An Integrated Framework for“Art Thinking”: How to utilize the process of art for business innovation
Soichiro Takagi*, Kikuko Takagi**, Yasuaki Kakehi*, Mami Fukuchi*, Shoko Hara***1.

Introduction

1.1 Background“Art thinking”has been gaining greater

elements that used to be in the old frameworks

interest in business contexts that aim to put(Takagi, 2019).

the thinking behind and creative artistic

Given the deep impact of digital technology

processes to use. This concept is founded on

on society, there is a growing need to rethink

the supposition that diverse art forms andsocial systems and norms without being boundcreative art processes can engender novelby existing common sense. In this regard, art isbusiness ideas beyond conventional

expected to provide a unique perspective andframeworks, particularly when uncertainty

opportunity to rethink the challenges of ourarises in society. This increasing attentionsociety, thus leading to new businessreflects the situation that many businesses

opportunities. Carlucci and Schiuma (2018)encounter in which business innovations are

explored what role the arts play in a rapidly

deeply affecting our society through, forevolving business environment based on

example, how we acquire information,

literature and cases. They suggest that

communicate with each other, and work. The

organizations need to be adaptable and resilient

term “digital transformation (DX)”alsoin their environment to achieve continuousemphasizes how deeply digital technologies are

growth. The use of arts in business is beingchanging a broad spectrum of society, frompracticed in a way that works on emotionsorganizational structures to the services thatfrom a human-centered perspective so thatchange lifestyles. The deep impact of digitalbusinesses can develop more human creativity

technology is causing the “deframing”of

when digitalization and smart technology

society—that is, the destruction of existing

cannot provide added value.

frames and the dynamic reintegration of

The practices to incorporate and take* Interfaculty Initiative in Information Studies, The University of Tokyo** Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo*** Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Information Studies, The University of Tokyo
Key Words：Art thinking, Innovation, Creativity
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advantage of the arts in business andcorporations to more active use of art and amanagement are also called arts-based

shift in the way corporate teams collaborate

initiatives (ABIs). Schiuma (2012) defines ABIs

with artists. In Dentsu Bijutsu Kairo (2019),

as“any management action using one or more

following patronage-style management from theart forms to enable people to undergo an

1920s to the 1970s and management andaesthetic experience within an organization or

cultural support activities from the 1970s to theat the intersection between the organization

mid-1990s, they point out that there was a shift

and its external environment, as well as tofrom branding with contemporary art from theembed the arts as a business asset”(p. 47). One

mid-1990s to the mid-2000s, next-generation artof the major forms of ABI is artistic

and innovation from the mid-2000s to the mid-interventions, which attempt to intervene in2010s, and rising attention toward art thinking

business operations with various art forms toas“questioning”from the mid-2010s onward. In

enhance inspiration, creativity, andaddition, Yaegashi et al. (2019) categorize thecommunications. Such collaboration of thevalue of incorporating art in corporations as (1)business and art sectors is being developed

using art in marketing, (2) using art intoday.

organizational development, and (3) using art

As the field of contemporary art hasfor creativity and innovation creation.

expanded since the 1980s, the contact points

As a representative example, we point out

between corporations and art, and between

the efforts of Ars Electronica (Linz, Austria), a

corporations and artists have also changed

pioneering cultural institution for media art,

(Aichi University of the Arts, 2019). Particularly

which is known for its Ars Electronica Festival,

in Japan, against the backdrop of the country’san international media art festival that has

economic growth, corporations have supported

been held since 1979. Since the 2010s, Ars

exhibitions and artists’production activities as

Electronica has been deepening its ties withpart of their mécénat (cultural contribution)

the corporate world, connecting artists andactivities. With the economic downturn in thecorporations, and using cutting-edge technology

1990s and beyond, many of these mecenat

to contribute to the development of corporate

activities came to an end. Despite this, Spiralinnovation (Washio, 2017). The results of theseand the Intercommunication Center (ICC),

efforts include the Drone 100 project, which

operated by NTT East, continue to beuses swarm control of drones to draw pictures

influential cultural facilities for media art.

in space in collaboration with Intel (Ars

However, since then, there has been a shift

Electronica, 2016). In addition, they havefrom a form of unilateral support for art fromformulated art thinking as a methodology for

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identifying questions and have begun tochallenges if we can demystify the process ofeducate on this methodology and develop

art creation and utilize it in day-to-day

human resources through collaboration with

operations.

advertising agencies and other organizations(Hakuhodo, 2021).

The question of how the features of thecreative process surrounding art can be utilized

In the 2010s, Japan saw an increase in thein the business context has not been deeply

number of companies, such as TeamLab andstudied. Many arguments and practices of art

Rhizomatiks, that have gone beyond the scale

thinking are limited to activities such asof artist collectives to create artworks as

artworks in offices, inviting artists to comment

corporate entities. They are not only engaged

on businesses, and asking artists to produce

in art activities such as holding exhibitions but

inspiring artworks for businesses. In contrast,

are also expanding their activities into

we suppose that it is important to demystify

peripheral areas surrounding art, such as

the process of art creation and utilize it inentertainment and architecture. It can be saidbusiness in day-to-day operations to fully takethat the barriers between art activities andadvantage of arts for businesses that arecorporate activities have been lowered, andencountering challenges.

more equal and diverse developments can beseen.

To this end, this article attempts to combine
knowledge on creativity demonstrated in

As seen above, the role of arts is expanding

psychology and management studies and tofrom pure aesthetics to aiming to find social

clarify the academic forefront of this topic. This

challenges and explore solutions. Even so,

article also constructs an integrated framework

existing research that deals with art thinking is

for innovation that incorporates the process ofaiming to stimulate business persons throughart creation. The remainder of this section

arts while retaining the arts as a black box.

discusses the background of this research in

However, there is a great opportunity tomore detail and provides the approach of thisprovide fundamental solutions to social

research.

1.2 The variety of art forms
There is a wide range of fields of art forms,

practical and social impact and pursuit offrom impressionist paintings and classical music

aesthetics. For the vertical axes, practicalto digital art and contemporary dance. Figure 1means that the primary aim of the artwork isshows the framework of art fields and is

to serve practical purposes, such as promotion

comprised of two axes: practical and non-(pop art), daily use for drinking and eating

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Figure 1. Variety of art forms(craftwork), and a part of digital art (for staging

pointer that shows how the artwork discussed

concerts). For the horizontal axes,“pursuit ofat each point relates to society.

aesthetics”(right side) suggests that theThis research acknowledges that a wideprimary emphasis of the artwork is on pursuing

range of art fields can potentially be utilized foraesthetics and beauty rather than conveying asocial and business innovation. However, given

particular message. Conversely, social impactthat the study’s primary aim is to extract the(left side) suggests that the artworks arecore process of art creation for utilization inoriented to raise concern toward specific socialsocial innovation, this paper mainly focuses on

problems or related solutions, such as is seen inart forms that aim to have a social impact, as

speculative design, socially engaged arts, andshown on the left side of Figure 1. Additionally,

media arts.

this research focuses on the impact of arts on

Each specific art field, such as“media art”

creativity and innovation; therefore, the use ofand“craftworks,”is shown as an example, andarts to enhance brand image and marketingthe authors acknowledge that there is a wide

purposes, such as seen in Kim et al. (2018), wasrange of diversity, even in a single art field.

not included.

Nonetheless, this framework can serve as a

1.3 Structure of the paper
This paper takes the approach of a combination

approach, the sections are structured as follows.

of knowledge in management, economics, andChapter 2 reviews the literature on thepsychology. Based on this interdisciplinary

arguments on art thinking, including documents

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written by scholars, artists, curators, andinnovation, mainly from management andpractitioners. It provides a general overview of

economics perspectives. Based on these prior

the discussion on art thinking. Chapter 3

studies, Chapter 5 proposes the integrated

reviews the literature on creativity inframework of art thinking for social andcontemporary visual art based on abusiness innovations. Chapter 6 concludes thepsychological perspective. Chapter 4 reviews

paper with supplemental discussions.

prior studies on creativity in business2. The overview of art thinking
2.1 Growing attention toward art thinking in Japan
Recently, there has been a lot of attention

essentially what the artist is doing. In addition,

focused on the idea of attempting to incorporate

Yamaguchi says that innovators are realizing

not only the interest in“art”itself but also theinnovation through strong impulses that gothoughts and experiences in the process of

beyond economic rationality, and this strong

creating art into business. This section briefly

urge is often similar to that common to artists.

reviews major arguments on art thinking.

Akimoto (2019) says that unique perspectives

Yamaguchi (2017) raises some major points

and insights that can ask the right questions

as current changes. First, the limits of logicalwill be required more than the ability to elicit

and rational information processing skills areanswers. He states that art thinking has great

being exposed from the commoditization ofpotential for business persons who want to becorrect answers and the limits of methodology

creative and try new things. He adds thatin the world of VUCA (volatility, uncertainty,

today’
s art is a place for thought experimentscomplexity, and ambiguity). Yamaguchi alsothat make new proposals for social issues

says that by combining“human resources who

linked to technology and design and considers

are responsible for art”and“human resources

how our society should be linked tow h o a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s c i e n c e , ”t h econtemporary thinking. He also says thatmanagement quality of the organization

contemporary art, which is said to be projected

improves, and when“art”and“science”areahead of the times, is loaded with hints to help

compatible within an individual, the individual’swith understanding this ever-changing world,

intelligence can have a good performance.

and contemporary art is like a compass that

Yamaguchi (2020) points out that if businesses

searches for the relationship between oneself

find and solve problems in society, this isand society. The contemporary arts have a

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high affinity with the present age in which theybusiness, each business person will ask about

exist and uncertainty increases.

the ideal way of doing business and will bring

Wakamiya (2019) states that“art thinking”isabout a multidimensional art effect within thea way of thinking that creates“differences.”He

business. They say art power is fourfold

describes that the maturity and saturation of(problem-raising power, imagination, practicalthe market have changed the value paradigm

power, co-creative power) and is a driving forcef r o m a “ f a c t o r y”p a r a d i g m t o a n “ a r t”

of creation that is created through the process

paradigm. Regarding the relationship withof creating artwork by an artist. They also say

business, he says that just as an artist creates athat the expected art effects are branding,piece of work through inspiration, businesses

innovation, organizational revitalization, andare inspired by encounters with “foreign

vision conception.

things,”and the organization can evolve andAs seen above, the surge of the term“artcreate a new“work.”According to Wakamiya,thinking”in Japan since the late 2010s reflects

innovations that spread over time, arechallenges in the business environment that are

sustained, and change the lives of posterity are

required to provide disruptive andneeded, rather than those based on short-termtransformative services and the expectation

scales. He says that innovation is to increasethat arts may provide a solution for it. This

the axis of new value, and it is necessary to

movement is generally understood as ancreate a new axis, doubting the axis of“speed

expansion of the role of arts; however, leading

and scale.”efforts from management and business sides

In contrast, Dentsu Bijutsu Kairo (2019)and empirical research are still limited.

states that by incorporating art power into the

2.2 Art thinking and design thinking
As a proximity area of art thinking,“design

design thinking. However, she states thatthinking”has also received widespread

product design starts with an external brief,

attention. This section describes thewhile art thinking emanates from the core of

relationship and differences between “artthe individuals.

thinking”and“design thinking.”Whitaker (2016)

Wakamiya (2019) says that design thinking

describes design thinking as“a framework for

sympathetically finds and solves potential

generating the process of designing a productproblems, and art thinking does not start from

into a creative problem-solving tool”and says

problems but innovative value by internalthat art thinking shares some similarities with

impulse.

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thinking is used to solve the problems thatcritical look and focuses on raising issues.

customers have, but art thinking is

According to Hasegawa, design is said to be acharacterized by starting with the question ofmeans of solving problems, but if the problem

what is the problem. In addition, Akimoto says

setting itself is wrong, the situation will notthat the concept of speculative design isimprove, and in today’s increasingly complex

drawing attention in the field of design, andsociety, the ability to re-question from the root

designs that raise problems are beginning to beof things is crucial. Miyatsu (2017) says that

advocated and are becoming a trend of design“speculative design”is different from thein an era when the answer cannot be known.

conventional problem-solving design thatIn the intersection of arts and design, there

pursues ease of use and beauty. He states thatis a field called speculative design. Dunne andspeculative design is a problem-raising type

Raby (2013) refer to speculative design as thedesign that proposes a different possibility fromuse of design as a means of speculating how

the present world while envisioning the future.

things could be. They say, speculative design

As seen above, generally, design and designuses your imagination “to open up newthinking are utilized when a goal or problem isperspectives on what are sometimes called

already presented, and the challenge is towicked problems, to create

spaces for

identify/devise a means to reach the desired

discussion and debate about alternative ways

outcome. Conversely, art and art thinking areof being, and to inspire and encourage people’sused when the problem itself is not defined, andimaginations to flow freely (p.2).”They suggestt h e m a i n f o c u s i s t o q u e s t i o n p e o p l e’sthat speculative design can act as a catalyst forperception, raise a speculative discussion, andredefining our relationships.

raise a concern on an issue. In this regard,

Hasegawa (2020) describes speculative design
as a design attitude that has a cross-border andspeculative design is close to, or even a part of,
the art domain.

3. Creativity in Art
This section reviews prior studies mainly based

psychology’s perspective.

on those for contemporary art from

3.1 Contemporary art as problem-solving activities
Contemporary art is considered difficult torather than simply reproducing what is in front

understand. One reason for this may be thatof us in a realistic manner, contemporary art is

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expected to create work that explores

activity.

something new. Moreover, instead of searching

Therefore problem-finding and its problem-

for a fixed answer to a given problem, thesolving activity constitute an essential part of

exploration of open-ended problems—that is, ahuman intellectual activity, and the creative

flexible way of dealing with challenges in newprocess of expert contemporary artists can bedomains that are constantly changing—could

said to be related to the central core of humanbe an important aspect of human intellectual

intellectual and creative activity.

3.2 Psychological research background on creative activities in art
How can the creative activity of art beinto my mind as easily as you could wish. Whenexamined scientifically? Art creation involves

and how do they come? I don’t know and I

unpredictable problem solving with an unfixedhave nothing to do with it”(Weisberg, 2006, p.

answer because the activity of creating75). Nevertheless, during the development ofartwork is the creation of something that does

psychological research, it was revealed that the

not exist. From the view of cognitive

process of creating could be captured by an

psychology, creative activities, such as

objective view (Weisberg, 2006). Currently,

modification of the elements of creation andfrom a psychological perspective, creativity isanalogy, are related to art activity in a complex

considered an intellectual activity that anyone

manner (e.g., Gentner, 1983; Okada et al., 2009;

can perform. The following provides an

Yokochi, 2020). Nevertheless, as these processes

overview of psychological research on creative

take place inside an artist and are thus internal

activity.

and not visible, a widespread view suggesting

Guilford (1950) incorporates the personalitythat creativity is possessed only by geniuses

traits of creative individuals, such as artists, as

and that gods give creative ideas to only a few

a factor in his model of intelligence and argues

people is proposed as an explanation for thethat divergent thinking is located at the center

phenomena that occur in the problem-solvingof intelligence. Furthermore, Torrance (1974)

process of art creation (Sawyer, 2006; Weisberg,

developed a creativity test that captures

2006). This view refers to the image thatcreativity through a psychological measurement

emerged from the cases of many artists andbased on Guilford’s model and attempted toscientists claiming that a creative problem ismeasure creative performance. However, thissolved in an instant by a sudden revelatory

creativity test’s validity has been challenged

event, such as is described in a letter by

because the results of expert artists’tests are

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart as“thoughts crowd

not always as good as expected (Sternberg &70

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Lubart, 1999). In contrast, Simonton (1997, 2009)

based only on the information collected fromextends Campbell’s (1960) blind-variation andthe literature of the past. Accordingly, although

selective-retention model of creative thought

research on art creation has progressedwith a focus on the background of creative

through experimentation and documentation,

experts.

much of the process and method of creating

Next, regarding the evaluation of theartwork remains unclear, and its value andcreativity of ideas, recent psychologicalsignificance have not yet been recognizedresearch mainly considers that an idea is(Sternberg & Lubart, 1999; Weisberg, 2006).

creative if it satisfies both evaluation from the

In contrast to such quantitative studies, someviewpoint of originality and novelty andstudies examine human creativity qualitatively,

evaluation from the viewpoint of practicality

such as Wallace and Gruber’s (1989) study,

and appropriateness (Paletz & Peng, 2008). The

which discuss detailed case histories of great

Consensual Assessment Technique (CAT),

people, such as Wordsworth and Darwin andproposed by Amabile (1983), considers creative

G a r d n e r’s (1993) study, which uses anwork to be that which is unanimously rated asinterdisciplinary framework that focuses on thecreative by appropriate raters who are familiarsocial relationships surrounding great people,

with the task domain. This method increases

such as Picasso and Stravinsky. In other words,

the reliability of the grade by emphasizing theit is a way to understand creative activities

degree of agreement among the raters.

through skilled research using Gardner’sAccording to Campbell’s (1960) methodology,interdisciplinary framework that focuses on thewhich was inspired by Darwin’s theory ofsocial relationships surrounding great people.

evolution, although many of the starting points

While quantitative research attempts torequired in the expansion of knowledge may

establish general laws of creativity, case study

fail, the ideas that function would remain andresearch attempts to capture creativity in abe generalized. Simonton (1997, 2009) refined

single case of a famous scientist or artist. In

this model; examined factors related to themodern psychology, where quantitative andsuccess of many creators, such as Picasso, Da

objective analysis is the norm, the qualitative

Vinci, and Goethe; studied their childhood

approach of single-case studies has seen aenvironment using a quantitative approach; andresurgence in recent years. Although there are

identified their relationship with creativity.

limitations to the objectivity andHowever, there is a limit to discussing thegeneralizability of explanations in single cases,

various creative activities in art, such as visual

their value is recognized, especially in creative

arts, music, literature, and performing arts,

discovery processes that are overlooked in

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quantitative studies.

3.3 Problem-solving in the study of art
Based on this background, research on thewhich elements constituting the problem space

relationship between problem-solving or

are not predetermined, such as the creation ofproblem-finding and domain expertise (e.g.,

artwork (e.g., Kozbelt et al., 2010).

Newell, Shaw, & Simon, 1962) developed

Thus, problem-finding can be said to be an

through the cognitive study of creative activity.

assertion that explains the creative process

Early research on problem-solving dealt withfrom a subjective perspective. In fact, thewell-defined problems in limited domains, suchdifference between the frameworks of problem-

as puzzle solving. However, some of thesolving and problem-finding lies in the

problems were ill-defined and had no definite

emphases and goals of each theory and theanswers, such as the creation of a painting or

researcher’s personal orientation, but it is notcomposition of a symphony. These problems

that significant in terms of the nature of theseare said to be more creative than well-defined

two concepts (Kozbelt et al., 2010). Hence, thisones that seek appropriate or correct answers

chapter considers both aspects as problem-(Kozbelt, Beghetto, & Runco, 2010). In terms ofsolving in creation.

solution uncertainty, art-making can be seen as

The discussion so far, which has been

ill-defined problem-solving (e.g., Ishibashi &examined from the psychological domain,

Okada, 2010; Sato, 1998).

suggests that the creation of art by expert

Contrastingly, problem-finding, anotherartists is an activity of solving ill-defined

important aspect of creativity, can be seen as aproblems that explores new knowledge throughcriticism of the concept of problem-solving

the process, and it includes the essence of(Runco, 1994). As the problem is considered tohuman creativity, which is to organize creation

be predetermined in the traditional view ofby effectively using pattern recognition andproblem-solving, creative activity such asreasoning and to create something new by

painting cannot be explained because it isconfronting the unpredictable. It is suggested

insufficient to illustrate how creators can bethat the essence of human intellectual activity

aware of the existence of problems in theis contained in this. In other words, the actual

problem space and what motivates them toprocess of a skilled contemporary artist during

actively understand the problem throughcreation can be said to be the core of creative

subjective experience. In other words, a

activity.

heuristic search does not apply to situations in

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3.4 Problem-solving by visual artists
Next, regarding studies focusing on the creation

to grasp the motif from their own perspective,of visual art, psychological studies of thecorrelated with the high quality of theircreative process in art have examined theartworks. Further follow-up research after

importance of setting up a problem space ingraduation showed that there was a correlation

the early stages of creation, including concept

between such problem-finding orientation anddiscovery (Getzels & Csikszentmihalyi, 1976)

success as an artist seven years laterand the stages of creation (e.g., Mace & Ward,(Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels, 1989). As

2002).

mentioned above, although there are limitations

Weisberg (1986) analyzed the creative

to the analytical methods used in this period, it

process of Picasso’s Guernica based on

is noteworthy that this study points out theretrospective materials and found that creative

importance of early problem finding in creative

solutions to ill-defined problems, such as art

work.

creation, arise from general cognitive processes

Mace and Ward (2002), who point out thatand rational processes based on proficiency inthere are four phases in the creative process of

specialized fields. However, this method is

artists, conducted a study of actual artists andbased on retrospective data, such as sketches

examined the entire creative process. In theirand documents, and many of them are missing

study, grounded theory was used to investigate

from the search for the problem space of

this phenomenon and to develop a descriptive

artists in progress. In other words, it would bemodel of the art-making process, and they

more realistic to deal with phenomena close to

found that when artists come up with an idea

the on-time of artists in progress to clarify thefor a work of art and develop it into a concept,

gradual process.

they engage in activities such as developing the

In a pioneering study based on on-time data

idea through drawing and gatheringof the creative process, Getzels andinformation from the outside. Specifically, four

Csikszentmihalyi (1976) conducted amajor phases were presented in chronologicalpsychological experiment on art students,

order: (1) concept generation, (2) idea

focusing on early problem detection. In Getzels

development, (3) actual production, and (4)and Csikszentmihalyi’s experiment, art students

completion of the work. It is critical that theirwere asked to spontaneously select a motif

process model points out the function of

from a large number of materials and draw it,

returning to the previous phase between

and they found that the orientation toward

phases (2), (3), and (4) and in their sub-processes.

“problem finding,”in which students attempted

An Integrated Framework for“Art Thinking”: How to utilize the process of art for business innovation733.5 Cognitive processing in the creative process of artists
In the past, research on creativity has focused

artificial laboratory settings or underon brain activity and idea generation, while theexperimenter control. In addition to the above,

body and its actions have often been

there have been several other studies.

overlooked. Now, however, the issue of the

In this paper, the following distinction wasfunctioning of intelligence and the body isused between two levels of cognitive action in

becoming more important than ever, and it hascreative work. For individual cognitive actions

been pointed out that the body, traditionallysuch as “constraints,”the term “cognitive

regarded as a mere gateway to information andprocessing”is used operationally, whereas

an outlet for cognition, is an important partner

dynamic cognitive actions, in which multiple

of intelligence (Abe, 2019). Freidman & Forster

cognitive processes act in relation to each(2000) reported in an experiment using a visual

other, are called“creative process”and aretask that the action of bending and stretching

distinguished. In other words, “cognitive

the arms influenced performance in creative

processing”is defined as an individual action

problem-solving. It has also become clear thatthat works under the“creative process.”In thisideas do not emerge completely from the mind

section, we review research on cognitiveof one person but emanate with the help ofprocessing in the activities of individual artists.

others (e.g., Kiyokawa & Nagayama, 2007) andWhen discussing creative activities, it isthe environment as external resources (e.g.,necessary to clarify whether they are individual

Suwa, Purcell, & Gero 1998). In recent studies

or group activities. When we focus on cognitiveon the creation of art, there have been

activities in art creation, there is a relationshipwidespread attempts to model the cognitive,

between internal processes (covert process),

emotional, action, and contextual factors

such as creative intentions and analogies, andinvolved (e.g., Cawelti, Rappaport, & Wood,external processes (overt process), such as the

1992; Glück, Ernst, & Unger, 2002; Jones et al.,actual use of modeling tools to modify the

1997; Kay, 1991; Lubart, 2001; Mace & Ward,medium. The internal and external constraints

2002; Sapp, 1995). However, very few studiesof the individual are involved in this process.

have examined individual cognitive activities byHere, the internal constraints of individuals

dealing with the actual creative activities ofrefer to their preconceived notions about

artists, and most of them have proposed only

various events. External constraints, in contrast,

conceptual models, analyzed past works,

refer to constraints placed on the individual

examined self-reported retrospective data, orfrom outside, such as others or the outside

given subjects creative tasks to perform inworld.

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Some studies have shown that intra-

knowledge influences idea generation.

individual constraints are influenced by

Although the above study was conducted on

externally given frameworks; Ward (1994)

laypeople, the fact that creativity is influenced

points out that in the task of“imaging animals

by internal cues, such as personal interest andon a planet somewhere else in the galaxy,”attention, and that the extent of available

many examples are generated that haveknowledge through experience is related to thesomething in common with actually existingoutcome of creative activity is similar to studies

creatures. This indicates that the existingof creative activity in expert individuals (e.g.,

categories and examples used by the

Franklin, 1989; Gardner, 1993; Raina, 1997;

experimental collaborators in accordance with

Wallace & Gruber, 1989). For these reasons, it

the requirements of the task of thinking ofis thought that expert individuals have a wider“creatures”influence the ideas generated. It is

range of knowledge available to them and arealso important to note that the experience ofmore likely to be inspired in their creative

the individual is also a constraint. Leung et al.

activities and that these activities lead to the(2008) point out that the experience of living

development of richer internal processes thanabroad is positively correlated with creativity.

groups.

This result suggests that the range of available

3.6 Details of the creative process and function
Okada et al. (Okada et al., 2007; Okada et al.,framework of his or her existing work and2009) examined the generation of the concept

creates a new work by changing some of itsof artworks as one of the few examples thatfeatures. Based on interviews withdealt with the field of artistic creation (Okada

contemporary artists, Okada et al. found thatet al., 2007; Okada et al., 2009). Okada et al.

three types of displacements were used in theshow that the development of a long-term

development of a series of works: thematicseries of works by a contemporary artist candisplacements, structural displacements, andbe explained by the concept of analogicalconceptual displacements. Displacement in art

modification. Analogical modification refers tocreation activities is basically considered to be

the process of creating something new by

one of the effective ways to intentionally

applying the general framework of thechange some of the conditions of the current

structure of the case in the existing knowledge

search space involved in one’s creativeand changing some features in it. In the case ofactivities and to discover a new problem spaceart creation, this means that an artist uses the(2007). Okada et al. (2009) point out that in

An Integrated Framework for“Art Thinking”: How to utilize the process of art for business innovation75

addition, there are analogical shifts performed

generative and exploratory cognitive processes

only on the subject, technique, or concept of aand that constraints are involved in eachpiece of work, as pointed out by Mace andcognitive process. However, this model does

Ward (2002), for example, in the collection of

not address the issue of changing the conditions

visual information of the external world toof the search space, such as analogicaldevelop an idea. In addition to inferential

modification. Finke et al. (1992) point out

shifting, this also includes changing the values

through experiments that the model does notof the elements of the action, as pointed out byaddress the problem of changing conditions inMace and Ward (2002), which may play an

the search space, such as slippage.
Takagi, Okada, and Yokochi (2013)

important role in generating the concept of thesynthesized and interpreted the claims ofwork.
Regarding constraints in creation, Finke,

Okada et al. (2007; Okada et al. (2009) and a

Ward, and Smith (1992) explain the involvement

model by Finke et al. (1992) and explain it as aof constraints between the two cognitive

cognitive process, as shown in the following

processes of generation and interpretation infigure on the creation of expert artists (Figure

the Geneplore model (Figure 2). Finke et al.

3).

(1992) point out experimentally that generation

Takagi et al.(2013). clarify the processes by

and interpretation constitute a cycle withwhich unexpected“surprises”occur when the

Figure 276

Basic structure of the Geneplore model(Based on Finke et al., 1992)

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Figure 3 Process of generating art concept by expert artists(Modified from Finke et al., 1992 and Takagi et al., 2013)

conditions of creation are changed byadopt new ones, which leads to the creation of

i n t e n t i o n a l “ p r o c e s s m o d i f i c a t i o n ”o r

new ideas. Stokes applied this perspective to aunintentional “slippage”using specialized

wide range of creative activities, from fine arts

domain knowledge or when a new thing is

to music, literature, and clothing design, andcreated, and the meaning of the new thing is

examined the factors that drove the creativeinterpreted by“analogical thinking,”in which

process forward in each of these fields. Stokes

similar examples in existing knowledge arepoints out the axes of content that can berecalled and applied (Takagi et al., 2013, seetreated as a pair from the fragmentary results

below). In this paper, we use this frameworkof creation in chronological order. For example,(Figure 3) to understand the process of concept

Stokes finds that Mondrian’s alteration of his

generation in the creative activities of experts.

motifs from the figurative nature of trees to the

While focusing on the expert creation fromabstract nature of horizontal and vertical

the perspective of constraints, Stokes (2008)

composition can be treated as a pair. However,points out the existence of paired constraints

this does not mean that Mondrian himselfthat have the functions of hindering anddeliberately changed the figurative element offacilitating (Stokes, 2006, 2008). Based on thehis creations from restraint to promotion

analysis of the documents and works ofduring his creative process. Stokes (2008) rather

eminent modern artists such as Monet,

pointed out the axis that figurativeness acts asCézanne, and Rothko, Stokes described thata restraint and abstraction acts as a promotion,

artists discover the paired values on the axis of

based on the characteristics of the evolution ofthought contained in the current ideas; that is,

Mondrian's archival works over a long period

they suppress the existing constraints andof time. Therefore, the pair of constraints thatAn Integrated Framework for“Art Thinking”: How to utilize the process of art for business innovation

77

Stokes points out is an external view of theconveys that something had been

result and not a pair of constraining functions

comprehended, and two processes involving

that the artist themselves deals with in theircreative insight and social comparison.

actual creation. This is because we are dealing

In terms of research on the relationshiponly with the resultant work and the

between the creative process and inspiration infragmentary records left in between, and there

novices, there have been studies on the creativeis still a lot of room to examine what and how

process of imitation (Ishibashi & Okada, 2010;

the artists confront the constraints in the actual

Okada & Ishibashi, 2017). Ishibashi and Okada

creative process.

(2010) revealed that ordinary people could

The phenomenon of inspiration has been alsorelieve the cognitive and physical constraints ofdiscussed through statements and case studies

the existing framework of concept and beof experts in various creative domains (Chemi,

inspired to form a new perspective throughBorup Jensen, & Hersted, 2015). In psychology,

deep engagement with external objects, such as

inspiration is conceptualized by focusing on

imitating the works of others in an unfamiliar

mental experience rather than a trigger orstyle or spending a long time observing those

consequence (Thrash & Elliot, 2004).

works. Further, Ishiguro and Okada (2018)

Nevertheless, most studies on inspiration fromproposed a cognitive model to describe thea psychological perspective focus on inspiration

process from art appreciation to inspiration,that occurred in ordinary people’s appreciationand they argue that individuals would compareof artworks, discussion of conceptual models,

their own works with those they have viewed

and development of psychological measurement.

and become more motivated and inspired to

Few have examined the relationship between

create.

inspiration and experts’creative process,

What is the actual interrelationship between

although many experts have been shown to bethese cognitive activities occurring within an

supportive of revealing that the mechanism ofartist? Suwa (2008) advocates an argument thatinspiration is inseparable from art creation.

exploring art and skills is an act of“designing”

Thrash and Elliot (2004) dealt with the coreone’s own body.

mechanism of inspiration. Although their focus

cognitive activities of experts through bodily

was on ordinary people, it was clarified thatpractices, new learning is generated, and new

inspiration consists of three features:

points of view and awareness are renewedtranscendence that takes us from the present

through the interaction of three modes in astatus to something better, evocation triggered

cycle: external representation of words thatby something external, and motivation that

express movement and bodily functions, the78

Suwa argues that in the

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function of association and inference, andproducts would be interpreted by similarity

control and re-cognition with newly generated

thinking, which is applicable to similar cases

words. However, this is presented as a study

from prior knowledge, to understand the reason

on a first-person view with descriptions, not afor surprise from unexpected discoveries andmodel.

the phenomena within the surprise through a

One of the previous studies of models related
to artistic creation was Okada’s (2013) proposalcase study of the actual process of art-making
by an artist.

of a dual-process model that shows the flow

This shows that the creation of artworks is

and involvement of internal and external

developed through the interaction of activities

cognitive processes, which is suggestive.

such as process modification, slippage, andHowever, this model was conceptuallysimilarity thinking. Considering that previous

constructed to organize ideas about expression

studies on modification and analogy havethat include ordinary people and does not focus

focused on a single process, taking the

primarily on the creative process of expert

perspective of multiple cognitive processes is

artists.

critical to reveal the actual process of the

Takagi, Okada, and Yokochi (2013, 2019) andcreation of art. The interaction of these

Takagi, Kawase, Yokochi, and Okada. (2015a, b)

cognitive processes is modeled by Takagi,

empirically identified that newly generated

Okada, and Yokochi (in progress).

4. Creativity in Business Innovation
4.1 Creativity and innovation in the business context
From a management perspective, creativity

creativity is supposed to be the production ofhas been studied as a key enabler of innovation

conceptual ideas and does not necessarily

that leads to the success of business

require the production of tangible products. In

organizations. The definition of creativity as themore detail, Anderson, Potočnik, and Zhou

“production of novel and useful ideas by an(2014) suggest that creativity and innovationindividual or small group of individuals working

are in a sequential relationship that generates

together”(Amabile, 1988, p. 126) is widely

ideas and implements those ideas (Anderson et

known (Tierney, Farmer, & Graen, 1999, p. 593).

al., 2014). Hughes et al. (2018) also confirm thatAs Shalley and Gilson (2004) suggest, creativity

creativity involves the cognitive and behavioral

is different from innovation in that innovation

processes used to generate novel ideas,

refers to the implementation of ideas, andwhereas innovation involves the processes to

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implement new ideas.

follow the complexity level of ambiguity.

In relation to art thinking, it is important to

Directors have a role in fostering generative

decompose creativity in detail because art

networks where individuals can perform theirthinking is expected to contribute to generating

creativity fully. Hence, they build theirideas that are beyond the ordinary trail of

networks according to their degree ofbusiness innovations. In this regard, Unsworth

ambiguity.

(2001) provides an important framework that

Taking the arguments in the previous section

decomposes a concept of creativity with aon creativity in art production, how to utilize

consideration of two dimensions: whether thethe process of art production in the businessproblem is open or closed and whether thecontext would require understanding how tomotivation is external or internal. Particularly,

handle problem finding and open questions,creativity for open problems, where

how to deal with uncertainty and ambiguity,“participants are required to find, invent, orand how to transform individual creativity into

discover the problems”(Unsworth, 2001, p. 290),

creativity at the team and organizational level.
Looking at the inner side of businessis closely related to creativity in artwork.
In contrast, from a management perspective,

organizations, according to Amabile et al. (2005),

uncertainty is analyzed as an obstructive factor.

positive affect relates positively to creativity in

Lingo and O’
mahony (2010) discovered thatorganizations. They constructed an affect-

ambiguity is an inherent part of the collective

creativity cycle model. If there is positive

creative process. Directors are the brokers on

feedback from others on generated ideas, andnetworks that control various kinds ofthe individual gets positive feelings about them,ambiguity. Of course, ambiguity does not mean

then the generation of ideas continues in a

uncertainty. According to them, ambiguity canvirtuous cycle. If the cycle continues,

be understood as having multiple meanings atorganizational intervention is not always

the same time and is open to interpretation.

necessary. When an individual has negative

Uncertainty is removed by obtaining

feelings about feedback on the generated idea,

information, while ambiguity cannot be resolved

however, creativity is in danger. In such a

by obtaining information. Either way, it is asituation, organizations are required to manage

factor that needs to be addressed in creative

personal emotions.

situations. Creative decision-making processes

4.2 Creativity of individuals and organizations
In the business context, the work environment

80

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important factors that affect creativity increativity-relevant processes”play a significant

organizations. Bush and Hattery (1956) arguerole in transforming aggregated individualthat teamwork is the cornerstone of creativity.

creativity into group creativity. These

These views reflect that most studies from theprocesses include organizational culture andmanagement perspective on creativity are

management, such as voluntary contributions

aimed at improving creativity in businessand supportive discussions.

organizations and the achievement of thecollective efforts of members.

Organizational structure and governancecharacteristics are also examined as

Among them, Amabile et al. (1996) describe

determinants of creativity. Schepers and Van

the framework and measurement scales forden Berg (2007) expanded research onorganizational creativity as KEYS: Assessingorganizational characteristics and their impact

the Climate for Creativity. KEYS is based on

on creativity. They present four types of

the conceptual model whose conceptualorganizations: cooperative team, adhocracy,categories are encouragement of creativity,

stable hierarchy, and rational firm, and theyautonomy or freedom, resources, pressures, andconfirmed that a work environment withorganizational impediments to creativity. It

adhocracy leads to more perceived creativity inshould be noted that its emphasis is on thethe organization. In terms of leadership,organizational environment, not personal

Tierney et al. (1999) empirically assessed theattributes, to harness creativity insignificance of leadership and communication

organizations. On the other hand, Pirola ‐between leaders and members on

Merlo and Mann (2004) examined theorganizational creativity and found that an

relationship between individual creativity andemployee’s innovative cognitive style andteam creativity and found that team creativity

intrinsic motivation and the exchange between

scores can be explained by the aggregation

leaders and employees play important roles inboth of individuals and teams. Particularly,

employee creativity. However, as a trait ofteam creativity is explained by the aggregation

leaders, strong intrinsic motivation interactivelyof the creativity of members, while theenhances an employee’s creativity, but his orcreativity of project outcomes is explained byher innovative cognitive style does not increase

the aggregation of team creativity across time

employee creativity interactively. Fillis andpoints.

McAuley (2000) reviewed previous research on

Taggar (2002) examined the relationshipcreativity and analyzed the interface between

between an individual’s creativity and acreativity and marketing/entrepreneurship.

group’
s creativity and found that “teamBased on the analysis, they proposed a

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framework of the creative process that

actions to solve problems. Without any brokers,

incorporates the individual’s skills with creativebuilding an evaluation system can overcome

problem solving and also the environment,

uncertainty from diversity. Harvey and Kousuggesting the need for direction and(2013) identify problem construction as a key

leadership.

element of the collective creative process. They

Weinzimmer, Michel, and Franczak (2011)

argue that evaluations enable groups toanalyzed the effect of creativity on firm-level

synthesize members’diverse perspectives into

performance, such as is measured by revenue

a shared problem framework. On the othergrowth, and they found that the action

hand, Amabile and Conti (1999) assessed theorientation of firms mediates the relationshipchange in creativity during the downsizing

between financial performance and creativity.

process and found that creativity supporting

In this case, action orientation suggests the

aspects declined significantly during downsizing

behavioral tendency and encouragement of

but increased modestly later.

4.3 Arts-based initiatives and creativity in organizations
How can we enhance creativity in organizations

tested how involvement in the arts can affectthrough the arts? Here, we would like to point

inspirations and creativity in the businessout some specific studies that have attempted

context empirically. They suggest that an open

to use art for organizational development.

mindset toward aesthetic experience andThese are mainly discussed as artistic

experience of the arts can enhance inspirations

interventions. In particular, there are cases inand raise creativity in the business context.

which art is used to resolve conflicts within an

Related to the replication of the art creation

organization. This does not mean management

process, a study by Botella et al. (2013) can also

for developing individual creativity but for

be utilized for future examination. They

shaping the organization for creative individual

analyzed the factors that are important forcapabilities. Schiuma (2011) provides the Arts

artistic creativity and describing the creative

Value Matrix, which shows the intersections ofprocess in art. They conducted interviews andorganizational and individual development

administered a questionnaire to professional

through arts-based initiatives (ABIs). It shows

artists and extracted a process of creating art

how ABIs impact not only personal experiencein six stages: vision, documentation andbut also enable the incorporation of thesereflection, sketches, testing the forms and ideas,

initiatives into organizational capability.

provisional objects, and series.

At an individual level, An and Youn (2018)82

Springborg and Ladkin (2018) analyzed the

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impact of arts from embodied view of cognition,al. (2018) conducted interventions with music

based on the theory that an understanding of awith a Finnish ice hockey team. They suggest

concept is defined by the experience ofthat synchronization and collective participationinteraction with physical things, and if thosewith musical performance can enhance anexperiences differ between people, theunderstanding of themselves and members andformulated concepts would also differ between

enable them to do what is difficult to express

people. They suggest that art creation can offerwith words. They showed the usefulness of

new embodied experiences as a simulation andmusic for the collaboration of members.

can bring new perspectives to businessactivities.

In terms of initiatives that affect bothindividual and organizational aspects, Nisula

Regarding how to utilize the process of art

and Kianto (2018) point out problems of

production, Tran, Goulding, and Shiu (2018)previous research that has focused on creativity

attempted to utilize the process of composing

in problem-solving situations, while little

music to the product innovation, focusing on

attention has been paid to efforts to improvethe “fuzzy front end,”an initial stage ofcreativity in everyday work. Videos, post-

innovation. They followed the process ofworkshop feedback, and journals from thecomposing music and created a prototype of a

20-month improvisational theater intervention

software application collaborating with awere used to track how individual andtechnology company and suggest that using thecollective creativity was enhanced, resulting incomposing process helps the initial stage ofongoing organizational change at various levels.

innovation.

Yams (2018) designed a long-term artistic

In terms of team building andintervention that could impact the strategic

communication, Ippolito and Adler (2018)

level of the organization. This study conductedempirically examined how artistic interventions

two-year action research in a Swedish

with music in a group can affect the mindset ofmunicipality, and through contemporary dance

its members. They suggest that creating

choreography, this study was able to achieve

playlists related to a conflict, attending ainnovation while balancing the goals of therehearsal of a string quartet, and theorganization with the needs of the individuals.

experience of playing music together canSpecific to the choreography, a creative processchange the participants’mindset from being

was modeled by Yams (2016) that explored theadversarial to being more cooperative and canpossibility of transferring dancers’

make them perceive the importance ofchoreographic know-how to project design.

emotions and relationships. Similarly, Sorsa et

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4.4 Collaboration with artists
There are also initiatives to collaborate withartists can enhance creativity at both theartists in various forms, such as creating

individual and organizational levels.

artworks on an issue and“artist in residence.”

Categorizing values as intrinsic, instrumental,

Simeone, Secundo, and Schiuma (2018) showed

and institutional and effectively working withthat art and design are powerful tools as

the elements contained within them were alsotranslational mechanisms. They reported thatfound to enhance competence and learning.

the artworks on digital archives at metaLAB of

Meisiek and Barry (2018) examined theHarvard University could enhance

effectiveness of artistic interventions. Nineteencommunication and mutual understanding

companies that invited artists to improve theamong various stakeholders, such as

innovativeness of their employees wereresearchers, business persons, and investors,

included in the study. Just the right entitlement

and resulted in entrepreneurship from thebetween manager and artist is important foruniversity. This study suggests how art can be

maximizing organizational capacity throughutilized as a translational tool that mediates

artistic intervention. According to them, thecommunication among diverse groups withsweet spot of the maximum effectiveness ofdifferent interests.

collective decision-making in assessing

Lee, Fillis, and Lehman (2018) conducted aoutcomes lies at three levels: emphasis,case study. Semi-structured interviews with anfacilitation, and training, and it depends on theaquaculture laboratory at a UK university

power balance between managers and artists.

revealed that the on-campus residence of

4.5 Evaluation of the use of arts in business
The utilization of arts or the process of art

Keeping in mind that artists and businessproduction in the business context is still in its

persons have very different values, norms, andinfant stage, but as long as it aims to increasepractices, it is important to consider thatany business outcome, it should involve someinterventions by artists are long term, whichassessment and evaluation of the initiatives.

means they exist before and after inventions. In

According to Strauß (2018), a meta-analysis ofaddition, this paper suggests that value should

evaluation studies found that while artistic

be created not by finding value but byinterventions can bring improvements toquestioning the mindset of the organization.

individuals, they rarely have an impact on an

According to Antal and Strauß (2016), theorganizational scale. Strauß (2018) suggests that

added value of artistic interventions depends

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not only on the quality of the intervention but

and Carlucci (2016) presented a process foralso on organizational follow up. However, while

their effectiveness. The Arts Value Map,

the effects of interventions have been most

proposed by Schiuma (2011), is a way toprominently documented at the individual level,measure the effectiveness of ABIs. They

there is little mention of organizational follow

associated ABIs with this map and applied theup. A transformation from results-oriented

analytic hierarchy method from strategy tomanagement to management that explores andassessment. As a result, they concluded thatcollaborates on evaluation is required.

ABIs focus their evaluation on employee

Based on the premise that ABIs are aneffective tool for managing the aestheticchange and the development of organizational
infrastructure.

dimension at the organizational level, Schiuma

5. Integrated Framework for Art Thinking
5.1 Implications from the literature
As seen in the previous sections, there are amethods and education to find and express

wide range of preceding studies that analyze

problems on social perspectives have been

the process of art production and how to use

developed, such as is seen in speculative design.

arts in the business context. A summary of theSecond, previous studies on art production

major implications is as follows.

propose that contemporary arts, in particular,First, the initiatives to utilize arts forfocus on problem finding and tackling open-

creativity can be seen as ABIs since the early

ended questions, which suggests such art

2010s, trying to enhance inspiration andprocesses can be utilized in finding social

communication in organizations. There has

problems and constructing totally new

been a booming interest in so-called “artbusinesses. In addition, the process of art

thinking”since the late 2010s in Japan, but

production is cyclical and attempts to improve

most of the literature includes works aiming at

artworks with modification, slippage, andgeneral audiences to stimulate interest in thesimilarity thinking. It should also be noted thatarts in the hope that the arts can enhance theembodied experience is important forcapability to cope with an uncertain businessstimulating creativity in arts production.

environment. However, the academic andThird, studies from a management

empirical backing of these interests is still

perspective suggest that the creativity issue ininsufficient. On the other hand, practicalt he bus ines s cont ext involves bot h t he

An Integrated Framework for“Art Thinking”: How to utilize the process of art for business innovation85

creativity of individuals and that ofdemystifying the process of the arts, andorganizations and the interaction between theincorporating it in the business context is

two. In terms of art utilization, there have beensignificantly missing.

a wide range of studies on ABIs that aim to

Taking the abovementioned points into

enhance inspiration and communication inconsideration, a comprehensive framework oforganizations. However, these studies handle

creating innovation based on the art production

arts as a“black box”and assess the impact ofprocess is proposed.

using the arts as interventions, thus

5.2 Arts-Based Innovation Process
Based on the literature review in previous

into business and social innovation, the focus ofsections, we developed an integrated

this process is placed on the micro level offramework for art thinking. Schiuma (2011)

creating products or services, incorporating thepresents the Arts Value Map, which illustrates

process of art creation. We call the process of

the relations of the value of adopting ABIs

innovation based on art thinking the arts-based

through value creation at a firm level. On theinnovation process (AIP), which is shown inother hand, given that the primary purpose of

Figure 4.

this paper is taking the process of art creation

The AIP defines the process of innovation

Figure 4. Integrated Framework of Arts-Based Innovation Process (AIP)

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incorporating the process of art production.

Youn (2018) suggest, an open mindset toward

However, it is not simply a unidirectional

aesthetic experience and the experience of arts

process from input to output, but it rather

can enhance inspirations and raise creativity,

defines a cyclical relationship of elements

and experience of arts is also one of thesewhere arts-based innovation is produced andpersonal backgrounds.

improved. It describes the creative process of

Art domain settings and creative skills also

individuals, but it can also be used as an

belong to personal factors. Creative skills often

aggregated process of individuals as a team.

include, but are not limited to, physical skills toFirst, we separate creativity and innovation

create artwork such as visual arts or music.

in terms that the former suggests theWe emphasize these skills because in thegeneration of novel ideas, and the latter

ability to create actual artwork—whether it issuggests the implementation of those. Thisvisual art or music—the embodied experiencedichotomy might seem to resemble theand skills and the improvement of these canrelationship between art and design: problem-

give a creator motivation and inspiration in thefinding and problem-solving. In the art-based

domain. Environmental factors mainly give ainnovation process, creativity plays the corecreator inspiration in the domain of activity.

role. From the perspective of art creation, asThis includes communication with others on

discussed in Chapter 3, art production can be

the topic that could also be influenced by theseen as problem-finding and handling openorganizational structure that the creator

questions, and this creativity focuses on

belongs to. As seen in the literature on

problem-finding. The AIP also emphasizes

management studies, autonomy, freedom, andcreativity where the problem is not defined orpressure play a significant role in personalpresented clearly (open question), the capability

creativity (Amabile et al., 1996). It is inferred

to discover and define a problem, and tothat these environmental factors would affectpresent it so that others can perceive that theinspirational experience through communication

solution for the problem should be worthwhile.

with others.

Creativity is affected by two components:

When creativity is demonstrated to find andpersonal factors and environmental factors.

define a problem, it is also utilized to generate

Personal factors mainly give a creator

ideas for solutions. This process results in the

motivation in the domain of any type of activity.

representation of problems and solutions,This includes intrinsic motivation in the field ofalthough in conceptual forms, such as a roughthe issue and personal background such as

sketch, document, or presentation materials.

experience to affect the motivation. As An andThis representation is utilized in the innovation

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87

phase that realizes the solution for the problem.

should be emphasized. First, its core difference

The realization process often involves thefrom the conventional innovation process iscreation of works with skills, from shaping an

problem-finding with intrinsic motivation,

object and coding software to composing aparticularly toward open-ended questions. It is

document. These outputs are expected to haveparticularly important to initiate innovation in asome impact on society through clients,

field that is not well-defined or has fierce

consumers, and general audiences. The outputs

competition, typically expressed as “blueare subject to the evaluation of receivers fromoceans.”The second emphasis is the cyclical

practical and emotional viewpoints. Particularly

improvement process with modification andin arts-based innovation, the subject of theslippage. This means that innovation is notproblem would involve ambiguous, complex,

unidirectional but rather involves trial andand contradictory issues rather than the simple

error and the free flow of ideas. It resembles apursuit of convenience and requires a change“pivot”of business models but also a part ofof the general public’s behavior or mindset. For

deframing (Takagi, 2019) that abstracts a coresuch issues, emotional impact is also an

essence of functions and combines it with otherimportant factor to evaluate whether the works

factors to form completely new businesshave a positive impact on society.

domains.

The impact on society is examined as

Thirdly, it emphasizes the importance of

feedback to the creator, and it contributes in

embodied experience and skills to stimulate

two paths. One is analogical modification andcreativity. As seen in Chapter 3, bodily

slippage, as discussed in Chapter 3. Analogicalexperience is an essential part of creativity inmodification and slippage are considered theart production. In addition, as Springborg andcontinuous and cyclical improvement or

Ladkin (2018) suggest that art creation canevolution of works by the creator. The otheroffer new embodied experiences as a simulation

path is the evolution of personal factors, suchand can bring new perspectives to businessas through significant improvements in skills

activities; embodied experience plays an

and stimulation of motivation. The evolution

important role in disruptive thinking on thepath represents a more long-term cyclicalexisting concepts. In this sense, we emphasize

improvement of the arts-based innovation

the importance of implementation with skills

process.

and the trial-and-error process, which, in turn,

While the AIP is a comprehensive frameworkused to describe the innovation process based

will be reflected in the personal factors of theinnovators.

on art production, there are several points that88

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6. Conclusion
This article reviews prior studies regarding

One of the remaining challenges is to

how arts and the process of art production canpractically apply the AIP in the actual

enhance creativity and innovation in business

innovation process and empirically assess its

context and constructed an integrated

usefulness and make continuous improvements.

framework for innovation based on art thinking.

Particularly, the performance of the AIP would

Despite the rising interest in utilizing arts for

depend on various factors, such as the art

business, academic research on art thinking isforms, applied business domains, and challenges

significantly limited, particularly focusing on

to be solved.

utilizing the process of art production. Instead

This article generally focuses on modernof dealing with art as a black box, this article

visual arts as an art domain that is referred toattempts to demystify the process of art

and analyzed, but other arts domains would be

production and embeds it into the arts-based

also important for consideration. For example,

innovation process.

music provides rich implications for innovation,

It should be noted that the impact of utilizing

such as seen in the fusion of classics andarts for business can take a long time,modern in jazz, which can provide importantparticularly when using it to enhance theinsight into combining elements to create newindividual and organizational capability ofexperiences, and musical works can be studied

innovation. It is not a fast-acting drug to cureas the design of emotional journeys, and theorganizational challenges but rather takes time

management of music sessions can be analyzed

to be embedded in individuals and organizationsin the organizational management context

through the repeated use of the process.

(Takagi, 2020). The analysis of other art forms

On the other hand, the importance of theis another future challenge.

incentives of artists who would participate in

There is a growing demand to come up withsuch programs should also be emphasized.

transformative ideas to create new businesses

Unless artists can expect new experiences andand solve social problems. The authors hopeinsights by collaborating with businessthis article can benefit all those who areorganizations, no artists would seriously takeinterested in taking up this challenge.

part in those attempts.

An Integrated Framework for“Art Thinking”: How to utilize the process of art for business innovation89

Acknowledgements
The authors thank the members of the“research project on the social innovation empowered by art-thinking”at Interfaculty
Initiative in Information Studies, The University of Tokyo, for valuable input for this study.

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An Integrated Framework for“Art Thinking”: How to utilize the process of art for business innovation
Soichiro Takagi*, Kikuko Takagi**, Yasuaki Kakehi*, Mami Fukuchi*, Shoko Hara***Recently“art thinking”has been attracting broader attention aiming to utilize the thinking andprocess of art creation in the business context. This concept is based on the assumption that various
art forms and creative processes of arts can be utilized to generate new business ideas beyond
traditional incumbents, particularly when uncertainty in the society increases. While there has been
substantial research on arts-based initiatives that attempt to utilize various art forms as interventions
in business organizations, the features of the creative process in the arts, how these features
are related to creativity in the business context, and how this can impact business performance
positively, both from theoretical and empirical perspectives, have not been studied deeply. This
article reviews prior studies on creativity in art creation and business activities based on aninterdisciplinary approach, including management and psychology, to clarify the academic forefrontof art thinking. It also proposes a comprehensive framework to represent the process of creative
innovation incorporating the process of art creation.

* Interfaculty Initiative in Information Studies, The University of Tokyo** Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo*** Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Information Studies, The University of Tokyo
Key Words：Art thinking, Innovation, Creativity

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