Encouraging Critical Thinking in International Exchange－ Introducing Japanese Culture and Society to International Students －Adriana Hidding
Institute for International Relations, Ehime University

1. Introduction

Although a suitable exchange project with Russia
does not seem feasible in the near future, the current

The invasion of Ukraine by Russia in February 2022 isevents are a trigger to review existing programs fora strong reminder of the need for positive international

international and short-term exchange students. Can

exchange to foster a more peaceful world. Making

programs on Japanese Culture, and online exchanges

friendships across borders and learning to see the world

be improved by incorporating more elements to foster

from different perspectives gives a positive impulse, but

critical thinking, and if so what kind of elements wouldthat alone is not enough. We are more and more living

be both useful and appropriate?

in our online cocoons, and political movements requiring
blind faith have gotten mainstream again. To try tocounter this tide, we need to encourage critical thinking
even more by giving students the opportunity to not justexchange but to dig deeper into culture.

2. Japanese Culture and Society
Education
At Ehime University education of Japanese Culture

The Institute for International Relations (IIR) organized

and Society for international students can be subdivided

between December 2020 and December 2021 a number

into three groups. 1) Undergraduates enrolled in regularof online exchanges with a partner institution in Russia,

courses taught in Japanese on the subject Nihon Jijō

the invasion thus raised the question if these exchanges“Japanese(state of things”) as part of the general

should be continued and if so in what manner? With all

education program. 2) Studies on Japanese Culture forkinds of restrictions in place, Russians schools becoming

exchange students and students enrolled in English

active agents in promoting the war (Shcherbakova 2022),

Language programs. 3) Courses as part of short term andand taking into account the possible risk a subverted

or online exchanges.

message could have on persons involved at the otherIn 1962 Nihon Jijō was set up at universities throughout

side, meaningful academic exchange between institutions

Japan. The subject has not been clearly defined, but it

is in the authors opinion at present not possible.

aims to give international students support in gaining

Looking back at past exchanges most of the generalknowledge and skills to be able to give meaning tocontent was of an introductory nature, not covering any

cultural phenomena and events（渡辺，2008）. A very

critical or“difficult”subjects. When introducing famous

broad range of subjects, topics and approaches can bework of Ehime’s haiku poet Masaoka Shiki, should there

seen, ranging from geography, climate, history, economy

also be attention for more confronting work, such as

and culture（大川，2008）.

Homefront（銃後，1939）, a haiku collection by former

That the subject has not been clearly defined is an

Matsuyama resident Taneda Santoka, with free haiku

asset as it permits educators to introduce students notdepicting such horrors as a soldier coming back from thejust to Japan, but more specifically to the region where

front without limbs. Or an allegorical warning against

their university is located and to adjust the content to

the invasion of foreign land based on empty propaganda,

current affairs and specific needs of students, such as asuch as Akutagawa Ryunosuke version of the Japaneseclass on the Shikoku Pilgrimage or a class on disaster

folktale Momotarō (1923). Or rather than focusing on

prevention with a focus on the local risks and history ofcontent should the methodologies in use be reviewed?

natural disasters. Adjusting the subject to current needs,

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includes updating the approach and methodology.

especially appreciated a large variety in the presentation

Studies on Japanese Culture uses many of the same

topics, countries of fellow participants, and being

themes as Nihon Jijō. With the important difference

introduced to unfamiliar cultures. One example was anthat most students are new to Japan and do not have a

introduction to Japanese onsen culture, during whichsimilarly high command of the Japanese Language. There

American students were surprised to hear about varying

is thus a stronger focus on familiarizing the students withand changing views on tattoos in Japan. A virtual tour

Japan and class content is of a more introductory levelof a Sikh place of worship was an eyeopener to Japanesesupplemented with field trips.

students who saw similarities in the hospitality there

The main aim of the Japanese Culture and Society

with customs to welcome pilgrims on Shikoku island.

education for international students at Ehime University

Others appreciated the ability to easily interact withhas been to deepen an understanding of Japan, andpresenters and other participants. In the questionnaire offacilitate support in overcoming cultural differences.

the 2021 Winter School 96% of 49 respondents indicatedStudents are furthermore encouraged to makethey would recommend the program to others. Finallycomparisons between Japan and their region of origin,students indicated they had increased interest in theand to be independent thinkers.

regions of origin of other participants.

During courses a wide difference in the style of

It is interesting to notice that participants were noteducation which students have followed so far can be

only introducing parts of their cultural backgrounds to

noticed. There are students who are at ease with giving

each other but seemed to easily find pieces of shared

an well founded opinion, or talking about topics from theiridentity, such as the subject of study, a love for K-pop,

personal view. Others have little experience with active

anime or literature.

learning, peer to peer activities, or even are surprised

The online programs give an opportunity to meetwhen asked to sit in a U-shape to facilitate better

students all over the world, and have a positive impact

communication. This forms yet another reason to pay

on students. However most student presentations were of

extra attention to foundational concepts such as criticala superficial nature, such as a list of touristic attractions

thinking, as not all students are familiar with having toin Matsuyama. This was partly due to the short nature ofpractice it.

these exchanges, and partly because of the challenge ofneeding to use English. By means of Q&A sessions some

2.1 Online Programs
Most short term and online exchange programs are

depth was gained, however there is room for further
improvement on this front.

of an introductory nature, to give students a first try
at international exchange, gain confidence and improve
communication skills.

3. Critical Thinking

The last program organized with participants from

Critical thinking is thought of as an important skill,

Russia was in December 2021, the three-day Ehime

but there is no common agreement on what it exactly

University Online Winter School. The program with ais, there are numerous definitions. Consequently there

total of 120 participants from 10 different countries was

is not a common consensus of how to implement it in

a combination of specialist lectures by members of theeducation (Snider, 2017). So what is it that we actually try

respective faculties, general cultural workshops organized

to promote?

by the IIR and presentations and exchange activities
organized for and by students.

Some of the frequently named keywords, and subskills
for critical thinking are: field- specific expertise, reasoning

Other online cultural exchanges by the IIR with

(Huber & Kuncel, 2016), inferential connections (Mulnix,

universities in the US and India consisted only of2012), observation, synthesizing information, and reflection

one to three synchronous meetings with options for(Beaumont, 2010).

asynchronous activities. Programs mostly consisted

In light of the recent propaganda wars, and withof student presentations followed by discussions anda society which is more and more influenced by

activities such as translating haiku and word games.

social networking services that unfortunately seem

Student feedback through post-event questionnaires

to be more polarizing than a means to break down

and direct contact with organizers indicates participants

borders (Tett, 2016) an awareness of the influence of146

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this compartmentalisation is vital to critical thinking.

higher motivation. An investment to improve programs

Furthermore we should be aware of conscious andfrom this perspective would thus be an overall win.

unconscious biases that come with our bubbles, be willing

Mulnix a philosophy professor argues critical thinking

to reflect and value counter arguments for their merits.

should be taught as it protects from“sloppy andIn this light a good workable concept of criticalconformist thinking and insulates us against empty

thinking is given by Mulnix:“To be a proficient criticaldogmatism”, it is thus a pillar for autonomy, as it lets us

thinker, then, is to see clearly the relationship between

decide for ourselves what we believe (2012, p. 473).

evidence and conclusion, and to be proficient at providing

When it comes to implementation she argues that, as

reasons in support of one’s beliefs”(Mulnix, 2012, p. 473).

critical thinking is a skill for improvement, active and

She furthermore argues that“the fundamental skill to berepeated practice is needed. This can be done by using

acquired by a critical thinker is the ability to recognize

techniques that help focus on inferential connections suchinferential connections holding between statements,

as argument mapping.

where this would include the ability to understand theQuestioning is another method that can be easily

possibility that what we believe might be false andimplemented in existing curricula. The amount of

the ability to identify the sorts of evidence that would

questioning and the level of questioning is directly related

undermine our beliefs”(Mulnix, 2012, p. 473).

to the amount and level of student thinking (Savage,

University education greatly contributes to critical1997).

thinking skills. However despite a rise in education levels,

Online learning environments such as Zoom with aa resurgence of political movements that require blindchat function have the benefit that you can ask a question

trust, accompanied with regular updates of what is“true”

to all participants at the same time. Immediately a whole

and what is“fake”can be seen worldwide.

array of answers can be seen. Allowing for students tosee multiple perspectives and feel less pressured to give

3.1 Implementing Critical Thinking

the“correct”answer to an open question.

With a wide range of opinions a critical debate on the

For in person classes students can fill in an online form

merits and the way to implement critical thinking is very

with open yes or no questions before class, during classmuch possible.

the reasoning behind the answers can be analyzed. This

Huber and Kuncel (2016) argue that college education

approach is of great benefit to students who otherwise

without explicit instruction of critical thinking already has

are a bit too shy to give their opinion during class. It

a positive effect on the critical thinking skills of students,

furthermore makes it easier to find a diversity of opinions

it thus needs to be considered if giving more time forand reasoning within one class.

this skill is worthwhile if it comes at the expense of other

Critical thinking skills ideally do not come at theskills. Since critical thinking is not as easily measured as,cost of other skills, furthermore requiring a bigfor example, vocabulary knowledge, whether the explicit

overhaul of programs could have a negative impact on

instruction and separate courses in critical thinking are

implementation. In this sense the most effective methods

beneficial for students is indeed up to debate. However,are thus those that are easily introduced and sustained.

when it comes to education in general the question ofwhether or not the content and methodology used incourses is encouraging critical thinking is important.

3.2 Teaching Culture and Critical Thinking
Although seen as a means to enhance critical thinking,Snider (2017) argues that a complete overhaul ofteaching culture and foreign languages is not without

educational programs is not necessary to instill stronger

pitfalls. Kubota (2003) describes, in a piece on Japanesecritical thinking skills, and as a big bonus can increase

culture as part of Japanese language education in the

motivation among students. By integrating criticalUS, how by pointing out the uniqueness of Japanese

thinking in existing curricula and adjusting common

culture or by emphasising differences educators canteaching techniques it will be easier to implement andinadvertently strengthen‘us versus them’thinking andsustain these elements within educational practices. The

othering. Very much similar to the process as describedkind of cognitive activities that stimulate critical thinking

by Edward Saïd in Orientalism (1978), there is a risk ofsuch as making comparisons between class content andcreating stereotypes. Such teaching approaches canthe experiences of students are also associated withdespite the best of intentions be detrimental to critical

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thinking.
To deal with this problem Kubota suggests four

Momoko, or Peach Girl, in which the hero switches sex
and the gender roles of other characters are reversed（奥Ds to reconceptualize approaches to teaching culture.

山，2011）. The 2014 pop song Momotarō by Wednesday

Firstly, rather than relying on prescriptive knowledge

Campanella from the album Watashi wo onigashima ni

there should be a descriptive understanding of culture.

turetette (Take me to Ogre Island) features a Peach

Secondly, there needs to be a focus on how culture andBoy who is mainly interested in gaming and does not

perspectives vary depending on numerous factors, such

want to go to ogre island, but is pushed into it by his

as location, gender age etc. and thus show the diversity

grandparents. A 2021 picture book, Futari no Momotarō

within culture. Thirdly, culture should be seen as dynamic,(Two Peach Boys) by Kido and Kitahara starts out justchanging and taking on new forms over time. Finally, alike the most common version of the tale, a peach is

notion of the discursive construction of culture to provide

taken by the river to be found by and grow up with theunderstanding on how knowledge is used for political andold man and lady. The book can be turned around, andor ideological purposes is needed.

the story of a second peach appears. This peach washes

For language and culture textbooks that do not fit thisashore on ogre island and the baby born on the beach isfour D mold Kubota suggest to add basic questions suchbeing fondly taken care of by the ogres, the islands grows

as: Does this apply to all Japanese? Can you think ofout to become“rainbow island”welcoming a diversity ofsomething contradicting it? Is there something similar ininhabitants, the story ends with the arrival of the humanother countries?

raised peach boy and the question how both peach boys
can become friends. The book clearly tries to promote a

3.3 Momotarō as Example

more inclusive society.

If we were to look for an example where the D’s

Akutagawa’s version of Momotarō (1923) is perhaps theof Kubota can be easily applied, Japan’s most famousmost developed one, and it shows great wit. The story

folktale Momotarō or Peach Boy would be a good one.

starts out with the peach tree which has its branches

Folktales are still widely used in Japanese language

up in the skies, and its roots reaching into hell, the childand culture textbooks and they can be used to give aborn from this magnificent tree however turns out to be

descriptive rather than a prescriptive understanding ofa brat. Too lazy to work the fields like the old man andculture. As a piece of oral literature there are various

lady who cared for him he decides to go to ogre island.

versions of Momotarō around, and new ones still appear.

The elderly couple is not sad to see him leave, but they

The most common form tells of a boy born from a peach,do give him millet dumplings. When it is time to sharewelcomed by an elderly couple, he grows to be strong

the dumplings with the animals that help him on his

and goes on an expedition to ogre island. With the help ofjourney he will only offer them half a dumpling.

three animals he defeats the ogres and comes back as ahero with many treasures.

Far more refined than the petty protagonist are theogres, who live peacefully in the natural paradise of their

While it is most common to depict Momotarō as a hero,island, enjoying dances, reciting classical poetry andFukuzawa Yukichi (1835-1901) in a piece that he wrote

lovingly take care of their children. They do warn theirfor his own children, Hibi no oshie (Day-to-day Teachings,

offspring for misbehavior or they might end up on the1871), condemned Peach Boy as a thief because theisland of the humans.

motivation for the expedition was in Fukuzawa’s eyes

After Momotarō and his companions brutally kill mostno other than greed for the treasures of the ogres.

of the unsuspecting ogres, the life of the leader is spared

Kuramochi for a school project read numerous versions

in exchange for all of the treasures they possess. With all

to find out if Momotarō was a thief or not. She found outof his loot it is not a happily ever after ending as some ofolder versions most of the time do not give a reason, but

the ogres try to take revenge by setting his house on fire

more recent versions indicate the ogres were causing

and some young ogres set out to make coconut bombs

trouble（倉持，2019）.

and plan for independence.

During the Pacific War Momotarō was readily used

The allegory of this story written during Japan’sfor propaganda, and turned into a nationalistic hero

Imperialistic expansion can easily be noticed and is

who suppresses English and American demons (Dower,

unfortunately still relevant today. The story ends with1986).

a stark warning, you never know when the next peachMore recent examples see the emergence of148

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might fall of the tree.

thinking skills. In an unfamiliar surrounding students

Students can compare different versions andare introduced to new perspectives, practice subskills

interpretations of the story and will thus notice its

necessary for critical thinking such as observation anddiversity, and its dynamic over time. By detecting how

interference, and are strongly triggered to reflect on theirdifferent politics and ideologies reshaped the protagonist

own background. However, we still need to ask what

they can furthermore discover how discourse takes place.

elements for growing a global perspective and critical

Finally, students can find parallels in the present day.

thinking are most effective and in what situation.
There is not a one-size-fits-all solution, for different

4. International Exchange and CriticalThinking

programs and different students. Moreover as criticalthinking has a number of subskills, different methods
should be in play. As for the acquirement of any skill

It can be argued that foreign language education

there is a need for repetition, and it should not comeand international exchange in itself promotes critical

too much at the expense of other skills. Useful andthinking. By meeting“the other”students are introduced

appropriate methods to encourage critical thinking should

to new viewpoints, and thus get a chance to deconstructthus be easy to introduce and frequently applied.

stereotypes and images they might have（池田，2020）.

When it comes to the education of Japanese culture to

For many students this will work out, but at the sameinternational students, an emphasis on looking at culture

time it can be noticed that when it comes to views on

from different perspectives and self-reflection is alreadyJapan, it is not uncommon for international students

part of the program. This can be further improved by

to uncritically use outdated or ill informed sources.

applying the four D’s as proposed by Kubota, to avoid

Sometimes the results can be a bit funny, like images ofunintentionally creating stereotypes, and an active

the Japanese eating sushi every day. But more seriously

learning approach of letting students do the thinking withquestionable images such as the Japanese people to beopen questions followed with feedback

belligerent, mono-ethnic or homogenous arise, for which
stereotype smashing would be welcome.

For online cultural exchanges one of the main things
which can be done within existing programs is to coach

Critical self-reflection is not a given when meeting“thestudents more in selecting topics and approaches that

other”. As Edward Hall described in Beyond Culture whenshow the dynamic and diverse nature of culture. And

confronted with a problem in a different culture few willwhen needed questions such as: Does this apply to all

say“The trouble I have with him is me”(Hall, 1976 p.

Japanese? Can you think of something contradicting it? Is

240). Indicating that rather than reflecting on ingrained

there something similar in other countries? can be added.

beliefs on how things should be done, most will find it

Active and repeated practice is not just beneficial

easier to come to the conclusion that the other is just odd,

to students. As we move from buzzword to buzzword,

looking beyond accomplishments or benefits of a “hostwe sometimes need time to reflect and go back to theculture”and idealizing the“home culture”. The reason to

foundation of higher education, by revisiting criticalpromote critical thinking is to enable people be capable ofthinking.

self-reflection, making the conclusion“The trouble I havewith him is me”a possible one.

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芥川龍之介（1990）「桃太郎」『蜘蛛の糸・杜子春・トロッコ

5. Conclusion
Current global developments, such as the war in
Ukraine, a possible conflict between China and Taiwan,
a rise in political movements that require blind trust are
worrisome. It reminds us that a global perspective andcritical thinking should be part of educational programs
whenever possible.
International exchange, both in person and online, shortterm and long term can greatly benefit students critical
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