Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia

WEPA
Outlook of Water Environmental
Management Strategies in Asia

Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA)
Ministry of the Environment, Japan
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia

Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA)
The Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA) is a five-year project initiated by the Ministry of theEnvironment of Japan in 2004, which aims to strengthen good water environmental governance throughthe establishment of an information platform and enhancement of water management capacities of
WEPA’s 11 partner countries in East Asia. The first phase of WEPA concluded in March 2009. The second
phase will begin in April 2009.
One of the outputs of WEPA is an online database that is accessible to the public. The database includes
four sections on the water policies, technologies, non-governmental and community-based activities andadditional information resources. For more information on WEPA, please visit http://www.wepa-db.net

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia
Copyright © 2009 Ministry of the Environment, JapanAll rights reserved.
No parts of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from Ministry of theEnvironment Japan through the Institute for Global Environment Strategies (IGES), which serves as the WEPA Secretariat.

ISBN: 978-4-88788-052-8
This publication is made as a part of WEPA and published by the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES).

Ministry of the Environment, Japan
1-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 100-8795, Japan
Tel: +81-(0)3-3581-3351
http://www.env.go.jp/en/

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)
2108-11 Kamiyamaguchi, Hayama, Kanagawa, 240-0115, Japan
Tel: +81-(0)46-855-3700
http://www.iges.or.jp/

Cover design by Impression Company
Printed and bound by Sato Printing Co. Ltd.
Printed in Japan

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia

Contents
Background to the publication ···················································································································· i
Acknowledgements····································································································································iii
Abbreviations and Acronyms ····················································································································· v

Executive Summary··································································································································vii

Cambodia ·················································································································································· 1
China ························································································································································· 5Indonesia ··················································································································································· 9Japan ·······················································································································································13
Republic of Korea ····································································································································17
Lao PDR ··················································································································································21
Malaysia···················································································································································25
Myanmar··················································································································································29
The Philippines ········································································································································33
Thailand ···················································································································································37
Viet Nam ··················································································································································41

Appendix I.

Government Regulation No. 38 in 2007 Concerning the Assignment of Authority
between Central, Provincial, and District/City Governments (INDONESIA) ···················45

Appendix II.

Legislative Framework for Water Environment Management ·········································46

Appendix III.

List of Environmental Water Quality Standards ······························································47

Appendix IV.

List of Effluent Standards ································································································49

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia

Background to the publication
This publication is one of the major outputs of the Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA).
WEPA aims to strengthen water environmental governance in Asia through the collection anddissemination of information and capacity development of relevant stakeholders in partnership witheleven countries in the region, namely Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Lao PDR,
Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam.
Information on the state of the water environment and its management exists in various media, but it isprovided in different ways and is not available in one place. In recognition of the importance of extracting
such pieces of information and making it available to the public in one platform as a source of knowledge
topromote

good

water

environmental

governance,

WEPA

has

developedadatabase(http://www.wepa-db.net/) in partnership with the program’s partner countries. This database, whichcontains information on policies, technologies and activities of non-governmental/community-basedorganizations involved in conservation of the water environment, is open to all interested in water
environmental issues.
Having the same objective as the WEPA database, this publication provides summaries of basic
information on the status and management of the water environment in each WEPA partner country,
including legislative frameworks and existing and future management challenges. By organizing suchbasic information in the same format, the outlook intends to facilitate mutual understanding among
WEPA partner countries and provide a basis to share future lessons for better water management. Thisoutlook may also serve as a helpful reference for those interested in water environmental issues in othercountries throughout the world.

March 2009

Ministry of the Environment, Japan
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (WEPA Secretariat)iOutlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asiaii

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia

Acknowledgements
The WEPA Secretariat would like to express their appreciation to its collaborators in each WEPA partnercountry for their contributions and support to the preparation of this publication. The Secretariat also
wishes to thank the WEPA Advisory Committee, headed by Dr. Mitsumasa Okada, Professor at
Hiroshima University, for their guidance and encouragement.

Focal Points in WEPA Partner Countries (as of 1 March 2009)
CHINA
Drinking Water Source Protection Division, Pollution Prevention Department, Ministry of Environmental
Protection
CAMBODIA
Mr. Sokha Chrin, Deputy Director General, General Directorate of Technical Affairs, Ministry ofEnvironment
INDONESIA
Mr. Nursiwan Taqim, Assistant Deputy for Environmental Data and Information, The State Ministry ofEnvironment
LAO PDR
Mr. Souphasay Komany, Assistant Director, Water Resources Coordination Committee Secretariat,
Prime Minister’s OfficeJAPAN
Mr. Hirokazu Iwasaki, Deputy Director, Water Environment Division, Environmental Management Bureau,
Ministry of the Environment, Japan
REPUBLIC OF KOREA
Mr. Taegu Kang, Senior Researcher, Water Environment Information Center, Water Environment Control
Research Division, Water Environment Research Department, National Institute of Environmental
Research, Ministry of Environment
MYANMARMr. Hla Baw, Director, Irrigation Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation
MALAYSIA
Mr. Badaruddin Bin Mahyudin, Division Secretary, Division of Irrigation and Drainage, Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment
Mr. Ahmad Jamalluddin Shaaban, Acting Director General, National Hydraulic Research Institute of
Malaysia (NAHRIM)
THE PHILIPPINES
Ms. Erlinda Gonzalez, Chief, Environmental Quality Division, Environmental Management Bureau,
Department of Environment and Natural Resourcesiii

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia

THAILAND
Ms. Thiparpa Yolthantham, Director, Inland Water Division, Water Quality Management Bureau, Pollution
Control Department, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
VIET NAM
Mr. Nguyen The Dong, Deputy Director General, General Department of Environment, Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment

The Secretariat would also like to express their gratitude to the following experts who also
provided substantial input to this publication.
Mr. Aksa Tejalaksana, Sub Head Section of Clearinghouse, The State Ministry of Environment,Indonesia
Mr. Jae-Kwan Lee, Head, Water Environment Research Centre of Nakdong River (the former WEPA
focal point of Republic of Korea)
Ms. Salmah Zakaria, Former Director General, National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia(NAHRIM) (the former WEPA focal point of Malaysia)
Mr. Juhaimi Jusoh, Director, Water Quality and Environment Research Center, NAHRIM, Malaysia
Ms. Hoo Huey Ching, Research Officer, Water Quality and Environment Research Center, NAHRIM,
Malaysia
Ms. Mu Mu Than, Assistant Engineer, Irrigation Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation,
Myanmar (the former WEPA focal point of Myanmar)
Mr. Do Nam Thang, Research Fellow, Institute of Science for Environmental Management (ISEM),
Vietnam Environment Administration, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Viet Nam

iv

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia

Abbreviations and Acronyms
ADB

Asian Development BankADIPURA

Letter of Clean City (Indonesia)

BOD

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

MBAS

CBOs

Community-Based organizations

MCDC

Chl-a

Chlorophyll a

COD

Chemical Oxygen Demand

CNMC

Cambodia National Mekong Committee

CWQM

Continuous Water Quality Monitoring

DDA

Department of Development Affairs

LLDA

Laguna Lake Development Authority(Philippines)
Methylene Blue Active Substances
Mandalay City Development Committee(Myanmar)

MEP

Ministry of Environmental Protection(China)MIC

Ministry of Industry and Commerce (LaoPDR)

(Myanmar)

MoE

Ministry of Environment (Cambodia)

DENR

Department of Environment and Natural

MOE

Ministry of Environment (Republic of Korea)

Resources (Philippines)

MONRE

DO

Dissolved Oxygen

DOE

Department of Environment (Malaysia)

DWR

Department of Water Resources (Lao PDR)

Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment (Viet Nam)

MoWRAM

Ministry of Water Resources andMeteorology (Cambodia)

EC

European Commission

E. coli

Escherichia coli

EIA

Environmental Impact Assessment

MRC

Mekong River Committee

EMB

Environmental Management Bureau

MWQM

Manual Water Quality Monitoring

MPN/100mL

Most Probable Number (unit for coliform
bacteria count)(Philippines)(Malaysia)

EQS

Environmental Quality Standards

MWR

Ministry of Water Resources (China)

EQA

Environmental Quality Act (Malaysia)

NAHRIM

National Hydraulic Research Institute of

EQR

Environment Quality Report (Malaysia)

EWQS

Environmental Water Quality Standards

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization of the

Malaysia
NCEA

National Commission for Environmental
Affairs (Myanmar)

United Nations

NGOs

Non-Governmental Organizations

Fecal Coliform Bacteria

NPC

National People's Congress (China)GDP

Gross Domestic Product

NRE

GMS

Greater Mekong Sub-region

HABs

harmful algal blooms

IRBM

Integrated River Basin Management

ISES

Industry-Specific Effluent Standards

FCB

NSDW

NWQS

National Water Quality Standards(Malaysia)

International Union for Conservation ofOECD

NatureIMWQS

National Standards for Drinking Water(Philippines)(Philippines)
IUCN

Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment (Malaysia)

Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development

Interim Marine Water Quality Standards

PCB

Polychlorinated Biphenyl(Malaysia)

PCD

Pollution Control Department (Thailand)

JICA

Japan International Cooperation Agency

PDA

Population and Development Association

LEP

Law on Environmental Protection (Lao

LGUs

Local Government Units (Philippines)(Thailand)

PDR)

pH

Power of Hydrogen (hydrogen-ion
concentration)v

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia

PHP

Philippines Peso

TCE

Trichloroethylene

PNDWQS

Proposed National Drinking Water Quality

TDS

Total Dissolved Solids

Standards (Myanmar)

TKN

Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen

PROKASIH

Letter of Clean River Program (Indonesia)

TN

Total Nitrogen

PROPER

Letter of Program for Pollution Control

TOC

Total Organic Carbon

Evaluation and Rating (Indonesia)

TP

Total Phosphorus

PRPC

SEPA

Pasig River Rehabilitation Commission

TPLC

Total Pollution Load Control(Philippines)

TS

Total Solids

State Environment Protection

TSS

Total Suspended Solids

Administration (China)

TWPLMS

Total Water Pollution Load Management

SMEs

Small and Medium EnterprisesSS

Suspended Solids

UNICEF

United Nations Children's Fund

System (Korea)

STEA

Science Technology and Environment

US EPA

United States Environmental Protection

Agency (Lao PDR)STORET

AgencyShort for STOrage and RETrievalt

VOC

Volatile Organic Carbon(Indonesia)

WEPA

Water Environment Partnership in Asia

Letter of Declaration for Clean River

WHO

World Health Organization(Indonesia)

WQI

Water Quality Index

SUPER

Letter of Declaration (Indonesia)

WQMA

Water Quality Management Areas

SWMA/ LUAS

Selangor Waters Management Authority

SUPERKASIH(Philippines)(Malaysia)

WREA

SWPZ

Source Water Protection Zoning (China)

SWP

Sources Water Protection

TC

Total Carbon

TCB

Total Coliform Bacteria

Water Resources and Environment
Administration (Lao PDR)

(China)

WRUD

Water Resources Utilization Department(Myanmar)

YCDC

vi

Yangon City Development Committee

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia

Executive Summary
Deterioration of water quality signifies a reduction of accessibility to water resources available fordomestic, agricultural and industrial use. It is closely connected to international sustainable development
goals such as access to safe water and sanitation facility. In spite of the importance of this issue, it has
not been well addressed in the international arena, in comparison with water quantity related issues.
WEPA’s partner countries differ in their management of the water environment, although they may havemuch in common culturally, geographically, and environmentally. In terms of water environmental
management, WEPA partner countries share spatial and seasonal variations in water availability, whichmakes water environmental management that much more complicated.
Legislative frameworks for water environmental management have been strengthened in most WEPA
partner countries, especially since the World Summit for Sustainable Development (UNCED) in 1992.
Most partner countries view the protection of human health and the quality of environment as the goal ofwater environmental management, recognizing that it is an essential element for sustainable
development in each country. However, the status of implementation is different in each country. In somecountries, water quality has improved in general, but there are still severe pollution problems in someareas, especially in urban and peri-urban areas. Even in countries such as in Lao PDR and Cambodia
where water is believed to be generally good in quality, water pollution in areas with rapid population
increase has become a significant problem, especially during dry seasons.
The framework of water environmental management has been strengthened since 2000 in many WEPA
partner countries, reflecting the actual state of the water environment in each country. For example, in
the Philippines, the national government has revised the Clean Water Act and overhauled water quality
management at the local level to take suitable actions to the local situation with involvement of local
stakeholders. Thailand has been promoting public participation and voluntary approach in their water
environmental policy. Korea has also introduced total pollution load control at the basin level. In Japan,
the Law concerning Special Measures for Preservation of Lake Water Quality was amended tostrengthen the non-point source control measures. In Viet Nam, water quality and effluent standards
were revised to reflect the real situation in the country. The revision of effluent standards is now underconsideration in such countries as Malaysia and the Philippines, in view of each country’s industrial
structure. As such, legislative frameworks have evolved to improve the enforcement of water
environmental management laws and regulations.
However, enhancing the effectiveness of water environment management remains the major challenge
for most countries. In this publication, the following common concerns for effective implementation are
identified:vii

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia

(1)

Decentralization of management
Responsibility of water environmental management has been delegated to local governments insome countries, but unclear demarcations of responsibility between national and local
governments and insufficient capacity of local government staff has been identified as amanagement challenge. In countries where basin level management is promoted, policymakers
must consider how to involve and mobilize local stakeholders.

(2)

Proper monitoring and collection of monitoring data to identify if targets/objectives of water
environment conservation have been achieved
Water quality standards have already been established in most WEPA partner countries as thetargets for water environmental management. However, water quality is not always monitored
sufficiently to evaluate water quality in comparison with water quality standards. The technicalcapacity of staff must also be addressed to ensure the proper monitoring and collection of data.

(3)

Introduction and management of wastewater treatment facilities
For countries that do not have centralized wastewater treatment facilities, especially in urban areas,
the introduction of wastewater treatment facilities is crucial to allow countries to cope withincreasing pollution loads. The operation and management of wastewater treatment facilities areoften also issues in countries where wastewater treatment facilities have already established.
Wastewater from small- and medium-sized industries and farms is also a common and criticalissue among WEPA partner countries when addressing the improvement of water quality. For
domestic wastewater treatment in rural areas, the introduction of decentralized wastewater
treatment is an issue that must be looked at in detail.

(4)

Consistency of water environment management policies and river/lake basin management policies
Integrated water resource management, or river basin management, is an important concept toimprove water environmental governance. Basin level management has been introduced in somecountries, but water quality management aspects are not always well addressed. The issue of how
water quality and quantity should be managed together is a common challenge for all WEPA
partner countries. Pollution of enclosed bodies, such as lakes, is another prevailing issue for WEPA
partner countries.

(5)

Awareness raising and capacity building
Raising the awareness of stakeholders is very important to promote the enforcement of laws andregulations. For example, raising the awareness of local residents through participation in water
quality management programs will heighten people’s interest in the water environment and canfacilitate future action. Capacity building of all stakeholders at different levels should be highlighted
in the promotion of good water environmental governance. In particular, it is important to develop
the capacity of policy makers to be more effective in finding solutions to water environmental
issues.

Although many countries have promoted water environmental management within their own borders, thepressure on the water environment is expected to grow. In addition to existing social and economic
factors, the potential impact of climate change on water availability and its use may further increase thevulnerability of the water environment. To overcome such pressures and conserve the water
environment, it is crucial to place good water environmental governance at the forefront in every country.

viiiOutlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Cambodia

CambodiaCountry Information
Area (km2)
Population
at current prices
GDP (USD)
per capita
Mean annual precipitation (mm)Renewable water resources (m3)
Total water withdrawal (m3)Agriculture
Industry
Water use
Domestic
by purpose
Livestock
Other

comes from its own catchment areas. In the dry season(November to April), the Tonle Sap Great Lake occupies anarea of about 3,000km2 (about 100km long and 32km wide),with an average depth of 0.8 to 1.0m. During the rainy season(May to October), it expands to about 16,000km2, with anapproximate depth varying from 10 to 12m. The Tonle Sap
River reverses its flow, draining the Tonle Sap Great Lake into
the Mekong River during the dry season, and partially filling thelake from the Mekong River during the wet season.

181,035
14.4 million (2007)
8,639 mil (2007)
598 (2007)
1,000-2,500476 billion
520 million (1987)
56 %
4%
17 %
13 %
10 %

The Tonle Sap Great Lake provides water, soils, inundated
forest, fish, waterfowls and various plants and animals forsupporting livelihoods of much of the Cambodian population. It
is the most productive lake in terms of fish, and almost 60 to 70
percent of the fish consumed throughout the country are derived
from the Tonle Sap Great Lake. Flooded forests of different
types are playing many roles in sustaining biodiversity and theTonle Sap ecosystem. Flooded forests are the breeding andfeeding habitats for fish and other species. It is also considered
one of the wetlands of international significance in Southeast
Asia, in which many waterfowls, including a dozen rare andendangered water birds such as pelicans, lesser adjutants,
greater adjutants, etc., are found. Other wild animals such as
snakes, turtles, crocodiles, wild pigs, monkeys, otters, andmacaque are also found in the Tonle Sap Great Lake.

Water Bodies in Cambodia

Presently, more than 30 percent of the total Cambodian
population lives in the six provinces around the Tonle Sap Great
Lake (Kampong Chhnang, Pousat, Bat Dambang, Banteay
Mean Chey, Siem Reab, and Kampong Thum), and depend on
the Tonle Sap Great Lake and its floodplain for their livelihood.
Cambodia is believed to support 120 mammal species, 600 bird
species, and an unknown number of reptiles, amphibians andother animal groups. More than 500 fish species inhabit theinland waters of Cambodia, of which 280 are known from the
Tonle Sap Great Lake.

State of Water Resources
The Mekong catchments make up 86 percent of the countryarea. The country is amply supplied with water from the MekongRiver, Tonle Sap River, Bassac River, Tonle Sap Great Lake,and other tributaries during the rainy season. However, mostparts of the country confront water shortages especially fordomestic and irrigation use during the dry season because of
insufficient infrastructure development such as water storage,
reservoirs, canals and irrigated systems.
The main beneficial use of water is agriculture of which theshare of total water use is 56 percent, followed by domestic use
17 percent, livestock use 13 percent, industrial use four percent
and other purposes 10 percent (Sunthan 2008).

Because of very flat topography of the plain around the Tonle
Sap Great Lake, variations in water volume stored in the lake
result in large variations of the flooded surface. Two national
highways around the lake (i.e. National Road No. 5 and No. 6)
correspond approximately to the limit of the expansion of thelake water at its highest level. The storage volume of the lake
estimated by Carbonnel and Guiscafré (1963) by water balancemethod (which is not very accurate) is approximately 72 billion
m3, or 16 percent of the annual discharge of the Mekong River.
More accurate estimations of the lake storage capacity would
require bathymetric and topographic surveys of the lake, whichhave never been carried out.

The Tonle Sap Great Lake
The Tonle Sap Great Lake, a unique hydrological andecological system located within Cambodia, is a natural
resource of great regional importance to the Greater Mekong
Sub-region (GMS). More than 60 percent of the floodwater inthe lake comes from the Mekong River and less than 40 percent

State of Water Quality
Water quality is generally in a good condition in Cambodia,
but water quality in some areas is threatened, especially during
1Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Cambodia

the dry season, by various socio-economic activities, such asdischarges from industries and mining, agricultural practices
using agro-chemicals, untreated urban wastewater, solid andliquid waste discharges from slaughterhouses and livestock
farms, and transportation by waterway.

considered to be one of the economic centers of Cambodia islocated in Sihanoukville province. The coast receives two tidal
regimes per day with amplitudes of 1.50m, and approximate
surface current of 0.2 to 0.7 miles per hour. Wave amplitudes of
2.0 to 3.0m (during the rainy season) and 0.25 to 0.50m (during
the dry season) are not uncommon.

River water
The analysis outcomes of water samples taken fromdesignated sampling points in the Mekong River, Tonle Sap
River, Tonle Sap Great Lake and Bassac River from 2004 to2007 (MoE 2008) indicate that these natural water sources meetthe standards in the National Water Quality Standards in public
water areas for biodiversity conservation. However, during thedry season, especially in April, BOD values exceeded the water
quality standard at some public water areas, and the value of
coliform noticeably increased from February to July. Increased
levels of agricultural herbicides, fertilizer and pesticides, andsedimentation, resulting from land clearing for agriculturalobjectives, is contributing to the overall decrease in water
quality.

The oxygen concentration of the coastal waters remain
almost stable; in the early part of the dry season, saturation at
surface water is 102 to 104 percent and dissolved oxygen (DO)fluctuates between 4.2 and 4.8ppt. During the dry season,
phosphorus on the surface water is mosaic in character andvaries from 0.0 to 2.0ppb, which remain the same value to thebottom. During the wet season, phosphorus concentrations at
the surface water vary between 0.1 and 3.8ppb and increaseslightly at the bottom.
Designation as economic zones by policies of the Royal
Government will result in coastal waters being confronted withnegative influences from environmentally unsound managementof solid and liquid wastes at generating sources, and coastal
development and seaport activities, unless transparent actionplans and legal tools are widely applied.

Lake water
The Tonle Sap Great Lake is the largest permanent freshwaterlake in Southeast Asia, and lies in the center floodplain of
Cambodia. A number of literatures have indicated that the generallevel of pollution is still low, although some problems exist locallyin and around floating villages.

Legislative Framework for Water Environment
Management
The objective of environmental management in Cambodia is
the protection and promotion of environmental quality and publichealth (Article 1, Law on Environmental Protection and Natural
Resource Management). Under this law (1996), which is thebasic law on the environment in Cambodia, several sub-decrees
have been established. The Law on Water Resources
Management (2007) states that socio-economic development
and welfare of the people is the objective of water resourcesmanagement.
Details of water environmental conservation measures are
explained in the Sub-Degree on Water Pollution Control thatwas established in 1999. The sub-decree aims to regulate
various activities that tend to pollute and/or polluted public waterfor protection of human health and biodiversity. The sub-decree
has three main parts: management of public water areas,
wastewater management within and outside of the industrial
sector, and inspection. Other sub-decrees such as on solid
wastes and environmental impact assessments also containarticles related to water environmental conservation.
The Ministry of Environment is responsible for protection andmanagement of the environment and natural resources in the
country. The major function of the ministry is to develop
guidelines for waste management, including water environment
management and protection, and local authorities, such asprovincial and municipal environmental departments that are in
charge of implementation. The Ministry of Water Resources andMeteorology is another major organization related to water
environmental management.

Groundwater
Since there has not been a comprehensive groundwater
study to date, there is insufficient information, knowledge andunderstanding of this natural resource by key stakeholders.
Groundwater resources are estimated to be 17.6 billion m3(Sokha 2005). It is primarily used for household water supply
and for irrigation. At least 25,000 communities were reported touse water supply tube wells and large diameter motorized tube
wells for irrigation, and about 2,000 manually operated shallow
wells are being installed annually. A big driver of groundwater
extraction is the industrial sectors that are located in theoutskirts and/or provinces (Sokha 2005). The alluvial deposits of
the Tonle Sap and Mekong floodplain/delta are believed to bevery good shallow aquifers, with high recharge rates and awater table generally within 5 to 10m of the surface water.
Shallow wells could be used in an estimated 48,000km2 of thecountry.
However, data and information about groundwater utilizationis still inadequate. However, if free groundwater extraction byindustrial and agricultural sectors continues without regularcontrol from responsible institutions, there may be adverse
consequences in the future, unless it is strictly controlled by
specific regulations with reasonable and equitable purposes.
Coastal water
Cambodia's coastal shoreline is 435km long on the Gulf ofThailand. The seaward boundary of the coastal zone has beendelimited as the outer limit of the Exclusive Economic Zone withan area of 55,600km2. The landward boundary of the coastalzone has not yet been satisfactorily defined, but it has been
temporarily considered to be about 5.0km from the shore. The
coastal zones are situated in the four provinces of Koh Kong,
Kampot, Sihanoukville and Kep. A deep seaport facility

Water quality standards
Water quality standards in public water areas are set by the
Sub-Decree on Water Pollution Control. There are two kinds ofwater quality standards. One is water quality standards forbiodiversity conservation that is designated for rivers (five2Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Cambodia

parameters), lake and reservoirs (seven parameters), andcoastal water (seven parameters), respectively. The second iswater quality standards for public health. The water quality
standards in public water areas for public health protection sets
standard values for 25 parameters, which have harmful effects
on human health.
The water quality standards in public water areas forbiodiversity conservation are applied to three water areas: rivers,
lakes and reservoirs, and coastal waters. It sets standard values
for five to seven parameters, such as pH, COD, BOD, andcoliform.

Monitoring of water quality in public waters andgroundwater
The Ministry of Environment is responsible for the regularcontrol and monitoring of water pollution in public water areas
throughout Cambodia. The details of monitoring are shown in
Table 1. Although decentralization has led to local governments
and departments handling various tasks, the main constraint tothis process is a lack of experienced officials and laboratories
for water quality analysis. Therefore, central officials at the
Ministry of Environment still carry out these tasks in parallel withlocal capacity building and institutional strengthening.

Effluent standards
Aiming at managing effluents discharged from pollution
sources, the effluent standards were developed under the
Sub-Decree on Water Pollution Control to strictly control effluent
prior to discharge into receiving sources, e.g. public water areasand sewers. The standard values are set for 52 parameters,such as temperature, pH, BOD, heavy metals, agriculturalchemicals, and organic solvents.
Pollution sources are regularly monitored and controlled by
the Ministry of Environment such as factories, handicrafts, andhotels. There are two types of monitoring programs at pollution
sources: (i) regular effluent monitoring at normal factories andhotels that is conducted within an interval period of 90 days; and(ii) regular effluent monitoring at factories that use chemicals
and/or chemical compounds for production that should be
conducted in an interval period of 45 days.

Table 1. Current Status of Water Quality Monitoring (2008)

Draft Law on Water Supply andSanitation of the Kingdom of
Cambodia

Items
Sampling site

Frequency

BOD, DO, pH, Temperature, TSS, Coliform
Chroy Chang Var, PP Port, Ta Kmao, Kien Svay,
Prek Kdam, Stoeung Sangke, Stoeung Porsat,
Stoeung Sen, Stoeung Chinit and Tonle Sap Great
Lake
Once a month

Under the Water Quality Monitoring Network (Mekong River
Committee (MRC) Program) the Ministry of Water Resources
and Meteorology also takes water samples monthly at
designated stations in rivers and relevant tributaries for analysis
and reports back to MRC via the Cambodia National MekongCommittee (CNMC).

Law on Environmental Protection
and Natural Resources Management(December 1996)

Law on Water Resources
Management (2007)

Drinking Water Standard (2004)

National Policy on Water Supply and
Sanilation (February 2003)

Sub-Decree on Water Pollution Control(April 1999)

National Water Resources Policy in theKingdom of Cambodia (January 2003)

Sub-Decree on Solid Waste
Management (April 1999)

Policy Framework-Water Supply and
Sanilation of the Kingdom of Cambodia(February 2001)

Sub-Decree on Environmental Impact
Assessment Process (August 1999)

Figure 2.

Legislative Chart for Water Quality Management

3(source: WEPA database)Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Cambodia

Community Participation
Participation forfor Water
Water Quality
Quality Management
Management inin Tonle
Tonle Sap
Sap Great
Great Lake
Lake (Kampong(Kampong Chhnang
Chhnang Province)
Province)
Community
Kampong Chhnang province is one of five provinces located around Tonle Sap
Great Lake. The total population of Kampong Chhnang was 475,014 in 2008, andaround 47 percent of the populations live in six districts and 32 communes thatlocated in Tonle Sap Great Lake Biosphere Reserve. There are also people living in
11 floating villages.
The number of people living along the lake is decreasing in Kampong Chhnang,as people in the floating village moved to upland villages to be workers where
income is available. The reason for the move was that they thought the resources in
the Tonle Sap Great Lake had decreased and could no longer support theirlifestyles.
The Tonle Sap Great Lake Project was started to improve water quality andconserve the natural resources of the Tonle Sap Great Lake. The project has threegoals: organizing conserving areas in Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve, monitoring and investigating biodiversity, and capacity building of
local people on natural resource management. The capacity building project focuses on strengthening the capacity of 32 communesthat are located in the Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve of Kampong Chhnang.
Many agencies, in addition to the local environment agency, focus on the water quality management of Tonle Sap and cooperate on
various activities, including water quality monitoring in the project. Local community participation has also increased. In order to better
manage water quality and natural resources, it is important to strengthen the capacity of people in communities and combat poverty, as
well as use natural resources in a sustainable way.
(Source: Sothea 2008)

expansion of the national budget to encompass the promotion of
public awareness and related matters; and (vi) close
cooperation among countries in the region.
It is expected that in the decade ahead there will be great socialand environment changes driven by a mix of demographic,
economic, technological, and social factors, such as population
growth, and increasing demands for food and water supply as aresult of economic growth. To deal with these changes andimprove water environment management, it is important for
institutions to coordinate and collaborate to ensure the sustainable
use of water resources in both quality and quantity (Sokha 2008).

Existing and Future Challenges for Water
Environment Management
The efforts in protecting and conserving the environment andwater environment are being conducted in close collaboration
with stakeholders, including international communities, withremarkable outcomes. However, some constraints arerecognized and required to improve such as: (i) capacity
building and institutional strengthening in terms of both national
and local levels; (ii) technical support from international
communities/donors; (iii) public awareness raising by othermeans and public participation; (iv) strengthening theimplementation of environmental legal instruments; (v)4Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / China

China
Country Information
Area (km2)
Population
GDP (USD) at current prices
Mean annual precipitation (mm)Renewable water resources (m3)
Total water withdrawal (m3)Agriculture
Water useby sector
Industry(2000)
Domestic

The seven major rivers
There are seven major rivers in China: the Yangtze River,
Yellow River, Pearl River, Songhua River, Huaihe River, Haihe
River and Liaohe River. About half of the monitoring sections of
the major river basins under national monitoring programs haverecently met Grade I to III of the environmental quality standard
for surface water. Water quality in the Pearl River and Yangtze
River is good. The Songhua River, Yellow River and HuaiheRiver were subject to intermediate pollution. The Liaohe Riverand Haihe River were heavily polluted. Permanganate index,
oils and ammonia nitrogen are the main parameters of pollution
observed (SEPA 2007).

9,598,100 (2007)
1,320.0 million (2007)
3,400,351 (2007)
648
2,829.6 billion
630 billion (2000)
68%
26%
6%

Water Basins in China–

Percent %

–

–

100
80
60
40
20

er
ar
Pe

Ya

ng

lR

R
tz

s

a
hu
ng

iv

iv

iv
R

R
w
So

llo
Ye

er

er

er
iv

er
iv
R

H

ua

ih

e

he
ao
Li

H

ai

he

R

R

iv

iv

er

er

0

Figure 1. Comparison of Water Quality of 7 Major Rivers
in 2006(Source: SEPA 2007)

Table 1. Grades for Environmental Quality Standards for
Surface Water
State of Water Resources
The total volume of water resources in China ranks sixth among
all the countries in the world, however, because of the country’s
large population, the per capita volume of water resources is low
at about 2,200m3, which is equivalent to only one-fourth of theworld average. In addition, water resources in China are
distributed unevenly -- rich in the southern areas and poor in thenorthern areas -- which is inconsistent with the distribution of
population, farmland and the economy (MWR website).
River runoff varies greatly from year to year with the ratio of
maximum annual runoff to minimum exceeding more than 10 insome areas (MWR website).

Grade

Description

I

Mainly for headstream and the national nature preserves.

II

III
IV
V

Mainly for drinking water resources in first-class protectedareas, protected areas for precious fish, and spawning areas
for fish and shrimp
Mainly for drinking water resources in second-classprotected areas, protected areas for fish, and swimming
areas
Mainly for industrial water resources and recreational use inwhich people do not contact water
Mainly for agricultural water resources and water areas
required for landscape(Source: MEP website)

Lakes and reservoirs
Of the 27 major lakes (reservoirs) under national water quality
monitoring programs, about half of them failed to meet thestandards of Category V. Major pollutants included total nitrogen(TN) and total phosphorus (TP). Reservoir water had better
quality than that of lakes, which had relatively light eutrofication(SEPA 2007).

State of Water Environment
In China, the following standards are established as the target
levels of water quality: environmental quality standard forsurface water, quality standard for groundwater, sea water
quality standard, and other standards for specific purposes ofwater use such as irrigation and fisheries (MEP website).

5Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / China

Table 2. Water Quality of Major Lakes and Reservoirs in 2006
AmountWatersAmountThree lakes *3Large freshwater
9lake
Urban lakes
5
Large reservoirs
10
Total
27
Percentage in 2006 (%)
Percentage in 2005 (%)

I
0
0

II
0
1

Grade
III
IV
0
0
1
1

V
1
2

>V
2
4

0
0
0
0
0

0
1
2
7
7

1
4
6
22
21

0
2
5
19
18

4
3
13
48
43

0
0
1
4
11

Legislative Framework for Water Environment
Management
In China, the objectives of water environmental preservation
are to ensure human health, maintain the effective use of water
resources and the conservation of marine resources, maintainthe ecological balance, and enhance the development ofmodern socialism (The Environmental Protection Law ofPeople’s Republic of China in 1989).
The Environmental Protection Law of the People's Republic ofChina in 1989 as a basic environmental law. The Marine
Environment Protection Law of the People's Republic of China
and the Law of the People's Republic of China on Prevention
and Control of Water Pollution were formulated for theprotection of the water environment in 1982 and 1984,
respectively (The Marine Environment Protection Law wasrevised a few times until the formulation of the current law)
(MEP website).
With regard to institutional arrangements, the Ministry ofEnvironmental Protection has a mission to prevent and control
environmental pollution at the national level (MEP website).

* ”Three lakes” are Taihu Lake, Dianchi Lake, and Chaohu Lake.

(Source: SEPA 2007)

Groundwater
Most of the major groundwater monitoring sites had “good” or“relatively poor” water quality in 2006. Quality of groundwater
resources in the region with high development degree is worse
than that in the region with low development degree (SEPA
2007).
Among cities with monitoring programs for shallow groundwater
quality (125 cities), those in the northeast, northwest, eastern andcentral southern areas of China showed trends for degradation inwater quality (SEPA 2007).

Environmental Protection Law

Sea water
Most of the coastal sea areas experienced good water quality
despite continued severe pollution in some areas. In terms ofcoastal seawater quality of the four major sea areas, the South
China Sea and the Yellow Sea enjoyed overall good water
quality, the offshore water was slightly polluted in the Bohai Sea,and the East China Sea suffered from medium level of waterpollution (SEPA 2007).

Conservation of Water Quality in Surface Water
and Groundwater
Law on Prevention and Controlof Water Pollution
Water Quality Standards– Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water– Quality Standard for Groundwater

Conservation of Water Quality in Sea Water
Marine Environment Protection Law
Water Quality Standards– Sea Water Quality Standard
Other Water Quality Standards– Water Quality Standard for Fisheries– Standards for Irrigation Water Quality

Figure 3. Legislative Chart for Water Quality Management

Figure 2. Water Quality in Coastal Sea Areas Nationwide
in 2006

II
III
IV

Law

Local Administrative

Administrative Statutes

Local Supervisions and Stipulaations

Figure 4. Sketch Map of the Laws Related to the Water
Environment

Table 3. Grades for Sea Water Quality Standard
I

Provincial Level

Supervisions and Regulations(Source: SEPA 2007)

Grade

National Level(Source: WEPA database)Description
Suitable for marine fishing, marine nature preserves andprotected areas for rare or endangered marine organisms.
Suitable for marine cultivation, bathing, marine sport orrecreation activities involving direct human contact withmarine water, and for sources of industrial use of water
related to human consumption.
Suitable for water resources for general industrial use.
Suitable only for harbors and ocean development activities.
(Source: MEP website )Figure 5. Sketch Map of the Standards Related to the Water
Environment(Source: WEPA database)6

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / China

Environmental quality standards
The Environmental Quality Standard for Surface Water stipulates
standard values for 24 basic parameters in the five above-mentioned
categories. The Quality Standard for Groundwater stipulates standard
values for 39 parameters, and 35 parameters in Sea Water Quality
Standard (MEP website).
Water Quality Standard for Fisheries and Standards for
Irrigation Water Quality are established as other water quality
standards (MEP website).

Surface Water (GB3838-2002), Quality Standard for Groundwater(GB/T14848-93) and Sea Water Quality Standard (GB3097-1997))(MEP website).
Effluent standards
Effluent quality of domestic wastewater at the discharge
points of urban wastewater treatment plants is regulated by the
Discharge Standard of Pollutants for Municipal Wastewater
Treatment Plants (GB18918-2002) (MEP website).
Regarding industrial wastewater, the Integrated Wastewater
Discharge Standard (GB 8978-1996) regulates effluent levels.
However, for various types of industries such as the iron andsteel industry and meat packing industries not covered by theabove standard, individual standards have been established(see List of Effluent Standards below). Different target values of
specific pollutants are designed for industry constructed before
31, December 1997 and after 1 January 1998 in the Integrated
Wastewater Discharge Standard (GB 8978-1996) (MEP
website).

Monitoring of water quality in public waters andgroundwater
Water quality monitoring is conducted in stations establishedacross the country to check water quality of rivers, groundwater,lakes, and sea water. In 2006, monitoring was implemented in
408 stations for seven main rivers, 163 cities for groundwater,and 27 lakes (SEPA 2007).
The analytical methods of water quality are provided in eachwater quality standard (Environmental Quality Standards for

List of Effluent Standards• Effluent Standards of Pollutants for Heterocyclic Pesticides
Industry (GB 21523-2008)• Discharge standard of water pollutants for pulp and paperindustry (GB 3544-2008 Replacing GB 3544-2001)• Discharge standard of water pollutants for down industry (GB21901-2008)• Emission standard of pollutants for electroplating (GB21900-2008)• Emission standard of pollutants for synthetic leather and artificial
leather industry (GB 21902-2008)• Discharge standards of water pollutants for pharmaceuticalindustry -- Fermentation products category (GB 21903-2008)• Discharge standards of water pollutants for pharmaceuticalindustry --Chemical synthesis products category (GB21904-2008)• Discharge standard of water pollutants for pharmaceuticalindustry -- Extraction products category (GB 21905-2008)• Discharge standard of water pollutants for pharmaceuticalindustry --Chinese traditional medicine category (GB21906-2008)• Discharge standards of water pollutants for pharmaceuticalindustry --Bioengineering products category (GB 21907-2008)• Discharge standards of water pollutants for pharmaceuticalindustry-- Mixed preparation products category (GB 21908-2008)• Discharge standards of water pollutants for sugar industry (GB21909-2008 Putting into effect as of August 1, 2008)• Emission standard for pollutants from coal industry (GB20426-2006 partially replacing GB 8978-1996 GB 16297-1996)• Discharge standard of water pollutants for sapogenin industry(GB 20425-2006 replacing GB 8978-1996)• Discharge standard of water pollutants for medical organization(GB 18466-2005)• Discharge standard of pollutants for beer industry (GB19821-2005)• Discharge standard of pollutants for monosodium glutamate
industry (GB 19431-2004)• Discharge standard of pollutants for citric acid industry (GB19430-2004)• Discharge standard for water pollutants from ordnance industry:
ammunition loading (GB 14470.3-2002)• Discharge standard for water pollutants from ordnance industry:
Powder and explosives (GB 14470.1-2002)• Discharge standard for water pollutants from ordnance industry:
Initiating explosive material and relative composition (GB14470.2-2002)• Discharge standard of pollutants for municipal wastewater
treatment plant (GB 18918-2002)• Discharge standard of pollutants for livestock and poultry
breeding (GB 18596-2001)• Discharge standard of water pollutants for paper industry (GB3544-2001)• Standard for pollution control of sewage marine disposalengineering (GB 18486-2001)• Discharge standard of water pollutants for ammonia industry(GB 13458-2001)• Integrated wastewater discharge standard (GB 8978-1996
replacing GB 8978-88)• Discharge standard of water pollutants for phosphate fertilizer
industry (GB 15580-95)• Discharge standard of water pollutants for caustic alkali andpolyvinyl chloride industry (GB 15581-95)• Discharge standard of water pollutant and standard of analyticalmethod for space propellant (GB 14374-93)• Discharge standard of water pollutants for meat packing industry(GB 13457-92)• Discharge standard of water pollutants for iron and steel industry(GB 13456-92)• Discharge standard of water pollutant for dyeing and finishing of
textile industry (GB 4287-92)• Effluent standards for oil-bearing waste water from offshore
petroleum development industry (GB 4914-85)• Emission standard for pollutants from shipbuilding industry (GB4286-84)• Effluent standard for pollutants from ships (GB 3552-83)(Source: MEP website)

7

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / China

Source Water Protection Zoning Policy (SWPZ Policy)
for protection of drinking water sources
Drinking water security is vital for public health and industrial
and agricultural production. Since water pollution cannot be fully
controlled for economic and technological reasons, source
water protection is one of the most important barriers toachieving drinking water security (Guo 2007).
The governments at or above the provincial level may
delineate surface Sources Water Protection Zones (SWP Zone)
for domestic and drinking water according to the Law of thePeople's Republic of China on Prevention and Control of Water
Pollution (Article 20). Certain water areas and land-based areas
near the intakes of domestic and drinking surface water sources
may be delineated as first-grade SWP Zones. Certain water
areas and land-based areas beyond first-grade protected zones
may be delineated as second-grade SWP zones and protectedzone of other grades (Guo 2007).
The SWP zone delineation principles are as follows: to ensurethat the water quality of first-grade SWP zones meets Grade II
Standards under the Environmental Quality Standards for
Surface Water, and to ensure that the water quality of
second-grade SWP zones meets Grade III Standards. The
principle and methods for SWP zone delineation are listed andillustrated in the Technical Guideline for Delineating Source
Water Protection Areas (HJ/T338-2007). Until 2005, about 70
percent of centralized drinking water sources had been
designated as SWP zones for different grades of protection(Guo 2007).
Within the first-grade SWP zones for drinking water, theconstruction or expansion of any projects that have no relation
with water supply facilities and protection of water sources is
prohibited. Within second-grade SWP zones for drinking water,
new construction or expansion of any projects that discharge
pollutants into the water body is prohibited. Any reconstruction
projects in second-grade SWP zones must lower its pollutant
discharge (Guo 2007).

In China, the state formulates the strategic plan for water
resources in the country according to the Water Law. The
development, utilization, preservation and protection of water
resources, and the prevention and control of water disasters,
are planned in a unified way on the basis of river basins or
regions. In order to draw up a river basin plan, a comprehensive
scientific survey and an investigation and assessment of water
resources must be undertaken first, and the region plan within ariver basin shall be subject to the river basin plan. The
development and utilization of water resources should take into
consideration the interests of upstream and downstream areas,of the left and right banks, and of all regions concerned to makefull use of the comprehensive benefits of water resources (Guo2007).
The Water Pollution Prevention Law formulates the integrated
river basin pollution prevention and control policy, and it
stipulates as follows: To prevent and control water pollution, it isnecessary to make unified plans on the basis of river basins or
regions. The water pollution prevention and control plan for
major river basins, which should be put forward by theenvironmental protection department and other concerned
departments under the State Council, together with thegovernments of relevant provinces, shall be submitted to theState Council for approval. The water pollution prevention andcontrol plan for other trans-jurisdictional river basins should beapproved by the government at higher jurisdiction levels. Onceapproved, the water pollution prevention and control plan shallserve as the essential basis for prevention and control of theriver basin, and any modification of such plans shall be subject
to approval of the original departments that approved the plans.
In accordance with the approved river basin (water) pollution
prevention and control plan, local governments at or above thecounty level shall work out plans for water pollution prevention
and control of their own administrative regions (Guo 2007).
From 1995, Huaihe River, Haihe River, Liaohe River, Taihu
Lake, Chaohu Lake and Dianchi Lake were listed as the majorbasins for water pollution prevention and control by National
People's Congress (NPC), and the ninth (1995-2000) and tenth(2000-2005) five year plans for the pollution prevention andcontrol of these major basins were approved by State Council
and then implemented. To date, the water pollutant discharge inthe major river basins has decreased greatly, the deterioration
trend for the water environment has basically been controlled,
and the quality of some water bodies has visibly improved (Guo2007).

Goal for total emissions reduction of pollutants
To improve water quality in surface water, a goal for COD
reduction is that COD emissions in 2010 should be reduced by
10 percent from 2005 levels. This is set in the National 11th
Five-Year Plan for Environmental Protection which is the basis
for the country’s environmental policies between 2005 and 2010.
In order to achieve the goal, centralized wastewater treatment
plants should be constructed in all urban areas by 2010. In
addition, the total treatment ratio and the capacity of wastewater
treatment throughout the country should be over 70 percent and100 million t/day, respectively (Website of the Sino-Japan
Friendship Center for Environmental Protection).

Existing and Future Challenges for Water
Environment Management
According to the National 11th Five-Year Plan for Environmental
Protection, the following priority issues are identified: ensuring theachievement of COD reduction target; ensuring safety of drinking
water sources; and facilitating the prevention and control of waterpollution of key river basins (MEP website).

Pollution control in broad areas- Integrated River Basin Management Policy (IRBM Policy)
To manage water resources and water quality effectively, it isimportant to take river basins into account.

8

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Indonesia

Indonesia
Country Information
Area (km2)
Population
GDP (USD)
at current prices
Mean annual precipitation (mm)Renewable water resources (m3)
Total water withdrawal (m3)Agriculture
Water useby purpose
Industry(2000)
Domestic

and Control over Water Pollution Government Regulation.
Water quality in rivers and lakes are degraded due towastewater from domestic activities, agriculture, and industry.

1,904,600 (2007)
225.6 million (2007)
432,817 mil (2007)
1,825
2,838 billion
82.8 billion (2000)
91%
1%
8%

River water
The result of water quality monitoring in 35 rivers in 2006shows that water quality in most of the rivers does not meet thewater quality criteria for Class II (water that can be used forwater recreation infrastructure/means, freshwater fish nurturing,
animal husbandry, water for irrigating gardens, and/or otherusage that requires the same water quality for such usage).
A major pollution source is untreated domestic wastewaterand direct waste dumped into river bodies. A survey of 56
million households in Indonesia in 2007 shows that 49 percentof them use septic tanks for toilet waste, and about 51 percent
of households dispose their toilet waste directly to environment,
including into river bodies.

River Basins in Indonesia

Percentage of Household

60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
2002

2003

2004

2006

2007

Year

State of Water Resources

Figure 1. Percentage of Households Using
Septic Tanks for Toilet Waste

Water resources in Indonesia account for almost six percentof the world water resources or about 21 percent of total water
resources in the Asia-Pacific region. Water consumption trends
are on a significant rise; total water demand in 2000 was
approximately 156,000 millions m³/year and it is predicted thatthe figure will double to 356,575 million m³/year by 2015. On theother hand, the availability of clean water is decreasing andbecoming a challenge in the country because of environmental
degradation and pollution. The rate of water resource
degradation accounted for 15-35 percent per capita annually in
2006.
It is reported that at least 80 percent of the 250 million
Indonesian have no access to piped water. Due to difficulties
and limited access to clean water, a large number of people still
directly use river water for drinking water, bathing, and washing,although such trends have tended to decrease in recent years(WEPA datadase).

(Source: Statistics Indonesia of The Republic of Indonesia 2007)

Wastewater from industrial activities of small-scale industries
such as agriculture, textiles, pulp and paper, petrochemicals,
mining, and oil and gas is another cause of water pollution.
100%
75.00%

80%

77.78%
72.73%

60%

53.33%
44.44%

40%

33.33% 33.33%

20%

37.74%
32.35%

25.00%

20.59%
10.00%

0%Kali Angke

Ciliwung(DKI)

Citarum

BOD

State of Water Quality

Progo(Central Java)

Progo(Yogya)BrantasCOD

Figure 2. Percentage Compliance to the Water Quality
Criteria of Class II for BOD and COD in 2006

The state of water quality is evaluated according to the water
quality criteria designated by the Management of Water Quality(Source: The State Ministry of Environment Indonesia 2007)9Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Indonesia

Lake water
Similar to river bodies, there is significant pressure on lakewater quality from domestic, agricultural, and industrial activities.
Monitoring data in four lakes, namely, Diatas, Dibawah, Batur,and Maninjau, shows that minimum concentrations of DO
parameters in Lake Diatas and Batur are below water quality
standards for Class II criteria (Gov-Regulation No. 82/2001).

0.07

Concetration of Phenol (mg/l)

0.06

7

0.05
0.04
0.03

2006
2007

0.02

Standards

0.01

DO Minimum (mg/l)

60Tanjung Priok

5
4

2

Tanjung Perak

Figure 5. Concentration of Phenol in Marine Water
in Harbor Areas

2005
2006
2007
Class II

3

Tanjung Emas

(Source: The State Ministry of Environment Indonesia 2008)

Groundwater
Quality standards for groundwater are based on the Decree ofHealth Minister No. 416 of 1990 concerning the provision andcontrol of water quality. In the Jakarta area, about 39 percent ofmonitoring wells have concentrations of E. coli that exceed
standards and most of the wells are in densely settled areas.

10Danau Diatas Danau Dibawah Danau Batur Danau Maninjau

Figure 3. Minimum Concentration of Dissolved Oxygen(DO) in Lake Water, 2005 – 2007

(Source: The State Ministry of Environment Indonesia 2008)100%

For total phosphate, Lake Maninjau has maximum concentrationthat exceeds water quality standards for Class II criteria.

80%

60%
Total Phosphate Maximum (mg/l)

0.4
0.35

40%

0.3

20%

0.25
2005
2006
2007
Class II

0.2
0.15
0.1

0%
East

South

Central

North

West

Administrative Area

0.05

Figure 6. Percentage of Monitoring Wells in Jakarta which areCompliant to the Water Quality Standardof Clean Water for E. Coli0Danau Diatas Danau Dibawah Danau Batur Danau Maninjau(Source: Environmental Management Agency of DKI Jakarta 2007)

Figure 4. Maximum Concentration of Total Phosphatein Lake Water, 2005 – 2007

(Source: The State Ministry of Environment Indonesia 2008)

Legislative Framework for Water Environment
Management

Marine water
Monitoring data from four harbors in Java, namely, Tanjung
Priok (Jakarta), Tanjung Emas (Semarang), and Tanjung Perak(Surabaya), shows that concentrations of phenol exceeds themarine water quality standards for harbor areas (Decree of theState Minister of the Environment Number 51 of 2004 Concerning
Marine Water Quality Standards). High concentrations of phenol
in harbor areas are caused by antiseptic substances from ship
wastewater.

The objective of environmental management in Indonesia is
to enable environmentally-sustainable development. It havebeen recognized that water has important functions to achieve
development and the well-being of humans and other creatures,and that it needs to be conserved through wise management,
taking into account the interest of present and future
generations, as well as an ecological balance.
Environmental acts and regulations were established in the
1980’s in Indonesia. The Law Concerning Environmental
Management Law No. 23 of 1997 is the basic law ofenvironmental conservation of the country, which is a
replacement of the Basic Law concerning Environmental
Management Law No. 4 of 1982. The Management of Water
Quality and Control over Water Pollution Government
Regulation Number 82 of 2001 is the basic law of waterpollution control.
10Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Indonesia

Water quality standards
For inland water quality conservation, “water quality criteria”
are set as the benchmarks for water quality conservation under
the Management of Water Quality and Control over Water
Pollution Government Regulation Number 82 of 2001. Values
for 46 parameters are determined for four classes, which are
based on the type of water usage (Table 1).
For marine water quality conservation, the “seawater quality
standard” is ordained as the benchmark of water quality, under
the Decree of the State Minister of the Environment Number 51
of 2004 Regarding Standard Quality of Seawater. The threekinds of standard quality of seawater are set based on theusage or characteristics of seawater: standard quality for harborwaters, marine tourism, and marine biota.
The Ministry of Environment established guidelines for water
quality that show the minimum standard of services that
includes minimum requirements for water quality with which
local governments must comply. The standards (criteria)i set by
the guideline are uniform among the country, and provincial
governments can set tighter water quality standards than thenational standards, as well as additional parameters according
to the local characteristics and situation of the region.
Table 1. Classes of Water Quality Criteria(for inland water)
Class
Class IClass IIClass IIIClass IV

Use
Water that can be used as raw water for drinking water,
and/or other usage that requires the same water quality forsuch usage.
Water that can be used for water recreation
infrastructure/means, freshwater fish nurturing, animalhusbandry, water for irrigating gardens, and/or other usagethat requires the same water quality for such usage.
Water that can be used for fresh water fish farming, animalhusbandry, water for irrigating gardens and/or other usagethat requires the same water quality for such usage.
Water that can be used for irrigating gardens and/or otherusage that requires the same water quality for such usage.

Law Concerning Environmental Management Law No. 23 of 1997

Conservation of Water
Quality in Inland Water

Conservation of Water
Quality in Marine Water

Management of Water Quality and Control over Water
Pollution Government Regulation Number 82 of 2001

Decree of the Minister of Environment
Number 51 of 1995 Concerning Quality
Standard of Liquid Waste for Industrial
Activities

Water quality criteria (for inland water)

Decree of the State Minister of the Environment Number
51 of 2004 Regarding Standard Quality of Seawater

Decree of the Minister of Environment
Number 112 of 2003 Concerning theStandard Quality of Wastewater forCommercial and/or Domestic Activities

Water quality criteria (for marine water)
Other Decrees
Effluent standards

Fig 2. Legislative Chart for Water Quality Management
Monitoring of water quality in public waters andgroundwater
The scheme of water quality monitoring is determined under
the Management of Water Quality and Control over Water
Pollution Government Regulation as follows:(1) Monitoring of water sources in the regency/municipal region
is carried out by the regency/municipal government,(2) Monitoring of water sources in two or more regency/municipal
regions within one province is coordinated by the provincial
government and is carried out by each Regency/municipal
government,(3) Monitoring of water sources in two or more provincial regions
and/or water sources on the border with other countries areobserved by the national government.
Water quality observation is carried out at least once over a
period of six months and the results of the observations are
submitted to the Minister. The mechanisms and procedures forwater quality monitoring are stipulated further in detail with a
Ministerial Decree.
The authority for water management was moved to the local

governments as a result of decentralization, although, water
quality monitoring is not conducted appropriately in some states
due to a lack of equipment, capacity, and/or financial resources.
In 2006, 30 Regional Environmental Impact Control Agencies
in the provinces monitored water quality parameters in 35 rivers
in Indonesia. In the “State of Environment Report in Indonesia
2006,” the results of monitoring are evaluated compared to thewater quality criteria for Class II. Additionally, the water quality ofeach river is shown in four levels: “compliant,” “slightly polluted,”“polluted,” and “heavily polluted.” This classification is madebased on the results of calculations using monitoring data.
Calculating methods are stipulated in the decree of the Ministerof Environment No. 115 of 2003 (STORET method or Pollution
Index Method).
Effluent standards
The Management of Water Quality and Control over Water
Pollution Government Regulation ordains that the national
wastewater quality standard is specified with a Ministerial Decreeby taking into account suggestions from related government
agencies. Additionally, the provincial government can specify thesame or tighter wastewater quality standards than the national
wastewater quality standard.

i Water quality standards and water quality criteria are the same in concept.

11Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Indonesia

Effluent standards have been established gradually in Indonesia.
Firstly, effluent standards for 21 industrial activities were set by the
Decree of the Minister of Environment Number 51 of 1995
Concerning Quality Standard of Liquid Waste for Industrial
Activities. Afterwards, effluent standards for various economic
activities were separately established mostly in 1990’s, including
hotel activities, hospital activities, oil, gas and geothermal activities,
industrial estates, and coal mining activities.
The Decree of the Minister of Environment Number 112 of 2003
Concerning the Standard Quality of Wastewater for Commercial

and/or Domestic Activities was established for domestic effluent.
In 2006, effluent standards for other activities, including thosein the agricultural sector, were established (slaughterhouses,
vegetables and fruit treatment centers, seafood treatment
centers, nickel refiners, vinyl chloride monomer and polymer
factories, and ethylene factories).
The effluent standard for industry and other activities was set
up based on the best practical technology. Depending on theprocess of each type of industry, the effluent standard was set todecrease pollution loads to 90–95 percent.

Promotion of Voluntary Actions for Clean Water
To alleviate pollution from industry so as to improve the environment in Indonesia, the State Ministry of Environment established
PROKASIH (Clean River Program) and PROPER (Program for Pollution Control Evaluation and Rating) as special programs topromote voluntary activities by private companies. The programs contributed to the promotion of water quality monitoring andimprovements in water quality. In these programs, achievement statuses of companies are open to the public through the mass media,
which has put pressure on companies to promote compliance. Clean City (ADIPURA) is another program to promote environmental
conservation at the local level, in which the targets of water quality of municipal rivers and waste emissions are stated as a part ofindicators. In ADIPURA, an award is given to local governments that show significant achievements. Such award programs also
encourage the compliance of entities that participate in the ADIPURA.
PROKASIH, SUPERKASIHPROKASIH originally started in 1989 and was temporarily stopped in 1999. The program was reinstated in 2003 as theSUPERKASIH (Surat Pernyataan Kali Bersih – Letter of Declaration for Clean Rivers).
The program targeted the worst industrial polluters of 24 highly polluted rivers. These companies signed letters of commitment,
which outlined their goals to reduce their pollution loads and the timeline to achieve this. In principle, provincial governments are in
charge of the program with the support of the national government.
From 2003 to 2006, there were already 249 companies that signed the SUPER, which has been distributed in seven provinces. Asof 2005, 25 companies have been listed as compliant with the regulations listed in the SUPER.
PROPERPROPER was started in 2002. This program is being implemented in order to maximize the outcomes of PROKASIH.
PROPER aims to promote companies’ management of the ecosystem by using their reputation as an incentive. Under the PROPER,
the environmental performances of companies are evaluated and the results of the evaluation are disseminated to the public.
Performance levels are categorized in five levels of color, from the lowest to highest: black, red, blue, green, and finally, gold.
In 2006, there were 530 industries participating in the PROPER Program, comprising 254 manufacturing industries. Specificallythere were 199 compliant industries in 2006 for industrial performances in water pollution control.

water quality, as well as the inadequate dissemination ofregulations such as effluent standards to the local area.
In 2007, the central government issued Government
Regulation No. 38 concerning the assignment of authority
between central, provincial and district/city governments. Within
the regulation, central, provincial and district/city governments
have been assigned different tasks (see Appendix I).
The promotion of capacity building for local governments onwater quality management is considered to be a major issue inthe future.

Existing and Future Challenges for Water
Environment Management
Although the authority of water management shifted to local
governments with the progress of decentralization, a two-layer
government structure of provinces and cities has been created,
where the provinces and cities conduct direct regulation.
Equipment and human resources were reallocated to local
governments, however, there are various difficulties being facedin the appropriate administration of water environmental
governance in some areas, such as budget insufficiencies andcapacity development, the absence of measurement methods ofi

Water quality standards and water quality criteria are the same concept.

12Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Japan

Japan
Country Information
Area (km2)
Population
GDP (USD)
at current prices
Mean annual precipitation (mm)Renewable water resources (m3)
Total water withdrawal (m3)Agriculture
Water useby sector
Industry(2000)
Domestic

water for industrial use is stable, due to developments in therecycling of industrial water. As a result, the amount ofadditional water required from water sources, such as rivers, isgradually decreasing.
More than 90 percent of water for agricultural use is used forrice-paddy irrigation. The rate of water use for dry-filed irrigationand livestock has slightly increased each year.

377,900 (2006)
127.8 million (2007)
4,379,624 mil (2007)
1,690
430 billion
88.4 billion (2000)
62%
18%
20%

State of Water Environment
The two major goals in the conservation of the water
environment in Japan are protection of human health andconservation of the living environment. To achieve these goals,
Environmental Water Quality Standards (EWQS) were
established under the Basic Environment Law as the target
levels for ambient water quality that are to be achieved andmaintained in public waters and groundwater.
The first goal is met by setting uniform national standards
applicable to all public waters. The second goal is met byclassifying rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and coastal waters based onwater usage and by establishing EWQS values for each class.
These values are then applied to each public water body.

Water Bodies in Japan
Hokkaido

HonshuWater quality in public waters (Rivers, lakes, and estuaries)
The EWQS for the protection of human health from substances,such as cadmium, were met at most of the locations (For example,
the percentage compliance in FY 2005 was 99.1 percent).
The percentage compliance of EWQS (for biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) or chemical oxygen demand (COD) as a
typical water-quality indicator for organic pollution) in theconservation of the living environment in public waters remains
at around 80 percent, which are lower than those for theprotection of human health (Figure 1).
In particular, percentage compliance in enclosed water areas,such as lakes, reservoirs, inner bays, and inland seas remain
low. In addition, red tides occurred frequently; for example, in
FY2005, there were 115 outbreaks of red tide in the Seto Inland
Sea and 32 instances in the Ariake Sea. Blue tides wereobserved in Tokyo Bay and Mikawa Bay. Lakes also sufferedfrom cyanobacteria blooms, as well as freshwater red tides.

Shikoku
KyushuOkinawa(Source: WEPA database)State of Water Resources
Japan is a country that has a large amount of precipitation,
but the availability of water resources are subject to seasonal
fluctuations of stream flow and therefore, are not stablethroughout the year.
With population increases, increase in economic activity, andchanges in lifestyles, such as the spread of flush toilets, fromthe mid-1960s to 2000, the water for domestic and industrial use
increased almost three times. However, domestic use of water
has been following a downward trend in recent years. Intake of

Groundwater
Around 7 percent of the approximately 4,700 wells monitored
do not comply with the EWQS (for one or more parameters).
Specifically, the percentage compliance with the EWQS for
nitrate-nitrogen or nitrite-nitrogen is low. Most of the wells are
assumed to be polluted from fertilized soil, livestock excreta,and domestic wastewater. As well, contamination was observed
from volatile organic compounds, such as trichloroethylene(Figure 2).

13Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Japan

(%)
100

Percent compliancefor both present and future generations, as well as to contributeto the welfare of mankind. EWQS were established as the target
for achieving and maintaining water quality in public waters andgroundwater under the Basic Environment Law.
The Water Pollution Control Law was established to achieve
policy goals. This law regulates effluent discharged by factories
or commercial facilities into public water areas through effluent
standards and monitoring of water quality.

Total
RiversLakes & reservoirs
Sea & coastal areas

8060

Environmental water quality standards (EWQS)
The EWQS for human health specifies standard values fortwenty-six parameters. The EWQS was established with due
consideration to potential health hazards associated with theintake of these substances through drinking water and/or fish andshellfish. In addition, twenty-seven other parameters wereselected as parameters to be monitored (“monitored substances” i),and guideline values for these parameters set. In March 1997,
EWQS for groundwater were also established.
The EWQS values for the conservation of the living
environment have been established for BOD, COD, dissolved
oxygen (DO), and other parameters. To prevent eutrophication,
EWQS for nitrogen and phosphorus were established for lakes,
reservoirs and estuaries.

40

20

0

1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005
FY

Notes: 1. BOD is used for rivers. COD is applied to lakes/reservoirs, andestuaries.
2. Percentage compliance (%) = (number of water areas compliant with
EWQS/number of designated water areas) * 100.

Figure 1. Trends in Percentage Compliance with EWQS
in Public Waters (BOD or COD)

(Source: Ministry of the Environment 2007)(%)
7

Percent non-compliance6

Monitoring of water quality in public waters andgroundwater
In the Water Pollution Control Law, prefectural governors are
instructed to constantly monitor water quality in public waters
and groundwater.

Nitrate/nitrite nitrogen
Fluorine
Arsenic
Trichloroethylene,
Tetrachloroethylene
Lead

Table 1. Current Status of Water Quality Monitoring

5

Targeted
parameters

43
2

Sampling
frequency

10198919901991 1992 19931994 199519961997 19981999 2000 20012002 2003 2004 2005
FY
Notes: 1. The survey teams monitor different sets of wells every year.
(They do not necessarily collect data on the same wells every year.)
2. Until the EWQS for groundwater were established in 1997, theAssessment Standards had been used to evaluate groundwater
quality. (The Assessment Standard for Arsenic was revised from“0.05 mg/L or less” to “0.01 mg/L or less” in 1993.)
3. The EWQS for nitrate/nitrite nitrogen, fluorine, and boron were
established items in 1999.
4. The data contained in the chart is limited to those of the substanceswith relatively high rate of the data which exceeded the EWQS.

Main body inchargePublication ofdata

Figure 2. Percentage Non-compliance with EWQS in
Groundwater

The water quality survey of public waters covers 26
health related parameters under the EWQS, 10
parameters relating to the living environment and 27
monitored substances. Local governments check thesubstances to be monitored based on their status.
Water quality surveys on groundwater cover 26
health parameters.
Water Quality Standards for Human Health: at least
one day a month (sampling frequency: about fourtimes per day).
Water Quality Standards for Conservation of the
Living Environment: at least one day a month(sampling frequency: about four times per day) at
reference stations located in areas monitored forcompliance with the standards, or at locations ofimportant water utilization (The sampling frequency
may be modified depending on the situation).
In supplementary surveys at locations other thanthose mentioned above, water samples should becollected and analyzed at least four days a year.
Prefectural governments and government-ordinancedesignated city governments
Survey results are published on “Water Environment
Information Site”

Effluent standards
Based on Water Pollution Control Law, the ministry ordinancestipulated the standards to regulate effluent from factories andother commercial institutions with facilities used to discharge
wastewater into public waters.

(Source: Ministry of the Environment 2007)

Legislative Framework for Water Environment
Managementi

The objectives of promoting policies for environmental
conservation in Japan are to ensure healthy and cultured living
14

Substances which have potential hazards to human health, and which do
not need to be as EWQS parameters now considering the current
pollution level, but need to collect their quality data in public waters.

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / JapanThe effluent standards are national standards that define
uniform standards for 26+1 parameters relating to human health,including cadmium and cyanide, and 15 parameters relating to
the living environment. The effluent standards for human healthare applied to all specified facilities, however the parameters
related to the living environment are applied only those with
effluent volumes of 50m3 /day or more.
In addition to the uniform standards of the national government,
prefectural governments and government-ordinance designatedcity governments may define stricter standards (also known as"stringent effluent standards") to control water quality effectively,in consideration of the socio-economic and natural conditions ofeach prefecture/city. The Water Pollution Law also requires
entities who discharge effluents to measure and record the qualityof effluents from their commercial facilities. The law also requires
those discharging effluents from commercial facilities in theparticular area designed by the Standard for Total Pollution Load
Control (TPLC), to measure their total pollution load and record
the quality of effluents (article 14).
To determine compliance with effluent standards, eachprefectural governor and mayor of government-ordinancedesignated cities require factories and commercial facilities toreport the quality of their effluents or can conduct inspections.
Administrative actions, such as improvement orders, are taken
against factories and commercial facilities on the basis of thismonitoring.

Conservation of Water
Quality in Public Water
General Measures

Basic Environment Law
Environmental Quality Standards for
Water Pollutants
Water Pollution Control Law
Factory effluent control, notification offactory establishment, monitoring orders,continuous monitoring.
Measures for household wastewater
Sewerage Law
Law for Johkaso (On-site packaged
household wastewater treatment plant)

Special Measures in Enclosed Water Bodies
Lakes and Reservoirs

Law Concerning Special Measures for
Preservation of Lake Water Quality
Planning of Plan for the Preservation of
Lake Water Quality, Special Regulations

Estuaries

Water Pollution Control Law
Control of total pollutant load, andcountermeasures against eutrophication

Seto Inland Sea
The Law Concerning Special Measures for Conservation of the
Seto Inland Sea
Ariake Sea/Yatsushiro Sea
The Law Concerning Special Measures for the Restoration of
the Ariake and Yatsushiro seas

Potable Water Sources

Total Pollution Load Control
Water pollution in estuaries that have inflows of pollutantsfrom densely populated or industrialized areas is a serious
problem. The Water Pollution Control Law was amended in1978 to implement a Total Pollution Load Control (TPLC) System
for such large estuaries, in order to comply with the EWQS.
The Basic Policy for TPLC, which is formulated by the
Minister of the Environment, sets pollutant load reduction
targets for each specified water area, and the target year bywhich they are to be met. Based on this, the governor of eachprefecture creates a management plan for TPLC to set thepollutant load reduction target for each pollution source in theprefecture and measures to meet the reduction target, as well
as take required actions based on the plan.
Regulations in accordance with the TPLC standards are thecore of load-reducing measures. These standards apply todesignated commercial facilities with effluent volumes of
50m3/day or more. The standards indicate the permissible limit
for pollutant discharge loads per specified facility.

Law Concerning Special Measures for the Protection of Water
Quality in Water Resources Areas for the Purpose of Preventing
Specific Trouble

Groundwater Quality
Conservation
General Measures

Basic Environment Law
Environmental Quality Standards for
Groundwater
Water Pollution Control Law
Regulations for toxic substances fromfactories, purifying orders for polluted
groundwater, and continuous monitoring

Other Laws Related toWater Environment
Law Concerning Special Measures against Dioxins
River Law
Drinking Water Sources Law
Water Supply Law
Law Rrelating to the Prevention of Marine Pollution and Maritime DisasterFigure 3. Legislative Chart for Water Quality Management15

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Japan

History of Water Quality Management in Japan
Along with the economic recovery following
Underlying Causes
phenomena
Policy Response
World War II, water pollution became a serious 1950s Rapid
EffortsbyLocal Governments
Health damages
Delay of social
economic
Citizen's Movement• Adoption of pollution control ordinances
problem primary in large cities, with incidents• Minamata
infrastructure
growth•Disputes
and•Agreementof pollution control etc.
• Jinzu Riverdevelopment
complaints about
which resulted in damage to people’s health.
• Agano River
related todamagetofishery
environmental
Frequent occurrences of environmental problems
between the fishermen
Heavy and
Enactment of the Previous Twoprotection
and the factory
chemicalLaws on Water Quality
Damage toattracted attention from the general public. This 1960s industrization• Strong movement to• Public Water Quality Protection Law (1958)
fishery
compensation for• Industrial Effluent Water Law (1958)
made it impossible for industries to keep with
• Edo River
healthdamagessuch
The defects on• Yodo River, Osaka as Minamata Disease
their motto of “business as usual” withoutcity planning• Ise Bay, etc.
etc.
(high-density land use,
The Beginning ofintervention from public authorities.
and contiguity
Comprehensive Measures
factories and houses etc.)
Occurrenceofalarge-scale
red
tide
in
the
• Enactment of the Basic Law for EnvironLocal governments, therefore, began to takeSea of HarimaElicitation of water quality
mental Pollution Control (1967)
pollution
problemsintheclosedwater• Amendment of the Basic Law for Environcontrol measures, including adoption of pollution
Limits to
Urbanization
areas, such as lakes, ponds, and inner
mental Pollution Control (Introduction of
respondtobays
control ordinances. At the national level, the 1970s
Environmental Quality Standards) (1970)
individual• Enactment of Water Polluting Control Law
sourcesPublic Water Quality Protection Law and, the(1970)The increasing
An Increasing rate of pollutant loadings• Establishment of Environmental Agency
amount of domestic
from households in the small and mediumIndustrial Effluent Water Law were enacted.
water use(1971)
size of rivers in cities
These two laws, however, failed to meet the 1980s
Elicitation of groundwater pollution
requirements of environmental conservation, as
Various Water Pollution Controls
Social and economic activities
problems by trichloroethylene• Special Measures for Conservation of thebased on mass production,etc.
they were intended for specific areas and did not
Seto Inland Sea (1978)
mass consumption,• The Law Concerning Special Measures forandmass
disposal
Elicitation of problems of hazardous
contain clearly defined regulatory measures.
Protection of Lake Water Quality (1984)
1990s
substances such as trihalomethane,• Amendment to the Water Polluting Control
To implement pollution control measures in a
produced in the process of water quality
Law (the Groundwater Pollution Prevention
purification
System) (1989)
Diversification
comprehensive manner, the Basic Law for• Amendment to the Water Polluting Control
of a public
Aggravation of natural environmental
Law (Promotion of Controls for Domestic
life style
Environmental Pollution Control was enacted inproblems and global environmental
Wastewater)(1990)
problems• The Law to Take Special Measures for the
1967. In 1970, moreover, the “Pollution Diet” wasProtection of Water Quality in Headwater
convened to establish a legal framework for theAreas for the Purpose of Preventing
Specific Trouble in the Drinking Water
prevention of pollution, and the Water Pollution
Supply (1994)• The Law Concerning Promotion of theControl Law replaced the two earlier laws
Implementation of Quality Protection of the
Headwaters for the Drinking (1994)
governing water quality. Furthermore, in 1971,
the Environment Agency (currently, the Ministry
Comprehensive Efforts forof the Environment) was established to integrate
Environmental Protection• Basic Environment Law (1993)
the management of water administration, with a• Basic Environment Plan (1994)
focus on environmental conservation.
Steady economic growth and establishment of environmental policies led to general improvements in the environment in Japan.
However, changes in people’s lifestyles and increased urbanization have made impacts from human activities on the environment
more complicated and diverse. Various water pollution controls were, therefore, introduced to address specific problems.
Driven by social and economic activities based on mass production, mass consumption and mass disposal, urban public nuisances,
household pollution problems and global environmental problems have reached critical levels. Conventional approaches based oncommand-and-control mechanisms have not been sufficient to cope with these problems. This made it necessary to enact the Basic
Environment Law in 1993. This law provided the philosophy for environmental policies, the direction for basic actions, and thecomprehensive framework for environmental policy developments. The Basic Environment Plan, which was enacted under the Law,
generally promotes various preventive and remedial actions while it invites those interested in water environments to participate in theactions, taking water quality and quantity, aquatic organisms and shoreline development into consideration.
(Source: WEPA database)eutrophication.
As for groundwater, 4.3 percent of the total wells monitored did
not comply with the EWQS for nitrate-nitrogen or nitrite-nitrogen.
Most of the wells were considered to be polluted from fertilized
soil, livestock excreta, or domestic wastewater. Appropriate
measures to prevent pollution are necessary to conserve
groundwater. However, pollution of volatile organic compounds,
such as trichloroethylene, with commercial facilities as the main
pollution source, remains as a new field of study.

Existing and Future Challenges for Water
Environment Management
Water quality in estuaries, lakes and reservoirs, and urbanrivers has not improved, and pollution from hazardous chemicalparameters continues to become more prominent.
The percentage compliance with the Environment Water
Quality Standards remains low for enclosed water bodies,
especially estuaries, and lakes and reservoirs, which have large
pollution sources in their drainage basin, than that in other water
bodies. In addition, inflow of nitrogen and phosphorus causes

16

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Republic of Korea

Republic of Korea
Country Information
Area (km2)
Population
GDP (USD)
at current prices
Mean annual precipitation (mm)Renewable water resources (m3)
Total water withdrawal (m3)Agriculture
Water useby sector
Industry(2000)
Domestic

result of water management efforts made by the Ministry ofEnvironment (Figure 1). Special measures for these rivers havebeen implemented since 1998, so as to put in place the river
basin management system (e.g., the Total Maximum Daily LoadManagement System), expand environmental infrastructure,and reinforce emission standards.
All streams nationwide are classified into 114 sectors andtarget water quality (e.g., BOD levels) has been established forthem. The rate of streams that meet the standard was 71.9
percent in 2007. Percentage compliance to the water quality
standards has been on the rise from 12.8 percent in 1991 to
27.8 percent in 2000 and to 71.9 percent in 2007 (Figure 2).

99,300 (2007)
48.5 million (2007)
956,788 mil (2007)
1,274
69.7 billion
18.6 billion (2000)
48%
16%
36%

Water Bodies in Korea
6
Han(Paldang)Geum(Daecheong)

BOD(mg/L)

5

Nakdong(Mulgeum)
Yongsan(Juam)

4
3
2
1
0
95

96

97

98

99

00

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

Figure 1. BOD Measurement Results of 4 Major Rivers (mg/L)
Pecentage Compliance withEnvironmental Standards (%)(Source: MOE Korea 2008)

100
NationGeum

80

Nakdong
Sumjin

60
40
20
0
2000

State of Water ResourcesHan
Y ongs an

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Note: Heavy rainfalls in summer and an increase of non-point pollution sources
resulted in a decrease in rates in 2006. Different evaluated methodology wasapplied to the data of 2007

Annual precipitation in Korea is 1.3 times higher than the world's
average, however it is one-tenth of the world's average in terms ofper capita precipitation. Per capita availability of domestic water
resources is also low at 1,550 ton/year, and according to the United
Nations, Korea is one of the world’s water-scare countries. Despite
the high water usage rate compared to other OECD countries, Korea
faces another challenge in undertaking the construction of dams dueto the submission of civil complaints and environmental impacts inthe areas surrounding dams. Additionally, Korea has accomplishedthe formidable task of improving water supply rates in metropolitan
areas by 99.1 percent, yet the rate in rural areas had remained
steady at 66.8 percent (in 2008) (WEPA database).

Figure 2. Percentage Compliance with Water Quality Standards(Source: MoE Korea 2008)

Lakes
There are 18,898 lakes and marshes in the country, most ofwhich are agricultural reservoirs (17,573). There are only fivenatural lakes, and the rest are man-made lakes that wereformed when building dams.
The Ministry of Environment has set environmental standards
for phosphorous and nitrogen, in consideration of various
impacts of eutrophication. It has also set and is managing water
quality grades, water quality targets and compliance periods forthe 49 lakes in the country. Most lakes have been rated as
grade Ia (Very Good) or Ib (Good).

State of Water Environment
RiversOverall, water quality in the four major rivers (Han, Nakdong,Geum, and Youngsan) of Korea has improved since 1997, as a17

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Republic of Korea“Specially Managed Seas” under the Marine Pollution Prevention
Act in 2000. Four other areas were designated as “Environment
Preservation Seas” in the same year, to preserve their pristine
environment.

Table 1. Standard for the Living Environment (Lakes)
State(Chara
cter)

Grade

Standard
E-Coliforms(No. of
COD
SS
DO
T-P
T-N Chl-a
E-Coliforms/100mL)
Facal(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/m3) Total Coliforms
Coliforms

pH

Very Good I a

6.5~8.5≤2≤1≥ 7.5 ≤ 0.01

≤ 0.2

≤5

≤ 50

≤ 10

Good

Ib

6.5~8.5≤3≤5≥ 5.0 ≤ 0.02

≤ 0.3

≤9

≤ 500

≤ 100

Fairty Good II

6.5~8.5≤4≤5≥ 5.0 ≤ 0.03

≤ 0.4

≤ 14

≤ 1,000

≤ 200

Fair

III

6.5~8.5≤5≤ 15≥ 5.0 ≤ 0.05

≤ 0.6

≤ 20

≤ 5,000≤ 1,000

Fairty Poor IV

6.0~8.5≤8≤ 15≥ 2.0 ≤ 0.10

≤ 1.0

≤ 35

-

-

Poor

V

6.0~8.5≤ 10

Nofloating ≥ 2.0 ≤ 0.15
garbage

≤ 1.5

≤ 70

-

-

Very Poor

VI

-

> 10

< 2.0 > 0.15 > 1.5

> 70

-

-

-

Legislative Framework for Water Environment
Management
Prevention of people’s health and environment and preservationof clean water and aquatic ecosystems are the major objectives ofwater environmental management in the country, according to theWater Quality and Ecosystem Conservation Act 2008. Water
quality standards were established for human health and forconservation of the living environment as the target values ofwater quality to be achieved.

Note: 1. When the ratio of total nitrogen to total phosphorate is less than 7, thecriteria of total phosphorate shall not be applied. When the ratio is morethan 16, the criteria of total nitrogen shall not be applied.

(Source: MoE Korea 2008)

Groundwater
The Standards of Groundwater Quality set forth standard values
for three purposes of water use: domestic, agricultural/fishery orindustrial purposes. Groundwater used for drinking is subject tothe standard of drinking water in accordance with the Drinking
Water Management Act.
As a result of the 2007 groundwater quality study whichmonitored 2,499 sites once or twice a year, of the 4,828 test
samples, 260 (5.5%) did not meet water quality standards(Figure 3). The criteria that were not met included generalbacteria (31%), TCE (22.2%), NO3-N (20%) and Cl (14.2%).
The reason that groundwater is not meeting general bacteria
criteria is mainly due to insufficient management of groundwater
wells. The main cause of non-compliance of NO3-N parameteris sewage water and leachate infiltrating into the ground. In
2007, sites not meeting water quality standards decreased by
0.8 percent, compared to the previous year (6.3%). This has
been on the rise for the past five years.

Total Sites Tested

6

4,000

5
3,000

4

2,000

3
2

1,000

1

0

0
2000 2001

2002

2003 2004 2005

Total Sites

2006 2007

Table 2. Classification of Water Quality by Grade and State of
Aquatic Ecosystems (Rivers, streams, and lakes)

Percentage of Sites Not Meeting
Stadrads (%)

7

5,000

Water quality standards
There are two kinds of water quality standards. One is healthstandards for rivers and lakes (17 parameters such as Cd, As,
and PCB). Another is standards for conservation of the living
environment which were set for streams and lakes/mashes,
respectively. The standards for the living environment for river
include six parameters and nine parameters for lakes/marshes
in seven categories.

Percentage of Sites

Figure 3. Yearly Status of Groundwater Exceeding
Quality Standards

Grade

Description

Grade Ia
Very Good

Higher concentrations of DO (Dissolved Oxygen), no
pollutants, excellent condition of ecosystems, andresidential use after a simple purification process (e.g.,filtration and sterilization)

Grade Ib
Good

High DO levels, few pollutants, good condition of
ecosystems, and residential use after a generalpurification process (e.g., sedimentation, filtration, andsterilization)

Grade II
Fairly Good

Good DO levels, some pollutants, good and moderatecondition of ecosystems, and residential/ swimming pooluse after a general purification process (e.g.,
sedimentation, filtration, and sterilization)

Grade III
Fair

Moderate concentrations of DO, general pollutants,
moderate condition of ecosystems, residential use afteran advanced purification process (e.g., sedimentation,
filtration, carbon block filtration, and sterilization) andindustrial use after a general purification process

Grade IV
Fairly Poor

Low concentrations of DO, many pollutants, agriculturaland industrial use after an advanced purification process

Grade V
Poor

Lower concentrations of DO, a significant amount ofpollutants, an industrial use after an advanced
purification process (e.g., sedimentation, filtration,
carbon block filtration, sterilization, and reverse
osmosis), and no effect from bad or unpleasant odor on
daily life

Grade VI
Very Poor

Little DO, polluted water, and few fish in existence(Source: MoE Korea 2008)

Coastal water
Coastal water quality is categorized into three classes. About
35 percent of the coast meets the highest standard for Grade I.
About 55 percent are ranked as Grade II and the remaining 10
percent is in the lowest grade, Grade III. “Red tides” ofdecomposing algae, resulting from nutrient pollution fromagricultural and other sources, are also occurring in some coastal
waters and impose a considerable economic cost on fisheries andaquaculture. The Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs
has formulated the National Marine Environment Preservation
Plan to restore and maintain coastal water quality. Five severely
affected areas, including Masan-Chinhae Bay on the south coastand the Incheon-Sihwa area near Seoul, were designated(Source: MoE Korea 2008)

The standard values for groundwater were determinedaccording to the purpose of water usage: drinking, agricultural,and industrial uses. Coastal water quality standards were
established to protect human health and the living environment.
The standard values for coastal water quality standards for the18Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Republic of Korea

conservation of the living environment have been set for threegrades (Table 3).

Revision of Water Quality Standards
The Korean water quality standards for the protection ofhuman health have recently been expanded. The main reason
for the expansion was to address the concern of increasing
hazardous pollutants in water environments. A risk-based
approach was used to derive the water quality standards foreight toxic substances including antimony, benzene, carbon
tetrachloride, chloroform 1,2-dichloroethane, dichloromethane,
diethylhexylphtalate, and tetrachloroethylene.
The same methodology has been applied to revise theexisting substances, and the water quality standards for leadand cadmium were reinforced. The method for deriving water
quality criteria was revised from the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency’s (EPA) equation for deriving ambient water
quality criteria. The Korean standard values were used for input
parameters where possible. The water quality monitoring datafrom four major rivers in Korea were used as exposure data.
Priority chemicals for the consideration of expanding water
quality standards were determined based on the human healthrisk assessment.
Subsequent to the current water quality standards, theKorean Ministry of Environment plans to expand water quality
standards to thirty substances by 2015. Ecological risk criteria
were also derived and they will be incorporated in the water
quality standards in the near future.

Table 3. Coastal Water Quality Standards for Conservation of
the Living Environment
NormalCOD DO
Total coli. Hexane TP
TN(mg/L) (mg/L) (MPN/100mL) extracts (mg/L) (mg/L)(mg/L)

Grade

pH

I

7.8~8.3≤1

7.5 ≥≤ 1,000≤ 0.01≤ 0.03 ≤ 0.3

II

6.5~8.5≤2

5≥≤ 1,000≤ 0.01≤ 0.05 ≤ 0.6

III

6.5~8.5

≤4

2≥

-

-

≤ 0.09 ≤1.0

(Source: An et al. 2007)

Framework Act on Environmental Policy
Conservation of Water Quality in Inland Water
General Measures

Environmental Standards for Water Quality Aquatic
Ecosystem

Water Quality and Ecosystem Conservation Act- Standards for protection of human health (for rivers and lakes)- Standards for conservation of the living environment (Rivers)- Standards for conservation of the living environment (Lakes andMarshes)Special Measures in Specific Rivers

Groundwater Quality Standards

Act Relating to Han River Water Quality Improvement &Community Support
Act on Nakdong River Watershed Management &Community Support
Act on Geum River Watershed Management &Community Support
Act on Yeongsan & Sumjin River Watershed Management & Community Support

Conservation of Water Quality in Coastal Waters

Coastal Water Quality Standards

Other Laws Related to Water Environment- Standards for protection of human health- Standards for conservation of the living environment

Water Supply & Waterworks Installation Act
Sewerage Act
Management of Drinking Water Act

Figure 4. Legislative Chart for Water Quality Management

19

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Republic of Korea

Monitoring of water quality in public waters andgroundwater
Quality evaluations of river water are continuously conductedby a nationwide monitoring network. The data is collected andused for the formation of future policies for water quality control
and water quality conservation.
Monitoring categories include 26 items for rivers, 30 for lakes
and marshes, and 15 for groundwater. In particular, there are 52
automatic operating monitoring stations for surface waters. The
water quality is being monitored by measuring five common items
such as DO, TOC, pH and 17 optional items, including VOC.
For more efficient inspection, monitoring spots are classified
according to usage: river water, lake water, drinking water,
irrigation water, industrial water, and river water flowing throughcities.

total water pollution load management plan, to be implemented
between July 2004 and the end of 2007. In other river basins,
water quality goals have been established in 18 locations in the
Nakdong river basin, three locations in the Geum river basin, andseven locations in the Youngsan/Sumjin river basin. To achievethese targets, five cities and provinces in the Nakdong river
basin have already established Total water pollution load
management plans in early 2004 and other local governments in
the Geum and Youngsan/Sumjin rivers are following suit.
The Ministry of Environment allows local administrations todetermine on their own whether they should implement thesystem in keeping with local environmental circumstances, thus
striking a balance between environmental conservation anddevelopment. Hence, local administrations, including Gwangju
City governing the Paldang Lake watershed, plan to establish
and implement a basic plan for the total pollution load system incollaboration with the Ministry.
Towards this end, in 2002, the Ministry formulated basic
guidelines on total pollution load management including the
documenting of key pollutants and target water quality. It is now
preparing to establish water quality targets at downstream points
in watersheds by dividing the three river watersheds into unit
watersheds for total pollution load management.

Table 4. Operation of Water Quality Monitoring Network (2008)
Number of
Location
Monitored

Items

Frequency of Inspection

Rivers697

12 times/year(48 times/year for key location)

Lakes

185

12 times/year(48 times/year for key location)

Industrial waterway

71

12 times/year

Water course flowing
through cities

49

12 times/year

Agriculture water474

2 times/year

Groundwater

Measures for non-point source pollution
Policies focused on point source pollution have shown its
limitations in achieving water quality improvement, pointing out
the need for an advanced management system for river basinwater quality beyond the scope of existing policies.
In March 2004, the Comprehensive Measures for Non-point
Source Pollution Management in the Four Major Rivers were
established under the leadership of the Prime Minister's Office andin cooperation with related ministries. The Comprehensive
Measures contain three major policy fields: policy system
improvements, pilot projects on the construction and managementof non-point source pollution treatment facilities, and research andpublic relations. Such areas of concern will be addressed overthree phases. The first phase (2004-2005) focused on policy
system improvement and pilot projects, the second phase(2006-2011) focuses on best-fit management projects for majorriver basins of the four major rivers, and the third phase(2012-2020) focuses on nationwide implementation of non-point
source pollution management.

2,499
2 times/year(Source: provided by the WEPA focal point person of Korea)

Effluent standards
Effluent standards are set by the Ordinance of the Ministry ofEnvironment for discharged water from both public and private
sewage treatment plants, waste treatment plants.
The Toxic Pollutants Effluent Standard is designated to protect
human and animal health. Forty kinds of organic materials aredesignated as water pollutants. Heavy metals and phenols aredesignated as specific water pollution material.
Total water pollution load management system
The four major rivers, the Han-gang, Nakdong-gang,
Geum-gang, and Youngsan/Sumjin-gang are important as theymeet the water needs of more than 40 million people. The
Ministry of Environment established the Comprehensive Water
Quality Management Measures for the Four Major Rivers
between 1998 and 2000. Major policies include the total waterpollution load management system, riparian buffer zones, landpurchasing, water use charges and resident support measures.
The Total Water Pollution Load Management System(TWPLMS) contributes to the sustainable management of water
resources by setting a target water quality, which has beendifferentially set based on the results of an environmental survey
conducted in each river basin and in consideration of the specificwater use. For the Han river basin, using the TWPLMS is
optional. Gwangju City was the first to voluntarily establish a

Existing and Future Challenges for Water
Environment Management
MOE’s water quality policy will focus more on non-degradable
pollutants, and total phosphorus. The policy will encompass the
management of water quality, even in small streams, estuaries
and coasts that have been poorly managed due to thegovernment’s water quality policy focusing almost solely on theupper regions of water supply sources and mainstreams of rivers.
The Ministry plans to expand monitoring systems for sedimentand non-point source and other measures, for comprehensive
water quality assessment.

20Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Lao PDR

Lao PDRCountry Information
Area (km2)
Population
GDP (USD)
at current prices
Mean annual precipitation (mm)Renewable water resources (m3)
Total water withdrawal (m3)Agriculture
Water useby sector
Industry(2000)
Domestic

for the lower Mekong Basin. Most of the rivers in the country are
Mekong tributaries, which are about 270,000 million m3,
equivalent to 35 percent of the average annual flow of the whole
Mekong Basin. About 85 percent of the land area of the country
is located within the Mekong Basin.
The national population is approximately six million. Thismeans that total available surface water resources of 332.5km3
is equivalent to more than 55,000m3 on an annual per capita
basis. In comparison to other Asian countries, Lao PDR has thehighest per capita water availability (FAO AQUASTAT). However,
little of the national available water supply is developed. The
total storage capacity of large reservoirs is 7km3, which isequivalent to 2.8 percent of the annual surface water supply.

236,800 (2007)
5.9 million (2007)
4,153 mil (2007)
1,600
270 billion
5.7 billion
90%
6%
4%

Major Watersheds in Lao PDR

State of Water Environment
The Water Quality Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture
and Forestry reported that the quality of water in Lao PDR has
generally been good according to the past 15 years ofmonitoring data. However, there are some water pollution
problems in major urban areas caused by various water uses bycommunities (households, hotels, hospitals and entertainment
centers). In addition, the actions of the agricultural and industrial
sectors have resulted in water pollution, including mineral
exploitation and hydropower generation. The degradation ofwater bodies and catchments due to sedimentation, landerosion and drying out continues.
River water
The Mekong River Basin Diagnostic Study by the MekongRiver Commission (MRC) (MRC 1997) indicates that “water
throughout the Mekong River Basin is generally of good quality,
but there are localized exceptions”. The comparison of available
water quality indicators of some tributaries in Lao PDR withWorld Health Organization (WHO) standards and European
Commission (EC) standards for drinking water shows that water
quality of rivers in Lao PDR remains high.
Sediment is the primary pollutant source affecting river water
quality. Tributaries and river reaches with high sedimentation
are the Sebanghieng, Sedone, Nam Ou, and the upper andlower stretches of the Mekong (WEPA database).
According to the Diagnostic Study of Water Quality in theLower Mekong Basin by MRC (March 2007), water quality wasmonitored at five stations in Lao PDR (LS3, LS4, LS5, LS6, LS8,and LP12 shown in Figure 1) during the water quality
campaigns in 2003 and 2004. The number of sites and numberof samples was limited, however, the analysis showed that the
Mekong River system has a lower concentration of mineral ionsthan some other major rivers of the world (See Figure 2). In
addition, the analysis also showed that the water quality in the
Mekong tributaries in Lao PDR is generally good.

State of Water Resources
In principle, Lao PDR is rich in water resources. Averageannual rainfall at higher elevations in the southern part of thecountry is 3,700mm and 1,300 mm in the northern valleys. The
monthly distribution of river flow in Lao PDR closely follows thepattern of rainfall: about 80 percent during the rainy season(May to October) and 20 percent in the dry season (November
to April). For some rivers in the central and southern parts of thecountry (particularly Se Bang Fai, Se Bang Hieng and Se Done
shown in the figure above), the flow during the dry season isless: around 10 to 15 percent of the annual flow. Rivers in Lao
PDR provide water resources not only for the country but also21Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Lao PDR

Groundwater
The use of groundwater is considerably negligible and its
status is still at baseline conditions. There is, however, limited
available data and information on groundwater in Lao PDR. The
only information available was the regional assessment ofgroundwater potential in Champasack and Saravane, southern
provinces in Lao PDR, a decade ago, funded by the Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA).

BDP Sub-area
1. Northern Laos
2. Chaing Rai
LS3

3. Nong Khai/Songkhram
4. Central Laos

TP2
LS4

TS1

5. Mun/Chi
6. Southern Laos
7. Se San/Sre Pok/Se Kong
8. Kratie

LS6

9. Tonle Sap
LS5

10. Delta
TS7

Legislative Framework for Water Environment
Management

LS8
TS9
TS10

TS11

The basic legislation on water quality management in Lao
PDR is the Law on Environmental Protection (LEP) adopted in
1999, which specifies a set of rules for protection of theenvironment to protect human health and natural resources andto ensure the sustainable socio-economic development of thecountry (Article 1). Laws on Water and Water Resources (1996)
and other laws such as the Forest Law and Mining Law are also
relevant to water environmental management, as shown in
Figure 3.
The Department of Environment, the Water Resources andEnvironment Administration (WREA) mainly manages water
environments, and is responsible for setting ambient water
quality standards and effluent standards for domestic
wastewater.
The Environment Protection Law has been placed underreview. Under the general direction of the Government, the law
will mostly focus on pollution control of investment projects andactivities rather than on green environment monitoring andcontrol, such as biodiversity conservation. The law will also
provide more centralized authority to the Department ofEnvironment and its local counterparts as the legislative bodyundertaking the pre-assessment of environmental impacts frominvestment projects and activities, monitoring implementation,and taking appropriate actions during and after the
implementation of investment projects and activities, in close
collaboration with concerned agencies at all levels. The law will
be submitted to the National Assembly at the end of 2009.
Moreover, the roles of each agency relating to water quality
monitoring and management will be reviewed upon thecompletion of updates to the Environmental Protection Law.

LP12
CS13 CS23
CS16

CS14

CP15

CP17
CS18
CS19
VP20

Sampling sites in the 2003 and 2004
Field Campaigns

VS21

VS22

2003 & 2004 primary stations
2003 & 2004 secondary stations

N

0

Sampled in 2003 only

50 100200

300km

Figure 1. Sampling Stations in 2003 and 2004 during
Water Quality Campaigns(Source: MRC 2007)

160

Mekong (2003)
Mississippi (1965/67)
Saint Laurent (1968)
Rhine (1971/72)

Concentration(mg/L)

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

CI-

SO42

Mg2+

Ca2-

Na+

K+

CaCO2

Figure 2. Comparison of the Chemical Profile of the
Mekong with Other Rivers(Source: MRC 2007)

Water quality standards
As part of overall environmental standards (including air,noise and water), the Department of Environment is currently
preparing national ambient water quality standards, in technicalcooperation with the Department of Water Resources (DWR).
Upon the completion of the standards, the DWR will take thekey role in ambient water quality management, based on the
mandate provided. The tentative ambient water quality classes
for surface waters are designed based on the usage of water as

Lakes/Enclosed water
Perennial ponds, marshes and oxbow lakes are fairly common
in the lowland-floodplains in Lao PDR. These water bodies areusually shallow and vary greatly in size during the year. Because
the water is relatively fertile and shallow in areas, many types ofaquatic plants, molluscs, crustaceans, amphibians and reptiles
are abundant.

Table 1. Tentative Ambient Water Quality Classes for Fresh Surface Waters
Class
Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
Class 4
Class 5

Description
Unpolluted water supply safe for human consumption without treatment, provides habitat for sensitive aquatic biota and body contact
recreation
Water supply safe for human consumption after normal treatment process, habitat for biota and suitable for recreation and aquatic biota
Medium quality water suitable for human consumption after normal treatment process, irrigation supply, and aquatic biota
Somewhat polluted water used for human consumption only after special treatment and for industrial supply
Polluted freshwater suitable for navigation(Source: World Bank 2007)22

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Lao PDR

shown in Table 1 (World Bank 2007). The former Science
Technology and Environment Agency (STEA) outlined water
quality guidelines for surface water in the draft regulation for
adoption of ambient environmental standards (1999).
Water quality standards for drinking water have beendeveloped by the Ministry of Health in collaboration with
WHO/UNICEF. The quality standards for drinking water andhousehold water supply are defined by the Decision on theManagement of Quality Standards for Drinking Water andHousehold Water Supply (2005).
POLICY FRAMEWORKMonitoring of water quality in public waters andgroundwater
Some agencies carry out water quality monitoring, laboratory
analysis and other functions. The main agencies with responsibilities
for water quality monitoring are shown in Table 2.
Water quality monitoring is also conducted in the Mekong
tributaries as a part of environment monitoring and managementin the Mekong River by mostly MRC support program.

MANAGEMENT INSTRUMENTS

SUPPORTING TOOLS

Constitution
Water and Water Resources Law
Prime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementation of the Water andWater Resources Law

National Water Sector Strategy
and Action Plan

Environment Protection Law
Prime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementation of theEnvironment Protection Law

National Environment Strategy
and Action Plan; EIA Regulation;
Regulations on the Monitoring
and Control of Wastewater
Discharge Environment Standard

Forestry Law
Prime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementation of the Forestry
Law

Regulations related to forestry
and biodiversity: National
Biodiversity Conservation Areas
and Aquatic Resources

Land Law
Decree on the Implementation ofLand Law

Regulations related to wetlands,
land uses and titles• National Water Sector
Profile• Lao Environment
Monitor

Agriculture Law
Prime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementation of the Agriculture
Law

Regulations related to Agriculture
Extension, Livestock andFisheries• Other Relevant Dateand Information• Relevant Training andAwareness Program

Regulations related to Water
User’s Association, lrrigation
O&M, Supply and Drainage, etc.

Industrial Processing Law

Regulations and standard
related to wastewater
discharged from industry andhandicrafts

Mining Law

Regulations related to Mining
Extraction and Management

Electricity Law

Environmental Management
Standard for Electricity Projects

Hygiene and Disease Prevention Law

Drinking Water Standard

Water supply and Sanitation, andStandard

Urban Planning Law

Regulation related to Urban
Planning, Housing, Domestic
Drainage System and Designs

Figure 3. Legislative Chart for Water Quality Management

23(Source: WEPA database)Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Lao PDR

Table 2. Public Agencies Conducting Water Quality Monitoring
Institution
Dept. of Irrigation (Ministryof Agriculture and Forestry)(Analysis is conducted in
Water Quality Laboratory)
Ministry of Public Health,Pesticide Laboratory
Ministry of Energy andMines
Environment Department(STEA)
Ministry of Industry andCommerce (MIC)
Ministry of Public HealthType of Samples
Surface water
GroundwaterIndustrial wastewater

Number of Stations
23
Ad hoc samples taken from surface,ground and waste water as required

Surface water(Ad hoc testing)Surface water from
Hydropower dams
Wastewater(urban/industrial)
Industrial effluent(Samples collected by
Dept. of Irrigation or STEA)
Rural water supply

Ad hoc sampling
11 (Vientiane municipality)
3 (Vientiane province)
Ad hoc sampling
Ad hoc testing for groundwater and newly
drilled bore holes, and surface water
resources used in public water supply

Parameters Monitored
14 parameters(DO, dissolved salts, nutrients, and organic
matter)(Plans for As, Hg, Cd, and Pb)
24 parameters(Organic compounds and pesticides)
Almost 8 parameters(Including temperature, pH, DO, COD, etc.)
4 parameters(TSS, TDS, BOD, and pH)
Parameters monitored are mainly related toindustrial waste monitoring
7 parameters(Fe, Cu, Ba, pH, Ec, TDS, NO3)
(Source: Komany 2008)

Effluent standards
The Lao government sets standards for wastewater under the
Water and Water Resources Law, taking the classification of thereceiving water source into account. The standards deal with bothwaste and wastewater. The former Ministry of Industry andHandicraft (Ministry of Industry and Commerce at present) sets
concentration standards of wastewater from industries such as
sugar mills, the textile and garment industry, pulp mills, paper
mills, slaughter houses, and battery plants. Wastewater standards
for buildings, hotels, dormitories, hospitals, restaurants, andcommercial centers are also designated by the former STEA.

Multi-stakeholder Water Governance for
Sustainable Livelihood in Lao PDR
Water resources are important resources for human
livelihood. As there are various stakeholders involved in water
resources, it is important to raise awareness and open up
dialogue with these stakeholders. International Union forConservation of Nature (IUCN) Lao PDR is working to bring adiverse group of stakeholders to the table to improveunderstanding of water resources, enhance effective
governance and raise awareness of the rising pressures on Lao
PDR’s water resources.
The current objectives of its activities (2008-2010) are as
follows:- Provide opportunity for the state, civil society and businesses
to participate in water dialogues: to inform and be informed.
- Encourage multi-stakeholder involvement in the process ofdebates on national water resources strategies and relevant
regional strategies of ADB, MRC and the World Bank withfocusing on agreed safeguard aspects.
- Enable the articulation of different perspectives aboutwater-related development in the Mekong Region for
consideration in the decision-making process.

Existing and Future Challenges for Water
Environment Management
Various challenges exist in the field of water quality monitoring,modeling and other technical strengthening, however, there is aneed for a more systematic approach.
Currently, some ministries and departments responsible forwater resources independently carry out water quality
management, such as water quality monitoring and analysis.
The WREA needs to play an active and leading role in water
quality management in line with its mandate on water resourcesand environment.
Also, stronger water quality policies and strategies areneeded to deal with the rapid development of water resources
and possible impacts on water quality and ecosystems. The
updating of the National Water Resources Policy and Strategy
and the possible review of the Law on Water and Water
Resources will provide the opportunity for this policy andstrategy development.
Reviewing and setting coordinated water quality monitoringstandards and procedures need to be considered. Furthermore,capacity and systematic coordination procedures and mechanisms
among agencies responsible for overall and sectoral water quality
monitoring and management need to be built.

Water networking committees and a panel of expert groups
have been established in various areas, such as policy, science,water use, and the private sector. Also, a mechanism fordecision support on water related development was established.
It is needed to continue promoting water governance throughmulti-stakeholder dialogues. Future work will be concentrated on
establishing coordination mechanisms, exploring potential areas
for collaboration with key stakeholders at different levels,
improving access to funding sources to enable activities to be
self-sustaining, and supporting information sharing with regionaland global water networks.
(Source: Sylavong 2008)24

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Malaysia

Malaysia
Country Information
Area (km2)
Population
GDP (USD)
at current prices
Mean annual precipitation (mm)Renewable water resources (m3)
Total water withdrawal (m3)Agriculture
Water useby sector
Industry(2000)
Domestic

Surface water provides 97 percent of water supply for domestic,
industrial, and agricultural use. About 80 percent of the water
withdrawn from the river system is used for irrigation purposes. In
the future, the percentage of water use for domestic and industrial
uses is expected to command a bigger share of the water
withdrawn from surface water sources. Potable water supply
coverage extended to most areas throughout the country, with the
exception of a few isolated spots where water supply network
coverage remains difficult or inaccessible due to physical or
geographical factors. Groundwater well or rural water supply
scheme system will be provided in those spots.

329,700 (2007)26.5 million (2007)
186,720 mil (2007)
3,000
580 billion
9 billion (2000)
62%
21%
17%

Water Bodies in Malaysia

State of Water Environment
River water
In Malaysia, the Water Quality Index (WQI) is used to evaluate
the status of river water quality. The WQI is calculated using thevalues of six parameters: DO, BOD, COD, NH3-N, SS, and pH.
According to the WQI, the status of water quality is classified into
three categories: “clean,” “slightly polluted,” and “polluted.”
Figure 1 shows the trend of water quality evaluated by WQI.
The number of river basins classified as “clean” increased after
2000. In terms of water quality at monitoring stations, out of 1,064
stations within 146 river basins, 619 (58%) were found to be“clean,” 359 (34%) were “slightly polluted” and 86 (8%) were“polluted.” Stations located upstream were generally “clean,” while
those downstream were either “slightly polluted” or “polluted.”
The major pollutants are BOD, NH3-N and SS. The main
sources of those pollutants are untreated or partially treatedsewage, discharge from agro-based and manufacturingindustries, earthworks and land clearing activities.
Analysis of heavy metals in 5,613 water samples revealed
that almost all samples complied with Class III (Table 1),
National Water Quality Standards for arsenic (As), mercury (Hg),cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn), except
iron (Fe) which was 83 percent compliant.
Clean
Slightly Polluted
Polluted

90
80
73

Number of Basin

State of Water Resources
Water resources in Malaysia are generally abundant, withseasonal variations. Most areas in Peninsular Malaysia receivea national average rainfall of 2,500mm and 3,500mm in Sabah
and Sarawak. High precipitation falls in the monsoon months
during November to January, which affects areas such as thenortheastern area of Peninsular Malaysia, West Sarawak andNorth East Sabah.
Droughts occur occasionally. The most prominent droughts
happened in 1998 sometimes coinciding with the El Niño
phenomena. Droughts are managed through the monitoring ofdry events by the Department of Irrigation and Drainage. Floods
are managed through various flood mitigation using structuraland non-structural means.

70

80

68
64
55

60

48

48
37

33
24

11

0

9

9

51

43

32
25

7

53

47
42

20
10

59

58
52

38

35

30

59

53

44

40

63

61

60
50

80

74

72

71

6

7

14

14

35

25
16

13

34

13

12

13

15

14

7

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Year

Figure 1. Water Quality Trend of River Basins, 1990-2006(Source: DOE 2007)25

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Malaysia

Groundwater
Groundwater quality status was evaluated based on the
National Guidelines for Raw Drinking Water Quality from the
Ministry of Health (revised in December 2000) as a benchmark.
In 2006, 340 water samples were taken from monitored wells.
Iron (Fe) levels exceeding the benchmark were recorded in all
samples. Between 30 percent and 100 percent of the samples
taken from all sites showed high levels of iron. The sampling
results also showed that between 15 percent and 100 percent ofsamples taken from all areas recorded manganese (Mn) levels
exceeding the benchmark. Between five percent and 13 percent
of samples in rural areas (5%), landfills (5%), municipal watersupply (5%), golf courses (7%), agricultural areas (9%) andindustrial areas (13%) were found to exceed the nitratebenchmark except in urban/suburban, ex-mining areas andradioactive landfills. Arsenic levels exceeding the benchmark
were recorded at radioactive sites (100%), ex-mining areas(67%), solid waste landfill (44%), municipal water supply (36%)
and agricultural areas (20%).

standards and the sustainability of its citizens’ quality of life.
In Malaysia, environmental acts and regulations were
established in the 1970s. The Environmental Quality Act (EQA)
1974 is an act related to the prevention, abatement, and control
of pollution, and enhancement of the environment. The Act
ordains that the Minister, after consultation with theEnvironmental Quality Council, may elaborate regulations forprescribing ambient water quality standards and discharge
standards, and specifying the maximum permissible loads that
may be discharged by any source into inland waters, withreference either generally or specifically to the body of waters
concerned.
National water quality standards
National Water Quality Standards (NWQS), which is applied
to surface waters, sets out standard values of 72 parameters in
six water use classes. The goal is not to meet the standards of aparticular water class in all surface waters, but to improve water
quality gradually in order to meet the standards of a higher
water class than the actual, current class.

Marine water
The Interim Marine Water Quality standards (IMWQS) havebeen used as the benchmark for the marine monitoring programin 1978 for Peninsular Malaysia and in 1985 for Sabah andSarawak.
A total of 1,035 samples from 229 monitoring stations wereanalyzed in 2006. As in previous years, the main contaminantsof the coastal waters of all states that exceeded the IMWQS
were total suspended solids (75%), Escherichia coli (55%) andoil and grease (35%). Sources of the total suspended solids are
agricultural activities, tourism development, coastal reclamation,
logging and road construction. Sources of the E. coli areuntreated or partially treated domestic and animal wastes.
Sources of oil and grease are effluent discharged from vessels
such as tank clearing, deballasting, bilges and bunkering, andleakages and disposal of engine oil from ferries and boats.
Overall comparison showed an increase in E. coli, mercury
and arsenic levels in marine waters and a decrease in totalsuspended solids, oil and grease, copper, lead, cadmium andtotal chromium in 2006 compared to the previous year.
The islands monitored are categorized as development
islands, resort islands, marine park islands and protectedislands. A total of 344 samples were collected and analyzed.
The major pollutants identified in island marine waters were totalsuspended solids, E. coli and oil and grease.

Table 1. Water Use Classes in the National Water
Quality Standards
Class
I
IIA
IIB
III
IV
V

Uses
Conservation of Natural Environment and Water Supply I: Little
to no treatment necessary
Fisheries I: Very sensitive aquatic species
Water Supply II: Conventional treatment required
Fisheries ll: Sensitive aquatic species
Recreational use with body contact
Water Supply lll: Extensive treatment required
Fisheries lll: Common, of economic value, and tolerant species;
livestock drinking
Irrigation
None of the above

The IMWQS, which sets out standard values for nineparameters, is currently under review in order to cover otherparameters and reexamine the current standard values, which
are not easily complied with.
Groundwater Quality Standards for Malaysia have not yet
been established, but considering the potential of groundwater
as an alternative source for surface water, the Department of
the Environment (DOE) instituted the National Groundwater
Monitoring Program to determine the groundwater quality status.
Since the standards have still not yet been established,groundwater quality status is determined based on the National
Guidelines for Raw Water Quality as the benchmark.

Legislative Framework for Water Environment
Management
The ultimate objective of Malaysia’s environmental management(including water quality management) is improvement of living

26

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Malaysia

Conservation of Water Quality
GeneralEnvironmental Quality Act
Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water
Effluent Discharge Standards

Specific Area
Selangor Waters Management Authority Enactment (1999)
Kedah Water Resources Enactment (2007)
Sabah Conservation of the Environment Enactment
Sabah Water Resources Enactment (1998)
National Resources and Environment Ordinance Sarawak

Specific Sector
Peninsular Malaysia
1. Agriculture
Irrigation Areas Act (1953)
Drainage Works Acts (1954)
2. Forestry
National Forestry Act (1984)
3. Control of River
Water Acts (1920), Reviewed (1989)
River Rights Enactment of Perak
Kelantan River Traffic Enactment (1955)
Pahang River Launches Enactment 6/49
4. Land Management
National Land Code (1965)
Land Conservation Act (1960)
Earthwork by laws
5. Domestic Water Supply
Water Services Industry Act
6. Mining
Mining Enactment (1936)
7. Local and Regional Planning
Town and Country Planning Act (1976)
8. Fishery
Fisheries Act (1963)
9. Others
Local Government Act (1976)
Street Drainage Building By Law(1974, 1994-R)
Geological Survey Act
Ministerial Function Act (1969)

State of Sabah and Sarawak
1. Agriculture
Drainage and Irrigation,
Sabah Ordinance (15/1956)
Drainage Works Ordinance Sarawak (1966)
2. Forestry
Sabah Forest Enactment (1965)
Forest Ordinance Sarawak,
Cap126
3. Control of River
Sarawak Water Ordinance,
Sarawak Riverine Transport Bill (1993)
4. Land Management
Sabah Land Ordinance (1930)
Sarawak Land Code (1958)
5. Domestic Water Supply
Water Services Industry Act
6. Mining
Mining Enactment (1960 Sabah)
Mining Enactment (1949 Sarawak)
7. Local and Regional Planning
Town and Country Planning
Enactment Sabah Cap 141
Town and Country Planning Sarawak Cap 87
8. Others
Local Authority Enactment,
Sabah Ordinance (11/1961)
Local Authority Ordinance Sarawak Cap 117

Figure 2. Legislative Chart for Water Quality Management

Monitoring of water quality in public waters andgroundwaterRivers: The DOE started its monitoring program in 1978 toestablish baselines and detect water quality changes in riverwater quality. Water samples are collected at regular intervals
from designated stations for in-situ and laboratory analysis todetermine its physico-chemical and biological characteristics.
There are two types of monitoring stations: manual water quality
monitoring (MWQM) stations and continuous water quality
monitoring (CWQM) stations. In MWQM stations, the frequencyof the monitoring is determined by the status of the river water
quality. Samples are taken a minimum of once a month, or once
every four days at the most.

(Source: NRE and NAHRIM 2009)

which contribute to the stability and diversity of the marine
ecosystem, DOE started a marine monitoring program in 1978 forPeninsular Malaysia and in 1985 for Sabah and Sarawak. The
monitoring results are described in comparison to the IMWQS.
Groundwater: Recognizing the future potential of groundwater
as an important alternative source of (surface) water, in 1997,
the DOE initiated the National Groundwater Monitoring Program.
As environment standards for groundwater are not established,
the groundwater quality status is determined based on the
National Guidelines for Raw Drinking Water Quality as thebenchmark. By 2006, 88 monitoring wells had been establishedat 48 sites in Peninsular Malaysia, 19 wells in Sarawak and 15
wells in Sabah. The sites were selected and categorizedaccording to the surrounding land uses.

Marine water: Considering that marine water quality monitoring
plays an important role in the conservation of marine resources27

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Malaysia

Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) Approach in Water Quality Management– Case Study in Sungai Selangor River Basin –In Malaysia, there are many departments and agencies that oversee rivers. Each of these entities look at its respective needs, thus it
is important that rivers are managed in an integrated and holistic manner taking into account needs of all stakeholders. The
establishment of the Selangor Waters Management Authority (SWMA/LUAS) in 1999 was an important step for Malaysia towards the
management of rivers in an integrated manner. The SWMA/LUAS was established to plan, research, facilitate, coordinate, operate,
enforce, and supervise the development of an integrated management plan for water resources and the environment. The plan covers
all areas in Selangor state, which has an area of 7,955km2 and supports a population of about four million people within nine districts.
Water resources in Selangor, which come from rivers, reservoirs, groundwater, lakes, and ponds, are relatively abundant. Water inlakes and ponds are considered as alternative resources which may be used in times of drought.
Rivers in Selangor cross district boundaries. There are also rivers which form states boundaries and are shared by several states.
As such there is an urgent need to manage rivers in an integrated manner.
An Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) project was conducted in the Sungai Selangor Basin, which is the third largest river
basin in the state. The objective of the IRBM project was to manage the natural resources of Malaysia on a long-term sustainable basis
using an integrated river basin approach to resource management. The project was conducted from 2002 to 2007, with funding fromboth the Malaysian Government and the Danish Government via its overseas development agency, Danida.
Seven working groups (animal husbandry, land use, aquaculture, water resources, water quality, sand mining and an IRBM working
group) were established in this project. In 2003 and 2007, a workshop and seminar were held to raise awareness on IRBM andprepare the Sungai Selangor Basin Management Plan.
Within the Sungai Selangor Basin Management Plan (2007-2012) four main policy were explored. In each of these four policies,
issues are analyzed and policies and strategies are determined and ways of their implementation are indicated.
Policy 1: Ensure sufficient water
Policy 2: Ensure clean water
Policy 3: Protect against floods
Policy 4: Conserve the fireflies
With respect to Policy 2, water quality at the main water intake points are to remain at clean status (Class II). However, these points
are being put under pressure especially from development activities especially in the Rawang area.
To address the issue of river water pollution and to ensure clean water for water supply and for the environment, the state isdetermined to reduce pollution from existing sources and prevent pollution from new sources. Various kinds of actions and activities
are being carried out, including identification of sources of pollution in term of locality, type of pollution and quantity of pollution(domestic and industrial wastewater, wet market, animal husbandry, freshwater aquaculture, solid waste, soil erosion, and sandmining). After the sources of pollution are identified and locations visited, a meeting of the Task Force of the Sungai Selangor Pollution
Control, which consists of various relevant organizations, is held and chaired by the Director of SWMA/LUAS. All relevant agencies
take integrated action to address the problem.
The Sungai Selangor Basin Management Committee, chaired by EXCO Infrastructure & Public Utilities, manages the Sungai Selangor Basinusing an integrated and holistic approach with the cooperation of government agencies, the private sector, stakeholders and communities.

Effluent standards
Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents)
Regulations in 1979 established discharge standards. In addition,other discharge standards have also been established for theprescribed premises; raw natural rubber and crude palm-oil, under
the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural
Rubber) Regulations in 1978 and the Environmental Quality(Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm-Oil) Regulations in 1977.
Currently, the regulations, including discharge standards, areunder review in order to establish new discharge standards foreach sector.
Section 25, EQA 1974 sets out restrictions on pollution ofinland waters where no person shall, unless licensed, emit,
discharge or deposit any environmentally hazardous substances,
pollutants or wastes into any inland waters in contravention of
the acceptable conditions specified under Section 21.
This provision allows for enforcement, whereby surpriseinspections are carried out at all premises by DOE officials toensure compliance with all provisions in the act. Non-complianceresults in prosecution and punishment.

order to update the act and ensure that effluent standards areappropriate for current treatment technologies.
The effluent standards are being reviewed and placed into
separate categories of industrial sources and sewage treatment
plants. In addition, the ambient Marine Water Quality Standards
are also being reviewed.
Existing and Future Challenges for Water
Environment Management
Insufficiently treated sewage, discharge of effluent fromagro-based and manufacturing industries and effluent fromlivestock farming are the current causes of water pollution.
The trend of the monitoring results of river water quality from1990 to 2006 shows that the quality of river water has improved.
However, some river basins are still evaluated as “polluted” andimprovement of the water quality of those river basins is an
issue to be addressed. Restoration of rivers is another issue
that water management should take up. In addition, Integrated
River Basin Management (IRBM) is the approach to take for theproper management of water resources.

Policy trends in water environmental conservation
Both the act and effluent standards are being reviewed, in28

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Myanmar

MyanmarCountry Information
Area (km2)
Population
GDP (USD)
at current prices
Mean annual precipitation (mm)Renewable water resources (m3)
Total water withdrawal (m3)Agriculture
Water useby sector
Industry(2000)
Domestic

the alleviation of poverty and improvements to living standards bymeans of sustainable development of water and water resources,
and conservation of the environment. Although Myanmar hasabundant water resources and no scarcity of water at present,
proper management and a strong policy on sustainable andcontinuous development of the economy and environmental
conservation are required for the security of future generations.

676,500
48.8 million (2007)
18,510 mil (2007)
2,341
1,046 billion
33.2 billon (2000)
98%
0.5%
1.5%

Groundwater
In Myanmar, where a perennial supply of surface water is notavailable, groundwater is naturally utilized, and sometimes atquite a cost. Groundwater has a greater advantage over surface
water as it is usually free from pathogenic organisms and bacteriacausing water related diseases. However, if the chemical qualityof the water is poor, it may not be fit for drinking purposes, unlesstreated to acceptable levels. Nowadays, groundwater is being
exploited not only for domestic water supply, but for industrial andagricultural purposes in areas where conditions are favorable, as
well. The total estimated groundwater potential in Myanmar is494.713km3 per year. The annual groundwater water potential in
Myanmar is shown in Figure 1.

Water Bodies in Myanmar

Sittaung River
Basin, 28.402
Rakhine River
Basin, 41.774

Lower Ayeyarwaddy River
Basin, 133.249

Tanintharyi River
Basin, 39.278

Thanlwin River
Basin, 74.779

Mekhaung River
Basin, 7.054

Upper Ayeyarwaddy River
Basin, 92.599
Chindwin River
Basin, 57.578

Figure 1. Annual groundwater water potential in Myanmar(million acre feet/year)
Groundwater Utilization in Yangon City
People in Yangon City, the most populated area of
Myanmar, have been using groundwater from hand-dug wells
for centuries to the present for their domestic, livestock andagricultural needs. Depths for surface wells dug by hand arelimited, and in such cases, only the uppermost aquifer has
been tapped. Water yield is usually diminished during the dry
season with the exception of a few wells from which water isavailable throughout the year. In later years, drilling of deep
wells by mechanical and electrical means was developed totap groundwater from deep aquifers where a much higher andstable yield is obtained throughout all seasons of the year.

State of Water Resources
A potential of water resources in Myanmar is abundant to meet
not only for domestic water supply but also the demand of
agriculture production. The catchment area of Myanmar's eight
principal river basins is approximately 737,800km2, and theaverage annual inflow of water is 1,080.6km3. Current utilization
totals only about 39.55 km3, and it is clear that the physicalpotential for further development of water resources in Myanmar issubstantial. Freshwater resources are mainly used by the
agriculture sector with small quantities being used for domestic,
industrial and other purposes. The overall goal for water sector is(Source: Tun et al. 2009)29

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Myanmar

request in to YCDC to have their tube wells checked. The mostcommon tests conducted are on color, turbidity, pH, hardness,
iron and chloride. Bacteriological tests are rarely carried out
except in cases where authorities determine it to be necessary.
Objections to groundwater quality usually arise from physicalparameters such as color, turbidity, taste and odor. The
presence of chemical impurities like iron and chlorides alsopresents problems to users. However once a tube well has beendug, it is seldom abandoned, even if the water quality if poor.
Drilling a new tube well is an added cost which many private
owners cannot afford. The water, though not totally potable, istherefore still utilized for domestic purposes other than drinking.
In such cases bottled water is used for drinking. The tests forgroundwater quality were evaluated in line with the Proposed
National Drinking Water Quality Standards (PNDWQS),
Myanmar 2006.

State of Water Environment
Water and sanitation status
Safe drinking water supply and adequate sanitation facilities
are essential elements in the protection of the environment, andimprovement in health conditions and living standards. The
population of Myanmar from 2007-2008 was estimated at 56
million, of which the Yangon Metropolitan area accounts forabout 11 percent of population. The population is concentrated
in the central area, particularly in and around the cities of
Yangon and Mandalay. The population is unevenly distributedwith greater density in urban areas. Also, as Myanmar's climate
is hot and humid, the demand for water is high.
In Myanmar, several government agencies and departments
under different ministries independently carry out programs forsustainable access to safe drinking water supply throughout thecountry. At present, there are a number of government watersupply agencies such as the Department of Development Affairs
under the Ministry for Progress of Border Areas and National
Races and Development Affairs; Public Works (Department)
and Department of Human Settlement and Housing
Development under the Ministry of Construction; Yangon and
Mandalay City Development Committee (YCDC,MCDC) under
the respective mayors.
The government has given priority to implementing watersupply program in villages that have inadequate water supply incentral zone area. In this context, the Ministry for Progress of
Border Areas and National Race and the Department ofDevelopment Affairs are undertaking program to ensure safe
drinking water supplies in rural areas where water resources are
scarce. YCDC and MCDC are also providing water supplies to
Yangon and Mandalay from surface water as well as
groundwater.
Myanmar strives to safely dispose of human excreta in bothurban and rural areas, in order to improve sanitation conditions.
Since 1982, a sanitation pilot project has been carried out in 13
townships in four geographical regions (dry zone, coastal, hilly
and delta), in collaboration with the United Nations Children’s
Fund (UNICEF). Since 1996, The successful outcomes from thepilot project lent promise to the expansion and application of the
program throughout the country with the implementation of the
National Sanitation Program on self-help basis.
Myanmar has a plan to develop sanitation standards for cities
and towns. As well, authorities are trying to improve andrationalize the wastewater disposal system throughout thecountry based on the experiences and examples set by thecountry’s two major cities, Yangon and Mandalay.
In view of the importance of safe water sanitation to thewell-being of the urban population, the government has initiatedthe establishment of a ministerial level National Water Supply
and Sanitation Committee to set policy guidelines and oversee
the performance of the sector, especially in the urban areas of
the country. It has been increasing budgetary allocations for thesector and intensely cooperating with bilateral and multilateralparties to ensure universal access to safe drinking water andsanitation for the future development of the country.

Legislative Framework for Water Environment
Management
Laws to control pollution
Myanmar has no specific laws to control water pollution.
There is a general provision in Section 9 of the Public Health
Law of 1972, which empowers the Ministry of Health to carry out
measures relating to environmental health, such as garbage
disposal, use of water for drinking and other purposes,
radioactivity, protection of air from pollution, and food and drug
safety. However, detailed provisions do not exist to ensure more
effective and comprehensive regulation of these matters. In theregulation of hotels and tourism, there are no provisions forpollution control. Although the Burma Port Act of 1908 contains
a paragraph about harbor pollution, this merely focuses on the
detriment to navigation. The only control of water pollution in the
country is through guidelines issued in June 1994 by the
Myanmar Investment Commission. These guidelines requirethat new investment projects have wastewater treatment
systems. River and lake pollution from sewage, industrial waste
and solid waste disposal are serious problems in Myanmar, but
are not explicitly regulated by a particular law, so new laws
relating to pollution must be enacted.
Water quality protection and standards
The main causes of deteriorating water quality are sewage,
solid waste, industrial waste and agrochemical waste. Water
conservation is undertaken by local City Development
Committees under protection of water quality. Wastewater
management is both a municipal and industrial problem. In cities
that are undergoing rapid industrialization, the municipal
treatment issue is complicated by the addition of under-treatedor semi-treated industrial waste discharged into the municipal
sewage system, thus stricter laws to control water quality shouldbe imposed. Moreover, the country is still facing problems fromthe direct discharge of wastewater from factories into rivers andstreams. Recently, the National Commission for Environmental
Affairs (NCEA) and NGOs proposed effluent standards forproper disposal of wastewater from factories.
In the agricultural sector, the government and ministries
concerned have banned use of some toxic pesticides andencouraged the utilization of conventional bio-fertilizers as a
substitute for chemical fertilizer to mitigate water quality
deterioration. At present, the control of water quality is based on

Groundwater
The physical and chemical quality of groundwater is notalways at acceptable levels. In Yangon City, the quality ofgroundwater is tested periodically, since private owners who areinterested in the quality of groundwater need to submit a30

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Myanmar

World Health Organization (WHO) standards.
At present, ministries and departments involved in the controlof water quality have organized a forum of experts on water
quality issues. WHO proposed standards were adopted as
reference. Water quality control measures were being takencase by case, especially for bottled drinking water production.
Arsenic and other parameters have been tested in collaboration
with the Water Resources Utilization Department (WRUD),
Department of Development Affairs (DDA), and UNICEF. The
Environmental and Sanitation Division under the Ministry of
Health is implementing a program on water supply systems withhealth institutions and also carrying out a Water Quality
Surveillance and Monitoring System Pilot Project in former
capital of Yangon.

Wastewater effluent standards
YCDC convened a meeting in July 2001 to introduce
proposed environmental standards for Yangon, which includes
standards on emission, noise Wastewater Effluent and toxic
chemicals. Similarly there are governmental departments, whichhave set their own standards with regard to the protection of apart of the environment in which they are fully involved.
The main objective of the National Commission for Environmental
Affairs is to conserve the environment and prevent its degradation in
the utilization of water, land, forest, mineral, marine and other natural
resources. The current measures mentioned above are totally in linewith the National Environment Policy of Myanmar initiated by the
National Commission for Environmental Affairs.

Chronologyof Myanmar’s
Legal
with
Environmental
Implications
Chronologyof Myanmar’s
LegalFramework
Framework withEnvironmental
Implications
There are in existence a number of legal frameworks and legislations, some dealing directly and others indirectly, with the control ofwastewater pollution. However, all of them deal with the general protection of the environment in one way or another. Some of thelegislations date back to as far as the latter part of the 19th century, during which the very first law on water pollution, the Penal Code,was enacted in 1860. The following are the Myanmar legal frameworks on environmental protection enacted during a span of about
one–and–a–half centuries, listed in chronological order.
In chronological order:
1. Penal Code, 1860
2. Yangon Waterworks Act,1885
3. Canal Act, 1905
4. Yangon Port Act, 1905
5. Port Act, 1908
6. City of Yangon Municipal Act, 1922
7. Emergency Provisions Act, 1950
8. Factories Act, 1951
9. Territorial Sea and Continuous Zone Law, 1977
10. Law Relating to the Fishing Rights of Foreign Fishing Vessels, 1989
11. Myanmar Marine Fisheries Law, 1990
12. Pesticide Law, 1990
13. Fresh Water Fisheries Law, 1991
14. Development Committees Law, 1993
15. Myanmar Hotel and Tourism Law,1993
16. Protection of Wild Animals, Wild Plants and Preservation of Natural Areas Laws, 1994
17. Myanmar Mines Law,1994
18. Conservation of Water Resources and River Law, 2006
All the legislations are in one way or another relate to the control of water pollution and the preservation of the environment.
In the Penal Code of 1860 it was stipulated that the person(s) who voluntarily corrupts or fouls the water of any public spring orreservoir so as to render it less fit for the purpose for which it is intended, shall be punished with imprisonment or with both.
Similarly the Development Committee Law of 1993, the Yangon Municipal Act of 1922, and the Yangon Waterworks Act of 1885 alldeal with penalties for polluting bodies of water within the municipal jurisdiction.
The Protection of Wild Animals, Wild Plants and the Preservation of Natural Areas Law of 1994 deal indirectly with the control ofwater pollution by prohibiting the destruction of ecological and environmental conditions of the natural areas.
The Factories Act of 1951 is directly related to the development and establishment of factories by stating that factories are required
to have effective plans for the disposal and cleaning of waste generated by the factory. In other words, industries shall provide theirown treatment plants to remove or reduce potential pollutions from its wastewater before disposing its effluent.
The Conservation of Water Resources and Rivers Law was lastly enacted in 2006 and is intended to conserve and protect the water
resources and rivers system for beneficial utilization by the public and to protect the environmental.
Evidently there are legislations, covering numerous sources of potential pollution, on the control of water pollution. What is lacking at
this stage are appropriate standards for both domestic and industrial wastewater effluent. Setting effluent standards will guideindustries from any unintentional infringement of the law, while also keeping the environment clean.

31Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Myanmar

Water use efficiency for on-farm levels is still very poor
(approximately 40%-50%), which leads us to believe that 50%
of irrigation supply is lost in canals and fields. Misuse of
irrigation water results in water logging, and salinization of soil
due to rising groundwater levels from the percolation effect. The
over use of water at the upstream deprives downstream users
from sufficient water amounts, and leads to pollution of
freshwater resources by contaminated return flow.
Nevertheless, the Environmental Impact Assessment is still
weak in water resources management. Due to the ongoing
rapid industrialization in cities, there are so many factories
around urbanized areas, and there is still a need to disseminate
the knowledge about the proper disposal of wastewater tocontrol the problems of the direct discharge of wastewater fromfactories into rivers or streams.
Other weaknesses in water environment management are alack of appropriate monitoring facilities, proper and systematic
keeping of records, regular monitoring and surveillance data forwater quality control and basic standards of water quality for
drinking water.
Although there are many laws, acts, legislations and regulations
related to water sector, most of the laws and acts for water sectors
still need to be modified. Therefore, these laws and regulations
should be reviewed to enact unified water resources laws to
promote a more effective legal framework for coordination andmanagement of water resources.

Existing and Future Challenges for Water
Environment Management
There are many water related sub-sectors in Myanmar such as
irrigation and drainage, water for environment and ecosystems,
drinking water and water utilization for industries and sanitation.
These should be integrated to exchange views and promote
understanding of the quality and quantity of water use and thevalue of water in the social sector and exchange of views.

32

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / The Philippines

The Philippines
Country Information
Area
Population
GDP (USD)
at current prices
Mean annual precipitation (mm)Renewable water resources (m3)
Total water withdrawal (m3)Agriculture
Water use by
Industry
sectorDomestic

demand is on the increase and water pollution has intensified.
Access to clean water is an issue in some areas of the country
especially during the dry season, according to the monitoringdata of the government. Such areas include Metro Manila,
Central Luzon, Southern Tagalog, and Central Visayas.

300,000 (2007)87.9 million (2007)
144,129 (2007)
2,373
479 billion
55,422 million (1995)
88 %
4%
8%

State of Water Environment
Water quality is assessed based on the water quality criteria
set by Department of Environment and Natural Resources(DENR) as embodied in DENR Administrative Order 34, Seriesof 1990 (DAO 90-34), which states that the quality of Philippine
waters shall be maintained in a safe and satisfactory condition
according to their beneficial usages (as shown in Table 1). As of2005, the Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) had
classified 525 water bodies, which is about 63 percent of the total
water bodies in the country. The classification was based
according to its beneficial use and water quality.

Water Basins in the Philippines

Table 1. Classification of Water Bodies
Water Bodies
For Fresh
Surface Waters(rivers, lakes ,reservoirs, etc.)

Classification
Class AAClass AClass BClass CClass DFor Coastal andMarine Waters(as amended by
DAO 97-23)

State of Water Resources
The Philippines enjoys its abundant water resources withavailability of 5,580km3/year/capita, although water availability
is subject to geographical and seasonal imbalances. There are
18 major river basins with 421 principle rivers and 79 naturallakes. The coastal line is 17,460km and about 60 percent of thePhilippines municipalities and cities are located in the coastal
areas where many people live. Surface water is the main water
source of the country and also an important resource for fishingand transport. Groundwater is also an important source fordomestic and drinking use in some regions. Groundwaterconsists of 14 percent of the total water resource potential,
while about 50 percent of drinking water sources or 86 percent
for piped water supply systems depends on groundwater.
Due to population growth and economic development, water

Class SAClass SBClass SCClass SD

Beneficial Use
Public Water Supply Class 1• Waters that require disinfection
to meet the National Standards
for Drinking Water (NSDW)
Public Water Supply Class 2• Waters that require complete
treatment to meet the NSDW
Recreational Water• Waters for primary contact
recreation (e.g. bathing ,swimming, skin diving, etc.)
Water for fishery production• Recreational Water Class II(boating etc.)• Industrial Water Supply Class I• For agriculture, irrigation,
livestock watering• Industrial Water Supply Class II
Water suitable for fishery production• National marine parks andmarine reserves• Coral reefs parks and reserves• Tourist zones and marine reserves• Recreational Water Class I• Fishery Class I for milkfish• Recreational Water Class II(e.g. boating)• Fishery Water Class II(commercial)• Marshy and/or mangrove areas
declared as fish and wildlife
sanctuaries• Industrial Water Supply Class II• Other coastal and marine waters

Major pollution sources of surface and coastal waters in termsof BOD load are point sources. The type of point source andcontributing ratio is shown in Figure 1. Among non-pollution
sources, agricultural run off is the major source with 74 percent interms of BOD.
33

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / The Philippines

Groundwater
The Philippine National Standard for Drinking Water is usedas the standard for groundwater quality assessment. Relevant
parameters to indicate the degree of pollution includes fecal
colifom, nitrates and salinity (chloride).
Under the tapwatch program, EMB monitored 88 shallow
wells in the country. Of this, only 21 sites met the potablegroundwater quality standard, while 27 failed the fecal coliform
standard for drinking water. An additional forty sites required
further testing to confirm potability. Nitrate level was monitored
in Metro Cebu and Central Mindanao. Not many sites were
contaminated.
Studies conducted for salinity levels in Metro Manila andMetro Cebu showed an increase in salinity level in somelocations in Metro Manila due to over-abstraction.

Non-point sources
11%
Domestic Sources
33%

Industry
27%

Agriculture-Livestock
29%

Figure 1. BOD loads from Key Potential Pollution Sources(Source: EMB 2007)

Coastal and marine water
EMB has regularly monitored a total of 39 bays and coasts in
the Philippines since 1996, while Manila Bay has its own
monitoring program. With the exception of Puerto Galera Bay
which is a protected seascape, the monitoring data indicatedthat 64 percent had DO levels below 5mg/L, the minimum
criteria set for water suitable as fishery spawning areas andtourist zones. On the coasts of Mandaue to Minglanilla in Cebu
(Central Visayas), DO levels varied from 0 to 14mg/L, whichindicates that the ecosystem is already undergoing “stress”
during certain periods.
Fecal coliform was also monitored. Among the 41 priority
bathing beaches monitored, only seven beaches failed tocomply with the criteria set for class SB waters which is 200
MPN/100mL. The monitoring results further showed that
Region 5 has the best status, having all of its seven stations
earning a satisfactory rating. On the other hand, Region 3(Central Luzon) has the lowest compliance status.
Chemical and oil spill incidents are other threats to coastal
and marine water quality. The Philippine Coast Guard reported
more than 200,000 cases in 2001 and 2005, and 25 percent ofincidents originated from illegal discharge, which was followedby accidental discharges or overflow (22%).
Except in Cawacawa (Zamboanga City), the maximum valuesof BOD were all within the criterion set for Class SB waters of
5mg/L. Manila Bay has BOD levels that are generally within
fishery water quality criterion. However, seasonal high organic
loadings from rivers draining into the bays and in particular,
Manila Bay, also result in harmful algal blooms (HABs) thatpose a continuing threat to marine resources and public health.

Surface water
EMB conducted inland surface water monitoring for 192
rivers and four lakes from 2001 to 2006. Figure 2 shows thecompliance ratio of some key parameters of water quality,
according to the monitoring results. EMB prioritized 19 rivers
for monitoring under the Sagip Ilog (Save a River) Program.
The prioritized rivers are expected to satisfy 30 percent
improvement of BOD and DO value by 2010, compared with
2003 monitoring results. According to the monitoring resultsfrom 2003 to 2005, out of 19 priority rivers, eight showed signsof improvement in DO levels and nine in BOD levels. On theother hand, the monitoring results showed that some rivers
such as Meycauayan River (Central Luzon) and Pasig River(National Capital Region) had become further polluted during
the same period. As for heavy metals, chromium, cadmium andlead values exceed the standards in some rivers, while cyanide
levels in most sampling locations were below the standard.
0

20

40

60

80

100 (%)

DO

47

40

13

BOD

47

41

12

69

TSS
TDS

55

23
42

8

Good
Fair
Poor

3

Note (1): The rating is based on the criteria set by DAO 90-34. See thefollowing table for details.
RatingGood

Percentage
98-100Fair

50-97.99

Poor

0-49.99

SignificanceWater body complies with the desired
water quality criteria and fully supports
its intended beneficial use.
Water body mostly complies with thedesignated water quality criteria and is
not supporting its intended beneficial use
at the percentage.
Not able to support its intended
beneficial use at the percentage.

Legislative Framework for Water Environment
Management
Deterioration of water quality is a critical issue for sustainable
development of the Philippines. It is estimated that the annual
economic loss caused by water pollution is 67 billion Philippine
Peso (PHP). This includes PHP 3 billion for health, PHP 17
billion for fisheries production, and PHP 47 billion for tourism.
The Philippines has many water-related laws, but theirenforcement is weak and beset with problems that include
inadequate resources, poor databases, and weak cooperation
among different agencies and Local Government Units (LGUs).
Figure 3 shows the legislative framework regarding water
environment management. In addition to the laws/regulations(2) Only water bodies with at least four sampling events, representing water
quality during the dry and wet seasons, were included. The rating is based on
the percentage of the total number of samples that passed the prescribedwater quality criteria. 98 margin is given to consider sampling andcomputation errors.

Figure 2. Percentage Compliance with the InlandSurface Water Quality(Source: EMB 2007)34

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / The Philippines

Conservation of Water Resources
PA 3931 (1964) as amended by PD 984 (1976) as
repealed by PA 9275 Clean Water Act of 2004
Objective: To protect, abate and control pollution ofwater, air and land for more effective utilization of theresources

Conservation of Water Quality

DAO 35 (1990) Revised Effluent
Regulation

Objective: This rules and regulations shall apply to allindustrial and municipal wastewater effluent

DAO 34 - Revised Water Usage andClassification Water Quality Criteria

Objective: shall classify all bodies of water and comply
with the water quality criteria

Conservation and Protection of Laguna Lake

RA 4850 (1966) as amended by PD 813 (1975),
PD 927 (1983)
Objective: To promote, and accelerate the development
and balanced growth of the Laguna lake area with due
regards for environmental management and control,
preservation of un due ecological disturbance,
detenoration and pollution.
PD 979 Marine Pollution Decree of 1976
Objective: To control pollution discharge from ship.

Marine Water Resources Protection

Conservation of Water Resources ownership,
development and exploitation

PD 1067 Water CodeConsolidate legislation relating to ownership,
development, exploitation and conservation of water
resources

Figure 3. Legislative Chart for Water Quality Management(Source: WEPA database)shown in the figure, there are similar legislations related towater environmental conservation, such as the Philippines
Environmental Policy (PD1151) and Solid Waste Management
Act (RA9003). EMB is the governmental agency responsible forwater conservation and protection.

b. Designation of non-attainment areas
In cases where specific pollutants exceed the water quality
guidelines, DENR shall designate “non-attainment areas.” In the
non-attainment areas, pollution control measures are strengthened
to comply with the standards. For example, new sources ofpollution will not be allowed in the non-attainment areas withoutplans to reduce total pollution loads from a facility below theguideline value.

The Philippine Clean Water Act 2004 (RA 9275) is the basic
law for water environmental conservation, which amended the
Pollution Control Law of 1964 (RA 3931) and Decree revising
the RA 3931 (PD 984). The objective of the act is to protect thecountry’s water bodies from pollution from land-based sources(industries and commercial establishments, agriculture andcommunity/household activities). It provides for a comprehensive
and integrated strategy to prevent and minimize pollution througha multi-sectoral and participatory approach involving all
stakeholders. Implementation of Rules and Regulations for theact was enacted in 2005 as DAO10-2005. The key elements of
the act are described as follows.

c. National Water Quality Management Fund
Water quality management funds are to be established under
DENR as a special account in the National Treasury. The fund will
be used for such programs as water pollution clean-up operations;guarantees for restoration of ecosystems and rehabilitation; support
for research, enforcement and monitoring activities; provision oftechnical assistance to implementing agencies; rewards andincentives; and support to information and educational campaigns.
d. Water pollution permits and wastewater charge system
A wastewater charge system shall be established on the basis of
payment to the government for discharging wastewater into water
bodies in all water management areas. It is expected that thesystem is to be an incentive for those who discharge pollutants to
reduce their pollution loads such as through modification of
production process and investment in pollution control technologies.
DENR also issues discharge permits for wastewater, which
includes the allowable value of both quantity and quality of effluents,
compliance schedule and monitoring requirements.

Key Elements in the Philippines Clean Water Act
The Clean Water Act (RA 9275) and its Implementation Rules
and Regulations (DAO 2005-10) provide a framework for water
quality management in the Philippines. The following are someexamples of new and key elements of the new management
framework.
a. Designation of Water Quality Management Areas
Water Quality Management Areas (WQMA) are to be
designated by EMB to strengthen and promote efficient andeffective water quality management at local levels which have
similar hydrological, hydroeclogical, meteorological or geographic
conditions. Governing Boards shall be created with participation of
relevant stakeholders in each WQMA and chaired by DENR
Regional Offices. The Governing Boards are responsible for thedevelopment of strategies to coordinate policies, regulations/local
legislation, and other measures necessary for the effective
implementation of the Clean Water Act. By the end of 2007, seven
WQMAs were designated.

e. Incentives and rewards
For outstanding and innovative projects, technologies,
processes and techniques, and activities, rewards will be provided
to individuals, private organizations and other entities from the
National Water Quality Management Fund. Incentives for industries
will also be provided, such as tax and duty exemptions for industrial
wastewater treatment/collection facilities.

Water quality standards
According to the classification under the DENR AO No. 34 Series
35

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / The Philippinesof 1990 (Table 1), the following water quality criteria has been set up
for freshwater and coastal and marine water, respectively.
a. Water Quality Criteria for Conventional and Other PollutantsContributing to Aesthetics and Oxygen Demandb. Toxic and other Deleterious Substances (for protection of
public health)condition compared with past years.
In order to determine compliance by industrial establishments, aseries of surveys and follow-up inspections are conducted bypersonnel of DENR’s sixteen regional offices. The monitoring scheme
for effluent and stream water quality is based on the guidelines statedin 1994 DENR-EMB Water Quality Monitoring manual.

Effluent standards
Section 14 of the Clean Water Act requires owners or operatorsof facilities that discharge regulated effluents to secure permits todischarge. Discharge permits are legal authorization granted by
the DENR to discharge wastewater, provided that the discharge
permit specifies among others, the quantity and quality of theeffluent that said facilities are allowed to discharge into aparticular water body, compliance schedule and monitoring
requirements. DENR can also suspend and revoke permits whenbusiness entities are not in compliance with the rules andregulations and/or permit conditions.

Existing and Future Challenges for Water
Environment Management
There are many programs and activities implemented bygovernmental and non-governmental organizations in the
country to achieve the objective of water quality improvement
under the framework of the Clean Water Act and other relevant
laws. Implementation of various programs and activities bydifferent stakeholders should be ensured and promoted to meet
objectives. Some of EMB’s on-going programs and activities
are listed below (EMB 2007).

Effluent standards (DAO 35, 1990) are set as follows:a. Effluent standards for toxic and other deleterious substance.
(Maximum limits for protection of public health)
For this category, effluent standards are set for arsenic,
cadmium, chromium, cyanide, lead, mercury (Tot.), PCB,
and formaldehyde. Different standard values for each
substance are set in accordance with water classification.
Stricter values are applied to “new planned industries.”b. Effluent standards for conventional and other pollutants inProtected Waters Category I and II and in Inland Waters
Class C. Standards were set for the following:
Color, temperature, pH, COD and settleable solids, BOD, TSS,
TDS, surfactants (MBAS), oil and greases, phenolic
substances and phenols. These standards apply to protectedwaters (both fresh and marine waters) and inland waters.
c. Effluent standards for conventional and other pollutants in
Inland Waters Class D and Marine Waters Class SC and SD
and other coastal waters which are not classified.
The same parameters as in a. were considered with the
exception of settleable solids.
d. Interim effluent standards for BOD applicable to old or existing
industries producing strong industrial wastes (1990-1994)
e. Effluent standards for new industries producing strong
wastes upon Effect of the regulations and for all industries
producing strong wastes starting January 1, 1995.
The standard was based on BOD of raw wastewater. The
standard covers old or existing industries producing strong waste
whose wastewater treatment plants have yet to be constructed.

- Full implementation of the Ecological Solid Waste Management
Act (RA 9003) and Clean Water Act (RA 9275).
- Classification of water bodies of which only 64 percent of total
principle water bodies were classified as of 2007.
- Implementation of the Sagip-Ilog Program to improve riverwater quality.
- Conduct of water pollution discharge inventory on both point
and non-point sources.
- Monitor industrial effluent of all industries.
- Implement the Tapwatch Program to support improvement ofdrinking water quality in priority communities (Target: All 320
urban barangays nationwide).
- Implement the Beachwatch Program.
- Conduct information, education and communication
campaigns on water quality management.
Programs conducted by other governmental organizations:- Mining environment and protection program: Assessment ofwater quality in areas affected by past and present mining
activities (Mine and Geoscience Bureau)- Water resource assessment for prioritized critical areas(National Water Resource Board)- Development of guideline for watershed resource managementand development and national watershed information system(Forest Management Bureau)- Formulation of the Integrated Coastal Management Framework(Coastal and Marine Management Office)- Water District Development Project (Department of theInterior and Local Government Unit)

Revision of effluent standards for industries
Currently, the discussion on revision of the current effluent
standards is on going. The new effluent standards intend to set
Industry-Specific Effluent Standards (ISES). Current capacityand future potential of improvement of wastewater treatment
facilities are also considered in the discussion.

Programs and targets for specific water bodies:- LLDA: Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA) set the milestones
for the Bay to comply with water quality criteria in Class C.
- Pasig River: The Pasig River Rehabilitation Commission(PRRC), composed of national government agencies, theprivate sector and non-government organization, conducts
various activities to rehabilitate Pasig River to its pristinecondition. Activities undertaken include development of adatabase on industrial pollution, construction of a septage
treatment plant, housing and resettlement, flood control andeducation and training on waste minimization.

Water quality monitoring
EMB and its Regional Offices conduct regular water quality
monitoring throughout the country. From 2001 to 2005, 238
water bodies were monitored either for classification or for
regular water quality monitoring. Depending on the resources,
monitoring for these waters bodies is done monthly or quarterly.
The information generated serves as an indicator of the present36Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Thailand

ThailandCountry Information
Area (km2)
Population
GDP (USD)
at current prices
Mean annual precipitation (mm)Renewable water resources (m3)
Total water withdrawal (m3)Agriculture
Water useby sector
Industry(2000)
Domestic

State of Water Environment
513,000
63.8 million (2007)
245 billion (2007)
1,700
410 billion
87.1
95%
2.5%
2.5%

The results of water quality monitoring programs showed thatmost receiving waters met the water quality standards andguidelines. However, rivers in populated areas were polluted
due to the discharge of wastewater from various point sources.
Thus, mitigation measures such as construction of wastewater
treatment plants, hazardous waste treatment, agricultural waste
management, industrial waste control, and management ofother pollution sources are required.
Regarding pollution sources, wastewater from industrial anddomestic activities contributed to water pollution. The following
figure shows BOD loads by sector.

Major Rivers and Lakes in Thailand

agriculture
890, 14%

household
2600, 42%

agricultureindustry
householdindustry
2700, 44%

Figure 1. BOD load by sectors (ton/day)(Source: PCD 2006)

River and lake water
Surface water quality varies widely in the different regions inThailand. The Pollution Control Department (PCD) of the Ministryof Natural Resources and Environment monitors the quality of 49
rivers and four lakes in Thailand. The state of water quality differs
by region as shown in Table 1. Figure 2 also shows thechronological changes of water quality from 2001 to 2007.
Table 1. Average Water Quality in Selected Inland Waters
in 2006
Region
Northern
CentralNortheasternState of Water Resources

Eastern

Thailand can be divided into 25 river basins, according togeographical characteristics. The total annual rainfall of all river
basins is about 800,000 million m³, of which 75 percent is lost
through evaporation and the remaining amount stays in streams,
rivers, and reservoirs (Office of National Water Resources
Committee 2000). The quantity of water available was about
1,412m³/capita/year (FAO AQUASTAT).

Southern

Water
Resources(Class)Ping (3)Wang (3)Upper Chao
Phraya (3)Lower Chao
Phraya (4)Pong (3)Moon (3)Bangpakong (3)Prachinburi
Upper Tapee (2)Songkhla Lake (-)

DO(mg/L)
6.8
7.1
5.4

Average Water Quality*1
FCB
BOD
TCB
(Unit)(mg/L) (Unit*2)
1.3 12,500
2,100
1.0 13,760
3,000
1.3
0.520
2,150

NH3
(mg/L)
0.08
0.04
0.12

2.2

3.4

47,50019,000

0.60

4.4
5.8
5.2
5.7
8.2
4.6

1.9
1.7
1.2
1.5
0.6
1.9

1,180
11,000
8,360
6,060
790
19,500

60
7,170
1,390
2,260
20
9,320

0.25
0.58
0.13
0.51
0.34
0.35

*1 The yellow highlighted value means that it exceeds the ambient water quality
standard.
*2 Unit means MPN/100mL.

37

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Thailand

economic and social development plan since 1992. Under the
10th National Economic and Social Development Plan (2007 2011), the rehabilitation of natural resources and the environment
through strengthening environmental management and increasing
local community participation is also emphasized. The polluter
pays principle and decentralization are other key principles inenvironmental management in Thailand. The basic law forenvironmental conservation in Thailand is the Enhancement andConservation of National Environmental Quality Act (1992). There
are other laws related to water pollution control, such as the
Factory Act (Figure 3). In terms of water pollution control, the PCDof the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment takes aleading role in environmental management, including water.

100
18
40

80
60

32

23

40
25

31

17

49
51

21

19

35
53

Fair
Deteriorated

40
20
0

Good

Highly Deteriorated

33
32

31
21

29

44
23

9

6
5
5
3
3
2
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Note: “Good” to “Highly Deteriorated” corresponds to the following:
Good: Surface water quality standard Class 2 and Water Quality Index(WQI) 71-90
Fair: Surface water quality standard Class 3 and WQI between 61-70
Deteriorated: Surface quality standard Class 4 and WQI between 31-60
Highly Deteriorated: Surface water quality standard Class 5 and WQI
between 0-30
(Source: PCD 2002, 2005, 2007)

Conservation of Water Quality in Public Waters
Enhancement and Conservation on National
Environmental Quality Act, B.E.2535
Ambient water quality standards– Surface Water Quality Standards

Figure 2. Water Quality in Thailand, 2001-2007– Coastal Water Quality Standards
Effluent standards– Industrial Effluent Standards

Coastal and estuarine water
PCD has set up 240 monitoring stations in 23 provinces alongthe 2,600km coastline and significant islands in 2006. The
monitoring results were evaluated with the Marine Water Quality
Index and calculated with the monitored value of eightparameters. The evaluation results showed that 66 percent of
the stations were of “very good” or “good” quality, while 24
percent of the stations were “fair” and only 10 percent wereclassified as “deteriorated” or “highly deteriorated.” By region,
deterioration was significant in the inner gulf of the country at
the estuaries of the four main rivers (Chao Phraya, Tha Chin,
Mae Klong, and Bangpakong Rivers). The concerned pollutants
are DO and TCB. TSS values were also high in the Bangpakon
area. The western seaboard, tourist areas, tiger shrimp andoyster culturing areas generally appeared to have “good” water
quality. However, TCB levels in some particular areas where
domestic wastewater is discharged into the sea without
treatment exceeded the standard.

– Building Effluent Standards– Effluent Standard for Pig Farms– Housing Estate Effluent Standards– Effluent Standard for Coastal Aquaculture– Effluent Standard for Brackish Aquaculture– Effluent Standard for Inland Aquaculture– Water Characteristics Discharged into Irrigation System

Groundwater Act– Groundwater Quality Standards– Water Characteristics Discharged into Deep Wells
Other Laws related to Water
Quality Conservation

Factory Act
Regulations of Industrial
Pollution Control Facilities

Publics Health Act
The Hazardous Substances Act
The Public Cleansing Act

Figure 3. Legislative Chart for Water Quality Management

Groundwater
The country’s groundwater potential is large in general,
except the eastern region. The lower central plain area has thelargest potential of groundwater resources, particularly in the
Bangkok Metropolitan Region and surrounding provinces.
Groundwater in the region has been exploited to meet thegrowing water demand and has caused severe land subsidence
problems. High salinity is also observed in the area.
Groundwater contamination is observed in some areas of thecountry because of agricultural run-off, coastal aquaculture,industrial effluents and domestic sewage.

Water environment quality standards
Ambient water quality standards are set for surface, marine
and groundwater. “Appropriated Water Quality Criteria for
Aquatic Living” has also been established.
Surface water quality standards
This standard was the first ambient water quality standard
established in 1994. Surface water quality standards have been
established for 28 items under five classifications of water
bodies which were designated according to water usage asshown in Table 2. The General Water Quality Index wasestablished as an indicator to promote people’s understandingof water quality, which was calculated with the values of eightparameters (pH, DO, TS, FCB, NO3, TP, SS, BOD).

Legislative Framework for Water Environment
Management
As the basis of sustainable development, environmental
conservation has been emphasized by the five-year national

38

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Thailand

Table 2. Surface Water Quality Standard Classification
Class

Objectives

Beneficial Use

Class 1

Extra clean fresh
surface water
resources

Conservation not necessary passthrough water treatment process
only requires the ordinary processof pathogenic destruction;
ecosystem conservation where
basic organisms can breed naturally

Class 2

Very clean
freshwater surface
water resource

Consumption requires ordinarywater treatment process before use,conservation of aquatic organisms,
fisheries, recreation

Class 3Medium clean fresh
surface water
resource

Consumption, but an ordinary
treatment process is required
before use, for agricultural use

Class 4

Fairly clean fresh
surface water
resource

Consumption, but requires special
treatment process before use, forindustrial use

Class 5

Source not includedin Class 1-4

navigation[Domestic and Commercial]• Building Effluent Standards
Effluent from buildings such as condominium, hotels, hospitals,
schools, government offices/state enterprises, department
stores, fresh food markets and food shops/restaurants. The
parameters in these standards include pH, BOD, solids,
sulfide, TKN, and fat, oil and grease. Different values areapplied to the type and size of buildings.
• Housing Estate Effluent Standards
Maximum permitted values for parameters are designatedby the standards. Different values are applied to housing
estates with 100 units but not more than 500 and those withmore than 500 units. The parameters designated are thesame as those in building effluent standards.
[Agriculture]• Effluent Standards for Pig Farms
Considering that pig farms contribute to water pollution suchas in Tha Chin River and Bangpakong rivers, standards
were established in 2001. The parameters designed by thestandards include pH, BOD, COD, SS, and TKN anddifferent values are applied to Type A (more than 600
livestock units) and Type B (60-600 livestock units).

Coastal water quality standards
There are 30 parameters designated for coastal water quality
standards in six classes, determined according to the usage
shown in Table 3. Different classifications are applied for thewest coast of Phuket Island.

[Others]• Water Characteristics Discharged into Deep Wells• Effluent Standards for Coastal Aquaculture• Effluent Standards for Brackish Aquaculture• Effluent Standards for Inland Aquaculture

Table 3. Coastal Water Standard Classification
Class 1Natural resource conservation

Class 2

Coral reef conservation

Class 3Aquaculture conservation

Class 4

Recreation

Class 5

Industries or ports

Class 6

Resident districts

Monitoring of water quality
Under the Enhancement and Conservation of National
Environmental Quality Act, two types of monitoring programs
have been conducted: effluent and receiving water quality
monitoring. The owner or possessor of point sources of pollution
is required to monitor effluent and collect statistics and data,and submit notes and reports on the effluent monitoring
program. The governmental sector conducts monitoring ofreceiving water quality to maintain the quality of waters and to
produce the annual state of water quality report for the country.
There are 366 stations in 49 rivers in the country and water
quality samples are taken three to four times/year considering
wet and dry seasons. The methods of water sampling andanalysis should follow the Standard Method for the Examinationof Water and Wastewater (1998) (Yolthantham, 2007). The
monitoring results of ambient water quality done by government
are summarized and open to the public through publications of
PCD.

Groundwater quality standard
The parameters included in groundwater quality standards
are divided into four groups; volatile organic compounds (15parameters), heavy metals (ten parameters), pesticides (nineparameters) and others (four parameters).
Effluent standards
There are a series of standards for effluent as follows.
[Industry]• Industrial Effluent Standards
The standards are applied to factory Group II and III
categories and all industrial estates under the Factory Act
B.E.2535 (1992). The standard value is designated for 15
parameters and 12 heavy metals are included in thestandards. Regarding effluent quality control, the Regulationsof Industrial Pollution Control Facilities (1982) stipulates thatspecific industrial plants must have supervisors and machine
operators take responsibility for a pollution prevention. Suchindustrial plants include those using heavy metals in its
production processes discharging wastewater at higher than
50m3/day and having a heavy metal content in the discharged
wastewater at the designated values.
• Gas Station and Oil Terminal Effluent Standard (2002)
There are four parameters in these standards, namely pH,
COD, SS, and fat oil and grease.

Existing and Future Challenges for Water
Environmental Management
Strengthening wastewater treatment
Water environmental management in Thailand has beendeveloped since 1992, in particular. Legislative frameworks
have been developed and improved to promote implementation.
Promotion of wastewater treatment is still one of the challenges
in water environmental management in Thailand. In urbanizedareas such as Bangkok, water pollution mainly caused bydomestic wastewater remains serious and therefore sewage
39

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Thailand

development has been promoted to reduce the pollution loads.
However, there are a lot of challenges in the operation andmaintenance of wastewater treatment facilities, including tariff
setting and collection and lack of knowledgeable staff. All
buildings are required to equip water treatment facilities andcomply with effluent standards, but illegal discharge anddischarge of insufficiently treated wastewater are still observed.

is now under development by the Thai government.
Promotion of basin management approach
Promotion of basin management approaches is an emerging
challenge for water environmental management. Water quality
and water quantity management should be integrated to
improve water quality by promoting the basin approach, but thecurrent management system is not well coordinated to promote
such integration. Integration of various activities and policy
measures related to water environmental conservation shouldbe also further addressed. Actions at basin levels areencouraged in community projects to promote such positive
actions through the coordination of local actions, as seen in the
Tha Chin river basin (Yolthantham 2007).

Promotion of public participation and voluntary approach
In the policy of the country, public participation and voluntary
approaches by the private sector is encouraged to improvewater quality in public waters. There are a lot of positive actions
related to public participation. Regarding the promotion ofvoluntary approaches by the private sector, the green
procurement project for small and medium enterprises (SMEs)

Community Participation for Water Environmental Conservation beyond Administrative Boundaries

Community participation is encouraged by environmental policies in Thailand. Many programs/projects related to water
environmental conservation encourage community participation. More significantly, many of such programs/projects are
conducted across administrative borders. In the Tha Chin River which has significantly deteriorated over the past two
decades, community-level activities, such as awareness raising programs, were conducted for water quality conservation.
In 2002, basin-level actions were pledged to bring the river back to the original condition by the governors and deputy
governors of the four provinces in the Tha chin River Basin (Chainat, Supanburi, Nakorn Pathom and Samut Sakorn
Provinces) and four core NGOs (“We Love Tha Chin Clubs”). Various activities such as awareness raising, community
water quality monitoring, and eco-restoration projects have been conducted at the basin level in collaboration with various
stakeholders, including local governments, communities, and environmental groups (WEPA dababase).
In the Bang-Pa canal located in Ratchaburi province, a bio-monitoring project on water quality conservation was
conducted to promote participation of local stakeholders. The canal is passing through six sub-districts and industrial anddomestic activities in the upstream hindered water use in the downstream. Community-based organizations (CBOs)
named conservation clubs were established in collaboration with the Population and Development Association (PDA), as
well as with financial assistance from the Ratchaburi Power Plant. Sixty volunteers from four sub-districts were actively
involved in the bio-monitoring project. Questionnaires were distributed to local people on current water use, and training
on water quality techniques, water sampling and field analysis, and other awareness raising activities were conductedunder the project. As the result, it was identified that local people still depend on canal water as a source of water and thedaily activities of villagers contributed to the deterioration of water quality in the canal. Awareness of local residents on therelationship between their own activities and canal water quality improved and local participation was promoted as a result(Babel et al. 2008).

Activities for the conservation of Tha Chin River40

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Viet Nam

Viet Nam
Country Information
Area (km2)
Population
GDP (USD)
at current prices
Mean annual precipitation (mm)Renewable water resources (m3)
Total water withdrawal (m3)Agriculture
Water use bypurposeIndustry(2000)
Domestic

State of Water Resources
329,300 (2007)
85.1 million (2007)
71,174 mil (2007)
1,960
891 billion
71.4 billion (2000)
68%
24%
8%

Viet Nam has a dense river network. There are 2,360 rivers
that are longer than 10km, and eight of these have large basins
with a catchment area of 10,000km² or more. All the rivers
traversing Viet Nam provide an abundance of water (255 billion
m³/year). However, only 53 billion m³/year is utilized because of
inadequate development of physical infrastructure andinsufficient financial capacity. Uneven rainfall distribution acrossViet Nam and the prolonged dry season also cause serious
shortages of water in many areas. The river network includes
many rivers that have catchments that originate in othercountries. This makes water resources in the country
susceptible to the decisions of upstream countries on water use
and development.
Groundwater resources are also abundant with the total
potential exploitable reserves of the country's aquifers at nearly
60 billion m³ /year. However, less than five percent of the totalreserves are exploited for the country. In some areas, especiallyin the Mekong River Delta, groundwater is intensively exploited,which has resulted in falling water tables, associated further
land subsidence, and salinity intrusion.
Agricultural use is higher than other uses. In urban areas, theneed for water for domestic, service, and production purposes isincreasing and has caused the depletion of water resources.

River Basins in Viet Nam

State of Water Environment
Water quality in the country is generally good compared withenvironmental standards. However, there is increasing evidenceof pollution of Viet Nam’s surface, ground, and coastal waters.
River water
According to the monitoring results shown in the “State of theEnvironment Report 2005,” water quality in most of the mainrivers of Viet Nam remains good in upstream areas, while indownstream areas, pollution is increasing due to the wastewater
discharged from urban and industrial areas and waste leachatefrom dumping sites. The pollution levels of rivers are especiallyhigh during the dry season, when water volume flowing into theareas decreases.
Water quality monitoring along some points of the major rivers
shows that concentration of BOD5 and N-NH4+ has exceeded
permitted standards by 1.5-3 times. In addition, the levels of
total suspended solids recorded in rivers, lakes and main canalsystems have exceeded permitted national standards for water
sources in Category A (water for domestic water supply withappropriate treatments) by 1.5-2.5 times. Furthermore, there aresigns of pollution from heavy metals and pesticide chemicals.
Coliform parameters in some large rivers have also exceeded
permitted standards for water sources in Category A by 1.5-6
times.

(based on “Hanh and Dong 2008”)

41

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Viet Nam

Marine water
In general, water quality in coastal and marine areas still
remains within permitted national standards, except somecoastal estuaries where densely populated urban residential
areas, industrial factories and seaports are located. However,the potential for marine pollution is becoming more obvious as aresult of indiscriminate human activities (MONRE 2005).

16
1996
2001

14

BOD5 (mg/l)

12

2004

10
Level A, TCVN

8
6
4
2
0

Legislative Framework for Water Environment
Management

Hong River Cam River Lam River Huong River Han River Sai Gon River Hau River(Hanoi) (Hai Phong) (Ben Thuy)(Hue)(Da Nang) (Ho Chi Minh) (Can Tho)

According to the principle stated in the Law on Environmental
Protection (1994, amended in 2005), ensuring social progress inorder to achieve national sustainable development is the objective
for environmental protection. The Law on Environmental
Protection is the basic law that includes the principle of theprotection of the environment, including water resources. The law
also stipulates the contents of environmental standards and theirsystems.

Figure 1. Changes of BOD5 Concentration in Main Riversof Large Cities(Source: MONRE 2005)

Notably, BOD5 in all rivers in Ha Noi is two to five times higher
than permitted levels (Figure 2) and coliform in the main canals
in Ho Chi Minh City is several times higher than the standards(Figure 3).

Ambient water quality standards
Ambient water quality standards are established for surface
water, coastal water, and groundwater, referring to bothinternational standards and standards in developed countries.
The Surface Water Quality Standard (TCVN 5942:1995),
which was enacted in 1995 and revised in 2001, was applied
until 31 December 2008 and then revised to QCVN 08:2008.
The current standard (QCVN 08:2008) sets four classes asshown in Table 1 and standard values for 32 parameters ineach class.

BOD5 (mg/l)

200
150
Oct-05
Nov-05
Dec-05
Standard TCVN
5942-1995 (B)

100
50
0

Sông TôLịch

Sông Kim Sông Sét
NgưuriversSông Lừ

Figure 2. Water Pollution in Rivers in Ha Noi

Table 1. Classes in the Surface Water Quality Standard(Source: MONRE 2005)(1000MPN/100ml)

Class
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

A1
Coliform
TCVN
5942-1995 (B)A2B1Nhiêu Lộc Tân Hóa

Tham
Lương

Tàu Hũ Bến Nghé

B2

Figure 3. Water Pollution in Main Channels in
Ho Chi Minh City

Objective of Use
Good for domestic water supply and other purposes in A2, B1
and B2.
Good for domestic water supply, but suitable treatment
technology must be applied; conservation of aquatic lives, orother purposes in B1 and B2.
Good for irrigation or other purposes with demand for similar
quality water or other purposes in B2.
Good for water transportation and other purposes with demand
for low-quality water.

The Coastal Water Quality Standard (TCVN 5943:1995) was
revised to QCVN 10:2008 on 31 December 2008. The current
standard sets standard values for 29 parameters for three
categories: beaches, aquaculture, and other areas.
The Groundwater Quality Standard (QCVN 09:2008), which
was revised to TCVN 5944:1995, sets standard values for 26
parameters.

(Source: MONRE 2005)

Lake water
Most of lakes in the inner parts of cities are suffering fromeutrophication. Mutative eutrophication and organic re-contamination
occur in many lakes (MONRE 2005).

Monitoring of water quality in public waters andgroundwater
The Law on Environmental Protection stipulates monitoring
and treatment of water pollution and degradation in river basins,
however, a regular and routine water quality monitoring programis only now being established (World Bank 2006).

Groundwater
Most groundwater in coastal zones has been salinated mainly
because the uncontrolled and indiscriminate exploitation ofgroundwater by households and water extraction in coastal
areas. In addition, signs of phosphate and arsenic pollution
have been observed in many places. Furthermore, groundwater
has also been polluted by technically improper burials ofdomestic fowls infected by avian influenza epidemic (MONRE
2005).
42

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Viet Nam

Effluent standards
Industrial wastewater discharge standards (TCVN 5945:1995)
were revised in 2005 to TCVN 5945:2005. The revised standards(TCVN 5945:2005) take into account the best technology available
in the country and the standards applied in some countries in theregion. As a result, the current standards are less strict comparedwith older standards. The standard values are set for the usage ofthree types of water bodies into which wastewater is discharged.
In addition, there are other effluent standards such as thosefor domestic wastewater and specific industries (Figure 4).

Conservation of Water Quality
Law on Environmental Protection
Ambient standards

Effluent standards

QCVN 08:2008/BTNMT – National technical normon surface water quality

TCVN 5945-2005: Industrial wastewater discharge standards

QCVN 09:2008/BTNMT – National technical norm
on underground water quality

TCVN 6772 - 2000: Domestic wastewater
standards

QCVN 10:2008/BTNMT – National technical normon coastal water quality

TCVN 6773 - 2000: Water quality guidelines for
irrigation
TCVN 6774 - 2000: Freshwater Quality guidelines
for protection of aquatic sites
TCVN 6980 - 2001: Standards for industrial
effluents discharged into rivers used for domestic
water supply
TCVN 6981 - 2001: Standards for industrial
effluents discharged into lakes used for domestic
water supply
TCVN 6982 - 2001: Standards for industrial
effluents discharged into rivers used for water
sports and recreation
TCVN 6983 - 2001: Standards for industrial
effluents discharged into lakes used for water
sports and recreation
TCVN 6984 - 2001: Standards for industrial
effluents discharged into rivers used for protectionof aquatic life
TCVN 6985 - 2001: Standards for industrial
effluents discharged into lakes used for protectionof aquatic life
TCVN 6986 - 2001: Standards for industrial
effluents discharged into coastal waters used forprotection of aquatic life
TCVN 6987 - 2001: Standards for industrial
effluents discharged into coastal waters used forwater sports and entertainments
QCVN 11:2008/BTNMT – National technicalnorm on the effluent of aquatic products processing
industry

Other Laws Related to Water Environment

QCVN 12:2008/BTNMT – National technicalnorm on the effluent of paper and pulp industry

Law on Water Resources

QCVN 13:2008/BTNMT – National technicalnorm on the effluent of textile industry

Land LawQCVN 14:2008/BTNMT – National technicalnorm on domestic wastewater

Figure 4. Legislative Chart for Water Quality Management43

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Viet Nam

Institutional Framework for Water Quality Management
As water is used in multiple sectors, many ministries take part in the management of water resources. The responsibilities ofministries concerned with water management are shown in the table below.
Name of Ministry
Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development
Ministry of Planning andInvestment
Ministry of Industry
Ministry of Science andTechnology
Ministry of Construction
Ministry of Transportation
Ministry of Health
Ministry of Finance

Responsibilities
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾

Management of water resources and water quality.
Make plans on the use, overall management and protection for water resources in large river
basins.
Irrigation, flood and storm prevention, rural water supply, management of hydraulic engineeringand dykes.
Manage water for aquaculture and aquatic product processing.
Guidelines for and check of ministries and sectors for the preparation and implementation ofstrategies on socio-economic development.
Hydropower development via Viet Nam Electricity Corporation.
Appraise drafts and publicize water quality standards prepared by the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment.
Manage urban public works, design and build urban water supply and sewage works.
Manage and develop water traffic, manage aquatic engineering and port systems.
Manage drinking water quality.
Responsible for preparing and supervising water quality standards.
Prepare policy on taxes and fees for water resources.
(Source: MONRE 2006)

the implementation and compliance with environmental
regulations needs to be strengthened both with regard to
financial investment and professional aspects. Training of staff
and officials at the local level is also an important measure.
In addition, it is important to strengthen international
cooperation in water resources management, especiallyregional cooperation with Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, andChina, as many international rivers flow in Viet Nam.

Existing and Future Challenges for Water
Environment Management
The protection of the water environment is clearly mentioned
in the Law on Environmental Protection 2005. It is very
important to successfully implement the law and other programs
related to the water environment in order to conserve water
resources.
To improve policy enforcement in the country, inspections on

44

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Appendix

APPENDIX I

Government Regulation No. 38 in 2007 Concerning the Assignment of Authority
between Central, Provincial, and District/City Governments (INDONESIA)
CentralProvincial

District/CityManagement of water quality on
national /trans-boundary level

Management of water quality on
provincial level

Management of water quality on
district/city level

Setting water class of water
resources on national and/ortrans-boundary levels

Setting water class of water resources
on provincial level

Setting water class of water resourceson district/city level

Coordination and implementationof water quality monitoring ofwater resources on national/trans-boundary levels

Coordination and implementation ofwater quality monitoring of water
resources on provincial level

Coordination and implementation ofwater quality monitoring of water
resources on district/city level

Controlling water contamination inwater resources on national/trans-boundary levels

Controlling water contamination inwater resources on provincial level

Controlling water contamination inwater resources on district/city level

Supervision of watercontamination control on national
levelSupervision of water contamination
control on provincial level

Supervision of compliance withrequirements for wastewater discharge
permits into water or water resources

Establishment of water quality
standard and/or replenishment ofwater parameter on national/trans-boundary levels

Establishment of more stringent water
quality standard and/or replenishmentof water parameter on national/trans-boundary levels

Government Compulsory practiceor compulsory money for thetreatment of water contaminationin national emergency situations
and unpredictable conditions

Government Compulsory practice orcompulsory money for the treatment ofwater contamination in provincial
emergency situations and unpredictableconditions

Government Compulsory practice orcompulsory money for the treatmentof water contamination in emergency
situations and unpredictableconditions of district/city

Water quality management andwater contamination control

Water quality management and watercontamination control on provincial
level

Water quality management and watercontamination control on district/citylevelsEstablishment of wastewater
standard quality for other uses

Establishment of more stringent
wastewater standard quality for othersimilar uses

Permission for wastewater discharge
into water body or water resources

Establishment of river utilization
standarts across the provinces

Development, supervision andevaluation of the approval towastewater discharge to river acrosscity/district

Permission to utilize wastewater into
the ground for soil application(provided by the State Ministry of Environment, Indonesia)

45

46

- Management of Water Quality and Control over Water Pollution Government Regulation
Number 82 of 2001

- Water Quality and Ecosystem Conservation Act- Laws on Water and Water Resources- Law concerning Environmental Management Law No.
23 of 1997

- Basic Environment Law- Framework Act on Environmental Policy- Law on Environmental Protection (Under review foramendment)- Environmental Quality Act

Indonesia

Japan

Korea

Lao PDR

Malaysia- Groundwater Act(The Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act is the law tocontrol surface and coastal and estuarine water quality.)- Enhancement and Conservation of National
Environmental Quality Act- Law on Environmental Protection

Thailand

Vietnam(The Law on Environmental Protection is the law to control water environment.)- Clean Water Act- Philippines Environmental Policy- Environment Code of the Philippines- Public Health Law

The Philippines

Myanmar- Law of the People's Republic of China on Prevention and Control of Water Pollution- Marine Environment Protection Law of the People's Republic of China- Environmental Protection Law of the Peoples Republicof China

China- Water Pollution Control Law- Law Concerning Special Measures for Preservation of Lake Water Quality- Sub-Decree on Water Pollution Control- Law on Water Resources Management- Law on Environmental Protection and Natural
Resource Management

Major Laws and Regulations related to Water Environment

Cambodia

Basic Law on the Environment

Legislative Framework for Water Environment Management

APPENDIX IIf

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Appendix

47

Japan

Indonesia

China

Cambodia

Groundwater(5 grades (the level of water quality described
mainly by water usage))(5 grades (the level of water quality described mainly bywater usage))(4 classes determined by habitat condition)- 1 parameters (Total zinc)- 2 parameters(5 classes determined by water use)

- 5 parameters(4 classes determined by water use)

- Lakes and Reservoirs:

habitat condition)- 1 parameter (Total zinc) for (4 classes determined by- 5 parameters(6 classes determined by water use)

- Rivers:(2 classes determined by habitat condition)- 1 parameters (Total zinc)(4 classes determined by water use)

- 2 parameters (TN and TP)(3 classes determined by water use)

- 5 parameters- Coastal waters:*Environmental water quality standards for theconservation of the living environment- 26 substances

conservation of the living environment

human health- 26 substances

groundwater for human health

Environmental water quality standards forusage or characteristics of seawater)

35 parameters in maximum (3 categories determined by

Sea water quality standard

water usage))(4 grades (the level of water quality described mainly by

35 parameters

Environmental water quality standards for the- 26 substances

Environmental water quality standards for human health- Inland water: 46 parameters (4 water use classes)
Environment water quality standards for

39 parameters

24 parameters (basic parameters)

Water quality criteria

Quality standard for groundwater

Environmental quality standards for surface waterSea water quality standard- Coastal water: 7 parameters- River: 5 parameters- Lakes and reservoirs: 7 parameters*Water quality standard in public water areas forbiodiversity conservation

Coastal and Marine Waters

biodiversity conservation

25 parameters

Water quality standard in public water areas for public health protection

Water quality standard in public water areas for

Surface Water

List of Environmental Water Quality Standards

APPENDIX IIIf

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Appendix

48

VietnamThailandThe
Philippines

Myanmar

Malaysia

Lao PDR

Korea- Surface water: 32 parameters (4 water use classes)

National technical norm on surface water quality- 28 items (5 water use classes)

Surface water quality standard- 26 parameters

water quality

National technical norm on underground- 38 items

protection of public health)- 29 parameters (3 categories)

National technical norm on coastal water quality- 30 items (7 water use classes)

Coastal water quality standard- 17 items

substances for coastal and marine waters (forhealth)- 17 items*Water quality criteria for toxic and other deleterious

substances for freshwater (for protection of public- 12 parameters (4 water use classes)

for coastal and marine waters

pollutants contributing aesthetics and oxygen demand

Water quality criteria for conventional and other- 9 parameters (under review)

Interim marine water quality standards- 7 items (3 classes)

living environment

Coastal water quality standards for conservation of the- 19 items

human healthCoastal water quality standards for protection of

Coastal and Marine Waters

Water quality criteria for toxic and other deleterious- 16 parameters (5 water use classes)

Groundwater quality standards

Water is used to evaluate groundwater quality.

demand for freshwater

Philippines National Standards for Drinking

pollutants contributing to aesthetics and oxygen

used as the benchmark.

National Guidelines for Raw Water Quality is- 20 items (3 categories (water use))

Ground Water Quality Standards

Groundwater

Water quality criteria for conventional and other

Health Organization (WHO) standards.

At present, the control of water quality is based on World- 72 parameters (6 water use classes)

National water quality standards

Currently being prepared- Lakes: 9 items (7 classes)

environment (Lakes)

Water quality standards for conservation of the living- Rivers: 6 items (7 classes)

environment (Rivers)

Water quality standards for conservation of the living- 17 items(rivers and lakes)

Water quality standards for protection human health

Surface Water

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Appendix

49

Malaysia

Lao PDR

Korea

Japan

Indonesia

China

CambodiaEffluent standards

Target Industry and Facilities(e.g.)for pulp and paper industry, iron and steel industry, ammonia industry, dyeing and finishing of

There are many other effluent standards for different types of industries

Regulations

Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm-Oil)

Regulations

Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber)

Regulations

Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents)

restaurants, and commercial centers.

Wastewater standards for buildings, hotels, dormitories, hospitals,

Concentration standards of wastewater from industries

Sewage and industrial effluents, and prescribed premises (raw natural rubber, and crude palm-oil)

Buildings, hotels, dormitories, hospitals, restaurants, and commercial centers.

plants.

Sugar mills, the textile and garment industry, pulp mills, paper mills, slaughter houses, and battery

Both public and private sewage treatment plants and waste treatment plants

Toxic pollutants effluent standard

Discharge water quality standard

3

All specified facilities.
Specified facilities with effluent volumes of 50m /day or more.

Effluent standards for the living environment

refiners, vinyl chloride monomer and polymer factories and ethylene factories

activities, slaughterhouses, vegetables and fruits treatment centers, seafood treatment centers, Nickel

Effluent standards for human health

There are many other effluent standards for various activities.

Hotel activities, hospital activities, oil & gas and geothermal activities, industrial estate, coal mining

Commercial and/or domestic activities

Standard Quality of Wastewater for Commercial and/or Domestic

Activities

21 industrial activities

Quality Standard of Liquid Waste for Industrial Activities

textile industry, phosphate fertilizer industry, coal industry, livestock and poultry breeding

Facilities discharging pollutant

Urban wastewater treatment plants

Any sources of pollution (discharging wastewater to public water area and sewer)

Integrated wastewater discharge standard

treatment plants

Discharge standard of pollutants for municipal wastewater

public water areas or sewer

Effluent standard for pollution sources discharging wastewater to

List of Effluent Standards

APPENDIX IVf

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Appendix

systems.
Effluent from domestic sewage and industrial wastewater treatment plants (except plants that produce
strong wastewater (with BOD equal to or more than 3,000mg/L)(maximum limits for protection of public health)Effluent standards for conventional and other pollutants inprotected waters category I and II and Inland Waters Class C

50

Vietnamthan 3,000mg/L before treatment)

Industries Producing Strong Industrial Wastes

Effluents to be discharged to deep wells
Different standards are set for coastal, brackish, and inland aquaculture, respectively

Water characteristics discharged into deep wells

There are three effluent standards for conservation of aquaculture

There are three other effluent standards for specific industries

There are eight other effluent standards for industrial effluents.

National technical norm on domestic wastewater

Freshwater quality guidelines for protection of aquatic sites

Water quality guidelines for irrigation

Domestic wastewater standards

For aquatic products processing industry, paper and pulp industry, and textile industry.

discharged into and the usage of water bodies.

The standards are separately established in consideration of both water bodies which effluents

Effluents from pig farms

Industrial wastewater discharge standards

Effluents from hosing estates

Effluent from buildings (e.g. hotels, hospitals, department stores)

Building effluent standards

Effluent standard for pig farm

Effluent from gas station and oil terminals

Gas station and oil terminal effluent standards

Housing estate effluent standards

Effluent from factories group II and III categories and all industrial estates under the Factory Act

Industrial effluent standards

Strong Wastes.

upon Effectively of the Regulations and for All Industries Producing

Effluent standards for New Industries Producing Strong Wastes

Effluents from industries producing strong industrial wastewaters with high BOD (equal to or moreInterim Effluent Standards for BOD Applicable to Old and Existing

coastal waters which are not classified

Philippines

Effluent standards for conventional and other pollutants in Inland

Any wastewater discharge coming from a point source i.e. industrial plants and municipal sewerage

Effluent standards for toxic and other deleterious substancechemicals.

Yangon City Development Committee convened a meeting in 2001 to introduce proposed environmental standards for Yangon, which includes standards on wastewater and toxic

Waters Class D and Marine Waters Class SC and SD and other

ThailandTarget Industry and Facilities

No effluent standards. However, National Commission for Environmental Affairs (NCEA) and NGOs proposed effluent standards for proper disposal of wastewater from factories.

The

MyanmarEffluent standards

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Appendix

Outlook of Water Environmental Management Strategies in Asia / Reference

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Basinsof

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and

Dong

Nai.

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