Ammanns Ausweisung,” Mazdaznan 7, no. 6 (1914); for thehistory of sect stereotypes, see Claudia Wustmann and Katharina Neef, ”Störer
gesellschaftlicher Ordnung: Über inhaltliche Kontinuitäten in Sektenbeschreibungen,” Religion-Staat-Gesellschaft 19, no. 1/2 (2011).

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Companion to the Study of Secularity – Bernadette Bigalke: Religion and Medicine in Mazdaznan

how to handle one’s sexual intercourse as “alarming” and “harmful
to health”. The state and its administrative representatives acted inthis process as institutionalised agents with the power to interpretand police what constitutes a ‘proper’ religion and/or what constitutes a ‘reasonable’ and ‘healthy’ lifestyle for its subjects. It sanctioned
non-conformist actors on the basis of these authoritative interpretive
procedures.
Mazdaznan’s promoter, David Ammann, and his family were expelled from Saxony as “cumbersome foreigners” in summer 1914.
The police did not plan to destroy the association as a whole but toweaken it. In the end, it was not one specific statutory violation by
Ammann or Hanish that led to this sanction but a diversity of suspicious facts plus the persistence of the external allegations. The police
acted almost out of weariness in order to re-establish peace and quiet
in the social niche of alternative cultures and religions in Saxony.

Expulsion of Mazdaznan
leaders from Saxony

Conclusion
The case of Mazdaznan demonstrates how the state authorities wereconstantly in need of updated knowledge on their subjects in orderfor them to assign ‘accurate’ labels, which in turn enabled police officers to follow appropriate guiding principles. This updated knowledge could not be supplied by the work of a police department alone,with enquiries being made to specialised authorities (health or religious authorities) in order to rationalise severe policing decisions.
The lack of structural and social differentiation of religion andmedicine was not seen as problematic by Mazdaznan, in contrast
they actively practised both as complementary. It was even not problematic for the state authorities as long as certain practices were notseen as a potential threat to the mental or physical health of theirsubjects or citizens. However, when the authorities were forced toenact regulatory measures, they quoted the protection of the differentiation of medicine and religion as their reason for taking action
against a non-conformist group. Thus, while the distinction between
religion and medicine was never in question, but merely interpreted differently by mainstream society and Mazdaznan adherents, thedifferentiation between religion and medicine and its enforcement
gained importance only in the context of power struggles and claimsof validity.
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11Companion to the Study of Secularity – Bernadette Bigalke: Religion and Medicine in Mazdaznan

Quoted and Further Reading

Albanese, Catherine. A Republic of Mind and Spirit. New Haven: Yale University
Press, 2007.
Baier, Karl. Meditation und Moderne. Würzburg: Königshausen und Neumann, 2009.
Bigalke, Bernadett. “Gesundheit und Heil: Eine ideengeschichtliche Spurensuche
zur Einordnung der Mazdaznan-Bewegung in ihren Entstehungskontext.”
Gesnerus 69, no. 2 (2012): 272–96.
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Companion to the Study of Secularity – Bernadette Bigalke: Religion and Medicine in Mazdaznan

This text is part of the Companion to the Study of Secularity. The intent of the Companion is to give scholars interested in the concept of Multiple Secularities, who are
not themselves specialists in particular (historical) regions, an insight into different
regions in which formations of secularity can be observed, as well as into the key
concepts and notions with respect to the study of secularity.
It is published by the Humanities Centre for Advanced Studies “Multiple
Secularities − Beyond the West, Beyond Modernities”. For as long as the HCAS
continues to exist, the Companion will be published and further expanded on the
HCAS’ website. Towards the end of Multiple Secularities project, all entries will
be systematised and edited in order to transform the Companion into a completed
Open Access publication.
Please cite as:
Bigalke, Bernadett. “Religion and Medicine in Mazdaznan: Distinction without
Differentiation.” In Companion to the Study of Secularity. Edited by HCAS “Multiple
Secularities – Beyond the West, Beyond Modernities.” Leipzig University, 2019.
www.multiple-secularities.de/media/css_ bigalke_mazdaznan.pdf

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