South Paciﬁc Studies Vol. 26, No.1, 2005

Critical Thinking and Diversity Experiences: The Case of
An American Paciﬁc Island University
Yukiko INOUE
School of Education, University of GuamUOG Station, Mangilao, Guam 96923 USA
Abstract
Critical thinking is an important learning outcome for college students. A review of the literatureshows that this skill is affected by a number of factors, including exposure to cultural diversity. The
University of Guam (UOG) located in the western Paciﬁc is multicultural and multilingual. Using datafrom focus groups, this study examined the perceived influence of diversity experiences on criticalthinking among UOG students in the College of Professional Studies (Business, Education, and Nursing).
The study participants deﬁned critical thinking as the act of independently and systematically weighing
evidence to make an evaluation and judgment, to determine merits, and to increase a desirable outcome.
Diversity experiences helped the participants to develop sensitivity and awareness of self. The ﬁndings ofthis study conﬁrm the results of prior studies on diversity and critical thinking. Educational importance of
the ﬁndings was discussed in detail.
Key words: critical thinking, diversity experience, critical academic skills, focus group studies

Introduction
One of the most important aims of education, especially at the college level, is tofoster students’ ability to think critically, to reason, and to use judgment effectively indecision-making (MCMILLAN 1987). Guiding students toward becoming critical thinkers
has always been a primary goal of the university experience (GWARTNEY 2003); however,“Is critical thinking a way to think about subject matter, or is it a way of thinking about
thinking? Is it a kind of knowledge or a skill or habit?”(p. 22). There is no agreed upondeﬁnition of critical thinking and many different instruments are used for its assessment(RYKIEL 2000). In management courses, “critical thinking skills are to do research, analyze
data, critically evaluate the results, and present the findings in a well-argued paper orwell-crafted presentation” (MALEKZADEH 1998, p. 590). “Critical academic skills aremeasures of student performance…. Critical thinking skills, speech, writing, reading,group interaction, and quantitative reasoning skills have many overlapping components”(LARSON and WISSMA 2000, p. 43). Critical thinking is an important learning outcome forcollege students, even though it seems that they are encouraged to learn or memorize whatis written in textbooks.
Diversity is a characteristic of American higher learning; in fact, “one of thestrengths of American higher education is its remarkable diversity” (RYKIEL 2000, p. 47).
The profile of the student body in American higher education has drastically changed(MARCY 2004). Over the past three decades, people have witnessed the entrance of women
Received March 2, 2005
Accepted Aug. 31, 2005
E-mail: yinoue@uog9. uog.edu

26South Paciﬁc Studies Vol. 26, No.1, 2005

to American higher education in large numbers in the 1970s, the open recruitment of older
students in the late 1970s and in the 1980s, and the active enticement of ethnic minorities
in the 1980s and 1990s (MUSIL 1996). The Gladstone Web site (Summer Diversity 1999)
has described “diversity” as follows:
The concept of diversity encompasses acceptance and respect. It means
understanding that each individual is unique, and recognizing our individual
differences. These can be along the dimensions of race, age, physical abilities,
religious beliefs, political beliefs, or other ideologies. It is the exploration of thesedifferences in a safe, positive, and nurturing environment. It is about understanding
each other and moving beyond simple tolerance to embracing and celebrating therich dimensions of diversity contained within each individual.
Diversity should be embraced and celebrated; students should be encouraged tointegrate a multicultural perspective that helps them become critical consumers of culture
because openness for cultural learning is at the heart of building a multicultural society(ORTIZ and RHOADS 2000). GARMAN’s (2004) study found that factors associated with thedevelopment of greater multicultural awareness and sensitivity are openness to diversity,
self-reﬂection, and intercultural experiences.
A variety of studies examined the influence of diversity experiences on criticalthinking. For instance, students’ involvement in diversity experiences during college havestatistically signiﬁcant positive effects on standardized measures of critical thinking skills(PASCARELLA, PALMER, MOYE and PIERSON 2001). Academic and social integration plays animportant role in college students’ perceived gains in critical thinking and communication
skills: critical thinking refers to the ability to think analytically and solve problems
effectively, whereas communication skills are commonly referred to as the ability to writeand speak clearly and effectively (LI, LONG and SIMPSON 1999). The relationships between
diversity experience and academic progress are similar for minority and non-minority
students (EIMERS 2001). Aspects of the general college experiences, rather than particulardisciplinary differences, influenced cognitive development, including critical thinking(INMAN and PASCARELLA 1998).
An American Paciﬁc Island University
As a U.S. institution of higher learning in the western Paciﬁc and as the only fouryear university in Micronesia, The University of Guam (UOG) serves the communities
of Guam, Micronesia, and the neighboring regions of the Pacific and Asia. Just as theUnited States has higher participation rates for women than for men in higher education(BANK 1995), as seen in Table 1, so at UOG the number of female students (1851, or62%) is larger by far than that of male students (1137, or 38%). In fall 2003, the total
student enrollment reached almost 3000 with a full time faculty base of 181 (UOG
Human Resources Office). UOG students come from Guam, the U.S. mainland, thevarious islands of Micronesia, the Philippines, India, Korea, Japan, China, and Taiwan.
Approximately 90% of the student body is either indigenous (called “Chamorros”), or
Asian and Paciﬁc Islander decent (see Table 1), while approximately 60% of the facultyis from a Caucasian background (Human Resources Ofﬁce). UOG is a diverse university
campus within the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC), as expressed

INOUE: Critical Thinking and Diversity Experiences

27

by Manuel Esteban, co-Chair of the WASC accreditation team, who visited UOG in 2000:“People in the mainland talk about diversity, and most struggle just to get a student bodythat is representative of a region. But here you have an exceptionally diverse population,
both in terms of the students, the faculty, and the administration” (Triton’s Call, March 29,
2000, p. 2).
Table 1. Ethnic and Gender Proﬁle of Students (Fall 2003).
GenderMale
FemaleEthnicity
Am. Indian/Alaskan
Amerind/Alaskanative
Asian-Thailand
Asian-Chinese
Asian-Filipino
Asian-Indian
Asian-JapaneseAsian-Korean
Asian-Other
Asian-Vietnamese
Asian/Paciﬁc IslanderBlack Non Hispanic
Chamorro (CNMI)
Chamorro (GUAM)
Chamorro-Guam
Chamorro-Saipan, Rota, Tinian
Hispanic
Micronesian-Chuukese
Micronesian-Kosraen
Micronesian-Marshallese
Micronesian-Palauan
Micronesian-Ponapean
Micronesian-Yapese
Other
Paciﬁc Other
Philippine-Other
TagalogVietnameseWhite Non Hispanic
YapeseTotal
2988 records listed

Source: Registrar’s Ofﬁce, University of Guam

1137
1851
5
1
2
40
965
10
27
76
7
2
15
15
1
13
1309
56
21
54
10
8
80
12
16
33
25
1
9
2
171
2
========
2988

28South Paciﬁc Studies Vol. 26, No.1, 2005

Teaching at UOG is challenging and UOG provides an excellent setting for the studyof cultural diversity and critical thinking. Two principal objectives of this study were:• To achieve a better understanding of how undergraduate students define criticalthinking.
• To achieve a better understanding of the perceived inﬂuence of diversity experienceson the development of critical thinking among undergraduate students.
Methodology
Sample and Data Collection
Focus groups were used for data collection in this study. The participants for thefocus groups were identiﬁed and recruited from the UOG undergraduate students enrolled
in the fall 2003 semester in the College of Professional Studies. The College consistsof the School of Business, the School of Education, and the School of Nursing. Six toeight students were selected based on the student rosters of each of the three schools—asrecommended by KRUEGER and CASEY (2000): “The ideal size of a focus group for most
non-commercial topics is six to eight participants” (p. 73).
Three focused interviews were conducted—one for each school. A focused interview
is a special form of in-depth interviews in which the researcher attempts to focus thediscussion on a particular experience (KRUEGER and CASEY 2000). The homogeneity ofparticipants is, in general, an assumption of focus groups. This has the advantage of highface validity, but the generalization of focus group data can be limited. The goal of the
focus study is to understand respondents’ points of view and to be able to communicate
these to the audience, so from a strict sense (KRUEGER and CASEY 2000):
one cannot generalize, but what we suggest is the concept of transferability. Thatis, when a person wants to use the results, he or she should think about whether
the ﬁndings could transfer into another environment. What we suggest is that you
consider the methods, procedures, and audience and then decide the degree towhich these results ﬁt the situation you face. (p. 203)
To ensure that participants actually show up for the session, the following steps
were taken: the establishment of convenient meeting times and places; the sending ofa reminder e-mail one week before the scheduled session; and the telephoning of eachpotential participant two days before the session. Videotaping was used as recommended
by WIERSMA (2000): “If focus groups are used, videotaping can be effective. It is difﬁcult
for an observer to pick up the entire discussion because of the rate at which it occurs”(p. 249). Videotapes also allow the researcher to review repeatedly for the purpose ofobtaining more information. Because of the exploratory nature of this study, specifichypotheses had not been established. Each session continued about 80 minutes.

INOUE: Critical Thinking and Diversity Experiences

29

Findings and Discussion
On the days of the sessions, 5 female and 2 male (n = 7) students (3 Chamorros, 2Phillpinos, 1 Chinese, and 1 Micronesian) showed up from the School of Education. FromBusiness, 3 female and 2 male (n = 5) students (2 Chamorros, 1 Phillpino, 1 Chinese, and1 Korean) came. From Nursing, 6 female and 2 male (n = 8) students (3 Chamorros, 2Philipinos, 1 White, 1 Indian, and 1 Paciﬁc Islander) showed up. Most of the participants
were juniors and seniors.
Topic 1: Deﬁnitions of Critical Thinking
When asked what critical thinking meant to the participants, the typical answersof the students in the School of Business were “judgments and evaluations, involving
life experiences, human interactions, and cultural awareness and, oftentimes, involving
analytical thinking,” supporting MACPHERSON’s (1999) deﬁnition: critical thinking is theability to perform assessment tasks based on evaluation and judgment. The participants’points of view are similar to LARSON and WIERSMA’s (2000) categories of critical academic
skills (problem solving, culture and society, oral communication, and group interaction).
Students in Education defined critical thinking as “analysis, synthesis, and evaluation
following Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives that reﬂects successive degrees ofcognitive domain,” supporting LI, LONG and SIMPSON’s (1999) deﬁnition: “Critical thinking
refers to the ability to think analytically and solve problems effectively” (p. 44). Students
in Nursing deﬁned critical thinking as “a situation analysis, which involves the way ofknowing outside the box; in the nursing program, education is nothing but a process,involving rationales, principles, comprehensions, formulated goals, and alternative
solutions.”
The deﬁnitions of the participants can be summarized as follows: critical thinking
might be the act of independently and systematically weighing evidence to make anevaluation and judgment, to determine merits, and to increase a desirable outcome using
cognitive skills and strategies. The goal of critical thinking is to arrive at a judgment,
whereas problem solving is a process that comprises many decision points at which a
judgment must be made (MACPHERSON 1999). Perhaps, for college students, to practice
critical thinking is as important as being able to solve math problems, just as math skills
apply to the everyday situation, critical thinking is a life-skill.
Topic 2: Diversity Experiences and Critical Thinking
When asked how or what diversity experiences influenced the perceived
development of critical thinking, the typical answers of the focus group participants wereas follows:
Biased generalization•
Prejudices, biases, and stereotypes are everywhere, even at UOG. People use astereotype because of its easy application. Coping with these negative factors, I
have learned how important for us to share our own cultural experiences in orderto develop positive relations.
•Through interactions with ethnically diverse students and the faculty, I haveparticularly learned that we should not generalize people. We do, for instance,30

South Paciﬁc Studies Vol. 26, No.1, 2005

Koreans are like this, or Japanese are like this…. This kind of generalization iswrong and dangerous.
•
Many of the UOG students have dual-ethnic backgrounds (half Chamorro and half
Philipino, for example), so we have a tendency to understand other cultures, andat the same time I have learned the importance of becoming conﬁdent with myown self-identity.
Stereotypes are “examples of categories of people… most stereotypes end up as
negative labels placed on individuals simply because they are members of a particulargroup” (CUSHNER, MCCLELLAND, and SAFFORD 2000, p. 82). People use a stereotype (which
is a biased generalization), not because it is widely known and perpetuated, but because
people have learned it as part of their culture from generation to generation (LEFRANCOIS
1999 ) . Specifically, “Knowledge of cultural diversity is largely constructed fromstereotypical images fostered by families, friends, communities, and media” (SOMMER
2002, p. 276). It may be that issues that are most deeply related to a sense of self are themost profound cultural experiences on campus. As SOMMER (2001) put it, “Faculty andstudents bring their personal cultural experiences, biases, prejudices, and expectations tothe classroom. Encouraging dialog and openness about cultural similarities and differencesamong faculty and students offers a tremendous opportunity” (p.276). Through theseexperiences, students can explore perspectives outside their own range of experiences,increasing their cultural awareness.
Beyond black and white•
When talk about diversity in the United States, discussions usually involve theblack and white populations. Here in Guam and at UOG the term diversity extends
beyond black and white, including Asians and Micronesians.
•
I appreciate the diverse population of the UOG students. Through class meetingsand ﬁeld experiences as well as out-of-class experiences (e.g., clubs, and social
activities), I have learned that even facial expression and body language can help
us understand one another.
•
We have been aware of the differences in race and language since we are very
young; UOG is valuable because we are able to practice cultural sensitivity, andcritical self-reﬂection.
•
Non-traditional aged students are welcome. They have lots of life experiences andthus associating with them helps us to enhance survival skills as well as people
skills.
Most race discussions in the U.S. tend to end up as black and white, as if no one
else really existed (K NEFELKAMP and D AVID -L ANG 2003). The issue of race at UOG
involves an eclectic sampling of ethnic backgrounds represented in the university
community, providing a rich environment for student’s challenges in developing a criticalconsciousness relating racial, cultural, and ethnic diversity. Self-reflection and cultural
critical consciousness, in GAY and KIRKLAND’s (2003) words, “are imperative to improving
the educational opportunities and outcomes for students of color. They involve thoroughly
analysing and carefully monitoring both personal beliefs and instructional behaviors about
the value of cultural diversity” (p.182). Critical reﬂection is “a personal and challenging
look at one’s identity as an individual person and as an active professional”(HOWARD 2003,
p.201). As WARD (2002) put it, “Meaningful ﬁeld experiences that further the expansion of

INOUE: Critical Thinking and Diversity Experiences

31

knowledge and appreciation of people coming from various cultural backgrounds” (p.22).
The participants recognized that working on group projects with ethnically diverse
students promote their critical and creative thinking skills. This point of view supports
LYNN’s (1998) observation: “One of the richest vehicles for enhancing student learning in
the classroom is the diversity of students themselves” (p.123). DAVIS (1993) recommends
giving assignments and exams that recognize students’ diverse backgrounds and special
interests. In addition to the diversiﬁed student population (in terms of ethnicity and social
status), non-traditional-aged students are greatly increasing in American higher education.
UOG is not an exception. As the participants described, “It is beneficial to tap theknowledge and experiences of non-traditional students, allowing younger students to learn
from older students, and vice versa” (FINKEL 1999, p.33).
Based on the discussion above, as THOMPSON, MARTIN, RICHARDS and BRANSON (2003)
reviewed, critical thinking is a process that is reﬂective and imaginative; an intellectual
function of adulthood, and a necessity for personal survival; and an interpretation,
analysis, inference, evaluation, and explanation, which make up the interactive process ofcritical thinking.
Teachers as facilitators•
UOG is small and students have lots of opportunities to interact with professors,learning a particular subject. Students also learn their critical approaches toteaching. UOG professors know student names, which makes it easier for the
students to communicate with them.
•
Good teachers facilitate students to think critically and analytically, providing
knowledge and applications useful in real world situations, and using a classroom
as community.
•
Learning from ethnically diverse teachers is beneficial. Integrating their own
cultural experiences into the learning climate makes the teaching processeven better. Some professors’ instruction is based on the culturally pluralistic
curriculum, using up-dated textbooks.
The participants appreciated the fact that UOG is small, which enables them tohave informal contact with the faculty. Ongoing contact outside the classroom provides
strong motivation for students to perform well in class, and students who come to ofﬁce
hours can get benefit from the one-to-one conversation and attention (DAVIS 1993).
Students are rewarded by taking a more up-dated curriculum that teaches them about
diversity, integration, globalization, and critical thinking (MALEKZADEH 1998). WARD
(2002) maintains that teachers should be facilitators and authentic individuals who share
relevant personal experiences in terms of racism, positive human relations, and criticalthinking. Indeed, “Effective teaching strategies for multicultural education emphasize
educating students to become critical thinkers…. Students are encouraged to discuss,debate, disagree, and ultimately teach one another” (SOMMER 2001, pp.277-278). Palmer’s
notion of “we teach who we are” has significant implications for teachers of today’s
learners (HOWARD 2003, p.198). Therefore, “Teachers knowing who they are as people,
understanding the contexts in which they teach, and questioning their knowledge andassumptions are as important as the mastery of techniques for instructional effectiveness”(GAY and KIRKLAND 2003, p.181).

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South Paciﬁc Studies Vol. 26, No.1, 2005

Conclusion
This study was not intended to generalize but to understand the participants’ pointsof view on two topics. Even though the ﬁndings are unique to the participants, this study
has revealed:•
Ethnic diversity provides students with opportunities to enhance cultural
sensitivity, which in turn can enrich the intellectual development including criticalthinking.
•
Students gain insight into how to maintain their own high ethnic values andbehaviors and how to think about cultural and racial matters scholarly andcritically.
•
Students learn to attach positive feelings to multicultural experiences so thatthey feel respectful toward other ethnic and cultural groups, developing criticalreﬂection.
In the final analysis, diversity is given in a university such as UOG, and suchdiversity represents an opportunity and a potential source of enrichment in higher learning.
In other words, the findings of this focus study suggest that UOG is the best equipped
to help students move from a denial or a minimization of difference to an acceptance,
an adaptation, and an integration of cultural diversity into their own worldview. Faculty
members at an institution of higher education like UOG must continuously challenge
their perceptions and attitudes as well as their pedagogic practices in the classroom.
In responding to the multicultural nature of UOG, the future study should focus on thefaculty members’ actual practices of diversity and critical thinking.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported in part by grant from the University of Guam ( The2003 President’s Research Award ). The author also acknowledges the assistance ofthe following faculty members of this University: M. Hattori-Uchima of the Schoolof Nursing, R. McNinch of the School of Business, and J. Sanchez of the School of
Education.
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