Journal of Paralympic Research Group vol.14［Research Notes］Paralympics andan Inclusive Society
OGURA Kazuo

One of the social roles or effects of the Paralympics that is often cited is its catalyticrole or effect in creating an inclusive society.
This effect can be broadly classified into three:（1）the impact on disabled people’s
independence and social participation,（2）impact on able-bodied people’s attitudes
and views on disabled people, and（3）changes in the social environment from theimpact on organizations and systems, and technological development. If such an effectcan be expected to lead to the creation of an inclusive society, its process would sharemany similar features with the inclusion of or coexistence with social groups that are
seen as “socially vulnerable” or a “minority（in political terms）” and who are often
exposed to the same kind of discrimination and bias as disabled people. Such socialgroups include women, sexual minorities, refugees, immigrants, ethnic minorities, andthe elderly. Like many disabled people, members of these groups did not choose tobelong to the group; rather, external factors were often central to becoming assigned
to a group. In other words, it can be said that ensuring social equality for such
“vulnerable” or “minority” groups is essential for creating an inclusive society.
To consider the Paralympics and an inclusive society from this standpoint, theobservational and analytical focus will be on the following three areas:（A）effects on
the social participation of people with disabilities, （B） indirect effects on and theimprovement of conditions for other “socially vulnerable” people, and（C）（given thatsocial groups are formed according to disability type）the impact on the way people
with different disabilities live in cooperation with each other. Among these areas,（A）can be divided into the three aspects（1）,（2）,and（3）mentioned above.

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［Research Notes］Paralympics and an Inclusive Society

A. Effects on the Social Participation of People with Disabilities（1）Impact on disabled people’s feeling of independence and social participation
Participation in the Paralympics, or engagement in sports activities as a preliminary
step towards the Paralympics, gives disabled people confidence, and also naturally
promotes social participation through interaction with assistants, coaches, andsupporters, among others. Since people with a disability tend, unconsciously or not, torestrict themselves, they often undergo a shift in self-awareness as a preliminary stepto participating in sports activities. For example, when the visually-impaired trackand field athlete Misato Michishita was hospitalized as a junior high school student,
she was deeply moved by the words of a male patient she became acquainted with at
the hospital. She quotes the man’s words as follows1:“God only gives hardships to those who can endure them. I have been chosen,
and so have you.”
The fact that only people with disabilities can take part in the Paralympics canactually work as a catalyst for overcoming disability. This is because in the
Paralympics, a disability is a characteristic, a part of a person’s identity. The words ofJunichi Kawai, a former Paralympian swimmer, are significant in this regard2:“To me, being blind is not a handicap. It’s a bit inconvenient, but it’s a part of
my identity.”
Each Paralympian also represents his or her country. Participating in the
Paralympics as a member of Japan’s national team is a contribution to the country,
and that, in and of itself, is a symbol of social participation. It means “being on thesame terms as” able-bodied athletes in the words of the wheelchair basketball player
Kazuyuki Kyoya who retired after the London 2012 Paralympic Games. Kyoya says
about this3:“Wait a second. If I could play among the world’s top wheelchair basketball107

Journal of Paralympic Research Group vol.14

players in the Paralympics as a member of Japan’s national team, wouldn’t thatmean I’m on equal terms with these guys（author’s note: J. League players andmembers of Japan’s national soccer team）? The sports are different, but we’dall be representing Japan, right?”
Support and encouragement from others is essential for people with disabilities tolive an active, independent life. This process is linked to the idea of coexistence. In
relation to this, Kyoya recalls his relationship with his wife as follows4:“Just when I was starting to get really depressed, I told myself ‘Hang on, I’m
not alone. I’ve got Yoko,’ and realized the importance of Yoko. This was thefirst time I understood what Yoko had meant when she suddenly started
talking about us getting married.”
However, some may doubt the extent to which the achievements of Paralympians
contribute to encouraging “ordinary” people with disabilities to participate more in
sports activities or in society. For instance, a survey showed that 60 percent of people
with disabilities who watched the 2018 PyeongChang Winter Paralympic Games in
Korea on television considered the achievements made in the Games to be mostly
irrelevant to them5.
On the other hand, there have been cases in which the achievements ofParalympians had a ripple effect and led to the development of new athletes. The
1998 Nagano Winter Paralympic Games （hereinafter referred to as the “Nagano
Paralympics”） is an example, and it cannot be denied that the achievements ofParalympians encourage people with disabilities to participate in sports activities andin the Paralympics6.
（2）Impact on Able-bodied People’s Attitudes and Views on People with Disabilities
The Paralympics has in numerous cases led to a change in awareness, not indisabled people, but in able-bodied people. For example, one legacy of the Nagano
Paralympics was a change in ski slopes. The alpine skier and medalist Kuniko
Obinata recalls as follows7:

108

［Research Notes］Paralympics and an Inclusive Society（Before“the Nagano Paralympics） we used to go deep into the mountains
because there were no other ski slopes that would accommodate disabledskiing teams…‘We can’t be held responsible if you have an accident,’ ‘We haveto stop the lift when a disabled person gets on.’ We’d be turned down like thatevery time…（The Nagano Paralympics was a turning point, and） more
people became supportive of disabled skiing. I’d just have to say hello andthey’d let me practice on the course.”
The Nagano Paralympics also seems to have led to a change in thinking among
citizens in general. Citizen-led initiatives, for example with the chamber of commerce,
were effective in making shopping arcades and public places accessible8.
In terms of information or communication, increased consideration for the visuallyimpaired was seen in the creation of a sculpture of the Nagano Paralympic logo todisplay at an event venue9, can be considered another “legacy” of the Nagano
Paralympics. Although not directly related to the Nagano Paralympics, the fact that
Braille inscriptions have been added to the back of Paralympic Games medals as asymbol of consideration for people with disabilities represents another element of achange of awareness among able-bodied people10.
The importance of balancing the feeling of independence of disabled people withsupport from able-bodied people is expressed by the writer Tsutomu Mizukami, whowrites about the 1964 Tokyo Paralympic Games in the novel Kurumaisu no Uta［Song of the Wheelchair］, based on his own experience as the father of a disabledchild, and who campaigned for better treatment of disabled children. In one scene in
the novel, the parents of a disabled child, after watching the Paralympic Games, cometo feel that they themselves are the wheels of the wheelchair for their child. The
scene implies that because they want to respect their child’s sense of independence
as she tries not to use a wheelchair and to stand as much as possible using prosthetic
legs, they realize that a disabled person’s feeling of independence needs to coexist inbalance with support from able-bodied people11. They say to their daughter:“Kojima sensei said that neither you, Toko, nor Miyo needs a wheelchair, andthat if you need a wheelchair it’s us, your parents, who are the two wheels of
the wheelchair.”
109

Journal of Paralympic Research Group vol.14

Another result of the change in awareness among able-bodied people can be seenin the merging of able-bodied and disabled sports associations in the sports world. A
symbolic change on a national government level was the transfer of administrative
responsibility for supporting disabled athletes and providing support programs forthe promotion of disabled sports from the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare to
the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in 201412. In
several countries, such as the UK, Australia, and Canada13, most sports associations
have been merged and in Japan, three sports （triathlon, taekwondo, and rowing）
have merged their able-bodied and disabled associations as of December 201914. On
the local government level, the number of prefectures in which the division
responsible for disabled sports has been detached from the welfare division andintegrated into the sports division has increased from seven in 2016 to 15 in 2019,according to the Japan Sports Agency. These changes are an example of the change
in thinking among able-bodied people, and represent a step towards the creation of
an inclusive society.
（3）Changes in the Social Environment, including Relevant Organizations andSystems, and Technological Development
The 1964 Tokyo Paralympic Games triggered the establishment of the Japan Sports
15, andAssociation for the Disabled（currently the Japanese Para-Sports Association）

led to the launch of the National Sports Festival for People with Physical Disabilities
16.
（currently National Sports Festival for People with Disabilities）

In terms of technology, the Nagano Paralympics spurred technological advances in
the field of sit skiing in Japan17.
Measures for promoting disabled sports can be considered a way to improve thesocial environment. To improve the environment for competitive disabled sports, thisincludes the development of sports specifically for people with disabilities （e. g.
boccia, goal ball, sitting volleyball）, formulation of special rules that take into accountdisabled people’s requirements（e. g. avoiding grappling in visually impaired judo,using a tap stick to signal to swimmers just before they approach the goal or a turn,and callers in visually impaired long jump who tell athletes where the take-off board
110

［Research Notes］Paralympics and an Inclusive Society

is located）, and establishing systems that ensure fair competition conditions（what is
usually called a classification system）.

B. Indirect Effects on and Improvement of Conditions for Other“Socially Vulnerable” People（i）Women
The rate of female participation in the Paralympics is considerably lower comparedto the Olympics. While the rates of male and female participation are currently
almost the same in the Olympics, the rate of female participation in the Paralympics
was less than 40 percent in the Rio Paralympics（Fig. 1）.
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2O\PSLFV 

Figure 1. Women Athletes Participating in the Summer Olympic and Paralympic
Games（%）
Source: IOC, 2016, Factsheet Women in the Olympic Movement; 2018, Factsheet the Olympic
Winter Games and IPC database（January 21, 2020）.

111

Journal of Paralympic Research Group vol.14



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

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Figure 2. Women Athletes Participating in the Winter Olympic and Paralympic
Games（%）
Source: IOC, 2016, Factsheet Women in the Olympic Movement; 2018, Factsheet the Olympic
Winter Games and IPC database（January 21, 2020）.

（ii）Refugees
In order to enable refugee athletes who have lost their home country to participate
in the Rio Paralympics, a Refugee Team consisting of two athletes not representing
any country was formed. IPC president Andrew Parsons noted that preparations
have been made to accept a Refugee Team in the 2020 Tokyo Paralympic Games18. Such initiatives are expected（hereinafter referred to as the “Tokyo Paralympics”）

to have a positive impact in terms of promoting international engagement in refugee
issues.
（iii）Sexual Minorities
Unlike the Olympics, the Paralympics has not experienced any issues related to theparticipation of sexual minority athletes. However, according to “Outsports,” anAmerican website that covers LGBTQ-related sports news, there were at least 12
Paralympians who identified publicly as LGBT at the time of the Rio Paralympics19,
indicating the potential of issues similar to those in the Olympics arising in the future.
It should also be noted that this issue is not just about the inclusion of a social
minority group, but is also related to the fundamental issue surrounding the extent to112

［Research Notes］Paralympics and an Inclusive Society

which men and women should compete separately in order to ensure fair competition
conditions in competitive sports.
（iv）Ethnic Minorities
The participation of athletes from ethnic minorities in the Paralympics could act asa catalyst for promoting the social inclusion of ethnic minorities. For example, in 2015
the Australian Paralympic Committee（currently Paralympics Australia）unveiled anhonour board recognizing 11 indigenous Paralympians at the National Centre of
Indigenous Excellence in Sydney. The names of Amanda Reid and Torita Blake, bothathletes who participated in the Rio Paralympics, as well as that of Ray Barrett who
participated in the Heidelberg 1972 Paralympic Games, were newly added in 2017.
Such examples may well bear considerable social significance for maintaining
diversity and inclusion in sports20.
（v）Elderly People
More older athletes participate in the Paralympics than in the Olympics. For
example, the 132 Japanese athletes who participated in the Rio Paralympics included
seven in their fifties and three in their sixties21. Given that many elderly people havea disability, promoting the Paralympic Movement may indirectly encourage theelderly to engage in sports and maintain their health.
（vi）Disabled Veterans
In most countries, it is the government’s responsibility to support the social
rehabilitation of veterans wounded in warfare, and social rehabilitation was at theorigin of the Paralympics22. Even today, disabled veterans make up about 10 percent
of all Paralympians in some countries, as shown in Table 1.

113

Journal of Paralympic Research Group vol.14

Table 1. Veterans with Disabilities in the US and UK Participating in the London and
Rio Paralympic Games
London GamesRio GamesUS

26/221 athletes
11.7%

21/278 athletes
7.6%

UK

7/287 athletes
2.4%

12/251 athletes（at least）
more than 4.8%

Sources: The Huffington Post, “Paralympics 2012: 5 Most Inspiring 2 Vets Competing In
Paralympics,” August 31, 2012,https://www.huffpost.com/entry/paralympics-2012-wounded-veterans_n_1844611,（March 20, 2020）; U. S. Army., “Five Soldiers, 16 Army vets on Team USA for Rio
Paralympics,” September 07, 2017,https://www.army.mil/article/174630/four_ncos_16_army_vets_to_compete_in_rio_
paralympics,（April 12, 2017）; BBC News Magazine, “Was Jimmy Carr right about
the Paralympics?” July 04, 2012,https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-18670966, （March 20, 2020）; Mail Online,“Great Britain’s military Paralympians ready to go in Rio after demonstrating
incredible powers of recovery,” September 08, 2016,
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/othersports/article-3779510/Great-Britain-smilitary-Paralympians-demonstrate-incredible-powers-recovery-Rio-2016.html, （April
12, 2017）;Blesma, “The Veterans to look out for at the Rio Paralympics,” September
08, 2016,
https://blesma.org/news-media/blesma-news/2016/the-veterans-to-look-out-for-atthe-rio-paralympics/,（April 12, 2017）.

The UK, Canada, and the US, for example, have sports participation programs fordisabled veterans which lead to the discovery and training of potential Paralympians23.
Such programs are intended to promote the social rehabilitation of disabled veterans,
but because in the US, many disabled sports activities receive little public assistanceand rely on private funding, there is some criticism of the inequality between athletes
who are disabled veterans and can receive public funding, and those who are not.

C. Impact on the Way People with Different Disabilities Live in
Cooperation with Each Other
Due in part to the historical background of the Paralympics, there tends to be afocus on physically disabled athletes, especially those in wheelchairs. Of the 22 sports
scheduled in the Tokyo Paralympic Games, Table 2 shows how many is open toparticipation by each type of disability.

114

【研究ノート】パラリンピックと共生社会【研究ノート】パラリンピックと共生社会
小倉和夫

パラリンピックの社会的役割あるいは効果については，しばしば，障がい者との共生
社会実現への触媒的役割や効果が語られる。
こうした効果は，大まかに言って（イ）障がい者自身の自立・社会参加意識への影響，（ロ）健常者の障がい者に対する態度・見方への影響，（ハ）関連組織や体制などを中心とする社会環境の変化と技術開発への影響の三つに分けることが出来よう。こうした効果を通じて，障がい者との共生が実現されていくことを期待しうるとすれば，その過程は，障がい者と同じような差別や偏見を受けやすい他の「社会的弱者」あるいは「（政治的な意味での）少数派」とみられる社会的グループの包摂あるいは共生の態様と類似している面も少なくないと考えられる。そうしたグループとしては，女性・性的少数者・難民・移民・少数民族・高齢者などが考えられる。これらのグループは，多くの障がい者と同じく，自己の意思によってそのグループに属したのではなく，主として外的要因によって，それぞれのグループに属することになったと言える。言いかえれば，こうした「弱者」あるいは「少数派」のグループに対して社会的平等などを保障することが，共生社会の実現にほかならないとも言える。
このような観点に立って，パラリンピックと共生社会を考えると，観察・分析の視点
は，大きく言って次の三つに分けることが出来よう。すなわち，（Ａ）障がい者の社会参画への効果，（Ｂ）他の「社会的弱者」が置かれた状況およびその改善への間接的効果，（Ｃ）（障がいの種別によって社会的グループが形成されていることを勘案すると）異なる障がいのある人々同士の共生への影響である。このうち（Ａ）については，上述の（イ）（ロ）（ハ）に分けることが出来よう。

Ａ．障がい者の社会参画への効果（イ） 障がい者自身の自立・社会参加意識への影響
パラリンピックへの参加，あるいはその前段階としてのスポーツ活動は，障がい者に95パラリンピック研究会

紀要 vol.14

自信を与え，また，そうした活動は，補助者やコーチ，支持者などとの関係を通じ，自ずからの社会参加を促進することとなる。そもそも，無意識のうちにも自己の限界を意識しがちな障がい者にとっては，スポーツ活動への参加の前段階に自己認識の転換が必要である場合も多い。例えば，視覚障がい者で陸上選手の道下は，中学時代に入院した
際，病院で知り合ったある男性入院患者の言葉に感銘を受けたとして，その人の言葉を次のように引用している１。
神様は乗り越えられる人にしか試練を与えない。自分は選ばれた人。お嬢ちゃんも選ばれた人なんだよまた，「パラリンピックには，障がい者しか参加できない」ということも，実は，障がいの克服のある種の触媒となっている。なぜなら，そこでは，障がいは一つの特性，
個性となっているからである。この点に関して，パラリンピアンで水泳選手だった河合の言葉は意味深長である２。
目が見えないということは，僕にとって，ハンディでない。すこしの不自由さはあるけれど，それは，個性の一つなのです。
さらに，パラリンピックでは，選手一人ひとりが自分の「国」を背負っていることに注意を要する。日の丸を背負ってプレーすることは国家への貢献であり，そのこと自体，
社会参加の象徴であるのみならず，ロンドン2012パラリンピック競技大会（以下「ロンドンパラ大会」と略す）で現役を引退した車いすバスケット選手の京谷が言うように，健常者の選手と「一緒になる」ことだからである。この点について京谷は次のように言う３。
いや，待てよ。もしおれが，車いすバスケでパラリンピックという世界最高峰の舞台に立ち，日の丸を背負ってプレーすることができれば，こいつら（筆者注：
Ｊリーグの選手やサッカー日本代表の選手）と同じ土俵にまた立てるのではないだろうか？競技が違っても，日の丸を背負ってプレーすることはいっしょじゃな
いか？
障がい者が自立し，活躍するためには，周囲の支援と励ましが不可欠である。その過程は，共生概念と結びつく。この点を，同じく京谷は，妻との関係に関連して次のように述懐している４。
96［Research Notes］Paralympics and an Inclusive Society（Before“the Nagano Paralympics） we used to go deep into the mountains
because there were no other ski slopes that would accommodate disabledskiing teams…‘We can’t be held responsible if you have an accident,’ ‘We haveto stop the lift when a disabled person gets on.’ We’d be turned down like thatevery time…（The Nagano Paralympics was a turning point, and） more
people became supportive of disabled skiing. I’d just have to say hello andthey’d let me practice on the course.”
The Nagano Paralympics also seems to have led to a change in thinking among
citizens in general. Citizen-led initiatives, for example with the chamber of commerce,
were effective in making shopping arcades and public places accessible8.
In terms of information or communication, increased consideration for the visuallyimpaired was seen in the creation of a sculpture of the Nagano Paralympic logo todisplay at an event venue9, can be considered another “legacy” of the Nagano
Paralympics. Although not directly related to the Nagano Paralympics, the fact that
Braille inscriptions have been added to the back of Paralympic Games medals as asymbol of consideration for people with disabilities represents another element of achange of awareness among able-bodied people10.
The importance of balancing the feeling of independence of disabled people withsupport from able-bodied people is expressed by the writer Tsutomu Mizukami, whowrites about the 1964 Tokyo Paralympic Games in the novel Kurumaisu no Uta［Song of the Wheelchair］, based on his own experience as the father of a disabledchild, and who campaigned for better treatment of disabled children. In one scene in
the novel, the parents of a disabled child, after watching the Paralympic Games, cometo feel that they themselves are the wheels of the wheelchair for their child. The
scene implies that because they want to respect their child’s sense of independence
as she tries not to use a wheelchair and to stand as much as possible using prosthetic
legs, they realize that a disabled person’s feeling of independence needs to coexist inbalance with support from able-bodied people11. They say to their daughter:“Kojima sensei said that neither you, Toko, nor Miyo needs a wheelchair, andthat if you need a wheelchair it’s us, your parents, who are the two wheels of
the wheelchair.”
109

Journal of Paralympic Research Group vol.14

Another result of the change in awareness among able-bodied people can be seenin the merging of able-bodied and disabled sports associations in the sports world. A
symbolic change on a national government level was the transfer of administrative
responsibility for supporting disabled athletes and providing support programs forthe promotion of disabled sports from the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare to
the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in 201412. In
several countries, such as the UK, Australia, and Canada13, most sports associations
have been merged and in Japan, three sports （triathlon, taekwondo, and rowing）
have merged their able-bodied and disabled associations as of December 201914. On
the local government level, the number of prefectures in which the division
responsible for disabled sports has been detached from the welfare division andintegrated into the sports division has increased from seven in 2016 to 15 in 2019,according to the Japan Sports Agency. These changes are an example of the change
in thinking among able-bodied people, and represent a step towards the creation of
an inclusive society.
（3）Changes in the Social Environment, including Relevant Organizations andSystems, and Technological Development
The 1964 Tokyo Paralympic Games triggered the establishment of the Japan Sports
15, andAssociation for the Disabled（currently the Japanese Para-Sports Association）

led to the launch of the National Sports Festival for People with Physical Disabilities
16.
（currently National Sports Festival for People with Disabilities）

In terms of technology, the Nagano Paralympics spurred technological advances in
the field of sit skiing in Japan17.
Measures for promoting disabled sports can be considered a way to improve thesocial environment. To improve the environment for competitive disabled sports, thisincludes the development of sports specifically for people with disabilities （e. g.
boccia, goal ball, sitting volleyball）, formulation of special rules that take into accountdisabled people’s requirements（e. g. avoiding grappling in visually impaired judo,using a tap stick to signal to swimmers just before they approach the goal or a turn,and callers in visually impaired long jump who tell athletes where the take-off board
110

［Research Notes］Paralympics and an Inclusive Society

Table 2. Number of Sports in the Tokyo Paralympics Games Open to Participation
by Each Type of Disability
Disability

Number of Sports（with some
sports overlapping）

Physical Impairment

19（wheelchair users canparticipate in 10 out of the 19）

Visual Impairment

9Intellectual Impairment

3

Source: Parasports Section, Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games Division, Bureau of Olympic andParalympic Games Tokyo 2020 Preparation, Tokyo Metropolitan Government, The
Road to Paralympic Games, 7.

When considering the social inclusion of all people, deciding which types of
disability ─ in addition to wheelchair sports that represent the origin of the
Paralympics ─ to include in the Paralympics is difficult. This is because it involves atleast two issues. First, is the issue of identity for people with a disability. For example,
people with a hearing impairment have developed their own culture, including sign
language, and to respect this, other international sports events such as theDeaflympics play a significant role24. For people with intellectual disabilities, there is
the basic issue of how much highly competitive sports should be promoted, and theprinciples of the Special Olympics, focusing on participation rather than competition,
are considered more important in this regard25. It would be difficult to integrate theseinternational sports events for people with disabilities into the Paralympics, becauseof differences in their respective principles among other reasons. However, we should
consider encouraging people with disabilities other than physical disabilities toparticipate in the Paralympics, and promoting the unification of disabled sports
associations which tend to be broken down into subdivisions. This may encourage
disabled people who tend to identify themselves according to their type of disability,
to also consider their identity within a larger perspective that includes all people withdisabilities.
Second, is the issue of participation of people with severe disabilities. Even in the
Paralympics, it has in practice become difficult for people with severe disabilities toparticipate, and this raises questions about the role of the Paralympics as a catalyst
for creating an inclusive society. There is a move to advocate the development of115

［Research Notes］Paralympics and an Inclusive Society

Table 2. Number of Sports in the Tokyo Paralympics Games Open to Participation
by Each Type of Disability
Disability

Number of Sports（with some
sports overlapping）

Physical Impairment

19（wheelchair users canparticipate in 10 out of the 19）

Visual Impairment

9Intellectual Impairment

3

Source: Parasports Section, Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games Division, Bureau of Olympic andParalympic Games Tokyo 2020 Preparation, Tokyo Metropolitan Government, The
Road to Paralympic Games, 7.

When considering the social inclusion of all people, deciding which types of
disability ─ in addition to wheelchair sports that represent the origin of the
Paralympics ─ to include in the Paralympics is difficult. This is because it involves atleast two issues. First, is the issue of identity for people with a disability. For example,
people with a hearing impairment have developed their own culture, including sign
language, and to respect this, other international sports events such as theDeaflympics play a significant role24. For people with intellectual disabilities, there is
the basic issue of how much highly competitive sports should be promoted, and theprinciples of the Special Olympics, focusing on participation rather than competition,
are considered more important in this regard25. It would be difficult to integrate theseinternational sports events for people with disabilities into the Paralympics, becauseof differences in their respective principles among other reasons. However, we should
consider encouraging people with disabilities other than physical disabilities toparticipate in the Paralympics, and promoting the unification of disabled sports
associations which tend to be broken down into subdivisions. This may encourage
disabled people who tend to identify themselves according to their type of disability,
to also consider their identity within a larger perspective that includes all people withdisabilities.
Second, is the issue of participation of people with severe disabilities. Even in the
Paralympics, it has in practice become difficult for people with severe disabilities toparticipate, and this raises questions about the role of the Paralympics as a catalyst
for creating an inclusive society. There is a move to advocate the development of115

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competitive sports that can be played by people with severe disabilities, and boccia
has been raised as an example. However, as long as the Paralympics focuses oncompetition, it will inevitably be difficult for people with severe disabilities toparticipate. The effectiveness of using sports for the social inclusion of people withsevere disabilities needs to be considered together with the effectiveness of activities
in other fields such as art.

D. Principles to Consider for Creating an Inclusive Society
When thinking about the social inclusion of people with disabilities, we
unconsciously tend to be trapped in the idea that a disability is something to“overcome,” physically or mentally. However, when a disability is considered part of aperson’s identity, it becomes something that can be utilized rather than “overcome.”
At the Art Paralympic Nagano, held to coincide with the Nagano Paralympics, one of
the artworks by a disabled person that drew attention was a work of calligraphy
with the word “Ganbaranai［Being Myself］.” This leads to the perspective of looking
at a disability as part of a person’s identity rather than something to be overcome,and implies differences in meaning between sports and art activities.
This is linked to the fact that modern society is competitive and meritocratic innature. The more the Paralympics becomes a competitive sports event like theOlympics, it could mean applauding meritocracy, and this could be a significant
problem.
If we were to assume that a disability is something to be overcome, we need toconsider individual efforts towards this, and how to provide the right social
environment. In 2018, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government created a poster toadvertise a disabled sports promotion event. It featured the words of an athlete
expressing her attitude to sports: “A disability is just an excuse. If you lose, it’s
because you’re weak.” This remark could be taken to mean that overcoming adisability depends purely on an individual’s ability, and the poster was removed in
the face of criticism that it paid little attention to the fact that disability is also an
issue for society as a whole26, 27. This was a reminder that overcoming a disability
requires not only individual effort but also the engagement of society as a whole. The
book Everyone Here Spoke Sign Language28 offers a similar message. On an island
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where most of its residents have a hearing impairment and therefore mainly
communicate in sign language, it is the able-bodied people unable to use sign
language who are “disabled”, suggesting that the issue of overcoming a disability isthus one facing society as a whole.
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Michishita, S., 2015, Let’s Run Together, Geijutsu Shinbunsha, 16.

2

Sawai, K., 1997, Yume wo tsunagu（Keep Dreaming）,Hikumano Publishing Company, 129.

3

Kyoya, K. 2011, Kurumaisu de yume wo kakero （Chasing a Dream with Wheelchair
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4

Ibid., 136.

5

Nakayama, K., 2018, “Study of the Paralympics and Broadcasting（1）: Report on
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6

Ogoura, K., 2015, “The legacy of the 1998 Winter Paralympics in Nagano,” Journal of the
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The Mainichi Newspapers, “Gekkan Paralympic: Oly Para ittai Nagano kara/2 rikaisha fue
kankyo kaizen（Monthly Paralympic: Olympics and Paralympics Working Together From
Nagano/2 More Understanding, More Improvement,” 13 December, 2016.

8

Ogoura, K., 2015, “The legacy of the 1998 Winter Paralympics in Nagano,” 1-32.

9Ibid., 22.

10

Ogoura, K., 2020, “Ideals and Significance of the Paralympics: Observations from Temporaland Spatial Dimensions,” Journal of Paralympic Research Group, 13, 9-10.

11

Minakami, T., 1973, Kurumaisu no uta（Song of the Wheelchair）, Chuokoron-Shinsya, Inc.,
379.

12

Japan Sports Agency, “Shogaishya wo torimaku jyokyo（Current Situation of People with
Disabilities,” https://www.mext.go.jp/sports/b_menu/sports/mcatetop06/list/1371916.htm,（12 April, 2020）.

13

British Paralympic Association, “How We Are Run,” https://paralympics.org.uk/footerpages/how-we-are-run, （12 April, 2020）; Paralympics Australia, “Sports,” https://www.
paralympic.org.au/play-para-sport/,（12 April, 2020）; Canadian Paralympic Committee, 2020,
Annual Report 2018-2019, https://paralympic.ca/sites/default/files/2019-11/Annual%20
Report%202018-19_EN.pdf, 22,（12 April, 2020）.

14

Japanese Paralympic Committee, JPC’s Members（National Federations）in The Fiscal Year2019, https://www.jsad.or.jp/paralympic/jpc/data/2019/2020jpc_group_200107.pdf,（12 April,2020）.

15

Japanese Para-Sports Association, 2020, Shogaisha sports no rekishi to genjyo（History andCurrent Situation of Disability Sports）
, 2.

16

Ibid., 9.

17Japan ChairSki Association, “About Chair Ski,” http://www.chairski.jp/guide.html,（12 April,2020）.

18

Kyodo News, “Paralympics: IPC Prepares to Have Refugee Team at Tokyo Games,” 15
August, 2019, https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2019/08/6edbf4abab6a-paralympics-ipc-

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Journal of Paralympic Research Group vol.14
prepares-to-have-refugee-team-at-tokyo-games.html,（12 April, 2020）.
19

Outsports, “At least 12 out LGBT Athletes Competing at the Paralympics in Rio,” 06
September, 2016, https://www.outsports.com/2016/9/6/12731156/paralympics-lgbt-gayathletes-out-rio,（12 April, 2020）.

20

Paralympics Australia, “Indigenous Paralympians Recognised for NAIDOC Week,” 07 June,
2017, https://www.paralympic.org.au/2017/07/indigenous-paralympians-recognised-fornaidoc-week/,（12 April, 2020）.

21

Japanese Para-Sports Association/Japanese Paralympic Committee, 2017, Report of the Rio
Paralympic Games, 1-13.

22

Ogoura, K., 2016, “War and the Paralympics,” Journal of Paralympic Research Group, 6, 1-8.

23

Radtke, S. and Doll-Tepper, G., 2014, Nachwuchsgewinnung und -förderung im
paralympischen Sport: Ein internationaler Systemvergleich unter Berücksichtigung derAthleten-, Trainer- und Funkionärsperspektive, Sportverlag Strauß.

24

Ogoura, K., 2018, “The Deaflympics: History, Present Status, Issues, and Comparison with
the Paralympics,” Journal of Paralympic Research Group, 8, 1-35.

25

Ogoura, K., 2018, Research Note on Special Olympics, Journal of Paralympic Research Group,
10, 127-154.

26

Tokyo Metropolitan Government, ” ’BEYOND FES Marunouchi’ ni okeru tenji no tekkyo ni
tsuite（On the removal of an exhibit at ‘BEYOND FES Marunouchi’）,” 16 October, 2018,https://www.para-sports.tokyo/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/181016_team_beyond.pdf, （16April, 2020）.

27

The Mainichi Newspapers, “Shogaisha sports: Para senshu no poster tekkyo ‘Shogai wa
Iiwake’ hamon, ippouteki message osore （Disability Sports: Removing the Poster aParalympic Athlete ‘Disability is An Excuse’ Causes Ripple, Concerns of a One Sided
Message）,” 17 October, 2018.

28

Groce, N. E., 1985, “Everyone Here Spoke Sign Language: Hereditary Deafness on Martha’s
Vineyard,” Harvard University Press.

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