CRIMINAL JUSTICE IN JAPANCHAPTER 1 STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE CRIMINALJUSTICE ADMINISTRATIONI.

POLICEA.

Overview

The police are the primary investigative agency in Japan. Police responsibilities under the Police
Act include “protecting life, person, and property; preventing, suppressing, and investigating crimes;
apprehending suspects; traffic enforcement; and maintaining public safety and order.”Actual police duties are executed by prefectural police organizations, while the national police
organization undertakes: the planning of police policies and systems; control of police operations on
national safety issues; and co-ordination of police administration.
As of 2017, the authorized police strength is 296,667 nationwide, of which 7,848 belong to the
National Police Agency and 288,819 to the prefectural police forces.
B.

National Police Organization

The National Public Safety Commission and the National Police Agency [hereinafter NPA] constituteJapan’s national police organization.
1.

The National Public Safety Commission

The National Public Safety Commission is an administrative board that exercises administrative
supervision over the NPA. The Commission is composed of a Chairman, who is a Minister of State, andfive members appointed by the Prime Minister to a five-year term with the consent of both houses of theDiet. While the Commission is under the jurisdiction of the Prime Minister, the Prime Minister is not
empowered to exercise direct command and control over the Commission. The rationale for adopting sucha structure was to establish democratic administration of the police and to ensure its political neutrality.
The Commission formulates basic policies and regulations, co-ordinates police administration onmatters of national concern, and authorizes general standards for training, communication, forensics,
criminal statistics, and equipment.
The Commission appoints the Commissioner General of the NPA and the chiefs of prefectural
police organizations, and indirectly supervises prefectural police organizations through the NPA.
2.

The National Police Agency

The NPA is headed by the Commissioner General, who is appointed by the National Public Safety
Commission with the approval of the Prime Minister. The Commissioner General, under the administrative
supervision of the Commission, administers the Agency’s operations and supervises and controls prefectural
police organizations within the agency’s defined duties. NPA duties include planning and research on
police systems; the national police budget; police communications; training; equipment; forensics; andcriminal statistics.
The National Police Academy, the National Research Institute of Police Science and the Imperial
Guard Headquarters are attached to the NPA. The National Police Academy holds training courses forsenior police officers. The National Research Institute of Police Science conducts a broad range of analysis,
identification and research work that requires specialized knowledge and skills in biology, medicine and－1－other disciplines. The Imperial Guard Headquarters provides escorts for the Imperial Family and is
responsible for the security of the Imperial Palace.
C.

Local Police Organization

The Prefectural Public Safety Commission and thePrefectural Police Headquarters constitute the local police
organization. Each of the 47 prefectures of Japan has one
Prefectural Public Safety Commission and one Prefectural
Police Headquarter.
1.

The Prefectural Public Safety Commission

The Prefectural Public Safety Commissions areunder the jurisdiction of elected prefectural Governors.
The Commissions have three to five members who areappointed by the Governors with the consent of theprefectural assemblies.
The Commissions exercise administrative supervision
over the prefectural police by formulating basic policies
and regulations for police operations. However, they
are not authorized to supervise individual investigationsor specific law enforcement activities of the prefectural
police.
2.

Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department

Prefectural Police Headquarters

Prefectural Police Headquarters take charge of executing the actual police duties of protecting life,
person, and property; preventing, suppressing, and investigating crimes; apprehending suspects; traffic
enforcement; and maintaining public safety and order. The Prefectural Police Headquarters for Tokyo iscalled the Metropolitan Police Department and is the largest such prefectural headquarters in Japan.
Police stations are under the command of their respective Prefectural Police Headquarters, and as of2017, there are 1,163 police stations nationwide. Koban (police boxes) and Chuzaisho (residential police
boxes) are subordinate units of police stations, and as of 2017, there are 6,256 Koban and 6,380 Chuzaishonationwide.
II.

PROSECUTION

A.

Qualification

In Japan, judges, public prosecutors, and private attorneys have the same qualifications. To become
a qualified lawyer in Japan, in principle, applicants must pass the National Bar Examination, complete a
period of apprenticeship at the Legal Training and Research Institute managed by the Supreme Court,
and pass the final national exam.
In the past, there were no eligibility requirements for the National Bar Examination, and the ratio of
successful candidates was approximately 2 to 3 percent.

－2－However, the system has been changed as a part of extensive judicial reform in Japan with an aim
to increase the number of legal practitioners.
Under the current system, in order to become a qualified lawyer, candidates must first complete
graduate level legal studies at an approved law school or pass the preliminary examination, which
substitutes the completion of law school, and then pass the new National Bar Examination. The successrate for the current Bar Examination is substantially higher than that of its predecessor. In 2018, 1,525
candidates passed the Examination, and its success rate was 26.2 percent. Following the Bar Exam,candidates must take a one-year course as a legal apprentice at the Legal Training and Research Institute,and then pass the final national exam.
Judges or public prosecutors who resign their positions can become private attorneys, and mostretirees from the judiciary and prosecution do in fact become private attorneys. Similarly, a private attorneyalso can become a judge or a public prosecutor. As of 2017, there were about 2,775 judges (including assistantjudges), 1,964 public prosecutors and 38,980 private attorneys in Japan.

Ministry of Justice & Public Prosecutors OfficeB.

Organization

The Prosecution service is a part of the Ministry of Justice. The Prosecution service consists of theSupreme Public Prosecutors Office (headed by the Prosecutor- General), eight High Public Prosecutors
Offices (headed by a Superintending Prosecutor), 50 District Public Prosecutors Offices (headed by a Chief
Prosecutor) with 203 branches, and 438 Local Public Prosecutors Offices (also headed by a Chief
Prosecutor). The different levels of public prosecutors offices correspond to comparable levels in the
courts.
As of 2018, there were 1,927 public prosecutors, about 768 assistant public prosecutors, 1 andabout 9,000 prosecutor’s assistant officers. Regarding the size of District Public Prosecutors Offices,
the average office has about ten public prosecutors. The smallest has only five public prosecutors, andthe largest has more than 200. Each office has a Chief and a Deputy Chief Prosecutor who supervise
investigation, prosecution and trial. Thus, for example, in the smallest office, only three public prosecutors
actually investigate and prosecute cases. In small offices, the public prosecutor who investigates andindicts a suspect is the same person who handles the trial. In contrast, in large offices, different publicprosecutors carry out these duties, working either in the i nvestigation d epartment (usually entitledthe “Criminal Affairs Department”) or the trial Department.

1

Assistant public prosecutors are prosecutors that are selected by a special examination (different from the National Bar Examination) conducted by
the Ministry of Justice. The requirement to take this examination is to serve for a certain amount of years as government official such as prosecutor’s
assistant officers, police officers and court clerks. As a rule, they are assigned to Local Public Prosecutors Offices.

－3－

C.

Functions and Jurisdiction

Public prosecutors exercise such functions as investigation, prosecution, requesting the proper
application of law by courts, supervising the execution of judgments and other matters which fall under
their jurisdiction. When it is necessary for the purpose of investigation, they can carry out their duties
outside of their geographic jurisdiction.
D.

Status (Independence and Impartiality)

Prosecutorial functions are part of the executive power vested in the Cabinet, 2 which is
responsible to the Diet in the exercise of its powers. On the other hand, prosecutorial functions have aquasi-judicial nature, and the public prosecutors have a status equivalent to that of judges in terms of
qualifications and salary. They are considered impartial representatives of the public interest, and their
independence and impartiality are protected by law. Aside from disciplinary proceedings, they cannot bedismissed from office, suspended from the performance of their duties, or suffer a reduction in salary
against their will, with limited exceptions 3.The Prosecutor-General, the Deputy Prosecutor-General andthe Superintending Prosecutors are appointed by the Cabinet, and other public prosecutors by the
Minister of Justice. Their retirement age is 63 (65 for the Prosecutor-General).
By law, each public prosecutor holds an independent public office and has the authority to exercise
prosecutorial power independently. This means that they exercise their functions in their own name, not asa substitute for the Chief Prosecutor. However, in order to maintain impartial and consistent exercise ofprosecutorial power, in practice, public prosecutors are required to consult with, seek guidance and advice,and obtain approval from their supervisors when making important decisions. Depending on the gravity
or the difficulty of the issues involved, multiple layers of approvals, sometimes up to the Prosecutor
General, may be required.
Further, since the public prosecutors exercise executive power, the Minister of Justice should havethe power to supervise public prosecutors. On the other hand, prosecutorial functions have a quasijudicial nature, inevitably exerting an important influence on all sectors of the criminal justice system,
including the judiciary and the police. If those functions were subject to political influence, theintegrity of the entire criminal justice system would be jeopardized. To harmonize these requirements, thePublic Prosecutors Office Law Article 14 provides that the Minister of Justice may control and supervise
public prosecutors generally 4 in regard to their functions. However, in regard to the investigation andprosecution of an individual case, he or she may control only the Prosecutor-General. The Minister ofJustice cannot directly control the decisions of an individual public prosecutor in the investigation andprosecution of individual cases. Moreover, the Minister’s power to control the Prosecutor-General in an
individual case has been exercised only once in 1954, and since it was highly criticized by the public (seebelow), the power to exert political influence on investigation and prosecution for individual cases is not
used in practice and a culture that rejects such interference has been firmly established amongprosecutors.
Triggering incident to establish political independence of the public prosecutors(Feature) – the shipbuilding scandal caseIn 1954, the Special Investigation Department of the Tokyo District Public Prosecutor’s
Office, which had been investigating cases of corruption between the shipping andshipbuilding industries and key government figures, decided to arrest the Secretary-Generalof the Liberal Democratic Party (the ruling party at the time) on bribery charges. The
Minister of Justice, who also belonged to the ruling party, then exercised his authority andinstructed the Prosecutor General not to arrest the Secretary-General. As a result, the publicprosecutor in charge of the case declined to arrest the Secretary-General, and consequently it
led to the termination of the investigation. However the Minister’s exercise of his authority
caused public outrage when reported in the media, and the Minister was forced to resign.

2

The Cabinet consists of the Prime Minister and the Ministers of State. Not less than half of the Ministers must be chosen from the members of theDiet (Constitution, Article 66 and 68).
3
Public Prosecutors Office Law, Article 25. Exceptions are stipulated in Articles 22 (retirement age), 23 (physical or mental disability, etc.), and 24(supernumerary officials).
4“Generally” means, for example, to set up general guidance for crime prevention, the administrative interpretation of laws and how to dispose of
affairs related to prosecution to maintain their uniformity.

－4－III. COURTS
A.

Structure

1.

Introduction

Article 76 of the Japanese Constitution vests all judicial power in the Supreme Court and inferior
courts. No tribunal, organ, or agency of the executive branch can be given final judicial power. All criminalcases are heard and determined in ordinary judicial tribunals. All courts in Japan are incorporated into a
unitary national judicial system. There are five types of courts: the Supreme Court, High Court, District
Court, Family Court and Summary Court. As of 2018 there were approximately 3,000 judges withinthese courts, including assistant judges, and there were about 800 Summary Court judges. Approximately
22,000 other officers work in the judiciary, including court clerks, stenographers, and bailiffs.
2.

The Supreme Court

The Supreme Court, located in Tokyo, is the highest court in Japan and consists of the Chief Justiceand fourteen Justices. The Supreme Court has one Grand Bench, consisting of all the Justices, and three
Petit Benches, each consisting of five Justices.
The Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction over final appeals and appeals against rulings
specially provided for in codes of procedures. It ordinarily hears appeals against High Court decisions on
the following grounds: (i) a violation of the Constitution or an error in constitutional interpretation, or (ii)adjudication contrary to precedents of the Supreme Court or High Courts. At its discretion the Supreme
Court may also hear appeals against any case which involves an important point of statutory interpretation.
Article 81 of the Constitution empowers the Supreme Court, as the court of last resort, to determine
the constitutionality of any law, order, rule or disposition. The Supreme Court exercises this power not bydeclaring constitutionality in a general way, but by rendering case-specific decisions.
3.

The High Court
The eight High Courts are located in eight major cities in Japan: Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Hiroshima,
Fukuoka, Sendai, Sapporo and Takamatsu. Each High Court consists of a President and other High Court
judges. High Courts have jurisdiction over appeals against judgement in the first instance rendered byDistrict Courts, Family Courts and Summary Courts as provided by law. Ordinarily, High Court cases areheard by a panel of three judges. However, insurrection cases, over which the High Court has original
jurisdiction, are handled by a five-judge panel.

The Supreme Court Building

The Courtroom of the Grand Bench

－5－

4.

The District Court

There are fifty District Courts, each located in the cities of the respective prefectural governments.
Each District Court’s territorial jurisdiction encompasses the entire prefecture, except for Hokkaido, which
is divided into four judicial districts because of its large size. District Courts have a total of 203 branch
offices in major cities. District Courts have general jurisdiction over all cases in the first instance, except
for those cases exclusively reserved for Summary Courts (crimes liable to fines or lesser punishment)
and High Courts (crimes of insurrection). The majority of District Court cases are tried by a single judge.
However, criminal cases involving possible sentences of imprisonment for a minimum period of one year
or more should be handled by a panel of three judges (excluding cases subject to Saiban-In trials (trials bya mixed panel consisting of professional judges and lay judges)), in general. Other cases deemed
appropriate can also be handled by a three-judge panel. The former are called “statutory panel cases”,
and the latter, “discretionary panel cases.”
All District Courts and some of their branches hold Saiban-In trials for certain serious offences
designated by law. See page 26 for details on Saiban-In trials.
5.

The Family Court

Family Courts and their branch offices are located in the same places as the District Courts and theirbranches. The Family Courts have jurisdiction over juvenile delinquency cases (involving persons under
20 years of age). Juvenile cases are handled by a single judge or a three-judge panel fully utilizing scientificreports prepared by Family Court investigating officers as well as reports prepared by experts of juvenileclassification homes for detained juveniles. See page 39.
6.

The Summary Court

There are 438 Summary Courts throughout Japan. All cases are presided over by a single Summary
Court judge. The Summary Courts’ original jurisdiction is limited to: (i) crimes punishable with fines orlighter penalties (petty fine or misdemeanour imprisonment); (ii) crimes punishable with fines as optional
penalties; and (iii) habitual gambling, running a gambling place for the purpose of profit, embezzlement,
and crimes related to stolen property. Summary Courts may not impose imprisonment or heavier
penalties except for certain offences as prescribed by law. With regard to theft, embezzlement, crimes
related to stolen property, breaking into a residence, habitual gambling, and other minor offencesprescribed by law, they may impose imprisonment for up to three years. Summary Courts also issue
Summary Orders that impose fines. A vast majority of relatively minor cases are disposed of by Summary
Order Procedure.
B.

Judges1.

Appointment of Judges

The Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the Cabinet, except for the Chief Justice, whois designated by the Cabinet and appointed by the Emperor. The appointment of Justices is reviewed by
the people at the first general election of members of the House of Representatives following their
appointment. Justices of the Supreme Court retire at the age of 70.
All lower court judges are appointed by the Cabinet from a list of persons nominated by the Supreme
Court. A judge’s tenure is ten years, and judges can be re-appointed. Judges cannot be removed fromoffice unless judicially declared mentally or physically incompetent to perform their official duties, orunless publicly impeached and removed from office. No executive organ or agency can takedisciplinary action against judges. This power is vested only in the Court of Impeachment, alegislative body composed of Representatives and Councillors drawn from the Diet. As one of thechecks and balances systems among the three branches of government, the Court of Impeachment may
dismiss a judge if he or she neglects his or her duties to a remarkable degree, or if there has been
misconduct, whether or not it relates to official duties.

－6－

2.

Categories and Qualifications of Judges

At least ten of the fifteen Justices of the Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice, must be appointed
from among those with distinguished careers as lower court judges, public prosecutors, practicing lawyers
or law professors. However, the remaining five Justices need not be qualified as lawyers, as long as they
are learned, have an extensive knowledge of the law, and are at least forty years of age.
Lower court judges are divided into judges and assistant judges. Assistant judges are appointed fromamong those who have passed the National Bar Examination, completed training at the Legal Training andResearch Institute, and then passed the final qualifying national examination. To be appointed as a judge,
one must have practical or academic experience of not less than ten years as a designated legal
professional: an assistant judge, a public prosecutor, an attorney, or a law professor.
The assistant judge system aims to provide professional experience through on-the-job training
before qualifying as a fully-fledged judge. For the first five years, the judicial authority of an assistantjudge is restricted. He or she can serve as an associate judge of a three-judge panel but, as a single judge,
can decide only limited matters such as detention at the investigation stage. After five years’ experience,an assistant judge is qualified as a special assistant judge to preside over a trial in a single-judge court. The
majority of judges are appointed from among assistant judges. Judges assigned to the High Court must be
judges or qualified special assistant judges.
Summary Court judges are selected by the Selection Board for Summary Court Judges.
Full qualification as a lawyer is not required. In practice, they are appointed primarily from among learned
and experienced court clerks. Assistant judges, after three years’ experience, can be appointed as Summary
Court judges.
Ⅳ
A.

CORRECTIONS
Organization of the Correctional Administration

In Japan, the Correction Bureau of the Ministry of Justice provides both adult and juvenile correctional
services. Under the Director-General of the Correction Bureau, there are eight Regional Correction
Headquarters which supervise the correctional institutions. Correctional institutions can be divided into
penal institutions (prisons, juvenile prisons, 5 and detention houses) and juvenile correctional institutions(juvenile training schools and juvenile classification homes).
1.

Penal Institutions

As of 2018, there were are a total of 184 penal institutions: 62 prisons, 6 juvenile prisons,eight detention houses, eight branch prisons, and 100 branch detention houses.
Prisons, juvenile prisons, and branch prisons are institutions for sentenced inmates. They provide
various correctional treatment programmes that facilitate rehabilitation and resocialization of offenders.
There are 9 women’s prisons (including 4 branches) 6 and four medical prisons. The medical prisons are
set up to function as special medical centres that receive inmates in need of special medical care.
Ordinary medical care and hygiene for inmates are provided within general penal institutions.
Detention houses and branch detention houses are mainly for inmates awaiting trial, namely,
defendants under detention and suspects under pre-indictment detention. Close attention is paid so that
their rights, including the right to counsel and to a fair trial, are respected.
As of 31 December 2017, the total capacity of penal institutions was 89,310 (71,346 forsentenced inmates and 17,964 for pre-trial detainees), and the actual population w a s 53,233 (47,331
sentenced inmates and 5,902 pre-trial detainees).
5
6

A juvenile prison is not a juvenile correctional institution. It accommodates juveniles sentenced to imprisonment and sentenced adult inmates under
26 years old.

One of which accommodates both female and male inmates.

－7－

Fuchu Prison

2.

Tachikawa Detention House

Juvenile Correctional Institutions

As of 2018, there were 45 juvenile training schools, 49 juvenile classification homes, 6 branch juvenile
training schools, and 3 branch juvenile classification homes. Juvenile training schools house juveniles
referred by the Family Court and provide them with correctional education. Juvenile classification homes
house juvenile delinquents placed under “protective detention” by the Family Court. During protective
detention, an expert report on the juvenile’s personality and disposition is prepared, which will assist the
Family Court’s decision-making.

Osaka Juvenile Classification Home

B.

Kifunebara Juvenile Training School for Girls

Correctional Officials

As of 2018, more than 23,000 officials were working for the correction service. The majority
of correctional officials in penal institutions are employed from among those who have passed theexamination for correction service. Education officials in juvenile institutions are employed fromamong those who have passed a specialized examination. Classification specialists (psychologists) areselected from among those who have passed the senior-level examination for psychological services.
Ⅴ．REHABILITATION
A. Organization and Function
The Rehabilitation Bureau of the Ministry of Justice is responsible for the overall administration ofrehabilitation services, the main aspect of which is to provide community-based treatment of offenders.
The Bureau handles planning and policy-making which are then implemented by the 50 Probation Offices
and eight Regional Parole Boards throughout the country.
There are eight regional Parole Boards that correspond to the jurisdictions of the High Courts.
The main responsibilities of Regional Parole Boards are to make parole decisions for prison inmatesand juveniles committed to juvenile training schools, and to revoke parole when the legal－8－requirements for revocation are met. They also decide when to terminate an indeterminate sentence
imposed upon a juvenile offender (see page 34). The number of board members varies in each region fromthree to fifteen, and board decisions are made by a majority vote.
‘The front-line duties of community-based treatment are carried out by the Probation Offices,which are established corresponding to fifty district courts jurisdictions. Their main responsibilities
include the following: (i) supervision of both adult and juvenile parolees and probationers; (ii) coordination of social circumstances, such as family relationship, residence, and job-placement, prior torelease; (iii) urgent aftercare of discharged offenders; (iv) promotion of crime prevention activities in
the community; (v) recommendation of volunteer probation officers; (vi) support for the victims ofcrime; and (vii) mental health supervision pursuant to the Act on Medical Care and Treatment for
Persons Who Have Caused Serious Cases Under the Condition of Insanity.
The National Offenders Rehabilitation Commission is a council attached to the Ministry of Justice.
The Commission’s functions are to make recommendations to the Minister of Justice regarding pardonsand to review the decisions of Regional Parole Boards upon a complaint filed by a parolee or a probationer.
B.

Personnel

1.

Probation Officers

Probation officers are full-time government officials who engage in community-based treatment
of offenders, such as supervision of parolees and probationers, and other duties of the Regional Parole
Boards and Probation Offices. The Offenders Rehabilitation Act (2007) requires them to have a certain
degree of competence in medicine, psychology, pedagogy, sociology or other expert knowledge relating
to rehabilitation of offenders. As of 2017, there were 1,397 probation officers nationwide.
2.

Rehabilitation Co-ordinators

Rehabilitation co-ordinators are qualified psychiatric social workers, or other qualified persons,assigned to Probation Offices, who engage in mental health supervision and other responsibilities pursuant
to the Act on Medical Care and Treatment for Persons Who Have Caused Serious Cases Under the Conditionof Insanity. Rehabilitation co-ordinators do not handle ordinary parole or probation cases. As of 2017, therew e r e 187 rehabilitation co-ordinators nationwide.
C.

Volunteers and the Voluntary Sector

1.

Volunteer Probation Officers

Volunteer probation officers are citizens commissioned by the Minister of Justice who co-operatewith probation officers in providing various rehabilitation services to offenders. Their main activities
are: (i) to assist and supervise parolees and probationers; (ii) to co-ordinate the social circumstances ofinmates; and (iii) to promote crime prevention activities in the community. They do not receive
salaries; only a certain amount of their necessary expenses is reimbursed. As of 2017, 47,909 citizens
were as Volunteer Probation Officers.
2.

Entities for Offenders Rehabilitation Services

There are several types of entities which are engaged in activities supporting offender’srehabilitation.
(1)

Offenders Rehabilitation Facilities (Halfway Houses)
Halfway houses in Japan are officially termed “offenders rehabilitation facilities”. They
accommodate parolees, probationers, or other eligible offenders and provide them with necessary
assistance for their rehabilitation such as: (i) help in obtaining education, training, medical care, or
employment; (ii) vocational guidance; (iii) training in social skills; and (iv) improving or helping themadjust to, their environment.

－9－As of 2017, there w er e 103 o ffenders rehabilitation facilities nationwide. Their total capacity
was 2,385 and 7,771 offenders were admitted in 2017. The duration of stay for parolees and probationers in2017 was as follows: one month or less (19.8%); more than one month to six months (69.3%); and morethan six months (10.9%).
100 offenders rehabilitation facilities are run by juridical persons for offender rehabilitation services,a form of non-profit organization under the Offenders Rehabilitation Services Act. The government
supervises and provides financial support to such j uridical persons and other entities that operate offenders
rehabilitation facilities.

Offenders Rehabilitation Facility (Halfway House)(2)

Rehabilitation Aid Association
As of 2017, 68 Rehabilitation Aid Associations existed throughout Japan. They provide
offenders with temporary aid such as meals or clothing, and/or engage in “co-ordination andpromotion services” for o ffender r ehabilitation f acilities, Volunteer Probation Officer
Associations, and other volunteer organizations. “Co-ordination and promotion services” include
providing monetary support, textbooks for training, and tools and materials for crime prevention
activities.

(3)

Employment Support Organizations
National Organization for Employment of Offenders, established in 2009, is a certified NPO
which engages in employment support activities for released offenders, etc. The organization
provides monetary supports to programmes carried out by the local-based job assistance service
provider organizations set up in 343 locations nationwide (also certified NPOs). These local-basedorganizations carry out a variety of rehabilitation support activities, including programmes toprovide monetary support to “cooperative employers” who assist in offenders’ rehabilitation by
employing released offenders, etc.

3.

OthersThere are other notable volunteer organizations or forms of volunteering in Japan, such as(i) the Women’s Association for Rehabilitation Aid; (ii) Big Brothers and Sisters (BBS)
Associations; and (iii) co-operative employers.

－ 10 －