TREATMENT OF FEMALE OFFENDERS IN SINGAPORE
Goh Chin Mien

I. TREATMENT OF FEMALE OFFENDERS
A. Status of Female-Committed Crimes
The Singapore Prison Service (SPS)oversees 13 male and one female prison,the Changi WomenʼsPrison (CWP). On 31 December 2011, a total of 1,194 females were incarcerated in CWP.
As of the end of November 2012, the breakdown of offences committed by females is shown in
Figure 1 below.

Figure 1:Breakdown of offences committed by females as of November 2012
For the same period, the demographic details of the female offenders are shown in Figures 2 to 4:

Assistant Director, Psychological and Correctional Rehabilitation Services Division, Singapore Prison Service.

163

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 90

Figure 2:Age group of female offenders (as of November 2012)

Figure 3:M arital status of female offenders as of November 2012164

153RD INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINARPARTICIPANTSʼPAPERS

Figure 4:Educational level of female offenders as of November 2012
A profiling and gender responsive assessment study is currently being carried out in the CWP.The
preliminary analysis of a sample of 102 female inmates showed that a high percentage, 42%, had
experienced emotional distress. Despite the significant number, only 22% said that they had received
treatment for their distress. From the same sample, 45% reported a history of physical, emotional orverbal abuse. Additionally, 36% turned to substance abuse to help them cope with stress.From these,
there seemed to be a general lack of emotional regulation and adaptive coping skills.Further,there is
likely to be a relationship between emotional distress and substance abuse,as well as victimization andsubstance abuse.
B. Basic Principles of Female Offender Treatment
Two overarching frameworks guide SPSʼs rehabilitation and treatment efforts.The Rehabilitation
Framework divides the process into three main components:in-care, halfway care and aftercare.
The second framework is the risk-need model in the treatment of offenders, the current dominant
approach in the correctional rehabilitation field.In essence,treatment systematically targets dynamic
risk factors associated with recidivism, and treatment intensity is determined by the offenderʼs risklevel (Andrews & Bonta, 1998). Four principles underpin the model: risks, needs, responsivity andprofessional discretion (Andrews & Bonta, 1998). The risk, need, responsivity (RNR) model is theoverarching framework that guides intervention efforts, complemented by other theories such as theGood Lives M odel and desistance theory.
The General Personality and Cognitive Social Learning (GPCSL) perspective underlies the RNR
model of offender assessment and rehabilitation (Bonta & Andrews, 2007). Accordingly, approaches
such as cognitive-behavioural theories and relapse prevention model,etc.have been the main theoretical bases for development of psychology-based treatment programmes, called specialized treatment
programmes (STPs)in SPS.Furthermore,there has been compelling empirical evidence of the efficacy
of such approaches in treatment of substance abuse and pro-criminal attitudes.Proponents of RNR andGPCSL have argued that the model is applicable to women (Bonta & Andrews, 2007).
Traditionally,the same treatment programmes have been used with both male and female offenders
in SPS. To cater to responsivity issues of females, modifications have been made to the original
programme,such as the use of more gender-specific examples and smaller group sizes.Gender-studies

165

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 90
scholars have found that females have different risks and needs than men (Blanchette,2004;Blanchette& Brown,2006;Bloom,Owen & Covington,2003;Covington,2000;Hardyman & Van Voorhis,2004).It
would then stand to reason that the same programme designed for men would be limited in its efficacy
for women. The RNR model and the underlying GPCSL perspective might be gender-neutral, buteffective treatment for female offenders might require a gender-specific approach.
C. Human-Rights-Related Issues
According to the United States Department of Stateʼs Country Reports on Human Rights Practices
for 2011,the only identified problem pertaining to prisons in Singapore was that mandated caning wasallowable for some crimes. The same report found that prison and detention centre conditions generally met international standards. Other human-rights issues relating to criminal justice in Singapore
highlighted by Amnesty International in its Annual Report 2012 were detention without trial and thedeath penalty. In Singapore, all women are exempted from the caning, though they are subjected todetention without trial and the death penalty.
In 2008, the Quaker United Nations Office (QUNO) of Human Rights and Refugees published acommentary on women in prison. Among 21 areas highlighted by the report, those significant toSingapore include non-discrimination between male and female prisoners, security classification andstrip searching.
As mentioned in the previous section,female prisoners in SPS generally receive the same programming as male prisoners. According to the 2008 QUNO report, this would constitute discrimination,
which follows from male-orientated programming:a failure to properly assess,understand and address
the particular needs of women prisoners.
As there is only one facility for female offenders in Singapore,it is necessarily a maximum security
prison. This means that some female prisoners are being housed in a more onerous environment thanwarranted by their security classification.
The 2008 QUNO report described routine strip-searching as unnecessarily harsh. In CWP, this iscarried out on a regular basis as a security measure.
D. Institutional Treatment (Juveniles/Adults)
Under the Rehabilitation Framework,treatment of offenders begins during the in-care phase,whichrefers to the period of an inmateʼs incarceration or detention that is served out physically in a prison
or drug rehabilitation centre. In-care is further divided into four phases:admission, deterrence, treatment, and pre-release.
1. Admission
All inmates enter the prison system at the admission phase, when they are classified according totheir security risks and rehabilitation needs. A customized treatment plan, the Personal Route M ap
(PRM ), will be charted for each inmate according to his/her individual needs and risks. The PRM
records the inmateʼ
s progress in programmes that he/she requires or has gone through during incarceration. M ale inmates are assigned to institutions according to their security risk. As there is only one
facility for female offenders, all females will serve their incarceration or detention in CWP, amaximum-security institution.
Under SPSʼs assessment framework,the Level of Service/Case M anagement Inventory(LS/CMI)isused to assess general risks of offending,followed by screening for specific risks ifapplicable.The casemanagement portion has provisions for gender-specific issues,as well as concerns that are common tofemales,such as parenting and victimization.The onlyspecific risk being screened for female offenders
now is substance abuse,as screening tools for other specific risks such as violent and sexual offending
are not validated for women. Since 2011, the youth version of the LS/CM I has been used on juvenile
offenders below the age of 21. The YLS/CMI was adopted because it was found to be more sensitive
to youth risks and needs, which are different from adultsʼ
, yielding more accurate assessments.
The LS/CMI was designed to be a gender-neutral tool and some studies have found it to be valid

166

153RD INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINARPARTICIPANTSʼPAPERS
for females (Andrew,Dowden,& Rettinger,2001;Dowden & Andrew,1999;Holsinger,Lowenkamp,&
Latessa, 2003)while other studies have produced conflicting results (Blanchette,2005;Olson,Alderde,& Lurigio,2003;Salisbury,Van Voorhis,& Spiropoulis,2009).Gender studies scholars have argued thatgender-neutral assessment frameworks do not adequately assess needs of women,leading to inaccurate
risk assessments.
Given the paucity of appropriately validated tools,in particular for specific risks,that could be usedon the local female offender population, inaccurate risk assessments could certainly be a danger. An
additional danger could be that needs specific of females are not detected,and therefore are left unmet.
2. Deterrence
The deterrence period is meant to be a time for inmates to experience the rigours of incarceration
for deterrent effect,so minimal programmes are available.It is also intended to be a time for inmatesto adapt to prison life, reflect on their actions and prepare for the treatment phase.
3. Treatment
In this phase, inmates are allocated programmes according to their risks and needs identified
through PRM . Programme allocation is based on availability and priority. Initially, STPs were
designed in such a way that each programme was focused on a single need,such as criminal attitudes
and thinking, substance abuse and dependence, sexual offending, etc. In theory, inmates could attend
more than one STP, according to their needs. In practice, issues such as length of incarceration or
detention and resources available limit inmates to one treatment programme each.Recently,with therealization that inmates usually have multiple needs, programmes have been designed to integratedifferent needs.
As mentioned earlier, female inmates undergo the same STPs as the male inmates, with somemodifications. Those currently available at CWP are the integrated criminogenic programme, asubstance abuse and dependence programme, a criminal attitude/thinking programme, as well as ayouth criminal attitude/thinking programme. Some provisions have been made to improve the STPsʼ
fit with female inmates, according to the responsivity principle. For instance, as females tend to be
more relational, group sizes are kept smaller to promote a safe therapeutic environment. Further, asystemic perspective may be adopted when working with women, expanding the focusing beyond theindividual to also include significant relationships and people. Safety is also important so that issues
such as trauma and victimization may be attended to.These are especially crucial if they are factors
in female inmatesʼrecovery and reintegration into their communities.
Youth female offenders between the ages of 18 and 21 are also housed in CWP.The same rehabilitation framework and RNR principles are applied to them,and they undergo STPs specifically designed
for youths.The youth STP is still based on general personality and cognitive social learning theories,
with an additional developmental psychology perspective to take into account their life stages.
Youth offenders are subjected to a different regime than the adults,and hence are segregated fromthe adult population.However,being in the same facility has diminished the efficacy of a youth-centric
regime,a challenge posed by their small numbers.For instance,they could be on the same housing unit
landing as the adults, which makes it difficult for staff to adhere strictly to the different regimes.
In addition to psychology-based interventions, other treatment and approaches are also available
for the rehabilitation of inmates. Educational opportunities and vocational training aligned withnational policies and standards are provided to enhance inmatesʼemployability. Vocational training
takes into account gender-differences by bringing in those that are more popular with women in thegeneral population. VWOs and vendors are engaged to provide family programmes to improve andmaintain the relationships between female inmates and their families. Volunteers conduct various
programmes from regular religious counselling to ad hoc art therapy and workshops on dressing andimage.
Overall, female offenders undergo the same treatment as male offenders, although some modifications and provisions are made in recognition of gender differences. There are not as yet any pro-167

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 90
grammes specifically designed for female offenders.
4. Pre-release
In this final component of the in-care phase, inmates are given programmes that prepare them forreintegration into the community upon their release.Programmes during this phase focus on equipping
inmates with knowledge and skills necessary for living in the community,such as money management
and job seeking skills. Additionally, VWOs also provide information and referral services to inmates
who might benefit from their assistance after release.
E. Community-based Treatment (Juveniles/Adults)
Community-based treatment is carried out in the halfway care and aftercare phases of the Rehabilitation Framework.
1. Halfway Care
This phase refers to the end of an inmateʼs incarceration where the inmate,if found suitable,may
be selected to undergo halfway-care programmes and serve out his or her remaining sentence or
detention order in the community. These community-based programmes (CBP)allow inmates to workoutside prisons while residing in their homes, a halfway house, or a work release camp (under thepurview of SPS), under supervised conditions. This period provides inmates with opportunities forgradual reintegration into the community,therebyforming the vital bridge between institutionalizationand full freedom. In 2011, a total of 1,807 inmates were placed in CBPs.
Compared to the options for male offenders, those for female inmates are much more limited.
Female inmates participate only in the residential and the halfway house schemes of the CBP.Due tooperational constraints,the only work-release camp does not house female inmates.Halfway houses in
Singapore are operated along gender lines,and are faith or ethnicity-based.Ofthe eight halfwayhouses
that are part of the Halfway House Service M odel, only one is for women.
Inmates in CBPs continue to receive supervision as well as support.During this phase,inmates who
have undergone STPs continue to receive booster sessions to reinforce their learning and application.
All inmates placed in CBPs also have a Reintegration Officer (RO)assigned to them,playing the rolesof enforcer as well as case manager.
Community-based programmes for adults are based on suitability,while it is part ofthe sentence foryouth offenders.All youth offenders are released on supervision for a minimum period of one year toa maximum period of two years, depending on their progress when on supervision. They too, areexpected to be meaningfully occupied,either with work or studies. ROs also support and monitor themat this time.
2. Aftercare
The aftercare refers to the immediate period subsequent to an inmateʼs release from the custody of
the SPS. During this period, ex-inmates will be provided with support to reintegrate into the community.
The CARE Network was formed in 2000 to coordinate and improve the effectiveness of the effortsof the many agencies engaging in rehabilitative works for ex-offenders throughout Singapore. Its main
objectives focus on ex-inmates,as well as the community.It coordinates assistance for ex-offenders aswell as mobilizes and facilitates the community to support them in their reintegration with society.
F. Treatment for Women with Specific Offence Types
1. Drug Offences
At present,offenders with drug offences undergo a moderate intensity STP that targets substanceabuse:the Drug Abuse Treatment Programme (DATP). The programmeʼ
s theoretical bases include
CBT, the relapse prevention model, the transtheoretical model, motivational interviewing and groupdynamics. There are plans to review the DATP in 2013 to enhance its effectiveness.
In 2012, an integrated programme targeting substance abuse and criminal attitudes/thinking for168

153RD INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINARPARTICIPANTSʼPAPERS
those assessed to be at high risk was implemented in CWP. The programme was modelled after aviolence intervention programme called the ManAlive, and based on CBT, the Good Lives M odel,
desistance theory and narrative practices.
2. Property Offences
Inmates who commit property offences and who also have a history of substance abuse assessed to
be at high risk are eligible for the integrated criminogenic programme mentioned earlier. For those
without a history of substance abuse,and of lower risk,they would be suitable for a single-focus STP
that targets their criminal attitudes/thinking.
3. Others
Due to the very small numbers, there are currently no treatment programmes for other offences,such as violent and sexual offending.
G. Treatment for Women with Special Needs
1. M ental Disorders
SPS adopts the medical model for the treatment of inmates with mental disorders,in line with thenational treatment model. CWP is equipped with a dispensary where inmates have access to medicalcare around the clock, and the psychiatrist is available once a week. Inmates with mental disorders
may be housed in a ward in CWP, or sent to a secure ward in a public hospital if necessary.
At present, psychiatric care for female offenders lags behind that for male offenders, who haveaccess to a specialized housing unit designed for the rehabilitation of mental illness.In 2007,there wereplans to set up a similar unit in CWP as well,but they were not ultimately realized.This year,efforts
have been renewed to set up such a unit for female offenders.
There have been efforts to complement pharmacotherapy, for example, with psychotherapy, butthey have unfortunately not been sustained due to operational and resource constraints.For example,
a gender-specific rehabilitation programme to address the treatment needs of female inmates withmental health issues was conducted from 2007 to 2011,but was discontinued due to the limited outreachand the considerable strain on the staff delivering the programme, who did so on top of their regular
workload.
2. Self-Injurious Behaviours
Behavioural issues,including self-harm behaviours,are usually addressed using an interdisciplinary
approach. Officers, counsellors, psychiatrists and other service providers collaborate to design anintervention plan to reduce the frequency and severity of this behaviour. Inmates who engage inself-injurious behaviours are also monitored around the clock to ensure their safety.
3. Pregnancy, Childbirth and Child-Rearing
Pregnant female inmates in CWP have access to obstetrics and gynaecology(O&G)services,and thedispensary is equipped with O&G equipment.M edical staffspecializing in O&G services offer their care
twice a month.Further,pregnant inmates are separated from the regular population in the housing unit
and receive dietary as well as nutritional supplements.For delivery,inmates are sent to public womenʼsand childrenʼ
s hospitals.
Newborns usually return with the inmatesʼfamily members who are willing and able to care forthem from the hospital. In cases where this is not feasible, alternative care options will be exploredwith the inmates, including foster care and adoption. In exceptional instances when inmates rejectalternative care for their newborns, they are allowed to have their newborn with them in CWP until
other acceptable care can be found. The maximum age that children may stay with their mothers isthree years of age.
Inmates and their infants are separated from the regular population,and they receive necessities forthe care of the infants.A room in the housing unit is designated as a play area for the infants,who canaccess it for half an hour every day.If no caregiver is identified at the end of three years,the state childwelfare agency will intervene.

169

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 90
H. Female Staff
CWP is staffed exclusively by women,whose stints there are usually the result ofa policyofregular
job rotation.Due to the large number offemale staffneeded,a significant proportion ofnewlyrecruited
female staff is sent to CWP in their first posting. In training school, female staff members do notreceive additional coaching on working with female offenders. Consequently, they face a steep
learning curve as they not only contend with applying what they have learned in training school,but
may also struggle with applying to females what is essentially jailcraft for male offenders.
SPS staff receive regular on-the-job training, which is the best opportunity to enhance theircompetency in working with female offenders. Learning and development needs peculiar to each
institution are identified and met at this platform.Further,staff in new postings are assigned mentors,
who are senior staff, to ease their transition as well as show them the ropes. While laudable, such
efforts could be insufficient to manage female offenders effectively, in the face of gender differences.
A more robust and rigorous training curriculum and structure is needed.
I. Challenges and Obstacles
There is growing awareness of gender differences in offenders and offender treatment in SPS andincreasing efforts to cater to the specific needs of women offenders. Beyond modifying existing
interventions that were designed with male offenders in mind,effective treatment for female offenders
ought to be developed specifically for women.This means,among other things,clearlyidentifying theirneeds, pathways to offending and interventions that have been found to work well with them.
Before that is achieved,limited support and resources at present means that many efforts have notbeen sustained. Frequently, such initiatives originated from the ground up, representing true needs.
Sadly, the lack of support on systemic levels has curtailed the outreach and obstructed the sustainability of these efforts.
The female offender situation poses a particular challenge to programme development and sustainability with its small numbers and highly diverse needs. Economies of scale are rarely reaped, so
it is of little wonder that it does not attract investment.

II. RESOURCES
1.

Singapore Prison Service website:http://www.prisons.gov.sg

2.

Yellow Ribbon Project website:http://www.yellowribbon.org.sg

3.

CARE Network:http://www.carenetwork.org.sg

4.

Correctional Service Canada ― Publications:http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/text/pblcttl-eng.shtml
A) Corrections in general ― Compendium 2000 on Effective Correctional Programming:http://
www.csc-scc.gc.ca/text/rsrch/compendium/2000/index-eng.shtml
B) Women Offenders
Womenʼ
s Corrections:http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/text/prgrm/fsw/fsw-eng.shtml
C) Community Corrections
Federal Community Corrections Strategy:http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/text/faits/03-12-eng.
shtml

III. REFERENCES
Andrews,D.A.,& Bonta,J.(1998).The psychology of criminal conduct (2nd ed.).Cincinnati:Anderson.

170

153RD INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINARPARTICIPANTSʼPAPERS
Andrews,D.A.,Dowden,C.,& Rettinger,L.J.(2001).“Special populations within corrections.”In J.A.
Winterdyck (Ed),Corrections in Canada:Social reactions to crime(pp.170-212).Toronto,Ontario,
Canada:Prentice Hall.
Blanchette, K. (2004). “
Revisiting effective classification strategies for women offenders in Canada.”
Feminism & Psychology, 14, 231-236.
Blanchette,K.,& Brown,S.L.(2006).The assessment and treatment of women offenders: An integrative
perspective. Chichester, UK:Wiley.
Bloom,B.,Owen,B.,& Covington,S.(2003).Gender-responsive strategies: Research practice and guiding
principles for women offenders. Washington, DC:USDOJ, National Institute of Corrections.
Bonta,J.& Andrews,D.A.(2007).Risk-need-responsivity model for offender assessment and rehabilitation. Retrieved 16 December 2012 from http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/res/cor/rep/ fl/Risk
Need 2007-06 e.pdf.
Covington, S. (2000). “Helping women to recover:Creating gender-specific treatment for substanceabusing women and girls in community corrections.”In M . McMahon (Ed.), Assessment toassistance: Programs for women in community corrections (pp.171-233).Lanham,M D:American
Correctional Association.
Dowden, C., & Andrews, D. A. (1999). “What works for female offenders:A meta-analytic review.”
Crime & Delinquency, 45, 438-452.
Hardyman,P.L.,& Van Voorhis,P.(2004).Developing gender-specific classification systems for women
offenders. Washington, DC:USDOJ, National Institute of Corrections.
Holsinger,A.M .,Lowenkamp,C.T.,Latessa,E.J.(2003).“Ethnicity,gender,and the Level of Service
Inventory-Revised.”Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 309-320.
Olson, D. E., Alderden, M ., & Lurigio, A. J. (2003). “M en are from mars, women are from Venus, butwhat role does gender play in probation recidivism?”Justice Research & Policy, 5, 33-54.
Salisbury, E. J., Van Voorhis, P., & Spiropoulis, G. (2009). “The predictive validity of a genderresponsive risk/needs assessment.”Crime & Delinquency, 55, 550-585.

171