AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF ALCHEMY AND
EARLY CHEMISTRY©2008, 2004, 1978 BY David A. Katz. All rights reserved.
Permission for classroom and educational use as long as original copyright is included

SPLENDOR SOLISAN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF ALCHEMY AND
EARLY CHEMISTRY©2008, 2004, 1978 BY David A. Katz. All rights reserved.
Permission for classroom and educational use as long as original copyright is included.

David A. Katz
Chemist, educator, science communicator, and consultant.
133 N. Desert Stream Dr., Tucson, AZ 85745, U.S.A.
Voice: 520-624-2207 Email: dakatz45@msn.com

I. Prehistoric Times
To tell the story of chemistry, it is best to start in prehistoric times with primitive humans. In
his quest for survival, and endowed with a natural curiosity, primitive man learned muchabout his environment. He was aware of physical properties of substances such as color,shape or form, hardness, taste, weight, density in the form of relative weight, and odor. And
he was most probably aware of natural physical changes such as water to ice (and vice versa),
lava to rock, certain rocks to dust, etc.
It is also safe to assume that primitive man, although he had no knowledge of chemistry, wasaware of chemical change in the forms of decaying organic matter, natural production ofozone from lightning (by noting the odor of the ozone), wood burning into charcoal and ash,etc.
But primitive man was by no means any
sort of scientist and he made no logical ororganized study of natural phenomena.
The information he gathered about theworld was passed from generation to
generation by memory, demonstration, orby observation without explanation or
any understanding of the true reasons forthese phenomena. Most probably, muchof these happenings were attributed tohigher powers, thus laying the earlyfoundations of religion and superstition.

Early cave drawing. From the Hitite
Museum, Cappadoccia, Turkey

Primitive man’s early encounters with fire were probably through atmospheric (lightning) or
volcanic (fiery eruptions and/or lava) sources. Initially, in these first encounters, man wasprobably afraid and reacted as such, but, later, he learned to tend fire and to use it to keep
warm, cook meat, and probably perform some physical and chemical changes with common
materials.
Eventually, primitive man learned how build different types of fires and to use fire as a tool
to produce many chemical changes deliberately. Over time, through trial and error, helearned how to make pottery from clay, make building materials, make glass, and to separate
metals from their ores. First men worked with the less active metals: copper, tin, bronze (analloy of copper and tin), and lead. Eventually, they learned to work with iron.

II. Early Chemical Arts
Early chemistry evolved as a trade and art - not as a science. Many chemical processes werelearned by accident, but once mastered, they were passed on by an apprenticeship procedure.
Some of the chemical arts known and practiced by about 1200 B.C. are:Metallurgy: copper, tin, bronze (a copper-tin alloy), lead and iron were used forutensils and tools.
Gold and silver were used for ornamentation.
Preparation and use of building materials such as plaster and mortar.
Tar and asphalt were used for waterproofing and embalming.
Waxes and oils were prepared and used for fuels for heat and light.
Methods were developed for tanning of leather and the preserving ofanimal pelts.
Dyes were made for the coloring of textiles, stone, and pottery.
Glass, both clear and colored, was manufactured for use in vessels and forornamentation.
Fake gems were prepared.
Glues were made for various purposes.
Soaps were made from animal fats.
Plant and mineral materials were used for medicines.
Beer and wine were made.
Cosmetics were made for both men and women.

Photos from the Pergamon Museum, Berlin, Germany:
Background: The Istar Gate, Babylon, c. 600 BC
Ancient gold, pottery, necklace, and tilework.

III. Theories of Matter
The Greeks and Hindus appear to have developed theories on matter, however, most of thephilosophical writings are attributed to the Greeks due to the amount of recorded
information that has survived to the present.
Greek writings tell us that they thought substances could be converted or transformed into
other forms. They observed the changing of states due to heat and equated it with biologicalprocesses. For example, it was believed that an animal digested its food by “cooking” it in
its stomach.
The Greeks were philosophers and thinkers, not experimentalists, so they did not conduct
experiments to verify their ideas. They believed that a sphere was perfection, so no
substance on Earth was perfect.
As early as the 6th century BC, Thales of Miletus (about 624-about 527
B.C.) proposed that water is the primal matter from which everythingoriginated. He is also credited with defining a soul as that which
possesses eternal motion.

Bust of Thales,
Capitoline Museum,
Rome, Italy
Anaximander (610-546 B.C.), also believed in a primary substance, theapeiron, which was eternal and unlimited in extension. It was not composedof any known elements and it possessed eternal motion (i.e., a soul).

Anaximenes (585-524 B.C.) modified the ideas of his predecessors
and stated that air is the primary substance and suggested it could betransformed into other substances by thinning (fire) or thickening (wind, clouds,
rain, hail, earth, rock).

Anaximander,
Landesmuseum,
Trier, Germany

Heraclitus of Ephesus (544-484 B.C.) said that fire is the primeval substance and that change isthe only reality.

Background photo: The Market Gate of Miletus, The
Pergamon Museum, Berlin, Germany

Anaximenes

Heraclitus

The Pythagoreans (Pythagoras (570-490 B.C.)) attempted to reduce thetheory of matter to a mathematical and geometric basis by using geometricsolids to represent the basic elements:(Refer to Plato, later in thissection)cube = earth
tetrahedron = fireoctahedron = air
icosahedron = water
dodecahedron = ether
Empedocles of Agrigentum (492-432 B.C.) is credited with the firstannouncement of the concept of four elements: earth, air, fire, and water, whichwere capable of combining to form all other substances. The way in which
the elements combined was due to specific attractions or repulsions whichwere typified as love and hate.
(NOTE: This 4 element theory dominated science for approximately
2000 years.)

Pythagoras

Empedocles

Anaxagoras of Klazomenae (c. 500-428 B.C.) considered theuniverse to be composed of an infinite variety of small particles called
seeds. These seeds were infinitely divisible and possessed a quality
which allowed "like to attract like" to form substances such a flesh, bone, gold,
etc.
Anaxagoras
Leucippus (5th century B.C.) and Democritus (460-370 B.C.)
set forth the first atomic theory. They believed that allmaterial things were consisted of small indivisible p a r t i c l e s ,or atoms, which were all qualitatively alike, differing only insize, shape, position and mass.
These atoms, they stated, exist in a vacuous space which separates
them and, because of this space, they are capable of movement.
(This can be considered at the first kinetic theory.)

Leucippus

Democritus

P l a t o (427-347 B.C.) adopted the four element theory earth, air, fire andwater and hinted at a fifth element, an ether, which eventually became
associated with the heavens.
Using the ideas of the Pythagoreans, Plato associated the four elements withfour regular solids:

Plato1. Fire: composed of tetrahedral atoms
2. Earth: composed of cubic atoms
3. Water: icosahedral atoms (20 faces)
4. Air: octahedral atoms
The heavenly element, or ether, was represented by thedodecahedron (12 faces). This was the foundation of the universe with ashape closely approximating a sphere.
Plato believed in transformations of substances. He said the sides of the four
regular solids could be resolved into triangles which could beinterconnected to form any substance.

Plato’s use of triangles. From Ihde, Aaron J.,
The Development of Modern Chemistry

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) discounted the geometric forms of the elements used by histeacher Plato, but he retained the fifth element, the ether, which he believed formed theheavenly bodies and filled space.
Aristotle attributed matter with four qualities - hot, cold, wet, and dry - which
combined in making up matter. These qualities were probably symbolic of theproperties of matter rather than the fundamental building blocks as was later thought.

Relation of the four elements and the four qualities.
(This diagram is known as an Aristotelian square.)
The four qualities can form six possible pairs, but since opposites cannot be coupled
together, as hot with cold or as wet and dry, there remained only four pairs:
Hot

+ Dry

= FireHot+ Wet =

Cold + Wet =

Air
Water

Cold + Dry = Earth
The qualities were blended in various amounts and were not perceptible when the atoms
were combined to form substances.

The scheme of the universe according to
the Greeks and Romans.
One ascends successively from thesphere of Hades, through the spheresof water, earth, and air to the heavensof the moon and the plane of Mercury.
Above Mercury are the planes ofVenus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter andSaturn. Above Saturn is the dwellingplace of the powers that rule, theSupreme Council of the Gods.

IV. Origins of Alchemy
Aristotle's death marked the end of the Greek influence upon the development of thetheories concerning the nature of matter and its changes.
Aristotles’ student, Alexander went on conquer much of the known world.
Alexander located his city, Alexandria in the middle of the known world, in Egypt. Here,he established a great library collecting writings from theworld. All visitors to the city were required to surrender all
books, scrolls, and any form of written media, in any
language, in their possession which were copied by official
scribes and then returned to their owner.

Alexander the GreatThe ancient library inAlexandria

Scientific leadership passed from Athens to Alexandria (in Egypt). Here, Greek philosophy
plus practical oriental technology plus oriental religious mysticism combined to lead to thebirth of alchemy.
Early alchemists were artisans who were especially skillful with metals. They prepared
gold and silver vessels and ornaments for nobles and made cheap imitations or substitutes
for the poorer people. Aristotle’s ideas of interconversion of elements led them to believethat they could convert base metals into gold as easily as they manufactured substitutes.
Through many chemical operations, they produced many color changes to make metals
resemble gold. In these processes, they developed greatly improved chemical apparatus
and learned many new chemical reactions.

Drawing of metal-workers’ workshop in Egypt
Eric John Holmyard, Makers of ChemistryFrom Kleopatra Chrisopoeia: The Gold-making of Cleopatra
From C. A. Burland, The Arts of the Alchemists

Transmutation
In order to transmute a substance into gold or silver, the alchemist, in order to insure
success, wanted to begin with a substance which was unidentifiable by particular qualities
and to impress upon it the pure qualities which, one-after-another, would gradually rise in
the scale of metallic virtue toward perfection. (This is based on Plato’s ideas in the
Timeaus.)
Since individual metals were “too far removed” from gold, the alchemist must begin withearth (an unidentifiable solid) and impose on it the desired properties of gold: water, or
fusibility; air, or brilliancy; the color of fire and resistance to fire (i.e., not oxidized byheat).
The first step in the transmutation was called Melanosis, it consisted of forming the earth
substance. This was accomplished by alloying metals such as lead, tin, copper and iron.
Thus, all the individual properties of the metals were lost or submerged in the all.
This alloy of the four metals was known as the tetrasomy or metal of magnesia. Later,other alloys were used, such as lead and copper with sulfur, or black copper(II) sulfide, orother sulfides.
The only property of this alloy was fusibility. The possession of this property wasconsidered to be, by the alchemist, the first advance step raising the alloy from thecondition of earth to water.
Also of importance was the color of the alloy, which was black (due to oxidation). To thealchemist, black symbolized the absence of color and the production of this black earth
grew to be a major criterion of the first step of transmutation. So widely was the
production of this black color known in Egypt, that it has been suggested that it may havebeen the cause of the alchemical process being known as the Black Art and possibly theorigin of the name alchemy from chem. – meaning black – to which was affixed the Arabic
article al (the).
This, however, is not the only proposed derivation for the name alchemy. Other possible
origins are:
1. Black also refers to the black soil of the rich cultivated land of the Nile valley
which was a name for Egypt.
2. Black refers to the oxidized silver for which the Egyptian artisans were famous.
3. The word chem is derived from the Greek word “to pour” or “mix”, referring to
the “mixing of fire and water” in preparing red mercury(II) sulfide.
4. Chem is derived from the Hebrew word “from God”: kem and yah.
5. Chem was also the name of the black powder produced by quicksilver(mercury).
6. Chem comes from the Greek word meaning cunning.
7. Al Chymia may have come from a changed form of al-temam, meaning
perfection.
The second step, after the blackening, was Leukosis or whitening. This was
accomplished by dipping the metal (alloy) into some coloring which may have been
derived from plants or, more often, from other metals. Silver was used in small or
considerable amounts, as was mercury, arsenic, antimony, or mixtures of these. As aresult, the outside of the metal was whitened and the inside was yellow (usually due to thecopper in the alloy).
The third step, Xanthosis, was yellowing using a yellowing material such as a dye orsulfur or sulfur based material. Often, small amounts of gold was used as a ferment (basedon the “like attracts like” principle). Sulfur was the most popular due to its yellow color.
As a result of this third step, the outside of the substance matched the inside of it in color.
Over a period of time, the alchemist became influenced by oriental mysticism andeventually believed that the perfection of metals into gold was merely a symbol of theperfection of the human soul. (See Note 1, below.) Thus, came a fourth step, Iosis, which
involved changing the gold into a violet or purple color to obtain a sort of super-gold.
Since purple was associated with royalty, it was believed to be the highest color that could
be attained. (See Note 2, below.) The action of such a gold would be so powerful, it could
convert materials by a yeast-like action.

It is quite possible that the alchemists did attain these colors if the correct percentage ofcopper and, perhaps gold, was present in the alloy. After the fourth step, the work could
have resulted in a beautiful violet bronze that may have had iridescent qualities.
Other methods were used for transmutation, all producing similar results.
Later, the sequence of colors changed to black – white - red and the Ios became known as
the Elixir to the Islamic Alchemists in the 9th century. Eventually, the color changes took
many forms for the European alchemists. In some cases they followed the Arabic series,
in some the Islamic series, and even extensions of these. An example is:black – white - iridescence of the peacock’s tail – yellow –orange – purple -red
The elixir also became known as the Philosopher’s Stone or Tincture.
(Note: The term Elixir or Elixir of Life comes from the
Chinese belief in a magical drug that would produce
immortality. It also became known as drinkable goldor potable gold.)
The writings of the alchemists became more secretive
with time to protect their processes as well as to protect
themselves from prosecution. The rulers of the time
were afraid that their gold would become worthless if
the alchemists were successful. Thus, the alchemists
used strange names of substances, and, later, as themystical influence on their work became greater,
incantations in their writings to keep others fromunderstanding their notes and recipes.
In the diagram on the right, the hand represents secretsocieties of alchemists, the circle represents the colorsof the alchemical process, and the figures represent the
Figures representing thesteps to the purification of the soul.
Alchemical process.
_____________________________(Note 1: A belief that came from the Chinese was that gold was an immortal metal (i.e., it
could not be oxidized or reacted with any other substance) and that eating off of gold
plates would make one immortal.)(Note 2: Royal purple, also known as Tyrian purple, is a purple-red (or scarlet) dye which
was mentioned in texts surviving from 1600 B.C. and was used to color robes worn by theancient Phoenicians rulers in the city of Tyre. The dye was collected from a fresh mucus
secretion from the spiny dye-murex sea snail (modern name Bolinus brandaris). Because
the harvesting had to be done by hand and it took some 12,000 snails to extract 1.5 grams of
the pure dye, it was very expensive and could only be afforded by nobles. The dye was fastand non-fading and it is believed that the intensity of the color improved, rather than fadedover time.)

The following recipe is a process to give copper or bronze a superficial silver or gold color.
" I also come to bring to Egypt the doctrine of thethings of nature, so that you may be raised above thecuriosity of the vulgar and the confusion of matter.
"Take mercury, fix it with the (metallic) body ofmagnesia or with the (metallic) body of stimmi from
Italy, or with sulphur apyre (native sulphur), or withaphreselinon (selenite), or burned limestone, or alumof Melos, or with arsenicon or what you will. Place
the white earth (so prepared) upon copper (χαλκος,
copper or bronze), and you will have copper without
shadow (brilliant). Add yellow electron and you will
have gold, with gold you will have chropocolla
reduced to metallic body. The same result will beobtained if you use yellow arsenicon or sandarachproperly treated, and cinnabar wholly transformed.
But mercury alone produces the copper without
shadow. Nature triumphs over nature."

stimmi = native
sulfide of antimony
arsenicon = arsenic
electron = a
gold-silver alloy
cinnabar = mercury
sulfideThe writings of the alchemists became more secretive with time to protect their processes
from the uninitiated public. The following recipe is more obscure probably for this reason.
"Whiten according to usage cadmia of Cyprus. I referto that which has been refined. Then make it yellow.
You may make it yellow with the bile of the calf, or
turpentine, or ricinus oil or radish, or with the yolk ofeggs, all sub-stances which turn it yellow. Then apply
the mixture to the gold. For gold is obtained by meansof gold and the liquor of gold. Nature triumphs over
Nature."The metal of magnesia, a formed
from the four metals shown, by theauthor. Note that the metal ofMagnesia is black on the outside
and gold in the inside.

cadmia = crude
zinc oxide

Eventually, the alchemical writings became influenced by mystical ideas and contained
incantations and other information meant to impress the reader with the importance of theknowledge possessed by the writer.
" O Nature, producer of Natures, O Nature whichcharms Natures in marvellous ways. Such are thethings which concern great Nature. There are noother natures superior to those in the tinctures; there
are none equal nor inferior. All these things are
effected in solution. O my colleagues in prophecy, I
know that you have not been inclined to unbelief, but
to admiration, for you know the powers of matter,
whereas the young people are confused and place nofaith in what is written because they are dominated bytheir ignorance of matter, not knowing that thechildren of medicine when they wish to prepare a
medicament proper for a cure do not attempt to makeit in thoughtless baste, but first try what substance iswarm, what other substance is cold or moist, and inwhat condition it should be to favor a mean mixture.
This is the way that they prepare the medicine
destined for the cure. But those who propose to carefor the soul and the deliverance from all pains do not
perceive that they will be hindered by proceeding witha haste void of discrimination or reason. Indeed,
believing that we are employing fabulous and not
symbolic language they make no test of different
kinds of substances to find out for example if such akind is useful for cleaning; such another as accessory;
such a one for coloring; such a one to effect complete
combination; or if such a kind is good to give
brilliancy. They do not ascertain if such a substancewill resist the action of fire, and if such another by its
addition will render a body more resistant to fire; thus,
for instance, how salt cleanses the surface of thecopper and even its internal parts, and how it corrodes
the external parts when scraped, and even its internal
parts. And finally, how mercury whitens the surface ofbrass (aurichalchum) and cleans it, and how it whitens
the internal parts (i. e. when alloyed); how it iseliminated from the surface and how it can be eliminated from the internal part. If the young people weretrained in these matters they would not go astray inthe preparations they undertake. They do not knowthat one kind of substance alone can be transformed
into as many as ten kinds of contrary natures. Indeed
one drop of oil may make disappear a great quantityof purple, and a little sulphur can consume many
substances."

As the mystical influences increased, the laboratory work of the alchemists decreased andtheir writings became more allegorical and mystical in nature. These incantations andstrange writings were cause for alchemy to be associated with magic.
By the time of the Byzantine Empire during the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., laboratory workand chemical discoveries nearly ceased.

The Egyptian-Greek key
to alchemy

Chinese Alchemy:
It is interesting to note that a similar path to that of theEgyptian-Alexandrian alchemists was followed by the
Chinese alchemists, however, they ended up completely
mystical and never returned to lab work of any extent. Theiridea of a universal "medicine" to aid in transmutation of
metals into gold did persist into European alchemy.
Wei Po-Yang, Father ofChinese Alchemy

V. Islamic Alchemy
With the rise of the Arab Empire (8th to 11th centuries, A.D.), the Alexandrian-Greek
Alchemy was revived.
The alchemical arts now included numerology and astrology along with many of the mysticalideas from the Alexandrians. One of the works which appeared in this period was the
Emerald Table ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus, the Egyptian God Thoth, god of science andmathematics:
True it is, without falsehood, certain most true. That
which is above is like to that which is below, and thatwhich is below is like to that which is above, to accomplish
the miracles of one thing. And as in all things whereby
contemplation of one, so in all things arose from this one
thing by a single act of adoption.
The father thereof is the Sun, the mother the Moon.
The wind carried it in its womb, the earth is the source
thereof. It is the father of all works of wonder throughout theworld.
The power thereof is perfect.
If it be cast on to earth, it will separate the element ofearth from that of fire, the subtle from the gross.
With great sagacity it doth ascend gently from earth toheaven. Again it doth descend to earth and uniteth in itself
the force from things superior and things inferior.
Thus thou wilt possess the brightness of the world, and all
obscurity will fly far from thee.
This thing is the strong fortitude of all strength, for it overcometh every subtle thing and doth penetrate every solid
substance.
Thus was this world created.
Hence will there be marvellous adaptations achieved ofwhich the manner is this.
For this reason I am called Hermes Trismegistus
because I hold three parts of the wisdom of the wholeworld.
That which I had to say about the operation of Sol iscompleted.

The Egyptian God
Thoth, also known
as Hermes
Trismegistus

The Sun and Moon in the table may have represented gold and silver, but there seems tohave been a trend to sometimes use them to represent sulfur and mercury, two principles
now included in the composition of metals.
Sulfur was believed to give metals the qualities of earthiness andcombustibility.

Mercury imparted the qualities of lustre and fluidity.
Note: It is believed that sulfur and mercury were not the elements we know
today, but hypothetical substances.
During the Arabic period, the process of distillation was refined and the caustic
alkalis (NaOH, KOH) and the ammonium salts (e.g. NH4C1, etc..) werediscovered.
Perhaps the greatest chemist of Islam was
Jabir ibn Hayyan (Latin: Geber) (c.
721-817 A.D.) Jabir was a physician in
Baghdad and is thought to have been thefirst writer in Arabic to become interested
in alchemy. Approximately 500 works
have been attributed to him.
Jabir’s writings reflect his beliefs inmystical powers, influence of the stars,
the potency of talismans, etc. In spite of
his leanings toward mysticism, he moreclearly recognized the importance ofexperiment than any other early chemist
and he made noteworthy advances in boththeory and practice of chemistry. He
stated:The first essential in chemistry isthat thou shouldest perform
practical work and conduct
experiments, for he who performs
not practical work nor makes
experiments will never attain to
the least degree of mastery. But
thou, O my son, do thouexperiment, so that thou mayest
acquire knowledge.
Scientists
delight
notinabundance of material; theyrejoice only in the excellence of
their experimental methods.
Jabir believed in transmutation but hegave only specific recipes and irections
and did not claim that transmutation was
coomplished. Practicel applications ofchemistry he described were preparationof steel and refinement of other metals,
processes for dying cloth and leather,processes for making varnishes to

Imaginative portrait of Jabir

Early manuscript of Jabir’s
Investigation of Perfection

waterproof cloth or to protect iron, the preparation of hair dye, and more. Probably
his most useful discovery was that of nitric acid (HNO3).
Another of the great Arabic chemists was Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn
Zakariyya al-Razi, known in the West as Rhazes or Razi (c. 866-925
A.D.). Mostly noted for his systematic classification of carefully
observed and verified facts regarding chemical substances, reactions
and apparatus described in language entirely free from mysticism andambiguity. He classified substances as mineral, vegetable, animal orderivative:

Razi

Razi also gave a list of the apparatus used in chemistry. This consists of two classes: (i)instruments used for melting metals, and (ii) those used for the manipulation ofsubstances generally. In the first class were included the following:Blacksmith' s hearth
Bellows
Crucible
Descensory
Ladle
The second class included:
Cucurbite
Alembic
Receiving flask
AludelBeakers
Glass cups
Shallow iron pan
Sieve
Heating-lamps

Tongs
ShearsHammer or Pestle
File
Semi-cylindrical iron mould

FlasksPhialsjars
Cauldron
Sand-bath
Water-bath
Large oven
Hair-cloth
Filter of linen

Cylindrical stove
Potter' s Kiln
Chafing-dishMortarFlat stone mortar
Stone roller
Round mould
Glass funnel
Dish

It appears that the list was comprehensive, but Razi completed the subject by giving
details of making composite pieces of apparatus, and in general provides the same kindof information as is to be found nowadays in manuals of laboratory arts.

The alchemical laboratory exhibit at the Deutsches Museum, Munich, GermanyPhotos from the alchemical laboratory
exhibit at the Deutsches Museum, Munich,Germany

Abu All ibn Sina (c. 980-1036 A.D.), known as Avicenna in Europe, was a
Persian born scholar who is sometimes called the "Aristotle of the
Arabians"
Although he was extremely well versed in medicine, Avicenna wrote on
many subjects including minerals, the formation of rocks and stones andother geological phenomena. He classified minerals as stones,
fusible substances, sulphurs, and salts based on the amount of
substance and the strength of their composition.
Avicenna adhered to Jabir’s works and the mercury and sulfur
composition of metals. He refuted the alchemists and stated that theprocess of transmutation was not possible and only imitations could be
made. The nature of metals used would remain unchanged in the process.

Avicenna

Popular literature about alchemists, in Avicenna's time, usually contained stories such as the one
below:A Persian charlatan [says Carra de Vaux], having arrived at Damascus,
took 1,000 dinars of good Egyptian gold, filed them up and mixed thefilings with charcoal, various drugs and ordinary flour. To thismixture he added fish-glue, made the whole into a paste, andmoulded the latter into small pellets which he allowed to dry. He thenclothed himself in the habit of a darwish, and, taking the pellets to a
druggist sold them for a few dirhams under the name of Tabarmaq of
Khurasan. After which, having assumed a rich cloak, he engaged aslave and went to the mosque, where he scraped acquaintance withseveral notable persons. He told them that he was an expert inalchemical science, able to make untold wealth in a single day. The

vizier, hearing of this alchemist, ordered him to attend and presented
him to the Sultan, who ex-pressed his desire to witness atransmutation. The charlatan produced a recipe in which, among alarge variety of drugs, Tabarmaq of Khurasan was indicated, to theextent of roo mithqals. All the rest of the drugs were easily obtained,
but at first no trace of Tabarmaq could he discovered. The maninsisted upon its necessity, however, and when the druggists ' shops
had been well searched the discovery was at length made—of coursein the shop of the druggist to whom the Tabarmaq had been sold a few
days previously, and who stated that he had obtained it from a darwish.
The pellets were bought, and the Persian ordered the ingredients to beplaced in a crucible and strongly heated. When all was sufficiently
hot: ` Take out the crucible,' he said. It was taken out and turned
upside down, when a fine ingot of gold rolled out.
The Sultan, struck with amazement, ordered the Persian to be
rewarded. It was now merely a question of finding more Tabarmaq.
Search failed to reveal any more in Damascus. `I know a cavern', said
the charlatan, 'in a certain mountain in Khurasan, where a large
quantity is to be found. Send some one to dig it out and bring back athousand camel-loads.' ` Go thyself ' , said the Sultan. The man, after
judicious reluctance, allowed himself to be persuaded, and accepted
the mission. He was furnished with everything needful for the journey:a tent, a travelling kitchen, sugar, carpets, stuffs and silks,
manufactured objects from Alexandria, and, in addition, a large sumof money. Thus equipped, he set out and—as might have been
expected—that was the last that was seen of him.

VI. European Alchemy
Until the 12th century, almost the sole contact between Islam and Christian Europe wasthrough the Crusades. Soon, after 1100, European scholars began to discover that theSaracens were possessed of much knowledge and wisdom and many began to wander in
Muslim lands in search of learning and enlightenment. Sicily, an appendage of Islam was
captured by the Normans in 1091 and, thus, became a center of diffusion of Arabic learning.
It was in Spain, however, still under Moorish control, that the greatest activity prevailed.
Students were welcomed to the colleges and libraries at Toledo, Barcelona, Segovia,
Pamplona, and other Spanish towns. Study was followed by translation.
One of the earliest of the translators was the Englishman Robert of Chester. In 1141, he andhis friend Hermann the Dalmatian were persuaded to translate the Koran into Latin, a task
they completed in 1143. Upon completion of that work, Robert translated the Arabic
alchemical book, the “Book of the Composition of Alchemy" completing it on February 11,1144. This was the first book on alchemy to appear in Latin Europe.
Alchemy, as Robert of Chester observed, was a new science for the West, and one of the
difficulties of the transalators was that there were no Latin equivalents of many iof its
technical terms. They chose the easiest way of surmounting this obstacle by simply
transliteration of the Arabic words into Roman letters. Some of these words are:Arabic words transliterated into Latin:(format: Latin, Arabic, English)
Abicum, Arabic, al-anbiq, alembic.
Abric, A. al-kibrit, sulphur.
Alcalai, A. al-qali, alkali. Alcazdir, A. al-qasdir, tin.
Alchitram, A. al-qitran, pitch.
Alchohol, A. al-kuhl, kohl (stibium, Sb2S3, or galena, PbS).
Aliocab, A. al-'uqab, `the eagle' (sal-ammoniac).
Almizadir, A. al-nushadhir, sal-ammoniac.
Anticar, A. al-tinkar, borax.
Appebriock, A. al-kibrit, sulphur.
Asabon, A. al-sabun, soap.
Ased, A. asad, lion.
Athanor, A. al-tannur, furnace.
Azarnet, A. al-zarnikh, arsenic [sulphides].
Baul, A. baul, urine.
Bayda, A. al-baida, egg [name of a piece of apparatus].
Daeb, A. dhahab, gold.
Danic, A. daniq, a certain weight.
Dem, A. damm, blood.
Faulex, A. fulad, steel.
Fom, A. fum, month. Hadid, A. hadid, iron.
Hager, A. hajar, stone.
Kald, A. khall, vinegar.
Kamar, A. qamar, silver moon.
Khatnir, A. khamir, ferment.

Luban, A. luban, gum, resin.
Luban jawa, gum of Java, was corrupted into Benjawin, or
benzoin, whence our `benzene'.
Malek, A. milh, salt.
Martach, A. martak, litharge or massicot.
Merdasingi, A. mardasanj, litharge.
Misadir, A. nushadhir, sal-ammoniac.
Nar, A. nar, fire.
Noas, A. nuhas, copper.
Nora, A. nura, lime.
Obelchera, A. abu'l-qar'a, large cucurbite.
Ocob, A. uqab, eagle [sal-ammoniac].
Rusatagi, A. rusakhtaj, black oxide of copper.
Tain, A. tin, clay.
Usifur, A. zanjifar, cinnabar.
Zaibar, A. zaibaq, mercury.
Zaibuch, A. zaibaq, mercury.
Ziniar, A. zinjar, verdigris.
The first results of the abundant influx of knowledge from Islam were to be seen in thesorting out of new material and its arrangement for general use. This was done by several
compilers or encyclopedists:
Bartholomew the Englishman, a Franciscan monk, wrote his encyclopedia, De
proprietatibus rerum (On the Nature of Things, or On the Properties of Things), some time
before 1260 (probably between 1242 and 1247).
The work, in nineteen books, covered all thesciences as known at that time, including
theology, philosophy, medicine, astronomy,
chronology, zoology, botany, geography, andmineralogy. The work was to serve as
instruction for his fellow Franciscans, whowere expected to be educated but did not havethe time or means to study each discipline
individually. He quoted extensively from awide variety of authors, referring to the worksof Greek, Arabian, and Jewish naturalists andmedical writers, which had been translated into
Latin shortly before. He cites such authorities
as Aristotle, Hippocrates, Pliny, Augustine,
Boethius, Rabanus Maurus, Solinus, andIsidore of Seville among many others. The De
proprietatibus rerum was an immediate
success, and continued to be popular for
centuries. It was translated into severalthlanguages, including Spanish, French, Dutch, Incipit page of a 15 century editionof On the Nature of Things.
and English.

Vincent of Beauvais (c. 1190-1264), a Dominican Friar,
wrote the Speculum Majus or Great Mirror (c. 1250), a
compendium, of all the knowledge of the Middle Ages.
The work consisted of three parts, the Speculum
Naturale, Speculum Doctrinale and Speculum
Historiale. The Speculum Naturale, divided into
thirty-two books and 3,718 chapters, is a summary of all
the science and natural history known to western
Europe towards the middle of the 13th century, a mosaic
of quotations from Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew
authors, with the sources given. The section on alchemy
is found in the Speculum Naturale.
Incipit page of an editionof the Speculum Naturale

Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), a Dominican friar and priest, achieved fame for hiscomprehensive knowledge of and advocacy for the peaceful coexistence of science andreligion. He is considered to be the greatest German
philosopher and theologian of the Middle Ages. He was thefirst among medieval scholars to apply Aritotle’s philosophy
to Christian thought.
His book, De Rebus Metallicis et Mineralibus, presented aknowledge of metals and minerals and his beliefs that stones
had occult properties.
Two later works, such as the Secreta Alberti or the
Experimenta Alberti, were falsely attributed to Albertus by
their authors in order to increase their prestige. There is scant
Albertus Magnus
evidence that he personally performed alchemical
experiments, but according to legend, Albertus Magnus issaid to have discovered the philosopher's stone and passed it to his pupil Thomas Aquinas,
shortly before his death. Magnus did record that he witnessed the creation of gold bytransmutation.
Roger Bacon (1214-1292), one of the most famous Franciscan
friars of his time, was an English philosopher who placed
considerable emphasis on empiricism. He was one of the earliest
European advocates of the modern scientific method.
The most important of all his writings are the "Opus Majus"(1268), the "Opus Minus", and the "Opus Tertium", along withsome attributed books on alchemy. His importance in thedevelopment of modern science is a reason he is attributed with agreater input into chemistry and alchemy than his writingssuggest.

Roger Bacon

Arnold of Villanova (1235-1311) was an alchemist, astrologer,and physician who studied chemistry, medicine, physics, andArabic philosophy. His major work was the "Opera Omnia".
His translations and commentaries on the works of Galen,
Avicenna, AI-Kindi, and Hippocrates helped lift European
medical practice out of the realm of folk art and connect it withclassical Greek and Arabic medicine. Although he is said tohave practiced alchemy, and is rumored to have discovered
carbon monoxide and pure alcohol, his works are directed
mostly to medicine and chemistry was dealt with only
incidentally.
Arnold of Villanova
With the exception of Arnold of Villanova, who performed alchemical experiments, theencyclopedists contributed little of their own. Nearly all the information from the Greeksand Arabs they received was accepted as true and the authenticity of some fantastic stories
was not questioned.
The encyclopedists aroused interest inscience through systematic propaganda of
education and by their enthusiasm. Theirmain result on chemistry was to initiate a
mad rush to make gold, an endeavor thatpersisted for three centuries. The European
alchemists, no longer followed the sequenceof the Arabic alchemists with their main goal
to produce gold as their final product.
Practical alchemy developed first with
textbooks attributed to Jabir under the Latinname of Geber. These Latin works were tooclear and systematic in style and contained
information that was inconsistent with thatof Jabir’s time. It is believed that much ofthese were written by a European scholar,
most probably an unnamed Spanish
alchemist of the 14th century. Regardless,
Geber’s works became the principal
authorities in Western alchemy for the next
two to three centuries.
Since the rebirth of alchemy produced manycharlatans who were trying to get rich quick Title page from Ashmole’sTheatrum
by strange schemes and by circulating large Chemicum Britannicum,a collection
amounts of counterfeit gold, Pope John of English works on alchemy
XXII issued a decree in 1317 prohibiting the published in 1652.
practice of alchemy. In an attempt to persuade the Pope to change his mind, John Dastin, aforemost English alchemist of the time, wrote letters to the Pope defending the practice ofalchemy. The results of Dastin’s
efforts are not known, however, bothclerical and civil authorities tried tosuppress the alchemists continually
through the 14th century. As a result,the alchemical writings of the mid-14th
to late 15th century became morephilosophical and mystical in nature.
During this time, very little newalchemical information was published.
The process in thelaboratory inspired by thesages of the past—Geber,Arnold of Villanova, Razi
and Hermes Trismegistus.
From
Norton’s
The
Ordinall of Alchimy, in
Ashmole’s
Theatrum
Chemicum Britannicum.

The secret of the alchemical
process is a gift from God which ispassed down from master to pupil.
From Norton’s The Ordinall of
Alchimy, in Ashmole’s Theatrum
Chemicum Britannicum.

An alchemical laboratory. From
Norton’s The Ordinall of
Alchimy, in Ashmole’s Theatrum
Chemicum Britannicum.

The English Alchemists
How widespread the practice of alchemy had become isEngland in the second half of the 14th century can begauged by the account Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400)
gives of it in “The Canon's Yeoman's Tale" in the
Canterbury Tales (written from about 1386 to 1400). It
is believed, by some, that Chaucer wrote “The Canon’s
Yeoman’s Tale” as a personal revenge upon somealchemist who duped him. In the tale, Chaucer shows amore than casual knowledge of the alchemical art.
Geoffrey Chaucer
The Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale, from theNevill Coghill translation

The Tale of The Chanons Yeoman,from Ashmole, Theatrum
Chemicum Britannicum

As for proportions, why should I rattle on
About the substances we worked upon,
The six or seven ounces it may be
Of silver, or some other quantity,
Or bother to name the things that we were piling
Like orpiment,* burnt bones and iron filing
Ground into finest powder, all the lot,
Or how we poured them in an earthen pot?
(You put in salt and paper, be it stated,
Before these powders I enumerated,
Securely covered by a sheet of glass,And plenty of other things, but let them pass.)
And how the pot and glass were daubed with clay
For fear the gases might escape away,
And then the fire, whether slow or brisk,
We had to make, the trouble and the risk
We took to sublimate the preparation
Or in the arnalgaming and calcination
Of quicksilver, crude mercury that is?
We always failed, for all those tricks of his.
Our orpiment, our mercury sublimate,
Our lead protoxide ground on a porphyry plate
And measured out in ounces, grain by grain,
Gave us no help.
Our labour was in vain.

*orpiment
As2S3

realgarAsS

arsenic
AssulfurS

And there was also many another thing Pertaining
to the trade we had to bring,Though I can't name them in an ordered plan Because
I'm an uneducated man;Yet I will list them as they come to mind,
Though not distinguishing their class and kind:
Armenian clay, borax and verdigris,
Earthen and glass-ware vessels piece by piece,
Our urinals, our pots for oil-extraction,
Crucibles, pots for sublimative action,
Phial, alembic, beaker, gourd-retort,
And other useless nonsense of the sort
Not worth a leek, needless to name them all;Water in rubefaction,* bullock's gall,
Arsenic, brimstone, sal ammoniac,
And herbs that I could mention by the sack,Moonwort, valerian, agrimony and such,
Which I could number if it mattered much.
Our lamps — we had them burning day and night
To help us to succeed, if we but might!
Our furnace too for calcifying action,
Our waters in a state of albefaction,
Chalk, quicklime, ashes and the white of eggs,
Various powders, clay, piss, dung and dregs,
Waxed bags, saltpetre, vitriol and a whole
Variety of fires of wood and coal;
Alkali, tartar, salt in preparation,
Matters combust or in coagulation,
Clay mixed with horse-hair, sometimes with my own,
Crystallized alum, oil of tartar thrown
With tartar crude and unfermented beer,
Yeast and a dozen more than you shall hear,
Realgar,* various absorbent battersAnd, I may add, incorporative matters;
Our silver in a state of citrination,*Things sealed in wax and things in fermentation,
Our moulds, our vessels for assaying metal
And many other things I learnt to settle
I'll tell as I was taught, if you want more.
There were the bodies seven and spirits fourWhich my instructor frequently rehearsed; Amongthe spirits quicksilver came first
And orpiment came second, then he passed
To sal ammoniac and brimstone last.
As for the seven bodies that I mention
Here they all are, if they are worth attention:
Gold for the sun and silver for the moon,
Iron for Mars and quicksilver in tune
With Mercury, lead which prefigures Saturn
And tin for Jupiter. Copper takes the pattern
Of Venus if you please! This cursed trade
Robs one of all the money one has made,And all one spends on it or round about it
Will certainly be lost, I cannot doubt it.
Ah no, let be! For the Philosopher's Stone,
Called the Elixir, never can be known.

Chemical Laboratory of Pieter Bruegel the Elder, 1558. This shows what happens when one tries to
get rich from alchemy. The alchemist, on the left, is seeding his mixture with a gold coin while hiswife shows her empty purse and the children rummage in the empty cupboard. His clerk, on theright is reading the recipe and his puffer is fanning the fire with bellows. Through the window is aforeshadowing of the alchemist and his family being lead to the poorhouse.

George Ripley (1415?-1490) was one of the most important of English alchemists. Little is known
about him, but it is supposed that he was a Canon at the Priory of St Augustine at Bridlington inYorkshire during the latter part of the 15th century, where he devoted himself to the study of thephysical sciences and especially alchemy. He studied for twenty years in Italy where he became agreat favorite of Pope Innocent VIII. He returned to England in the year of 1478, reputedly inpossession of the secret of transmutation. (Being particularly rich, he gave the general public somecause to believe in his ability to change base metal into gold.)
Ripley adopted an allegorical approach to alchemy and his name is attached to as many asfive and twenty (25) different works, most of which remain in manuscript. Whether or notthey are all by him may be doubted. His most popular work "The Compound of Alchymie;
or, the Twelve Gates leading to the Discovery of the Philosopher's Stone", was dedicated toKing Edward IV and highly appreciated by him. His twenty-five volume work upon
Alchemy, of which the Liber Duodecem Portarum was the most important, brought him
considerable fame. His emblematic 'Ripley Scrowle' is also quite well know..
Ripley agrees with the majority of alchemists that the progress of the Work can be followed
by observing the succession of colours occurring in it. This, he says, in The Compound of
Alchymie, should be as follows :Pale, and Black, wyth falce Citryne, unparfayt White & Red,
Pekoks fethers in color gay, the Raynbow whych shall overgoe
The Spottyd Panther wyth the Lyon greene, the Crowys byll bloc as lede;These shall appere before the parfyt Whyte, & many other moe
Colours, and after the parfayt Whyt, Grey, and falce Citrine also:
And after all thys shall appere the blod Red invaryable,
Then hast thou a Medcyn of the thyrd order of hys owne kynde Multyplycable.

In the following passage, the final page and vignette of Liber Patris Sapientiae,
Ripley tells the qualities one must have to succeed in the Work, showing the dragonarising from the massa confuse.

The dragon with its wings fixed to thechaotic material orb gives its blood forthe making of the red and white stones
and the elixir, the triple goal ofalchemy. From George Ripley’s
ScrowlesThe Melusina decending on the tree oflife to bring wisdom to Man and
Woman. From George Ripley’s
ScrowlesThe seven processes of the alchemist. From
George Ripley’s Scrowles

First page of Raymond Lully's Hermes Bird. The dragon
inspirited from above becomes the tree of the philosophers.

VII. Alchemy in the Italian Renaissance (1453-1530)
With the Italian Renaissance (from the fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the fall of Rome in1530) came the awakening of interests in art, science, and literature. Movable type wasused in 1455 to print the Guttenberg Bible and this paved the way for the mass productionof books.
All the sciences advanced, except for alchemy which remained mediaeval since it was
based on mistakes in interpretation and translation and because it had been exploited bytricksters and charlatans.
Rather than striving for the perfection sought by the early alchemists of the Arabic andIslamic empires, the objectives of the “pseudo-alchemists” of Europe had become:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The Philosophers’ Stone or elixir
The Alkahest or universal solvent
Palingensis – the resurrection of a tree or plant from its ashes(also, rebirth or reincarnation)
The fountain of perpetual youth
The quintessence (a fifth element capable of extraction)
Potable gold or universal medicine

The alchemical microcosm and macrocosm

One of the most forceful men of the Renaissance was (Philip)
Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim who later called
himself Paracelsus (1493-1541). He was the founder of theschool of iatrochemistry (medical chemistry or
chemotherapy), which turned away from alchemy and heldsway throughout the 16th and 17th centuries.
In iatrochemistry, Paracelsus manufactured metallic
medicines to cure ills which the physicians of the day could
not deal with. His hermetical views were that sickness andhealth in the body relied on the harmony of man, themicrocosm, and Nature, the macrocosm. He took an approachdifferent from those before him, using this analogy not in themanner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans
must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, andthat certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that
could cure them.

Paracelsus

He initiated a vigorous onslaught on orthodox medicine and he called upon alchemists to
prepare drugs in the laboratory rather than waste their time trying to transmute metals into
gold (although he did believe in transmutation). He summarized his own views: "Manyhave said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not theaim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines."
To alchemy, Paracelsus contributed the tria prima theory which was based on the
Greek-Arabic theory:
All matter is composed of three primal substances: salt, sulfur, and mercury.
Salt comprised the body of matter imparting the qualities of
nonvolatility and noncombustibility.
Sulfur was the spirit of matter causing the body to possess the
combustible principle,.
Mercury was the soul of matter imparting fusibility, liquidity andvolatility
Paracelsus was responsible for giving the name alcohol to spirits of wine. This name wasderived from al-kuhl or al-kohol which had come to mean the best or finest part of a
substance.
Because of his doctrines which opposed Galen and Avicenna, and his arrogant, boastfulmanner, Paracelsus remained in few places for long and was not extremely popular. He did,
however, provide a much needed stimulus to get alchemists back into the laboratory to
carry out serious testing and experimentation.

After his death, the movement of Paracelsianism was seized upon by many wishing tosubvert the traditional Galenic physick and, thus, did his therapies become more widely
known and used. Some of his followers, however, were too unrestrained in their
enthusiasm and admonished many extraordinary and even dangerous poisonous drugs totheir patients:
Cinnabar (HgS) was given to “scatter those black clouds arising from thehorrid spectrum of the appoplexie or epilepsie” to introduce a brightness
and splendor in the spirit.
Zinc sulphate for the eyes to cause “the species of objects to be seen
more plain”.
Mercury to destroy “all sorts of worms”.
Lead acetate to “clarifie the spleen”.
Iron sulphide to cure diabetes.
Such cures were vigorously opposed by several chemists of thetime, notably Andreas Libavius (1540-1616), a teacher andphysician of the later iatrochemical school. Libavius was not a
disciple of Paracelsus and denounced many of his doctrines.
Libavius contributed little original material to chemical theory,
but the practical approach he used in his book Alchymia(published 1595) was an innovation. This book, considered tobe the first chemistry textbook, was a comprehensive survey ofthe contemporary chemical knowledge of the time, written inclear language with no attempt at obscurity.

Andreas Libavius

He showed that sulfuric acid could be prepared from sulfur andsaltpeter (KNO3), the preparation of hydrochloric acid, ammonium sulfate, zinc, leadnitrate, and anhydrous stannic chloride. (Because anhydrous stannic chloride gives off fumes
when it is exposed to the water vapor in air, alchemists named it "fuming liquor of Libavius.")He was the first to describe the blue color produced by reaction of ammonia with copper salts,
and he developed a rudimentary system of chemical analysis.
In addition, Libavius is credited with having designed the first true chemistry laboratory andhis description of chemical apparatus is the most complete of its time.

Illustrations from Libavius’ Alchymia,
1606 edition.
Upper left: Title page
Above: Apparatus for heating andreactions.
Left: Heating with sunlight and furnaces

An interesting alchemical manuscript, produced in 1532-1535, is the Splendor Solis,
attributed to Solomon Trismosin. Little is known of Trismosin’s life, he traveled in Italy,
and, later, to Constantinople, where he met Paracelsus and instructed him there. The
Splendor Solis contains twenty-two allegorical pictures of the alchemical work. The
selected pictures below are from a 1582 edition.

VIII. Chemistry in the 16th Century
In addition to iatrochemistry and Libavius’ contributions to chemistry, the mining of metals
became of great importance. The first book on metallurgy was "De la Pirotechnia" by
Vannuccio Biringuccio, printed in Venice in 1540 two years after the author’s death. The
Pirotechnia was written in Italian, rather than “scholarly” Latin, but was illustrated withmany woodcuts of the mining and metallurgical practice.

Chambers for the condensation of mercury
vapor distilled from the ore.

Furnace for welding a cracked bell

Title page from the 1540 edition
Operation of a bellows with a rocking bar

Furnace for melting, working, and annealingglass

Distillation with a cucurbit and alembic
in a water bath.

"De Re M e t a l l i c a " by Georgius Agricola(1494-1555), printed in 1556 is considered to be
the greatest t r e a t i s e upon a chemical industry
known up to or during the 16th century. Although
it did not contain anything new in the way ofchemical discoveries or ideas, it was the mostclear and complete account of the profession ofmining, metallurgy, and accessory arts andsciences ever published.
De Re Metallica
overshadowed De La Pirotechnia, but did copy
pictures and text directly from it along withinformation from other books at the time.
Georgius Agricola
Born in Glauchau, in the province of Saxony in what is now
Germany, Agricola studied classics at Leipzig University,taught Latin and Greek for a few years, and then in 1522 began to study medicine, first at
Leipzig and then at Bologna and Padua in Italy. He took his degree in 1526 and doctorbegan practicing medicine at Joachimsthal (now Jáchymov) in 1527. Joachimsthal was animportant mining center of the time, in particular for silver mining. Agricola's geologicalwritings reflect an immense amount of study and first-hand observation, not just of rocks
and minerals, but of every aspect of mining technology and practice of the time. Agricola
moved in 1536 to the city of Chemnitz, also an important center of the mining industry, andwas elected Burgomaster there in 1546. He not only continued his medical practice and his
geological studies there, but was appointed to several public and diplomatic posts by Duke
Maurice of Saxony, to whom he dedicated his book De Natura Fossilium.
_________________
Notes on Jachymov: At the beginning of the 16th century, silver was found in the area of
Joachimsthal. The exploitation of this valuable resource caused the place to grow rapidly,
and coincidentally made the Counts von Schlick, whose possessions included the town,
one of the richest noble families in Bohemia. The Schlicks had coins minted, which werecalled Joachimsthaler. They gave their name to the Thaler and eventually the dollar andsimilar named currency like tolar.
After the discovery of uranium in 1789 by Martin Klaproth, pitchblende was then mined,primarily at Jachymov. (See photo, next page) This pitchblende may have contained about
1% uranium. The uranium was at that time used for coloring wood, leather, pottery glazes
and glass. The miners of these very early years paid a heavy price for their labors. A quotefrom Agricola’s publication De Re Metallica gives us a feel for the conditions in the minesand the miners fate, “the dust has corrosive
qualities, it eats away the lungs andimplants consumption in the body…
Women are found who have married sevenhusbands, all of whom have this terrible
consumption has carried off to a premature
death.” The miners themselves called thisdisease “Bergsucht” or “Mountain
Sickness.” The miners attributed it to
sub-terranean dwarfs. Others attributed it
to metallic vapors. It would not be until 1879 that malignant tumors of the lung were foundto be the cause of death. It is from pitchblende from this mine that Marie Curie discovered
radium in 1898. It was not until the 1920’s and 30’s when radioactivity in the mines was
believed to be the cause of the tumors. (Extracted from A History of Radon- 1470 to 1984
by Robert K. Lewis.)______________Assaying of gold: 24 needles composed of goldand silver for the analysis of gold. The number
on the needle tells what part is composed ofgold. When rubbed on a touchstone, the color
is compared to a gold sample. (This is theorigin of 24-carat gold.)A series of pumps to remove water from amine. Each pump can only raise water 12 feet.

Smelting ores.

Separating silver from copper withlead. The lead-silver mixture is castinto moulds.

Extracting salt from sea water by
evaporation.

A composite photo of the model of the minein the Mining Museum in Jachymov

Bellows from De Re Metallica and photographs ofmodels from the Mining Museum in Jachymov.

Machine for lifting ores. Diagrams fromDe Re Metallica and photos of model in
the Mining Museum in Jachymov

IX. Chemistry in the 17th Century
The 17th century was marked by the vitality of traditional alchemical activity and a great
independence of thought. Acids and bases were studied in greater detail, treatises on
distillation and laboratory work appeared, and the use of the balance marked the
beginning of the quantitative study of chemical reactions.
Johann Baptista van Helmont (1577-1644), one of the last, andprobably the greatest of the iatrochemists, was the mostprominent chemist of the first half of the century.
He assumed that there are only two primitive elements: air andwater. Water was the true principle of all things because it was a
product from almost all substances, organic and inorganic, whenstrongly heated. He used the following experiment to illustrate
this:
He took zoo pounds of earth dried in an oven, andhaving put it into an earthen vessel and moistened itwith rain water, he planted in it the trunk of a willow
tree of five pounds weight; this he watered, as needrequired, with rain or distilled water; and to keep theneighbouring earth from getting into the vessel, heemployed a plate of iron tinned over and perforated
with many holes. Five years having elapsed, he took out
the tree and weighed it, and (including the weight of theleaves that fell during the four autumns) he found it toweigh 169 pounds 3 ounces. And having again dried theearth it grew in, he found it only about 2 ounces short ofits former weight of 200 pounds; so that 164 pounds ofthe roots, leaves, wood, and bark, which constituted thetree appeared to have sprung from the water alone.

Johann Baptistavan Helmont

Van Helmont was the first to realize that there was a new and important class of substances
which he called gas (from the Greek "chaos") to designate them. Although he tried many
attempts to collect gases, he remained unsuccessful, but his efforts earned him the title offounder of pneumatic chemistry.
He discovered carbon dioxide, which he called gas silvestre, a non-flammable gas formed
when charcoal was burned or when beer and wine was fermented. This gas was present inmineral waters and he found he could prepare it by reacting acetic acid with a carbonate
compound. Unfortunately, he could only demonstrate that this gas would extinguish aflame and that the gas itself would not burn.
Van Helmont also discovered the flammable gas, gas pingue, obtained from the intestines orby the fermentation of dung. (This gas is most probably methane with impurities such ashydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and possibly hydrogen.)Van Helmont placed great emphasis on the use of the balance and, using it, hedemonstrated the indestructibility of matter in chemical changes and was the first to use
quantitative methods in chemical experiments.
John French (1616-1657), an English physician, is known for his contributions tochemistry and, in particular, for his 1651 book The Art of Distillation, a detailed handbookof the art.

Johann Rudolf Glauber (1604-1670), a younger contemporary ofvan Helmont, was a practical chemist, best known for his treatise on
furnaces, the various methods of distillation, and the types of
distillates obtained. For this reason, he is sometimes referred to as
one of the first chemical engineers.
Glauber acquired extensive knowledge about acids and salts andtheir interrealtionships as well as the preparations for sulfuric, nitric,
acetic, and hydrochloric acids. He was the first to prepare sodium
sulfate, a substance to which he claimed wonderful and absurd
properties as a sort of miracle salt (called sal-mirable). Today,
sodium sulfate is known in medicine as Glauber’s salt.

Johann Rudolf
Glauber

Otto Tachenius (c. 1620-1690), a former student of Sylvius, a well known physician,experienced chemist, and scientist of the day, recognized that “salts are composed of anacid and an alkali”. His use of spot tests, such as nutgall extract for detecting ironcompounds, helped lay the foundations of qualitative analysis.
The one chemist of the 17th century who exerted a profound influence upon thedevelopment of chemistry was Robert Boyle (1627-1691). He was the first chemist who

employed his efforts to investigate nature, but, more
important, was his attitude toward the solution of the
problems he studied rather than reporting of facts
and observations.
In his book, The Sceptical Chymist (published 1661),
Boyle attempted to separate the occult fromchemistry and he disclaimed the Aristotelian theoryof the elements, the tria prima theory, and the ideasthat matter can be separated into its basic elements
by distillation. Instead, Boyle hypothesized auniversal matter, the concept of atoms of different
shapes and sizes, and the possibility of the existenceof substances that might properly be called elements.
He states:
And, to prevent mistakes, I must advertise You,
that I now mean by Elements, as those
Chymists that speak plainest do by theirPrinciples, certain Primitive and Simple, or
perfectly unmingled bodies; which not being
made of any other bodies, or of one another, are
the Ingredients of which all those call’dperfectly mixt Bodies are immediately
compounded, and into which they are
ultimately resolved.

Robert Boyle

Although Boyle questioned substances that werecalled elements in his time, he could not give any
examples of elements that fit his definition.
(Elements, were still considered to be substances
obtained from the earth or by heating ores until stableproducts [usually metal oxides] resulted. The factthat something such as carbon had to be mixed withthese stable products to get pure metals, the metals
were believed to be compounds, not elements.) Thus
Boyle left a void in the explanation of matter andwhat happened in the process of combustion.
Boyle, along with Otto Tachenius, helped to lay the foundations of qualitative analysis
using flame colors, spot tests, fumes, precipitates, specific gravity, and solvent action as
analytical tools. His use of indicators led to the association of various acidic and alkaline
substances.
With the aid of Robert Hooke (1635-1703), he carried out experiments with the air pumpwhich led to recognition of the pressure-volume relationship in gases known today asBoyle’s Law.

Hooke and Boyle also studied the behavior of combustible substances under various
conditions, including evacuated vessels, and observed that combustion stops when air was
withdrawn. They realized that air was involved in the combustion of most substances, but,with their inability to isolate and collect gases, their
explanations were considered too speculative.
Nicolas Lémery (1645-1715), was a French chemist andpharmacist. Lemery did not concern himself much withtheoretical speculations, but holding chemistry to be ademonstrative science, confined himself to thestraightforward exposition of facts and experiments. His
book Cours de chymie (1675) became a standard textbook
and went through many editions, and was translated in all theEuropean languages. The importance of his book lies not in
its originality or its thoroughness, but rather in its attractive
presentation of chemical ideas in corpuscular-mechanist
terms. A Course of Chymistry sold "like a work of romanceor satire".

Nicolas Lemery

Lemery introduced his explanations of chemical reactions in terms of particle shape andmovement explaining the nature of salts to their shapes. He said acid salts must have sharp
pointed particles because of their sharp taste and because they solidify in the form of sharp
pointed crystals. Alkalis, he said were composed of earthy solid particles with pores soshaped as to admit entry of the spike particles of acid. Lemery postulated that, for reaction
to take place between a particular acid and alkali, there
must be an appropriate relationship between the size ofthe acid spikes and alkaline pores.

The title page from Lemery’s Course of Chymistry

Lemery’s tables of apparatus (next page)Lemery’s chemical symbols

The Phlogiston Theory
About the same time as Boyle, Johann Joachim Becher (1635-1682), in his bookPhysicae Subterraneae (1669) proposed that bodies are composed of three earths:
Terra lapidea: the salt principle - this composed theash that remained after combustion.
Terra mercurialis: mercurial earth - responsible
for fusibility of metals.
Terra pinguis: the sulfur principle - released by
the fire during combustion.
In combination, the terra pinguis was released by the fire,
fusibility was due to terra mercurialis, and terra lapedia
remained as the calx after complete ignition of a metal orother substance. Thus, combustion, as viewed by Becher,
was the breakup of a body with expulsion of its morevolatile constituents.

Title page from Becher’s Physicae Subterraneae (upper left)
Title page from Becher’s Opuscula Chymica Rariora (left)
Becher’s scheme of materials (above, top)
Becher’s scheme of laboratory instruments (above, bottom)

Georg Ernest Stahl (1660-1734), a pupil of
Becher, continued with Becher’s work. He
renamed the terra pinguis principle phlogiston(from the Greek "to inflame") and built up a rational
system of chemistry based on experimental
observations. (This was the first rational theory togain widespread acceptance.)
The phlogiston theory assumed that metals werecompounds containing phlogiston in combination
with metal oxides (calces). On ignition, phlogiston
was freed from the metal leaving the calx (oxide)
behind. When the oxide was heated with asubstance rich in phlogiston, such a charcoal (orany substance which burns away almost
completely and leaves little residue), the calx
would take up the phlogiston and the metal would
be regenerated.
The major objection to the theory was that the calx was heavier than the metal. Stahldismissed this as an unimportant detail. Although many chemists of the time accepted thisconcept, others tried to explain it by ascribing a negative weight (or buoyant effect) tophlogiston.
The comprehensiveness of the phlogiston theory proved to be amazingly good in a world inwhich chemistry still held a qualitative attitude toward matter. The theory not only
explained combustion and the calcinations of metals, it also explained the smelting of ores
equally well. (Since the ore of the metal, or the calx left by roasting of an ore, wasconverted to the metal by heating with charcoal resulting in the transfer of phlogiston, thetheory made sense to the chemists of the time.) Respiration, as well as many chemicalchanges, were explained in terms of phlogistic concepts.
The phlogiston theory tended to direct chemical thought toward mineral and pneumaticstudies, in contrast to the predominantly medical interests which had previously dominatedthe science.

Pneumatic Chemistry
In the field of pneumatic chemistry, John Mayow (1643-1678)
emphasized the similarity between combustion in air andcombustion in saltpetre (potassium nitrate) and suggested
there was a common “spirit” necessary to combustion.
Mayow called this the nitro-aerial spirit. He also noted theincrease in weight during calcination and the decrease involume a limited amount of air undergoes when a candle isburnt in it. Thus, he attributed calcination as a combination
with nitro-aerial particles and burning as a loss of nitro-aerial
particles from the air.
Mayow’s conclusions tend to suggest the presence of oxygenin air and in saltpeter, however, Mayow assigned properties tonitro-aerial particles that show he had no real concept of thenature of burning. He said:
Although nitro-aerial particles were present in air, they were not part of it.
The sun’s rays were imagined to be a chaos of nitro-aerial particles.
Metallic iron, which produces sparks
when struck, contains nitro-aerial
particles.
Nitro-aerial particles can be annihilated.
Nitro-aerial particles give rise to heat if
set in motion.
Nitro-aerial particles are part of the red
fumes given off when nitric acid isheated.
Mayow did show that some gases could be
stored in inverted vessels over water. He also
showed that a gas could be transferred from one
vessel to another by filling a second vessel withwater and bringing the mouth of the first vessel,
filled with gas, under the mouth of the second –as long as the whole process was done underwater. He emphasized the importance ofequalizing pressures between the atmosphereand the gas in a bottle by adjusting water levels
using a siphon tube.
Mayow’s apparatus

In 1697, Jean (Johann)
Bernouilli (1667-1748)
using
4
grams
of
gunpowder, heated in aflask, using a burning
glass, demonstrated that the
propulsive force of gunpowder
is due to the production ofgases that, when l i b e r a t e d ,occupy a much greater
space than the powder
from which they areformed.

Jean (Johann) Bernouilli

Bernoulli’s apparatus

Stephen Hales (1677-1761), an English biologist,
performed research on the physiology of plants and, in
1727, published a book titled Vegetable Staticks. Hales
observed that plants absorb a i r through their leaves andrealized that the air is "fixed" (converted to solid material) in
the plant. Since he had many occasions to work with gases,
Hales devised several apparatus to collect them and, thus,
devised the pneumatic trough.
Using the pneumatic trough, Hales was able to collect gases
given off by heating blood, tallow, horn, oyster shells, wood,seeds, honey, beeswax, sugar, coal, tartar, and urinary calculi.
He also collected gases from fermentation, and putrefaction, as
well as those given off when chalk, pyrites, and saltpetre were
heated.

Stephen Hales

Unfortunately, Hales was only interested in the qualitative aspects of his experiments and only
measured the volumes of gases collects without observing any properties of the individual
gases themselves.
About the same time, Hermann Boerhaave (1668-1738), a Dutch
physician and teacher of chemistry, expressed the belief that air
may take part in combustion and discounted the phlogiston theory..
He introduced exact, quantitative methods by measuring
temperature and using the best available balances made by
Fahrenheit. His textbook, Elementa Chemiae, became a popular
textbook and was printed in many editions and translated into
several languages.

Pages from Stephen Hales, Statical Essays
Title page (above)
Figures showing how he collected gases fromfermentation and products of distillation (upper
right)
Hales’ pneumatic trough (right)

Title page from Boerhaave’s
Elementa Chemiae
Boerhaave’s illustrations of Fahrenheit’s thermometers

Sir Isaac Newton, Alchemist
Sir Isaac Newton (1642 -1727), famous for his mathematics
and physics, practiced alchemy. In his notebooks, alongside
explanations of optical and physical phenomena such as
freezing and boiling, are found notes of his alchemical
experiments. Although he wrote extensively on the subject,after his death in 1727, the Royal Society deemed that thismaterial was "not fit to be printed." The papers wererediscovered in the middle of the twentieth century and mostscholars now concede that Newton was first and foremost an
alchemist.
At Trinity College, a part of Cambridge University, Newton
maintained a small laboratory where he conducted
innumerable alchemical experiments. Newton spent days
locked up in his laboratory, he rarely left his chambers or went
visiting. One of his servants records: "He very rarely went to bed until two or three of the clock,sometimes not till five or six, lying about four or five hours, especially at springtime or autumn,
at which time he used to employ about six weeks in his laboratory, the fire scarce going out nightor day. What his aim might be I was unable to penetrate into."
In 1692-1693, Newton experienced a ”derangement of the intellect” (a nervous breakdown)
where he broke with associates, accused friends of plotting against him, and reported
conversations which never took place. Newton left Trinity College to recuperate and, it appears
that he also discontinued his alchemical experiments at that time. That illness is now viewed as aresult of heavy metal poisoning as a result of his alchemical studies as Newton not only worked
in a confined space breathing fumes from his alchemical
experiments, but also from tasting the products. Spargo
and Pounds were able to get samples of Newton’s hairand subject them to neutron activation analysis showing
abnormally high concentrations of chlorine, gold,
arsenic, antimony, lead and mercury.
Another event in his life that took him away from his
alchemical experiments was that in 1696, Newton was
appointed Warden of the Mint and then Master in 1699.
In 1696, he moved from Cambridge to London, where
he lived until his death.
In Book 3, Part 1, Query 31 of his book Opticks,
Newton formulated a corpuscular theory in whichelements consisted of different arrangements of atoms,
and atoms consisted of small, hard, billiard ball-likeparticles. He explained chemical reactions in terms ofthe chemical affinities of the participating substances.

Above: Newton’s tomb in Westminster
Abbey, London

Left: Monument to Newton in Westminster
Abbey, London. His tomb is located in thefloor in front of the monument.

On the following pages are two pages from Newton’s notebook from the Cambridge University
Library, Cambridge, U.K., Additional MS 3973. A picture of the actual page appears on theright side and the transcription appears on the left.

thin that the glass notwithstanding wastransparent. Whence
I knew it to be the shadow of a noble
experiment I put also 6grainsof the 2d caput mortuum on a glass into a redheat & it did
not flow & melt like the former but only grew
soft & fumed
away, yet left two grains of fixed matter after it
had donefuming
The last summer I had dissolved
times

in about 4

as muchwith . The solution by frequentaffusion of fresh
menstruum & too long & hot digestion was
most of it precipitated into a white fat
clamy slime. This I had dryed & one part of it(to the best of
my remembrance I had sublimed with twoparts of The
sublimate rose very difficultly. There was about
3/4 of an ounceor 360 grains. of sublimate purely white & consequently about 80 or 90grains of
2/3 or 3/4 of the precipitate carried up. On this I poured
water & there fell a white precipitate which when edulcorated& dried weighed 80grains.

Jan 22 I dissolved 280 grains ofonce acted on by&480& water 960grains & when the humidity
in 480was boyled away the matter remained black in thebottom & upon increasing the heat there arose a salt as
easily as arises & the caput mortuum remained white &seemed in the sublimation to have been in fusion. The
sublimate weighed 400grains & tasted vitriolique. The caput
mortuum was very hard & weighed 132 grains. I put it in a fireshovel on thefire & it fumed a little, & then weighed 120grains. So
that there was about 160grains carried up. The sublimate
was pure white but would not flow on a hot iron. It
seemed to have much the same volatility with for I laidsome of each on a glass & holding the glass over a candle
they flew both away in the same heat & time. With salt
grainsgrainsof it made a little, & but very little ebullition. Perhaps
the aqueous spirit which makes a strong ebullition staid behindin the caput mortuum, or els was not loosed from the other spirit

supposingThe whiteness of the caput mortuum (which was
black before) seemed to proceed fromsome part of the precipitating in the
sublimation.
Of the sublimate I dissolved 60 grains in water &there fell a white precipitate
which when edulcorated & dried, weighed 15grains,so that there
was about 8grains ofprecipitate.
I dissolved
parts

al

salt which would notonce acted on two parts inthree parts & water 6 parts. Item
acted

thre

once

six parts wateron two parts in 3parts&
3 parts the solutions were cleare but by
continuing it twolong in two great a heat on the feces grew muddy
by the precipitation of some part of what wasdissolved. Wherefore I dissolved afresh

once acted on

thre parts, in four parts &9 parts & water 3 parts
The solution taking two great a heat at first, grew
muddy. & would never cleare.
I dissolved

once acted on

iij

iij inv&

15. Which proportions were as 3, 4, 12. The solution
was cleare, A calx was left in the bottom weighing
an ounce & 20grains (of which about 40 or 50 grains are to be deducted for some precipitate which fell by theaffusion of water to wash the matter out of the glass) I filtrated the solution & there rested
in the filter some transparent coagulum like gelly. I
put this gelly again to the solution, & evaporated
it in a gentle heat & then put it in a retort &distilled it. In the distillation the retort crackt & about
1/4 or 1/3 of the liquor ran out. I changed the retort& distilled on there came after the acute flegm
first a liquor which in the air smoaked much & imbibed the
moisture of the air, then a salt mixed with this liquor.
Which salt was as volatile as & very fusible. Mostof it stuck in the neck of the retort like butter of& this weighed 270grains. That which came over
into the retort perhaps was about 100grains besides the liquor
mixed with it. After this arose in a great heat a salt much lesss volatile& scarce fusible which weighed 37grains. The Caput
Mortuum weighed 600grains. I had urged it with a graduatedX. Chemistry in the 18th Century: The Events Leading to the Overthrow of the
Phlogiston Theory
Dr. Joseph Black (1728-1799), a Scottish physicist and chemist,
isolated carbon dioxide in its pure state, in 1754, and named it “fixedair” because it could be present (or fixed) in a solid. In 1756, hedemonstrated that air may be involved in chemical reactions byshowing the uptake of fixed air (carbon dioxide) by quicklime(calcium oxide) to form chalk (calcium carbonate) and the reverse
reaction when chalk is heated. This study, by Black, was allquantitative, using an analytical balance of his own design, andthrough careful weighings, revealed the role of fixed air in thecycle of reactions he studied.
Black's experiment with fixed air: (using modern chemical
equations)Dr. Joseph Black

Chalk (calcium carbonate, CaCO3), upon heating, formed quicklime (calciumoxide, CaO) and fixed air (carbon dioxide, CO2)Δ
CaCO3 ⎯⎯→ CaO + CO 2

Quicklime reacted with water to form slaked lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2)
CaO + H 2 O → Ca(OH) 2
Slaked lime reacts with potash (potassium carbonate, K2CO3) to form chalk andcaustic potash (potassium hydroxide, KOH)
Ca(OH)2 + K 2 CO3 → CaCO3 + 2 KOH
On standing in air, slaked lime absorbed fixed air forming chalk andwater.
Ca(OH) 2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H 2 O
On merely standing in air, quicklime absorbed fixed air forming chalk.
CaO2 + CO 2 → CaCO3
In 1761, Black discovered that when ice melts it absorbs heat without changing
temperature. From this he concluded that the heat must have combined with the ice
particles and become latent. (This heat is now called the latent heat of fusion.) This, alongwith his work showing that different substances have different specific heats, earned Blackthe title of founder of calorimetry.

Torbern Bergman (1735-1784), a Swedish chemist, published his Dissertation on
Elective Attractions in 1775, which contained a table of chemical affinities of all thesubstances known to him. He states in his dissertation:“I contend that almost all of Chemistry rests upon this doctrine of elective attraction
like a solid base, and if we want a reasonable theory which conveniently and clearlybinds things together in a single idea, this theory serves us well.”This was not the first table of elective attractions, but the most complete table of the time.
Bergman states that
“The tables which exist up to now are quite scanty with regard to thenumber of materials shown, and any substances which are included arecompared with very few of the others.”
In addition to the tables, Bergman used a number offour-cornered Schemes to represent chemical reactions.
At the time, chemical equivalents were not established, so
these schemes are not to be considered as balanced
chemical reactions, but they were a systematic way ofwriting chemical reactions.
The tables, on the following pages, show Bergman’selective attractions, the third shows Bergman’s schemes,
and the fourth shows modern equivalents of someexample schemes. Also included is a table of the symbols
used by Bergman.

In 1766, Henry Cavendish (1731-1810), a British
scientist, published 3 papers in which he described the
preparation of an "inflammable air" (hydrogen) by the actionof dilute sulfuric or hydrochloric acid on zinc, iron or tin. He
also determined the density of the gas (although his value wasvery inaccurate) and its chief chemical properties.
Cavendish believed this gas to be nearly pure phlogiston andto be derived from the metals, not the acids. In the case of
nitric acid, which reacted with metals to give a brown,noncombustible gas, he explained it by assuming thephlogiston had reacted with the acid.
Cavendish also studied Black’s fixed air and he introduced aHenry Cavendish
method of drying gases by passing them through dry
potassium carbonate (K2CO3) or through pearl ashes. He also found that gases could be
stored safely in containers over mercury. (This inspired Joseph Priestley to use mercury in
his pneumatic trough instead of water.)Cavendish also accurately determined the composition of Earth's atmosphere. He foundthat 79.167% is "phlogisticated air", now known to be nitrogen and argon, and 20.833% is"dephlogisticated air", now known to be 20.95% oxygen. Cavendish, using electric sparks,
diminished the nitrogen and oxygen in a sample of air and absorbed the products in alkali,
leaving a small residue. He could not, however, account for a small bubble ofphlogisticated air, which amounted to 1/120 of the Earth's atmosphere. (In 1984, Lord
Rayleigh, prepared that small amount of gas, using the same method as Cavendish, andidentified it as a third gas, argon.)
Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742-1786), a Swedish
apothecary chemist, discovered many new substances.
Always in poor circumstances, hoe could only devote his
spare time to chemistry, but he had an instinctive flair forexperimental work and published many papers in his shortlife.

Sheele discovered the inorganic acids: hydrofluoric,hydrocyanic, nitrosulfonic, molybdic, tungstic, fluorosilicic
and arsenic acids; the organic acids: tartaric, oxalic, gallic,pyrogallic, uric, mucic, latic and citric acids; isolated glycerinfrom saponification of olive oil and lactose from milk. He
ascertained the nature of hydrogen sulfide, borax, Carl Wilhelm Scheele
microcosmic salt and prussian blue. Also discovered
ammonia, hydrogen chloride, and chlorine. Scheele prepared compounds of cyanide,
including gaseous hydrogen cyanide, and even described its taste. Scheele was anindependent discovered or oxygen, ammonia and hydrochloric acid and was the first chemist
to isolate chlorine.

Between 1771 and 1773 he discovered and experimented with a gas he called feuerluft (fireair) - actually oxygen gas – which he prepared by several means. He wrote about it in his
book Chemische Abhandlung von der Luft und dem Feuer (Chemical Treatise on Air andFire) but, although his manuscript was in the hands of his publisher in 1775, these results
were not published until 1777.
Working in his cold shop without proper ventilation, Scheele was frequently exposed to
toxic vapors from his experiments. It is thought that this exposure seriously damaged
Scheele's health and significantly shortened his life. Scheele was aware of the cause of his
poor health and he referred to it as "the trouble of all apothecaries."
Joseph Priestley (1733-1804), a Unitarian pastor andnatural philosopher who had no formal training inchemistry, devoted his work to the study of gases. He
used no definite working plan in his experiments andtended to stray where his fancy took him. His studies
leaned mainly on experiments with electricity andwith gases. He is the discoverer of soda water.

In 1774, Priestley was using a new burning glass to burnvarious substances in an inverted container in his
pneumatic trough to see what kinds of “airs” were given off.
Taking some red calx of mercury (mercury(II) oxide),
Joseph Priestley
Priestley noted that the calx “burned” into mercury, giving
off a colorless gas. He was amazed to find that a candle
burned brilliantly in this gas and that a mouse would live longer in this gas than in an equalvolume of air.
As a firm believer in phlogiston, Priestley was at a loss to explain this. Finally, hearrived at the conclusions:
Ordinary air must contain phlogiston
This new gas must be air deprived of its phlogiston.
Therefore, he called the gas dephlogisticated air.
Since it was believed, at the time, that air was a carrier of phlogiston, Priestley explained
how dephlogisticated air could be evolved.
The phlogiston belonging to the metal unites with that air (pure or
dephlogisticated air) so as together to form fixed air (which is not, in thiscase, carbon dioxide, as explained by Black), and therefore the calx may besaid to be the metal united to fixed air. Then, in a greater degree of heat thenthat in which the union was formed, this factitious air is again decomposed;
the phlogiston in it reviving the metal, while the pure air is set loose.
Consequently the precipitate mercury calx actually contains within itself all
the phlogiston that is necessary to the revival of the mercury.

Priestley’s apparatus

The final overthrow of the phlogiston theory
was accomplished by Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier (1743-1794). Lavoisier studied
combustion as early as 1770. In 1774, hedemonstrated that the gain in weight in the
calcining of metals was at the expense of air
and that the loss of weight of the air was
equal to the gain in weight of the metal.
These experiments enable Lavoisier todeduce that the air must consist of at least
two gases, one of which is involved incalcination.
Lavoisier learned of dephiogisticated air in
1774 from Priestley when the latter visited
his laboratory. Convinced that Priestley’s
dephlogisticated air was the active
constituent of the atmosphere, he repeatedand extended Priestly's experiments in thewinter 1774-1775.

Painting of Monsieur Lavoisier and his
wife, Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze by
Jacques-Louis DavidLavoisier’s apparatus for studying gases
Lavoisier’s famous experiment:
In a matrass (A) having a long neck (BCDE) which was bent and inserted
under a bell glass (FG) and placed in a trough of quicksilver (RRS), the levelof the quicksilver was marked (LL) and mercury was added to the matrass.
The furnace (MMNN) was lighted and maintained for twelve days during
which time the mercury in the matrass formed the red calx and the air in thebell jar decreased by 1/6 of its volume.
The air remaining in the bell jar would not support combustion, nor would it
support repiration.
Upon heating the red caix of mercury, the gas which Priestley had called
dephiogisticated air was formed and it was found to be capable of supporting
both combustion and respiration.

Lavoisier called this gas highly respirable air or, later, vital air.
In 1777, Lavoisier presented a paper on “The considerations Upon the Nature of Acids” inwhich he named this “purest part of the air” oxygine, which was derived from the Greek“acid former” since this gas was found in all acids.
In 1781, Priestley and his friend Warltire found that on firing a mixture of common andinflammable airs in a vessel by means of an electric spark, the inside of the glass vessel
became dewey. Cavendish studied this in more detail and finally concluded that water was acompound (not an element) consisting of inflammable air (hydrogen) with a part of thecommon or atmospheric air (approximately 1/5 of common air – the other 4/5 of air was
phlogisticated air [nitrogen]). When he used Priestley’s dephlogisticated air, Cavendish
found that water consisted of two parts inflammable air and one part dephlogisticated air.
Unfortunately, he interpreted this to mean that Priestley’s dephlogisticated air was actuallydephlogisticated water (i.e., water = dephlogisticated air + phlogiston).
Using the information from Cavendish, Lavoisier attacked the phlogiston theory in 1783.
He showed that:
Air consists of at least two gases, one of which combines with metals on
calcination and causes an increase in weight.
The same gas is the active agent in combustion.
"Fixed air" is a compound of carbon with this gas.
Metallic calces were not elements, but compounds of metals with this gas.
By 1785, other chemists were slowly being won over to Lavoisier’s theory of
combustion. By 1791, all the phlogistonists, except Priestley, recognized the new theory.
(Priestley defended the phlogiston theory to his death in 1804.)
In addition to overthrowing the phlogiston theory, Lavoisier worked on chemical affinity,
chemical nomenclature, and chemical analysis (especially of organic compounds).

It should be noted that Lavoisier discovered no new substances and devised no new
improved apparatus, but his fame lies in that he was a careful experimentalist who was able
to give first correct interpretations to facts already known.
With the phlogiston theory eliminated, quantitative determinations became possible andchemistry as a modern science was established.

__________
Lavoisier was a French nobleman in addition to his work in chemistry and biology, he wasalso involved in finance and banking. He was an investor and administrator of the "Ferme
Générale” a private tax collection company; chairman of the board of the Discount Bank(later the Banque de France); and a powerful member of a number of other aristocratic
administrative councils. All of these political and economic activities enabled him to fundhis scientific research. But because of his prominence in the pre-revolutionary government
in France, at the height of the French Revolution he was sentenced to death by guillotine.
Lavoisier’s wife Marie-Anne (1758-1836) was accomplishedin chemistry, art, and reading English. She managed theschedule of her husband's laboratory, maintained notebooks,
and created fine detailed drawings of apparatus. She receives
no credit, but the figures in his books carry her signature. (Seedetail of Plate IV from “Traité Élémentaire de Chimie” on theright.) After her husband's death, Marie-Anne was throwninto bankruptcy as the new government confiscated all her
money and property in addition to all of Lavoisier’s
notebooks and laboratory equipment. Marie-Anne organized
the publication of Lavoisier’s final memoirs, Mémoires de Chimi, a compilation of his
papers and those of his colleagues diagramming the principles of the new chemistry. The
statesman Pierre-Samuel duPont de Nemours, friend of Thomas Jefferson and namesake of
the Dupont Company, courted her until she rejected him. In 1805 she married the notorious
expatriate American scientist, Count Rumford, but that union quickly devolved into raging
squabbles and lasted only a few months.
_________

Chemical Symbols and Characters, 1780

Bibliography
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