EPOKEXCHANGE PROGRAM OKAYAMAFEBRUARY  2018

IMAGES  MOLLY TAWNEYSTUDENT RESEARCH ESSAY COLLECTION

CONTENTS FROM THE COURSE COORDINATOR 

3FROM THE EDITOR 

4

STUDENT INTRODUCTIONS 

5

STUDENT RESEARCH ESSAYS 

7

Table Manners: Itadakimasu and Gochisosama

7

The Differences of Refusal Methods Between Japaneseand Foreign Language According to the Culture and Pragmatics Aspects

10

Tattoos in Japan: Taboo or Trend

13

Eyo: Hadaka Matsuri in Okayama

17

日本の伝統色 (Traditional Colors in Japan)

21

Paper Places: How Japanese Washi and the Art of Paper Folding haveshaped Modern Innovations

24

Influences of Western Fairy Tales in Ogawa Yoko’s “Otogibanashi No Wasuremono”

28

Picture Postcards and Woodblock Prints: Meiji Japan’s Propaganda Vehicles

32

PRESENTATION POSTER 

36

2

FROM THE COURSE COORDINATOR 

EPO K Research Project 2017-winter岡山大学 EPOK プログラムでは、EPOK 留学生は日本語科目、教養教育科目、専門科目を選択的に履修し、日本の文化や社会、グローバル社会におけるコミュニケーションを実践的に学びます。修了には日本研究の視野から、個々に取り組む
EPOK リサーチプロジェクトを行います。その研究テーマは、変遷する文化の様相、
言語や文学から読み解く社会的価値観、表象にみる歴史など、自由に広がっており、日本を学ぶという地域研究の学際的取組が垣間見えます。
2017 年度冬期に修了する EPOK 生８名が作成したリサーチペーパーをここにエッセイ集としてまとめました。願わくば、このエッセイ集が、皆の見出だした“日本”はもちろん、そこに至る過程を、懐かしく思い出す小さな窓の一つとなってほしいと思います。
In the 2017 winter semester, eight students complete the exchange program at Okayama
University with the EPOK Research Project as the final work. Throughout this EPOK
Research essay collection, the students share their individual research interests, analysis,
and findings; which they explored as their own research theme in learning about Japan.
The compilation of essays shows a variety of student interest in Japanese culture andsociety.
I hope the process of searching and finding their own theme of interest is acknowledged asa tangible, unique experience for each of the EPOK students with regards to learning about
a culture different to their own. May this collection of the essays be a token of their fresheyes and endeavors in Okayama, Japan.

2018 年 2 月
大林 純子
Obayashi Junko
EPOK advisor
Center for Global Partnerships and Education

Okayama University

3

FROM THE EDITOR 

Over the course of the semester, each student participating in the EPOK Research Projectcourse produced a thoughtful and insightful perspective into a variety of topics surrounding
Japanese culture. Through the exploration of themes such as art, history, and societal
expectations, each student offered a unique analysis of Japanese culture, and have cleverly
utilised this course as a driving force to deepen their understanding of Japan.
With each student taking an individual approach, this collection of essays exposes theparticular interests and passions of the students. From the city of Okayama to the entiretyof Japan, each researcher allows readers to understand a new perspective regarding thecharacteristics of Japanese culture.
Through the tenacity and commitment from the EPOK students, this booklet acts as acelebration of hard work and dedication. With the assistance of our teachers and advisors,
we were given the opportunity to delve further into our studies of Japan while
simultaneously challenging ourselves academically.
We, as the 2017 EPOK cohort, are immensely grateful for the opportunity to develop ourskills in research, expand our abilities to analyse, and strengthen our cross-culturalcommunication skills. We hope to apply the new knowledge we have discovered here in
Okayama to our studies within our home universities.

Eloise Leopold
FEBRUARY 2018

4

STUDENT INTRODUCTIONS 

M ARISOL PERALTA
マリソル・ペルタInternational Studies
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY EAST BAY, USA
Table Manners: Itadakimasu and Gochisousama

ZHANG XIN
チュウ・キン
Master’s Degree
NORTHEAST NORMAL UNIVERSITY, CHINA [東北師範大学]
The Differences of Refusal Methods Between Japanese and Foreign
Language

CHIARA LOCATELLI
キアラ・ロカテッリ
Languages, Economics and Institutions of Asia and North Africa
UNIVERSITÀ CA’ FOSCARI VENEZIA, ITALY
Tattoos in JapanORSO LA CHINI
オルソラ・キーニ
Language and Civilization of Asia and Mediterranean Africa
UNIVERSITÀ CA’ FOSCARI VENEZIA, ITALY
Eyo: Hadaka Matsuri in Okayama

5

PEI-YUN M ICHELE CHIU
邱 珮芸
Japanese Language
輔仁大学, TAIWAN
Traditional Colours in Japan

ELO ISE LEO PO LD
エロイーズ・レオポルド
Bachelor of Architectural Studies
THE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA, AUSTRALIA
Paper Places: How Japanese Washi and the Art of Paper Folding haveshaped Modern Innovations

ANNA LUSUARDI
アンヌ・ルサルディ
Language and Civilization of Asia and Mediterranean Africa
UNIVERSITÀ CA’ FOSCARI VENEZIA, ITALY
Influences of Western Fairy Tales in Ogawa Yoko’s “Otogibanashi No
Wasuremono”

KEN YOSHIDA
健 吉田
Bachelor of Arts Combined Honours in Political Science and History
CARLETON UNIVERSITY, CANADA
Picture Postcards and Woodblock Prints: Meiji Japan’s Propaganda
Vehicles6Table Manners: Itadakimasu and Gochisousama
M arisol Peralta マリソル・ペルタ
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY EAST BAY (USA)

Summary:This research project goes in the order of the phases I have gone through the four months of finding out what
itadakimasu and gochisousama is in Japan. I mention how in the year 2015 when I was first introduced to thewords but puzzled of what they really mean. I was lucky enough to have a little insight from Buddhist priest.
Then moving on to an interview with your average Japanese, about the meaning and origins of itadakimasu
and gochisousama. Moving on to Shinto and religion demographics of Japan. Itadakimasu and gochisousama
means to be thankful for the life that given, however cultural, tradition, and religion background of Shinto andBuddhism is discuss in order to better comprehend.
Introduction:
In fall of 2015, I took my first Japanese language course. When I was introduce to the word “Itadakimasu”
and “Gochisousama”, I was told it is part of Japanese culture to say before and after their meal. At the time I
was told it was to be thankful for the food. I was, “Oh, it must be part of their religion”. I got really close to
one of the Japanese exchange students and asked her what religion she is. She said she does not have areligion and the majority of Japan does not either. I was left with so much confusion. I assume Japan was
religious since there are so many shrines, temples, and most importantly, everyone in Japan says
“Itadakimasu” and “Gochisousama”.
My purpose for this research is: Why do Japanese say, “Itadakimasu” and “Gochisousama”? What is themeaning behind those words? What is the history? What are
the origins? For example, in the Americas and other westerncountries it is common to say “Bless you” after someone
sneezes. The history behind saying “Bless You” after sneezing
is because during the Black Plague when someone sneezes
they had a great chance of dying and that is why it was
important to say “Bless You” and still is. However, everyonesays it, even if the person is not necessarily religious or does
not believe in the religion, it has become a habit or use forgood manners. Though, my friend puzzle me that the majorityof Japan has no religion, it is the very first thing I needed tosearch and understand for “Itadakimasu” and “Gochisousama”.
Observations:Over the past months being here in Japan, I can confidently tell you that majority of Japanese do sayitadakimasu and more commonly gochisousamadeshita. Also, gochisousamadeshita is also a way of saying“The food was delicious. Thank you.” to the cook and also to people who invite you over at their homes or
special event.
Beginning the Search:
The first encounter of the search of itadakimasu and gochisousama was with a blogger. She or he claims thatorigins of itadakimasu comes from Jodo Shinshu Buddhism, I was immediately going to contact her/him since
I wanted to know where all of her/his sources come from. However I have encounter with one of my e-kaiwa
students, which turns out that her parents are Buddhist priest in Kobe. Since my Japanese skills are very
limited, I asked my student Michiru, if she could ask her parents if itadakimasu and gochisousama originatesfrom the Buddhist religion. Michiru, a long with her friend Hikari tried to explain to me with their bestEnglish they can. The answer Michiru parents were able to give me is that itadakimasu does not come from
Buddhism. Her parents said that they don't know enough where the origins come from, however they only
know that it comes from Japanese myth = Shinto, which has the idea that everything has life.
Interview:
I was lucky to have a host family who can communicate in English since we can have in depth conversation. I
asked my Okaasan and Otousan (My host mother, whose name is Tomomi Matsushita and host father whose7name is Kosei Matsushita.) is they knew what itadakimasu and gochisousama means? And where the origins
are from? I was in luck that they did. Firstly, Okaasan explained itadakimasu: “We Japanese respect thenature. Everything has their own life. Giving
thanks for the food giving it’s life. Also say
thank you to farmers and cooks for making thenice dish. Nature sacrifice it’s own life. Like
every grain of rice is god. In Christianity, god
creates everything. However in Shinto,
everything is life, everything is god. That is
why we have the word or expression =motainai. Which means waste of food,waste oflife, and waste of farmers hard work.”
Okaasan also said that gochisousama means
thank you for the food and dishes. Both
Otousan and Okaasan said about Shinto
religion. As of 2018 Shinto is 2,678 years old.
Also that Shinto is not a religion to Japanese.
Shinto is about morals, discipline, and a way of life. Interestly, they mention how the emperor is Japanese
history because his ancestors come from the Shinto gods. That is why emperor is important. If there is noemperor, there is no Japanese culture. Lastly, an astonish note my Okaasan left me on, “We don’t admire god,
we say thank you to god.” At some point during the interview, my Okaasan did mention that young people are
too busy and they forget to say Itadakimasu or they just don’t care no more.
Interaction with Young Japanese:
During the past months in school, whenever I could, I would ask young Japanese college students if theyknow what itadakimasu means and how they feel when they say it. The majority said it is to be thankful forthe food. Others said “I am going to start eating.”. As of the feeling of itadakimasu, all of them took a longtime to respond. The answer was usually “I don’t know.” One person said that it is a habit and not muchfeeling and thought goes into saying itadakimasu.
Religion Demographic in Japan:
After doing the interview with my host family and interaction with students, I needed to see the religion
demographics in Japan are. As of 2017, 79.2% are Shinto, 66.8% Buddhist, 1.5% Christian, and 7.1% other.
During New Years, it is a tradition for Japanese to go to shrines to pray, since I have spent my New Year's inJapan, I can guarantee you that this very much true since there are long lines to pray in the shrines. Also,
something to keep in mind, is that Japanese may claim to be Shinto (shrines)and Buddhist (temples) sinceshrines and temples are combined sometimes. In Japan,when someone dies, it is common to go to a Buddhist
temple.
Meaning Behind the Words:
In blog a website, it is claim from Japanese native speakermeans: “いただく (Itadaku) is a phrase that is very politewith the meaning “to take.” Traditionally itadakimasu isused when taking something from someone with higher
authority or position than oneself . Itadaku comes from oneof the three types of 敬 語 ( keigo , “polite language”).
Specifically, this is 謙譲語 ( kenjougo ), “the humble
form,” which is used to figuratively lower oneself.” I think
what lower oneself means to respect god. In the universe ofthis world, in all majority of religions, and in society, one
always lower themselves to the higher authority.
Research:
With new information that I was given, I needed to do research in order to see how different and similar it is
to my findings. In a few sites, they gave the basic information of when saying itadakimasu, both hands should
be clasp together and given a little bow. Something really interesting that I find in the sites in common is that
Buddhism has a lot do with the origins of itadakimasu. That everything that is living is to be respected andappreciated. To give thanks for sacrificing their lives. Sounds quite similar to Shinto. At this point, I am
8puzzle! We have to go back and think when my student from e-kaiwai mention how itadakimasu does notcome from Buddhist religion but from Shinto. In a temple website, it was mentioned: “Before eating at our
temple, we always say, “itadakimasu.” This isn’t necessarily a “Buddhist” practice but more a Japanesetradition.”. Japanese tradition, I believe, means, Shinto. At this point it is very controversial of where
itadakimasu and gochisousama originates.
Conclusion:
Throughout this research, whether “itadakimasu” and “gochisousama” originates from Buddhism or Shinto,
one thing is clear: Japanese people say those phrases because they are being thankful to the food. Not only
simply thanking the food itself but giving it thought of what the food has gone through. At some point
throughout the process, something had to died which is why my Okaasan said to be thankful to nature forsacrificing itself. Also, it is part of Japanese tradition since they are told to say those words from a young age.
It may sound bias but I think the phrases originated from Shinto since it is the original “religion” of Japan. As
far as I know, itadakimasu and gochisousama is only use in Japan. However, something to be aware is thatshrines and temples are sometimes combine; this may be why there are mix up views of where itadakimasu
and gochisousama comes from. Though religion takes a lot of effort and time to understand, the Japanese havemade it clear to be aware and thankful of what we are eating. Maybe that explains why Japan has safe goodindustry.

References:* All products require an annual contract. Prices do not include sales tax (New York residents only). “Japan - Religious
Affiliation 2017 | Statistic.” Statista , www.statista.com/statistics/237609/religions-in-japan/ . “Itadakimasu: Respect for Food inJapan.” Japan Talk , www.japan-talk.com/jt/new/itadakimasu .
“Japanese Table Manners: Itadakimasu! Gochisousama!” VOYAPON , 1 May 2017, voyapon.com/table-manenrs-itadakimasugochisousama/.
“Manitoba Buddhist Temple.” Itadakimasu | Manitoba Buddhist Temple Editor's Blog ,www.manitobabuddhistchurch.org/blog_files/941130f868c23356888db7b110d0655f-72.html .
Matsushita, Tomomi. Personal Interview. 24 Dec. 2017. Matsushita, Kosei. Personal Interview. 14 Jan. 2018. Arai, Michiru. PersonalInterview. 14 Dec. 2017. Suenaga, Hikari. Personal Interview. 14 Dec. 2017.

9

The Differences of Refusal Methods Between Japanese and Foreign
Language According to the Cultural and Pragmatics Aspects
Zhang Xin チュウ・キンNORTHEAST NORMAL UNIVERSITY (CHINA)

Summary:
言語はコミュニケーションを行い、感情を表現するための中心となる方法の一つです。その上で、拒否は私達の生活において、コミュニケーションの技術として大切です。私達は場合に応じて拒否する必要があるためです。全ての言語は独自の文化に定着しているので、言語は各国の文化を表し、文化によって違っています。日本人はマナーが良く、控えめな性格であることが有名です。日本
語と外国の言語に大きな違いが見られます。私達が知っている通り、日本語はほのめかしと遠回しの表現方法が有名です。留学生と会話する中で、私はたくさんの人々が日本人の言い回しを間違った理解をしていることに気が付きました。その結果、論文の主題は日本語と外国の言語において「拒否」の違いについてです。私は 10 人の日本人と 10 人の留学生（フランス、ドイツ、中国など）にインタビューを行い、拒否の表現を分類し、違いを見つけました。さらに、私は文化や語用論の側面の違いを分析し、異文化間のコミュニケーションでおける理解を援助しようと試みる。
Introduction:
A refusal is to respond negatively to an offer, request, invitation, etc. Saying "no" is difficult for nonnative
speakers. How one says "no" is more important in many societies than the answer itself. Therefore, sending
and receiving a message of "no" is a task that needs special skill. The interlocutor must know when to use theappropriate form and its function, the speech act and its social elements depending on each group and theircultural-linguistic values. Those skills are very important to have since the "inability to say 'no' clearly has led
many nonnative 'speakers to offend their interlocutors".(Saad Ali W. Al-Kahtani, 2005) So it is very importantfor nonnative speakers to understand the refusal in the language. It is not only a skill of communicating but
also an exploration of culture.
According to researches about the type of Japanese’s speech act and daily communication experience withJapanese , we find that Japanese tend to use more euphemistic way to express rejection. The pragmaticdevelopment for producing and understanding the target language speech appropriately in various situations isvery essential for language learners. Failure to do so may cause serious communication breakdown and alsolabel language users as insensitive and rude people (Allami & Naeimi, 2011). We should bear in mind thatwhile native speakers often ignore phonological, syntactic, and lexical errors, they are sensitive to pragmatic
errors (Hassani, Mardani, & Hossein, 2011). Why they would not refuse or show their dislike directly? Whatkind of method will Japanese use and what will they say when they want to show rejection to others? People
in different cultural background will have different way to express their own feelings. Since I have been Japanfor over 8 months, I find there are many differences between Japanese and foreign people when they want toreject other’s requirements, invitation or demands.
In these months, I have communicated with different Japanese people in various occasions. People here arevery friendly and happy to provide help and assistant. But I find that they are hardly to express their feelings
directly, especially the one about rejection. When they want to refuse or show dislike about something, they
won’t say no directly but to hesitate or use other euphemistic ways to express themselves. Nowadays, theglobalization is more and more important. We will have more chances to contact with people form othercountries. As a result, it is very important to learn their expression styles and cultural taboos when we want toestablish a long-term relationship with them. It is significant for us to understand the real meaning of theconversation in daily life. On the contrast, we will make serious mistakes which cause trouble. In conclusion,
this essay tends to do some research about the difference between Japanese refusal and foreign rejection styles
from cultural and pragmatical aspects.
Literature Review:
It is a noteworthy fact that pragmatics plays a very significant role in the production and perception of speech.
Crystal (1985) as cited in Allami & Naeimi (2011) defines pragmatics as ‘‘the study of language from thepoint of view of users, especially of the choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using language in10social interaction and the effects their use of language has on other participants in the act of communication’’(p. 240). One of the main factors in the process of communication is pragmatic competence. How
interlocutors produce and perceive speech in diverse situations is an important issue as creating inappropriate
utterances would cause misunderstanding and miscommunication (Sahragard & Javanmardi, 2011). Refusal ischaracterized as response to one of the other four speech acts, request, invitation, offer and suggestion, rather
than as an initiating act. It is a speech act by which a speaker denies to engage in an action proposed by theinterlocutor (Chen, Ye, & Zhang, 1995).
And Brown and Levinson (1987) classify variables to most speech act situations into Power (P), Distance (D)and Ranking of Imposition (R). This classification is based on social status of the hearer and speaker. Powerrefers that the speaker’s status is lower than the speaker, for example the hearer is the speaker’s teacher, bossor those who are in higher position. Distance refers to the familiarity between the two interlocutors.
Language and behavior would be different when the two speakers are very close or are strangers. Rank ing
of Imposition refers to the importance or degree of difficulty in the situation. For example, in request, if you
ask for a big favor, a large rank of imposition would occur; if a small request, a small rank. (Zhou, 2007).
Methodology And Research Results:
According to classification given by Brown and Levinson, the author raise four interview questions for both
Japanese students and foreign students. These questions include 1.what will you say when you want to rejectothers (invitation, demand, and requirement)?; 2. what are differences when you express rejection to those
who are higher than you (teacher, boss); in a far distance to you (strangers, classmates); or in a close distanceto you (family members, friends)? 3.what do you think when you directly refuse others or be refused by otherpeople? 4. have you ever come across any occasions related to misunderstanding of Japanese’s refusal way?
The purpose of this essay is to analyse the difference of Japanese refusal method and foreign rejection ways,
and help foreign students, especially who are new learners of Japanese, to understand Japanese expressing
ways and cultural differences better.
The author interviewed 10 Japanese students and 10 foreign students about the Japanese style of refusals.
According to the questions mentioned before, I collected answers from those students and made an analysesof those answers. As for the first two question, most of Japanese students’ refusals contains three parts: first,
confirming the invitation or requirement; then use a transitional word and give an appropriate reason; andfinally express the willingness of accepting the invitation next time. It is surely that the answer will change
according to the person who they are talking with. While we can see some similarity of their refusals.They are
hardly refuse those who are in higher position to them. If they have to refuse them, they will give a formal
reason and repeat their apologize. What is more, they may not give a reason when they want to refuse
strangers and sometimes make up a reason for their friends. In contrast, foreign students will say sorry first
and then some of them will give a reason. It is obvious that foreign students are direct than Japanese students.
They will not firstly confirm the person they are talking to, while say no or sorry directly. As for the third
question, I asked the feeling when they reject others directly or be refused by others directly. Foreign students,
especially those who are from America and European countries, feel it is normal to refuse directly and think it
is easy for communication. In the meantime, when they are refused directly they won’t have any sadness or
uncomfortable feelings. On the contrast, Japanese students will hardly refuse others, and they will feel sad if
they are refused directly. Moreover, Japanese will often ask the reason why the other person refuse them. The
last question is about the misunderstanding of Japanese style of refusal. Some foreign students feel confused
when they are refused by Japanese students, especially when they first came Japan and knew few Japanese.
Because they think Japanese students accept their requirement or invitation when they confirm them (the firststage of refusal), including me.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, Japanese are reluctant to expressing refusals directly. Compared to western culture, easternculture is more indirect and euphemism. As a result, Japanese would reject others indirectly for consideringothers feeling. We should respect other culture and try to understand more.

11References:
Allami, H., & Naeimi, A. (2011). A cross-linguistic study of refusals: An analysis of pragmatic competence development in Iranian
EFL learners. Journal of Pragmatics, 43(1), 385-406.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sahragard, R., & Javanmardi, F. (2011). English Speech Act Realization of “Refusals” among Iranian EFL Learners. Cross-Cultural
Communication, 7(2), 181-198.
Chen, X., Ye, L., & Zhang, Y. Y. (1995). Refusing in Chinese. In Gabriele Kasper (Ed.), Pragmatics of Chinese as Native and Target
Language (pp.119-163). Manoa, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
Zhou Geyang (2007), A Pilot Study on Refusal to Suggestions in English by Japanese and Chinese EFL Learners, Bull. Grad. School
Educ. Hiroshima Univ., PartⅡ, No. 56, 2007, 155－163
Saad Ali W. Al-Kahtani(2005), Refusals Realizations in Three Different Cultures: A Speech Act Theoretically -based Cross-cultural
study, J. King Saud Univ., Vol. ?, Lang. & Transl., pp. ?, Riyadh

12

Tattoos In Japan: Taboo Or Trend?
Chiara Locatelli キアラ・ロカテッリ
CA’ FOSCARI UNIVERSITY OF VENICE (ITALY)

Summary:
この小論文は、タトゥーの誕生と発展を述べて、今日の日本社会で入れ墨がどのようにタブーと考えられているかを理解することを目的としています。第 1 部では、縄文時代から明治時代にわたってのタトゥーの歴史を述べる。第 2 部では、歴史上の理由で今日の日本社会がタトゥーについて否定的な見方しているが、心を変えるだろうことを述べる。この小論文のために、岡山の温泉のスタ
ッフと刺青師が連絡された。
History:Japanese tattooing stands out in the world of tattooing as probably the first to use wide pictorial designs
covering large parts of the body. Tattoos in other parts of the world were quite simple, symbolic or pictorial
designs covering single parts of the bodies of sailors and soldiers and were very common in tribal cultures.
There is very little evidence of tattooing in Japan before the Edo period 江戸時代 (1603-1868). Jōmon era 縄
文時代 (10000-300 B.C.) has not left definitive support to the claim that tattoos were present at the time,
similarly to other cultures and civilizations of the time. The evidence that suggests the possibility of theexistence of tattooing before the year 300 B.C. is mostly archaeological, for example the production of clay
figurines called dogū with markings on the bodies and faces made by the hunter-gatherer tribes of Jōmon era.1

Figures 1 e 2: Dogū statues from Jōmon period.2
There is no guarantee however, that similar markings were carried out on real life human bodies.
The historical records of the Kojiki 古事記 (712 A.D.) and Nihon Shoki 日本書紀 (720 A.D.) both containevidence of the practise of tattooing on the Japanese islands during the preceding Kofun period 古墳時代
(250-538 A.D.). These early texts trace the history of Japan from the legendary times to the end of seventh
century. Nihon Shoki, however, is regarded as more realistic than Kojiki, as the latter puts more emphasis on
the myths and legends rather than on the historical facts. In both the books, tattooing is connected withcriminal activity. The use of tattooing is clearly punitive, marking criminals for their life for any kind of
violation such as treason, common crime or negligence.3 During the Edo period 江戸時代, tattooing as
punishment, along with amputation of noses and ears, occurred between the eras of Kanbun 寛文 (1661-1673)
and Tenna 天和 (1681-1684).
The Edo period is when Japanese traditional tattooing as we know it today really came into existence. The
earliest types of tattoos in this period are those used in punishment. However, by that time tattooing as anadornment was already well known. It is generally believed that, because of the punitive use of tattooing inorder to mark the criminals and make them recognizable and depriving them of their participation in social
life, there has been a resurgence in decorative tattooing, as criminals tried to cover their marks with something
more pleasing to the eye, while hiding their criminal past.4 In this way, besides common people, crime
syndicates also adopted tattooing as their custom. Japan’s criminal organization, the Yakuza, started the1

Gamborg D., (2012) Japanese Traditional Tattooin in Modern Japan, University of Oslo
Gamborg D., (2012) Japanese Traditional Tattooin in Modern Japan, University of Oslo3
Ankirsky A., (2014) Perception of Tattoos: Now and Then, University of Iceland
4
Ankirsky A., (2014) Perception of Tattoos: Now and Then, University of Iceland2

13practice during Japan’s feudal era. Many yakuza members who decided to devote their lives to theunderground society were tattooed as proof of their commitment, loyalty and faithfulness toward it, and it isbelieved that this custom is still used.
As this practice became more and more widespread, tattoos as punishment lost its initial purpose and fell into
disuse. Infact, it was abolished in 1870.5 At this time, tattooing became prominent among certain levels ofsociety, the sort of people that would frequent pleasure and entertainment districts known for giving a
powerful boost to the phenomenon of Ukiyo 浮世 (literally, “floating world”). It developed in Yoshiwara, thelicensed red-light district of Edo (modern Tokyo), which was the site of many brothels, chashitsu 茶 室 ,(literally "tea rooms"), and kabuki 歌舞伎(classical Japanese drama) theaters frequented by Japan's growing
middle class. Along with the development of the ukiyo-e picture, tattooing became widely popular. Kishobori,or a vow tattoo, was practiced among lovers, geishas and yujos (i.e., playgirls and prostitutes), to express apledge of their love by tattooing their lover’s (or client’s) name and the Japanese character for life on theinside of the arm. 6While, a old pattern of irebokuro 入れ黒子(literally “to insert a beauty spot”) consisted ofa mole-like tattoo on each hand of the two lovers holding their hands together where the tip of the thumbreached. Irebokuro was a reminder for lovers, and showed a vow of eternal love.
It has been suggested that the most important influence on the development of tattooing in Japan is closely
connected to a specific work of Chinese literature, the Shui-bu Chuan, or Suikoden 水滸伝 in Japanese,(called “the water margin”, “all men are brothers” and “outlaws of the marsh” in English translations). It is a
novel that deals with the activities of Sung Chiang and his rebel companions, 108 men total, during the years
1117-1121 at the chaotic end of the Northern Sung Dynasty. After having been branded as outlaws by corrupt
officials, this band was outside the confines of normal society as virtuous group, aiding the poor anddowntrodden against a corrupt government. The publication of the Japanese translation, immensely popular at
the time, with multicolored woodblock prints of the tattooed warriors with full-body tattoos is widely
acknowledged to have started the phenomenon of a full-body tattoo. 7
The Edo period can be called a “golden age” for Japanese tattoo. Even despite numerous prohibitions by the
military government, the industry, or rather the art form developed and blossomed. However, when bakufu 幕
府, military government led by the shōgun 将軍, saw their end in what is known as the Meiji Restoration(1866-1869), things drastically changed. The Meiji government thought that tattoos would be perceived by theWest as a barbaric custom that should be hidden from Western eyes. However, the Western perception did notconform to Japanese predictions and to some extent, at the highest levels, tattoos were seen as one of the most
attractive aspects of Japanese culture. Some of European blue-bloods got tattoos in Japan during the late 19th
century included those who played central roles in world history: Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, whose
assassination in 1914 sparked World War I, Nicholas II, Russia’s final czar, and the future King George V,
who received a blue-and-red dragon on his arm. To respond to their demands for getting a tattoo, the Meiji
government permitted Japanese tattooists to set up shops in the areas set aside for foreigners, such as
Yokohama, Kobe and Nagasaki. 8
Today’s Perception:
Nowadays, despite the popularity of Japanese art and imagery among tattoo artists and enthusiasts in theWest, tattooing has very negative connotations in Japan and the average Japanese citizen views them with agreat deal of skepticism, in particular the older generations. Many hot springs and public baths haveprohibitions against tattooing as do capsule hotels, ryokan (traditional Japanese inn) and many private sports
and health clubs.
Historically, nothing has damaged the irezumi reputation more than its association with the Yakuza, thetransnational organized crime syndicates, whose members have tattoos covering the all body.9 However, thisis not the only reason: although many modern Japanese people would not name Neo-Confucianism as theorigin of some of their negative thoughts about tattoos, some of its ideas are still clearly evident in Japan
today. One of the central themes of Neo-Confucianism thought is that your life and body are a gift from yourparents and heaven, and thus should be treated with respect and used to its full potential. According to this5

Ankirsky A., (2014) Perception of Tattoos: Now and Then, University of Iceland
Mieko Y., (2009) Westernization and Cultural Resistance of Tattooing Practices, Indiana University
7
Gamborg D., (2012) Japanese Traditional Tattooin in Modern Japan, University of Oslo
8
Mitchell J., Loved Abroad, Hated at Home in “Japan Daily Press”, 20149Fellman S., (1987) The Japanese Tattoo Book, New York, Abbeville6

14perspective, tattooing is considered a disrespectful violation.10 Nevertheless, it looks like something ischanging. The fascination with the West, especially US culture, has contributed to increasing the popularity of
tattoos.
Western style tattoos and tattoo shops began entering the scene in the 90’s and their number has increased
dramatically over the last 10 years. They have become part of fashion, subculture and youth culture, and they
are starting to enter the mainstream culture as they can frequently be seen on the streets in large cities andadorning the bodies of celebrities in magazines and on the screen. Japanese sports stars as well are now
displaying tattoos publicly like their western counterparts and young people tend to follow their styles.
Tattoos are now to be seen on young artists, punks and subcultural groups that are becoming as commonplace
as to possibly being considered popular culture. Even salary men and students can occasionally be seen with
tattoos in cities like Tokyo. 11
This change of point of view regarding tattoos starts from younger generations, while the older ones still havenot abandoned the stereotypes. If a foreigner bears a tattoo, the Japanese younger generation tends to have amore relaxed attitude, as foreigners in their opinion are not associated with Japanese criminal organizations.
However, if a Japanese person is to show a tattoo, the general population tends to immediately equate them toyakuza or criminals, hence avoiding them. The younger generation seems to be more lenient: with the adventof Western tattooing, young people started to apply small cute tattoos for adornment, and even though they
are still scared of traditional tattooing, they tend to dismiss these stereotypes when it comes to foreigners.
Tattooed bodies may be less negatively perceived or stereotyped agains than they used to be because thesocial meanings and relations to which tattoos were attached are becoming weaker and more rationalized.
However, we couls say that traditional values, beliefs and practices associated with tattooing may be modified
and even lost. 12
For this project, a tattoo artist from Okayama was contacted, but he refused to take part in an interview,
explicitly saying that he would rather not engage in a discussion about such an important topic with a person
he never met before. This makes me think that still recognizing the importance of his partecipation in the
project, if an interview made him uncomfortable, it means that there is a strong social pressure that weighs on
those who do this work.
Then, Mr. Katayama, a member of the staff of an onsen, hot spring, from Okayama Prefecture, wasinterviewed.13 It emerged that actually Japanese tattooed people can not enter the onsen, while for foreigners
there is more tolerance and few exceptions, depending on the size of the tattoo and if it is hidden with a proper
cover sticker. Regarding the general view of Japanese society about tattoos, Mr. Katayama replied that
actually we can talk about taboo, probably caused by the association between "anti-social" people, primarily
the Yakuza members, and tattoos that create a certain insecurity among the people around. In the end, to thelast question “Do you think Japanese society can change mind about it?” he answered: “I personally think thatit should be changed little by little, so I wonder if it can change”. This suggests that probably Japanese society
is actually realizing that the world is changing, thanks to the phenomenon of globalization, and that it isnecessary to break away from the stereotypes of the past.
Even if globalization brings with it the advantage of opening people's minds in a new vision untied by thestereotypes of the past, it can also be considered a disadvantage, especially by tattoo artists themselves.
Infact, contemporary tattooing practices in Japan reveal tensions and conflicts associated with the intersectionof globalization and localization. The expansion and transformation of capitalism is integral to the global
economy. Cultural globalization is the result of the development of mass tourism, increased migration, and thecommercialization of cultural products associated with the widespread ideology of consumerism.
Consequently, cultural globalization paradoxically creates a threat to the continuity and authenticity of local
cultures, and elicits a protest against the homogenization of cultures. Thus, while the traditional tattoo masters
somewhat accept and incorporate Western styles into Japanese tattoos, which is often requested because of its
recent popularity, they still guard their sense of authenticity and pass it to the next generation. This challenges
the tradition of keeping Japanese tattoos from public view and regarding them as hidden beauty. Due to theinternational appreciation of the traditional style, the Japanese ukiyo-e based tattoos have become well known
10

Gamborg D., (2012) Japanese Traditional Tattooin in Modern Japan, University of Oslo
Gamborg D., (2012) Japanese Traditional Tattooin in Modern Japan, University of Oslo
12
Mieko Y., (2009) Westernization and Cultural Resistance of Tattooing Practices in Contemporary Japan, Indiana University
13
The interview was carried out in japanese.
1115

in many countries. And yet, the Japanese traditional tattoo masters still choose to keep their studios without
signs. This cultivated marginality of the Japanese tattoo tradition thereby enhances its sense of authenticity.
This coexistence of Japanese tradition and Western cultures results in cultural hybridity and complexity. For
the Japanese traditional tattooists, it is important to preserve their tradition for future tattooists. In this way,contemporary Japanese tattoos can be seen as an indicator through which to observe the impact of
globalization.
Conclusion:
I think that, after the research carried out to write this paper and also thanks to the contribution of Mr.
Katayama, the tattooing in Japan can actually be considered a taboo and the main cause today is theassociation with the members of the Yakuza organization, rather than cultural-religious aspects.
I understand that this thought is widespread and rooted in Japanese society, but probably the prohibitions,common in public places like the onsen, are just providing to a discriminatory view of tattoos, perpetuating
their negative image and letting these misconceptions live on in people’s mind.
The popular culture of Japanese tattooing can be considered as an example of how traditional values, beliefs
and practices have been shaped and modified in globalized society. Globalization is probably changing theway of seeing tattoos in Japan as a trend rather than a taboo and it is spreading a more western and lessstereotypical view especially among younger generations. On the other hand, the old ones tend to remain
stuck in these old view, risking to create discrimination against tattooed people. In traditional society, themeaning of tattoos was social and collective, projecting certain images such as criminality (i.e. danger) andtribal traditions, whereas in contemporary society social linkages are no longer as important. Tattooing andother types of body modification have become a means to assert self-determination, self-expression andidentity. Some young Japanese choose to be tattooed as a form of art, fashion and lifestyle choice, and others
are tattooed to keep their memories on the skin like their western coetaneous.

References:
Fellman S., (1987) The Japanese Tattoo Book, New York, Abbeville Press
Gamborg D., (2012) Japanese Traditional Tattooin in Modern Japan, University of Oslo
Mitchell J., Loved Abroad, Hated at Home at https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2014/03/03/issues/loved-abroad-hated-athome-the-art-of-japanese-tattooing/#.WlsP7JOFhsM, March 3rd, 2014
Westlake A., The View of Tattoos in Japanese Society at http://japandailypress.com/the-view-of-tattoos-in-japanese-society-295623/,
June 29th, 2012
Ankirsky A., (2014) Perception of Tattoos: Now and Then, University of Iceland
Mieko Y., (2009) Westernization and Cultural Resistance of Tattooing Practices in Contemporary Japan, Indiana University

16

Eyo: Hadaka Matsuri in Okayama
会陽・岡山の裸祭り
Orsola Chini オルソラ・キーニ
UNIVERSITÀ CA’ FOSCARI VENEZIA (ITALY)

Summary:
この研究の目的は岡山の西大寺会陽について説明することで、情緒や趣のある意味を明らかにし、そこに新たな興味を喚起させることだ。お祭りの独特さを理解するために、従来の研究を利用すると同時に実際に西大寺の住職坪井綾広さんにインタビューをさせていただいた。最初に西大寺会陽の歴史を説明して、昔と今のパフォマンスの比較をする。その際、他の裸祭りとの比較もする。次に、日本の神道や仏教との宗教的な関係を調べる。そして最後に、その社会的で民族学的な特徴を調べて現在の生活でその意味を探していく。
History:
Hadaka matsuri (裸祭り) can be literally translated as “the Naked Men Festival” and traces its origins back to
the Nara period, when the Buddhist monk Jisshū ideated a fourteen-days rite connected to the celebrations for
New Year related to rice cultivation, when the head of the family used to go to temple or shrine to pray for the
divinity’s mercy (also called お正月の慈悲 the End of the Year’s mercy). To achieve it, men had to shutthemselves up for a few days before it, while their wives’ duty was to look after the house and the children14.
Eyo (会陽) is the particular name of the one held at Sadaiji Kannon’in Temple (最大時観音院) in Okayama,
which was designed as a national important intangible folk cultural property in March 2016 as explicative of
all the similar rituals performed around Japan15. It was introduced there in the Muromachi era, particularly
during the service of a high monk named Chūa. It acquired most of the features it has nowadays around151016.
Performance:
The festival takes place every year in the middle of the winter, on the night of the third Saturday in February,right after the Shushoe, another rite held on New Year’s Day for the crops. The ritual isolation of praying andwaking starts a few days before the matsuri and is characterized by an initial ritual of purification from evil,
bad actions and wounds called misogi (禊), which takes place in a river (in the case of Saidaiji Temple a poolcalled koritoriba, 垢離取場) near the temple. For this reason, they have to be naked wearing only aceremonial loincloth called karadamawashi (体回し) or fundoshi (褌). Then, after presenting the offerings
and reading the norito, the competition starts. A lucky sacred wooden stick called shingi is thrown into a
crowd of about ten thousands men by the master of the temple from a window called Gofukumado (ご福窓,
the “window of good luck”). The rules of the competition pit the participants one against each other and theone who first grabs the shingi wins.
According to the existing literature on the topic, some of the features of this matsuri tend to be different
depending on the location it takes place. Boyd and Williams speak about the Hadaka matsuri performed at
Konomiya Shrine in Inazawa, near to Nagoya. There, a little smaller group of about nine thousands inebriatedmen carry long bamboo poles wrapped with strips of cloth, on which worshippers have previously written
their petitions to the kami. Their goal is to bring the petitions to the shrine to allow the priests to place them
before the kami. The authors describe the ritual as something frenzy17, with orgiastic components, but it has tobe understood to which extent his assessment is useful to understand the nature of this festival rather thanmaking it look just as “the umpteenth Japanese extravagance” encouraging an exotic view on it.
It was very interesting to read that Raveri himself assisted to an hadaka matsuri at Sadaiji in 1977. However,
he focuses mainly on another part of the matsuri, that is when the participants reach out trying to grasp the

14

Ryokō TSUBOI, 綾広坪井, Interview, Orsola Chini, 22.12.2107, Saidaiji Temple, Okayama, Japan.
Okayama Prefectural Tourism Federation, “Okayama Prefecture Official Tourism Guide”, https://www.okayamajapan.jp/en/feature/okayama_winter , 22.12.2017.
16
西大寺 (Saidaiji), 2010, http://www.saidaiji.jp/eyou/, 26.10.2017.
17
James W. BOYD and Ron G. WILLIAMS, “Japanese Shintō: An Interpretation of a Priestly Perspective”, Philosophy East andWest, Vol. 55, No. 1, Jan., 2005, University of Hawaii Press, p. 49.
15

17

mochi leaning from a branch hanging down from the ceiling of the temple18. This is made possible thanks to
the human pyramid formed by the bodies of the initiates. It has to be said that, even if the competition for themochi does belong to Eyo as well, it doesn’t appear as a central moment of it as Raveri points out in his book:as written in this year schedule on Sadaiji Temple website, it is the very first part of it and it brings in only
first- and second-grade primary school boys19. Another aspect of the matsuri mentioned by Raveri is what
happens after it: for the first time, these young men are made wearing hakama (袴), the ceremonial garment,
and silently they eat the ritual banquet served by adults. However, this moment is not described in theschedule found on Sadaiji’s website, nor it was mentioned during the interview with the head of the temple20.
Although the performance itself has been preserved in its original form in time, some minor features of Eyo
have changed a little in the last decades. The introduction of the internet and the diffusion of pictures andvideos through the social networks has proved to be a good mean to make more people aware of its existence
and make them interested in it. Many people from Japan and overseas have joined Eyo as participants orspectators. The number of visitors overcame recently the one of locals involved, reaching a peak of almost athousand foreigners from overseas. Although women cannot participate in Eyo itself, some of them decide to
take part in the misogi. On the other hand, its popularity has made it necessary to take new safety measures,
while in the past it wasn’t a big deal. However, nowadays the number of people attending the matsuri reaches
about thirty thousands, not considering the ten thousands initiates and so the intervention of police isnecessary. No one is willing to take responsibility if an accident happens, so their surveillance during theperformance is very strict. If in the past the spectators participated in the performance having the chance to bevery close to the initiates and to reach them out, this is no longer possible now. The participants are separated
from the public through a wooden barrier and the public have to take seats. Although the reason for thesechanges are perfectly understandable, it is undeniable that they also drift the public apart from a direct contact
with the initiates and makes it a little unwilling to participate in the celebration21.
Buddhist Or Shintoist Ritual?
A little or no attention has been given so far to the implication of hadaka matsuri with any religious tradition.
However, its ambiguous nature becomes quite evident as soon the places it takes place at are considered: Eyoat a Buddhist temple, while in Inazawa it takes place in a Shintoist shrine. It is necessary to focus on the timeof the year it is celebrated in. Its performance in the middle of the winter aims at making the participant
spiritually stronger and purer, because in those moments of extreme fear and euphoria he has the chance toknow better himself and the divinity. This traces back to the ascetic techniques of control of extreme cold andextreme hot peculiar of the Buddhist ecstatic tradition22.
Furthermore, from what emerged from the interview with the head monk of Sadaiji Temple, during thisfestival the prayers are addressed to the kami as well as the Buddhas. This does not represent a point of
ambiguity, but a merging of the two religious experiences. For this reason the prayers recited and the symbols
brought up during the performance come from both Buddhist and Shinto tradition23. In this sense Eyo can beseen as a multifaceted outcome of centuries in which these two rich religious experiences have been merging.
Sociological and Ethnological Meaning:
From the interview with the chief priest of Sadaiji temple Ryokō Tsuboi, it emerged that Eyo has preserved its
meanings in time. People still go to the temple and participate in the festival like they have always done as aprayer for their concerns, their pain, their activities. The way of living, the mentality, the system of values, thehuman beings’ activities and the perception of good and evil has certainly changed in time. However, as soon
as they become aware of the fact they are alive and of all good things that happen to them, they still want togive thanks for what they have to the divinities. This gratitude makes people willing to return what they got,
so good actions towards society, other people, their own community or their country arise. Ryokō claims thatEyo causes a positive will for change, a new heart in who participates in it24.

18

Massimo RAVERI, Itinerari nel sacro. L’esperienza religiosa giapponese, 1984, Libreria Editrice Cafoscarina, Venezia, p. 97.
岡山商工会議所 (Okayama Chamber of Commerce and Industry), “Saidaiji Eyo”, http://www.okayamacci.or.jp/activation/saidaijieyo_en.html, 2018, 20.12.2017.
20
Ibid.
21
TSUBOI, Interview, cit., pp. 1 -2.
22
RAVERI, Itinerari nel sacro…, cit., p. 98.
23
TSUBOI, Interview, cit., p. 1.
24
Ibid., p. 2.
19

18

Hadaka matsuri has also a great importance as one of the rituals connected to the rhythm of human life.
Beyond representing the biological growth of the individual, it symbolizes his change to a different status,
from adolescence to adult age. Adolescence is a particularly dangerous period because at that age the boy iscalled upon to participate in men’s work, independent of his mother’s support25. Since all societies must
maintain social control of disruptive behavior, an institutional mechanism of control is functionally necessary.
Therefore, initiation ceremonies as Eyo may also be interpreted as such mechanism. Among this broad
category of rites of passage, hadaka matsuri belongs to the smaller group of rituals that involve a positive or
inevitable transition from a social condition to another, counter posing with the ones regarding negative,
anomalous or impure situations26.
Young identifies three main features of male initiation ceremonies. Firstly, they have to take place
periodically and being supervised by adults. Secondly, they have to apply to all adolescent males and only tothese. Finally, the code or regulation that defines them implicates that the initiation is not a synonym of an
attainment of full adult status with its responsibilities27. Eyo features all these characteristics, so it can beconsidered such a ceremony. The rite is fully based on the symbolism of aggregation a new status and itemphasizes the rhythm of a one-way temporality that projects the subject only and always ahead towards his
future. It is structured in three main moments: the separation from the previous status, the ambiguity andmarginality, and in the end the acceptation of the new condition. In particular, the second one is very brief, sothat the individual doesn’t actually have the possibility to hesitate on what to choose or whether regret his
decision to move on28: internalization must be achieved rapidly and precisely, there is no long period of
inculcation. Therefore, this change has to be dramatized in memorable way and the and the candidate must
participate intensely in the presentation29.
As it was already stated before, hadaka matsuri is regarded as a men’s festival, as worship has to do with theactivity of cultivation; this is why its regulation prevents women to enter the main hall while it’s held.
Moreover, in Buddhist tradition the female is seen as a symbol of desire and passion and she is believed tosuscitate the kami’s envy towards the man30. The new status involves peculiar duties and prohibitions, as well
as a precisely defined social role. In fact, this type of initiation ceremony has a lot to do with issues ofaggregation and exclusion in a social-group logic and with the concept of male solidarity as a form ofconsensus among men regarding the purpose and the activities of the group31. In fact, stabilization of sex roleis not something linked only to one’s individuality, but it has to conform to more specific requirements
imposed by the group in order to maintain cooperation and loyalty within its members. Identification requiresthat the identifier has sufficient skill in symbolic interaction and that he recognizes that his society requires
him to learn certain specific clusters of social meanings. So, the initiation is not complete until the boy
identifies with the male group. Such rites are required for all boys in a particular community in order tomaintain the male definition intact: the ceremony insures conformity by involving the candidate in an intensecooperation with men in an organized social structure. In this sense, the individual’s success in thecompetition is made possible thanks to the presence of the other participants, therefore in the end the prize is
not exclusively benefited by the winner only, but offered to the divinities and then shared among the wholecommunity. Raveri also speaks about the belief that if the competition ends in a short time, that year’s harvest
will be prosperous and this reflects the importance of this matsuri as a form of social regeneration from agroup-solidarity perspective32.
Furthermore, the whole community must be alerted to his new status so it can respond appropriately. This
aspect is emphasized when the youth is put at the centre of attention during the festival. As it emerged during
the interview with the chief priest, the massive participation of the group and its deep contact with the local
population is what makes Eyo the most impressive among the hadaka matsuri. This way, the festival is notjust something related to the temple, but a big event involving the local administration and law enforcement
such as police and firefighters. Not only, but it also benefits from the help of a great number of local
volunteers. The definition of a certain group is maintained also through the communication of it to the other
25

Frank W. YOUNG, “The Function of Male Initiation Ceremonies: A Crosscultural Test of an Alternative Hypothesis”, American
Journal of Sociology, Vol. 67, No. 4, Jan., 1962, University of Chicago Press, p. 379.
26
RAVERI, Itinerari nel sacro…, cit., p. 95.
27
YOUNG, “The Function of Male Initiation Ceremonies…”, cit., pp. 384 - 385.
28
RAVERI, Itinerari nel sacro…, cit., p. 96.
29
YOUNG, “The Function of Male Initiation Ceremonies…”, cit., p. 384.
30
TSUBOI, Interview, cit., p. 1.
31
YOUNG, “The Function of Male Initiation Ceremonies…”, cit., p. 383.
32
RAVERI, Itinerari nel sacro…, cit., p. 98.
19

social groups through such dramatized ceremonies33. Certainly, one of the pros of the introduction of social
media is that, thanks to the internet and the possibility for everyone to share their own videos or pictures ofthe event, the community participating in the festival is expanding to people from all over Japan and fromoverseas34.
The individual is pushed in his new status through strong motivations, including men’s virility associated to
power. Therefore, the transition from adolescence to adult age is presented as an ordeal featuring great
spiritual concentration and physical endurance, in this case represented by the fight for the shingi, when theboy perceives that men have an enviable status in society. From a Freudian point of view, the submission to
tests of fortitude breaks the boy’s psychological dependency from his mother and has an inhibitory function,
while reinforcing at the same time the boy’s male identification35. The Oedipus conflict must be resolved withthe help of a social institution, and that is what these initiation ceremonies are for. Therefore, it is a mistake tointerpret hadaka matsuri in terms of a culture-bound notion of pain, because social separation and tests offortitude are a way of dramatizing the boy’s new status. After this matsuri featuring confusion of roles, chaos
and loss of identity, social order is immediately re-established.
Raveri claims that the participation and the meaning of such rituals have changed in time, adapting to thesocio-cultural conditions. Inevitably, some of these has lost their symbolic importance and others have gained
it. Sometimes, the rhythm of schooling has ended up replacing rites or reducing them to small symbolic eventsof transition36. However, regarding both at the increasing number of people participating in it and the words ofthe monk Tsuboi, luckily it looks like Eyo has not lost its importance nor its multifaceted meanings.
Conclusion:
Eyo is representative of the various tradition of Hadaka matsuri of all around Japan. Although somecharacteristics in its performance change depending on its location, it can be assessed that this matsuri is amale initiation ceremony featuring aspects of Shintō and Buddhist traditions. Eyo appears to have also a great
importance as a community event, re-enforcing the individual sex-role identification as well as the male groupsolidarity. Its rising popularity in recent times gives evidence to its renewed importance in contemporarysociety, encouraging further studies and interest on it.
Fig. 1

References:
BOYD, James W. And WILLIAMS, Ron G. (2005), “Japanese Shintō: An Interpretation of a Priestly Perspective”, Philosophy Eastand West, Vol. 55, No. 1, Jan., University of Hawaii Press, pp. 33-63.
YOUNG, Frank W. (1962), “The Function of Male Initiation Ceremonies: A Crosscultural Test of an Alternative Hypothesis”,
American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 67, No. 4, Jan., University of Chicago Press, pp. 379-396.
RAVERI, Massimo (1984), Itinerari nel sacro. L’esperienza religiosa giapponese, Libreria Editrice Cafoscarina, Venezia.
岡山商工会議所 (Okayama Chamber of Commerce and Industry), (西大寺会陽, Saidaiji Eyo) [Internet], http://www.okayamacci.or.jp/activation/saidaijieyo_en.html, [Last accessed: 10.1.2018].
西大寺 (Saidaiji), (会陽・裸祭り, Eyo Hadaka Matsuri) [Internet] 2010, at: http://www.saidaiji.jp/eyou/, [Last accessed: 12.1.2018].

33

YOUNG, “The Function of Male Initiation Ceremonies…”, cit., p. 386.
TSUBOI, Interview, cit., p. 2.
35
WHITNING, in Young, “The Function of Male Initiation Ceremonies…”, cit., p. 380.
36
RAVERI, Itinerari nel sacro…, cit., p. 96.
34

20

日本の伝統色
Traditional Colors in Japan邱珮 芸 CHIU, Pei-Yun M ichelle
輔仁大学 (台湾)

Summary:This is an essay talking about Japanese traditional colors. Japan is a country which has its own special
cultures, especially in the field of arts and literature. Why I chose Japanese traditional colors to be my topic isthat colors in our life everywhere. When it comes to arts, colors play an important role. In this essay, first I
started from a brief introduction of traditional colors. The origin of it and some main colors used by ancientJapanese people. Then the history of traditional colors. Some might be usual to seen nowadays, but backbefore due to difficulties of making those colors, it was banned for most people to use. Only few people who
had higher social status were allowed to use. After talking about history, I wrote about combination of colors.
To make the kimono(traditional Japanese clothes) look beautiful, Japanese people have their own philosophyof the combination of using colors. At the end, I wrote my own opinion of traditional colors and how I think
it would impact Japanese art creation.

日本は独自の文化を持っている国である。特に文学や芸術などの領域に、特色のある作品がたくさん生み出した。その中に、私が最も興味があるのは「日本の伝統色」であり、日本の伝統色の由来、歴史の発展や各作品の活用について紹介してもらいたい。日本の伝統色という概念は、古来日本に住んでいる人々が自然の風景、例えば季節の移りによる植物の変わりなど、生活の中から見て様々な「色」を発見し、それらを色々な芸術品に使われつつ構成されたことである。基本的に、日本の伝統色は「赤系」・「茶系」・「黄系」・「青系」・「紫系」・「黒白系」、この六つに分かれている。以下は色別で簡単にその色に関わる日本の伝統文化や歴史を紹介する。
赤色は古墳時代の壁画で使われ、呪術など超自然の象徴する色として使われていたようである。また、赤色を染め出すのが大変手間がかかるため、「禁色」、つまり使ってはいけないとされていた時代もあるが、平安時代以後、赤色は鮮やかで身分が高い人々が好まれるようになって、服によく使われて流行った。
青色と言えば、「藍染め」を連想する。「藍染め」という技術は奈良時代に中国から日本に伝来して、江戸時代に民衆の服から生活雑貨まで色々な物作りに使用されていた。明治初期来日した外国人は日本によく藍染めで作られた物が見られて「ジャパン・ブルー」という言葉で呼んだ。藍染め工房は現在も日本にあり、伝統を守る人々の努力で美しい物を作り出している。
紫色はよく日本の文学作品「万葉集」から出てくる色であり、文献による紫色に関する歌はおよそ 10 首以上がある。紫色と言えば、高貴的なイメージであろう。なぜかと言うと、
紫は奈良・平安時代に高い身分の人だけ使える色であり、当時の人々が憧れていた色からである。また、「万葉集」以外に「源氏物語」、「枕草子」や「古今和歌集」など平安時代の文学作品にも「紫」が登場することが多い。文学作品の中の紫は、色の本来の意味だ
けではなく、「紫」を通じてより深く思いを表すこともよくある表現である。
黒色に対するイメージは日本の歴史と共に変わりつつある。紫色は一番地位が高く、貴族などの代表と言わば、黒色はその逆に身分の低い人が使用する色であった。聖徳太子が制定した「冠位十二階」という法律は、身分によってどの色を使うことを明確にする規則である。「冠位十二階」により、位階が最も高いになるのは紫で、最も低いのは黒色である。また、葬式の着用服も黒系である。しかし、鎌倉時代に入ると黒色が愛用されるように21なった。武士の時代に鎧などを着用することが多くなって、黒色に対するイメージも段々変わってきた。
発展して豊かになる日本の伝統色、その「色」は様々な芸術品に使われることになった。例えば日本文化の代表の一つ、着物である。過去、人々が普段生活に着られる服で、現在も祭りや特別な儀式など、成人式や結婚式でよく着物を着ている人の姿がよく見かける。日本人も外国人も、着物が綺麗だと思う人は結構いるだろう。その美しさが感じられるのは、着物の形だけではなく、布に染められた色も重要な役割が持っていると思う。少し考えると、華やかに見える着物はほとんど一着
で二、三色、またはそれ以上につけられている。
一つ以上の色を使うなら、違う色の組み合わせをよく考えなければならない。そこで、日本人の色彩感覚による独特な配色法が生み出した。「かさねの色目」と呼ばれている。
「かさねの色目」という言葉は漢字で二つの書き方があり、「重ねの色目」と「襲の色目」である。色彩用語の専門サイトの解説により、表地と裏地の配色が「重ね」で、複数の衣を重ねた時の配色が「襲」で表記されることが多いである。「かさねの色目」は四季の変化を色で表現し、また季節による合わせる色の組み合わせである。昔の人は色彩を通じ、自然と自らの生活で使われる物
を振り合い、自然との融合が重要なことであると考えた。
「かさねの色目」という色の組み合わせは平安時代から始まる。最も工夫を凝らして作らせた特色がある代表は「十二単衣」（十二単）である。「
十二単衣」は平安時代の女房装束で、宮中で出仕する女性が着用する着物である。「十二単衣」は春夏秋冬によるそれぞれの配色があり、春は「梅」、「若草」、「すみれ」、「桃」、夏は「卯の花」、「花橘」、「青唐紙」、「桔梗」、秋は「萩重」、「初紅葉」、「葉菊」、「りんどう」、
冬は「雪の下」、「椿」、「氷重」、「枯野」、
これらの配色になる。日本の伝統色は和風の名前も付けていて、植物や季節が感じられるが、名前だけでどの色がはっきりわかることもなかなか難しい、特に外国人の中にこう考える人がいるであろう。以下に上記の伝統色の画像がつけられ、画像で日本の伝統色の魅力さがより感じられると思う。（配色法の紹介と画像はいろはクロスというサイトの引用）

22

着物だけではなく、日本の伝統色は色々な物に用いられている。例えば江戸時代にできた「浮世絵」や、神社やお寺など歴史がある建築物である。しかし、伝統と言えば歴史を持っている物だけで見つけられると、グローバル化の現代社会の発展で、もう使わなく段々人々の生活に消えてしまう恐れがあるであろう。幸い、今伝統文化に関心を持つ人が増えてきて、自国の豊富な歴史で生み出した大切な物を活かし、素晴らしい物を作り出す人もこれから増えていくと思う。
1978 年、DIC 株式会社が「日本の伝統色」（初版）という DIC カラーガイドを出版した。
日本古来使われてきた伝統色を系統的に整理し、現代の印刷技術でカラーガイドを作り出した。歴史資料も付けていて、最も新しいのは第八版で、300 色が掲載している。このよ
うに、各領域の創作者が参考になれ、伝統色がより活用できると思う。
デザインと芸術の創作が盛んでいる現在、日本の伝統色を日本文化の特徴として様々な領域で使われて世界に日本が特有する芸術的な魅力さを発信することができるであろう。

参考文献：
日本人の美の心である日本の色 https://irocore.com/#intro1
赤色の歴史・染料・価値観について – 日本の伝統色を探る –http://irohacross.net/2012/11/history_red.html
藍染め、藍の歴史、藍の食、藍のこといろいろまとめました。http://www.japanblue-ai.jp/
紫色の歴史・染料・価値観について – 日本の伝統色を探る – http://irohacross.net/2013/05/history_purple.html
黒色の歴史・染料・価値観について – 日本の伝統色を探る –http://irohacross.net/2012/12/history_black.html
カラーコーディネーター検定、色彩検定の独学支援！公式テキスト＆問題集の重要キーワードを初心者向けにやさしくレ
クチャーhttp://colorterms.kisochishiki.com/culture/kasane-no-irome.html
十二単の襲（かさね）色目を web 制作に取り入れてみる http://irohacross.net/2012/11/kasane_irome.html

23Paper Places: How Japanese Washi and the Art of Paper Folding haveshaped Modern Innovations
Eloise Leopold エロイーズ・レオポルド
THE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA (AUSTRALIA)

Summary:
このレポートの目的は、歴史的な日本のテキスタイルと方法論が近代的でポストモダンな芸術、建築、デザインの分野における現代の革新にどの程度影響を与えたかを分析し理解することです。
With a direct focus on Japanese washi, this report explores the origins of this textile, and how its uses havedeveloped since its introduction to Japan. Additionally, the ancient art of origami, or more broadly consideredin this report as ‘the art of the fold’, was analysed, and it was founded that the values of this art form has
influenced many modern artists today. Through considering and analysing the connection between past
Japanese artists modern innovators of today, the influence of Japanese methodologies was explored, leading to
the conclusion that artistic expression within modernity is oftentimes, largely informed by Japanese values
and history.
Introduction:
Throughout Japan’s rich history within the realm of art, architecture, and design, many mediums, forms, andtextiles have been employed as tools of artistic expression. Often in response to socio-economic events, amultitude of quintessentially Japanese styles have been established, offering present day artists and architects
the opportunity to utilise these fundamental techniques to produce ultra-modern and innovative works. By
looking to the past, it is evident that many modern artists translate the values and ideals of earlier works intomodernity, and build upon these ideals through the lens of sustainability and post-modernism. Through afocus on the preservation of a now globalized textile, Japanese washi, the extent to which the Eastern world
has influenced the West was explored, offering the argument that Japanese methodologies have largely
informed modern innovations. As a popular use of washi, origami – and more broadly ‘the art of the fold’ –was considered, with many modern artists and architects utilising the process behind these forms andgeometries to produce new and innovative works within modernism and post-modernism. Through analysis
into the works of notable Japanese figures such as Akira Yoshizawa, Isamu Noguchi, and ‘paper architect’Shigeru Ban, the extent to which Japanese heritage informed their respective works was considered, in
addition to the influence these individuals had on Western artists, such as Bare Conductive’s Bibi Nelson andStudio Morison’s Heather Peak. Ultimately, the extent to which Japanese textiles and methodologies informed
modern design was considered, and the correlation between these ancient processes and modern innovations
was explored to offer insight into traditional Japanese ideals and their connection to the provocative works
within present-day modernity.
Historical Invention, Introduction, and Uses of Washi within Traditional Art and Architecture:
Washi – manually produced Japanese paper – was first introduced to Japan by a Korean Buddhist monk
during 610AD. Originally, however, it was invented by Chinese official Cai Lun in China during 105AD, but
has since become a popularised Japanese textile through its widespread application within the realm ofJapanese art and architecture (Masako and Hughes, 1979). Throughout history, washi has been applied inmany ways, ranging from the construction of akari shoji and fusama screens, to art forms such as chigiri-e; a
traditional process where washi is torn and pasted onto a canvas to emulate a water colour effect. The threemost distinguished types of washi have been meticulously preserved throughout history; and have been
categorized primarily due to their production methods and main uses. Ganpishi washi was considered themost notable of fibers, and was typically produced for book manufacturing or crafting purposes. Kozogami is
the most widely produced type of washi, heralding a toughness closer to cloth than paper, and does not
significantly weaken when treated with water-resistant processing. The final type – mitsumatagami washi – islargely utilised for traditional Japanese arts such as printing and calligraphy, and according to Masako andHughes (1979), was used throughout the Meiji period to print paper money. Though popular within the realmof Japanese art and economics, the introduction of washi to Japan proved integral to the development oftraditional construction techniques, and was a significant material in traditional architectural practices.
Traditional Japanese architecture can primarily be described through a sense of simplicity; largely achieved
through a patiently planned and practiced methodology. Dating back to the Kamakura era, the practicalreasoning behind the construction of residential Japanese houses lies in their need to be built as light as24possible; thus having a greater chance of withstanding unpredictable natural disasters that have become acommonality throughout Japan (Ethapane, 2011). This concept encouraged many traditional Japanesearchitects to build minimally, so residents within each structure would endure the least impact if a disasterwere to occur. Through this realisation, a large consideration during this period was the weight of doors andwindows, which are typically the heaviest elements of a residential house (Ethapane, 2011). This gave rise to
the invention of the akari shoji; a traditional Japanese door or window used between an interior and exterior
environment. Shoji allow and encourage natural light permeation, and consist of a translucent sheet of washi
stretched taut over a timber frame, with the washi holding together a lattice of timber or bamboo (Ethapane,2011). Washi is the traditional paper used for this feature, and Ethapane argues that it was produced
specifically for this purpose; developed purposefully for these processes in Japan despite originally being
derived from the Chinese paper making process. Another element used to decrease the weight of a traditional
house is the fusama screen, which acts as a partition between two tatami rooms, and since the eleventh
century, has been another significant use of washi within traditional Japanese interior architecture.
Through physical and visual analysis into a traditionally constructed Japanese house in Yakage, Okayama, it
was founded that the use of akari shoji remains both prominent and integral to the present day Japanese
aesthetic (fig. 1). The utilization of washi within the household encouraged favorable light permeation, acting
almost as a main feature through the decorative show of intricate handwork. The sliding nature of the screen,in conjunction with the tatami lined flooring, boasted a quintessentially Japanese atmosphere, and suggested
that although a historic technique, the implementation of washi and shoji remains a significant feature ofJapanese architecture to the present day. This allows for deeper consideration into the influential nature thatwashi has had on Japanese art and architecture, and suggests that parts of history remain within the everchanging development and modernization of techniques through art and architecture.

Figure 1. Akari shoji utilised in a traditional Japanese home in Yakage, Okayama, Eloise Leopold, 2017.
Utilising Washi: Origami, Methodology, and the Art of ‘The Fold’:
The art of paper folding, traditionally referred to as origami, was first introduced to Japan when Buddhist
monks carried washi from China to Japan during the sixth century. It should be noted, however, thatindependent paper folding traditions exist within East Asia and Europe, and it is uncertain whether thesepractices evolved separately or shared a common source. Due to the high price of washi, origami was usedsolely for religious ceremonies during this period. According to Hull (2005), distinguished uses of origami
included the creation of origami butterflies for Shinto weddings, and samurai warriors exchanging gifts
adorned with noshi; a token of good luck that solely utilised paper folding techniques. These notableapplications of origami indicate that the art of paper folding was of high significance at the time, and suggestthat this practice was fundamental to Heian period ceremonies and events.
Looking forward from the Heian period, the impact of washi and origami on the realm of art, architecture, anddesign can be seen through its extension into the modern era; which saw the rise of noteworthy artists such as
Akira Yoshizawa (1911-2005) who, through the lens of modernity, revived this historic methodology. Morecommonly referred to as the ‘grandmaster of origami’, Yoshizawa became an international culturalambassador for Japan, and is credited with elevating origami from a simple craft into a living art form (Hull,2005). His impact was so profound that in 1983, Yoshizawa was awarded with the ‘Order of the Rising Sun’by Emperor Hirohito; considered one of the highest honors bestowed in Japan. According to Hull (2005),
Yoshizawa developed the standard set of diagrammatical origami symbols together with American master
Sam Randlett; and these symbols remain integral within Japanese, and even Western, societies today. Of themany different techniques Yoshizawa invented, wet-folding is one of his most significant contributions, which
involves the process of slightly dampening the washi prior to making a fold, thus allowing the paper to be
manipulated more easily. This results in a final origami model that showcases a more sculpted and realistic
aesthetic (Hull, 2005). The methodology behind achieving a more realistic appearance in origami saw the25

proliferation of this technique onto the global scene, transforming models from simple crafts into works oftrue artistic expression. These techniques used also extended to architectural practice, where modern
architects began to utilise the fundamental qualities of ‘the fold’ to develop innovative, intuitive solutions forarchitectural realisation.
The Transformation of a Traditional Textile into a Modern Innovation:
As a pioneer of incorporating washi within industry level design, Japanese-American artist and landscapearchitect Isamu Noguchi (1904-1988) proved this historical textile could be applied to modern innovation.
Among many of his popular works, Noguchi’s Akari Light Sculpture series worked to enhance the quality of
everyday life while exploring and exposing his Japanese heritage. It was said that his visit to Japan in 1931
ignited his desire to integrate elements of Japanese art within Western modernism, and he began drawing
inspiration from lanterns, mulberry bark paper, and bamboo. Produced in the traditional Gifu method,
Noguchi generated his akari works, referring to the essence of light as illumination, simultaneously with aquality of weightlessness. According to the Noguchi Museum, Noguchi employed abstracted shapes andgeometries that work to unite the simplicity of the Japanese aesthetic and the principles of modern art anddesign.
Each hand-crafted sculpture begins with the production of washi, followed by the generation of bamboo
ribbing to stretch across the timber-framed moulded forms. Depending upon the size and shape of the lamp,
the washi is cut to suit, and fastened onto each side of the framework. After the glue dries and the shape issecured, the internal frame is removed; leaving the illusion of a seemingly freestanding washi sculpture.
London based company, Bare Conductive, have created a self-assembly product that shows strong parallels to
Noguchi’s earlier works within modernism. The Electric Paint Lamp Kit boasts the transformation of a sheetof paper into a functioning light; incorporating a circuit board, LED lights, a micro USB plug, and electricallyconductive paint. Bare Conductive’s COO and co-founder, Bibi Nelson, was contacted with regards to theimplementation of paper as a material in modern design. Nelson suggested that the conductive paint could
mistakenly be considered the main element of the product, however its innovation lies in the connection
between the paper and the Light Up Board. Nelson explained that the challenge was to discover how toconnect conventional electronics to paper, which was incorporated due to its accessibility and usability. Whenquestioned regarding the accessibility of paper as a textile, Nelson suggested that ‘everyone understands
paper as a material, as we are taught how to write or draw on it from a very early age, [therefore] thetransition to using paper to make things is not too complicated a leap for most people’.
Nelson also raised the importance of sustainability within her design, stating that a large part was considering‘how achievable people will think our kits and products are’, thus paper proved a more favorable material
over the likes of plastic or metal. Conclusively, Nelson – whose father actually owns one of Noguchi’s light
sculptures – stated that the everyday incorporation of modern art, architecture, and design ‘seems lesscomplicated if it’s in a material you are familiar with’. Through understanding the perspective of modern
innovators and designers, it was founded that although not in its exact traditional form, Japanese washi andthe use of paper has largely influenced the outlook of art, architecture, and design throughout the modern andpost-modern eras.
A notable figure within modern Japanese architecture is humanitarian architect, Shigeru Ban (1957–), whose
innovative practice pioneered the use of paper as a structural element within construction. It would be fair toassume that Ban’s utilization of paper in architecture is a reference to traditional, vernacular Japanesearchitecture; and while playing into the concept of sustainability, also showcases heavy influence from his
connection to washi and historical Japanese textiles and processes. Ban’s interest in ‘architectonic poetics’and the generation of ‘three-dimensional poetry’ are expressed in a variety of applications of paper and its
derivative forms (ie. cardboard and fiber-based composites), and it is evident that his works reflect acontinuing exploration into the simplest form of geometric elements (Miyake and Ban, 2009). Bans work canbe seen to express elements of many different architectural styles, and according to Miyake and Ban (2009),
has utilised many traditional Japanese methods of construction through his exploration into the mechanisms ofwashi and shoji. Oftentimes, Ban incorporates the structural elements of his works into the overall design,achieving a seamless and cohesive design, and allowing the paper to become both the structural anddecorative element of his designs. Through analysis into Bans works, it can be seen that he seeks to revive
Western modernism and generate traditional, yet somehow increasingly modern, spaces that embrace bothWestern and Eastern influences. This, in turn, suggests that Ban’s Japanese heritage has remained integral tohis practice as an architect, and his clever and innovative revival of the use of paper gives insight into his

26background; but also his desire to generate more sustainable and humanitarian works of architecture within
the modern and post-modern movements.
London-based Studio Morison founder, Heather Peak, was contacted with regards to her ambitious andcollaborative practice that works to transcend and connect the divisions between art, architecture, and theatre.
Visually, Peaks work show influence from historical Japanese aesthetics, with regards to both washi and theart of the fold, and it was sought to understand whether earlier Japanese works inspired these ideas, or whether
they were solely driven by modern form and geometries. Peak addressed the integration of paper in her daily
sessions, explaining that ‘paper is largely involved in the first stages of actually conceiving off the page’.
Although Peak would not use the term ‘origami’ to describe her work – much preferring the broader term
‘paper folding’ – it is evident that the ‘wonderful ethos behind origami, [particularly the] masses of layers of
meaning’ play an integral role in the conception of her works as a sculptor. Shen and Nagai (2017) similarly
suggest that the term origami has a strict correlation to the sixth century Chinese invention, however folding
techniques have been utilised within the modern era to generate aesthetically appealing, and often completely
new, forms and geometries. Prior to the utilization of computers in art and architecture, Peak suggests that
oftentimes, the folded form acts as an illusion, and ‘holds a kind of magical, mystical possibility’ that becomes‘instantly appealing’ through its shape and character.
According to Shen and Nagai (2017), the art of folding is an efficient and simple process to achieve threedimensional geometries, and has been incorporated by many artists and architects through their conceptions ofanomalous structures. Peak, however, uses this technique as a tool for generating meaning and value within
the field of sculpture, explaining that ‘…the artistic process is about meaning’. Not only does this give insight
into Peak’s philosophy, but also shows strong similarities to Japanese art and architecture, which places hugeemphasis on intention and meticulous processing. Through exploration into the transformation of traditional
washi, and how it has shaped and influenced modern art, architecture, and design, it was founded that
although to varying degrees, many modern artists have been inspired by traditional Japanese textiles andmethods of construction.
Conclusion:
Conclusively, it was founded that although to varying extents, many of today’s modern artists, architects, anddesigners have been influenced by traditional Japanese textiles. The implementation of washi – inclusively
from the meticulous nature of its production to its globalized implementation within modernism – has worked
to revolutionize Japanese art and architecture; and demonstrates the magnitude of influence that Japanese art
history has had on the Western world. Although washi and its primary uses have been transformed intomodern innovations, it was founded that this medium has remained integral to Japanese art and architecture,and still exists within its original form in present day. However, looking through the lens of modernity, it was
founded that many modern artists and architects have transformed the ideals and methodologies behind washi
and the art of the fold to produce new and innovative works. From Noguchi’s desire to revive his Japaneseheritage through his works, to Ban’s transformation of vernacular Japanese styles into sustainable andhumanitarian architecture, it is evident that to a great extent, washi has offered the opportunity to transform
quintessentially Japanese methods into modern innovations. Similarly, the ancient art of origami has allowed
modern artists to explore the potential of three-dimensionality, and stretch the possibility of their works
through the art of the fold. Considering both Nelson and Peak’s works, it is evident that these modern
innovators have successfully generated new ideas that stem from these traditionally Japanese methodologies;
thus proving the continual impact of Japanese ideals on modernism and post-modernism. Ultimately, it isevident that although to varying degrees, the essence of historical Japanese art and architecture still remains
prominent in modernity, and this influence provides a platform for which modern artists can generateinnovative works that look to the past, while simultaneously pioneering original and revolutionary works thatconnect generations of artistic expression and realisation.
References:
Ethapane, V. (2011). Paper In-Between: The Use Of Paper In Japanese Architecture. The Journal of the Sri Lanka Institute ofArchitects, 1(1), pp.2-4.
Hull, T. (2005). Origami Design Secrets: Mathematical Methods for an Ancient Art. The Mathematical Intelligencer, 2(27), pp.92-95.
Masako, K. and Hughes, S. (1979). Washi. The World of Japanese Paper. Monumenta Nipponica, 34(3), pp.382-389.
Miyake, R. and Ban, S. (2009). Shigeru Ban: Paper in Architecture. 2nd ed. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, pp.149154.
Shen, T. and Nagai, Y. (2017). An Overview of Folding Techniques in Architecture Design. World Journal of Engineering andTechnology, 05(03), pp.12-19.

27

Influences of Western Fairy Tales in Ogawa Yoko’s “Otogibanashi No
Wasuremono”
Anna Lusuardi アンヌ・ルサルディ
UNIVERSITÀ CA’ FOSCARI DI VENEZIA (ITALY)

Summary:
この小論文の目的は、西洋のおとぎ話が日本の作家小川洋子の小説「おとぎ話の忘れ物」どのように影響を与えたのか、そしてこれらの古い話のいくつかをどのように書き直したのかを理解することです。小川の使われた書式はオリジナルではありませんけれども、 この作家の本当にユニークなものにするのは、彼女の仕事の目的です。彼女は人間の魂の最も曖昧な側面を調べようとします。
Introduction:
The goal of this paper is to understand how western’s fairy tales affected the Japanese writer Ogawa Yoko andhow she rewrote some of these old stories. Although Ogawa’s writing sometimes has an element of fantasy,
her style is not usually seen as particularly fairy-tale-like. Ogawa’s greatest foray into fairy tales is“Otogibanashi no wasuremono” (Lost Property Fairy Tales), a collection of four short stories that Ogawa
composed in response to illustrations by the artist Higami Kumiko. The illustrations and the stories in“Otogibanashi no wasuremono” are all loosely based on Western fairy tales. This research will focus only on
two of the four stories collected in this book: “Zukin kurabu” (The hood club) and “Aisaresughita hakucyō”(The Swan Who Was Loved Too Much); the first one is based on the story of “Little Red Riding Hood” and thesecond one on “Swan Lake”. Moreover, it will try to understand how was possible that a story like “Little Red
Riding Hood” had reached this writer and fascinated her so much to push her to rewrite the same story in thisvery singular way. In fact, as will be analysed later, Ogawa bring some changes at the story. In all the stories
she writes in this book, she changes the point of view of the narrator and in some of these, she adds a feminist
nuance, succeeding in renew and completely transform these old tales. Although, the feminist shade that isshowed through some of these stories is very interesting and will worth more investigation, for reason of
space this paper will not linger on this topic.
Ogawa Yoko’s “Otogibanashi No Wasuremono”: A Brief Analysis:
Ogawa was born in 1962 in Okayama Prefecture in western Japan. After finishing high school, she moved toTokyo to study creative writing at Waseda University. In 1988, she won the Kaien Prize for New Writers forher novella based on her graduation project. Since then, she has published more than forty works of fiction
and non-fiction and has received several major literary awards in Japan, including the Akutagawa Prize, theYomiuri Prize for Literature and the inaugural Booksellers Award. Ogawa’s novels have also reached a wide
audience outside Japan. Most of her fictional works are now available in French translation, and it was
through the French versions that her work first came to the attention of English-speaking readers.
Although Ogawa’s writing sometimes has an element of fantasy, it is not usually seen as particularly fairytale-like37. One reason Ogawa’s work is often associated with the fairy tale lies in its minimalist, non-culturespecific style, which creates an abstract, universal atmosphere characteristic of the fairy tale. As in traditional
fairy tales, many of her characters do not have names and are known by their professions, social positions,family relationships, or some peculiarities of appearance. Ogawa reduces this subtly dislocated sense of reality
also by coining words that do not actually exist but at the same time sound intriguingly familiar, inviting thereader to imagine stories behind those words. This technique of combining familiar words in an unfamiliar
way in order to produce an uncanny feeling is most evident in “Otogibanashi no wasuremono”.38 The
illustrations and the stories of this book are all loosely based on Western fairy tales: Perrault’s “Little redriding Hood”, Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s “Adventures in Wonderland” Andersen’s “The Little Mermaid” and“Swans Lake.” The volume also includes a frame story.
The opening part of the frame story, which takes place in a sweet shop, is a monologue spoken by the sweet
shop owner directly to a customer. No detail is given about the customer, allowing the reader to entirely

37 FRASER, Lucy. (2013) Lost Property Fairy Tales: Ogawa Yōko and Higami Kumiko's Transformations of “The Little Mermaid” p
18438
MURAI Mayako. From Dog Bridegroom to Wolf Girl. Contemporary Japanese Fairy-Tale Adaptations in Conversation with theWest pp. 63-64

28

inhabit this position within the story and become the “you” that the sweet shop owner addresses. The sweet
shop owner is similarly anonymous, using the uniformly polite, gender neutral language of customer service
and giving no indication of gender, age, or personality. On being asked about a room at the back of the shop,
the sweet shop owner tells the customer/reader about a grandfather who stumbled across some anonymous
fairy tales in a lost property room in a train station in Italy. The grandfather was inspired to embark on asearch for lost fairy tales around the world; he collected the stories, transcribed them, and then had themtranslated by experts. The grandfather himself eventually went missing in his quest for more stories.
According to the sweet shop owner, the stories the grandfather collected are now held in the “reading room”
at the back of the sweet shop. The sweet shop owner invites the customer/reader to go into the room. The
sweet shop owner recommends the customer to take a piece of candy on choosing a book and “turn the pageas leisurely and slowly as the candy melts in your mouth”. After the introductory frame story, the contents
page lists the four fairy tales included in the collection. The frame story therefore fictionalizes the authors ofthese four stories, as anonymous writers whose work has been discovered on a fantastical international quest.
Furthermore, the sweet shop owner describes these fictional authors as unreliable, saying that the stories have“no historical value” and that “all of them are written by mere would-be writers, fantasists, and delusionist
types”. The frame story’s emphasis on anonymity and the sweet shop owner’s disparagement of these authors
overturn the traditional pairing of a reliable implied author with an unreliable narrator. Although the sweet
shop owner disparages the writers of the stories them-selves, he or she takes more time explaining the
grandfather’s process of selecting translators: “He called on specialists in each language, and asked them fortranslations. He was not distracted by their degrees and titles; he searched for people who were brilliant, andhad a sense for the work. The most important requirement was that translators had a love for stories”. In thisway the traditional privileging of the “original” story over its “derivative” translation is also challenged. In
another reversal, “Otogibanashi no wasuremono” itself was created in an unusual order: Ogawa composed thetext in response to Higami’s pictures, whereas it is more common for illustrators to respond to a writer’s text.
In The Hood Club, Ogawa weaves a story around the word hood from “Little Red Riding Hood.” The titularclub is formed by a group of people obsessed with hoods, an idea that seems not entirely implausible but
rather peculiar. The narrator-heroine of the story, who is not a member of the club, meets a hooded woman
who introduces herself as the founder and president of the Hood Club. This woman makes her living as aseamstress specializing in making new dresses out of old. The heroine is then invited to the club’s annual
Hood Festival, in which various aspects of hoods are celebrated. The exhibition includes hoods either made orcollected by the members and hood-related artworks.
At the climax of the festival, the president makes a speech, wearing what she claims is the “original” redriding hood worn by the heroine of the Grimm’s story. The narrator later discovers that the hood is made of
the fur of the president’s wolf-coloured pet dog, apparently sacrificed for her project of materializing thefictional hood from a fairy tale, which the president regards as the most significant hood in Western culture.
In Ogawa’s rewriting, the word hood, taken out of the context of the original tale, triggers a new story, in thiscase one about a woman who uses a fairy tale to authenticate her sartorial craftsmanship which, in turn,breathes new life into one of the most widely read and most diversely interpreted of tales. In The Hood Clubemphasis is put on the transformative power of pursuing one’s craft and it also ends with a cruel murdercommitted by the main character. In this story the narrative is delicately crafted toward the final act of cruelty,
a latent plot in which the reader also becomes implicated.39 What is unique about Ogawa’s use of the fairy talelies less in her explicit use of fairy-tale motifs and style than in her more implicit use of dark desires
underpinning some of the most widely known fairy tales.
During the reading of this story, it’s inevitable to compare the figure of the president of the club with that of
the little girl, main character of the old tale. In this comparison, the little girl has become a grown woman, but
she is still traumatized by the awful experience she has lived in the past and now feels the need to open herheart to other people. This never happen in the Perrault’s version of the story, that ends with the death of thegirl. Therefore, Ogawa manages to transform this in a story of rebirth and liberation40: in this version the girlsucceeds to remain alive, become a grown-up woman and obtains her revenge on the wolf, symbolized by her
dog.

39
40

Ibid p. 66
SPECCHIO, Anna. Le parole dimenticate: il racconto, la fiaba e il mito nelle opere di Ogawa Yōko. p.12
29

This transformation could assume also a feminist nuance: the woman instead of being a victim becomes an
executioner. As in the original tale the wolf represents the darkest side of the men (with the meaning of maleperson), in this story the woman, who decides to kill her dog, figuratively also has the power to decide of thefate of the men.
The Swan Who Was Loved Too Much begin with the description of an old man, that lives alone in a hut at theedge of the forest. His duty is to keep the watch; he lives alone, without friends, wife or children. Only the10th of every month a delivery boy comes from the nearest city with the supplies for the old man. They always
chat a lot about the news of the city and the world, but what makes the old man very happy are the candies
that the delivery boy gives to him. The old man treasures those candies: he only eats one in the evening, at theend of the work day, and says that is the only moment that brings him joy. One day, he reaches a beautiful
lake in the very middle of the forest, and he sees a candid swan gliding gracefully on the surface of thecrystal-clear water. He is charmed by that vision and decides to visit that lake every morning. By doing so, theswan gradually gets used to his presence; time passes, and the man succeeds to get close to the swan. He
really loves the swan and does everything he can to protect it, but is not enough. So, he decides to offer theswan the most important thing he has: the candies. He brings them to the swan, every day he gives it more andmore candies, until one day he reaches the lake, but cannot see the swan. In fact, due to the great weight of thecandies it had eaten, the swan had sunk in the lake, leaving the man alone once again.
Although Fraser and Specchio think that this story has been inspired by Andersen’s “The Wild Swans”41,
Ogawa’s rewriting of a man who falls in love with a beautiful swan on a lake seems more credible to draw on“Swan Lake”, in fact, these two stories have much more in common that with “The Wild Swans”. It has to besaid that in writing this tale Ogawa certainly was inspired by those tales, but the most important thing toremember is that she wrote this story mainly in response to Higami’s illustrations, which portray only a girland a swan. This exemplifies an innovative collaboration between the writer and the artist, that create a fairytale collection in which the text and the image play against, rather than simply explain, each other.
"Every time I write a novel, the part of my body who works harder are the ears. I can hear the sound of the
explosion of a star that disappears at the border of the universe, or the lament of a dead person in the ashes ofa crematory oven in a concentration camp. To all these souls, I offer a place to stay, the story. For me, writing
is equivalent to fulfil this mission "42. As could be seen by this quote, Ogawa’s aim is that of give a voice tothose who cannot talk. Many of her works are narrated in the first person; just as if, instead of writing andconceiving these stories herself, she had heard these stories from the ones who lived them, and simply
transformed them into words. To convey this impellent need of talking, many of Ogawa’s works featuresilence and muteness, just like the swan of this story who cannot talk to the old man.
Conclusion:
As we could see from this analysis, Ogawa did not properly rewrite Western fairy tales. In fact, these aremostly a latent idea in the writer's imagination. Ogawa takes some cues from ancient fairy tales: sometimes
the setting, others just a word or an idea and combining these with the illustrations of Higami, she gives life to
the stories gathered in "Otogibanashi no wasuremono". These tales do not have much in common with theolder ones, because Western stories have now become an integral part of Japanese culture.
In fact, translations of Western fairy tales began just after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, from then on,
Western fairy tales, especially those by the Grimms, appeared in various translations and adaptations. In theearly twentieth century, some writers began to turn to the Western fairy tale as a medium for exploring new
forms of expression in modern literature for adults. The final two years of this century saw a remarkablevogue for fairy-tale rewritings and anthologies for adult readers, a phenomenon often referred to as the
Gurimu būmu (Grimm boom). The work that heralded the Grimm boom was Matsumoto Yūko’s rewriting of
the Grimms’ and Andersen’s tales, (1996; Fairy Tales of Sinful Princesses) and illustrated by Higami
Kumiko. The combination of Matsumoto’s female-oriented fairy tales and Higami’s sensual portraits ofprincesses set a vogue for illustrated fairy-tale collections for adults, especially those addressing a female
readership.43

41 FRASER, Lucy. (2013) Lost Property Fairy Tales: Ogawa Yōko and Higami Kumiko's Transformations of “The Little Mermaid” p

184
42 OGAWA Yoko Tokushu, Bungei n. 48, Kawade Shobo Shinsha, Tokyo, p.2
43 MURAI Mayako. From Dog Bridegroom to Wolf Girl. Contemporary Japanese Fairy-Tale Adaptations in Conversation with theWest p. 30
30

So, the format used by Ogawa for her collection of fairy tales is nothing original. What makes this writer andthis book truly unique is the purpose of her work. As she said: “Contemporary Japanese society appears to besafe and comfortable, but I wanted to write about the shapeless violence and danger that lurk beneath thesurface. Every human being has something violent inside, but most of us try to hide it. In the same way, we
try to ignore the dangers that lurk in everyday experience, to skirt them and pass by. But, at the same time,
we’re all fascinated by these “unseen” things, and that fascination becomes a motivating force in my work.
Through the process we call “the novel”, these things that normally remain unseen take on form, and it’s thatelement in fiction which continually fascinates me”44.
Here is how the two stories analysed in this paper take on a different connotation, expressing both fears andunconscious desires of the human soul. In the first one, the desire for revenge is revealed and in the end, issatisfied with the death of the dog. In the second one takes form the natural fear of the all human kind toremain alone. The old man lets himself be totally guided by his fear and his deep love for the swan and thisirrationality will eventually lead him to the loss of what he cherishes most and will force him to return to hisformer condition of solitude.

References:
FRASER, Lucy. (2013) Lost Property Fairy Tales: Ogawa Yōko and Higami Kumiko's Transformations of “The Little Mermaid”,
Marvels & Tales, Vol. 27, No. 2, The Fairy Tale in Japan.
MURAI Mayako. (2011) From Dog Bridegroom to Wolf Girl. Contemporary Japanese Fairy-Tale Adaptations in Conversation with
the West, Wayne State University Press.
SPECCHIO, Anna. (2016) Le parole dimenticate: il racconto, la fiaba e il mito nelle opere di Ogawa Yōko, Quaderni Asiatici, Vol.
114.
OGAWA Yoko, HIGAMI Kumiko. (2006) Otogibanashi no Wasuremono (Lost Property Fairy Tales), Shueisha.

44 Treisman, Debora (2005), Something inside. The Japanese writer Ogawa Yōko talks with the New Yorker’s fiction

editor, Deborah Treisman, about her work, in ≪The New Yorker≫ (26/12/2005), New York.)
31

Picture Postcards and Woodblock Prints: Meiji Japan’s Propaganda Vehicles
Ken Yoshida 健 吉田
CARLETON UNIVERSITY (CANADA)

Summary:
映像はその時代の現実を映し出す。明治時代に大きく日本は変化した。それは時代の絵葉書と木版画に最も示している。明治時代の絵葉書と木版画の映像は日本の現代化と西洋化を視覚化したので、その時代の絵葉書と木版画はプロパガンダの媒介物になったと考える。このレポートは、まず、明治時代の現代化と西洋化を検討した。次に、日露戦争の時代背景を検討した。最後に、日露戦争の絵葉書と木版画をプロパガンダの分析をした。
Introduction:
Images visually capture and portray the reality of a certain period, and Japan’s reality has transformed
numerous times over the course of its history. Japan during the Meiji era (1868-1912) experienced great
political, social, cultural, and industrial transformations which were visually captured in the picture postcards
and woodblock prints of the time. Those great transformations occurred due to the Meiji era’s adoption of“modernization,” and “Westernization” in face of neo-colonial expansionism by American and European
powers in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East during the 19th century. I argue that the picture postcards andwoodblock prints of the Meiji era were ideal vehicles for propaganda because they visualized Japan’s successwith swift modernization and Westernization in the images (i.e. drawings, paintings, cartoons, andphotographs) on the ideal propaganda vehicles.
This research paper analyzed a couple of picture postcards and woodblock prints of the Russo-Japanese War(1904-05), because this war was most significant in illustrating how successful Japan was at modernizing andWesternizing itself by the end of the Meiji era to wage a war against the modern Western power of Tsarist
Russia. Before delving into an analysis of the picture postcards and woodblock prints as ideal vehicles for
propaganda, this research paper will explore the modernization and Westernization in Meiji Japan to identify
the propaganda of the period, and examine the historical background of the Russo-Japanese War to identify
how the Meiji era’s propaganda peaked during the war with the images on the picture postcards andwoodblock prints before finally arriving to a conclusion.
Modernization and Westernization in Meiji Japan (1868-1912):
Prior to the arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry’s American warships in 1853, the warrior elite in Japan
ruled the country under the strict “closed country” (sakoku) policy that prohibited the Japanese from leaving
the country and foreigners entering it for over two centuries from 1630 to 1868. Despite the closed country
policy, Japan’s dwarf-sized human and natural resources managed to thrive economically, culturally, andsocially under the long period of isolation and peace. Even while living peacefully in isolation, Japan’s
leaders were aware of the “gunboat diplomacy” practised by the imperialist Western powers, who haveexperienced industrial, scientific, and political revolutions. Therefore, after the encounter with Commodore
Perry, Japan abandoned its centuries-old closed country policy, and adopted modernization andWesternization in face of the pressures of Western neo-colonial expansionism.
Japan in the Meiji era adopted modernization and Westernization to achieve “wealth and power” in thedomestic and international stages. Domestically, modernization and Westernization involved the building of astrong nation-state with a rich industrial economy and society that can resist Western pressure andexploitation. Internationally, modernization and Westernization entailed competing in the great game ofmodern conquest and empire in an international arena that was dominated by Western expansionist powers.
For Meiji Japan to succeed in achieving the “wealth and power” of modernization and Westernization, thepropaganda slogans of “rich country, strong military” (fukoku kyouhei), and “civilization and enlightenment”(bunmei kaika)45 were propagated until it became fully indoctrinated into the Japanese public during the Meiji
era. Measuring the accomplishments of “wealth and power” in times of peace would not be enough, as it
would require the successes of war to fully measure the accomplishments of “wealth and power.”

45

J.W. Dower, “Throwing Off Asia I: Woodblock Prints of Domestic ‘Westernization’ (1868-1912),” Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology Visualizing Cultures, Published 2008, https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/throwing_off_asia_01/toa_essay02.html
32

Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) Historical Background:
Meiji Japan’s accomplishments in “wealth and power” were tested for the second time during the RussoJapanese War at the beginning of the 20th century, after its success in the First Sino-Japanese War that
occurred a decade earlier at the end of the 19th century. However, despite Japan’s unexpected victory over the
Chinese that transformed global power politics, Meiji leaders quickly found power politics to be a harsher
game than anticipated when the Russians, Germans, and French (infamously known as the tripartite
intervention) reduced Japan’s spoils of war for their own expansionist interests in China. The intervention
marked the increased tensions between Russia and Japan, as both expanding empires sought hegemony overnortheast Asia on the Korean peninsula, and the Manchurian region for strategic interests.
Learning from the latest lessons in “modernization” and “Westernization” after the First Sino-Japanese War,
Meiji leaders redoubled the efforts for “wealth and power” by enlarging and updating Japan’s military over a
decade, establishing a military alliance with Great Britain, and raising loans in London and New York. All
these preparations made Japan more capable of playing the power game decisively, especially against Tsarist
Russia, a great power enemy that represented the white, Christian, and expansionist “West” that saddled Japan
with the onerous unequal treaty system46. Therefore, when Meiji Japan entered war with Tsarist Russia in
1904, it symbolized the ultimate test of Meiji Japan’s efforts in “modernization,” and “Westernization,” andits surprise victory signalled the achievement of “rich country, strong military,” and “enlightenment andcivilization.”
Russo-Japanese War Picture Postcard Analysis:Image 1.
A picture postcard with Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō(at the centre of the image) on the bridge of theironclad warship Mikasa after the victory ofTsushima. By unknown artist, after Battle of
Tsushima (May 1905)
https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/asia_rising/image/2002_2942.jpg

The first official picture postcard was issued by the Austrian Post Office Authorities on October 1st, 1869, andits creation caused a revolution in people’s writing habits and became the subject of a collecting craze almost
unparallelled in history47. Japan’s craze for the picture postcard was second in the world, after Germany,
where 96,430,610 were posted in 1890, and rose to 1,504,860,312 by 191348. With picture postcards’ posting
rates increasing over fifteenfold during a 23-year period in Japan’s Meiji era, it would have been foolish for
the Meiji government to not propagate propaganda images on the picture postcards that visualized the
propaganda slogans of “rich country, strong military,” and “enlightenment and civilization.” The picture
postcard was the ideal propaganda vehicle at the time because it was cheap, easy to handle, and with a visualappeal that can be appreciated by both the literate and illiterate peoples49. Combined with the appeal of
patriotism, the wartime picture postcards of the Russo-Japanese War are the prime example in analyzing the
Meiji era’s peak in propagating propaganda.
The picture postcard chosen for analysis in this research paper shows Admiral Tōgō surrounded by naval
officers and crewmen on the bridge of the ironclad warship Mikasa at sea, with other ironclad warships in the
background. The naval uniforms, the facial hair styles, and the telescopes on the picture postcard are proof of
the “enlightenment and civilization” propaganda slogan in the Meiji era. Since “Westernization” wasassociated with wearing Western attire, supporting Western facial hairstyle, and utilizing Western science andtechnology. It was also associated with Western art and culture, as this picture postcard was drawn in a more
Western style than Japanese style. The propaganda slogan of “rich country, strong military” is also present inthis picture postcard, as “modernization” was associated with having a Western-style military with the most
46

J.W. Dower, “Throwing Off Asia III: Woodblock Prints of the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)” Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology Visualizing Cultures, Published 2008, https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/throwing_off_asia_03/toa_essay01.html
47
T.J. Brady, “Postcards and History,” History Today 19, no. 12 (1969), 848.
48
J. Fraser, “Propaganda on the picture postcard,” Oxford Art Journal 3, no. 2 (1980), 39.
49
J. Fraser, “Propaganda on the picture postcard,” 42.
33

modern weaponry. Admiral Tōgō’s Western military attire, on an expensive Western ironclad warshipconducting Western strategies of naval warfare with multiple Western ironclad warships after the victory at
the Battle of Tsushima demonstrated that Meiji Japan achieved “rich nation, strong military” status.
Combining the visualized propaganda slogans on the picture postcard in the context of a successful war
brought Meiji Japan’s propaganda to its peak.
Russo-Japanese War Woodblock Print Analysis:Image 2.
“Russo-Japanese War: Great
Japanese Red Cross Battlefield
Hospital Treating Injured” by
Utagawa Kokunimasa, March1904.
https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21
f/21f.027/throwing_off_asia_01/i
mage/2000_367_l.jpg
At the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War, there were more than four thousand woodblock print outlets inTokyo alone, but by the end of the war, the market for woodblock prints had all but disappeared due to themodernity that the picture postcard symbolized in visualizing the modern war (and modern times moregenerally)50. Despite the significantly smaller number of woodblock prints to picture postcards of the RussoJapanese War, the woodblock print was still a formidable propaganda vehicle in visualizing the Meiji era’s
propaganda slogans at the beginning of the war. Since it was the ideal propaganda vehicle in the First SinoJapanese War a decade earlier, because it had all the desirability that the picture postcard had in the RussoJapanese War. The picture postcard was simply cheaper, easier to handle (its smaller size and an effective
postal system), and had the additional visual appeal of photographs that allowed it to eliminate the woodblock
print’s competitiveness as a propaganda vehicle during the Russo-Japanese War.
The woodblock print chosen for this research paper contains a scene where Japanese Red Cross hospital staff
being humane by providing care to wounded Japanese and Russian soldiers. However, there is also a scene at
the top of the woodblock print, where it depicts Russian troops attacking Asian civilians. The contrast of thetwo scenes on the same woodblock print is to convey that the Japanese were more chivalrous than the Russianfoe. The images and their contrast are to also illustrate Meiji Japan’s success in the propaganda slogans of“rich nation, strong military,” and “enlightenment and civilization” after its adoption of modernization andWesternization. “Enlightenment and civilization” is evident with the Western clothing of the Japanese
medical staff and troops, the similarities in facial features between the Russians and the Japanese, and the useof Western medicine under the international Red Cross banner. While “rich country, strong military” isevident with the wounded Russian troops, the Western-clad Japanese soldiers who have received Western
military training, the abundance of medical supplies to treat both kin and foe, and the ability to successfully
wage war against a Western enemy and winning against them. Meiji Japan’s propaganda peaked on thiswoodblock print because it visualized Japan’s “wealth and power” over the West’s “wealth and power.”
Japan had mastered modernization and Westernization.
Conclusion:
The propaganda slogans of “rich country, strong military,” and “enlightenment and civilization” were madeappealing when it was visualized in combination with patriotism during the Russo-Japanese War on the ideal
propaganda vehicles of the picture postcard and woodblock print. Images drawn, painted or made into
cartoons on the ideal propaganda vehicles could glorify the modern war and modern times, while photographson the picture postcard would add a sense of realism to the modern war and modern times. Meiji Japan’s
engagement in modern war during modern times was permitted due to its adoption of “modernization” and“Westernization” that created “wealth and power” on domestic and international levels. “Wealth and power”
would eventually lead Japan on the unfortunate path of total destruction resulting in its ultimate defeat at theend of WW2, but Meiji Japan’s achievement of “wealth and power” was vividly captured on the images of the

50

J.W. Dower, “Asia Rising: Japanese Postcards of the Russo-Japanese war (1904-05),” Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Visualizing Cultures, Published 2008, https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/asia_rising/ar_essay02.html
34

picture postcards and woodblock prints. While the woodblock print became a relic of the past by 1904, andthe picture postcard being only popular for holiday purposes after its heydays in the early 20th century, theirimages contained an important lesson. Visual propaganda needs to be cheap, easy to handle, and have an
appeal to a wide audience for impact.

References:
Brady, T.J. “Postcards and History.” History Today 19, no. 12 (1969): 848–55.
Dower, J. W. “Throwing Off Asia I: Woodblock Prints of Domestic ‘Westernization’ (1868-1912),” Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology Visualizing Cultures, Published 2008,https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/throwing_off_asia_01/index.html
Dower, J. W. “Throwing Off Asia III: Woodblock Prints of the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05),” Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology Visualizing Cultures, Published 2008,https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/throwing_off_asia_03/index.html
Dower, J.W. “Asia Rising: Japanese Postcards of the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05),” Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology Visualizing Cultures, Published 2008,https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/asia_rising/index.html
Fraser, J. “Propaganda on the picture postcard.” Oxford Art Journal 3, no. 2 (1980): 39–47.
35

epok Final Presentations
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Centre for Global Partnerships and Education Okayama University
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