GONIWIECHA: Japanese Influences on Kapingamarangi

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Japanese Influences on Kapingamarangi

GONIWIECHA Mark C.

Library Science, University of Guam, P.O. Box 5027, Mangilao 96923, GuamE-mail: markgg@gmail.com

Abstract
On Kapingamarangi Atoll, an “outer island” municipality of Pohnpei state in the Federated States ofMicronesia (FSM), some Japanese “loan” words are used-common Kapingamarangi words which seemed
to be borrowed from the Japanese language, words such as “sensei” for “teacher”, “kuruma”, Japanese forany “vehicle”, and many others.
Prior to and during World War II, the Imperial Japanese Navy deployed a weather squadron in
Micronesia. The Japanese used Kapingamarangi Atoll as a seaplane refueling station on the aerial routefrom Pohnpei to Rabaul, New Britain, in the former German Northeast New Guinea, south of the Equatorin what is now Papua New Guinea. From 20 to 30 Japanese soldiers were stationed at Nunakita Island. The
initial construction crew was larger, perhaps 50 men, but about 30 men stayed on afterwards for operations.
The radio communications and weather observation station were at Nunakita Island. At Hare Island, there
were additional living quarters, the fuel depot, a seaplane ramp and up to ten aeroplanes, including seaplanefighter bombers.
There is considerable physical evidence remaining, including one gravestone, some old Dai Nippon
Brewery Company glass bottles, a concrete tower, the foundation posts of military barracks, abandoned
water tanks, a sunken Japanese ship and a sunken American plane in the lagoon, some propellers and planeparts debris, also some rusting fuel drums.
There is a single Japanese-language gravestone located on Matiro Island (three islets south of Touhou
Island) in Kapingamarangi Atoll, marking the burial of the mortal remains of “Arugani Rokuro,” referred toas “Roturo Monop” by Lena, senior citizen and sister of the decedent, who said it was the grave of her older
brother, a Kapingamarangi man.
The tombstone, the old Dai Nippon Brewery Company glass bottles, the remains of the concrete tower,
the foundation posts of the military barracks, the abandoned water tanks, the seaplane landing ramp andrefueling depot, the propellers and plane parts debris, the rusting fuel drums, and even the bomb craters andsunken vessels, still stand as visible, tangible evidence of the Japanese presence on this distant and remoteatoll. The ample physical evidence which Japan left behind on at least three islets of Kapingamarangi Atoll,on the reef, and even sunk in the lagoon, is manifest more than 60 years later.
Furthermore, the more intangible evidence of numerous loan words which Kapingamarangi speakers
adapted from the Japanese speakers, and the more than ten Japanese personal names now in use, is noless real, and no less important. The fact that no fewer than 25 Japanese words are still being used two
generations later may constitute an even more substantial legacy, with a greater and more lasting impact,

Received: 24 March, 2015
Accepted: 11 December, 2015

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than the tangible ruins which continue to erode more with each passing day.
Key words: Federated States of Micronesia, Imperial Japanese Navy, Japanese governance in Micronesia,
Japanese language loan-words, Kapingamarangi, World War II

Introduction to Kapingamarangi
During the spring of 2007, I spent a semester teaching elementary school andhelping develop a school community library on Kapingamarangi Atoll (population
about 600), an “outer island” municipality of Pohnpei state in the Federated Statesof Micronesia (FSM). At just one degree north of the Equator, low-lying, luxuriant
Kapingamarangi is the southernmost landfall in the FSM as well as a “Polynesian
outlier” island within Micronesia (Fig. 1).
It was not my intention to learn the Kapingamarangi language as part of mysabbatical leave project, but I became interested once on the island, where I was
surrounded by Kapingamarangi speakers and inundated in Kapingamarangi culture. I
noticed some Japanese “loan” words-common Kapingamarangi words which seemed
to be borrowed or adapted from Japanese words, such as “sensei” for “teacher,” andothers. “Kuruma,” Japanese for any “vehicle,” especially “automobile,” became“kulumaa,” meaning “wheelbarrow” in Kapingamarangi, since wheelbarrows (andbicycles) are the only wheeled vehicles on Kapingamarangi (Fig. 2). “Liakā” the actual
Japanese word meaning “wheelbarrow,” is also used less frequently in Kapingamarangi

Fig. 1. Kapingamarangi Atoll.

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as “liaga”.
While the construction crew built the library room on top of the school, I wasa volunteer teacher in the elementary school. During February and March, I teamtaught the combination 4th-5th grade class with Sensei Kiosy (Fig. 3A). During
April and May, I team-taught the 6th grade class with Teacher Merfilynn. On several
occasions I substitute-taught the 1st graders. The students used both the Japanese word
“sensei” and the English word “teacher” interchangeably (“sensei” is the Japaneseword for “teacher”). Also, Sensei Kiosy had made a list of the “Classroom Rules”
in the Kapingamarangi language and had posted it on the wall in the combo 4th-5th
grade classroom at Kapingamarangi Elementary School (Fig. 3B). The first “rule”“Hagalongo gi sensei”-means “Listen to the teacher”. This was how the first of many
Japanese influences on Kapingamarangi came to my attention. Later on, I noticed otherJapanese language words in use by Kapingamarangi speakers.

Fig. 2.

, Japanese for vehicle or automobile, became
meaning
wheelbarrow in Kapingamarangi-since wheelbarrows (and bicycles) are the only wheeledvehicles on Kapingamarangi. Here six-year−old Vincent uses ato transport debris(A). There are no automobiles on Kapingamarangi Atoll, except for these toys cars carved
from palm tree branches, which youngsters race around the walkway with a stick and a string
(B).

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Fig. 3. During February and March 2007, I team taught this large class, a combination 4th-5th
grade, with Sensei Kiosy (A). Sensei Kiosy posted these Classroom Rules on the wall in the
combination 4th-5th grade classroom at Kapingamarangi Elementary School. Notice the firstrule−or Listen to the teacher (is the Japanese word forteacher ). Also, in rule 8, see the wordfrom the English word school (B).

Japanese Micronesia
This did not come as a complete surprise, since Micronesia was a Japanese
territory during the period between World War I and World War II, under a Leagueof Nations mandate, when Japan established its government operations centers in
Micronesia at Saipan, Northern Mariana Islands, at Koror, Palau and at Kolonia,
Pohnpei. Besides a military presence, there were public infrastructure projects, suchas road building, as well as various commercial enterprises, such as fishing andagriculture, involving a transmigration of Japanese soldiers, civil servants, civilians,
traders and merchants, as discussed by ASHBY (2003), LEVY (1997), LIEBER (1994),
PEATTIE (1988), POYER et al. (2001), and others. Micronesia constituted only a portionof Japan’s Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
The first direct Japanese intervention at Kapingamarangi occurred in 1918 after
a three-year-long drought on Kapingamarangi resulted in the deaths of approximately
90 Kapingamarangians. The Japanese evacuated some 90 Kapingamarangi residents to
Pohnpei island, where they developed the cliffside settlement now known as Porakiet,
on the western periphery of Kolonia town, and were employed, in jobs such as fishing,copra and tobacco production, and road building (LIEBER 1994, POYER et al. 2001,
ASHBY 2003). Although about half of those resettled died of dysentery within one year,
the village of Porakiet thrives today. According to Andrew Lucky, the Kapingamarangi
coordinator at Porakiet, and Senator Edgar Lickaneth, the elected Pohnpei statelegislator who represents Kapingamarangi, Porakiet village now has more than 1,000
Kapingamarangi inhabitants−far more residents than Kapingamarangi Atoll itself.

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There are also a few Kapingamarangi transplants intermittently at Oroluk Atoll, alsopart of Pohnpei state−the number varies−as well as a small diaspora on Guam, in
Hawai’i, in the “Mainland” United States and elsewhere.
Crowds of people travel back and forth between Kapingamarangi and Pohnpei
on every field ship, for high school and college attendance, for medical attention, forwork, and to visit relatives. A field ship calls approximately quarterly, delivering andreceiving passengers, mail, supplies and cargo. In Jan. 2007, I traveled from Pohnpei toKapingamarangi on the Caroline Voyager, a trip which took three nights and two days.
When the next field ship appeared on the horizon in March, the news spread quickly
on the grapevine, and children dashed jubilantly to the island’s shore to track the ship’s
approach. I returned from Kapingamarangi to Pohnpei in June on the Micro-Glory, theflagship and workhorse of the ferry system, and a gift from the government of Japan to
the FSM. That voyage lasted four nights and three days.

The Japanese at Kapingamarangi
However, direct Japanese involvement in Micronesia was confined primarily
to the three district centers of Saipan, Palau and Pohnpei, and most outlying islands
were not greatly affected. Therefore, it was somewhat surprising to learn that theJapanese military used Kapingamarangi Atoll as a seaplane refueling station on theaerial route from Pohnpei to Rabaul, New Britain, south of the Equator in what is
now Papua New Guinea. Outer islands of the former German Northeast New Guinea
colony, an Australian League of Nations mandate, were occupied by Japan at thattime. Kapingamarangi is actually about 100 miles closer to Rabaul than it is toPohnpei island proper (ASHBY 2003), but since there’s almost nothing else in-between,
Kapingamarangi served as a convenient refueling “midpoint” (corroborated by POYER
et al. 2001).
There is considerable physical evidence remaining, such as one gravestone, someold brown and blue Dai Nippon Brewery Company glass bottles (turned upside-down
for use as grave markers), a concrete tower, the foundation posts of now-destroyed
military barracks, abandoned water tanks, a sunken Japanese ship and a sunken
American plane in the lagoon, some propellers and plane parts debris (from where theAllied Forces later bombed the Japanese seaplane fuel depot), also some rusting fueldrums.
Only Touhou and Werua islands are inhabited permanently. Tiny Touhou Island,“a rather crowded 11-acre islet” (ELBERT 1948) (reported elsewhere as ten acres, oreven nine acres in WIENS 1956), is entirely residential and houses the main village(population approximately 350), where the dock, the city hall (“Hale Oobidi”-the “officehouse”), the dispensary or clinic, and the church (United Church of Christ) are located(Fig. 4). Much larger Werua Island, a sort-of suburb (population about 250), houses
the school and library, and more than a half-dozen taro patches, and is connected with

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Fig. 4. Touhou Island Village is viewed from Taringa Island immediately south. In the background,the lagoon and other northern islands are on the left; to the right, ocean surf crashes endlesslyon the reef (A). A Kapingamarangi voter casts a ballot in the FSM national election on
Tuesday, March 6, 2007 in the( office house ) or city hall. The church canbe seen through the windows. The dock, city hall, dispensary and church are all located on
Touhou Island, where most of the people reside (B). Kapingamarangi has politics, the same
as everywhere else. These posters broadcast the slogans of candidates running for officein the FSM national election of March 6, 2007 (C). Inside Touhouʼs United Church of Christ,
the women sit or stand on the left, men on the right. Couples do not sit together (D). Harvey
Lohete and June Gamson were married in a civil ceremony by the Chief Magistrate, Solomon
Lowson, at thei or city hall on Feb. 13, 2007 (E).

Touhou by a permanent, reinforced concrete pedestrian bridge (Fig. 5). The other 31
mostly minuscule islands of Kapingamarangi Atoll are uninhabited, but are utilized
for cultivating taro, for harvesting breadfruit, coconuts and bananas, for gathering
pandanus thatch (for roofing and weaving), for camping, and for burials (Fig. 5).
While walking the reef and exploring the uninhabited islands, I came upon asingle Japanese-language gravestone located on Matiro Island (three islets south of
Touhou Island) in Kapingamarangi Atoll. Kesia George (Fig. 6A&B), wife of theschool principal, told me that this was the grave of “Hiroku Monop”, the younger
brother of her grandfather, or her great-uncle. But via an interpreter, Lena, seniorcitizen and sister of the decedent, said it was the grave of “Roturo Monop” (her older
brother, a Kapingamarangi man) (Fig. 6C). Elder Ersin also remembered his nameas “Roturo Monop”. Dr. Yukiko Inoue, University of Guam professor of education(from Japan), translates the tombstone inscription as “Here lies A-ru-ga-ni Ro-ku-

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Fig. 5. A permanent, concrete footbridge links Touhou Island (right) with Werua Island (left) as
viewed from the lagoon. Because most of the people reside on Touhou Island, and theschool is located on Werua Island, most students walk across the bridge four times a day−going to school in the morning, returning home for lunch, going back to school after lunch,then walking home in the afternoon (A). Only Touhou and Werua are inhabited. The other31 mostly minuscule islands of Kapingamarangi Atoll are uninhabited, but are utilized for
cultivating taro, for harvesting breadfruit, coconuts and bananas, for gathering pandanus
thatch (for roofing and weaving), for camping, and for burials. Here, Parakahi (left) andHukuniu (right), as seen from Werua, are sometimes used for foraging pigs (B).

ro (male name), 1940” (Fig. 6D). After “Arugani Rokuro”/“Roturo Monop” passed
away on Pohnpei Island, his body was returned to Kapingamarangi for interment.
The fact that Arugani Rokuro’s remains were transported from Pohnpei back home to
Kapingamarangi for burial indicates that he was a privileged son of a wealthy family.
His younger sister (Lena) is now 70-or-80-some years old, more than 65 years later,
so Arugani Rokuro died as a teenager or as a young man in his early 20s. This grave(“talunga” in Kapingamarangi) serves as material evidence of the Japanese era on
Kapingamarangi, and lies alongside several others with English-language inscriptions.
Nearby, also on Matiro Island, is another small cemetery where old Japanesebottles are used to mark several graves. The burial sites are outlined in rectangularborders of concrete, covered in coral rock gravel, with the corners marked by someold blue-and brown-colored sake and beer bottles from Dai Nippon Brewery Company
turned upside-down. Though these and numerous other graves are not identified withinscribed gravestones, they are probably not anonymous. The lot owners and family
members usually know which ancestors are buried on their property (personallyidentifying information on burial sites could also be on record in the Hale Oobidi).
Except for the two most southerly islands of Matukerekere and Pumatahati, which
are communally owned by the municipal government, all the other dry land of theother 31 islets of Kapingamarangi Atoll is privately owned−each island is divided
into lots owned by individual families. Several entire islands are owned outright (landownership and related economic topics are detailed by EMORY [1965]; see also WIENS[1956] and CROCOMBE [1987]).
Twelve islands further south of Matiro, the Japanese seaplane refueling depot
was located on Hare Island, also referred to as “Long Island” because it is slightly

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longer than one mile long. The silhouettes of what are said to be an American airplane
and a Japanese ship sunken in shallow water can be seen clearly from the lagoon
surface west of Hare Island. More than one informant mentioned that a Japanese plane

Fig. 6. Kesia George, wife of the principal, is the great-niece of the late Arugani Rokuro (A&B).
The arrival of the Honorable Joseph Urusemal, then-President of the Federated States ofMicronesia, on February 5, 2007 was an exciting occasion. The entire community turned out towelcome the president and his retinue of cabinet members. Here, senior citizen Lena (sister ofthe decedent, Arugani Rokuro ), is seated on the right waiting for the visiting dignitaries todisembark from the presidentʼs boat, which can be seen at anchor in the lagoon (C). Here lies
A-ru-ga-ni Ro-ku-ro (male name), 1940 . This grave (in Kapingamarangi) is located on
uninhabited Matiro Island (three islets south of Touhou Island) in Kapingamarangi Atoll (D).

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crashed and sank to a watery grave in deeper waters near the lagoon passage, though
there was disagreement on this point, and I did not personally see this wreck. Besides
living quarters, airplanes and the seaplane landing ramp, there was also storage offuel, bombs, weapons and ammunition (POYER et al.). There are several bomb craters
on Hare. Explosions from bombing the site of the fuel depot created one crater pit
or depression on Hare Island so large that it is still used more than 60 years later as
the official municipal garbage dump. There are also the rusting remains of numerous
50-some-gallon steel fuel drums, other bombed-out plane debris, and additional rusty
metal wreckage. I saw several plane propellers stuck in the sand elsewhere on thebeach of Hare Island. Other propellers had been cut and filed for use as homemade
machete blades by industrious, frugal, practical Kapingamarangi dwellers. It seems
likely that other material evidence was scavenged in the intervening years and put touseful purposes, or even washed away by tidal wave action or storm surges.
North of Touhou, on Nunakita Island, rows of rotting concrete foundation posts of
now-destroyed military barracks still stand in silent witness as evidence of the Japanese
occupants of a previous age. Located near the ruined barracks are the remnants ofseveral concrete water tanks in disrepair, still containing hundreds of gallons of rainwater. The lookout watchtower (perhaps doubling as a machine gunners’ nest) still
stands along the lagoon’s edge, in ruins (the tower is noted on a map in NIERING [1956,
Fig. 13]). The concrete tower could have served as a weather data collection facility,a radio communications station, a sentry lookout post, or a machine gunnery base. I
recognized at least one bomb crater on Nunakita (also noted in NIERING [1956]). In
addition, there is some metal wreckage rusting away on the reef, northeast (oceanside)of Nunakita Island. Presumably these metal hulks once comprised some sort ofequipment or machinery used by the Japanese soldiers while stationed on Nunakita−
perhaps a water tank or boiler, pipes, and related appurtenances. The 1943-44 Allied
assaults on Japanese positions from Pohnpei to Rabaul are chronicled variously by
CRAVEN and CATE (1951), DENFELD (1992), FALGOUT et al. (2008), HINZ (1995),
MILLER (1970), MILNER (1971), MORISON (1962, 1964), POYER et al. (2001), SMITH
and MEEHL (2002), WILLIAMS (1960), and elsewhere.

World War II on Kapingamarangi
Several adults told me stories they had heard from their parents or relatives.
Through an interpreter, senior citizen “Uncle Noah” told me his personal recollections
about the Japanese soldiers he remembered from his teenage years. Also, Ersin,a retired teacher, provided me with his remembrances in English during several
conversations over lunches. The information they related is consistent with an accountprovided by ASHBY (2003). Noah recalled “plenty” of Japanese soldiers−from 20 to
30−first stationed at Nunakita Island. Ersin thought the initial construction crew waslarger, perhaps 50 men, but that about 30 men stayed on afterwards for operations.

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The radio communications and weather observation station were at Nunakita Island,
including the lookout watchtower (and possible machine gunnery emplacements),
barracks, and cistern-style concrete rainwater storage tanks. According to Ersin, there
were additional living quarters at Hare Island, the fuel depot, a seaplane ramp andfewer than ten aeroplanes, including seaplane fighter bombers. After the seaplane
fuel depot at Hare Island was bombed out, the Japanese retreated north to Nunakita
Island (consistent with POYER et al. [2001]), then later on, relocated further north to
Ringutoru Island, where there may be more bomb craters (NIERING [1956, Fig. 17] also
notes another bomb crater on Taringa Island). Ersin and Noah recollected that, since
the Japanese lived and worked on separate islands from the Kapingamarangians, eachgroup saw the other “over there”, but there was little interaction between the Japaneseand the people of Kapingamarangi, and that the Japanese did not bother or harm the
Kapingamarangians (corroborated by KRAUSS [1988]). Also the Japanese soldiers did
not father any children to abandon when they departed. The independent recollectionsof Lena, Noah and Ersin, via separate interviews, and those of other informants,
corroborate interviews in POYER et al. (2001). The Japanese left Kapingamarangi in
July of 1944 (ASHBY 2003).
No Kapingamarangi residents were injured or killed during the war, byeither the Japanese overseers or the Allied bombers (ASHBY 2003), although two
Kapingamarangi men fishing on Pohnpei died when they detonated a Japanese mine
set in a mangrove swamp (POYER et al. 2001). Ersin and Noah were teenagers during
the war, so they were not impressed into labor and relocated to Pohnpei as 50 men from
Kapingamarangi were (ASHBY 2003). When an Allied torpedo sank a Japanese shipoutside the lagoon near Kapingamarangi in 1942, about 50 Japanese survivors washed
up in two lifeboats at Namoluk Atoll, about 350 miles northwest, an outer island ofneighboring Chuuk state (POYER et al. 2001).
An occasional Japanese or Australian yacht, circumnavigating the globe, orcrossing the Equator, will stop at Kapingamarangi to find anchorage and enjoy a
respite−though no yacht stopped by while I was there. A few years ago, one Japaneseyachtsman, returning from having crossed the Equator, ran aground on the southernreef, near the lagoon channel. With the high tide, his yacht floated and departed under
its own power. There are two unrelated shipwrecks (located in close proximity to one
another) on the northwestern Kapingamarangi reef, postdating World War II and notconnected to the war (though one of the shipwrecks may be Japanese). Considered here
are the physical manifestations I came across during my five months on the atoll. I only
surveyed about half of the 33 islets, so there may be other physical evidence which I
did not discover or recognize.
Unfortunately, I ran out of film half-way through my five-and-one-half-monthslong project. I took photographs of the classroom rules sign (on Werua) and theJapanese-language gravestone (on Matiro), during my first months, but I did not
capture the images of the Japanese military barracks and other ruins (on Nunakita, on
Hare and elsewhere), discovered later on.

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On Pumatahati Island, there isan open-air warehouse left behind by
American sailors, dating from after thewar. What remains is a leaking corrugatedmetal roof, held up by metal posts,
covering a concrete floor −but without
walls. Officially this island and thewarehouse are owned by the municipality
and the building is used for dry storage.
Fig. 7. On Touhou Island, these are the graves
When I was at Kapingamarangi, theof the last two kings of Kapingamarangi.
chief magistrate utilized the warehouse
On the left rest the remains of King Duiai
temporarily to store excess cargo arriving
Mateak (died Dec. 1958) and on the right
are the remains of King Tevet (David)
from Pohnpei on the field ship. This
Nangar (died Dec. 1949). King Duiai could
covered space on Pumatahati, about four
speak some Japanese.
miles south of Touhou village and near thelagoon channel entrance, is occasionallyused by local fishermen to take shelter from inclement weather or rough waters.
There are graveyards and burial sites on Touhou, and−south of Touhou-on
Tarlinga, Matiro, Ramotu, Hukuhenua, Tangawaka, and Hare islands, and −northof Touhou−on Werua, Nunakita, Ringutoru, and Torongahai islands. Some graves
are marked with gravestones with inscriptions−a name, sometimes dates and otherinformation. The gravestones are homemade with concrete and often are painted orotherwise decorated. Most graves are well tended respectfully (Fig. 7). Some graves
are outlined in rectangular borders of concrete, and covered in coral rock gravel, but
the buried remains frequently are not identified in writing in situ. These are the gravesof the ancestors of the Kapingamarangi people.

Enduring Japanese Impact on the Kapingamarangi Vocabulary and on
Kapingamarangi Personal Nomenclature
Adapted Japanese personal names chosen by Kapingamarangi parents to nametheir children include: “Yosimoly,” an elder elevated to the traditional high priest(“ariki”) position; “Kiosy,” a teacher (see Fig. 3A); brothers “Kisiro” and “Koisimi,”
elected members of the Kapingamarangi Municipal Government council; “Yosko,” mydear neighbor on Werua; and “Kiomi,” a youngster and student.
Additionally there are the numerous Japanese loan words which Kapingamarangi
speakers have incorporated into their language and still use today. Based on
information conveyed from several Kapingamarangi informants, I drew up a list of
Kapingamarangi words still in use, probably borrowed, derived, or adapted from theJapanese language, also a list of Japanese personal names still in use, souvenirs of thetime when the Japanese were in Micronesia and Kapingamarangi. Although elders

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Ersin and Noah, who were teenagers during the war, remembered there having been
little interaction between the Japanese and the people of Kapingamarangi, there musthave been considerable interaction nonetheless, since so many Japanese-language
words are still in use at Kapingamarangi to this day.
Most of the loan words still in use denote objects of material culture, objects likely
new at the time to the people of Kapingamarangi. The following Tables 1 and 2 convey
anecdotal evidence and casual observations only and thus, ought to be considered
exemplary and illustrative, though not necessarily exhaustive, definitive or complete.
Since the Kapingamarangi language is spoken by probably fewer than 2,000
speakers, on only three or four small islands, and there are no printed books in
Kapingamarangi, the orthography or spelling has no standardization or normalization.
Table 1. Some Kapingamarangi language words (in current use) probably borrowed, derived or adaptedfrom Japanese language words (not an exhaustive listing).
Kapingamarangi
language words

Japaneselanguage words

English language
equivalent meaning

baligangbarikanhair clipper

Budaa

Būda

Buddhadeehuguroo

tebukuro

gloves

denbo

denpō

communication

denwa

denwa

telephone

empituenpitsu

pencilhagioiyakyū

baseballhigoti / higoodee

hikōkiseaplane bomber

kapangakaban

suitcase

keedaageta

wooden zoris

kokupanga

kokubanchalkboard

komi

gomu

rubber band,also goma (Spanish)

kulumaakurumawheelbarrow (Kap.),
vehicle or automobile (Jap.)

kungkang / gunggang

gunkanwarship

liaga

liakā

wheelbarrow

loeaa

rōya

jail

loobuu

rōbu

cross

sambangsampanboat, sampan (Chinese),
also sampao (Thai)sasumii

sashimisashimisenggii

denki

lightbulb

senseisenseiteacher

sentokisentōkifighter plane

soiu

shōyu

soy saucesoorii / toorii

zōri

zoris / flipflop footwear

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Thus, two different speakers may spell
Table 2. Some Kapingamarangi personalnames (in recent past and current use)−and even pronounce −a word two
probably borrowed, derived or adapted
different ways. Who’s to say whichfrom Japanese personal names (not an
exhaustive listing).
spelling is correct?
Kapingamarangi
Japanese
Whatever language the word may
personal names
personal names
have been borrowed or adapted from, and
Keigo
Keiko
however it is spelled in Kapingamarangi,
KindaroKintaroin the Kapingamarangi pronunciation,
Kiomi
Kiomi
the final vowel is almost always silent
Kiosy
Kiyoshi(also noted by ELBERT [1948]). As to why
KisiroKishirothe unpronounced final vowel is even
KoisimiKoizumiwritten at all, this writer cannot answer
Kosaki
Kosakithat question. It may simply be a matter ofNanami
Nanamiword origin, etymology, history, custom
RoturoRokuroand tradition. The phenomenon signifies
Yosimoly
Yoshimoriand illustrates a hearty, dynamic language
Yosko
Yoshikoundergoing evolutionary change.
Another note on pronunciation: in
Kapingamarangi, the sounds represented by the letters “B” and “P” are frequently usedvirtually interchangeably, and likewise for the letters “D” and “T”, “G” and “K”, and “L”
and “R”, also sometimes “T” and “S”.
Each one of the 33 islets of Kapingamarangi Atoll has a name, which
all Kapingamarangians can recite from memory with ease. However, even
Kapingamarangi speakers differ concerning the correct pronunciation, and thespellings vary considerably in the literature. For example, Solomon Lowson, the chiefmagistrate, and his wife, Ehda, each pronounced “Ringutoru” distinctly differently.
Such matters also may depend on whether the writer is Japanese, American, or islander.
“Touhou,” the population center, is sometimes spelled and pronounced “Souhou.”“Werua” may be found as “Ueru” or “Veilua.” “Ringutoru” is also seen as “Lingutor,”
which bears a closer resemblance to its actual pronunciation. “Hare,” the 1.2-mile-longisland, is also written as “Hale”−the Kapingamarangi and Hawaiian word for “house”
or “home.” I have used the spellings found in NIERING (1956), and emulated by EMORY(1965) and subsequently, although these spellings sometimes bear little resemblance tothe actual local pronunciation−at least to the ear of the uninitiated.

Summary and Conclusions
Thus, although the Japanese governed the Micronesian islands for only from 25 to
30 years, and even though a small contingent of Japanese military men was stationed
on Kapingamarangi for only a brief interlude of perhaps five years, the ample physicalevidence which Japan left behind on at least three of the Kapingamarangi islands, on124South Pacific Studies Vol.36, No.2, 2016

the reef, and even sunk in the
lagoon, is manifest more than
60 years later. Remains of thebarracks, water storage tanks,
watchtower, and seaplane refuelingdepot, though in disrepair or
ruins, and even the bomb craters
and sunken vessels, still stand as
visible, tangible evidence of theJapanese presence on this distantFig. 8. Kapingamarangians are first and foremost
and isolated atoll.
people of the sea. In this subsistence
Furthermore, the moresociety of seafarers, fishing is all-important.
intangible evidence of numerous
Kapingamarangians love to eat fish, preparedloan words which Kapingamarangi
many diﬀerent ways, including.
speakers took up, borrowed, andadapted from the Japanese speakers, and the many Japanese personal names now inuse, is no less real, and no less important. The fact that no fewer than 25 Japanesewords are still being used two generations later may constitute an even more substantial
legacy, with a greater and more lasting impact, than the tangible ruins which willcontinue to erode more with each passing day.
The knowledge transfer of this adapted Japanese vocabulary from the second to
the third generation since the war demonstrates that these loan words have alreadybeen incorporated as an essential part-and-parcel of the Kapingamarangi language. The
fact that common words, such as “sensei” for teacher, “kulumaa” for wheelbarrow,“kokupanga” for chalkboard, “empitu” for pencil, “sasumii” for sashimi (Fig. 8), andmany others, are now being taught by today’s teachers, and learned and employedby contemporary schoolchildren, to identify and describe material objects in theirinsular environment ensures that this considerable intangible legacy of Japan’s heritage
overseas will continue indefinitely into the future.
The present investigations began inadvertently and serendipitously. Once on theatoll, I comprehended the evidence, both intangible and tangible. I asked the officials,
the teachers and the elders some questions and noted the answers. In my five-monthslong stay, I only surveyed about half of the 33 islets of Kapingamarangi Atoll, so there
may exist additional material evidence of the Japanese era for future researchers touncover. What’s more, the Polynesian language of Kapingamarangi may contain still
more loan words with Japanese etymological roots than I was able to ascertain during
my brief sojourn. Additional investigation and further field work are warranted.

GONIWIECHA: Japanese Influences on Kapingamarangi

125

Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements and many thanks to the following people of Kapingamarangi
Atoll who served willingly as my kind informants and interpreters: primarily Ersin,
Lena, and Noah, but also Alex, Andrew, Delbina, Dickson, Dorishe, Dusty, Edgar,
Ehda, Elugo, Emeriana, Franklin, Hawaii, Kaius, Kesia, Kiosy, Kuliana, Luther,
Mansy, Martin, Moses, Namath, Ruy, Sakius, Senita, Solomon, Yosimoly, Yosko, andYoster. Dime bolo goodou! This is my way of saying, many thank yous to everyone!!
Sincere thanks to my congenial colleague, Dr. Yukiko Inoue, Professorof Foundations and Educational Research at the University of Guam, for her
consultations, reviews of drafts and assistance with Japanese language and othermatters. I also appreciate the thoughtful comments and suggestions of other readers,
including: Professor Donald Austin (Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu,
China); Professor David Hales (Westminster College, Salt Lake City, Utah); Professor
Rick L. Castro, Dr. Nick Goetzfridt, and Professor Christine Scott-Smith (all of the
University of Guam); and Dr. Peter C. Mayer, economist retired from the Guam Power
Authority.
Kapingamarangi map used with permission from Asako Ashby, widow of Gene
Ashby, author of Pohnpei, an Island Argosy. Expanded Edition. 408 pp., Rainy Day
Press, Kolonia, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia.

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