Yao et al.
Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40645-024-00636-9

Progress in Earth andPlanetary Science

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Open Access

Fluvial geomorphic parametersof the Shuiluo River Catchment and theirtectonic implications, SE Tibetan Plateau
Wei Yao1, Xiaoxi Lyu1*, Dongning Lei2,3* and Peng Wu4

Abstract
The Shuiluo River Catchment (SRC) is the front zone of the southeast compression and uplift of the Tibetan Plateau,with intense tectonic activity. In the basin, a series of regional large NW–SE trending active faults are developed.
Studying clearly the geomorphic evolution of the SRC is conducive to further understanding the uplift and expansion
mechanism of the SE edge of Tibetan Plateau. Our research was based on geographic information system, numericalanalysis tool, and digital elevation model data, to extract six geomorpic parameters (hypsometric integral, asymmetry
factor, basin shape ratio, valley floor width–valley height ratio, normalized channel steepness index and index of relative
active tectonics) in SRC. After eliminating the impacts of climate, catchments area, and glacier, the geomorphic evolution of the SRC is mainly affected by geological structure and differential tectonic uplift movement; in the upstream
and midstream (upper part), the shape of valleys and stream longitudinal profile shapes are affected by lithology;
affected by geological structure and tectonic uplift, the tectonic activity in the midstream and downstream is relatively strong, and the intensity of activity in the downstream is stronger than that in the midstream, which may
suggest that the faults’ activity in the downstream is stronger; the index of relative active tectonics values of the SRC areconsistent with the regional seismic intensity, field-work and low-temperature thermochronology which indicates it
is reasonable to use the fluvial geomorphic parameters to study the regional geomorphic evolution. The morphological parameters we extracted show different values in different regions of SRC, which may be the result of differential
uplift in the southeastern of the Tibetan Plateau.
Keywords SE Tibetan Plateau, Shuiluo River Catchment, Tectonic activity, Fluvial geomorphic parameters*Correspondence:
Xiaoxi Lyu
karstlv@gznu.edu.cn
Dongning Lei
lei_dongning@163.com
1
School of Karst Science, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001,
China
2
Key Laboratory of Earthquake Geodesy, Institute of Seismology, China
Earthquake Administration, Wuhan 430071, China
3
Wuhan Institute of Earthquake Engineering Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430071,
China
4
College of Geographic Science, Harbin Normal University,
Harbin 150025, China© The Author(s) 2024. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which
permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to theoriginal author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images orother third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line
to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory
regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of thislicence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

1 Introduction
Since the Cenozoic, along with the collision of the
Indian and Eurasian plates, and resulting compression, the highest in the world has been formed-Tibetan
Plateau (Molnar and Tapponnier 1975; England 1997;
Chen et al. 2017; He et al. 2023; Ma et al. 2023a, b).
The Tibetan Plateau has a profound impact on atmospheric circulation and thus global climate, and is an
ideal place for scientific research (Tapponnier 2001).
Due to the uplift effect of the Tibetan Plateau, as wellas the mutual compression of multiple sturdy andalmost undeformed cratons such as the Tarim, North
China Craton, and South China Block on its easternand northeastern edges, some orogenic belts have been
formed, resulting in the thickening of the crust aroundthe plateau and the uplift of blocks that is still ongoing (Tapponnier and Molnar 1977; Ding et al. 2022; Sunet al. 2023). Regional fault zones are widely developedaround the Tibetan Plateau, such as Xianshuihe-Xiaojiang fault, Altun fault, Kunlun fault, and Yushu fault(Chen et al. 2016; Ji et al. 2020; Tian et al. 2021). Theselarge faults are generally the result of strong tectonic
activity (He et al. 2010; Li et al. 2021). Simultaneously
triggering strong earthquakes, landslides and mudslides(Chen et al. 2023; Huang et al. 2023). The study of thesefault zones can reveal the tectonic activity and orogenic
belt information in the periphery of the Tibetan Plateau, and then we can further analyze the uplift mechanism of the plateau (Li et al. 2016; Wu et al. 2023a, b).
These fault and orogenic belts have been studied bymany scholars (Wang et al. 2008, 2014; Li et al. 2015,
2021; Yan et al. 2017; Chen et al. 2020; Yin and Luo
2021; Tian et al. 2023; Shi et al. 2023; Luo et al. 2023),
which further enriched the research base of the Tibetan
Plateau. Understanding the activity mechanisms anddifferential activity of these active faults is beneficial forunderstanding the characteristics of the Cenozoic tectonic landforms around the Tibetan Plateau and eventhe tectonic movements of the entire it and theirs tectonically implications.
In addition to the active fault and orogenic zone, theriver, as a unique geomorphic unit, is also extremely
sensitive to the response of tectonic activities. Rivermorphology reflects tectonic activity and, in particular,river long profiles reflect uplift histories (Wang et al.
2021). The fluvial geomorphologic features, such as theterrace deposits on both sides of the river, and the shapeof the horizontal and vertical sections of the river, canreflect rich information of tectonic activities (Ma et al.
2023a, b). Fluvial geomorphology has become the mostideal carrier for recording tectonic activities (Howard and Kerby 1983; Burbank et al. 1996; Snyder et al.
2000; Clark and Handy Royden 2000). Many studies

Page 2 of 33

use fluvial geomorphology to reveal regional differential tectonic activities, tectonic geomorphologic features, and geological age (Partabian et al. 2016; Ahmad
et al. 2018; Anand and Pradhan 2019; Wang et al. 2022).
Some geomorphic parameters such as mountain front
sinuosity (SMF) (Amine et al. 2020), fractal dimension(FD), normalized channel steepness index ­(ksn) (Whipple and Tucker 1999), valley floor width–valley heightratio (VF) (Cannon 1976; Bull and Mcfadden 1977),
and hypsometric integral (HI) (Strahler 1952), which
can be used to quantitatively explore the characteristics of regional fluvial geomorphology, especially insome areas lacking ideal dating materials (Aier et al.
2011; Lahiri and Sinha 2014; Amine et al. 2020; Buczek and Górnik 2020; Ali et al. 2021; Wang et al. 2021;
Yu et al. 2022). Because the rivers are very sensitive tothe tectonic uplift at the edge of the Tibetan Plateau,
the use of fluvial geomorphology to study neotectonics
has become the main direction of the academic community, and then many researches have been carriedout (Su et al. 2016; Fan et al. 2018; Luo et al. 2023).
The study of the tectonic evolution history around the
Tibetan Plateau focuses on its northeast and southeastedges (Chang et al. 2015; Chen et al. 2018; Gao et al.
2019; Sun et al. 2022; Wang et al. 2022; Zhou et al.
2023a, 2023b; Tan et al. 2023; Wu et al. 2023a, b). Compared with the northeastern edge of the plateau, which
is widely used for dating techniques in the Quaternary system, there is relatively limited research on thechronology of eroded bedrock landforms in the southeastern edge, mainly characterized by high mountains
and canyons, especially in some typical active tectonic
basins (Williams 1987; Zhou et al. 2005; Chang et al.
2015). Located at the SE of Tibetan Plateau and in
the southern part of the Songpan-Ganzi fold belt, theShuiluo River Catchment (SRC) is a large-scale basin(catchment area >10,000km2) in the southern part of
the western Sichuan Plateau, and it is a primary tributary of the midstream of the Jinsha River; on the meanwhile, the catchment is in the transition area from theZhongzan block to the Erlong block and the Yangtze
paraplatform (Nie et al. 2015). And it is surrounded by
the Ganzi Litang fault, Jinshajiang fault, Yulongxueshan
fault and Lijiang fault, and some faults of northwest
and northeast trend are also developed in the region,
the regional tectonic condition is extremely complex.
Previous studies on the tectonic evolution history of
the region around the SRC (SE edge of the Tibetan Plateau) have shown that there are significant spatial differences in the rate of tectonic denudation and uplift
time in southeastern Tibetan Plateau (Zhang et al.
2017). The response of the SRC to these differential tectonic activities is an important area for understandingYao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

the geomorphic evolution of southeastern Tibetan Plateau, and the dense river network developed on the surface of the SRC provides a research window. Therefore,
the study of the fluvial geomorphology in the basin is
conducive to interpret the characteristics of regional
tectonic activities. Moreover, the evolution of theancient Shuiluo River (~1.7 Ma) stream network system is the key to unlocking the formation and evolution
mechanism of the first bend of the Yangtze River (Konget al. 2012; Zhang et al. 2022). Therefore, a systematic
study of the river geomorphic evolution of ShuiluoRiver is conducive to further clarifying the compression and uplift mechanism of the southeastern edge of
the Tibetan Plateau, as well as related scientific issues
related to the formation and evolution of the first bendof the Yangtze River. The digital elevation model (DEM)
is an important tool in quantitative study of geomorphic evolution, which is widely used in the research ofdigital geomorphology because it is easily accessible(Chang et al. 2015; Tang et al. 2017; Xiong et al. 2021).
In order to use fluvial geomorphic parameters to
explain the differences of SRC tectonic activity andreveal its response to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, we extracted six geomorphic parameters of the
SRC through geographic information system (GIS)
and numerical analysis tool based on DEM data in thiswork: hypsometric integral (HI), asymmetric factor (AF),shape basin ratio (BS), valley floor width–valley heightratio (VF) and Normalized Channel Steepness Index(ksn). We analyzed the fluvial geomorphic features ofthe studied basin by above-mentioned six geomorphic
parameters and calculated the Index of Relative Active
Tectonics (RIAT) of the SRC by the method of tectonic
activity classification (Hamdouni et al. 2008). Combined with regional geological data, glacier distribution,
earthquake, precipitation data and field work, we analyzed the main factors affecting the fluvial geomorphic
evolution of the SRC, and then discuss the relative differences in tectonic activity in the study area and their
response to the compression and uplift mechanisms of
the SE Tibetan Plateau margin. In order to clearly show
the spatial differences in the activity tectonic of SRC
based on our work results, and for ease of expression,
we define the area from the catchment source to Maiwa
as the upstream section of SRC, that is, the north, andthe area (or river section) between Maiwa and Shuiluo
as the midstream (that is, the center). The following
areas are defined as downstream, i.e., southern (Fig. 2).

2 Study area
2.1 Fluvial network features

The Shuiluo River originates from the west side of
Donglang mountain in the north of Daocheng, Sichuan

Page 3 of 33

Province, and flows southwestward through Sangdui
and Maiwa, then flows southward through Mairui andShuiluo, then flows southward through the southwest of
Litang, and finally flows into the Jinshajiang River at theSanjiangkou at the border of Ninglang, Yunnan Province, which is a primary tributary of the left bank of the
midstream of the Jinsha River (Fig. 1a–c). The latitudeis 99.87–100.81°E, 27.62–29.57°N and the basin area isabout 13,825 k­ m2. we used the hydrology tool of ArcGIS
10.2 to obtain the drainage basin network and catchment
range of SRC, and to divide its 41 sub-catchments. We
finally determined the spatial position of the main stream
channels (primary tributary) of SRC and of 41 sub-catchments. The area of the sub-catchment on the left bankof the mainstream is small, only No.3 sub-basin has alarge area about 1,310km2 and the other sub-basins havesmall area. On the right bank, there are large sub-basinsnamely Nos. 22, 37 and 38, with an area of 1789 k­ m2,
2978 ­km2 and 1186 k­ m2, respectively. The mainstreamof Shuiluohe River is about 299km long, and shorter rivers are developed along the east bank of the mainstream,with an average length of 16.94 km (Fig. 2, Table 1). The
elevation drop of the basin is 4009 m, and the elevationof the northern part of the basin is high, followed by thecentral part. The elevation of sub-basins 38, 40 and 41 in
the south is the lowest, with an altitude range of 2312–
3423 m (Fig. 2).
2.2 Geomorphology and geology

The swath topography profile shows that the valley inthe midstream and downstream (central and southern parts, A-A’; B-B’) of SRC is extremely deep, and thepeaks are even steeper. In the midstream, there are also
three snow capped mountains with an altitude of over
5000 meters, including Yangmaiyong, XhanuoDuoji,
and Senaichi in Daocheng Yading Scenic Area. There
are many faults distributed in this region. This region
stratum mainly consisting of Triassic limestone, sandstone, slate, etc. Upstream of SRC (north, C-C’), there
are larger and higher altitude plateau surface developed,with fewer faults and more granite distributed. Quaternary sediments are developed in the central valley from
Sangdui to Maiwa in upstream of SRC (Figs. 1c, 3). The
strata and lithology of the SRC are complex, with strata
exposed from Proterozoic to Cenozoic, mainly composed of marine Triassic limestone and metasandstone.
In the northern part of the basin, Triassic porphyry monzogranite is distributed; the eastern part is dominatedby limestone, sandstone and slate of the upper Triassic
Yidundaochengqugasi Formation of the basin facies; thesouthern part is dominated by basalt with slate and tuffaceous rock; the southwestern part is dominated by slatewith basalt and thin limestone of the lower and middle

Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

Triassic Niru Formation of the basin facies; the southeast is dominated by basaltic breccia of the Middle andUpper Permian Zhongdagai Formation (Figs. 1c, 3). The
SRC is surrounded by Jinshajiang Fault, Yulongxueshan
Fault, Ganzi-Litang Fault and Lijiang Fault. Ganzi-Litang
Fault is about 600 km long, which is the boundary of
Yidun and Songpan-Ganzi blocks, and its northwest end
is connected with Jinshajiang Fault (Jackson et al. 2020).
According to field structural observation, rock mass age
and chemical characteristics, it is shown that GanziLitang Fault and Jinshajiang Fault are continuous structural elements across the eastern Tibetan Plateau (Reidet al. 2007). The southeast end of Ganzi-Litang Fault is
located in the transitional zone between the Yangtze paraplatform and the Qiangtang block (Burchfiel et al. 1995).
The Ganzi-Litang Fault is one of the most important
active fracture zones on the Western Sichuan Plateau andis also a major trigger of intense tectonic activity on theplateau (Zhang et al. 2017). The Jinshajiang Fault entered
Yunnan from Derong, Sichuan, and went south along thevalley of the middle section of the Jinshajiang River. Thisfault is a large strike slip fault that controls the southwest edge of the Kangdian block (Duan and Tan 2000).
The activity of the middle section of Jinshajiang Fault isstronger than that of the north section, and the activityof the north section is weaker since the late Pleistocene(Chang et al. 2019). Lijiang Fault is the SW-trend extension of the Mesozoic Longmenshan-Jinpinshan thrust
nappe structural belt, and it is located in a strong erosionand deep cutting area, lacking Quaternary sediments.
Since the Holocene, three ancient earthquakes in LijiangXiaojinhe Fault caused the complete rupture of the middle section of the fault, resulting in the development of
the structural fracture zone in this section (Ding et al.
2018). In the studied catchment, a series of NW and NE
faults are also developed.

3 Overview of DEM data and methodology
Our research was based on the global high-resolution
DEM data (https://​www.​earth​data.​nasa.​gov/​esds/​compe​
titive-​progr​ams/​measu​res/​nasad​em) released by National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) on February 18, 2020, after reprocessing Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data, which improves the elevation

Page 4 of 33

accuracy and fills the missing values. The spatial resolutionof DEM data is 30m, covering from 60 ° N to 56° S. The
spatial reference of DEM data we used is World Geodetic
System (WGS) 1984, and we used geographic information
system (GIS) to cut and project the DEM data (WGS 1984
Universal Transverse Mercator Zone 47N). Then we used
the hydrology tool of ArcGIS 10.2 software provided byEnvironmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) to obtain
the drainage basin network and basin range of SRC, and to
divide its 41 sub-catchments. Finally determined the spatial
position of the main stream channels of SRC and of 41 subcatchments. We used GIS, CaIHypso (an ArcGIS extension
tool for calculating hypsometric integral curves) and MATLAB (a mathematical software produced by MathWorks in
the USA), combined with parameter model, to obtained six
geomorphic parameters.
3.1 Hypsometric Integral (HI)Hypsometric integral (HI) is a mathematical model thatreflects the relationship between the development stagesof catchment geomorphology and erosion. It displays theperiod (stage) of geomorphic development. Hypsometriccurves display the stages of geomorphic evolution. Whenthe curve is convex, it indicates that there is more material to be eroded on the surface, and the topography on
the surface is undulating greatly, which represents an earlystage of geomorphic evolution. When the curve shows aconcave shape, it represents the late stage of topography
development, where the amount of eroded material on thesurface increases and the surface relief decreases. The HI
value directly reflects the stage of geomorphic development. HI < 0.40, the geomorphic evolution reaches thematurity stage, and the intensity of tectonic activity is notstrong; 0.40 ≤ HI < 0.50, the geomorphic evolution reaches
the middle stage, and the tectonic activity is relatively
strong; when HI ≥ 0.50, the geomorphic evolution reaches
early stage, and has extremely strong tectonic activity(Strahler 1952). HI was proposed by Strahler, and the calculation formula is:HI =hmean − hmin
hmax − hmin

(See figure on next page.)
Fig. 1 Location, lithology and geological structure of SRC. a Location of the Tibetan Plateau in the world, b main faults and tectonic divisions
developed in the Tibetan Plateau, and the SRC is located in the southeast of the Tibetan Plateau, c tectonic diagram of study area. Lithology
and faults data are from https://​geocl​oud.​cgs.​gov.​cn/, and the resolution is 1:500000. F1. Zhongdian-Xiangcheng Fault. F2. Xisashi Fault. F3.
Lide-Dewu Fault. F4. Shade Fault. F5. Hehaizi Fault. F6. Sanyanlong Fault F7. Mengzi Fault. F8. Chitu Fault. F9. Boke Fault. F10. Qiasi Fault. F11.
Ranglang Fault. F12. Guaishaoti Fault. F13. Lagengwa Fault. F14. Yangta Fault. F15. Zhangke Fault. F16. Jinpingshan Fault. F17. Longpan Fault. Note:the swath topography profile see Fig. 3(1)

Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary ScienceFig. 1 (See legend on previous page.)(2024) 11:31

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Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

Page 6 of 33

Table 1 Informations of main streams in each sub-catchment
Stream noFig. 2 Elevation reclassification and basic landform types of SRC.
Elevation reclassification of SRC and name of these tributaries. Note:
all tributaries’ names and informations see Table 1

where hmean indicates the value of the average elevation ina region, hmin indicates the minimum elevation, and hmax
indicates the maximum elevation.
3.2 Asymmetry factor (AF)Asymmetry factor (AF) is used to evaluate the degreeof tectonic inclination in a certain basin. The AF index
value could characterize the degree of tectonic tilt of abasin. The value of |AF-50| is generally defined to quantitatively reveal the tectonic activity in a catchment. In

NameStream length Catchment(km)
area(km2)

1

Riyong26.24

133.22

2

Balongqu

18.48

415.793

Niqingqu

88.05

1309.78

4

Banghe39.57

406.22

5

Nadingchuogou

18.49

53.01

6

Hecuogou

12.24

30.84

7

Zajiaogou

40.00

260.57

8

Zeyong21.58

116.32

9

Reying

10.72

21.43

10

Nayingyongbao

15.10

46.75

11

Darongqu

12.79

33.92

12

Zhangjianyong

17.10

44.84

13

Gonggongyong

16.43

120.9414

Gonggenggou

20.37

75.63

15

Morong

9.40

39.72

16

Cuohong

8.19

21.10

17

Zengdonggou

9.77

64.40

18

Xironghe18.04

173.5019

Lanyaohe

41.04

580.6120

Dasigonggou

14.98

57.89

21

Zirong

14.90

40.40

22

Chituhe98.91

1789.48266.2723

Watuogou

26.26

24

Gedehen

12.80

46.76

25

Baishuihe

22.16

276.2626

Siwenggou

12.21

47.06

27

Luoduogou

14.91

80.46

28

Wolonggou

12.89

61.56

29

Yanmushudu

12.87

42.99

30

Luodouhe

11.00

46.18

31

Qunyinggou

22.29

143.6332

Lapaigong

33.22

305.4333

Rangjiegong

19.12

86.01

34

Shawabugou

13.38

67.62

35

Quanmaguaigou

20.58

146.05

36

Xiaqiaohe

10.22

36.49

37

Chongtianhe

126.142977.56
1186.45

38

Niruhe78.67

39

Duocaihe

11.39

45.89

40

Yijigou

24.41

173.2441

Saduogou

11.80

53.24

other words, the greater the absolute value, the greater
the degree of tectonic tilt in a basin, and the greater the
inclination of a basin trunk toward the left or right bank.
Generally speaking, when AF < 7, the tectonic inclination
is low; when 7 ≤ AF < 15, the tectonic inclination is moderate; when AF ≥ 15, the tectonic inclination is large, andYao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

Page 7 of 33

a basin is strongly affected by tectonic activity (Hare andGardner 1985; Pérez-Peña et al. 2010). And the calculation formula is:

AF =

Ar
× 100
At

(2)

where Ar indicates the area on the right side of a certain watershed flowing along the main stream and At isthe total area (Hare and Gardner 1985; Cox 1994).
3.3 Basin Shape Ratio (BS)Basin shape ratio (BS) is used to quantitatively evaluate
the shape of a watershed. The BS index represents thedevelopment shape of a basin. The larger the BS value,
the narrower basin shape. The smaller the BS value, thewider the basin shape. When BS ≥ 3, the basin shapeis very narrow, and the intensity of tectonic activity isextremely strong, additionally, the surface uplift is in theinitial stage. When 2 ≤ BS < 3, the basin shape is in thetransition stage from narrow to broad, and the tectonic
activity is relatively strong. When BS < 2, the basin shape
gradually becomes wider, and it is in the stage of geomorphic evolution dominated by external force erosion, andthe tectonic activity is relatively weak (Bull and Mcfadden 1977) the calculation formula is:

BS =

Bl
Bw

(3)

where Bl indicates the maximum length of the watershed,
Bw indicates the maximum width of the watershed.
3.4 Valley floor width–valley height ratio (VF)The VF value can reflect the shape of the valley. If theVF value is large, the valley shape is U-shaped. If theVF value is small, the valley shape is wide V-shaped
or deep V-shaped. The VF value can generally indicate the intensity of tectonic activity. The deep canyon (VF<0.50) shows that the tectonic uplift is intense
and the erosion basis is decreased and the stream erosion direction is mainly down-cutting. The river valley becomes wider and the stream erosion direction
is mainly lateral and the tectonic activity is moderate

when 0.50 ≤ VF < 1.00. When VF>1.00, the river valley is U-shaped or wide U-shaped, the stream gradually stopped cutting down and laterally eroded to bothsides, which is a stage of weak tectonic activity (Bulland Mcfadden 1977). The formula is:

VF =

2Vfw
(ELd − Esc) + (Erd − Esc)(4)

where Vfw is the width of the valley floor, Esc is theheight of the valley floor, Eld is the elevation value of theleft shoulder of the valley, and Erd is the elevation valueof the right shoulder of the valley (facing downstream).
3.5 Normalized channel steepness index (­ ksn)

Under natural conditions, the relationship between theslope of the stream channel (S) and the drainage area(A) follows a power-law function (Flint 1974; Sklar et al.
1998; Snyder et al. 2000), namely:

S = ks · A−θ

(5)where ks is the steepness index of the stream, indicating the degree of steepness of the stream channel; θRepresents the concavity coefficient of a river channel,
reflecting the degree of concavity of the stream channel(Whipple 2004). In a steady state, using the hydraulicerosion model of bedrock rivers (Whipple and Tucker.
1999):

E = KAm S n(6)

The power-law function relationship can be obtained:

Se = (U /K )1/n A−m/n(7)

In Eqs. (6) and (7), E is the erosion rate of the river, Se is
the slope of the stream in equilibrium state, U is the rateof rock uplift, K is the dimensional erosion coefficient,and K value mainly reflects the effects of climate, lithology, structure and other factors (Whipple and Tucker
1999; Snyder et al. 2000). m and n are constants. Comparing Eqs. (5) and (7), when the river is in equilibrium
state, there are:(See figure on next page.)
Fig. 3 The swath topography profile in the SRC. We try to select a range that spans as many stratigraphic units as possible to create swath
topography profile. We have created three swath topography profile (A–A’, B–B’, and C–C’) spanning upstream, midstream, and downstream,
displaying the maximum, minimum, and average elevation values of the swath coverage area, enabling the most intuitive observation and analysisof the terrain. The blue arrow refers to the stream, corresponding to its number. The red arrow indicates a fault. The green straight line represents
the boundary of stratigraphic lithology. Note: T: Triassic limestone; E: Paleogene conglomerate; P: Permian limestone; H: clastic rocks with carbonate
rocks in the Xiajiang Formation of the Cambrian-Ordovician; D: Devonian schist and marble; TH: Triassic granite; NHZ: moraine conglomerates
and volcanic clastic rocks of Nanhua-Sinian Mulipingwumuzuo Formation; Q: Quaternary sediment; SRM: main stream of Shuiluo River; JSR: Jinshan
River; SM: Snow mountainYao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary ScienceFig. 3 (See legend on previous page.)(2024) 11:31

Page 8 of 33

Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science

ks = (U /K )1/n

(2024) 11:31

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(8)

and:

θ = m/n(9)

Due to the varying basin sizes of streams, in order tocompare streams with different basin sizes, a reference
depression value can be taken, i.e the θref=0.45 is used
to calculate the standardized steepness coefficient of
streams (Wobus et al. 2006):

S = ksn · A−θ ref(10)

In Eq. (10), the longitudinal profile of a stream inequilibrium presents a smooth concave state, and thedegree of steepness of its longitudinal profile is represented by the normalized channel steepness index (ksn).
The logarithmic relationship between the stream slope
and the catchment area is a straight line, and its intercept (a parameter representing the overall slope of thestream) can be used to reflect the tectonic-climate interaction (Howard and Kerby 1983; Howard et al. 1994).
In an instantaneous state, the stream longitudinal profile is generally divided into sections of different steepness by a knickpoint, which is the turning point at which
the river section is divided into different slopes on thestream longitudinal profile (Kirby and Whipple. 2012).
The steepness of a stream longitudinal profile can reflectrich information on tectonic. After site investigation,
the study area developed bedrock channels or bedrock
alluvial mixed channels, which met the ksn extraction
requirements.
3.6 Index of relative active tectonics (RIAT)The RIAT is obtained by calculating the geomorphic parameters value of each sub-catchment. Then
we divided the RIAT following the classification ofabove six parameters of each sub-catchment (Table 2)(Alipoor et al. 2011; Hare and Gardner 1985; Bull andMcfadden 1977). Grade 1 (1.0 ≤ RIAT< 1.5) represents
that tectonic activity is very strong; grade 2 (1.5 ≤ RIAT
< 2.0) represents that tectonic activity is strong; grade
3 (2.0 ≤ RIAT< 2.5)represents that tectonic activity ismoderate; grade 4 (RIAT ≥ 2.5) represents that tectonic
activity is weak (Hamdouni et al. 2008). The classification of various geomorphic parameters and the divisionof RIAT can see table 2, which also lists the reference
and basis for division (Table 2). RIAT is calculated asfollows:
RIAT = HIgrade + AFgrade + BSgrade + VFgrade + ksngrade /5(11)

4 Results
4.1 
HI and HI curve

The spatial distribution of HI index in SRC shows thatthe range of HI values in this basin is 0.41–0.71, and thespatial range varies greatly. For comparison, the HI values of SRC are divided into three grades. The first levelis 0.61 ≤ HI ≤ 0.71; the second level is 0.51 ≤ HI ≤ 0.60;
the third level is 0.41 ≤ HI ≤ 0.50. The spatial distribution map shows that the first level is mainly in the midstream and downstream in the SRC, and north bank of
the upstream. The second level occupies a large area of
midstream and downstream. The third level is only distributed in a few sub-catchments on the south bank of
the upstream of Shuiluo River’s mainstream (Fig. 4a).
We used the CaIHypso (Pérez-Peña et al. 2010) to
obtain the HI curve of each sub-catchment in the SRC.
The results show that most of the curves are convex or
S-shaped, and only the HI curves of sub-catchments 1
and 4 are concave (Fig. 4b). These two subcatcahments
are also the regions with the lowest HI values in the
SRC (No. 1 is 0.41; No. 4 is 0.45). The HI value of SRC
is generally high and the average value is 0.59, and mostsub-catchments landforms reach. This indicates that
the SRC tectonically activity is generally strong.
4.2 
AF and tectonic tilt direction

The spatial distribution of AF values in each sub-catchment of SRC shows that the spatial variation range of
AF value is 1.21–30.09. According to the inclination
classification method constructed by AF index, we
divided the AF value of SRC into 3 grades. The first
grade is 15.00 ≤ AF < 30.09; the second grade is 7.00 <AF < 15.00; the third grade is 1.21 ≤ AF ≤ 7.00. Amongthem, the first level is mainly in SRC’s midstream anddownstream, with a large area; the level 2 is mainly
distributed in the upper reaches, while it in the middle and lower is scattered; the level 3 is mainly locatedin the intersection of the midstream and downstreamof the studied basin, and the distribution area is verysmall. The degree of tectonic tilt in the upstream of the
SRC varies irregularly (Fig. 5a). The sub-catchments inthe midstream and downstream generally incline fromsouth to north (most of the sub-catchments in the westbank tilt to the left bank, and the east bank mainly tilt
to the right bank) (Fig. 5b). The squeezing effect of the
Tibetan Plateau’s uplift results in the overall tilt uplift ofits periphery from east to west or from south to north,which is consistent with the tectonic uplift of the SRC.
4.3 BS

The BS value of the SRC varies from 0.25 to 2.99. The
sub-catchments with BS values ranging from 0.25 to 1.00
are mainly distributed on the left bank of the upstream,

Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

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Table 2 Classification method of tectonic activity grade of various geomorphic parametres
Grade 1

Grade 2

Grade 3

Grade 4

References

HIHI ≥ 0.50

0.40 ≤ HI < 0.50

HI < 0.40–

Alipoor et al. (2011)

AF│AF-50│ ≥ 15

7 ≤ │AF-50│ < 15

│AF-50│ < 7–

Pérez-Peña et al. (2010)

BSBS ≥ 32 ≤ BS < 3

BS < 2–

Bull et al. (1977)

VF

VF < 0.50

0.5 ≤ VF < 1

VF ≥ 1–

Hamdouni et al. (2008)ksn

296.78 ≤ ­ksn ≤ 504.86

156.76 ≤ ­ksn ≤ 296.77

54.64 ≤ ­ksn ≤ 156.75–

Xu et al. (2016)

RIAT

1 ≤ RIAT < 1.5

1.5 ≤ RIAT < 2

2 ≤ RIAT < 2.5

2.5 ≤ RIAT

Hamdouni et al. (2008)

the left bank of the midstream and the right bank of
the downstream (No. 38 sub-catchment), the basin area
accounts for only 21.00 % of the total area; the sub-catchments with BS values ranging from 1.01 to 1.99 are distributed in most areas of the SRC, accounting for 57.98 %;the sub-catchments with BS values ranging from 2.00 to
2.99 are less distributed, mainly located in the intersection of the upper and middle reaches, and in the downstream of the study area, the basin area only accounts for20.58 % (Fig. 6)
4.4 VF

In a catchment, as the main stream represents the erosion basis of the region relative to its tributaries, the mainstream is the region that is most sensitive to the responseof tectonic and climate processes in the catchment(Chang et al. 2015; Fan et al. 2018). The evolution of valleys is also the region with the most significant feedback
on regional tectonic deformation and uplift in fluvial geomorphology. Therefore, based on the above theory, we
calculated the VF index of 41 sub-catchments in SRC. We
calculated the VF values of the mainstream and tributaries of Shuiluo River at a sampling interval of 6km, andobtained the VF average values for each sub-catchment.
The results show that the river valleys with VF >1.00 are
mainly in the north of the studied basin; deep V-shaped
canyons with VF < 0.50 and VF < 0.10 are mainly scattered among middle and south of SRC. The average values of VF index of the sub-catchments in SRC also showthat the low VF values are scattered among midstream
and downstream of the SRC (Fig. 7).
4.5 ksn and stream profile

The stream power incision model shows that the stream
longitudinal profile of the bedrock channel in the active
tectonic zone is mostly in an disequilibrium state. And
the stream profile in an unbalanced state usually has
upper convex reaches (knickpoint). Knickpoint divides
the longitudinal profile of the stream into sections withdifferent steep indices (ksn). The larger the ksn value, thesteeper the stream longitudinal profile develop, whichusually indicate the tectonic or climate change along thestream longitudinal profile. This method of judging thesteepness of the stream longitudinal section to reveal thetectonic informations contained in the active zone has
been widely used in the field of tectonic geomorphology.
According to the methods provided by previous work, weused GIS system and MATLAB script program to extract
data like drainage basin and elevation from DEM, and we
set 250m as the smoothing window to smooth the channel and took 12.2m as the elevation interval and set thereference concavity (θRef) as 0.45 according to Eq. (10).
Finally, we extracted the longitudinal profile, log SA andksn of the mainstream and 41 tributaries of the SRC, anddetermined the location of the knickpoints based on thelongitudinal profile of the stream (Whipple and Tucker
1999; Snyder et al. 2000; Kirby et al. 2003). At the sametime, we calculated the ksn average values of 41 subcatchments of SRC. The results of ksn index are divided
into 3 grades according to the natural split point discontinuity method (the first level is 296.78–504.86; the second
level is 156.76–296.77; the third level is 54.64–156.75)(Fig. 8a, b). The results show that most of the streams in
the SRC are in transient state, and they developed multiple knickpoints. The high ksn values are mainly scattered among the lower sections of the midstream, andin downstream of the SRC. The low values are mainly inthe upper sections of midstream and in upstream of SRC(Fig. 8a), such as No. 1–19 streams. More knickpoints aredeveloped in the midstream and downstream (such as
Nos. 22–37) than in the upstream, which indicates thatthe longitudinal profile of the stream in the midstream
and downstream of the SRC is steeper (Fig. 9).
Since the χ value can be used to determine the stability of catchment watershed (Whipple 2004), we extractedthe χ value of SRC and its surrounding streams. The
results showed that there was a significant difference inthe χ value between the left watershed boundary of SRC
and the midstream of Jinsha River, indicating a migration
toward SRC. However, there was no significant differencein the χ value of the stream source between the first level
sub-catchments within SRC watershed. And there is no
significant difference in χ values compared to other external watersheds, such as the Litang River on the right side

Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

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Fig. 4 a The distribution map of HI values in SRC, b HI curve diagram. Note that in the horizontal axis of the curve, "a" represents the area
above a certain contour line in the watershed. "A" represents the area of the entire watershed; on vertical axis "h" is the height difference
between a certain contour line and the lowest point of the watershed, and "H" is the height difference between the highest point and the lowest
point of the entire watershedof SRC. Therefore, the χ value of SRC is not affected byinter catchment erosion and migration, and the watershed is relatively stable. In addition, we also extracted the
local ksn values of all streams within and around the SRC
watershed. Note that the extracted stream ksn values here
are not only the ksn values of the trunk channels of the

primary tributaries of each catchment, but also the local
ksn values of all streams. This is to more intuitively display
the spatial differences in ksn values of the SRC catchment
and its surrounding streams. The results show that the ksn
values in the midstream and downstream of the watershed are generally higher, while those in the upstream areYao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

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Fig. 5 a The distribution of │AF-50│ index values in SRC, b tectonic tilt direction

smaller. This is consistent with the extracted ksn values of
the trunk channels of the 41 sub-catchments in the SRC.
All phenomena indicate that the ksn values in the middle
and downstream of the SRC are high while those in the
upstream are low, and the watershed between the subcatchments within the SRC is relatively stable(Fig. 10a, b).
4.6 RIAT

Based on the results of the geomorphic parameters we
extracted, we calculated the RIAT of each sub-catchment in the SRC according to the classification methodof tectonic activity levels of each geomorphic parameter(Tables 2, 3), and divided different tectonic activity levels (Fig. 11) with different colors in the GIS system. Our
results show that there are very few sub-catchments withthe first level (1.00–1.49), only No. 27 (Luoduogou) andNo.32 (Lapaigong) sub-catchments in the midstream
exist in the first level. The level 2 (1.50–1.99) are distributed in the center and south of the SRC. The level 3(2.00–2.49) are mainly scattered among the lower sections of the upstream in Shuiluo River, and the distribution area is very small. The level 4 (2.50–2.83) is in thenorthwest of the SRC. Therefore, the SRC’s intensity of
tectonic activity is characterized by low in the north andhigh in the central and south generally.

5 Field geological work
We conducted necessary field work to verify the consistency between the extraction results of fluvial geomorphic
parameters and the field geology and geomorphology. We
found many extremely wide valleys in upstream of SRC,
which are distributed on the plateau surface upstream of

Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

Page 13 of 33

In addition, we conducted cross domain investigations
on the upstream, midstream, and downstream areas of
SRC and found that the upstream streams are generally wide and gentle, flowing on the flat plateau surface(Fig. 12m–n). In the midstream and downstream of SRC,
extremely steep stream channels are generally developed, and there are many knickpoints. These channels
are developed on the extremely steep and steep topography in the midstream and downstream of SRC. We havefound these commonly developed steep fluvial sections(Fig. 12o–u) on some large tributaries such as Chituhe,
Lanyaohe, and Chongtianhe in the midstream and downstream of SRC. The extremely significant topographic
differences in the up, mid, and downstream of SRC are
products of differential tectonic activities, which may becontrolled by differential uplift on the southeastern edgeof the Tibetan Plateau. This differential uplift may create
spectacular landscape of low undulating plateau surfaces
and high undulating mountain gorges on the southeastern edge. Our field investigation results are consistent
with the geomorphic parameters and the index of relative
tectonic activity of the division, indicating that our DEM
based geomorphic research on SRC region is reliable.

6 Discussion
6.1 Factors affecting the geomorphological evolutionof Shuiluo River Catchment

The evolution of geomorphology is restricted by internal and external forces such as climate, lithology, glaciation and tectonic (Cyr et al. 2014). The lithology andtectonic of SRC are complex and are affected by glaciation in some areas (Roughly located within the range of
100.25°E–100.50°E, 28.35°N–28.40°N). These glacier ismodern glaciers, mainly developed since the Quaternary
period. Therefore, for the interior of the catchment, theimpact of glaciers on the overall geomorphic evolution of
the study area can be ignored. In terms of climate, SRC
belongs to the temperate plateau climate zone, but thesouth is wholly in the subtropical monsoon climate, so
there are certain differences in climate. Therefore, climate
is also an important factor that cannot be ignored whenanalyzing the geomorphic evolution of the SRC.
Fig. 6 The distribution of BS index values of SRC

SRC. Their common characteristics are widely developed
wide valleys and low undulating topography (Fig. 12a–d).
On the contrary, extremely deep canyons have developedin the midstrea, and downstream, distributed on highly
undulating topography (Fig. 12e–j). In addition, we haveobserved landslides and fault (Fig. 12k, l) in some areas ofthe midstream and downstream.

6.1.1 Climate (precipitation) and glaciation

In the process of stream erosion, precipitation plays avital role. The greater the precipitation, the stronger the
stream erosion capacity, the shorter the time for the landform evolution to the middle and old age stage. Whenthe precipitation is small, the external erosion becomes
weak, the geomorphic evolution is still in the early stage(Snyder et al. 2000). We collected the average precipitation (mm/a) of the SRC in the past 30 years from 1991
to 2020 (https://​psl.​noaa.​gov/​data/​gridd​ed/​data.​UDel_​Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

Page 14 of 33

Fig. 7 a The spatial distribution map of VF values in SRC, b average VF values of 41 sub-catchments in the study area

AirT_​Precip.​html). We superimposed this data throughthe GIS system and re-classified it to obtain the annual
average precipitation distribution map of the SRC(Figs. 13, 14). Figure 13 shows that the precipitation
range of the SRC is 630.1-814.6 mm/a, and the precipitation is generally high in the south and low in the north.
The rainfall in the southeast, south and central parts is
relatively large, while the rainfall in the north and northwest is relatively small. This is inconsistent with the spatial distribution characteristics of various geomorphic
parameter values and the level of activity tectonic in SRC.
In addition, the correlation coefficients between various
geomorphic parameters and rainfall are relatively small(R2<0.6) (Fig. 14). Therefore, precipitation is not the main
factor affecting the landform index of SRC.
There is a difference in erosion efficiency between glacier erosion and stream hydraulic erosion. In the area

affected by glaciers, the valley is generally U-shaped.
Especially for the stream power incision model, due
to the difference in erosion efficiency, the boundary
between glacier erosion and stream erosion usually forms
a knickpoint, which is an important basis for exploring
the causes of stream knickpoints in glacier distribution
areas (Chen et al. 2018). We collected the glacier data
(http://​www.​ncdc.​ac.​cn/​portal/) and used it to study the
relationship between the geomorphic evolution and glacial processes of SRC. The spatial distribution of glaciersin the SRC indicates that large-scale glaciers are concentrated in the Minya Konka in Kangding, and Litang in
Ganzi Prefecture. Inside the SRC, it is mainly located in
the middle of the basin, near the Daocheng Yading Scenic
Spot (Fig. 13). The distribution of glaciers in study area
is less, which only influences local areas. For the wholebasin, glaciers are not the main influencing factors ofYao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

Page 15 of 33

Fig. 8 a Spatial distribution of ksn values and knickpoints in SRC, b spatial distribution of ksn average values in 41 sub-catchments of SRC.
Ms.knickpoints represent knickpoints developed on the main stream. Ts. knickpoints represent knickpoints developed on tributaries

geomorphic evolution. In addition, the catchment area
has a certain impact on geomorphic parameters. However, we found that the linear fitting of the sub-catchment
area and geomorphic parameters of SRC showed poor fit(R2 <0.1). Therefore, the impact of basin area on the values of geomorphic parameters is also limited (Fig. 15)
6.1.2 Lithology

The impact of lithology on geomorphic evolution ismainly reflected in its erosion resistance. The stronger
the erosion resistance, the higher the grade of the geomorphic index. The weaker the erosion resistance, theolder the landform development, and the lower thecorresponding level of landform index. In theory, hardrocks are more resistant to erosion and weathering,
while soft rocks are more susceptible to weathering(Bahrami et al. 2015). We divide the bedrock of Shuiluo River Catchment into hard rock, relatively hardrock, relatively soft rock, soft rock and extremely softrock according to the soft and hard degree of the rockfollowing to “Geological engineering handbook.” Igneous rocks and granites are hard rocks; sandstone, limestone, biological limestone, dolomite and marble are
relatively hard rocks; moderately weathered metasandstone, slightly weathered slate, phyllite and pyroclasticrock are relatively soft rock; slightly weathered shale,argillaceous sandstone and mudstone are soft rocks;
semi-consolidated glutenite, conglomerate and Quaternary deposits are extremely soft rock. Based on theabove theory, we classified rocks of various lithology,
and used different colors in GIS to represent the spatial
distribution of bedrock hardness and softness (Fig. 16).

Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

Page 16 of 33

Fig. 9 Stream longitudinal profile and area-slope logarithmic diagram (log SA) of some stream sections of SRC. No. 1–19 are the stream longitudinal
profile and log SA of the tributaries in the upstream and upper of the midstream. It is obvious that the stream longitudinal profile in this area
is relatively not steep and the ksn index values are low, and the number of developed knickpoints are small. No. 22–37 are the river longitudinal
profile and log SA of the tributaries in the midstream and downstream. The stream longitudinal profile in this area is steep and the ksn values are
high, and the number of developed knickpoints is also large

The result shows that there are mainly relatively hardrock and relatively soft rock in most areas of the SRC.
The relatively soft rock is mainly in the west and centerof SRC and the relatively hard rock is mainly distributedin the center and south. In addition, hard rock is mainly
distributed in the north of the basin and the left bank of
the upstream of mainstream. The soft rock and extreme
soft rock are only distributed in the north and central
part of the basin, and the distribution area is small. The
geomorphic index of study area shows that the levelof geomorphic parameters in the northern part of thebasin is generally lower, and the level of geomorphic
parameters in the midstream and lower downstream ishigher (Figs. 16, 17), which is inconsistent with the spatial distribution of bedrock erosion resistance. Therefore, on the whole, the development and evolution of
the landform of the SRC has little relationship with thelithology of the bedrock.
However, since the VF and ksn values of SRC can better reflect the response of local area (stream reach) toYao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

Page 17 of 33

Fig. 10 The χ and ksn values of SRC and its surrounding streams. a χ values; b local ksn values

lithology, it is a question to further discuss whether thegeomorphic evolution is affected by the erosion resistance of bedrock in local area. Therefore, we will discussthese two index values separately. First of all, the gradesof VF and ksn average values in each sub-catchment of
SRC are obviously high in the middle and south andlow in the north (Figs. 7, 8). This is not consistent withthe spatial distribution of bedrock erosion resistance(Figs. 16, 17). Therefore, on the whole, The strength of
bedrock is not the main controlling factor influencing
the VF and ksn average values of the basin. Secondly,
we found that the local VF and ksn values are inconsistent with the spatial distribution of bedrock strength asa whole. For example, the ksn values of partial stream
segments (Nos. 3, 7 and 10 sub-catchments) transit
from hard rock to relatively hard rock, relatively softrock or extremely soft rock, the ksn values becomeslarger (Fig. 16a), this is contrary to the theory that thestronger the rock strength, the higher the ksn values(Cyr et al. 2014). Although overall, rock strength is not
the main factor controlling the geomorphic parametersof the study area, we found that geomorphic evolution
processes related to changes in rock strength can still
be observed in some regions (or stream sections). For
example, some knickpoints develop at the boundary ofrock strength, but there are no large-scale knickpoints
that produce this phenomenon. So we will systematically point out the geomorphic parameter values related
to lithological changes. For the VF value, these measurement points in the river valley transition from softrock to hard rock, with the VF value decreasing and theriver valley narrowing from width, as follows: Nos. 2–3,
12–13; The measurement points for valleys that transition from hard rock to soft rock, where the VF valueHI values

0.41

0.54

0.62

0.45

0.48

0.65

0.64

0.58

0.68

0.63

0.68

0.50

0.50

0.60

0.58

0.51

0.51

0.57

0.60

0.67

0.64

0.51

0.62

0.71

0.51

0.61

0.67

0.70

0.54

0.62

0.67

0.61

0.60

0.56

Subcatchments’
codes

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

2

9.34

13.96

26.23

4.51

9.26

16.65

11.41

16.97

10.06

6.24

2.63

19.47

19.13

6.53

15.59

10.01

27.35

30.09

20.31

18.51

20.69

3.64

15.95

1.21

3.84

2.29

24.84

11.66

7.54

15.12

7.25

6.57

4.59

13.34

2

2

1

3

2

1

2

1

2

3

3

1

1

3

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

3

1

3

3

3

1

2

2

1

2

3

3

2

│AF-50│values │AF50│
grade

1.70

2.18

1.29

1.56

1.77

2.43

1.19

1.80

2.04

0.94

1.96

0.97

2.04

2.62

1.65

1.05

0.85

0.63

1.92

1.86

2.09

0.84

2.61

2.56

2.28

2.99

1.17

1.95

1.70

2.70

1.37

1.82

0.55

1.56

BS values

3

2

3

3

3

2

3

3

2

3

3

3

2

2

3

3

3

3

3

3

2

3

2

2

2

2

3

3

3

2

3

3

3

3

BS grade

0.42

0.52

0.1

0.77

0.12

0.36

0.46

0.18

0.16

0.25

0.18

0.4

0.83

0.2

0.18

0.38

0.47

0.2

0.33

0.2

0.31

0.78

0.4

1.52

1.23

5.77

1.22

7.18

0.48

39.69

4.32

2.13

7.03

2.38

VF values

1

2

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

3

3

3

3

3

1

3

3

3

3

3

VF grade

319.93340.66362.78504.86255.36367.19498.79327.39296.77292.74341.44228.12443.28227.55240.50145.32188.03192.03182.61181.83141.72

90.68

81.59

221.15156.75132.40176.9593.63

150.33

78.67

88.43

182.91150.5754.64

ksn values

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

2

1

2

1

2

2

3

2

2

2

2

3

3

3

2

3

3

2

3

3

3

3

2

3

3

ksn grade

1.80

1.60

1.40

2.00

1.80

1.40

1.60

1.40

1.60

2.20

1.80

1.60

1.60

1.80

1.60

2.00

1.80

1.80

1.80

1.80

1.60

2.60

1.80

2.20

2.40

2.40

2.20

2.40

2.00

2.40

2.80

2.40

2.80

2.80

RIAT values

2

2

1

3

2

1

2

1

2

3

2

2

2

2

2

3

2

2

2

2

2

4

2

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

4

3

4

4

RIAT grade(2024) 11:31

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

1

1

1

2

1

1

3

3

1

2

3

HI grade

Table 3 Fluvial geomorphic parameter values and their grades

Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science
Page 18 of 33

HI values

0.63

0.53

0.51

0.58

0.55

0.59

0.65

Subcatchments’
codes

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

Table 3 (continued)

1

2

2

2

2

2

1

HI grade

25.16

20.87

26.44

20.50

19.55

3.42

10.62

1

1

1

1

1

3

2

│AF-50│values │AF50│
grade

1.00

2.33

1.95

0.94

1.89

1.85

1.58

BS values

3

2

3

3

3

3

3

BS grade

0.37

0.83

0.61

0.55

0.17

0.18

0.14

VF values

1

2

2

2

1

1

1

VF grade

275.03279.38276.17249.42342.62308.56359.29ksn values

2

2

2

2

1

1

1

ksn grade

1.60

1.80

2.00

2.00

1.60

2.00

1.60

RIAT values

2

2

3

3

2

3

2

RIAT grade

Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31
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Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

Page 20 of 33(Figs. 18, 19, 20). Large number of faults developed invalleys below No. 24. Thus these valleys below are deep
V-type, and the VF values have not changed significantly.
Even on some lithological boundaries, the VF values arealways low (Figs. 18, 19, 20), which shows that only inthe upper part of the upstream and mainstream of SRC
and the local area of the midstream, the VF value isaffected by the rock strength. For the ksn values, the values are related to lithological changes in the midstreamof sub-catchments Nos. 22, 23, and 40, as well as the
upstream and downstream reaches of Nos. 31, 37 and
39 (Fig. 16). The spatial distribution of knickpoints has
a poor correspondence with the spatial distribution ofrock erosion resistance (there is no large area of knickpoints developed on the boundary of rock hardness andsoftness) (Fig. 16). Therefore, overall, the differences inrock strength only affect partial regions, and the geomorphic evolution of the study area is weakly correlatedwith lithology.
6.1.3 Tectonics

Fig. 11 The RIAT spatial distribution map of SRC. Note that the thickblack lines in the figure represent the boundary between upstream,
midstream, and downstream, that is, the boundary
between the north, middle, and south. NU: North (upstream); CM:
Center (midstream); SD: South (downstream)changes from low to high, and the river valley changes
from narrow to wide are Nos. 18–19. Nos. 5–11 flows
through soft Quaternary sediments, and the valley isgenerally wide, while Nos. 14–18 passes through hardrock covered areas, with low VF values and deep valleys

A series of NW-SE faults, such as Xisashi, Boke, Qiasi,
Langlang, Guaishaoti, Lagenwa, Yangta Fault, and aseries of NE-NW faults, such as Zhangke, ZhongdianXiangcheng Fault, have been developed in study area.
Mengzi Fault and Chitu Fault deflected from NW to NE
at the main stream of Shuiluo River. The distributionof these faults within the SRC mainly presents a spatial
distribution feature of dense in the central and southern regions and dispersed in the northern regions, andmost of these faults are thrust faults with generally strong
activity (Hao et al. 1990; Tang et al. 1993; Xu et al. 2016) .
Therefore, we speculate that this may be a significant factor in the difference in SRC activity between the central
southern region and the northern region (Figs. 21, 22). In
addition, a series of regional fault zones, such as Jinshajiang, Ganzi-Litang, Yulongxueshan and Lijiang, are also
developed around the SRC (Fig. 1b, c). The regional geological structure system is extremely complex. The differential activity of faults is possible and important factor
affecting the geomorphic evolution. The spatial distribution of active faults in SRC is highly consistent with thegeomorphic parameters. After excluding climate, glacier,and lithological factors, it can be estimated that fault
activity is the possible and main controlling factor affecting the geomorphic evolution of the study area. Although
we have confirmed above that the VF, and ksn values ofsome stream sections are related to lithological changes,
overall, tectonic activity is still considered the most significant factor affecting the geomorphic evolution of thestudy area. As for the influence of tectonic factors on ksn
value and knickpoint, the stream reaches on both sidesof the fault or across the fault usually form a knickpoint,Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

Page 21 of 33

Fig. 12 a wide valley developed on the left bank tributary of Niqinqu (No. 3 stream) in the north of SRC, b a wide valley at the source of Niqinquriver, c a low undulating terrain in the upstream of SRC, d a wide valley between Sangdui and Maiwa in the upstream of SRC, e a narrow valley
on the right bank tributary in the middle reaches of Chituhe (No. 22 stream), f a V-shaped valley in the middle reaches of Chituhe main stream,g a V-shaped valley downstream of Chituhe main stream, h–i some V-shaped valleys developed in the midstream of Chituhe main stream, ja V-shaped valley developed downstream of SRC’s main stream, k Landslides developed downstream of Chituhe, l a thrust fault developedin the middle of Chituhe, m gentle fluvial channels near Niqinqu at the northern end of SRC, n a gentle fluvial upstream of the main stream of n
SRC, o steep channels developed in the midstream of Chituhe, p–r steep fluvial sections near the right bank tributary of Chituhe, and developed
knickpoints, s–t steep fluvial sections developed upstream of Lanyaohe (No.19 stream), u a steep fluvial section developed on the tributary of u
Chongtianhe (No. 37 stream)

and the difference of ksn value in the stream reaches aboveand below the knickpoint will become more significant
accordingly. However, among the 41 streams in the study
area, many of the knickpoints developed on the streams
did not cross the fault zone. However, the erosion baselevel decrease and the sudden increase of rock mass
uplift rate caused by tectonic uplift will also produce
corresponding tectonic knickpoints, and such tectonic
knickpoints will move upstream with time (migratingknickpoint) (Cyr et al. 2010; Wang et al. 2020). Therefore,
we believe that even though there is no good corresponding relationship between the knickpoint and the fault, thetectonic activity is still the main factor for the generationand development of the river knickpoint in most rivers inthe study area after the exclusion of glacier, precipitation,
lithology and other factors. Weirs caused by landslides
and debris flows also produce convex split points on thefluvial longitudinal profile of rivers. After field observation of most rivers in the study area, we find that the
influence of weirs is extremely limited, and this factor canbe excluded.We collected the seismic activities of magnitude 2–5 in the study area from 2000 to 2022. The seismic
distribution map in the study area shows that earthquakes mainly occurred in the midstream and downstream of the basin, and in the upper reaches, only twoearthquakes of magnitude 2–3 occurred near Sangdui. In
contrast, earthquakes in the midstream and downstream
occurred more frequently and with larger magnitude(Fig. 22). This is consistent with the geomorphic parameter values and the spatial distribution of the tectonic
activity level we extracted. The spatial distribution of
The RIAT in the sub-catchment of SRC also shows thatthe downstream tectonic activity is stronger, which may
indicate that the fault activity developed in the downstream is stronger. The (U-Th)/He low-temperature thermochronology data of detrital apatite and zircon along
the periphery of the study area indicate that differential
tectonic uplift occurred in different parts of the SRC(Lai et al. 2007; Tian et al. 2014; Gourbet et al. 2019). In
particular, the thermal history of the Zhongdian Massif,

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Fig. 13 The spatial distribution of precipitation in SRC from 1991 to 2020 (https://​www.​esrl.​noaa.​gov/​psd/​data/), glacier data were obtained
from http://​www.​ncdc.​ac.​cn/​portal/. It can be clearly seen that the area of glaciers in the SRC is only in the center, near the Aden scenic area
in DaochengYao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

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Fig. 14 The correlation coefficient graph between rainfall and various geomorphic parameters (on the left side of the above figure);and distribution map of the rainfall and various geomorphic parameters (right)

which is located downstream, suggests that all samples
experienced rapid uplift during the Pliocene. The tectonic
uplift is mainly concentrated in two time periods, namely
5.2–10.2 Ma and 5.2 Ma. The impact of the tectonic uplift
process since 5.2 Ma has been significant. The influenceof 5.2 Ma is quite extensive. This confirms that since 5.2
Ma, the tectonic denudation rate of the Zhongdian block
had been rapid, reaching 213.3 m/Ma–226.7 m/Ma suggesting that the central and south part of the study area
as a whole may have experienced faster tectonic upliftthan the north since the Pliocene. In contrast to this is
the relatively earlier uplift and lower denudation rationin the north part of the study area (Zou et al. 2014). Thisis consistent with the fact that the southeastern marginof the Tibetan Plateau experienced little denudation during the Late Cretaceous to Early Miocene, resulting ina geomorphic surface with low elevation and low relief.
In downstream of SRC, near the Jinsha River valley, themotion field captured by Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) shows a higher movement rate (Wang andShen 2020), which may be related to the dextral strike slip
in the middle and lower sections of the Jinshajiang Fault.

Anyway, this seems to point to a conclusion that there
may be high tectonic activity intensity in the middle or
downstream of SRC (Fig. 22).
To sum up, geological structure (fault system) andtectonic uplift are the leading factors affecting thedevelopment and evolution of the geomorphology of
SRC. Affected by the tectonic system and differential
tectonic uplift, the tectonic activities in the upstream,and upper section of the midstream of the SRC are relatively weak. The tectonic activity in the lower sectionof the midstream, and the downstream are strong, andthe tectonic activity in the downstream is the strongest, which may be related to the differential activities ofthe faults in the two regions. In the upper section of the
upstream and upper part of the midstream, exist partial
stream sections the geomorphic evolution is affected by
the difference of rock erosion resistance. We extracted
the fluvial geomorphological indexes to quantify thelandform development and activity tectonic intensity of
SRC. The level of the geomorphic parameters and the
RIAT are relatively consistent with the regional seismic

Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

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Fig. 15 The linear relationship between the geomorphic parameter values of each sub-catchment of SRC and the catchment area

intensity, field geological survey, and low-temperaturethermochronology.

7 Conclusions
In this work, we used computer programs and data
models such as GIS, numerical analysis tool, and DEM
to extract various fluvial geomorphic parameters, andactively discussed the main controlling factors affecting
the geomorphic evolution of the study area combining
regional geological, glacier, precipitation and other data.
We also graded the results of these geomorphic parameters and combined them with the geochronological dataobtained from previous geochronological work in the
study area to discuss the intensity of active tectonic activity in the region. Some positive conclusions we obtained.
Precipitation and glacier factors have little impact
on the geomorphic evolution of the SRC, and somestream sections are controlled by lithology. However,geological tectonic activity and differential tectonic
uplift are still the most important factors controlling
the geomorphic evolution of the SRC. Because within
the SRC, the distribution of active faults is consistent
with the values of fluvial geomorphic parameters. Thatis, in areas with more active faults, the level of theseparameter values is higher, which correspondingly
shows stronger regional tectonic activity intensity.
Under the influence of differential tectonic uplift
movement, the intensity of activity tectonic in the area
is generally strong. The VF and HI indexes values in thecatchment are high level. The streams of SRC are generally incised powerfully, therefore the valleys are relatively deep. Most of the streams are in transient state
and the ksn values are large, and the stream longitudinal
profile is relatively steep, accompanied by the development of numerous knickpoints. From these parameter
results, it can know that lithology only affects local

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Fig. 16 The spatial distribution map of ksn and VF values and the distribution map of rock erosion resistance of SRC. Note: the black dashedrectangular boxes exist in (a), which represent a positive correlation between the ksn values of the river section and rock strength; b Overlay plotof VF value and rock strength

areas (or river sections). The intensity of activity tectonic in the midstream and downstream is strong, andthe level of geomorphic parameters values are relatively
high. The tectonic activity in the upstream is weak, andthe RIAT are also small. The result of values of parameters indicates that the intensity of tectonic activity inthe downstream is the greatest in the SRC. The resultsof geomorphic parameters extraction are also in good
agreement with the regional seismic intensity, fieldwork and low-temperature thermochronology indicating that it is reasonable to use the fluvial geomorphic
parameters to evaluate the crustal stability of theregion, and the method of geomorphic parameters canwell quantify the regional geomorphic evolution. OurYao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

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Fig. 17 The proportion of rock strength distribution area in each sub-catchments and the geomorphic parameters of each sub-catchment. Notethat the values of geomorphic parameters have been dimensionlessFig. 18 Statistical diagram of 47 river valleys on the main stream of SRC

research indicates that the differences in tectonic activity intensity reflected by the fluvial geomorphology of
SRC well respond to the differential uplift on the southeastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. However, our work

has only yielded a preliminary result. The interpretation of active faults, higher precision lithology data,and geochronology work are still insufficient, which
may require further exploration.

Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

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Fig. 19 The spatial distribution map of 47 river valleys in the main stream of SRC. The mountain shadow map of DEM is an enlarged figureof the local valley of DEM. The orange dots represent the calculated valleys

Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

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Fig. 20 The image of the valleys on the main stream of SRC from Google Earth Image. The valley shown in the figure are mainly the valleys
in the lower part of the upstream and the upper part of the midstream. It can be clearly seen from the figure that these valleys are narrowing.
The change from the 12th valley to the 13th valley are particularly significant; the valley in the middle and lower reaches can be clearly seenfrom the figure that are very narrow as a whole, basically deep V-shaped valleys, and the variation of VF value is not significant (Nos. 17–26). The
valleys 31, 32, 33, 44 and 45 located on the side of the downfall wall of the thrust fault are the deepest valleys in the whole main stream, and the VF
values are also very low

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Fig. 21 The relationship between each parameter value and the spatial distribution of faults. The red dashed line in the figure represents the fault
passing through the sub-catchments

Yao et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2024) 11:31

Page 30 of 33

Funding
This research was supported by the Guizhou Provincial Basic Research
Program (Natural Science) (No. Yiban 436 2024 Qiankehe Jichu-ZK) and theScientific Research Fund of Institute of Seismology and Institute of Crustal
Dynamics, China Earthquake Administration (Grant No.IS 2018126278).
Availability of data and materials
The NASA DEM data are from https://​www.​earth​data.​nasa.​gov/​esds/​
compe​titive-​progr​ams/​measu​res/​nasad​em; the range of our study area is
99°26′22.02"E–101°31′52.50"E, 27°13′9.95 "N ~ 30°44′2.58"N; the geological
data are from https://​geocl​oud.​cgs.​gov.​cn/, resolution is 1:500,000; the dataof precipitation are from https://​psl.​noaa.​gov/​data/​gridd​ed/​data.​UDel_​AirT_​
Precip.​html; time range of the data is from 1991 to 2020; the data of Glaciallakes in the Qinghai Tibet Plateau and adjacent areas 1:2 million (2008) wereobtained from http://​www.​ncdc.​ac.​cn/​portal/; and the earthquake data arefrom China Earthquake Networks Center (https://​news.​ceic.​ac.​cn/​index.​html).

Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate statement
The research was carried out in accordance with a named standard.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests. And we promise
to abide by the publication rules and agreements of the journal.
Received: 11 October 2023 Accepted: 3 June 2024

Fig. 22 The structural diagram and seismic distribution map of SRC
are from China Earthquake Networks Center (https://​news.​ceic.​ac.​cn/​
index.​html). Low-temperature thermochronology data are from: (1)Lai et al. (2007); (2) Tian et al. (2014); (3) Gourbet et al. (2019); (4) Zou
et al. (2014). The black arrow represents the motion field captured
by Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), which are from Wangand Shen (2019)

Acknowledgements
We sincerely thank the editor and two anonymous reviewers for their efforts inimproving the quality of our manuscript.
Author contributions
YW is responsible for drafting and writing manuscripts, as well as extracting
various data; LXX helped build the basic logical framework of our manuscript,
provided higher resolution geological data, drone photos in field work, andhe provided great assistance in revising our manuscript; LDN raised scientificissues and provided ideas, which played a role in supervising and reviewing
the structure and data authenticity of the manuscript; WP provided guidanceon some theoretical knowledge, such as the replacement of geomorphic
evolution cycles and the significance of detrital zircon dating work; at thesame time, we would like to thank all the authors for their assistance in field
geological work.

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