HUMAN RIGHTSEDUCATION
IN
ASIA-PACIFIC
VOLUME THIRTEEN

HURIGHTS OSAKAHUMAN RIGHTSEDUCATION
IN ASIA-PACIFIC
VOLUME THIRTEEN

Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific—Volume Thirteen
Published by the Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center
8F, CE Nishihonmachi Bldg., 1-7-7 Nishihonmachi, Nishi-ku, Osaka 550-0005 Japan
Copyright © Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center, 2023
All rights reserved.
The views and opinions expressed by the authors in this publication do not necessarily reflect
those of hurights osaka.

HUMAN RIGHTSEDUCATION
IN ASIA-PACIFIC
VOLUME THIRTEEN

Acknowledgement
This 13th volume of Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific owes much toa number of people for their support. They helped in getting the articles forthis publication, and in editing them. Their support affirms the common
objective of documenting human rights promotion and education programs
and activities in Asia-Pacific.
We therefore express our deep appreciation to the following people:
Ayman Al-Kanani, Director of Training and Development Unit of Mwatanafor Human Rights; Ha Ryong Jung, Former Legal Officer of the Legal Aidof Cambodia; Kao Dyna, General Program Manager of the Legal Aid ofCambodia; Chenda Kun, Information Officer of Public Affairs Section of
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia; Shek-hay Leung,Research Coordination Manager of the Equal Opportunities Commission(Hong Kong); Dilnoza Muratova, Deputy Director, National Human Rights
Centre of the Republic of Uzbekistan; Nupur, Managing Trustee andFounding Member of the Centre for Social Justice and Legal Empowerment;
James Parker, PhD Student at the Department of Educational Foundations
at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa; Vishal Prasad, Campaign Director at
the Pacific Islands Students Fighting Climate Change; Run Saray, Executive
Director of the Legal Aid of Cambodia; Kenzo Tomonaga, Former Director,of the Buraku Liberation and Human Rights Research Institute and Presidentof the Public Interest Incorporated Foundation Sumiyoshi Community
Activity Promotion Association; Doris Tsui, Head of the Policy, Research
and Training, Equal Opportunities Commission (Hong Kong); Siosiua
Alo Veikune, Campaigner at the Pacific Islands Students Fighting Climate
Change; and Rorsart Yar, Content Producer at the Public Affairs Section of
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia.
We also acknowledge the indispensable role of Fidel Rillo of Mind
Guerilla, for laying out the articles and designing its cover.

4Foreword
In May 2023, who has formally declared that covid-19 was no longer apublic health emergency, which led to lifting of various different measuresthat restricted our freedoms in one way or another during the pandemic
that began in 2020. It was a welcoming shift for many of us, especially for
those working in hospitality sectors such as tourism and entertainment.
What we should not forget, however, is that we had experienced numerous forms of serious human rights violations during the pandemic. In Japan,
covid-19 patients as well as doctors and nurses who took care of them became targets of discrimination and exclusion. According to media reports,
there were cases where an ex-covid-19 patient had to move due to relentless notes posted on a front door to blame infection or children of doctors
and nurses had to hide professions of their fathers and mothers in order toavoid discriminatory remarks from classmates.
Human rights violations that we witnessed during the pandemic should
serve as an important basis for advancing our awareness on and understanding of human rights and, for that purpose, human rights education willplay a crucial role.
The Volume Thirteen of Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific covers
a wide range of initiatives and experiences of human rights education from
Asia and the Pacific. In this volume, we are delighted that two articles address issues of human rights in Japan, one about experiences of Corporate
Federation for Dowa and Human Rights Issue, Osaka and the other on human rights education in Japanese universities. It is our pleasure also thatan article by Pacific Islands Students touches upon nexus between climate
crisis and human rights, which is one of the most pressing issues globally.
The present crises in Ukraine and Gaza inform us that the war is themost serious form of human rights violation. It is our sincere hope that human rights education will pave a way to restore peace.
We welcome any comments and feedback on the articles of this volume
from readers.
Atsuko Miwa
Director
Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center5

Table of Contents
Acknowledgement
Foreword
Introduction

4
5
9

EXPERIENCES
Japan: Human Rights in Corporate Management and in Society
15
Corporate Federation for Dowa and Human Rights Issue, Osaka
Educating on the Khmer Rouge: Legal History and Practice e-Learning
and Training Program
31
Legal Aid of Cambodia
Facilitating Access to Justice and Social Change: Legal Educationand Empowerment
Centre for Social Justice and Legal Empowerment
Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen
Mwatana for Human Rights
National Human Rights Commission, India: Awarenessand Advocacy Activities
Aparna Tiwari
Pacific Campaign on Climate Change and Human Rights
Pacific Islands Students Fighting Climate Change
The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia:
Reaching Out to the Public
The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

6

47
75

109
125

139

FORMAL EDUCATION
Human Rights Education in Japanese Universities:
Challenges and Opportunities
Mino Takamatsu

159

Human Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy A Case Study
Munir Moosa Sadruddin

189

SURVEYS AND RESEARCH
Human Rights Promotion Using Language and Cultural Means:
Same-Sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society
Helix Lo221

Global Citizenship Education in the Philippines:
Adaptation and Innovation
Serafin Arviola Jr. and Carl Dellomos

265

Study on Challenges, Effective Policies, and Best Practices of Ordinary
Schools in Educating Students with Special Educational Needs
in Hong Kong
295
Equal Opportunities Commission
Appendix“Roadmap” for the Implementation of the National Programme for Human
Rights Education of the Republic of Uzbekistan
344
About the Authors354

7

IntroductionT

he ebbing of the covid-19 pandemic caused a seeming increaseof human rights promotion and education activities in 2023 in AsiaPacific to almost pre-pandemic scale. National-level human rights
promotion and education activities are being held alongside those at the
Asia-Pacific level.
Volume 13 of this publication reflects this situation and highlights activities that reach out to communities and provides examples of programs inboth formal and non-formal education systems.
New International Guide
2023 is also the year when unesco adopted the revised version of the 1974
Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding,
Co-operation and Peace and Education relating to Human Rights andFundamental Freedoms.
Unesco announced on 20 November 2023 that “194 unesco Member
States adopted the Recommendation on Education for Peace, Human Rights
and Sustainable Development at unesco’s General Conference.”1
This 2023 Recommendation is considered necessary for a number ofreasons, such as the following:
Our generation is facing threats such as democratic backsliding and the spread of violent and hateful ideologies and conspiracy theories. Our life on our planet is also under threat due
to pollution, climate change and the loss of biodiversity which
are causing unforeseen tensions, and challenges to health andwell-being.
On the positive side, the international community isequipped today with a solid array of normative instruments
and technological tools to foster peace and non-violence, which
didn’t exist in 1974. We also have data and a rich body of research in education to develop sound policies and monitor theirimpact.
The revised Recommendation is the “only global standard-setting instrument that lays out how education should be used to bring about last9

10

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

ing peace and foster human development through 14 guiding principles.” It
wants to ensure2
all people, throughout their life, are equipped and empoweredwith the knowledge, skills, including socio-emotional skills, values, attitudes and behaviours needed for effective participation in democratic decision-making processes, economic
empowerment, awareness-raising and individual and collective actions at community, local, national, regional andglobal levels that advance peace and promote international understanding, cooperation, poverty eradication and tolerance,in order to ensure the full enjoyment of human rights,
fundamental freedoms, global citizenship and sustainable development through education. (emphasis mine)
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, “adopted by all United
Nations Member States in 2015, provides a shared blueprint for peace andprosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future.”3 Among the
Sustainable Development Goals (sdgs), Goal 4 mentions human rights in
its Target 7:4
By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge andskills needed to promote sustainable development, including,among others, through education for sustainable development
and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development. (emphasis mine)
The indicator of target 4.7 states:5
Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii)education for sustainable development are mainstreamed in (a)national education policies; (b) curricula; (c) teacher educationand (d) student assessment.
It is notable that human rights education is not one of the “educations”
in this sdg Indicator. The teaching of human rights in relation to the sdgs
needs mainstreaming in the school system in many countries, or needs
strengthening in countries that have formally adopted human rights education policies.

Introduction

11

Unesco explains that since Goal 4.7 mentions several topics,6When resources are not sufficient to address all topics, it
is only natural to prioritize. In this process, global citizenshipeducation, if prioritized, can be treated as an entry point to address the other topics, such as human rights, culture of peace,
non-violence, and cultural diversity.
National Plans
Complementing the international guides on human rights promotion andeducation are national plans on specific tasks that both the government andthe civil society or the non-governmental sector should implement.
The Ministry of Human Rights in Pakistan issued the National Policy
Framework on Human Rights – 2022-2027 that includes the principles of7• “emphasizing on the human rights education and training”• “Modernizing the school, college and university curricula to include human rights concepts”• “Improving the training and sops [standard operating procedures]of the police, prison staff and lower and mid-level judiciary.”
It has specific provisions on human rights promotion and education toaddress issues related to child rights, women’s rights, rights of minorities,
rights of persons with disabilities, and senior citizen’s rights. There is a section on “Awareness Raising and Advocacy Campaign.”
The government of the Republic of Uzbekistan adopted on 7 February
2023 the National Programme for Human Rights Education. This National
Programme was drafted by a National Commission for the implementationof the fourth phase of the United Nations World Programme for Human
Rights Education. The National Programme is also supported by the
National Human Rights Centre of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
More specifically, the National Programme aims
To foster a sense of respect for human rights and freedoms
in society and ensure that the recommendations of internationalorganizations are fully implemented, it is necessary to organize
on a systematic basis work to improve the human rights expertise of judicial, law enforcement, and other state bodies.

12

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

In order to effectively carry out the tasks outlined in the
National Strategy of the Republic of Uzbekistan on Human
Rights, the issue of organizing human rights education, reflecting new approaches, methodologies, and practices is put on theagenda. This is done while taking into account the commitments
made by the country within the framework of international documents, as well as new threats and problems caused by the pandemic and its consequences.
Shortcomings in this area impede the growth of the population’s legal literacy, particularly among young people, the development of their sense of respect for human rights and freedoms,
and the development of the knowledge and expertise of civil servants in the area of human rights and gender equality.
The National Programme has an accompanying “Roadmap” which provides details on how the human rights promotion and education activities
should be implemented and identifies the government and other institutions that should work together to implement them. See the Appendix of
this publication for the full “Roadmap” document.
National plans are important in guiding governments and non-governmental institutions in undertaking human rights promotion and education activities. They constitute a critical element in pursuing human rights
promotion and education at the national and local levels. They minimize
resistance to human rights and human rights promotion and education by
government agencies and officials as well as some people in society.
Varied Initiatives
This volume presents varied types of human rights promotion and education activities. The activities range from campaigns to outreach programs,
and from non-formal training to formal education courses. There are different players involved from a student organization to non-governmentalorganizations, from a special court to national human rights institutions.
On awareness-raising, the articles from Cambodia, Pacific islands andTaiwan present concrete ways of making the general public aware andinformed of human rights issues and concepts. The articles discuss study
tours, museum visits, art competitions, rallies, and television and online
media promotions. These activities have direct effect on people who participate or even watch or witness the activities.

Introduction

13

On non-formal education, the training of human rights workers, government officials, company officials and employees, law students, paralegals
and lawyers is discussed in articles from India, Cambodia, Japan and Yemen.
The training programs vary from one group to another, but they all concentrate on providing practical skills of protecting and realizing the humanrights of the people they work with (particularly the disadvantaged groups
in society as in the case of the Indian article), or documenting them to holdpeople accountable for human rights violations and abuse (as discussed in
the article from Yemen). The training content ranges from learning laws andlegal procedures relevant to human rights, to learning skills in documenting human rights violations, to filing petitions in government offices and thecourts, to working with communities to address human rights issues.
Human rights courses exist in tertiary education as shown in courses
in a number of universities in Japan and in a teacher education university
in Pakistan. The main concern is on the human rights content and teaching
method that should be applied in teaching human rights at the tertiary levelof education.
There is also integration of human rights education into the school curriculum discussed in the context of Global Citizenship Education. This ispresented in the article from the Philippines. This article somehow follows
the unesco view that in case of limited resources, human rights and otherconcerns can be learned through gced. But in the context of the Philippines,
this approach may overlap human rights education that has supposedly
been integrated in the school curriculum.
The article from Hong Kong provides detailed discussion of the challenges of inclusive education. The needed support system can be expensive
in terms of professionally trained staff, support from the teachers and school
officials, and school facilities. There is likewise opposition from parents whowant their children with disabilities to enter the competitive higher levels of
education without considering the difficulties and disadvantage their children will face. Inclusive education is a vehicle for human rights educationfor educators and parents who make efforts to realize the right to educationof children with disabilities.
These articles are indicative of the complexity of human rights promotion and education work at the ground-level in the Asia-Pacific. Issues in society as well as the institutions that undertake human rights promotion and14

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

education determine the variety of programs and activities being developed
for specific contexts and objectives.
Jefferson R. Plantilla
EditorEndnotes
1 Unesco adopts landmark guidance on education’s cross-cutting role inpromoting peace, unesco, www.unesco.org/en/articles/unesco-adopts-landmarkguidance-educations-cross-cutting-role-promoting-peace.
2 Unesco adopts landmark guidance on education’s cross-cutting role in promoting peace, ibid.
3 History, Sustainable Development Goals, United Nations, https://sdgs.
un.org/goals#history.
4 Global indicator framework for the Sustainable Development Goals andtargets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, United Nations, https://
unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/Global%20Indicator%20Framework%20after%20
2023%20refinement_Eng.pdf.
5 Global indicator framework for the Sustainable Development Goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, ibid.
6 The abcs of Global Citizenship Education, unesco, https://unesdoc.unesco.
org/ark:/48223/pf0000248232.
7 National Policy Framework on Human Rights – 2022-2027, Ministry of
Human Rights, https://mohr.gov.pk/SiteImage/Misc/files/npfw%20on%20HR%20
22-27.pdf.

Japan: Human Rights in Corporate Management and in Society
Corporate Federation for Dowa and Human Rights Issue, OsakaI

n recent decades, the important role that companies play in promoting human rights has been attracting attention not only in Japan but
also internationally. In particular, in March 2011, the United Nations
Human Rights Council adopted the “Guiding Principles on Business andHuman Rights,” requiring member-states to formulate national action plans.
In response, in October 2020, Japan adopted its National Action Plan on
Business and Human Rights (2020-2025).1
This global trend is expected to grow even stronger in the future. But
prior to the global focus on linking business to human rights, it is not wellknown that companies in Japan had started in late 1970s to develop and implement initiatives to address human rights issues. This was the initiative ofcorporate liaison associations that were formed in various parts of the country to address the Dowa problem (Buraku discrimination issue) in response
to a 1975 discrimination case involving companies.
This article introduces the human rights education program of the
Corporate Federation for Dowa and Human Rights Issue, Osaka (Osaka
Doukiren), which was formed in late 1970s in Japan and has been actively
implementing activities on the business and human rights issue. It is hopedthat this article would be useful in revitalizing efforts by companies to address human rights issues not only in Japan but also around the world.
Osaka Doukiren
In February 1978, fifty-two companies established a voluntary organization
called the Corporate Federation for Dowa Issue, Osaka with the aim of solving the Dowa problem (Buraku discrimination issue). This organization wascomposed of companies with head or branch offices in Osaka Prefecture.
More companies became active members later on. This organization waslater known as Corporate Federation for Dowa Issue and Human Rights
Issue, Osaka (Osaka Doukiren).
Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific | Volume 13, 2023

15

HURIGHTS OSAKA

16

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Osaka Doukiren adopted these goals:
Aiming for “corporate management that respects humanrights” and “realization of a society where human rights are promoted” from a corporate standpoint.

Meeting on establishment of Osaka Doukiren on 22 February 1978.

Coalition of Companies in Osaka
Directories of the Buraku communities collectively referred to as Buraku
Chimei Soukan (部落地名総鑑) were uncovered in 1975. These directories
listed the locations and names of places of discriminated Buraku people
across the country. They were purchased by more than two hundred twenty
groups, mainly companies, nationwide. Companies purchased these to help
them avoid hiring residents of the Dowa district (discriminated Buraku residents). This incident exposed the companies’ discriminatory nature.
After these discriminatory directories were exposed and protested by
the Buraku liberation movement, companies initiated concrete measures toaddress Dowa issues (Buraku issues) and human rights issues. This discrimi-

Japan: Human Rights in Corporate Management and in Society

17natory book incident was taken up in the Diet at that time, and became amajor social issue.
This became known as the Buraku Lists Incident.
The establishment of Osaka Doukiren started with the purchase of this“Buraku lists” by companies. The failure of the companies that purchased
the list to notice the discriminatory nature of purchasing it, to try to correct
this discriminatory act, and to express regret for their discriminatory act,
led to the establishment of Osaka Doukiren.
Corporate Federation for Dowa and Human Rights Issue, Osaka
In 1965, the Japanese government’s Dowa policy council reported that resolving the Dowa issues was “a state responsibility and at the same time anational issue.” The Law on Special Measures for Dowa Projects, was subsequently enacted in 1968 to address the issue. The special measures law
lapsed in March 2002, and after that, the special measures under this law
were integrated into the general measures of the government.
In April 2003, Osaka Doukiren changed its name to the Corporate
Federation for Dowa and Human Rights Issue, Osaka, with the words “human rights” being added.
Today, in order to eliminate various forms of discrimination, including
the Dowa issues, Osaka Doukiren further strengthens its promotion of theidea of companies that respect human rights. It is undertaking various activities in cooperation with relevant government agencies and civil society
organizations with the aim of realizing a “society where human rights arepromoted” from a corporate standpoint.
Activities of Osaka Doukiren
Osaka Doukiren holds various activities including those on human rights
awareness-raising.
It sees the importance of member-companies themselves promoting
management system and business activities based on the spirit of respect forhuman rights. Human rights awareness-raising is an extremely important
initiative in helping companies establish systems and standards for making
judgments, etc. from the perspective of human rights and in conducting
business in a manner that respects human rights.

18

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3Start of Human Rights Awareness-raising activities in 1978
In the same year of its establishment, in 1978, Osaka Doukiren publisheda booklet entitled Kigyo to Dowa Mondai (Business and the Dowa Issue)
and distributed 13,000 copies to member-companies to deepen the correctunderstanding of the Dowa issue, based on the view that an urgent solution
to the Dowa issue was a national challenge and a social responsibility thatcompanies were expected to tackle.
In April 1978, a training session for new employees of member-companies was held, and in November 1978, a training program for mid-career
employees, who play a central role in raising human rights awareness within
member companies, was started.
Osaka Doukiren continues to hold human rights awareness-raising activities and workshops, mainly for member-companies, with the aim of providing opportunities for company officials and staff to participate in humanrights training and in the sharing of human rights information.
It started holding in-house training, study groups led by member-companies, and lectures for managers of member-companies.
It fosters human rights awareness by learning about various humanrights issues, including the Dowa issue, directly from the local community.
Groups of member-companies meet to learn from each other’s experience on human rights-related activities such as those on employment andawareness-raising, and make use of the experiences in their companies.
In addition, by actively participating in training sessions organized byrelated organizations, Osaka Doukiren established a system of sharing thelatest information on various human rights issues that helped officials ofmember-companies to have a high level of awareness of respecting humanrights.
Osaka Doukiren believes that it must continue to communicate the importance of respecting human rights to member-companies at every opportunity. In this way, awareness-raising activities through Osaka Doukirenin cooperation with the top management of member-companies and other
responsible persons and personnel will lead to human rights awarenessraising being held continuously within each member-company.
From February 2020, in view of the serious situation brought by thecovid-19 pandemic and to prevent the spread of virus infection, much of
the activities Osaka Doukiren shifted to online mode.

Japan: Human Rights in Corporate Management and in Society

19

Activities from 2022 and Onward
From 2022, the following activities were held:
I. Introductory Course on Awareness-raising on Dowa and humanrights issues
This course was meant mainly for young and new company employees.
It was held online on 6-22 April 2022, with one session being held in L Osaka(Osaka Prefectural Labor Center). The course had the following program:
Lecture I, Theme: “Business and Human Rights – Considering Human
Rights from the Perspective of the sdgs “Lecturer: Masaaki Shibamoto (Director, Support Center, Osaka
Business and Human Rights Council)
Lecture II, Theme: “Current Situation of Buraku Discrimination Elimination of Discrimination Based on Human Rights Awareness
Surveys”
Lecturer: Ryushi Uchida (Professor, Faculty of Sociology, Kansai
University)
The course was attended by seven hundred ninety-four participants.
They gave the following feedback:- I used to be careful not to discriminate against anyone.
But now, since I am a member of society, I feel that I must beaware of actions to eliminate discrimination and encourage theachievement of Sustainable Development Goals (sdgs).
- I was in awe of the fact that the consciousness of “defilement” that was born hundreds of years ago has remained tothis day. I have learned about Dowa issue many times before,
but from now on, as a member of society, I would like to takeresponsibility for respecting human rights and make efforts toeliminate discrimination. If I ever encounter a situation of discrimination, I would like to confront it with correct knowledge.
- The two lectures were very informative with easy-to-understand materials and stories. I realized once again that it is important to incorporate human rights issues into our daily lives.
- As an employee of a global company that also deals withoverseas customers, I would like to think more about what
I can do to build a better society, without being misled bymisinformation.

20

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3- I strongly felt that I would like to become fully aware of[human rights] and intentionally prevent discrimination basedon a solid understanding of their true nature.
- I am now aware that I knew about the SDGs, Buraku discrimination, and the Dowa issue after listening to the entire lecture. Therefore, I am glad that I am able to learn about theseissues at this time, when I will become a new member of society.
- I have been thinking that “if everyone forgets about Buraku
discrimination, it will disappear, and that will be fine,” but today’s lecture made me understand that “knowledge is necessary
to make the right decision.” It was a very informative lecture.
- I am aware that this is a very sensitive and difficult issue.
It seems that there is either a goal or no goal in learning humanrights. If there is a goal, I sometimes wonder if a new problem
will sprout. I am aware that if there is no goal, and even if there
is one, the next problem may sprout. This course reminds me tobecome aware of human rights issues in my daily life.
II. Dowa and human rights issues awareness-raising course (Managers)

Dowa and human rights issues awareness-raising course for managers.

This course was meant primarily for company managers. In addition toattending lectures at the venue (L Osaka) on 22 July 2022, online lectures
were held with both live and recorded streaming on 8-26 August 2022.
The course had the following program:
Lecture I, Theme: “Making Majorities’ Privilege Visible ~ Seeing discrimination as our own concern ~Japan: Human Rights in Corporate Management and in Society

21

Lecturer: Makiko Deguchi (Professor, Faculty of Foreign Studies,
Sophia University)
Lecture II, Theme: “What I was asked by the reality of Buraku discrimination ～Thinking about “resolution” and “liberation”～”
Lecturer: Norio Takahashi (npo Human Rights Center Nagano).
A total of one thousand thirty-three participants attended the course.
Some participants expressed their feedback on the session:- The presentation was easy to understand and explained
the image and awareness of “privilege” by using the analogy ofan automatic door and introducing activities that can be done in
the classroom.
- I felt that it is important for the majority to take action.
- The lecture was not only understandable intellectually(head), but also touched the hearts of the participants becauseof his passionate talk about the reality of discrimination and hisdesire to resolve it and liberate people from it.
- It was a good reminder. I especially noticed the importance of community support.
- The real voices from the field resonated with me. I felt that
we have to think about discrimination as our own. I felt that I
have to think about discrimination as my own.
- It was a great opportunity for me to learn new things andto complement what I have learned so far.
- This was my first time to participate [in the course]. The
contents were easy to understand and meaningful. I would
like to use this as an opportunity to gain access to a variety of
information
III. “Top Management Meeting” of member-companies

A “Top Management Meeting” of member-companies.

22

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3The heads of human rights department of member-companies gather toshare information on how to manage their companies in a way that respects
human rights.
On 22 February 2023, the company officials met in the Osaka Chamberof Commerce and Industry building and held a human rights education
session. They came together to study contemporary human rights issues,
including the Dowa issue, and the activities of the Osaka Doukiren. The officials reported on the achievements of the member-companies on humanrights activities, explained the outline of the activity policy from the new
fiscal year onward, and provided information on human rights initiatives ofmember-companies that they would implement.2
A lecture on the theme “Change: Respecting Diversity and Making a
Company Where All Can Shine in Their Own Ways.” was delivered by Takao
Ando (Chairperson, Sanyo Chemical Industrial Company).
The session was attended by two hundred eighty-six participants.
Some participants expressed the following feedback on the session:- I realized that it is important to utilize diverse human resources from the perspective of “fairness.”- I sympathized with the idea of difference between“Equality” and “Equity.”- I shared the idea of reforming the way to work with thecompany’s very diverse and unique approaches.
- I found the human resource system and culture reforms
and the measures to promote the advancement of women very
helpful.
- I would like to think about the implementation of humanrights due diligence and its assessment at my workplace.
- It was very useful for me to reorganize my knowledge andawareness of human rights issues.
- I was able to deepen my understanding of the humanrights situation in Japan, where comprehensive legislation is lagging behind.
Group activities
Osaka Doukiren holds meetings attended by representatives of member-companies. These company representatives are divided into different
groups to discuss issues/topics independently.
The groups, with eleven to thirteen representatives of member-companies in each group, do the following activities:• Introduce specific initiatives by groupJapan: Human Rights in Corporate Management and in Society

•
•
•

23

Meet once a month
Do on-site training (one-day trip and overnight stay once a year)
Have mutual learning and awareness-raising, etc.

Call for Human Rights Slogan Entries
Osaka Doukiren holds an annual human rights slogan competition. It calls on its membercompanies (including groupcompanies3) and three economic organizations in Osaka(Osaka Chamber of Commerceand Industry, Kansai Economic
Federation, kansai Associationof Corporate Executives), etc., tosubmit human rights slogans tothe competition to raise awareness of human rights among employees of member-companies
and their families.
The best entries are selected in February of each year andgiven awards at the annual meeting of top executives of member-companies held in the samemonth.
Posters of the best human rights slogan are printed and used as educational materials by member-companies and related organizations.
This competition has been going on since 1979, the year after the establishment of Osaka Doukiren, as part of the Human Rights Week celebrationin December each year. This is one of the most important activities of Osaka
Doukiren.
In the 2022 human rights slogan competition there were four hundred
eleven entries from member-companies (each member-company submitted
three entries).

24

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

There is no information on how many entries were collected by eachcompany from which it selected three entries for the competition. The number of entries ranges from a few dozen to more than 10,000, depending on
the company.
Fifteen entries were chosen from which the best entries were categorized. The following were the categories of the best entries:• 45th anniversary special work: one work (only in 2023)• Excellent work: two entries• Honorable Mention Award: eleven entries (one slogan from eachgroup)The best entries were the following slogans:a. Best work
It’s fun because there are differences, and it’s wonderful because
we accept each other’s differences.
(違いがあるからおもしろい 認め合うからすばらしい みんなでつなぐ多様性)b. 45th Anniversary Special PrizeIf you try to eliminate your preconceptions, you will see a wider
view, and if you take action, the future will change.
(先入観 なくしてみたら 広がる景色 行動すれば 変わるよ未来)
c. Excellent works
Let’s connect heart to heart
Respect your own sense of values, respect others’ sense of values(つなげよう 心と心 温ライン
大事にしよう 自分の価値観 尊重しよう 相手の価値観)
Human Rights Information and Osaka Doukiren Website
The website of Osaka Doukiren provides information on its activities onhuman rights to deepen understanding of respect for human rights not only
among member-companies but also among a wide range of people.
The “Topics” page contains information about the various activities ofOsaka Doukiren.
The “Series” and “Information Board” sections contain different typesof information such as Q&A on human rights, historical figures related tohuman rights, and other information.

Japan: Human Rights in Corporate Management and in Society

25

QR Code of the Osaka Doukiren website, www.osaka-doukiren.jp.

The website had been accessed in 2022 as follows:•

Number of accesses per year: 72,910 visits
Number of accesses of main pages:• About Osaka Doukiren: approximately, 23,000
visits• “Q&A” series: about 20,000 visits“My history Tour” series: about 8,000 visits.

Public Relations Magazine

The November
2022
issue
of
Hotline 21 had the following content:

Hotline 21 magazine

Osaka Doukiren publishes a public relations magazine named Hotline
21 twice a year to provide information on its activities and various humanrights-related topics.
It has 2,700 copies per issue that are distributed to member-companies, government agencies, civil society organizations, National Corporate
Federation for Dowa and Human Rights Issue, etc.
The basic contents of Hotline 21 consist of featured articles, on-sitetraining reports, news box (projects of Osaka Doukiren and related organizations), Q&A (commentary on the latest human rights keywords), essays,
etc.

26

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3Special Feature: “On the 100th Anniversary of the Founding of the
Osaka Suiheisha (Levelers Association)”• The historical significance of the Osaka Suiheisha and thethoughts and significance of the future liberation movement• The 100th Anniversary of the Founding of the Osaka Suiheisha.
Special Feature: “Scenes of blind women in the past” - Remembering
blind traveling women entertainers from the sound of their playing theshamisen”
Field Trip Report: Visit to Senzaki and Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi
Prefecture, to learn about human rights
news box: Responsible person meeting, training session for
newly-appointed responsible persons and training session for newlyappointed responsible persons
Lecture on awareness of Dowa and human rights issues (management level)
Buraku Liberation and Human Rights West Japan Summer Course
Multi-Ethnic Human Rights Research Meeting
Buraku Liberation and Human Rights Summer Course (Koyasan)
Human Rights Seminar
Human Rights and Dowa Issue Corporate Lectures• What is “sdgs Achievement Ranking”?
• What is “microaggression”?
• What is psychological safety?
• What is “wellbeing”?
Other Publications
Osaka Doukiren has been coming out
with various other publications since1983. The main publications are thefollowing:• In Search of the Origin ofDiscrimination: A Trip to
India to Study the Caste
System (June 1983)• Five Years of Transformationof the Heart (September
1983)
Osaka Doukiren publications

Japan: Human Rights in Corporate Management and in Society

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

27

Spring in the Land of Winter: A Report on Training on Ainu Issues in
Hokkaido (December 1984)
Enclave of Lamentations: Discriminatory Precepts in the Toushin
Region of Nagano Prefecture (March 1987)
What the Old Documents Knew: Gorobei Water Supply and thePeople (February 1991)
Awareness-raising and Employment: A Record of Practice: Results ofthe exchange of practical experience over the past 10 years (October
1991)
Record of Friends Who Walked Together: A Collection of Experiencesof Participating in the National March and the Osaka Prefecture
Aminome [Networking] Action (November 1992)
Testimony from Inside the Company: Facing the Buraku Issue(August 1998)
You Can Do It, Too: A Corporate Human Rights Training Handbook(March 2005)
30 Years of the Buraku Lists Incident: Lessons Learned andChallenges Ahead) (July 2005)
Activities and History of Osaka Doukiren (July 2006).

Symbol of Osaka Doukiren
Osaka Doukiren adopted this symbol:
The two “circles” represent the head of a person, andthe “heart,” which appears as a body part, is represented
by a single thick line in the motif of a river, which played
an important role in the development of culture and commerce in Osaka.
The symbol was created in 1992 to commemorate the15th anniversary of the founding of Osaka Doukiren, and is
still in use to this day.

28

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

National Corporate Federation for Dowa and Human Rights Issue
Osaka Doukiren and similar corporate federations were organized in different prefectures of Japan since the late 1970s to address Dowa issues. These
federations in turn established in 1985 the National Corporate Federation
for Dowa and Human Rights Issue.
Since its establishment, the National Corporate Federation for Dowa
and Human Rights Issue has been holding a national meeting every
December during the Human Rights Week that brings together members
from all over Japan to deepen exchanges and cooperation. Currently, there
are thirteen federations with 1,493 member-companies.
In addition, it participates in the Central Executive Committee for
Buraku Liberation and Adoption of Human Rights Policies, which calls forthe establishment of a legal system for human rights at the national level,
and in the International Movement Against All Forms of Discrimination(imadr), which has consultative status with the United Nations and participates in efforts to eliminate discrimination from the entire world.
In addition, it cooperates with government agencies and civil society
organizations from the standpoint of companies in each region to exchange
and share useful information as a national federation of companies.
Osaka Doukiren’s Basic Direction for the Future
From the standpoint of the business sector, Osaka Doukiren aims to contribute to the “establishment of corporate management that respects humanrights” and the “realization of a society where human rights are promoted”
by conducting various activities and programs centered on “employment”
and “awareness raising” on various human rights issues, including the resolution of the Dowa issue, in cooperation with relevant government agencies and civil society organizations. It aims to be an advanced human rights
organization.
In October 2020, the National Action Plan on Business and Human
Rights of Japan was released and disseminated. Since companies are required to exercise human rights due diligence in their operations, Osaka
Doukiren will continue to strive to disseminate useful information and implement its programs in support of this requirement.

Japan: Human Rights in Corporate Management and in Society

29

Endnotes
1 National Action Plan on Business and Human Rights (2020-2025), availableat www.mofa.go.jp/files/100173319.pdf. For more information on this document, see
Business and Human Rights, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, www.mofa.go.jp/
fp/hr_ha/page23e_000551.html.
2 For more information on this matter, visit www.osaka-doukiren.jp/

activity/enterprise.

3 Group company refers to any business entity consisting of different companies or a company and its subsidiaries.

Educating on the Khmer Rouge: Legal History and Practicee-Learning and Training Program
Legal Aid of Cambodia

From 17 April 1975 to 7 January 1979, the Khmer Rouge controlled
Cambodia and committed a wide range of mass atrocities amounting to war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. Millions ofpeople were killed, injured, and displaced as a result of these acts, and theintergenerational trauma continues to affect the Cambodian people to thisday.
To pursue accountability, seek the truth, and promote healing, discussions commenced in 1997 to establish a tribunal to try members of the
Khmer Rouge for their actions. This resulted in the establishment of theExtraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (eccc), also commonly
known as the Khmer Rouge Tribunal, which became operational in 2006
and concluded its final case in December 2022, with the residual functions
currently in place. As a hybrid, internationalized court based in Cambodia,
the eccc’s jurisdiction was limited specifically to the senior leaders of the
Democratic Kampuchea and those who were most responsible for the international and domestic crimes committed during the relevant period of the
Khmer Rouge’s rule as specified above.
Throughout the lifetime of the court, a number of cases were investigated, and several senior leaders of the Khmer Rouge were convicted. A
massive amount of evidentiary materials were documented and preservedin various formats, and a large number of victim-survivors had the opportunity to participate in these proceedings as civil parties and have their stories
heard, with various reparation awards ordered by the court. From a legal
perspective, the jurisprudence of the court has contributed to the development of international criminal law, and the procedures and application oflaw at the eccc have had positive impact on the Cambodian domestic court
system. However, the court has also had its weaknesses and has received
constructive criticism, which provides an opportunity for learning.
Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific | Volume 13, 2023

31

HURIGHTS OSAKA

32

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Although there were various outreach efforts by the court, there wasa general lack of easily accessible and understandable learning resourcesthat comprehensively covered the legal work of the eccc and its impact,
available to anyone in Cambodia, as well as those abroad who desired tolearn about the eccc. In addition, though a few law programs at Cambodian
universities offered courses and activities in international law, there was aneed to expand the availability of free and interesting materials to train law
students, young legal professionals, and other interested individuals on international criminal and human rights laws and foundational skills for legal
processes such as investigation and trial preparation.
To satisfy this need, the Legal Aid of Cambodia designed and implemented a program entitled “Educating on the Khmer Rouge: Legal History
and Practice e-Learning and Training Program”, funded by the European
Union through the United Nations Office for Project Services (unops), andin partnership with the Global Diligence Alliance and the Amrin Law andConsultants Group. The overarching goal was to build the next generationof public interest lawyers and legal professionals who can preserve the legal
history of the Khmer Rouge and the legacy of the eccc, and who can thereby
strengthen the rule of law in the country. It believed that an understandingof the country’s pursuit of justice for the atrocities of the past can enable law
students and young lawyers to better advocate for today’s most marginalized members of society and ensure that history does not repeat itself.
The e-learning platform is available at www.elearning-lac.org.
Course Development
The program consists ofsix e-learning courses,
which have been developed
jointly by the Legal Aid ofCambodia, legal experts,
and the lecturers for eachlesson. The course development process also involved
contributions from various
stakeholders, including an
Advisory Group, the eccc,
legal interns, pilot run par-

Educating on the Khmer Rouge: Legal History and Practice e-Learning and Training Program 33

ticipants, and e-learning specialists. Additional information is available in
the Program Syllabus provided on the e-learning platform.
Legal Aid of Cambodia (LAC)
Lac is an independent, non-governmental legal aid organization thatprovides free, quality legal services for Cambodia’s indigent population inboth criminal and civil cases. Having provided legal services for the mostmarginalized members of society since its founding in 1995, lac strives
towards access to justice for all and the protection of fundamental human rights. Lac’s current core programs consist of the General Legal Aid
Program, the Women’s Justice Program, the Child Justice Program, and theLand and Natural Resources Program. For nearly a decade, lac provided
legal representation for over 1,200 civil parties to multiple cases at the eccc
to ensure that the survivors are able to access justice, while also conducting
educational sessions in the communities to ensure that they are able to better understand the purpose and procedures of the eccc proceedings.
Legal Experts
The work of legal experts Kristin Rosella of the Global Diligence Allianceand Sok Sopheakmonica of the Amrin Law and Consultants Group were
integral in developing the courses, including laying the foundation for thecourse outline and structure, developing lecture materials and practice exercises, securing and supporting the lecturers, and contributing holistically tothe implementation of the program. They also served as lecturers in Course
1, based on their experiences at the eccc and background in internationallaw. In addition, legal expert Meas Bora, PhD, made significant contributions to the outline of the courses, in addition to serving as the lecturer for
Course 6.
Lecturers
The course development involved a total of twenty-six lecturers acrossthe various sections of the eccc, including national and international staff
from the judicial chamber, prosecution, investigation, defense, and civil
parties. As a combination of practitioners and academics, they collectively
bring a wealth of firsthand knowledge regarding the eccc and internationallaw, including from the early stages of the court’s establishment. The lecturers participated in the course development in their personal capacities

34

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

rather than on behalf of the eccc, and their views may not necessarily represent those of the eccc.
In addition, the six exclusive interviewees represent the Cambodian judiciary, prosecution, civil society, and the Bar Association. Together, the lecturers and interviewees provide perspectives and insights both from within
and outside of the eccc.
Advisory GroupAn Advisory Group was established consisting of partners across sectors, to more effectively develop the courses, avoid duplication in efforts,
enhance synergies, ensure diverse content and sustainability, and promotecollaboration. The Advisory Group members provided input into the curriculum, course materials, course delivery approaches, and implementation
design, among others. The Advisory Group members consisted of:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Center for the Study of Humanitarian Law (cshl), Royal Universityof Law and Economics (rule)
Documentation Center of Cambodia (DC-Cam)
Faculty of Law and Public Affairs (flpa), Paññāsāstra University of
Cambodia (puc)Kdei Karuna Organization (KdK)
Lawyer Training Center (ltc), Bar Association of the Kingdom of
Cambodia (bakc)
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights(ohchr)Raoul Wallenberg Institute (rwi).

In addition, though not a member of the Advisory Group, the ecccs
Public Affairs Section supported the project by supplying helpful documents and resources for the e-learning courses, such as the recordings ofthe hearings in Khmer and English.
Legal Interns
Cambodian and foreign legal interns provided essential support to develop the e-learning courses.

Educating on the Khmer Rouge: Legal History and Practice e-Learning and Training Program 35

Pilot Run Participants
Four pilot runs were conducted during the course development process
to ensure that the course materials, course delivery approach, and e-learning platform are user-friendly and effective. The pilot runs were conductedwith law students of various backgrounds, including Cambodian students
between their first and fourth years in university, master’s students in international human rights law and international relations, and a foreign law
student.
e-Learning Specialists
The platform was developed using Moodle, with the technical supportof e-learning specialists from Beekee.
Program Syllabus
Each course is available in both English and Khmer on the e-learning platform. There is no enrollment fee to take the courses, and they are open toanyone for self-enrollment.
The program is comprised of six courses divided into two segments:••

Four academic courses: eccc’s legal history, framework, and application of international criminal law and international human rights
law in Cambodia;
Two skills-based training courses: Foundational knowledge of select practical skills, including investigation, collection and assessment of evidence, witness interview and examination, and preparations for trial. These courses are only meant to provide basic
knowledge and tips, rather than qualifications for practice.

36

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Course Content
Most of the course content was developed between May and September
2021, while some contain information that was current as of December
2021. Thus, the jurisprudence of the eccc that developed further since thencould not be covered by the courses. In addition, given the development
timeframe, the lessons do not all contain identical information about the
progress in the cases at the eccc. However, the reading excerpt in Course 2
Lesson 2 Section 2 provides the most updated progress as of 31 December
2021.
The content has been produced using a variety of sources, including
primary and secondary sources.
In addition to the expertise and experiences of each lecturer, the course
developers also drew upon domestic and international laws, eccc and international court decisions, other eccc documents like the Internal Rules,
and legal publications, among others. Direct citations are provided either
in the lecture slides or transcripts, and only documents properly classified
and posted for public circulation have been referenced. For the photos andgraphics used in the lecture slides and videos, permission has been soughtfor their use where necessary, and the appropriate credits are specified.
Course Composition
Course participants are able to jump between courses and lessons according to their interest, as there are no prerequisites. Each lesson is designed to take on average 1 to 1.5 hours to complete, though this will vary
according to the participant’s learning style and level of engagement withthe materials.
Each course is divided into multiple lessons comprised of up to four
sections that contain lecture videos (with their transcripts), PowerPoint
lecture slides, reading and video excerpts, retention practice exercises, andsupplemental materials. All lesson documents are available in the Course
Materials folder provided in each Course Home.
Each course is equipped with a Course Syllabus that provides the details
for each lesson, including the learning objectives, types of practice exercises,
and a listing of all the associated excerpts and supplemental materials, including relevant links. The expected completion time for each course is also
identified, but the Khmer courses will generally take longer than the English
courses to complete due to the longer lecture videos despite the same con-

Educating on the Khmer Rouge: Legal History and Practice e-Learning and Training Program 37

tent. The syllabus also provides the biographies of the lecturers for each lesson and any further instructions. Note that the consolidated biographies of
all lecturers and interviewees are provided in the Lecturer and Interviewee
Biographies document.
The lecture videos consist of the lecturer’s introductory video in thefirst section and closing video in the last section of the lesson, along with thePowerPoint audio recording videos for each section.
Where the English or Khmer lecturers are specified in the Course
Syllabus, the recordings have been conducted by these lecturers. For lessons that do not specify lecturers in both languages, the audio recording
was conducted by lac or the legal experts utilizing a translated version of
the course materials. The introductory and closing videos are provided in
English, Khmer, or French, as these are the three working languages of theeccc. Subtitles are only provided where the lecturer speaks in a language
different from the language of the course, but the full text is available in thelecture video transcript.
Transcripts have been provided for all lecture videos and exclusive
interview videos for course participants who prefer to read the text while
watching the videos, or for those who may have difficulty understanding
the videos. Some transcripts also contain additional information that is not
introduced in the lecture videos.
The practice exercises combine retention and critical thinking questions, which may cover content from the same, previous, or upcoming sec-

38

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

tions to enhance the learning experience. A variety of exercise types are utilized, including multiple choice, scenario application, matching, drag anddrop, true or false, fill in the blank, flashcards, video/reading extracts, andwriting/documentation, among others. Explanatory feedback on the answer
choices is provided where helpful.
Certain sections also contain reading and/or video excerpts after thelecture videos, which are meant to provide a better context and understanding of the lesson content. Not all excerpts are available in both English andKhmer. Furthermore, lessons are complemented by supplemental materials
in the form of documents, videos, websites, online courses, and other forms,
which are specified in the Course Syllabus and partially provided in the
Course Materials folder. Common readings are provided in certain courses
for helpful documents that are relevant to all lessons in that course. Manyof the readings and videos are only available in English and are identified assuch in the syllabus.

In addition, each course begins with an exclusive interview video witha Khmer legal practitioner or expert to set the stage for the course and toshare their insights in the field. These videos were produced to further motivate law students and young lawyers to advance their studies and research
to improve their understanding of the law and advance their careers in thelegal field. At the end of the course, an evaluation and feedback form is provided for participants to submit their comments. Automated certificates are

Educating on the Khmer Rouge: Legal History and Practice e-Learning and Training Program 39

issued for individuals that complete entire courses, and separate certificates
can be obtained for the English and Khmer versions of the same course.
Prior to taking a course, it is suggested that the participant review the
Platform Instructions document that provides explanations and tips for using and navigating through the platform and its functionalities.

Course Description
COURSE 1: Legal Implications of the Khmer Rouge Regime
Exclusive Interview VideoSo Farina
Principal Deputy Director, Documentation Center of Cambodia
Lessons and Sections

Lecturers

Lesson 1: A History of the Khmer Rouge• Section 1: 1970-1979: Rise and Fall of the Khmer Rouge• Section 2: Structure and Leadership of the Democratic Kampuchea• Section 3: Acts Underlying the Crimes Committed During the Khmer Rouge

Kristin Rosella
Partner, Global
Diligence

Lesson 2: An Overview of the Legal Process• Section 1: Legal Terminology• Section 2: Understanding Jurisdiction• Section 3: Stages of a Case
Lesson 3: Accountability Mechanisms• Section 1: Introduction and National Courts• Section 2: Human Rights Mechanisms• Section 3: Ad Hoc Tribunals and International Criminal Court• Section 4: Hybrid and Special Courts

Sok
Sopheakmonica
Lawyer, Amrin Law
and Consultants
Group

40

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Lesson 4: Formation of the ECCC
• Section 1: Political Developments in 1991-1998• Section 2: Establishment Process of the ECCC
• Section 3: Goals of the ECCC by Cambodian Civil Society and the People

Sok Sam Oeun
Chief Attorney,
Amrin Law andConsultants GroupCOURSE 2: The ECCC Legal Framework
Exclusive Interview Video
Sok Sam Oeun
Chief Attorney, Amrin Law and Consultants Group
Lessons and Sections

Lecturers

Lesson 1: Structure of the ECCC
• Section 1: ECCC Hybrid Structure• Section 2: Jurisdictional Limitations of the ECCC
• Section 3: Stages of a Case and Applicable Standards

Juliette Esneau
Legal Consultant,
Pre-Trial Chamber, ECCC

Lesson 2: Cases Before the ECCC
• Section 1: Introduction to the Cases• Section 2: Case Developments• Section 3: Case Study of a Key Legal Development:
Detention of the Accused

Liv Sovanna
Secretary General,
Bar Association of
the Kingdom of
Cambodia

Doreen Chen
International Human
Rights Lawyer

Dy Socheata
LawyerLesson 3: Fair Trial Rights at the ECCC
• Section 1: Defining Fair Trial Rights• Section 2: Three Important Rights• Section 3: Minimum Guarantees for Accused• Section 4: Fair Trial Rights After Trial
Lesson 4: Victim Rights at the ECCC
• Section 1: Victim Participation at the ECCC
• Section 2: Procedures for Civil Party Participation• Section 3: Rights and Roles of Civil Parties• Section 4: Reparations

Michael G. Karnavas
International Co-Lawyer,
Case 003 Defense Team,
ECCC
Pich Ang
National Lead
Co-Lawyer for
Civil Parties, ECCC

Megan Hirst
International Lead
Co-Lawyer for Civil Parties,
ECCC

Keo Sothie
National Legal
Officer for Civil
Parties, ECCC

Lauren Tipton
International Legal
Consultant for Civil Parties,
ECCC

COURSE 3: International Criminal Law, Human Rights, and the ECCC
Exclusive Interview Video
Sin Soworn
Civil Party Co-Lawyer, ECCC | Deputy Director, Department of Defense for the Poor, Bar Association of theKingdom of Cambodia

Educating on the Khmer Rouge: Legal History and Practice e-Learning and Training Program 41
Lessons and Sections

Lecturers

Lesson 1: Genocide of the Cham and Vietnamese Groups• Section 1: Genocide and its Elements• Section 2: Specific Intent of Genocide• Section 3: Protected Groups Under Genocide• Section 4: Underlying Acts of Genocide

Tomas Hamilton
Senior Legal Consultant,
Case 004 Defense Team,
ECCC

Lesson 2: Crimes Against Humanity During the Khmer Rouge• Section 1: Crimes Against Humanity and its Contextual Elements• Section 2: Underlying Acts of Crimes Against Humanity (Part One)
• Section 3: Underlying Acts of Crimes Against Humanity (Part Two)
• Section 4: Underlying Acts of Crimes Against Humanity (Part Three)

Kristopher Yue
Legal Consultant,
Pre-Trial Chamber, ECCC

Lesson 3: War Crimes During the Armed Conflicts from 1975-1979• Section 1: War Crimes and its Contextual Elements• Section 2: Underlying Acts of War Crimes (Part One)
• Section 3: Underlying Acts of War Crimes (Part Two)

Janine Ensing
Legal Consultant,
Pre-Trial Chamber, ECCC

Lesson 4: Modes of Liability• Section 1: Introduction to Modes of Liability• Section 2: Direct Commission and Joint Criminal Enterprise• Section 3: Aiding and Abetting• Section 4: Command Responsibility

Marc Tiernan
Ph.D. Researcher,
University of Amsterdam

Nataliia Voitseshyna
Legal Consultant,
Pre-Trial Chamber, ECCCCOURSE 4: Investigative Practice at the ECCC
Exclusive Interview VideoYou Bunleng
Deputy President, Supreme Court of Cambodia | National Co-Investigating Judge, ECCC
Lessons and Sections

Lecturers

Lesson 1: Introduction to Evidence• Section 1: Types of Evidence• Section 2: Evidence Assessment and Corroboration• Section 3: Source Evaluation and Biases

Laura-Lou
MoreauLegal Counsel,
Civitas Maxima

Lesson 2: Fundamentals of Investigation• Section 1: Investigation at the ECCC
• Section 2: Key Investigative Principles• Section 3: Beginning the Investigation• Section 4: Drafting an Investigation Plan

Ajit Tiwana
Investigator
Police Officer
Retd.

Nivedha Thiru
Associate
Appeals Counsel,
International
Criminal Court

Lesson 3: Collecting and Preserving Documentary Evidence• Section 1: Collecting Documentary Evidence• Section 2: Chain of Custody• Section 3: Case Management
Lesson 4: Collecting Testimonial Evidence• Section 1: Introduction to Testimonial Evidence• Section 2: The PEACE Model (Part One)
• Section 3: The PEACE Model (Part Two)
• Section 4: Challenges and Gender Aspects in Interviewing

Brenda J. Hollis
International
Co-Prosecutor,
ECCC

42

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

COURSE 5: Trial and Appellate Practice at the ECCC
Exclusive Interview VideoSong Chorvoin
Deputy Prosecutor, Phnom Penh Municipal Court | Former National Deputy Co-Prosecutor, ECCC
Lessons and Sections

Lecturers

Lesson 1: Preparing for Trial• Section 1: Fundamental Principles of Trial Preparation• Section 2: Case Study: Trial Preparation as a Defense Lawyer

Anta GuisséInternational Co-Lawyer, Case002 Defense Team, ECCC

Lesson 2: Opening and Closing Statements• Section 1: Advocating Your Case
• Section 2: Opening Statement• Section 3: Closing Statement

William Smith
International Deputy
Co-Prosecutor, ECCC

Lesson 3: Questioning Witnesses and Civil Parties• Section 1: Preparations for Questioning• Section 2: Question Types• Section 3: Presentation Tips and Objections• Section 4: Questioning Vulnerable Witnesses

Vincent de Wilde d’Estmael
Senior Assistant International
Prosecutor, ECCC

Lesson 4: Appeal Process• Section 1: Difference Between Trial and Appellate Stages• Section 2: Pre-Trial Chamber• Section 3: Supreme Court Chamber

So Mosseny
National Co-Lawyer, Case 004
Defense Team, ECCCCOURSE 6: Application of ECCC Law and Practice in the National Courts
Exclusive Interview Video
Ly Chantola
President, Bar Association of the Kingdom of Cambodia
Lessons and Sections

Lecturers

Lesson 1: Comparing Practices at the ECCC and National Courts• Section 1: Comparison: Pre-Trial• Section 2: Comparison: Trials and Appeals

Meas Bora
Lawyer and Law Lecturer

The biographies of all lecturers and interviewees are provided in the
Lecturer and Interviewee Biographies document, as well as in the syllabus ofeach course. The specified job titles are current as of September 2021.
Training
Utilizing the e-learning platform, lac also implemented two terms of a
12-week training program, along with a separate training of trainers (ToT)
throughout 2022. The programs combined synchronous (live) and asynchronous (self-study) learning that were both academic and clinical in nature, forlaw students, young lawyers, and young legal professionals in Cambodia.

Educating on the Khmer Rouge: Legal History and Practice e-Learning and Training Program 43

Discussion on Project Implementation
The e-learning platform was launched at the end of March 2022, and overseven months, there were over two hundred forty platform users and six
hundred eighty course enrollments, with the completion of over 4,600
sections across the seventy sections of the six e-learning courses. The vast
majority of users were under the age of 35 and based in Cambodia, whichwere the main target groups of the platform. Over half of the users either
completed or were pursuing a university degree, while almost half either
completed or were pursuing a graduate or post-graduate degree. The vast
majority of users were majoring in law and human rights, with quite a few
in international studies/relations and public administration, among various
other majors, and the vast majority were law students, lawyers, legal specialists, and educators, among various other occupations. The evaluation
forms submitted through the platform by the users have generally contained
positive feedback of the e-learning platform and courses, with words of appreciation for making these learning materials available to the public.
In addition, the first term of the separate twelve-week training program
was conducted from April to June 2022, and the second term was conductedfrom August to October 2022. A total of thirty-eight participants completed
the program, focused on Cambodian law students, young entry-level lawyers, and young legal professionals or trainees. On top of the completion of
the six e-learning courses following a pre-set curricular schedule, the participants also took part in weekly Q&A sessions, periodic check-ins, careertalks with legal practitioners and experts, live trainings on additional topics,
and extracurricular activities, including a mock trial exercise that took placeat the eccc courtroom and critical thinking assignments.
Furthermore, a ToT was conducted from August to September 2022,
where ten participants were provided with the opportunity to learn about
online teaching methodologies and to practice producing and altering content on a separate test Moodle platform that was developed for them. As
part of their practicum, they also had the chance to put their learnings into
practice by teaching a session at a university, as organized by the project
staff.
Through various partnerships and outreach efforts, the platform hasreached a wide audience. The Bar Association of the Kingdom of Cambodia
decided to include parts of this program in their mandatory training for44

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

legal trainees, and some universities considered providing credit to theirstudents, integrating parts of the program into their courses, or including
parts of the program as a way to satisfy the requirements for certain degrees. Various stakeholders from the government, United Nations agencies,
development partners, academic institutions, civil society organizations,and communities commended the platform for being the first of its kind in
Cambodia to impart legal knowledge, especially in a synthesized, comprehensible, and accessible manner. In addition, individuals assessed that theplatform was able to bring the eccc closer to the people in Cambodia andabroad, especially for law students, lawyers, and legal scholars, as well as forthe civil parties and other victim-survivors.
The project officially ended in November 2022, but the e-learning
platform has been sustained through the support of the Global Diligence
Alliance and the Amrin Law and Consultants Group.
Separately from this project, lac designed a six-month International
Law Fellowship Program in Cambodia utilizing the e-learning platform,
with the financial support of usaid. Ten fellows were selected to participate
in the program from January to June 2023. This program provided a platform
for academic learning, clinical training, career mentorship, and exchange toequip young Cambodians with the substantive, practical, and institutional
knowledge and skills needed to pursue a career in international law, either
internationally or domestically. The Fellowship Program drew on the experience of the eccc and its pursuit of justice and accountability against the
Khmer Rouge, so that the fellows could properly understand the court andits work. Furthermore, the clinical training provided practical exposure tolegal case and project work as would be conducted by a lawyer or legal professional, especially in international law. In addition, the career mentorship
opportunities enhanced the fellows’ understanding of the procedural andtechnical details of a career in international law, drawing on the experiencesof Cambodians and foreigners who have pursued this path. Through thisprogram, the fellows were placed at a better position to apply for jobs related
to international law in Cambodia or abroad, both in terms of qualifications
and the recruitment process. In addition, they were able to pursue their legal
careers in a more sensitized, informed, and competent manner as future
experts and leaders, with a proper understanding of the country’s past.

Educating on the Khmer Rouge: Legal History and Practice e-Learning and Training Program 45

Annex A. Legal History and Practice e-Learning and Training Program

Facilitating Access to Justice and Social Change:
Legal Education and Empowerment
Centre for Social Justice and Legal Empowerment

T

he Centre for Social Justice (csj) is a socio-legal, nongovernmental organization (ngo) initiated by the Institute forDevelopment Education and Learning (ideal). Csj is one of the firstorganizations of its kind in India that uses the judicial system to fight for therights of marginalized people.
Csj first began operating through a network of law centers acrossGujarat in 1993. Today, csj has expanded to several states, including Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam, Odisha, Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka and responds to nearly 3,000 cases a year.
Its law centers in different states have lawyers, paralegals and researchers who are passionate about making a difference. They affect change every day by ensuring minorities like women, Dalits, tribals and other sociallyvulnerable groups get access to the rights guaranteed to them. The lawyers,
paralegals and researchers have been handling cases of different sectors
such as women, laborers, fisherfolk, consumers, farmers and children, andissues involving land, identity, amenities and social security.1
It intervenes at various points including providing legal aid, helping
document complaints and leading fact-finding activities, filing cases, contacting relevant authorities, pushing entitlement claims, spreading legal
awareness, public advocacy campaigns, training young lawyers and paralegals, identifying violations of civil liberties and serving as a watchdog forhuman rights violations and abuses.
It is registered under the Societies Registration Act (1860) and Bombay
Public Trust Act (1950).

Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific | Volume 13, 2023

47

HURIGHTS OSAKA

48

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Vision, Mission and Programs
Csj has adopted the following vision and mission:
VisionTo strengthen human rights culture and an all-inclusive pluralist society, free of violence, injustice, discrimination, prejudices and stereotyping.
Mission• To use law for social change to ensure access to justice to vulnerable
communities and to secure social justice, equity and equality, andfraternity;• To promote an enabling policy and legislative environment that
respects, promotes and protects human rights of vulnerable
communities.
Core Engagements
As an organization that uses the law to bring about systemic changes toremove barriers in accessing justice, particularly for marginalized communities, csj also works to expand the reach of mechanisms already in place.

Facilitating Access to Justice and Social Change: Legal Education and Empowerment

49

Csj engages in the following programs:• Legal awareness - disseminating information about legal rights andentitlements through awareness programs including campaigns,
radio shows and street plays;• Legal aid - addressing legal issues of individuals and communities
by assisting them in litigation and facilitating their entitlements
and claims under various laws and enactments;• Alternative dispute resolution - using formal and informal dispute
resolution mechanisms to resolve a legal dispute between two parties by activating formal state agencies such as permanent conciliation boards and mediation centers. It also involves activating andworking with informal spaces including Anjuman, mahila mandals, village heads, etc.;• Legal capacity-building - conducting various capacity-building
programs to develop the capacities of young lawyers, paralegals,
volunteers, Civil Society Organizations and government stakeholders to use the law to ensure that rights and entitlements are guaranteed to the vulnerable;• Legal reform - using experiences, learnings and best practices fromgrassroots intervention to critique existing laws and policies tomake them more sensitive to the needs of vulnerable groups.
Further, it has always advocated for the formation of platforms thatwould expand the reach of justice by making legal processes and mechanisms more responsive to the needs of communities.
Csj implements its programs through the following activities:
a. Strengthening Institutional Mechanisms
It works with the Asil Manch (Litigant’s Forum), a forum for litigants tocome together to generate awareness about their rights, provide legal support and raise issues of efficiency, transparency and accountability of the
judiciary.
Csj provides support to the Asil Manch in generating awareness about
the rights of litigants, and provides legal support in raising issues of efficiency, transparency and accountability of judiciary. Asil Manch works asa countervailing force against the erring justice delivery mechanisms and50

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

operates from the perspective not of rights to be needed but of rights to be
exercised and demanded.
The legal support of csj to Asil Manch facilitates the participation of thecommunity at large in accessing the justice delivery mechanisms. It aims at
setting up of a system where the forum itself, the justice delivery mechanism
and csj are mutually accountable. Asil Manch also contributes in building
the efficiency and effectiveness of the social justice lawyers by demanding amore transparent approach towards its stakeholders.
Asil Manch advocates different issues through its centers and field
units. These include:• Activating Consumer Redressal Forum• Permanent office of Assistant Labour Commissioner• Abolishing the time limit in cases of recovery• Litigant defending herself/himself• Active participation of women in nyay panch (traditional court)• Demand for full-court hearing• Asking for clarity regarding the powers of District Panchayat or theCollector under Section 73 (A) (A)• Issues of human rights violations and labor rights• Issues pertaining to police• Issue of speedy disposal of cases in the labor court• Administrative and civic amenities in the court• Pressuring the judiciary for disposal of maintenance-related cases
within three months of their admission.
b. Advocacy Efforts
Csj joined the development of the only comprehensive quantitative index using the government’s own statistics to rank the capacity of the formal
justice system operating in various states. This is known as the India Justice
Report (ijr) that was first issued in 2019.2 This is a groundbreaking national
periodic reporting initiative that systematically evaluates the performanceand capacity of the key pillars of the justice delivery system in each Indianstate. Focused on the police, prison system, judiciary, and legal aid, the report uniquely brings together previously segregated information to measureeach state’s justice system against its own declared standards. By employing
criteria such as human resources, infrastructure, workload, and diversity,
the IJR assesses the collective ability of these pillars to fulfill their mandates.

Facilitating Access to Justice and Social Change: Legal Education and Empowerment

51

The report includes a trend analysis over a five-year period, offering insights
into the ongoing efforts of state governments to enhance the administrationof justice and adapt to evolving needs.
Recognizing the inadequacies of the government’s relief measures andthe exacerbated difficulties in implementing Direct Benefit Transfer (dbt)
schemes, csj embarked on a multifaceted approach named Talatod. It wasa strategic response to the profound challenges faced by marginalized communities during the covid-19 lockdown in India. This innovative initiative
involved the institutionalization of paid telephone volunteers, activating
District Legal Services Authorities (dlsas) for service camps, and crafting acomprehensive covid-19 Lockdown Monitoring Toolkit. The intervention
not only facilitated the direct delivery of entitlements to around 3,000 individuals in vulnerable areas but also extended its impact through awarenessbuilding and training programs, engaging over seven hundred participantsfrom diverse organizations across the country. Talatod stands as a testament to csj’s commitment to social justice lawyering, demonstrating the
integration of legal expertise with creative solutions to address systemic issues and advocate for holistic policy designs.
c. Engagement with the Legal Services Authorities
Csj makes recommendations on how legal service authorities in India
can help women and other marginalized groups in availing justice. Constantadvocacy with the Department of Justice and National Legal Service
Authority (nalsa)3 is a key step in ensuring implementation of three key
reforms, namely:• Ensuring effective implementation of the nalsa Standard
Operating Procedures for Undertrial Review Committees;• Strengthening the free legal aid system;• Ensuring effective implementation of the 2018 Victim Compensation
Scheme.
Recently, csj also initiated action research to understand how well theseschemes have been implemented and presented some recommendations.
d. Research and knowledge creation
Since its inception, csj has been involved in extensive action-based research on various themes of social justice and human rights. Csj has pro-

52

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

vided a grassroots perspective to the application and implementation ofnumerous laws related to abortion, forest rights, disaster relief, gender andland rights, labor rights, rights of religious minorities, right to information,
Scheduled Castes and many more.
Csj produced a compelling compilation showcasing transformative stories of lawyers it has trained. The book entitled Appearances and Beyond
reflects on the challenges faced by young lawyers from vulnerable communities, emphasizing the importance of identity-building in their professional journey. Csj’s approach combines legal training with broader social
awareness, creating a cadre of lawyers committed to social justice lawyering.
Through this book, csj aims to inspire others and contribute to the larger
discourse on access to justice for the vulnerable.
Social Justice Lawyering, within the framework of csj, represents an activist legal practice aimed at transforming power dynamics and facilitating
the assertion of rights for the marginalized. Csj’s approach involves not only
providing legal aid but also focuses on social transformation through principles of empowerment. The organization strategically strengthens and sensitizes systems for ensuring human rights, develops paralegals as community
bridges, and fosters community lawyers as change agents. This methodology
creates a cadre of lawyers recognized for their commitment to social justice,challenging traditional legal paradigms and contributing to broader humanrights advocacy.
Capacity-building
Csj engages in extensive capacity-building activities because empoweringcommunities is an institutional mandate. It undertakes various activities
to build internal capacity-building of members of the organization, while
engaging with various stakeholders who aid or assist its goal of furthering
access to justice for all.
Capacity-building is defined as the process of developing and strengthening the skills, instincts, abilities, processes and resources that organization and communities need to survive, adapt, and thrive in the fast-changing
world. It is a combination of knowledge (the underlying mental and psychological readiness to use the knowledge) and the threshold of skills thatencourages self-practice. It includes:

Facilitating Access to Justice and Social Change: Legal Education and Empowerment

•

•
•
•

53

Human resources development, which is the process of equipping individuals with understanding and skills, along with accessto information, knowledge and training to enable them to perform
effectively;
Creation of an enabling physical and infrastructural environment
to promote development;
Organizational development, which includes the elaboration ofmanagement structures, processes and procedures, not only withinorganizations but between the different organizations and sectors;
Institutional and legal framework development, the scope of which
includes making legal and regulatory changes to enable organizations, institutions and agencies at all levels and in all sectors to enhance their capacities.

It works in the lawyer-paralegal framework and trainings are not justaimed at strengthening the understanding of legal systems but also to ensure inclusion of the voices of members of marginalized communities tohelp them understand the reality of the legal systems.
It adopted the following Guiding Principles for its capacity-building
efforts:
1. We are: Recipient oriented—
It is imperative that the curriculum is tailored to suit the participants
to ensure its relevance. Systems undertaking training are mindful ofthe participants’ social context, their surroundings and experiences,
and assimilate this into the curriculum.
Using csj’s clear perspective on vulnerability and victimhood, thecapacity-building process should result in empowerment of themarginalized communities. This makes it essential that the collective and ever-changing understanding of vulnerability that csj has
developed is constantly reflected in the implementation of its capacity-building initiatives.
Csj approaches vulnerability and victimhood with a transformative
lens, aligning with the ethos that vulnerability is a strength rather
than a weakness. Csj embraces collective vulnerability derived from54

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Freirean pedagogy, emphasizing a rights-based perspective thattranscends a simplistic win-lose framework. Vulnerability becomesa powerful tool for societal change, fostering a collective effort forsocial development.
Csj rejects the notion of victimhood as a stagnant state and, instead,focuses on developing identities of community leaders and activists
who become agents of social change. Its commitment to strengthening media messaging, utilizing technology, and engaging with diverse stakeholders reflects a nuanced understanding of vulnerability
as a dynamic force that propels meaningful discourse and societal
transformation.
Csj’s perspective on vulnerability transcends traditional victimhood
narratives, aligning with Freire’s vision by embracing collective vulnerability as a catalyst for action and progress. This approach translates into the idea that acknowledging and navigating vulnerability
is integral to fostering genuine connections, building authentic relationships, and creating a society grounded in self-acceptance andempathy. Csj recognizes the pivotal role of vulnerability in understanding complex social situations and navigating through messy
data to arrive at clear outcomes.
2. Pedagogy Matters—
The content used in capacity-building reflects its core philosophy:
the need for alternative legal education with a focus on the identityof the individuals and their collective identities, combining skills, information and perspective.
Csj believes that traditional capacity-building curriculums place undue emphasis on cognitive aspects. Its approach has a wider reachand considers other aspects such as perspective building, identity
formation, in addition to skill development, to facilitate individual
learning.
It also takes into account the fact that individuals benefitting fromthis are adults, and therefore, they prefer and even appreciate a self-

Facilitating Access to Justice and Social Change: Legal Education and Empowerment

55

determined pace to learning. As a consequence, the curriculum is
not designed to spoon-feed but to enable them to learn for themselves. This means learning is a continuous process, and must remain flexible to newer ways, ideas and changes.
3. Sharing the Responsibility—
The responsibility to learn and empower must be shared jointly by
individuals participating in these activities and in the structures responsible for designing capacity-building initiatives.
4. Must Enable Interacting with the External Environment—
Since the intervention is systemic and feeds into the work that csj
does, it is imperative that capacity-building initiatives further thecontact between recipients (participants) and their surroundings as
opposed to being seen as independent from social and economic
contexts.
This means that economic and social empowerment is a logical extension of such activities. Ensuring that individuals are equipped in
more than one way and are able to see connections between what
they are taught and their circumstances are essential. For instance,
securing property rights for women involved in domestic violence
cases or obtaining compensation in instances of rape not only ensures justice but also prevents undue compromises compelled byadverse circumstances.

56

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3Land Rights: An intersection of law and multiple identities
CSJ is actively involved in the crucial work of promoting legal empowerment
for land rights, with a particular focus on rural women. The aim is to address themultifaceted challenges faced by women in controlling and owning land, consideringboth social and legal factors. CSJ also operates through coalitions of civil society
organizations and development professionals dedicated to advancing women’s landownership rights.
The land rights work undertaken by CSJ is driven by the recognition of key
factors influencing women’s control and ownership of land that include social barriers
and lack of legal empowerment. Social factors include prevailing mindsets against
women owning land, limited social status, and inadequate skills in managing land.
Legal empowerment encompasses creating awareness, establishing responsive
mechanisms, removing procedural/systemic blocks, and ensuring a positive legal
environment.
Since its establishment, CSJ has been actively involved in legal interventions
concerning various aspects of Adivasi rights. This includes forest land rights,
addressing atrocities, labor cases, and ensuring the effective implementation of
constitutional amendments, particularly the 73rd amendment (establishment of selfgovernment institutions [called Panchayats] in rural areas).
Operating within a comprehensive framework that systematically analyzes the intricate relationship between Adivasis and theState, csj engages proactively with progressive laws such as Forest
Rights Act (fra), Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas Act(pesa), and government schemes tailored for the education and skill
development of Adivasis. Csj is committed to generating awareness,filing claims, and collaborating with communities to facilitate therealization of their forest rights.
Csj collaborates with voluntary agencies on land and forest rights, providing logistical and media support to Adivasi
Mahasabha—a movement dedicated to tribal rights. The establishment of Adivasi Mahila Manch and Swabhumi Kendra underscorescsj’s focused intervention in women’s rights, emphasizing the mutation of women’s names in property records and the transfer ofproperty titles as per customary practices and laws within Adivasi
communities.

Facilitating Access to Justice and Social Change: Legal Education and Empowerment

57

Through targeted interventions, csj operationalizes pesa at theGram Sabha level, creating awareness, mobilizing communities, andcollaborating with the state for law implementation. Its intervention
deploys preventive measures to unite the community based on its
Adivasi identity, prevent conflict, and preserve cultural heritage.
Legal aid, legal advice, strengthening alternate dispute resolution
mechanisms, investigation of human rights violations, legal awareness, and social-legal research are key activities undertaken. Csj has
also conducted an action research project on the implementation of
the 73rd amendment. Additionally, it works on issues related to thefra, ensuring the passage of pending claims and undertaking legal
actions for wrongly rejected claims.
Csj’s work involves a comprehensive strategy, including the creation of awareness through trained paralegals, innovative approaches like games, quizzes, and educational materials. The implementation of a paralegal training program, initiated as an action research,
proved instrumental in enhancing women’s ability to claim theirland rights. This process included the selection, identity-building,and assimilation of paralegals within organizational settings.
Guided by csj, the initiative goes beyond awareness creation andalso focuses on creating a mechanism to respond to claims. Trained
paralegals under this program have successfully settled numerous
land claims, underscoring the need for responsive mechanisms.
Additionally, csj addresses procedural and systemic blocks by working at two levels: fostering a positive environment among duty bearers and understanding and overcoming systemic hindrances.
The ongoing efforts by csj exemplify a transformative approach
towards achieving women’s land rights. Through targeted legal empowerment strategies, the initiative not only raises awareness but
also actively engages in creating practical mechanisms and advocating for systemic changes to ensure a more just and equitable landownership landscape for women
Women’s Rights: CSJ’s Impact in Legal Empowerment
Csj has been actively involved in the pursuit of social justice,particularly concerning the intricate challenges faced by women
within the socio-legal framework. It is dedicated to unraveling com-

58

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

plexities hindering women’s access to justice and has made substantial progress in enhancing the implementation of legal provisions
related to violence against women. Through strategic capacitybuilding initiatives, it cultivates women’s leadership, especially in
marginalized communities, and conducts awareness campaigns tosensitize officials, thereby fostering a more responsive legal environment for women.
Csj’s impactful interventions extend to strengthening existingmechanisms and advocating for crucial reforms. Key initiatives include the evaluation study on Nari Adalats, spearheading the appointment of Protection Officers under the Prevention of Domestic
Violence Act, and successfully campaigning for the establishmentof Family Courts in Gujarat. Its research and knowledge creation
efforts, collaborations with key stakeholders like Working Group on
Women’s Land Rights (wgwlr), and policy recommendations significantly contribute to shaping a more equitable legal landscape forwomen.
Csj actively engages in targeted interventions, such as addressing the alarming issue of witch hunting, demonstrating its commitment to effecting positive change and ensuring justice for all women.
Socio-legal intervention: Amidst court and community
In dealing with cases of sexual harassment, rape, and childabuse, csj implemented strategic interventions to safeguard therights of the individuals affected.
One instance involved a child sexual harassment case, wherecsj meticulously prepared the survivor for court proceedings. The
outcome included a compensation of Rs 50,000 and a three-year
imprisonment term for the accused. In another case, where a pregnant minor was raped, csj provided vital support during the trial,securing a conviction and advocating for the victim’s protection under Child Welfare Committee care. Despite initial challenges, csj’s
efforts resulted in an interim compensation of Rs 175,000 for thesurvivor.
For cases related to false allegations and domestic violence, csj
employed conciliation strategies to facilitate resolution, emphasizing community involvement and awareness. The organization effec-

Facilitating Access to Justice and Social Change: Legal Education and Empowerment

59

tively navigated threats and arrests, ensuring safety for the victims.
In a different case, false abduction charges were withdrawn as csj
sensitized families about respecting individual choices and preventing the misuse of legal provisions.
These interventions not only achieved legal justice but also addressed socio-economic aspects, including compensation for survivors and heightened awareness about additional compensation for
rape-related pregnancy. Furthermore, community sensitization initiatives sought to create an atmosphere of respect and understanding, curbing the misuse of legal mechanisms.
Csj’s multifaceted legal interventions, spanning various issues,
exemplify its commitment to economic and social empowerment.
By strategically navigating legal processes, providing essential support, and securing fair compensation, csj not only ensures legal
justice but also empowers survivors economically and socially, fostering broader community awareness and understanding. It actively
engages in capacity-building, equipping individuals and communities with the knowledge and skills necessary to navigate legal systems effectively. Through international collaborations, csj extends
its impact globally, contributing to a collective effort to address
global challenges and promote legal empowerment. Advocating forminority rights, prisoners’ rights, and socio-economic rights, csj
champions inclusivity, equal opportunities, and social justice. In its
pursuit of access to justice, csj’s interventions transcend normative
legal boundaries, fostering positive change and empowering communities worldwide.
5. Keep in Line with csj’s Systemic Intervention—
Capacity-building efforts should be aligned with the ongoing workof the organization. The usefulness or application of learnings musthave a direct relationship with enhancing csj’s work. This means
training inputs are linked directly to action in the field.
To illustrate, csj works on land rehabilitation issues in Katni districtin Madhya Pradesh. The issue was identified through a campaign
organized in May 2015. After following up with the residents, sur-

60

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

veying the area for rehabilitation beneficiaries was considered imperative to carry forward the efforts. The Capacity Building Unit,
in consultation with the operational unit in the district, scheduledtraining activities on land awareness and land rights so that paralegals and volunteers are trained to contribute to interventions thatpertain to these issues.
The outcome of these guiding principles accounts for two ideas: maintaining a balance between the bare minimum knowledge and skills that must
be ensured to be learned and the emerging practical realities that have to beconsidered in applying the knowledge and skills learned. Csj developed astructure based on its decades-long experience of working in the field of access to justice that is best suited to accommodate these principles.
Capacity-building Interventions
Broadly, people working in the field of legal advocacy comprise the legal
community. Capacity-building interventions for the people in the legal
community take the following forms:
a. Awareness campaign (Level 0)
Expected outcome: Identifying volunteers.
b. Orientation of Identified Volunteers (Level 1)
Expected outcome for institution: Link to the community.
Expected outcome for target group: Formation of a new identity,
understanding vulnerability better and learning to identify humanrights issues.
c. Training for Paralegals (Level 2)
Expected outcome for institution: Solidifying grip on identificationof issues through volunteers: first step towards identifying individuals who are capable of furthering the access to justice framework.
Expected outcome for target group: Familiarity with basic laws like
Right to Information, basic schemes, etc.

Facilitating Access to Justice and Social Change: Legal Education and Empowerment

61

d. Training for Paralegals (Level 3)
Expected outcome for institution: Solidifying the pool of individuals, assistance in drafting, learning to file basic applications, etc.
Expected outcome for target group: Drafting skills, understanding
the legal system and its processes, and participating in those processes at an elementary level.
Paralegals play a pivotal role in bridging the gap between communities,
legal processes, and the judicial system. Trained to simplify complex legal
procedures, they empower individuals by disseminating legal information,aiding in pre-litigative work, and facilitating out-of-court settlements. Theirunique ability to convert social problems into legal cases contributes to arights-based approach, addressing injustices through strategic use of the legal system. Paralegals serve crucial roles in delivering services, enhancing
legal awareness, updating dispute resolution systems, and adding a social
perspective to courtroom proceedings. Their involvement spans diverse
areas, from family counseling centers and family courts to environmental
issues, prisons, and Gram Nyayalayas. Recognizing the need for formal legitimacy, paralegals can be strategically appointed in various capacities toensure effective access to justice. Their role extends to training and education, emphasizing a contextualized, need-based, and rights-focused approach that goes beyond mere information dissemination. Integrating
pedagogical strategies and socio-legal justice principles, paralegal training
becomes a key element in empowering communities and fostering legal
empowerment.
An Account of a Paralegal (From Appearances and Beyond):
Dipak Acharya’s journey from paralegal volunteer at csj to a recognizedlawyer showcases the impact of hands-on legal experience. Trained by csj,
he gained insights into human rights, labor rights and environmental laws.
His role in securing compensation for farmers without court intervention
demonstrates the effectiveness of alternative lawyering. Now, with over five
years of experience, Acharya emphasizes solving cases at minimum expenseand prioritizing client satisfaction over monetary gains. His story underscores the significance of paralegals in delivering justice and earning thetrust of the community.

62

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Human Rights Education in the School System
In its fifteen-year journey, csj realized that reactionary strategies for justice
do not suffice. In order to truly see justice, the following aspects also need
to be considered:
1. The root causes of human rights violations/abuses must be
identified;
2. Children are part and parcel of a larger system and are also perpetrators, victims, and bystanders of human rights abuses;
3. Awareness about rights among vulnerable communities is essential;
4. Respect for human rights must be instilled in perpetrators;
5. Human rights education is serious business but the process for thesame can be positive which supports the larger mission of establishing human rights culture in society;
6. Human rights education must be integrated in the existing National
Curriculum Framework (2005) in the state curriculum.
Recognizing the need to take not only a reactive approach to the protection of human rights, csj decided to initiate a human rights education
program in order to take a more proactive preventative approach to humanrights violations/abuses. The program was envisioned to employ democratic
teaching/learning processes, provide space for dialogue, address stereotypes
and prejudices, and internalize respect for human rights for all.
Therefore, in 2005, when the Institute of Human Rights Education in
Tamil Nadu was looking for a partner in the State of Gujarat, csj agreed
to take on the task. Over the course of three years, csj extended its human rights education program to fifty schools in three districts of Gujarat.
Human rights were taught as an independent subject matter for two periods
a week of forty-five minutes each.
Human rights education has been understood by different stakeholders in different ways. The 2005 National Curriculum Framework takes a
Democracy-centered approach where democracy is not just as mode ofgovernance but rather a set of principles to be internalized consisting of
Equality, Social Justice, Freedom, and secularism all of which are inherent
in the Constitution of India. The curriculum also mentions the diversity of
the country and specifies that education should enhance respect for thisdiversity. The curriculum also presents the importance of peace education,
specifying that education has a special role to play in establishing peace.

Facilitating Access to Justice and Social Change: Legal Education and Empowerment

63

Csj human rights education curriculum
Considering all aspects of human rights education, and recognizing thesituation in Gujarat, csj decided to adapt an integrated framework where
diversity, peace and citizenship education were merged with human rights
education. Following the Godhra carnage in 2002,4 it was strongly felt thatconflicts between communities were increasing and that tolerance levels
were being reduced. Thus, after a three-year effort of research and training,csj developed the first curriculum for peace, citizenship, diversity and human rights education in the state of Gujarat.
Csj started its human rights education program for school children
in 2005 on a pilot phase. Teachers and human rights education experts in
Gujarat initiated the first steps by building their understanding of diversity,
discrimination, peace, conflict, methods of conflict resolution, and citizenship in relation to human rights at a five-day workshop. At the end of fivedays, teachers were able to design the framework and lesson plans for thecsj Human Rights Education curriculum. This framework was then given toa team of artists who worked on creating poems, stories, dramas and othercreative methods for the themes of each lesson. Following the two steps of
curriculum development, the program went into its final stages and threebooklets and two audio cassettes were produced.
CSJ methodology
It was clear from csj’s earlier experiences with ALE and training sessions for different cadres on Access to Justice that a simple knowledge ofhuman rights does not lead to the internalization of human rights values.
Along with knowledge, it is critical that the right attitude and belief as wellas the skills to exercise one’s own rights are developed.
Therefore, in designing the human rights education curriculum forschool children, the csj team chose to focus on three areas:• Knowledge• Values, beliefs and attitudes• Action.
Through its human rights education program, csj hoped to achieve thefollowing objectives:• To strengthen respect for human rights and fundamental freedom;

64

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3•••

To facilitate the full development of the human personality and its
inherent dignity;
To internalize respect for diversity; andTo inculcate courage to take a stance against rights violations.

These are important objectives in creating a model for human rights
education for school children and for advocating with the government tointegrate human rights education in the state education curriculum.
Teacher’s training methodology
The educator plays a central role in human rights education. The humanrights educator is the change agent in this whole process. Thus, looking at
the traditional teacher-student relationship which is very constricted andbased on fear and give and take, csj initiated a change process among theteachers through training.
Csj had the following objectives in mind:• To train the teachers to become co-learners with the students inorder to create a democratic environment where the facilitator selfintrospects in terms of his or her own stereotypes, prejudices, andattitudes;• To motivate educators to adapt creative, interactive methods ofteaching rather than using only lecture methods;• To foster new skills for human rights education and develop theeducators’ knowledge base on human rights; and• To strengthen the educators’ conviction to bring about change insociety, be an agent for change and take stands as and when needed.
Csj developed several training programs for human rights education
facilitators. It took the following steps in the trainings:
1. Basic training on human rights education
The basic training is mainly a change-oriented training. For this training, the participating teachers preferably constitute a mixed group interms of caste, class, gender and religion. This situation helps the teachers to explore their own identity, understand the politics of identity,
delve into their own stereotypes and prejudices, and explore the skills
and methods necessary to facilitate the teaching of human rights education lessons.

Facilitating Access to Justice and Social Change: Legal Education and Empowerment

65

2. Module-specific training
After the basic training, there are module-specific trainings designed
to take up different issues including diversity, discrimination leading toviolation of rights, peace, conflict, conflict resolution skills and citizenship. The module-specific trainings rigorously integrate knowledge, attitude and skills. This phase is focused more on building understanding
on issues.
3. Methodology training
Methodology trainings focus on designing teaching and learning materials, building clarity on methodology as well as practicing it.
The experience built during the initial human rights education phasein csj later led to conducting national-level Training of Trainers on humanrights education in eight states of India.
Awareness-raising Materials
Csj has produced films on several topics, particularly on the issues affecting women, for its public awareness program. It produced a film on witchhunting that affects women in southern Gujarat. The film entitled “Aad” isexplained as follows:5
Aad is a dangi word which literally means Allegation(Ilzam). Witch hunting is [a] superstitious practice from medieval ages which targets people especially women to rob [themof ] their land and property, to blame them for any incident. The
film is in dangi dialect which is spoken in southern Gujarat. The
film accounts interviews of lived experiences of women - widows, middle aged, from districts of Dangs, Dahod, [who] areostracized, targeted to rob their property [and grab] land fromthem. The film also talks about legal remedies for witch hunting.
It also has two other films on the women issue:• “Bhage Padti Bhoye” - Gujarati film on women’s land rights;• “Bharan Uposhan” - Maintenance right for women in case of domestic violence, rape and violence against women.
All csj films are available on YouTube.6
Csj reviews the impact of its materials through different engagement
strategies such as campaigns. The awareness materials employed in the dif-

66

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

ferent campaigns as well as engagement strategies, such as patrikas (cards),
audios, videos, posters, music, and sutras (religious texts), were strategicallyutilized to disseminate socio-legal information. Door-to-door campaigns
leveraged patrikas effectively for emotive responses and addressing language barriers. In public spaces and Anganwadi (rural child care centers),
patrikas initiated discussions on key legal issues. Audio and video materials
were impactful in public spaces, schools, and bastis (group of houses), facilitating discussions and engagement, although some information-heavy videos required planned interactions for optimal responsiveness. Posters wereeffective in public spaces and Anganwadi, drawing attention and fosteringawareness. Music, while effective in gathering people at service camps andshivirs (camps), was identified as the least engaging medium. Sutras, painted
on walls during conversations, garnered attention, particularly in focused
spaces like Adivasi communities, requiring strategic engagement for meaningful discussions.
The materials include a series on domestic and sexual violence as well
as atrocities against Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribes through the Neela
audio and video series and the film “Main Chup Nahi Rahungi,” videos onlabor compensation, a short film of pocso through Komal and songs in regional languages along with posters on the various labor, gender, caste, land,
farmers issues and rights that csj works on.

Screening “Komal” for villagers.

Facilitating Access to Justice and Social Change: Legal Education and Empowerment

67

Screening “Main Chup Nahi Rahungi.”

Showing “Nyaypur ki Neela” through flex where screening is not possible.

Young Professionals Program for Legal Empowerment7
Law students are csj’s specific target group. In 2014, it started the Young
Professionals Program for Legal Empowerment (ypple) with the objectiveof equipping young legal professionals to become powerful change agentsby giving them the opportunity to develop a holistic understanding of how
legal empowerment at the grassroots play a catalytic role in bringing socialchange.

68

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Ypple is a two-year program open to young law graduates/legal professionals who wish to pursue a career in the field of human rights. Willingness
to engage with field realities, to live in challenging conditions and to travel
extensively, are things every candidate must be willing to do. Candidates
must, above all, display a strong drive, motivation and commitment towards
working for social change.
A group of young legal professionals is assigned to support the implementation of csj activities. Each young legal professional spends a substantial duration in the field areas and the remaining time is dedicated towards
research and writing, reflections, inputs and capacity-building. They undertake the following activities:• Conduct field-based research on law and policy issues for formulating interventions and creating policy documents;• Coordinate training and capacity building programs;• Collaborate/coordinate programs with stakeholders including representations with various government authorities;• Contribute to the legal work of the organization;• Organize events to initiate public debate on issues; and• Bring in creative approaches and perspectives to the existing workof the organization.

YPPLE volunteers with children.

Ypple is now entering its tenth year. Till now, csj has placed aroundforty young aspiring researchers in its field areas, where they engage with

Facilitating Access to Justice and Social Change: Legal Education and Empowerment

69

YPPLE volunteers with children.

grassroots realities and in the process grow immensely both professionallyand personally. The program allows these young minds to pursue their true
interests, with each individual finding something that they can call theirown, be it a particular sphere of law, a work profile or a social cause theycare about.
Many ypples continue to be associated with csj beyond the duration of
the program and are helping csj work towards realizing its vision for a justand equitable society.
Conclusion
Since its inception in 1993, csj has expanded its reach across Gujarat,
Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand, responding to thousands of cases annually.
The organization’s dedicated team of lawyers, paralegals, and researchers
operate across diverse sectors, addressing issues faced by women, laborers,
fisherfolk, consumers, farmers, and children.
Csj’s core engagements, rooted in its vision and mission, aim tostrengthen a human rights culture and foster an all-inclusive, pluralist society free from violence and discrimination. The organization pursues systemic changes through various programs, including legal awareness campaigns,
providing legal aid, alternative dispute resolution, legal capacity building,

70

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3and legal reform. Csj is committed to ensuring that vulnerable communities
have access to justice and advocating for an enabling policy environmentthat respects and protects human rights.
Looking ahead, csj envisions expanding its impact through digitizing
programs, mainstreaming grassroots learning, and collaborating with colleges to run courses. The organization remains dedicated to its mission ofcreating a more just, equitable, and fraternal society, empowered by thetransformative potential of law.
Endnotes
1 See the 2022-2023 Annual Report of the Centre for Social Justice for the number of cases handled during the 2022-2023 period, page 6.
2 See the 2022 report, India Justice Report: Ranking States on Police, Judiciary,
Prisons and Legal Aid, https://indiajusticereport.org/files/IJR%202022_Full_
Report1.pdf.
3 For more information on the National Legal Services Authority (NALSA),
visit https://nalsa.gov.in/about-us.
4 Also known as the 2002 Godhra train burning case that occurred in
Gujarat. For more information, read What is the 2002 Godhra train burning case?, The Indian Express, https://indianexpress.com/article/what-is/
what-is-godhra-case-gujarat-riots-sabarmati-express-narendra-modi-4881537/.
5 Text from Aad: Film by Centre for Social Justice on social issue of Witch
hunting in Dangi Dialect, www.youtube.com/watch?v=-rKB2lmV2HU.
6 Centre for Social Justice YouTube channel:“Aad” - film by Centre for Social Justice on social issue of Witch hunting in
Dangi Dialect, www.youtube.com/watch?v=-rKB2lmV2HU.
“Bhage Padti Bhoye” - Gujarati film on Women Land Rights, www.youtube.
com/watch?v=uaMGN2uvvuw“Bharan Poshan” - Maintenance Right #Women_Rights #fundamental_rights,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=3B8l_gHjKsE
7 For more information on YPPLE, see its 2023 brochure, www.centreforsocialjustice.net/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/ypple_brochure_2023_24.pdf.

Facilitating Access to Justice and Social Change: Legal Education and Empowerment

71

Annex A. Stakeholders
1. Trainers
Internal: Apart from the pool of people in the RaCB unit and the Rehbar group, othermembers of the operational units also fall into this category. The CSJ’s mandates require
the conduct of capacity-building activities at the local level and to support the membersof the operational units, CSJ conducts training sessions for trainers.
External: These include resource persons in the field, who have specialized informationand engagement with laws and the legal system. They are invited to join the training
activities of CSJ.
2. Recipients
Volunteers
They are CSJ’s connection to communities the organization works with. They primarily
help in identifying issues relevant to the community. Thus, it is essential for them todevelop an understanding of vulnerability and the rights framework CSJ focuses on.
(note: please add info on who are the volunteers and how are they recruited.)
Internal Paralegals
CSJ works on the lawyer-paralegal framework. Under this framework, paralegals
compose the group of individuals who have been associated with the organization fora certain period and reflected a desire and competence to work in the field of access tojustice since they were volunteers. They are expected to have a skill set which contributes
to the work of the unit. In addition to having an identity in the community, they should aid
the litigation and advocacy work being carried out by CSJ.
External Paralegals
They are paralegals associated with different outfits (institutions? organizations?) but
work on the access to justice framework, i.e., use law to further their work. The capacitybuilding initiatives directed at them respond to the demand from the target group, or a
result of the environment mapping undertaken by the RaCB unit. The specific objective of
this program is determined using processes mentioned above.
Internal Lawyers
They are lawyers who work with the organization on interventions. CSJ assesses theirneeds and then designs the capacity-building activities for them.

72

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3External Lawyers
This is either the outcome of specific demands of target groups or identified by
mapping the environment. They serve to add to the pool of social justice lawyers that CSJ
is continually building.
Organizations
This includes organizations doing similar work, or those that need assistance inunderstanding laws to further their work.
Public Representatives
Since the organization has worked with legal systems to further access to justice,there are representatives at every level that constitute an important element whenbuilding capacity.
Annex B. Architecture of CSJ
RaCB Unit
It is the responsibility of CSJ’s research and capacity-building unit to periodicallyassess internal training needs and mapping the environment to identify external capacity
building requirements. The unit is also responsible for creating materials in addition toscheduling and organizing training events.
RehbarRehbar, meaning “guide,” is a virtual group to help implement the vision, strategicorientation and values of the organization. Rehbar is a group of individuals who havebeen trained by the organization and display an interest in continuing their association.
Its members include:• The young professionals for legal empowerment;• The anchors from respective units who act as liaisons between the RaCB andfield units;• Consistent members assigned to each unit for regular hand-holding;• Subject experts invited for specific inputs.
Each unit has been provided a dedicated person to hand-hold them through theirjourney. This reflects a flexible support model where trainers are expected to oversee theoutput of the operational unit in terms of the quality of legal aid and litigation undertaken,
identify gaps, and offer support in terms of experience, practicality and innovation in
strategies.

Facilitating Access to Justice and Social Change: Legal Education and Empowerment

73

Local Systems
In order to contextualize capacity-building, operational units are expected to conductperiodic reflection meetings. These reflection meetings encourage analysis of issues andlaws where they originate. These meetings involve peer-learning practices and inputs
from persons who are well versed with local laws.

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen
Mwatana for Human RightsT

he birth of the Republic of Yemen in 1990 led to the establishment of a constitution articulating the importance of democracy, political pluralism, freedom of the press, and the emergenceof civil society organizations and unions. The government however became
authoritarian and tried to control this emerging field by limiting activities
and impact to prevent creating a “formal” democratic experience. Despite
these repressive measures, many of the structures remained and the voicesof organizations continued struggling to expand freedoms and defend democracy and human rights under an undemocratic Yemeni regime.
Sixteen years after the birth of the Republic of Yemen, the 2006 presidential election was held. This election was one of the most important
landmarks in the emerging Yemeni democracy. During this time, two experienced human rights defenders, Abdulrasheed Al-Faqih and Radhya AlMutawakel, met. They agreed to establish a civil rights organization thatwould work to promote human rights and freedom. This organization wasnamed Mwatana for Human Rights (Mwatana).
They tried to register the organization with the government in early2007 but the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor refused to grant the permit due to their past human rights work, which encompassed working torectify human rights violations against the peaceful Southern Movement,
during the Saada wars, and generally of supporting press freedom. In one
attempt to obtain the permit, a government official said,even if you come trying to establish a dancing group, you will
not be given the permit. These are orders from above.
Despite this, they continued their human rights advocacy, eventually
establishing relationships with international organizations such as Human
Rights Watch, Amnesty International, and Open Society Foundation.
Through these experiences, they were exposed to various mechanisms inhuman rights work such as monitoring and documenting violations underinternational humanitarian law and international human rights law.
Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific | Volume 13, 2023

75

HURIGHTS OSAKA

76

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Their exposure to these pioneering international human rights strategies reinforced their conviction that Yemen needed a Yemeni human rights
organization that would work with human rights standards and mechanisms. They imagined an organization that enjoyed independence, competence, commitment, and faith towards rights causes, free from professional
and institutional barriers that weakened civil society and reduced its impact. They felt that the organization should work within a victim-centered
framework with staff of both genders handling various cases. It should begoverned by clear policies, procedures, and rules of conduct with a focus onachieving impact in the short, medium and long terms. It should be committed to specialization within clear and strict limits, and avoid confusing
political work with other related fields on one hand, and the human rights
field on the other hand.
They learned about the standards and mechanisms for documenting
human rights violations within the framework of international humanitarian law and international human rights law through their work with various international organizations. They understood the importance of information for any human rights action aiming to protect victims and achieve
justice.
As a result, field investigations subscribing to professional standards
became the base of Mwatana’s efforts in advocacy, accountability, awareness-raising, training and legal support.
During this time, many questions came up. The most prominent question, however, was what new and different human rights work Mwatana
could offer in Yemen. Reaching a final answer to this question required anumber of years and several important events and transformations within
Yemen.
The most prominent of these events was the Arab Spring. In Yemen, theprotests began in early 2011, aiming to overthrow the regime of President
Saleh. The protesters involved in the demonstrations faced widespread human rights violations under conditions of severe political polarization. That
period tested the competence and independence of the existing Yemeni human rights and civil rights organizations and revealed an urgent need for
new human rights, civil rights, and media actors who would maintain theirstance and responsibilities under any circumstances.
In April 2013, Mwatana finally obtained its permit and was able to expand its institutional capacities and intensify its activities. It also adopted

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

77

a Code of Conduct as standard of behavior and ethics for all levels of theorganization to achieve a high level of efficiency and professional work inpromoting and protecting human rights in accordance with internationallaws, customs and standards relevant to the field of human rights work.1
Fieldwork research is the cornerstone of all activities of Mwatana andtheir outcomes are used and reflected in Mwatana’s publications and othermaterials as well as in its lobbying, advocacy, accountability, and legal support work.
Vision, Mission and Objectives
Mwatana adopted the following vision and mission statements:
Our Vision
A society where justice and full access to rights is guaranteed toeveryone.
Our Mission
Mwatana advocates for human rights through the verification anddocumentation of violations, provision of legal support to victims,
lobbying, as well as awareness-raising and capacity-building.
Mwatana aims/strategic goals:• To contribute to the creation of a database on human rights
violations;• To exercise pressure towards ensuring redress for victims of humanrights violations and accountability for violators;• To create an environment of awareness of the culture and principles of human rights;• To build and strengthen the capacities of the most interested andinfluential groups in the field of human rights.
Programs and Activities
Mwatana has been implementing several programs and activities including
the following:• Monitoring and Documentation: Mwatana undertakes field visits
and research on incidents of human rights violations, takes the

78

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

•

•

•

•

•

•

testimonies of witnesses, scrutinizes and studies the pieces of evidence in accordance with local and international laws. The datacollected is then used in the production of statements, reports, letters or short films that include summaries, recommendations, anddemands;
Studies and Research: Mwatana conducts research studies regarding human rights issues that aim to obtain a clear understandingof the research subjects in order to diagnose the issue and findsolutions;
Legal Support: Mwatana provides legal assistance to the victims ofhuman rights violations in their cases before the relevant courts,
public prosecution offices and other law enforcement agencies bydeploying professional and qualified lawyers;
Accountability and Redress: Mwatana seeks opportunities for international criminal accountability for all violators under international criminal law in order to provide redress for the victims.
Mwatana keeps track of precedents in various countries and international mechanisms and files complaints where appropriate. In
collaboration with other international organizations, Mwatana has
filed a criminal complaint, submitted a communication with the
Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, andfiled a legal intervention;
Advocacy and Lobbying: Mwatana lobbies relevant competent authorities through a specialized panel for advocacy to consider, accept and implement the recommendations and demands made in
the studies and researches it conducted;
Awareness-raising: Mwatana strives to raise awareness amongpeople regarding their rights through different awareness-raising
activities using modern tools that include films, the effective use ofsocial media, brochures, and booklets. Such work is done to best
serve the causes Mwatana works on;
Training and capacity-building: Mwatana works on training qualified human rights workers and equip them with the necessary
skills in order to work on human rights issues objectively and more
effectively.

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

79

Mwatana has this core belief and mandate: “Accurate informationis power.” This led it down the path of documentation and field research.
Mwatana researchers conduct in-depth investigative fieldwork across all
Yemeni governorates to uncover human rights violations, raise victims’
voices, and build a Yemeni human rights database as basis for accountability
and redress.
Work Units
Mwatana carries out fieldwork through its Research and Studies andLegal Support units. It has several other units namely, Accountability andRedress, Media and Communications, Advocacy, Projects and Programs
Management, Evaluation, Monitoring and Learning Management, FinanceManagement, Human Resources and Operations Management, and Dataand Information Management. Mwatana is also working on establishing
an eleventh unit: a training unit that will eventually become the nucleus of
Mwatana Academy.
The results of the investigative research are subject to several rounds ofreview and scrutiny by specialists and experts. Mwatana uses the researchdata to produce reports, studies, statements, blogs, letters, and humanrights documentaries.
Mwatana has been recognized for the accuracy of information in its
documentation of human rights violations. Many international platforms,
including the United Nations Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism(MRM) on six grave violations against children in armed conflict, the United
Nations Group of Eminent Experts formed by the Human Rights Council,
and various international media outlets have used the reports of Mwatana.
Publications
Mwatana produces a number of materials: press statements, reports, studies, articles, blogs and videos.2
Mwatana published more than one hundred human rights press releases
addressing events that occurred during the war and its aftermath in Yemen.
In 2023, Mwatana published two important reports, namely, False
Exonerations (November 2023) and Transit in Hell (December 2023).

80

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

In False Exonerations, Mwatana rigorously examined the conclusions
and findings adopted by the Joint Incidents Assessment Team (jiat) regarding the Saudi/uae-led Coalition’s attacks including seventy-nine airstrikes.3
The report scrutinized the Coalition’s adherence to international humanitarian law in its airstrikes and identified the civilian damages caused. Itchallenged the accuracy, credibility, and reliability of the conclusions andfindings published by jiat. It questioned jiat’s methodology and field investigation, even if they met minimal investigation standards. Based on documentation of its independent field researchers trained in accordance withthe best international standards, Mwatana concluded that the Coalition’s
attacks on civilians and civilian objects must be regarded by the Coalition as
violations of international humanitarian law. The Coalition should also takeaction to redress the victims and hold those responsible accountable.
Transit in Hell is a review and discussion of the horrific violations targeting African migrants during their journey across Yemeni territory.4 This
report highlights the violations faced by African migrants in Yemen by shedding light on the abuses and those responsible for them, and conveying atrue picture of the suffering experienced by this vulnerable group. African
migrants are one of the most fragile and marginalized sectors of Yemeni society, lacking the means to express their suffering and being exposed to various violations. This reality makes them a forgotten community, with theirsuffering often invisible to many. In other words, this report represents anattempt to convey the voices of migrants, expose their tragedies, and uncover
the violations committed against them by the conflicting parties. It not only
presents findings on these issues, but also discusses ways to alleviate theirsuffering and contribute to solving their problems and holding violators accountable through a series of recommendations. Mwatana documented all
violations regardless of the perpetrator. In the report, Mwatana documented one hundred twelve incidents involving violations perpetrated against
African migrants by the parties to the conflict in Yemen as well as abusesby human trafficking and smuggling gangs. These documented incidents include thirty-two incidents committed by the Ansar Allah (Houthis) armed
group, forty incidents committed by Saudi/jiat-led coalition forces including thirty-six incidents committed by Saudi border guards, ten incidents bySouthern Transitional Council (stc) forces in their various formations, andsix incidents committed by forces of the internationally recognized govern-

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

81

ment. Human trafficking and smuggling gangs operating in areas controlled
by different conflict parties bear responsibility for twenty-four incidents.
Mwatana and partners issue different reports.5 They also issue somestudies such as the following:• Dynamics of Repression and Challenges, 2023
• Study on the Situation of Detention Centers in Yemen, 2019
• War of Ignorance - A field study of the impacts of armed conflict onaccess to education in Yemen, 2020-2021• Courts for Abuse - A Case Study of Yemen’s Specialized Criminal
Courts, 2015 - 2020
• Fragile Walls - A study of domestic violence against women during
the war in Yemen - 2014-2021• Colored Coffins - recruitment and use of children soldiers in thearmed conflict in Yemen - 2013-2018.
Videos
Mwatana produces videos to highlight patterns of violations. The
videos include documentary films, awareness films, interviews
with Mwatana team, and visual content that highlight its work.5
Human Rights Education
Mwatana has for several years been building a professional team that works
in accordance with high international standards in the field of human rights.
Therefore, another important component of Mwatana’s work is to build acommunity of effective human rights professionals.
Mwatana designed its courses and work environment as open workshops that have helped dozens of young women and men hone their knowledge and skills. The courses necessarily constitute a qualitative source ofknowledge and skills for human rights work in the future, both within andoutside Mwatana.
Mwatana promotes awareness of human rights values and issues to help
create a culture of human rights (that includes opposing their violations)through positive communication with the public on various social media
platforms. It engages continuously in constructive discussions with actors
who influence the human rights situation in Yemen through available ad-

82

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

vocacy and pressure mechanisms (local and international). Furthermore, it
creates strong partnership and cooperation with various parties and institutions that adhere to high professional and objective standards in order
to convey the voices of victims of human rights violations in Yemen to active and influential parties. It also works to enhance its communication withthe public by various means, and welcomes suggestions, observations, andquestions with openness and positivity.
Mwatana aspires to create a generation of professional workers committed to the highest standards of human rights work. Therefore, it builds
the capacities of its workers as well as those of other organizations throughquality and specialized trainings. Mwatana’s workers receive periodic training on the foundations and standards of research and investigation, legal
support, advocacy, communication, accountability, and redress. The training includes the latest tools for documenting human rights violations; andperiodic review, evaluation and verification of documentation mechanisms
to ensure quality work, accuracy, adherence to the highest professional andobjective standards, and effectiveness in achieving the desired impact.
Capacity-building and Trainings
Mwatana seeks to educate and raise the awareness of people in the tribal
societies of Yemen on their rights and how to defend those rights despite
the lack of formal education system and implementation of national laws in
the areas of tribal societies.
Due to this important concern, Mwatana made significant impact during the previous years, including building the capacity of local activists indefending human rights, raising and conveying victims’ voices and messages
to proper authorities, and documenting human rights violations in order tohold the violators accountable and seek justice for victims.
The main work of Mwatana depends on investigative field researchdone by its well-trained and qualified teams. The members of these teams
had undergone different training sessions by specialized experts from
Mwatana as well as by other local and international specialists. As a result of
the experience gained over the years, Mwatana always responds positively
to changes in the work environment and strives to enhance its capability andeffectiveness.

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

83

Mwatana’s teams provide workshops at the national and international
levels. These workshops contribute to the development of Mwatana’s technical and administrative work and are reflected on the skills of members of
the teams.
Mwatana also holds workshops and awareness sessions for large anddiverse sectors of society, including university graduates, journalists, media
figures, lawyers, human rights researchers, workers in civil institutions andorganizations, judges, professors in universities and schools, as well as community activists.
Training workshops
Mwatana has provided training to different sets of people it works with including its own staff (consisting of those in the central office [central team],field lawyers, field researchers/data collectors/field monitors), trainees,
members of community committees, NGO activists and representatives,and government officials.
The following section presents the training activities held from 2019 to2023 for different groups.
a. Members of the central team of Mwatana
Mwatana held workshops on–– Provision of legal support services with more focus on developing
mechanisms for documentation and follow-up (September 2019, fiveday workshop for ten participants);–– Modes of liability, legal analysis and the required level of evidence
for criminal litigation, international criminal law chapeau and elements of crime, and practical challenges on using evidence in Yemen(September 2021);–– Developing documentation forms for new patterns of violations,transferring the experience gained from the training and other courses
to the rest of the central team, and working on solutions to gaps on fieldwork (February 2021, twelve members of the central team);–– Interpersonal and business communication skills (November 2022,
twenty central team members);

84

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Workshop on strategic planning , August 2022.

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

85–– Practical guide to strategic planning in preparation for the development of a strategic plan of Mwatana (August 2022, twenty-five central
team members);–– Research methods in the social sciences and humanities, trainees’
skills in the field of research (October 2022, twenty-eight central teammembers);–– Digital data security (October 2022, four members of Information
Technology and Data Management team);–– How to analyze war crimes and crimes against humanity, framework for gathering evidence of international crimes (focus on unlawful attacks), individual criminal responsibility (focus on chain of command) (May 2022, ten central team members);–– Documentation for accountability purposes and building files(March 2023, five-day online training workshop for the Legal Support
and the Accountability Units).
b. Field lawyers
Mwatana held workshops on–– Legislations of Yemen, and concepts and case studies of arbitrary
detention, torture, forced disappearance, and extrajudicial killing(October 2019, twenty field lawyers based in fifteen governorates);–– Skills on extraction of information consisting of interview andpreparation of documentation reports. It also focused on expanding thefield of lawyers’ skills by covering the basic requirements of advocacy
and accountability work (October 2020, seventeen field lawyers basedin fifteen governorates);–– Enhancing the field lawyers’ knowledge on the tools for scientific research and collecting data. The sessions were assisted by icrc and law-

86

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Workshop on tools of scientific research and data collection, October 2021.

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

87yers who had long experience in providing legal support. (October 2021,
five-day training workshop for eighteen field legal support assistants).

Workshop on reviewing the performance of the legal support field team, October 2022.

88

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Workshop on reviewing the performance of the legal support field team, October 2022.

–– Reviewing the performance of the legal support field team
(October 2022, seventeen field legal support assistants from different
governorates).
c. Field researchers/data collectors/field monitors
Mwatana held workshops on–– Skills on different topics including international accountability mechanisms, and impartial and independent international mechanisms (September 2019, twenty-seven field monitors from different
governorates);–– Use of open online sources for investigation purposes, how to monitor and deal with sexual and gender-based violence (sgbv) cases, andthe concept of genocide and war crime (September 2020, twenty-sevenfield monitors);

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

89

Workshop on difficulties and challenges faced by field monitors, January 2020.

–– Identifying the difficulties and challenges faced by field monitors,
guidance on how to solve them, sharing among field monitors of theirown experiences, and enhancing their monitoring skills on certain patterns of violations. (January 2020, twenty-seven field monitors);

Workshop on methodology on data collection, June 2022.

90

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Workshop on methodology on data collection, June 2022.

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

91–– Different topics related to human rights violations and new investigation tools with practical exercises on what they had learned (March
2021, twenty-four field monitors);

Workshop on accountability mechanisms and the International Criminal Court (ICC), March 2022.

92

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Workshop on accountability mechanisms and the International Criminal Court (ICC), March 2022.

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

93–– Methodology on data collection, sampling of target groups for civic
space study, and how to conduct successful interview. (June 2022, thirteen data collectors from different Yemeni governorates);

Workshop on understanding the situation in the field, March 2022.

94

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Workshop on understanding the situation in the field, March 2022.

–– Various topics such as aspects of accountability mechanisms andthe International Criminal Court (icc) (March 2022, twenty-four fieldresearchers from different Yemeni governorates);

Workshop on human rights principles, November 2021.

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

Workshop on human rights principles, November 2021.

95

96

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3–– How to improve work, and understanding the situation in the field(March 2022, field researchers of the Research and Studies Unit including eighteen trainees, both male and female).

Workshop for data collectors, February 2023.

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

Workshop for data collectors, February 2023.

97

98

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

d. Community committees
Mwatana held workshops on–– Human rights principles (November 2021, sixteen male and female
community members from different areas and governorates);–– Twenty-four data collectors in two training workshops under aunicef project (first group on 12 – 14 February 2023, and the second
group on 19 – 21 February 2023).
e. Awareness sessions for trainees
Mwatana held training workshops and awareness sessions for trainees fromthe civil society. The sessions were held as part of different projects:

Workshop on monitoring and reporting documentation 1, January 2023.

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

99

Workshop on monitoring and reporting documentation 1, January 2023.

–– Workshop on human rights work and principles consisting of four
sessions with twenty-two trainees in each session for a total of eightyeight participants from all governorates including lawyers, activists, engineers, teachers, and journalists held on 22, 23, 28, 29 November 2023;

100

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Workshop on monitoring and reporting documentation 2, February 2023.

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

Workshop on monitoring and reporting documentation 2, February 2023.

101

102

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Workshop on monitoring and reporting documentation 2, February 2023.

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

103–– Human Rights Capacity-Building Programme (huricap) project,
Monitoring and Reporting Documentation 1 on the draft guide formonitoring and documenting human rights violations for sixteen maleand female trainees from Sana’a held on 22-26 January 2023.
–– Human Rights Capacity-Building Programme (huricap) project, Monitoring and Reporting Documentation 2 on a draft guide formonitoring and documenting human rights violations, for fifteen maleand female trainees from several governorates held on 19 – 23 February2023;–– German Embassy project on United Nations mechanisms for eleven male and female trainees from areas under the control of the Ansar
Allah-Houthi held on 18 – 22 June 2023;

Workshop on German Embassy project, September 2023.

–– European Union project on monitoring and documenting andUnited Nations mechanisms for twelve male and female trainees fromseveral governorates held on 6-10 August 2023;–– German Embassy project in cooperation with Pass Foundation for
twelve male and female trainees from areas under the control of the internationally recognized Yemeni government (Aden, 10-14 September2023);
f. Activists and representatives of civil society organizations (csos)/ community activists from different non-governmental organizations (ngos)
Mwatana held workshops on

104

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Workshop for activists and representatives of civil society organizations.

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

105

Workshop for activists and representatives of civil society organizations.

–– Basic information about human rights, monitoring and reporting mechanism, skills on investigative research work (March 2019,
twenty-four community activists from different ngos from fifteen
governorates).
–– Monitoring human rights violations, monitoring and reporting
mechanism and detailed documentation forms (July 2019);–– Starvation as a war tool, types of evidence used to monitor this phenomenon, basic verification criteria, and other related topics (February
2020, several activists and representatives of csos);–– Basic human rights (16-17 September 2023 for twelve male andfemale trainees from areas under the control of the internationally

106

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

recognized Yemeni government). This workshop was held in Aden
Governorate under the German Embassy and the European Union
projects.
g.

Government officials
Mwatana held a training workshop to develop the capabilities and skillsof members of a team, sixteen male and female officers, in the Ministry of
Human Rights in Sana’a governorate (13-16 August 2023).
Public events
At the end of each year, Mwatana organizes an online event as part of its
annual briefing on various violations committed by all parties to the conflictthat have been documented by Mwatana field team during the year.
As part of the annual briefing, the documented violations are disseminated to all audiences including activists, journalists, those interested in thehuman rights and humanitarian situation, and to the parties to the conflict.
This annual briefing has continued till the present and is followed by anannual report for each year.
Annual briefings held over the last three years:• Continued Violations During 20236• A Dark Year Despite the Truce, 20227• A New Year Added to the Age of Bloody Conflict, 2021.
Annual reports issued during the last five years:• Continued Violations During, 20238• Tragedy Until Further Notice, 20229• A Country Falling Apart, 202110• A Tragedy Without Justice, 202011• Without Accountability, 201912• Withering Life, 2018.13
Also, Mwatana holds periodic online forums with experts and specialists in international law and human rights law from Yemen and other countries, discussing important issues related to the field of human rights work.
These forums are meant to raise the human rights awareness of the public.

Training and Education for Human Rights at Mwatana-Yemen

107

Training and Capacity-building Unit
The Training and Capacity-building Unit of Mwatana is a new unit thatstarted to operate in 2023. This training unit cooperated with the Researchand Study Unit in preparing a research and documentation manual/guideline on the process of doing research and documentation.
The training program of this unit covers the first receipt of initial information, and the process of monitoring, verifying, documenting, gathering interviews and evidences at the field level. It includes the explanation of
the main process of information verification and all the methods used for
confirmation of information till their use in human rights statements andreports, etc.
This training unit is cooperating with an external consultant in developing an internal manual on the work processes of the Legal Support Unit at
Mwatana.
Future Activities
Early this year (2024), the Training and Capacity-building Unit held its annual comprehensive meeting for all members of the field teams (researchersof the Research and Studies Unit and lawyers of the Legal Support Unit) andthe central team to discuss the previous year’s work and the current year’s
work on all projects.
In March 2024, the Training and Capacity Building Unit at Mwatana
held meetings with an external consultant to prepare a technical manual
for the Legal Support Unit for the coming training sessions. The training
unit will be organizing more training activities within the current projects,
including training for the field support team on providing legal support tovictims of human rights violations, five awareness-raising sessions for several groups in local communities, a capacity-building training workshop forcsos and human rights defenders, and a six-month fellowship program fortwo members of csos.
Within the current plan of the Training and Capacity Building Unit,
Mwatana seeks to build capabilities in the field of human rights through alonger and more complete program consisting of a series of online courses
on human rights knowledge and practical fieldwork. This will consolidate
human rights knowledge and current experiences that are necessary to108

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

building a generation of qualified human rights defenders in various regionsof Yemen. A series of online courses will cover international humanitarianlaw, monitoring and documentation basics, the six grave violations againstchildren in armed conflict, basics of advocacy, and writing humanitarianstories.
Endnotes
1 For more information on the Code of Conduct, please visit this page: www.
mwatana.org/en/about/code-of-conduct.
2 Some of the publications include:
Reports:•“Returned to Zero”: The Case for Reparations to Civilians in Yemen, June
2022•
Civilians with disabilities caused by the armed conflict in Yemen, February
2022•
Arms sales: France and the United Arab Emirates, partners in the crimes
committed in Yemen?, December 2021•
A Tragedy Without Justice - Human Rights in Yemen in 2020•
Without Accountability - Human Rights in Yemen in 2020.
Several videos and virtual content produced while working in the field or in thecenter are available on a special section of its website in a special tab (www.mwatana.
org/en/videos?ff1d5310_page=2) and other online platforms:•“Mwatana: Here is the Story” - www.facebook.com/mwatanaen/
videos/457742895698416•“AmputatedLife”
www.youtube.com/
watch?v=TRpMRvqo28c&feature=emb_logo•“Chalk Dust” - www.facebook.com/mwatanaen/videos/1412747022547216•“Indelible
Scars”
www.facebook.com/mwatanaen/
videos/593337088799762.
3 Full report available at www.mwatana.org/reports-en/false-exonerations.
4 Full report available at www.mwatana.org/reports-en/transit-in-hell.
5 The videos are listed at www.mwatana.org/en/videos.
6 See www.mwatana.org/posts-en/continued-violations-during-2023.
7 See www.mwatana.org/posts-en/annualbreif2022.
8 See www.mwatana.org/posts-en/continued-violations-during-2023.
9 See www.mwatana.org/reports-en/Tragedy-until-further-notice.
10 See www.mwatana.org/reports-en/falling-apart-4.
11 See www.mwatana.org/reports-en/a-tragedy-without-justice.
12 See www.mwatana.org/reports-en/without-accountability-6.
13 See www.mwatana.org/reports-en/withering-life2018-0.

National Human Rights Commission, India:
Awareness and Advocacy Activities
Aparna Tiwari

The National Human Rights Commission (nhrc) is an embodiment of India’s concern for human rights. It was establishedunder the Protection of Human Rights Act (phra),1 1993. Since its
inception, the nhrc India has been consistently doing a pioneering workin the field of protection and promotion of human rights across the country. Nhrc India discharges multifarious functions: examines and reviews
the safeguards provided by the various legislations for the protection ofhuman rights and recommends measures for their effective implementation; inquires into violations of human rights and recommends initiation ofremedial proceedings; studies treaties and international instruments; periodically reviews existing policies, programs and makes recommendations
for their effective implementation; undertakes and promotes research in thefield of human rights; spreads human rights literacy and creates awarenessof the safeguards available for the protection of these rights through publications, media, seminars and other available means.
Over the years, nhrc India has consistently emphasized the key features of human rights framework, which are principles of universality, nondiscrimination and equality, principle of participatory decision-making, thenotion of accountability and recognition of interdependence of rights, in thecourse of its advocacy on matters related to persons belonging to Scheduled
Castes, Scheduled Tribes; rights of women, children, persons with disabilities, lgbtqi+; vulnerable minorities and other marginalized communities.
nhrc India meticulously addresses the significant human rights issues
either by taking suo moto cognizance, or when brought to its notice by thecivil society, media, concerned citizens, expert advisers, etc. Furthermore,
nhrc India strives for comprehensive partnerships with key stakeholders
such as the judiciary, police personnel, media, representatives of non-governmental organizations (ngos) and civil society organizations, industry
Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific | Volume 13, 2023

109

HURIGHTS OSAKA

110

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

and academia. It functions most notably through sponsoring research, conducting consultations, seminars, workshops, internships, training programs
and publications.
Mandate of NHRC India for Human Rights Advocacy and Training
Section 12 (g) to (h) of phra mandates the nhrc India to perform the following functions:(g) Undertake and promote research in the field of human rights;(h) Spread human rights literacy among various sections of society andpromote awareness of the safeguards available for the protection ofthese rights through publications, the media, seminars and other available means;(i) Encourage the efforts of non-governmental organisations and institutions working in the field of human rights;(j) Such other functions as it may consider necessary for the protectionof human rights.
Further, the 1987 Principles relating to the Status of National Institutions(The Paris Principles)2 state that a national institution shall have the responsibility to publicize human rights and efforts to combat all forms of discrimination, in particular racial discrimination, by increasing public awareness,
especially through information and education and by making use of all press
organs.
nhrc India uses a wide range of measures to discharge the function ofhuman rights advocacy and education. Prominent among them are flagshiptraining programs, conferences, seminars, workshops, media interactions,publications for education, outreach programs, etc.
In order to discharge these functions, nhrc India has a dedicatedtraining division which is responsible for spreading human rights literacy
among various sections of the society. As such, it trains and sensitizes various government officials and functionaries of the State and its agencies,
non-government officials, representatives of civil society organizations andstudents on different human rights issues. For this purpose, it collaborates
with the Administrative Training Institutions/Police Training Institutions

National Human Rights Commission, India: Awareness and Advocacy Activities

111

and Universities/Colleges, Education boards, Civil Society Organizations/
Non Governmental Organizations, etc.3
Human Rights Education through Publications
Dissemination of human rights information and knowledge through publications is one of the prominent methods adopted by nhrc India. It publishes various priced and non-priced publications specifically designed to raiseawareness regarding human rights among stakeholders, academia, public
servants and the general public. nhrc India’s publications cover a range of
topics including Rights of Children, Criminal Justice system, Mental Health,
Women’s rights, Rights of Migrant laborers, etc. They also consist of someof the important guidelines, interactions, Annual Reports, various Standard
Operating Procedures (sops), etc. Some of the prominent publications of
nhrc India include Handbook on Bonded Labour,4 The Coasts, the Fish
Resources and the Fishworkers’ Movement,5 and Human Rights Best Practices
Relating to Criminal Justice in Nutshell,6 etc., among many others.
In the series of publications, the nhrc India has come up with a uniqueconcept of Know Your Rights7 series of booklets on International Human
Rights Conventions, Shelter, Manual Scavenging, Bonded Labor, Child
Labor, Sexual Harassment of Women at the Work Place, Rights of Persons
with Disabilities and Human Rights & hiv/aids. Interestingly, these publications are also available in several vernacular languages such as Hindi,
Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Marathi, Assamese, Urdu, Punjabi,
Bengali, Gujarati, Oriya, Nepali and Manipuri. Publishing them in majorvernacular languages enhances the accessibility of information to the masses from far flung areas and maintains India’s unity in diversity.
MARG Booklets
The nhrc India undertook a project with the Multiple Action ResearchGroup (marg), an ngo working for legal empowerment of the vulnerable
and the marginalized, to develop twenty-seven booklets on specific rights
issues to generate awareness of human rights in the society. Each booklet ofthe series seeks to give information about a specific right and the remedies
available for redressal of violations thereof. The booklets have been structured to deal with appropriate attitude towards the issue (respect for theright), explanation of rights (knowledge of law) and tips on how to use the112

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

law (knowledge and skills to secure rights). These booklets are easy to use
and accessible even to those with basic literacy skills. Booklets in the series
have already been published in English and have been widely circulated toschool education boards, stakeholders, and the general public.8
The booklets for ten subjects with a human rights perspective are thefollowing:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Rule of Law
Accessing Remedies in Law
The Right to Information
The Juvenile Justice Act
Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles
Child Labour and Child Marriage
International Human Rights Covenants and Conventions
The Right to Education
The Criminal Justice System
Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (pocso).

MARG booklets on human rights issues (Image credit: Human Rights Newsletter, vol. 26, no. 5, May
2019 edition9)

National Human Rights Commission, India: Awareness and Advocacy Activities

113

Journals
Nhrc India, in fulfilling its statutory responsibility of spreading humanrights literacy among various sections of society and promoting awarenessof the safeguards available for the protection of these rights, has been publishing the Annual English Journal10 and Annual Hindi Journal titled Nae
Dishae11 (Know your rights). The first English journal was published in 2002
while the first Hindi journal was published in 2004. These journals havebrought together research and opinions from various subject experts, scholars, practitioners, activists, jurists, public servants, rights defenders and distinguished domain experts.
Seminars, Workshops and Conferences
Nhrc India has been actively promoting a culture of human rights awareness and education by conducting workshops, seminars, and conferences.
These activities aim to not only take up pressing human rights issues andpresent recommendations but also sensitize the general public about the basic human rights principles and standards. Through these means nhrc India
has been able to empower individuals with knowledge about their rights andencouraged them to stand up against human rights violations. The activities are also useful in fostering a culture where human rights are respected
and society and individuals have sound understanding of human rights andinformed of human rights initiatives. Some of the recent activities of nhrc

NHRC INDIA’s National Conference on “Moving Mental Health Beyond Institutions”. (Image credit: NHRC
Twitter account @India_NHRC)

114

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

India include National Conference: Human Rights in Indian Culture andPhilosophy, National Conference on Child Sexual Abuse Material (csam)
and National Conference on “Moving Mental Health Beyond Institutions,”
etc., among various others.
Human Rights Trainings
nhrc India collaborates with many administrative training institutions for
public servants set up by Central and State Governments, including thepolice training institutions, to hold training/sensitization programs on human rights issues. Members and officers of the nhrc India lecture at these
institutes as part of ongoing interaction with members of the bureaucracy
and police forces at all levels to inculcate a rights-based approach to public
service. nhrc India collaborates with a large number of universities andcolleges for sensitization of faculty members as well as students on humanrights issues. In addition, it also partners with several ngos and funds themto organize such human rights training and advocacy programs. In addition,
it recently initiated residential training of the trainer course at its premises to train the police personnel and Central investigative agencies as theseagencies play a crucial role in the protection of human rights of people at
the grassroots level.

NHRC, India’s 2nd one-week Residential Training of Trainers course for officers of Central Armed
Police Forces (CAPFs) and various Central Investigation Agencies. (Image credit: nhrc Twitter
account @India_nhrc)

National Human Rights Commission, India: Awareness and Advocacy Activities

115

Course on Human Rights
In order to reach out to the broadest possible audience, nhrc India in collaboration with National Law School of India University (nlsiu), Bangalore,
uploaded a twelve-week Human Rights Online Course with four credits(Transferable) for undergraduate students on Swayam Online Portal of the
University Grant Commission (ugc). nhrc India and nlsiu collaborated
on unique online courses called Massive Open Online Courses (mooc).12
The Course, videos, and materials have been put together by fifteen
Faculty Experts from nlsiu. The topics discussed under the different modules reflect international mandates, national legislations, constitutional perspectives, comparative jurisdictions (which require a special reference), implementation mechanisms, etc. The topics covered relate to many importantcomponents of society, including the rights of the marginalized, including
women, children, the elderly, workers, transgender people, refugees, etc.,
The Course follows a combination of discussion of theory, critical thinking,and problem-solving. Lectures and self-learning activities are included in
the courses.13
Human Rights Internship Programs
nhrc India holds short internship program in alternative months throughout the year and month-long winter and summer internship for undergraduate and postgraduate students from various streams across the country.
During the internship program, the students are exposed to lectures anddiscussions on various human rights issues. They are taken on field visits
to police stations, prisons, and ngos for exposure. In these internships,
nhrc India invites experts from various sections such as senior Officers
of Government of India, academicians, Human Rights Defenders, Special
Rapporteurs, Monitors, and representatives of eminent ngos, Thinkers, etc.
to address and interact with the students. In addition to giving hands-on
experience, the students do field visits to Central Jail, District Jail, Police
Stations, ngos and Shelter Homes and Deemed Commissions.14 The interns
are also assigned to various Divisions of the nhrc India, and given project
assignments on different aspects of human rights situation in the country toresearch and report on.

116

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Visit of the interns of NHRC’s month long winter internship program to Delhi’s Tihar Central Jail. (Image
credit: NHRC Twitter account @India_NHRC)

During the covid-19 pandemic, the short-term internship program ofnhrc India successfully shifted to online mode which also resulted in maximum geographical coverage as it allowed students from far flung areas toparticipate easily.
Harmonization of International Treaties and Conventions with Domestic Laws:
Comparative Studies by NHRC India
The Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 mandates nhrc to study treaties and other international instruments on human rights and make recommendations for their effective implementation. Accordingly, the nhrc
India has undertaken harmonization of two United Nations treaties withdomestic laws of India. The study on the United Nations Convention on
the Rights of the Child (uncrc) was conducted between 2017 and 2019 ti-

National Human Rights Commission, India: Awareness and Advocacy Activities

117

tled as The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (uncrc)& Indian Legislations, Judgments & Schemes: A Comparative Study By
nhrc15 and United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms ofDiscrimination Against Women (cedaw) titled as Women’s Rights in India:
An Analytical Study (2021).16 For each study, a sub-committee consisting of
subject experts, academicians, government representatives, Human Rights
Defenders was formed. These committees held various consultations over
the years to complete the studies. These comparative studies identified thegaps in implementing the uncrc and cedaw with respect to the Indian
legislations, policies, schemes, judgments, and guidelines.
Awareness through Media
Nhrc India has been successfully using media as a tool for advocating forchange, and ensuring protection of human rights in the country. The media
and communication division of nhrc India is responsible for dissemination of information through media on different issues and aspects of human rights by issuing press releases and publishing monthly newsletters17 inEnglish and Hindi and by regular tweeting about various activities of nhrc
India through its Twitter handle @India_nhrc. The monthly newsletterof nhrc India reports on its ongoing
work, landmark judgments, compensation awarded and other major monthly
activities.
nhrc
India
also
organizes
press conferences, interviews of the
Chairperson, Members and senior officers with national broadcaster All India
Radio (air), DD news and several otherprint and digital media organizations.
These interviews are published in several Indian languages such as Marathi,
Punjabi, and Urdu along with English for
wider outreach.
NHRC award winning short film “Chirbogh”
In addition, every year nhrc India
that highlights the caste discrimination18
in society. (Image credit: NHRC Twitter invites short film entries for its “Shortaccount @India_NHRC)

118

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Film Competition” which aims at recognizing the creative efforts towards
promotion and protection of human rights. These films are accepted in any
Indian language with a subtitle in English. The best three selected shortfilms are awarded and few others get special mention.
Exposure Visits to NHRC India
One day or half-day exposure visit to nhrc India is a popular concept introduced for the students, faculty members, and officers of various colleges anduniversities across the country. These visits aim to introduce people about
the functioning of the nhrc as well as make them become aware about thehuman rights situation in the country.

Exposure Visit of Students & Faculty Members of Department of Social Work, Voorhees College, Vellore,
Tamil Nadu. (Image credit: NHRC Twitter account @India_NHRC)

Review of the Human Rights Education Initiatives
Nhrc India has a comprehensive program on human rights awareness andadvocacy. Numerous activities have been undertaken in pursuit of the needto protect and promote human rights across the country.
To illustrate, in 2023 nhrc India organized three short-term internshipprograms of fifteen days involving two hundred eleven students of various
disciplines from universities all over the country as participants. In addition,
there were two month-long winter internship programs with one hundred

National Human Rights Commission, India: Awareness and Advocacy Activities

119

thirty-three students in total and another month-long summer internshipprogram with sixty-eight students participating.19
Throughout the year, nhrc India also organized twenty collaborative
training programs with over a thousand participants in the states of Uttar
Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Andra Pradesh, Kerala and many others.
These collaborative training programs have been organized through various
academic institutions such as law universities, colleges and ngos. In addition, over a thousand students of schools and universities have also visitednhrc India in order to have first-hand experience of its operations.
As a new element to its human rights advocacy and awareness program,training of trainers for police personnel and officers of the central investigative agencies was introduced in 2023. Two residential training activities
were held for twenty-one and twenty-five trainers respectively belonging to
Police Academies of states and Union Territories and Central investigative
agencies.
Hence it is pertinent to state that nhrc India is expanding its humanrights awareness and advocacy activities with commendable results after undertaking them through the years. But there are still some issues toovercome.
Nhrc India implemented human rights awareness and advocacy programs and activities for students, bureaucrats and police personnel by involving various stakeholders such as academicians and government andngo representatives. These activities and engagements are limited to thepeople belonging to the upper strata of society and specially those who
can have easy access to nhrc India. In addition, the training and advocacy of human rights activities involved are short-term in nature and do
not aim towards any holistic solution. For example, nhrc India organizes
regular visit of students of schools and colleges to its premises. It is an excellent way of educating students about human rights, but it does not havemassive impact on the students from all corners of the country. Therefore,
there has to be continuous long-term efforts such as policy intervention
on incorporating the discourse of human rights and introduction of nhrc
India into the school syllabus, introducing professional degrees on humanrights at tertiary levels, etc. This will help the students to become awareof human rights as citizens and stand for the rights of their own and theircommunities.

120

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Further, to a certain extent, the awareness efforts of nhrc India alsolack the direct and continuous engagement with communities and people tounderstand their specific human rights concerns and ways to address them.
nhrc India is yet to introduce effective ways of reaching out to the massesof the society. The grassroots approach to advocacy efforts to address theunique challenges faced by different communities is yet to become part ofhuman rights awareness and advocacy initiatives of nhrc India. The activities being done need to be taken to the districts, villages and rural communities, especially those of the marginalized and disadvantaged.
To translate this into reality, nhrc India has to strengthen its engagement with State Human Rights Commissions (shrcs) and local self-governance system. India has a comprehensive framework of local self-governance in the country including the Panchayati Raj institutions and Urban
Local Bodies as a mandated by the 73rd20 and 74th21 constitutional amendments of 1993.
There are two major forms of local self-government existing in India,
one in the urban areas (towns and cities where local self-governance is carried out by municipalities and corporations) and other in the rural areas (villages and panchayats). The primary objective of these local governance bodies is to promote local economic development, infrastructure development,social justice and ensure the proper implementation of various development programs. These local self-governments have been playing extremely
effective role in the development of the country and in ensuring people’s
participation and democracy even at the remotest corners of the country.
nhrc India may effectively utilize these local self-governance bodies for human rights awareness and advocacy. As local self-governments function on
the ground, they are better equipped with knowledge of the realities, challenges and the strategies needed to overcome them. Hence, they may playextremely vital role in spreading human rights awareness and advocacy at
grassroots level.
At present, India has over 260,000 Gram Panchayats or equivalent bod22
ies. nhrc India may design mass human rights awareness programs withtraining of representatives of these local self-government units in order forthem to implement human rights awareness programs for the people in the
districts, blocks, villages and communities. Since such mass human rights
awareness programs may require expertise in implementation, the participation of grassroots ngos and shrcs is necessary. Under the phra, shrcs

National Human Rights Commission, India: Awareness and Advocacy Activities

121

have similar function23 of spreading human rights awareness and advocacy;hence, shrcs along with the ngos may act as the implementation and execution partners for such mass human rights awareness programs in theirrespective States. A comprehensive framework of this kind will ensure astrong reach of nhrc India at the grassroots level, along with having informed, sensitive and aware citizens of the country and a culture of humanrights in the society.
Conclusion
As per its mandate and resources, nhrc India has developed a comprehensive mechanism for promotion of human rights, spreading human rights
awareness and literacy and human rights advocacy at every possible level
through a number of initiatives. These initiatives have been extremely important and commendable to produce societal changes and as response tosocial reality for the realization of a sense of social justice for weaker sections of society. Through its training and advocacy efforts, nhrc India has
been paving the way towards creating a society that values and protects theinherent dignity and rights of its people.
Article 1(2) of United Nations Declaration on Human Rights Education
and Training reads,
Human rights education and training is essential for thepromotion of universal respect for and observance of all humanrights and fundamental freedoms for all, in accordance with theprinciples of the universality, indivisibility and interdependenceof human rights.
In the Indian context, few of the considerable efforts for human rights
education and literacy are seen as inculcating the ideas of Article 1(2),through the formal education system. But the success of such efforts at large
scale level is still a distant reality and hence, there is a long way to go.
India being a diverse country of 1.4 billion people, reaching out to all ofthem and making them become aware about their rights and stand for theirrights remains a challenge. In such a context, the role of institutions like
nhrc India becomes extremely important.

122

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3Endnotes
1 The Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993, www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/15709/1/A1994____10.pdf .
2 Principles relating to the Status of National Institutions (The Paris
Principles),www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/
principles-relating-status-national-institutions-paris.
3 Training Division, National Human Rights Commission, https://nhrc.nic.in/
about-us/organization-structures/specialized_divisions_and_staff.
4 Handbook on Bonded Labour, National Human Rights Commission, https://nhrc.nic.in/sites/default/files/Hand_Book_Bonded_Labour_08022019_1.pdf .
5 The Coasts, the Fish Resources and the Fishworkers’ Movement, National
Human Rights Commission, https://nhrc.nic.in/sites/default/files/The_Coasts_the_Fish_Resources_and_the_Fishworkers_Movement.pdf.
6 Human Rights Best Practices Relating to Criminal Justice in Nutshell, National
Human Rights Commission, https://nhrc.nic.in/sites/default/files/Human_Rights_
Best_Practices_Relating_to_Criminal_Justice_in_Nutshell.pdf.
7 Non-Priced Publications, National Human Rights Commission, https://nhrc.
nic.in/publication-non-priced?field_publications_type_tid=All .
8 NHRC releases booklets on ten subjects with a human rights perspective, National Human Rights Commission, https://nhrc.nic.in/sites/default/
files/2019_05_EN.pdf .
9 Human Rights Newsletter, https://nhrc.nic.in/sites/default/files/2019_05_
EN.pdf .
10 Journal, https://nhrc.nic.in/sites/default/files/NHRC_Journal_V21_2022.
pdf
11 Nae Dishae, https://nhrc.nic.in/sites/default/files/NHRC_Nai_Dishayein_
V19_2022.pdf .
12 For more information on MOOCs of National Law School of India
University, Bangalore, visit https://nludelhi.ac.in/moocs.aspx.
13 Human Rights, National Law School of India University and CEC via
Swayam, www.classcentral.com/course/swayam-human-rights-23778.
14 Refer to Chapter II, Section 3(3) of The Protection of Human Rights Act,
1993, www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/15709/1/A1994____10.pdf.
15 The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) & Indian
Legislations, Judgments & Schemes: A Comparative Study, National Human Rights
Commission, https://nhrc.nic.in/sites/default/files/UNCRC_2020.pdf .
16 Women’s Rights in India - An Analytical Study, NHRC, https://nhrc.nic.in/sites/default/files/Women%E2%80%99s%20Rights%20in%20India%20complete_compressed.pdf.
17 See for example the recent issue of the newsletter in this url: https://nhrc.
nic.in/media/nhrc-news-letter?field_date_value%5Bvalue%5D%5Bmonth%5D=10&fi
eld_date_value%5Bvalue%5D%5Byear%5D=2023.
18 NHRC selects Marathi short film “Chirbhog” for the first prize of Rs. 2 lakh;“Enabled” in Assamese and “Atcham Thavir” in Tamil get the 2nd and 3rd prize of
Rs.1.5 lakh and Rs.1 lakh in its 8th Short Film Competition on human rights, National

National Human Rights Commission, India: Awareness and Advocacy Activities

123

Human Rights Commission, India, https://nhrc.nic.in/media/press-release/nhrcselects-marathi-short-film-%E2%80%98chirbhog%E2%80%99-first-prize-rs-2-lakh%E2%80%98enabled%E2%80%99.
19 Based on reports in several issues of NHRC’s monthly newsletter fromJanuary 2023-December 2023, https://nhrc.nic.in/media/nhrc-news-letter?field_
date_value%5Bvalue%5D%5Bmonth%5D=7&field_date_value%5Bvalue%5D%5Byear%5D=2023.
20 The Constitution (Seventy-Third Amendment) Act, 1992, www.education.
gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_document/73amend.pdf.
21 Seventy-Fourth Amendment Act, 1992, https://cag.gov.in/uploads/download_audit_report/2022/Chapter-I-06239c581cc6841.99798296.pdf.
22 Refer to the data of Ministry of Panchayati Raj, GoI at https://meetingonline.gov.in/staffDetailsReport.do.
23 Refer to Chapter V, Section 21 of The Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993,
www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/15709/1/A1994____10.pdf .

Pacific Campaign on Climate Change and Human Rights
Pacific Islands Students Fighting Climate ChangeIn March 2019, an idea was hatched in a classroom in Vanuatu to createa youth movement to address the serious impact of climate change in
the Pacific. Twenty-seven University of South Pacific (usp) law students
from eight Pacific Island countries decided to join together to begin a campaign to persuade the leaders of the Pacific Island Forum1 to take the issueof climate change and human rights to the International Court of Justice(icj). This movement was named Pacific Islands Students Fighting Climate
Change (pisfcc).
It now has members in every Pacific island country and from all levelsof education, from primary and secondary schools to postgraduate university students.
Its core campaign remains convincing the governments of the world
to seek an Advisory Opinion from the icj answering a question that willdevelop new international law integrating legal obligations around environmental treaties and basic human rights.
It is also committed to educating and activating all Pacific island youth
to become aware and take action to help prevent and fight against climatechange.
Four years later, on 29 March 2023, the United Nations General
Assembly adopted the so-called icj Climate Resolution.2 This article discusses how the campaign unfolded and continues to reach people in the
Pacific Island countries.
Mission
Since climate change now threatens to destroy Pacific homeland and cultures, pisfcc choose to use the passion and knowledge of its members tofight against climate change at every level - from the grassroots of our communities to the highest levels of national and international government.

Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific | Volume 13, 2023

125

HURIGHTS OSAKA

126

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3As stated by Cynthia Houniuhi - President pisfcc,
Climate action for the Pacific is non-negotiable and we see
naming and shaming as not progressive in this critical decade.
Instead, our focus is on advocating for forward looking global
solutions to accelerate climate action. One way of achieving
this is to take climate change to the world’s highest court - theInternational Court of Justice.
Pisfcc believes that,3although not legally binding, the icj opinion will provide activists with a tool to lobby states for meaningful climate action. A
progressive opinion would empower them to confront climate
risks that have fallen on “deaf ears” in the Global North, including loss and damage, North-South reparations, and climate
migration.

Climate Change and Human Rights
It is widely recognized that the climate crisis is going to have a significant effect on human rights. Climate change has been shown to exacerbate pre-existing inequalities and human rights challenges such as poverty, well-being,
wealth inequality, gender relations, and many others.
As one of the most potent threats to the human rights of the people in
the Pacific, they must address the climate crisis through the “human rights
lens” to allow for more robust climate justice solutions.
The climate change and human rights nexus is therefore prominently
featured in the Advisory Opinion push.
The Campaign
The campaign aims to refer the world’s biggest problem to the world’s highest court (International Court of Justice) by seeking an Advisory Opinion
from the court on the issue of climate change and human rights.
Pisfcc focuses on ensuring the protection of the rights of current
and future generations from the adverse effects of climate change, and an
Advisory Opinion will assist in serving as a legal catalyst for action whileclarifying international law on the subject.
To this end, pisfcc wants Pacific Island Forum Leaders to urgently
commence the process of seeking an advisory opinion.

Pacific Campaign on Climate Change and Human Rights

127

Background: Past Proposals
In 2011 President Johnson Toribiong announced that the Republic of
Palau would ask the United Nations General Assembly (unga) to seek an
icj advisory opinion on climate change and human rights. He said that it
was “time [that] we determine what the international rule of law means in
the context of climate change.” The Marshall Islands and Bangladesh havealso, at various points in time, expressed interest in pursuing an icj advisory
opinion on climate change.
These initiatives remained embryonic, for a variety of contextual reasons. However, in the last decade, the context has dramatically changed,with the consequences of climate wreaking havoc all around the world andgiving a renewed impetus for bold action now. It is also critical that Vanuatu’s
current proposal gives voice to the “grassroots” of youth activism in places
already experiencing extreme climate vulnerability, themselves supported
by a global coalition comprising over a thousand civil society organizations
from the four corners of the world.
In September 2021 the Republic of Vanuatu announced it would seek
an advisory opinion from the icj to “set out with clarity the obligations ofStates under international law to protect the rights of present and future
generations against the adverse effects of climate change.”4
Vanuatu successfully led a coalition of one hundred thirty-two nationsin adopting by consensus a unga Resolution calling for a non-binding
Advisory Opinion from the icj to gain clarity on how existing internationallaws could be applied to strengthen action on climate change, protect people and the environment and save the Paris Agreement.5
Vanuatu is leading a core group of nations which drafted a question6
to ask the icj. Vanuatu was joined by Antigua & Barbuda, Costa Rica,
Sierra Leone, Angola, Germany, Mozambique, Liechtenstein, Samoa,
Federated States of Micronesia, Bangladesh, Morocco, Singapore, Uganda,
New Zealand, Vietnam, Romania and Portugal in seeking the icj Advisory
Opinion.
Substantial progress has already been made towards this goal:• In March 2022, Caribbean Countries at the 33rd Inter-Sessional
Meeting of caricom Heads of Government indicated their support for Vanuatu’s proposal;7

128

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3•

In June 2022, the Organisation of African, Caribbean and PacificStates at the 114th session of the Council of Ministers endorsed
Vanuatu’s proposal;
In July 2022, the 51st Meeting of Pacific Island Forum Leaders calledon the unga for a resolution requesting the icj to provide an advisory opinion on the obligations of states under international law
to protect the rights of present and future generations against theadverse impacts of climate change.8•

The icj Climate Resolution was adopted by consensus on 29 March2023 during the 77th session of the unga requesting the icj to provide anadvisory opinion on the obligations of States under international law to protect the rights of present and future generations against the adverse effects
of climate change. 9
Solomon Yeo, campaign director of pisfcc remarked on this UN
resolution:10
Young people across the world will recall the day when wewere able to get the world’s highest court, the international courtof justice, to bring its voice to the climate justice fight.
The icj announced in April 2023 the dates for UN member-states tosubmit written statements and comments to contribute positively to the release of a powerful advisory opinion on climate change.
What Legal Question Should Be Asked on Climate Change?
The question proposed by Palau in 2011 was: “What are the obligations
under international law of a State for ensuring that activities under its jurisdiction or control that emit greenhouse gases do not cause, or substantiallycontribute to, serious damage to another State or States?” That question is
explained and justified in the report “Climate Change and the International
Court of Justice.”11
Pisfcc advocates a different approach. While the question ultimately
presented to the unga by the Republic of Vanuatu is currently the subjectof extensive negotiation, pisfcc believes that a better question would seek
the Court’s opinion upon all aspects of international law relevant to climate change with a focus on customary international law, the protectionof human rights, and intergenerational equity. To illustrate, such a question
might ask:

Pacific Campaign on Climate Change and Human Rights

129

What are the obligations of States under international law
to protect the rights of present and future generations against
the adverse effects of climate change?
Endorsements
Pisfcc secured great support from eminent experts and professionals
who believe in the icj Advisory Opinion (icjao) being a strong motivatorin accelerating climate action globally. These are pisfcc’s Friends of theInitiative.
ICJAO Campaign
In 2019, the pisfcc’s proposal was tabled by the Vanuatu government
at the Pacific Island Forum meeting. There, the eighteen member-states of
the Pacific Island Forum noted positively the proposal for a unga resolution
seeking an Advisory Opinion from the icj on climate change and humanrights.
Pisfcc organized chapters in Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Fiji, and Tonga
and launched there a campaign it called icjao Campaign. The activities included art competitions, peaceful protests, outreach programs with someschools at different levels. It joined other non-governmental organizations(ngos) and civil society organizations (csos) with similar initiatives, and somuch more. For the last three years, it managed to engage youths of different ages from as young as kindergarteners to university students.
Since its establishment, it has always been understood that the icjao
Campaign was unique, which meant that it would be unfamiliar territory
not just for established csos, but especially for the general public. The priority for the pisfcc Chapters then was to facilitate activities that would firstly,
engage and empower Pacific youth, and secondly, spread public awarenessthrough these youth engagement activities.
The most common of these activities were beach clean ups in the
Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, and Tonga Chapters of pisfcc. Beach clean
ups were an obvious approach as it was an activity that many were familiar
with and it was easy enough to coordinate eager youth members throughthe various chapter group chats. Pisfcc Chapters would supply the chapter members with the essentials such as tools and food. Upon repetition ofthese clean ups, the pisfcc Chapters would go a step further and use these
activities to simultaneously collect data as well on the types of litter thatwould be found on the shores of their beaches. This data would be shared

130

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

among the local cso networks to assist in their respective activities that
required such information.
In the attempt to utilize as many forms of media as possible, the pisfcc Chapters would often speak as guests on local radio shows. These radio
talk shows were held in the local language which meant that a wider demographic would be reached. The chapter members would reach out to theirrespective radio stations and request that they be allowed to speak on their
youth segment. During this segment, chapter members would break down
the campaign to details and provide listeners with ways to join the initiative which again garnered more support locally from csos and government
ministries alike.
Pisfcc Chapters would also host outreach programs to schools in theirrespective countries. These programs would usually consist of general climate change advocacy for the younger demographic, and a bit more indepth presentations on the icjao Campaign for the older youths and students as they would range from ages 16 and upwards to the university level.
Pisfcc’s Fiji Chapter participated and partnered with several othercsos from all around the Pacific during the Pacific Solidarity Festival on theoccasion of the Pacific Islands Forum (pif) Leader’s Summit of 2022 thatcreated momentum toward the onboarding of all pif member-countries toendorsing the icjao Campaign. This festival brought together csos, friends

PISFCC joined a gathering of Vanuatu CSOs in 2019 in a push to amplify grassroots initiatives.

Pacific Campaign on Climate Change and Human Rights

131of the initiative, and members of the public to bring to life a spectacular flotilla event, public speeches, cultural dance, solidarity protests, and so muchmore. This was the culmination of ambitious planning and coordination
among like-minded individuals who were brought together by their sharedcommitments to protecting their blue Pacific, and their demand to take theworld’s biggest problem, to the world’s highest court.

PISFCC Solomon Islands chapter members support the filming of the music video for “The Islands are
calling”.

Pacific CSOs during the Pacific Solidarity Festival in 2022 pushing for the PIF Leaders Summit toendorse the ICJAO Campaign.

132

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

PISFCC joined Vanuatu CSOs gathering for the promotion of the Pacific Solidarity Festival that was
promoted region-wide in 2022.

The flotilla event from the Pacific Solidarity Festival in 2022 calling for the endorsement of the ICJAOCampaign.

Art Competition12
While the coronavirus (covid-19) global pandemic has had an impact
on pisfcc’s work, it moved online and promoted a virtual youth art competition called the “Reimagining Pacific Futures, where Pacific youth aged 5-29
take action through their art revolving around the theme “climate change
and human rights.””13

Pacific Campaign on Climate Change and Human Rights

133

The “Reimagining Pacific Futures” (rpf) was launched on 30 April 2020and ended on 17 July 2020. The event was opened to young people fromthe ages of 5-29 of the eighteen member-states of the pif. There were twocategories in the event, Art (painting, drawing, placard, literary etc.) andDigital (Audio and Film).
The event was hosted on a website and the promotion of the event was
mostly done on Facebook, Instagram and Twitter. With the translation helpof Vanuatu Climate Action Network, the rpf was also promoted in French
as well to encourage our Francophone brothers and sisters especially in New
Caledonia, Vanuatu and Tahiti to participate. The event was supported by
pisfcc partners who shared and promoted the event through their respective networks.
There were three independent judges of high stature in the Pacific. Theirassessment of the Artwork focuses on creative expression of the themes,
originality of the idea and consistency in representing children and youth
rights.
Deciding the winners to the event was very difficult as all artwork were
exceptional in their own way. In their best judgment emerged nine inspiring
children and youth. To highlight a few,
“Just Because” by Helava Muliaina
Scooping first in the children category is Ms. Helava Muliaina from
Samoa with her powerful poetry ‘just because’, Heleva speaks true toher pacific voice of the reality of how undervalued a Pacific woman living and fighting at the front lines of the climate crisis is.
“Human Natures” by Justiqa Osonis
The second prize getter in the children’s category hails from theFederated States of Micronesia. Ms. Justiqa has painted an image thatprovokes a strong sense of contemplation in people about their actions towards the environment. Her “Human Natures” painting, depicts that harmony or chaos depends on how well we take care of ourenvironment.
“Freedom for our Rights to Save our World” by Iona Margaret Janet
Baura

134

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3Another brilliant artwork was by third place Solomon Islands youth
Ms. Baura. She explained that her art calls for continuous climate solidarity for the sake of the future generations.
“Nature, Water and Human Rights” by Junior Patrick Kauhu Makau
Patrick’s film on “Nature, Water and Human Rights” was indeed asentimental portrayal of the harsh reality of the water crisis in his country (Solomon Islands) and his Island (Ong Tong Java) were currently
facing. As a passionate young filmmaker and photographer who wishes
to use his gift in film-making and photography to advocate for change
for his people and country in the light of the global climate crisis thisvideo has been a remarkable achievement in raising this very awareness.
Youth Consultation14
Pisfcc consulted youth throughout the Pacific to create a Pacific Youth
Climate Declaration that would carry youth voices in the Pacific amplified
by non-state actors, governments, academia in national, regional and international forums.
The Islands are CallingThis is a creative production by pisfcc. It is a song that seeks to raise thevoice of the youth calling for action against the climate crisis while showing
the wonders of Pacific life, heritage, art, nature, culture and tradition which
are all sadly under threat by the climate crisis.15
The song was composed by Camilla Anibirisi Batalibasi, a native daughter of Solomon Islands, Heinz Dee Koromako from Malaita and Tipokia in
Solomon Islands, and William Kadi who is also from Solomon Islands with
Melanesian and Polynesian roots.
A video of the song was shot in two places in the Solomon Islands.
The first location of the Climate Change Music Video was shot in Talakali
Village, along the Langa Langa Lagoon, Malaita Province. This place is wellknown for its skilled boat builders over the past years. Another special
feature about this place is the history of man-made artificial islands built
over the years here but now due to the adverse impacts of climate change,these people are forced to migrate to the mainland because their islands are
sinking.

Pacific Campaign on Climate Change and Human Rights

135

The second location was on the island of Telina situated in the Marovolagoon, Western Province of the Solomon Islands. This place holds great
importance because of its richness in biodiversity and marine life making
it a spectacular tourist destination. But due to climate change, this richness
and abundance of marine life is dying, affecting the livelihoods of people ofthe Western Province. One special scene that was shot here showcases the
youthful warrior dancer’s resilience towards this catastrophic climate event.
The music video of the The Islands are Calling can be viewed atwww.pisfcc.org/islands-are-calling and on YouTube (www.youtube.com/
watch?v=C32yxdqUuN8&t=362s).
Community events
An informal discussion on updates, next steps, and calls to action in
the Pacific-led initiative to seek an advisory opinion from the icj on climatechange and human rights was held on 1 August 2023 in Suva, Fiji.
In August 2023, the pisfcc team, together with friends from Greenpeace,
hosted an Open Boat event on the Rainbow Warrior. The event welcomed
local schools and communities and took them through a discussion on climate justice and the campaign for an #icjao4Climate.
The Open Boat event allowed for pisfcc to discuss the legal arguments
and question-breakdown presented in the Youth Climate Justice Handbook.
Fellow csos, academics, government officials, and friends of the initiative allattended to receive updates of the campaign, and to learn more about theplans of the cso front on pushing for a more progressive and strong advisory opinion through their workings with government.
While the Rainbow Warrior was docked in the Suva Harbour, pisfcc
hosted a tent that acted as a one-stop-shop of information for all the visitors
to the vessel. This tent included a display of previous pieces of art collected
over the years of campaign. The on-the-ground campaigners walked the visitors through this gallery of sorts and broke down the elements used in theseart pieces and requested that the visitors provide their own interpretations
as well. Another feature of the tent was the Climate-Clock display and theNot Just Celsius Scale 16 which were imagery pieces used by the campaigners
to delve into concepts of climate justice and intergenerational equity.

136

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Handbook
Following the historic adoption of the unga Resolution asking the icj
to issue an Advisory Opinion on climate change and human rights, pisfcc
launched the Youth Climate Justice Handbook.
The Handbook aims to be the single most authoritative legal documentthat would guide the youth and civil society campaign in the second phaseof the campaign. It also aims to contribute to the preparations of states andintergovernmental organizations in their submissions before the icj.
The Handbook is a tool aimed to assist states in making submissions
before the icj. It seeks to highlight and echo youth and civil society voices
on human rights and intergenerational equity. It is a compilation of threedocuments, Summary for Policymakers, Legal Memorandum and Status
Report on the Principles of International and Human Rights Law Relevant
to Climate Change.
The Summary succinctly explains core material designed to assist policymakers’ decisions regarding whether, and how, their governments should
contribute to the icj climate advisory proceedings.
The Memorandum presents the Youth and Civil Society Alliance responses to the questions contained in unga Resolution 77/276, supported
by legal argument drawing upon established principles of international law,treaty provisions, judgments of international and national courts and tribunals, and the work of esteemed legal scholars.
The Status Report presents a detailed discussion of the Court’s advisory
function, and a detailed and neutral analysis of the existing principles ofinternational law relevant to the request. It includes an assessment of theadvisory proceedings before the icj, including the Court’s jurisdiction andprocedure, and key legal principles relevant to the request for an advisory
opinion, including principles of international environmental law and international human rights law.

Pacific Campaign on Climate Change and Human Rights

137

The Handbook is available at https://pisfcc.org/handbook.
Conclusion
Indeed, the icjao Campaign has come a long way since its humble beginnings in a classroom and despite the success it saw when the resolution was
unanimously adopted, it was not without failures. Following the unanimous
adoption, the second phase of the campaign, which was supporting PacificIsland governments in the written submissions, meant that the new goal
was to bring the campaign back home. The legal-heavy nature of the campaign had always been an obstacle when it came to outreach. Despite theefforts of the chapters with regards to public awareness, the technicalitiesof the campaign and the implications of a strong and ambitious advisory
opinion was a concept that still needed to be reiterated and pushed to thecsos and their initiatives, government officials, and the general public atlarge. The message that needed to be heard is that, should the icj deliver anadvisory opinion that provide great legal clarity on the obligations of states
Endnotes
1 Pacific Island Forum, www.forumsec.org.
2 ICJ Climate Resolution, www.vanuatuicj.com/resolution.
3 Clare Francis, Global South activists seek a human rights framework for the
climate crisis, the interpreter, www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/global-southactivists-seek-human-rights-framework-climate-crisis?fbclid=IwAR13RmyCkmstQ
m9baXphRqipsx7UmYjipt8ah2A9yXm00ukzFbTek0pdqXg.
4 An International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion on Climate Change,
Pacific Islands Students Fighting Climate Change, page 2, https://static1.squarespace.com/static/6090cc1eec59dc2ed057b027/t/6362cb44ee1b7202d02929
1f/1667418958144/pisfcc+Campaign+Brief+2022.pdf.
5 ParisAgreement,
https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/
the-paris-agreement.
6 See ICJ Resolution, op. cit.
7 Cop26 – Follow-Up
Heads of Government indicated their support for Vanuatu in its pursuit of
an Advisory Opinion from the International Court of Justice on the rights ofpresent and future generations to be protected from Climate Change.
Communiqué: Issued at the Conclusion of 33rd Intersessional Meeting of theConference of Heads of Government of Caricom – 1-2 March 2022
Caribbean Trade Law and Development, https://caribbeantradelaw.
com/2022/03/03/communique-issued-at-the-conclusion-of-33rd-intersessionalmeeting-of-the-conference-of-heads-of-government-of-caricom-1-2-march-2022/.

138

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

8 The forum communiqué has a section entitled “un general assembly
resolution for an advisory opinion on climate change from the international court of justice” on this issue. A paragraph expresses support to the
Vanuatu initiative:
44. Leaders commended Vanuatu on its initiative on a pathway to securea request from the UN General Assembly (unga) for an advisory opinion
from the International Court of Justice (icj) to clarify legal consequencesof climate change, noting the urgency of the climate change threat and theneed for accelerated global climate action and implementation of the Paris
Agreement.
forum communiqué, fifty-first pacific islands forum, suva, fiji 11 –14 july 2022, www.forumsec.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/FINAL-51stPacific-Islands-Forum-Communique-2022.pdf.
9 Vanuatu ICJ Initiative, www.vanuatuicj.com.
10 ‘Beginning of a new era’: Pacific islanders hail UN vote on climate justice, The Guardian, www.theguardian.com/world/2023/mar/30/
un-vote-on-climate-justice-pacific-island-change-crisis-united-nations-vanuatu.
11 See Douglas A. Kysar, “Climate Change and the International Court ofJustice,” Public Law Research Paper No. 315, Yale Law School, 15 Aug 2013, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2309943.
12 For more information, see pisfcc successfully completes art competition,
pisfcc, www.pisfcc.org/news/pisfcc-successfully-completes-art-competition.
13 There is a legal solution to climate change: students, www.pisfcc.org/news/
there-is-a-legal-solution-to-climate-change-students.
14 There is a legal solution to climate change: students, ibid.
15 The lyrics of The Islands are Calling are available at https://genius.com/
Camilla-the-islands-are-calling-lyrics.
16 Not Just Celsius Scale, https://scale.notjustcelsius.com/.

The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia:
Reaching Out to the Public*
The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

T

he Khmer Rouge regime took power on 17 April 1975 and wasoverthrown on 7 January 1979. At least 1.7 million people are believed to have died from starvation, torture, execution and forcedlabor during this period of three years, eight months and twenty days. The
end of the Khmer Rouge period was followed by a civil war. That war finallyended in 1998 when the Khmer Rouge political and military structures weredismantled.
In 1997, the government requested the United Nations to assist in establishing a trial to prosecute the senior leaders of the Khmer Rouge. In
2001, the Cambodian National Assembly passed a law to create a court totry serious crimes committed during the Khmer Rouge period (1975-1979).
This court is called the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia(eccc) for the Prosecution of Crimes Committed during the Period of
Democratic Kampuchea. The government of Cambodia insisted that, for thesake of the Cambodian people, the trial should be held in Cambodia using
Cambodian staff and judges together with foreign personnel. The government of Cambodia invited international participation due to the weaknessof the Cambodian legal system and the international nature of the crimes, aswell as for assistance in meeting international standards of justice.
An agreement with the United Nations, detailing how the international
community would assist and participate in the Extraordinary Chambers,
was ultimately reached in June 2003. While this special court was createdby the Cambodian government and the United Nations, it is independentof them. It is a Cambodian court with international participation that applies international standards.
*
This article is drawn from the Court Report 2023 published by the Extraordinary
Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, and from various reports available in its website.

Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific | Volume 13, 2023

139

HURIGHTS OSAKA

140

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3The eccc can only prosecute two categories of alleged perpetrators foralleged crimes committed between 17 April 1975 and 6 January 1979:
1. Senior leaders of Democratic Kampuchea; and2. Those believed to be most responsible for grave violations of national and international law.
The Cases at the eccc are:• Case 001:
Defendant: Kaing Guek Eav alias Duch
• Case 002 (Severed into Case 002/1 and Case 002/2):
Defendants: Khieu Samphan, Nuon Chea, Ieng Sary (deceased) andIeng Thirith (deceased)• Case 003:
Defendant: Meas Muth
• Case 004 (Severed into Case 004/1, 1 Case 004/2 and Case 004)2
Defendants: Yim Tith (Case 004), Im Chaem (Case 004/1) and Ao
An (Case 004/2)
CASE 0013
On 8 August 2008, Kaing Guek Eav alias Duch was indicted in Case001. The trial took place between 30 March and 17 September 2009. On
26 July 2010, the Trial Chamber found Duch guilty of crimes against humanity and grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions of 1949. He was sentenced to thirty-five years of imprisonment. On appeal, the Supreme Court
Chamber overturned the sentencing decision and sentenced Duch to life
imprisonment.
CASE 002
On 15 September 2010, four defendants were indicted in Case 002: Nuon
Chea, Khieu Samphan Ieng, Sary and Ieng Thirith. Proceedings against Ieng
Sary and Ieng Thirith were terminated following the former’s death and thelatter’s unfitness to stand trial. Case 002 was subsequently divided into two
trials. On 7 August 2014, in Case 002/1, Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan
were found guilty of crimes against humanity and sentenced to life imprisonment. On 23 November 2016, the Supreme Court Chamber quashed partsof the trial judgement but confirmed the sentence of life imprisonment. The
evidentiary hearings of Case 002/2 against Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan

The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

141

concluded on 11 January 2017 with the closing statements held from 13-22
June 2017.
On 7 August 2014, the Trial Chamber found Nuon Chea and Khieu
Samphan guilty of crimes against humanity, grave breaches of the Geneva
Conventions and genocide of the Vietnamese ethnic, national and racial
group. The Chamber additionally convicted Nuon Chea of genocide of theCham ethnic and religious group under the doctrine of superior responsibility. Both Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan were sentenced to terms oflife imprisonment. The Chamber took into consideration the life sentences
imposed on Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan in case 002/1 and merged thesentences in cases 002/1 and 002/2 into a single term of life imprisonment.
The decision of the Trial Chamber was appealed to the Supreme Court
Chamber.
On 23 November 2016, the Supreme Court Chamber issued its appeals judgement reversing some of the convictions, upholding the rest andconfirming the sentences of life imprisonment for crimes against humanity
against Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan.
CASE 003
In March 2015, the International Co-Investigating Judge charged Meas
Muth in Case 003. On 2 June 2015, the investigation against another suspect, Sou Met, was terminated following his death. On 10 January 2017, theInternational Co-Investigating Judge concluded the judicial investigation inCase 003.
On 28 November 2018, the Co-Investigating Judges issued two separate
closing orders in the case against Meas Muth, due to a disagreement about
whether Meas Muth is subject to the eccc’s personal jurisdiction as a seniorleader or one of the persons most responsible for crimes committed during
the period of Democratic Kampuchea. Both Judges appealed their respective division to the Pre-Trial Chamber.
CASE 004
Three individuals have been charged in Case 004: Im Chaem, Ao An
and Yim Tith. Case 004 was subsequently severed into three case files, one
for each charged person. On 22 February 2017, the Co-Investigating Judges
dismissed Case 004/1 against Im Chaem. On 20 July 2017, the International
Co-Prosecutor filed the notice of Appeal against the Co-Investigating Judges’142

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

closing order in Case 004/01 to the Pre-Trial Chamber. On 16 December
2016, the Co-Investigating Judges concluded investigation against Ao An in
Case 004/02 .
On 28 June 2019, the Co-Investigating Judges issued two separate closing orders in the case against Yim Tith, due to a disagreement about whether
Yim Tith is subject to the eccc’s personal jurisdiction as a senior leader
or one of the persons most responsible for crimes committed during theperiod of Democratic Kampuchea. Both Judges appealed their respective
division to the Pre-Trial Chamber.
Residual Functions
The eccc commenced residual functions on 1 January 2023. In concluding
judicial work, the Supreme Court Chamber upheld Khieu Samphan’s convictions for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity in the Case002/2 Appeals Judgment. The decision marks the first time in which a national appeals court upheld a genocide conviction against a former head ofstate. Following the Appeals Judgment, the Supreme Court Chamber, as thelast judicial office seized of Case 002, is responsible for reviewing the security classifications of all documents on the case file, and declassifying documents where a confidential classification is no longer necessary. A similar
process is underway in Case 004/2.
Reclassification is a crucial part of the eccc’s legacy. Following thecompletion of Case 002, the eccc is working to notify Civil Parties acrossthe country about the case through focal points and provincial meetings.
In 2023, eccc relocated to new premises in the heart of Phnom Penh.
The new space serves as a hub for the eccc to disseminate information
about its work of the past sixteen years. The new premises host a public andfreely accessible Resource Centre.
The new Resource Centre is the access point to the eccc and serves as
an information hub for the archives, legal resources, and other materials. In
addition, the Resource Centre also provides space for visitors – especially
young Cambodians – to consult, research, watch, study, and engage. The
Resource Centre is equipped with Wi-Fi, computers, working desks, meeting tables, and other resources to provide visitors with everything they needto learn about the eccc or related aspects.

The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

143

The Resource Centre consists of six components: (1) a library and research hub, (2) a new website which is being updated and upgraded in an
innovative way, (3) a digital and hard copy archive in line with international
standards, (4) a multi-purpose venue for organizing workshops and mootcourts, (5) a consultation and exhibition venue, and (6) a remembrance
and reflection space. The Resource Centre is available for public use free ofcharge and is located at eccc residual premises (Russian Blvd., Street 110,
Sangkat Mittapheap, Khan 7 Makara).4 The library and research space of the
Resource Centre opens daily (Monday-Friday) from 09:00 to 20:00, and on
weekends and official holidays from 09:00 to 18:00.5

Law students from National University of Battambang visit the ECCC Resource Center, 9 January 2024.6

144

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

The Archive
Archiving is one of the most important activities of the eccc, even in its
residual phase. Working with nearly 2.4 million pages of documentation,
the Records and Archives Unit is required to maintain, preserve and manage
these materials in physical and digital format. Eccc’s holdings are divided
into two broad categories: case files and non-case file documents. Case files
are court documents which are submitted during investigations, trials or
appeals. Non-case file documents consist of other media which document
the official activities of the Extraordinary Chambers. To date, the eccc has
successfully digitized all its documents without backlog and is working to
make public documents easily available online.
In 2023, the eccc became a member of the International Council on
Archives (ica), the largest professional association in the field of archives.
Membership will allow the eccc to exchange experiences with international
experts, share practices of good archival management, and pursue the highest standards of archives preservation in Cambodia. This will enhance the
eccc’s ability to share best practices with other Cambodian institutions andstakeholders, and facilitate trainings on good governance, accountability
and transparency in records management.
Upgrade of Digital Archive
The eccc’s digital archive is being upgraded to continue preserving therecords securely. The upgraded system, ZyLAB One, will include Optical
Character Recognition (ocr) that reads Khmer script, making it possible
to search inside the eccc’s Khmer language documents. This is a first in
Cambodia! A new analytical module will utilize next-generation technologies to enhance search results, making research easier and accessible directly from the website.
Educational Videos
On 17 September 2023, the eccc launched the “Educational and OutreachVideo Series,” developed from documents, records and archives of the eccc,
which highlight a wide range of topics related to the trials and investigations
over sixteen years. The short video series will be an integral part of edu-

The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

145

cational dissemination activities aimed at informing younger generations
about the work of the eccc. Forty-two episodes of the video series werereleased and are now available on all the eccc’s social media platforms including the Facebook Page, YouTube, Telegram, and TikTok.7
Public Affairs Section8
The eccc has a policy of reaching out actively to the community, the media,
the diplomatic corps, donors, researchers and other interested parties. The
objective is to provide as much information as possible on the activity ofthe eccc, working transparently to build public confidence in the judicial
process. This objective needs to be balanced with respect for privacy, confidentiality and the rights of all parties in the proceedings including witnesses and victims, concerns for fair trial, due process and the presumptionof innocence.
The eccc has a Public Affairs Section (pas) which has combination of
National and International staff working as one and headed by a national
staff member.
Pas is the external face of the eccc and works to support and coordinate the public representation of all Organs of the eccc, including the judicial chambers, prosecution and defense. It is responsible for the dissemination of information to the public about the operations of the eccc,9 as wellas the cases under judicial investigation.10
It shares public judicial information and developments, such as decisions, legal instruments, financial documents, reports, photographs, andbiographies with the media and the general public through the eccc website. Press releases and statements are circulated by e-mail through mailing lists and are also posted on the website and social media. It also serves
as the conduit for interview requests with judicial officers and Office ofAdministration personnel.
It undertakes various outreach activities aimed at informing
Cambodians about the work of the eccc and the trial process to facilitate
their understanding and involvement in its work. Outreach is conducted invarious formats, including through publications, public forums, seminars
and conferences, the eccc website, weekly radio programs, and television
programs.

146

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Public court proceedings at the eccc were broadcast on Cambodian
television. Videos of past trial hearings are also available on the eccc website and YouTube. Pictures and other information are disseminated on social media including Facebook, Flickr, Instagram, Tik-Tok and X (formerly
Twitter).
In addition to organizing its own outreach activities, pas partners withother organizations (Cambodian and international ngos, national, provincial, and local structures of government) to facilitate the dissemination ofreading materials, videos, radio, and television programs. It also undertakes
outreach activities relating to victims and Civil Parties in consultation with
the Victims Support Section (vss) and the Civil Party Lead Co-Lawyers(cplcls).11
Through its various outreach programs, pas reached over 640,000 people during the judicial phase.
Media relations
The eccc aims to provide information on its activities to representatives of print and electronic media, both within Cambodia and internationally, on a timely basis as required.
Press releases and statements are circulated by e-mail to all those
who register with pas and are also posted on the website (Press Releases).
Arrangements can be made for media interviews with judicial officers andstaff in the Office of Administration as appropriate, by request to the Public
Affairs Section.
ECCC website
The new website has been reconceived as an engaging informational
resource which will complement the Resource Centre as a digital access hub
to the archive, interactive and educational features and the eccc’s legacy.
The website will be available across different devices in the eccc’s threelanguages, and will include:• Archive microsite – providing direct access to the eccc’s public
case records;• Historical overview – including the origins, establishment and operations of the eccc;• Case information – everything about the investigations and trials;• Digital resources – a one-stop-shop for eccc publications, media,
and updates.

The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

147

ECCC Mobile Bus
On 31 January 2024, the eccc launched the eccc Mobile Bus that aims
to carry out broad outreach and educational activities about the trial process, achievements, and legacies of the eccc. The eccc Mobile Bus, theextension of its eccc Resource Centre inaugurated on 27 September 2023,
will serve the public, students, youth, communities, and civil parties living
in remote areas.
The launch ceremony of the eccc Mobile Bus was organized in collaboration with and at the Royal University of Phnom Penh (rupp) and withthe participation of its honorable delegates including rector H.E. Professor
Chet Chealy.
H.E. Tony Kranh, Acting Director of Administration of the eccc said,“the eccc Mobile Bus is equipped with laptops, a meeting room connectingwith lcd projectors, an interactive touch panel for drawing, presentation,and video screening, and with educational materials and multimedia contents about trial proceedings that would serve the public for study and research.” He added that the Mobile Bus would travel throughout the country
to meet Cambodian and will stop in schools, universities, downtown areas,
pagodas, and markets in twenty-five provinces and cities. The eccc Mobile
Bus began travelling in Phnom Penh and stopped by educational institutions including schools and universities where the eccc organized eventsand presentations, interactive activities, and discussions with the audience,
to learn more about the eccc, its history and trials, its current and future
activities, and the resources available to the public.12(Above and next page, top) Launching ceremony of the ECCC Mobile Bus, 31 January 2024.13

148

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3International Humanitarian Law (IHL) Moot Court Competition
In early December 2023, the eccc hosted the final rounds of the icrc
Humanitarian Law Moot Court Competition. Four teams from the National
University of Management (num), Royal University of Law and Economics(rule) and American University of Phnom Penh (aupp) participated in the
Cambodian national rounds over two days. The winning team from rule
will progress to the Asia-Pacific regional finals, to be hosted in Hong Kongin 2024.
On 18 February 2024, the eccc co-hosted the final rounds of the mootcourt competition on the right to a fair trial​at the eccc courtroom of its
Resource Centre. Students from the University of South-East Asia (usea) in
Siem Reap province won the first place and students from the University ofManagement and Economics (ume) – Batttambang won the second place.
The competition was organized by the Raoul Wallenberg Institute (rwi) andthe Center for the Study of Humanitarian Law (cshl). Three universities
including usea, ume and the National University of Battambang – nubb
participated in the moot court competition.14(Above and next page) Final Rounds of Moot Court Competition on The Right to a Fair Trial, 18 February2024.

The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

149

Outreach Study Tours
Pas coordinates and leads weekly eccc outreach study tour for students,
young people, and the public to raise awareness about the atrocities committed by the Khmer Rouge regime. More than 650,000 members of thenational and international public have taken part in outreach study tours
since 2009 until early 2024.
“Trials alone cannot foster the reconciliation necessary to heal woundsof the past. It is therefore my hope that you, being respected monks, throughthis special and privileged standing in this society are able to complement the
Court proceedings by assisting victims and perpetrators to reconcile,” said
Deputy Director Knut Rosandhaug in a speech to four hundred Buddhist
monks at Preah Sihanouk Raja Buddhist University on 9 August 2011.
This was one of the first outreach events organized by PAS reaching out
to the Buddhist community in Cambodia. The event was presided over by
Venerable Samdech Non Nget, Buddhist Supreme Patriarch of the Maha
Nikaya and Rector of Preah Sihanouk Raja Buddhist University.
Acting Director of the eccc Office of Administration H.E. Tony Kranh
briefed the Buddhist Monks about the recent developments at the eccc andalso discussed the trial proceedings at the eccc in the context of evolving international criminal law since World War II. Minister of Cults and Religious
Affairs H.E Min Khin congratulated the eccc for its progress so far, and also
shared some of his recollections of the period the Khmer Rouge held power.
The participants were also briefed about the alleged crimes of religious
persecution included in the second trial before the eccc. The treatment of

150

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Buddhists during the regime of Democratic Kampuchea forms part of theindictment included in the Closing Order in Case 002.
According to the Closing Order, Buddhists constituted one of the groups
targeted by the regime. The Communist Party of Kampuchea allegedly adopted a policy of prohibiting Buddhism and the practice of Buddhism. Highfigures in the Buddhist hierarchy were allegedly executed during the evacuation of Phnom Penh in April 1975. Many pagodas and sanctuaries were destroyed, or converted for other purposes such as security centers, pig pens,
dining halls, hospitals or warehouses. Images of Buddha were destroyed andeven lighting incense was allegedly prohibited. Virtually all Buddhist monks
and nuns were reportedly disrobed. Some monks were allegedly threatenedwith death or killed if they did not comply. After the monks were disrobed,
they were allegedly forced to do manual labor and farming.
In the Case 002 Closing order, the Co-Investigating Judges have classified these alleged crimes as persecution on religious grounds, which is one
category of crimes against humanity. Two hundred thirty-six victims of alleged crimes against Buddhists have been admitted as Civil Parties in Case002.
The monks used the opportunity at the outreach meeting to ask questions on a wide range of issues to the visiting eccc officials. Questions
ranged from what roles Buddhist could play in the eccc process, to why
former Khmer Rouge members who were Buddhists themselves killed other
Buddhists, how many persons should be put on trial, and many more ques-

Buddhist monks at Preah Sihanouk Raja Buddhist University, 9 August 2011.

The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

151

tions. As the one hour set aside for questions and answers proved to be
insufficient, the eccc planned to organize another outreach meeting with
Preah Sihanouk Raja Buddhist University in the near future.15

Monks from Kampong Spue visiting ECCC.16

Pas also held other activities such as a video showing on 26 July 2017attended by students.

(Above and next page) Students attending video showing, 26 July 2017.17

152

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3The eccc’s weekly outreach study tours consist of visits to the eccc, Tuol
Sleng Museum, Choeung Ek “Killing Fields”, and the Win-Win Memorial.
In 2023, pas conducted ninety-five outreach activities involving 18,225
participants from Phnom Penh and nine provinces. Table 1 shows the consolidated outreach and attendance in the study tour program from 2009 to
2022.
Table 1: Consolidated outreach and attendance (by person)18
PeriodHearings
days

Study tours(tours)Visits(groups)

VIPs(delegations)

Screenings(screenings)

Lectures(occasions

Total

71,488(167)

101,319(76)

640,276

Judicial phase19 4
20092022

244,668(639)

214,168
(722)

7,855
(446)

778
(182)
Residual phase

Jan-Sept
2023-

11,702 (62)

1,718
(13)

55
(6)

-

-

13,475

TOTAL

244,668(639)

225,870
(784)

9,573
(459)

833
(188)

71,488(167)

101,319(76)

653,751

In the tour for about two hundred fifty students from Hun Sen Angprey
high school in Samrong district, Takeo province on 3 January 2024, theteachers said that this study tour was so important for their students to understand the history, especially the Democratic Kampuchea regime, and thesuccessful trial of the Khmer Rouge senior leaders by eccc. The study tour
also provided the students to understand the origins of the Khmer Rouge

The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

153

regime, the struggle of the leaders to liberate the country from this wallless prison and students can also share what they saw and know today toother friends, especially parents, grandparents who have never visited theMemorial.20
The teachers also appreciated the Win-Win policy of the Royal
Government of Cambodia, which led the country to bring peace and social
stability. They also thanked the eccc for organizing the program so thatyouth could understand, visit the crime scenes left over from the Khmer
Rouge regime and see the development in Phnom Penh today.
The study tour for about two hundred seventy students from Sok An
Tonloap high school, Kirivong district, Takeo province was held on 11
January 2024.21 During the visit in Win-Win Memorial, the group learned
about the leaders’ struggles to liberate Cambodia from the Khmer Rouge
Regime and the establishment of a Win-Win policy to end the civil war andbring peace for the nation. Under the trees in the Win-Win Memorial premise, the group was briefed by a Public Affairs Officer of the Khmer Rouge
Tribunal on the achievement of the eccc obtained from the trials and theresidual functions that the Chamber is currently conducting. Then thegroup continued to visit the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum to learn about
the tragedy left behind by the brutal Khmer Rouge regime.

Students in study tour

154

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

In the study tour for thirty law students from National University ofBattambang on 9 January 2024, the students visited the Resource Center
to learn about eccc’s residual works. On that occasion, eccc officials welcomed and presented to group about the achievements of the eccc obtained from the trials, the eccc residual works; the victims’ participationin the eccc, transitional justice and trauma transformation, the Resource
Centre, the preserving and managing of the eccc Archive case files, and theexperience of eccc for local court systems and jurisprudent.22

Visit of students to ECCC Central Office

The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

155

Survey of Students
In the first half of 2023, the eccc held an online survey on the study tour. The
results of the survey of the eccc show that the knowledge gained throughthe participation in the eccc study tour is very significant.23
In the third question of the eccc survey, do you think the knowledge
you gained while attending this visit was important? There were 1,274 respondents to this question, while nine hundred forty-five respondents or
74 percent answered it is very important, and three hundred twenty-one
respondents or 25 percent answered that it is important.
In addition, there were some comments as:“This study tour is a program to the discovery of the management of Democratic Kampuchea, which has left clear evidence of torture, massacres and atrocities, which made me
shocked and saddened from the brutal acts.”“I would like to propose such a study tour program for the
younger generation to see and remember this brutal history intheir hearts.”“As a student, I would like to have such visit to every
Cambodian child so that they can gain knowledge and understanding of the history of their own country and the geographyof Cambodia, and finally I would like to thank the teachers whoorganized this visit. Thank you!”
The survey was conducted online from 15 February 2023 to 6 April
2023 for anyone who participated in the eccc study tour program. From
15 February to 6 April 2023, there were 3,430 youth, students and teachers
who participated in the study tours organized by the Khmer Rouge Tribunal
while 1,527 people responded in the eccc online survey.
Pas asks the students in the study tour to evaluate the activity througha survey questionnaire. Table 2 below provides the results of the survey undertaken in the second half of 2023.

156

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Table 2: Study tour survey results24
Question

Quotient

Responses

Do you think the study tour is important for you and other Cambodians?
Yes

100%

No

0%

1,947

Why do you see this study tour as important? (multiple selection possible)
Understanding the trials of former Khmer
Rouge leaders

620

Finding out that atrocities took place

806

Learning more about Cambodian history
and atrocities

1,717

Understanding the suffering of Cambodians
during the Democratic Kampuchea period

742

Learning about historical sites and placesof suffering

805

Visiting Choeung Ek, Tuol Sleng Museum,
Win-Win Memorial

2,136

6,826

Is the knowledge you gained during the study tour important?
Important or very important98%

Neutral1%

Not important

1%

1,742

Museum visit (Choeung Ek, Tuol Sleng Museum, Win-Win Memorial)
followed by “Learning more about Cambodian history and atrocities” aremost cited as reasons why the study tour is important to the students.
Conclusion
A summary of the public awareness work of the eccc has been stated:25
Unprecedented public awareness work
The work of the Court cannot be understood purely fromthe point of cases and convictions. Its vital functions play out
against a broader canvas – remembering and reconciling a troubling past. The education function of the eccc for the Khmer
Rouge history cannot be understated as it serves to prevent suchserious crimes from happening again either in Cambodia or
elsewhere.

The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

157

It is estimated that almost 250,000 people attended trial andappeal hearings of the Court, while more than 400,000 people
have been exposed to the work of the eccc through outreachactivities.
It is vital that the lessons of the past are not forgotten andthat they form part of the Cambodian narrative, highlighting thevital role of human rights and the value of tolerance, resilienceand peace.
This is a goal the eccc through its outreach program would continue towork for in years to come.
Endnotes
1 Decision on Im Chaem’s Request for Reclassification of Selected Documentsfrom Case File 004/1,
https://eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/documents/
courtdoc/%5Bdate-in-tz%5D/D313_2_EN.pdf.
2 Decision on International Co-Prosecutors’ Immediate Appeal of the Trial
Chamber’s Effective Termination of Case 004/2, https://eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/
files/documents/courtdoc/%5Bdate-in-tz%5D/E004_2_1_1_2_EN.pdf.
3 Information on the four cases was drawn from Case Load and other pages of
the website section on “Cases,” www.eccc.gov.kh/en/case-load.
4 1st Floor, Building 40, Russian Blvd. (Street 110), Sangkat Mittapheap, Khan 7
Makara, downtown Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
5 Eccc Launches the Mobile Bus, the Extension of Its Resource Centre,
Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, https://eccc.gov.kh/en/
articles/eccc-launches-mobile-bus-extension-its-resource-centre.
6 30 students from National University of Battambang Visit eccc Resource
Center, www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/30-students-national-university-battambangvisit-eccc-resource-center.
7 Inauguration of the eccc Resource Centre, 27 September 2023, https://cambodia.un.org/en/247503-inauguration-eccc-resource-centre.
8 Guide to the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, 1 January2024, https://eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/publications/Guide%20to%20the%20
eccc%20%28Advance%20Copy%29.pdf.
9 Internal Rules (Rev.10), rule 9(4), Extraordinary Chambers in the CourtsofCambodia,
https://www.eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/legal-documents/
Internal%20Rules%20-%20EN.pdf.
10 Internal Rules, rules 9(4), 56(2)(a), ibid.
11 Internal Rules, rule 12 bis (1)(i), ibid.
12 Eccc Launches the Mobile Bus, the Extension of Its Resource Centre, op.
cit.
13 Eccc Launches the Mobile Bus, ibid.

158

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

14 Eccc
Co-hostedtheFinalRounds
of
Moot
Court
Competition on The Right to a Fair Trial, www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/
eccc-co-hosted-final-rounds-moot-court-competition-right-fair-trial.
15 Eccc Reaches Out to Buddhist Monks, www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/
eccc-reaches-out-buddhist-monks.
16 Photos of the visit of Monks from Kampong Spue, www.eccc.gov.kh/en/
gallery/photo/photos-visit-monks-kampong-spue.
17 Lcdfilm
screening
photos,www.eccc.gov.kh/en/gallery/photo/lcd-film-screening-photos.
18 Quarterly Progress Report: July-September 2023. See Annex 8.7 for moredetails per year on the Outreach statistics, Guide to the Extraordinary Chambers in
the Courts of Cambodia, op. cit.
19 For a detailed breakdown of attendance and participation during the judicial
phase, please refer to Tables 6, 7, and 7.1-7.3 of the Quarterly Progress Report from
October-December 2022.
20 250 students from Hun Sen Angprey High School Participate in the eccc’
Outreach Study Tour Program, www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/250-students-hunsen-angprey-high-school-participate-eccc-outreach-study-tour-program.
21 270 Students from Sok An Tonloap High School Participate in the eccc’
Outreach Study Tour Program, www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/270-students-sok-tonloap-high-school-participate-eccc-outreach-study-tour-program.
22 30 students from National University of Battambang Visit eccc Resource
Center, www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/30-students-national-university-battambangvisit-eccc-resource-center.
23 Survey:
Knowledge
GainedDuringParticipation
in
eccc
Study
Tours
Is
Important,www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/
survey-knowledge-gained-during-participation-eccc-study-tours-important.
24 Quarterly Progress Report: July-September 2023, op. cit.
25 Speech by the UN Resident Coordinator, Jo Scheuer, Inauguration of theeccc Resource Centre, United Nations Cambodia, 27 September 2023, https://cambodia.un.org/en/247503-inauguration-eccc-resource-centre.

Human Rights Education in Japanese Universities:
Challenges and Suggestions*Mino TakamatsuThe United Nations World Programme for Human Rights
Education (wphre) stresses human rights education at the tertiary level in its Second (2010-2014) and Fourth (2020-2024) Phases.1
The Fourth Phase is focused on youth and is aligned with the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development, specifically with target 4.7.2
The Fourth Phase of the wphre “defines ‘youth’ as those persons between the ages of 15 and 24 years.”3 This age bracket falls within the age
bracket for most of the students at the tertiary level. The Fourth Phase of
the wphre provides for “human rights education for youth within formal
education (secondary, higher and vocational education).”4
Sustainable Development Goal 4.7 (sdg 4.7) on Quality Education
states:4.7 Education for sustainable development and global citizenship by 2030 ensure all learners acquire knowledge and skills
needed to promote sustainable development, including among
others through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion ofa culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship, and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution tosustainable development.
There is a clear mention of human rights, gender equality and cultural
diversity as some of the key topics on which knowledge and skills must develop to support sustainable development. While sdg 4.7 does not mention
levels of education, the inclusion of “university” in sdg 4.4 indicates the coverage of tertiary level in sdg 4 as a whole.5 sdg 4.7 should cover the tertiary*This article is an expanded version of the paper of the author presented at the HawaiiInternational Conference on Education on 4 January 2023.
Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific | Volume 13, 2023

159

HURIGHTS OSAKA

160

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

level of education to support the continuous development of knowledge andskills on human rights from primary to the tertiary levels.
A number of universities in Japan are offering human rights courses
both at the undergraduate and graduate levels. What do these courses
teach? What challenges do they face? And what opportunities exist for thesecourses?
Review of Human Rights Education in JapanThe Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology ofJapan has developed human rights education guidelines for primary andsecondary school levels.6 But neither policy nor guideline have been adopted for human rights education for the tertiary level. This situation led
to the development of contents and methods of human rights education in
Japanese universities dependent on either the university or the instructor.
Research on human rights education in Japan from 1990s to the 2000s
presents specific characteristics and challenges that reflect the local humanrights situation as well as thinking among Japanese educators. However, developments on human rights education in Japan from 2010s onward have
yet to be analyzed through research. The review of literature below is based
mainly on research done during the 1990s to 2000s period.
Understanding of human rights and human rights education
Yasumasa Hirasawa (1991) sees the tendency of the Japanese people toview social relationships according to dual categories such as “us” and “others” that makes it difficult for them to understand others. He thinks that thisview causes a lack of human rights consciousness. He also finds the Japaneseview that human rights means being the same and equal as the reason for
the thinking that people are the same. This view does not support individual
differences and the concept of individual rights according to international
human rights standards.7
Minoru Mori (2005) views human rights education in the Japanese
school system as having a strong image related to the anti-discrimination
education movement, one of the main human rights education movements
in Japan. This movement has influenced human rights education in Japanand focuses on discrimination, especially “Buraku” problems in certain areasin Japan.8 The discrimination against the Buraku people covers employment

Human Rights Education in Japanese Universities: Challenges and Suggestions

161

and marriage. This anti-discrimination education movement promotes theraising of awareness on discrimination issues in order to resolve them. Morialso points out that since Japanese human rights education focused on thelife of the Buraku people, the teaching of human rights law and international
treaties is lacking up. This was the situation until the 2000s.
At least up to the early 2000s, another characteristic and also a weaknessof human rights education in Japan, is the view of teachers on discrimination. Their involvement in anti-discrimination education movements affects
their own personal concerns and thinking about their lives in relation to thelives of the Buraku people. This results in equating human rights issues withthose of the Buraku people and failing to link human rights concerns to theirown concerns. This makes it difficult for teachers and non-Buraku students
to consider the discrimination problems as their own, and to act together
with the Buraku people to solve them.9
Shuji Ikuta notes two aspects of human rights - moral-philosophicaland legal. He sees Japanese human rights education as lacking in teaching
the legal frameworks of human rights. Learning the legal frameworks of human rights means making students know how to protect human rights. Ikuta
explains that Japanese human rights education tends to be a type of moral
education that emphasizes equality and establishment of human relationships as influenced by Dowa education and moral education.10 Ikuta criticizes Japanese human rights education for failing to teach individual rightsfrom a legal perspective that requires solving human rights issues throughthe legal process. This further leads to the failure to teach the protection ofindividual freedoms. Students are therefore unable to develop the skill ofcritically thinking about rights that should be protected by the legal system.11
Sowa (2008) sees the problem of Japanese human rights education in
focusing too much on specific issues in areas where Buraku discrimination
exists. This type of human rights education might be meaningful in those areas, but not in other places with different human rights concerns. This situation prevents people in other areas or regions of the country from learning
human rights in their universal sense.12
Limitations of human rights education in the university
Katsuki Itayama (2018) explains the different reasons behind humanrights education in all levels of education – primary, secondary and tertiarylevels – in Japan. At the tertiary level, discrimination was the main issue

162

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3that made human rights education important and necessary. He cites, as an
example, the case of Buraku discrimination involving a university student
in 1950 that led to frequent discriminatory incidents related to Buraku issues at the university. Some students of the university demanded education
against discrimination to address the issue. This type of discrimination occurred in several universities and became the origin as well as main reason
for starting human rights education at the tertiary level in Japan.13 He also
explains why Human Rights Centers were established in universities. He
cites the example of Osaka City University, a public university. In 1961, aposter containing discriminatory language against a female student was put
up in the university premise. Since then, similar incidents occurred such as
discriminatory graffiti on a wall and desks. The Osaka City University and its
research center saw the need to raise the awareness of students and staff onsolving these issues. The university started the course on Dowa Educationand Human Rights Education in 1973 in order to respond to students’ protests against the discriminatory incidents and their demand to resolve theissue. However, the discriminatory incidents continued. The university established a committee on the issue and adopted an action plan in 1975 basedon the policy for resolving the issues.14
Risa Kumamoto (2010) highlights the complexity of the problems affecting Dowa-related human rights education in Japan. She points out the
insufficient number of researchers in the field of Dowa/Buraku issues. She
cites the lack of collaboration among departments and fields of study within
the university that contributes to the small number of instructors who canteach human rights. Moreover, she points out the lack of opportunity for
Buraku people to establish their own academic field as “Buraku issues studies.” While there are voices in the academe calling for the establishment of
women’s studies and gender studies, such voices do not exist in support of
Buraku issues studies.
The practice of leaving the teaching of human rights mainly to parttime instructors also causes the lack of instructors who can hold humanrights courses.
In the case of universities with human rights centers, researchers inthese centers tend to focus on specific human rights issues and fail to share
their studies with other researchers. This situation also causes the lack ofconsistency in research on issues since research is dependent on the individual researchers in the centers. At the same time, some centers suffer from

Human Rights Education in Japanese Universities: Challenges and Suggestions

163

a lack of researchers in the field of human rights, and researchers assigned tothe centers see their posting as added work. These centers also lack collaboration with other academic institutions, and consequently fail to develop
research agenda in relation to other academic fields.
An additional factor is the tendency of people in Japan of avoiding human rights issues. They may think that Buraku issues are complicated andmay not want to discuss them with others.
These situations prevent the human rights research results from being
widely explored and utilized.15
Mariko Akuzawa (2007), in a comparison of human rights education programs in Asia and the Pacific, finds the existence of graduate-level human rights research and education in a number of countries such as
Mahidol University (Thailand), Ateneo de Manila University (Philippines),
Kathmandu School of Law (Nepal), University of Colombo (Sri Lanka), andUniversitas Gadjah Madah (Indonesia). The programs cover various fields,such as law, philosophy, ethics, theology, history, sociology, cultural anthropology, politics, psychology, and education. They cover not only the study ofhuman rights concepts but also real situations. Therefore, professors do not
simply give lectures but carry out fieldwork, and introduce internships bycollaborating with non-governmental organizations (NGOs), internationalorganizations and other human rights organizations. She points out that it isimportant to introduce human rights degree programs in Japan by learningfrom other countries’ practices.16
Finally, Kiyoko Majima (2010) points out the lack of research on thepractices of human rights education at Japanese universities. She cites her
own practice of teaching human rights in a teacher training course. She uses
legal cases and analyzes their outcome. The use of legal cases is a uniquepractice in human rights education. She carefully chooses the legal cases as
educational materials in consideration of privacy issues, and makes lessonplans with carefully thought-out objectives. She uses civil cases because it iseasier to predict the damage to the victim, to know the needed protection
from the problems such as discrimination, and to provide the students with
sufficient bases for thinking and making a fair judgment. She has held fifteenclasses on the civil cases and analyzed the students’ learning outcomes fromstudent questionnaires. She found out that through the course, studentschanged their minds and perspectives by discussing a case and thinking
with others about the judgment. She emphasizes that legal case materials

164

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

can be good educational materials for students to encourage them to analyze the issues and make a fair judgment.17
Based on these studies, there are several challenges that Japanese human rights education is facing. First, Japanese human rights education originally started from Dowa- and Buraku-problems, and discrimination issues
were raised as one of the main topics. Human rights education in Japanese
universities started because of the discriminatory cases in universities, andHuman Rights Centers were established because of the demand by students
and university staff to address discrimination incidents (mainly through education). The origin of Japanese human rights education in primary and secondary school levels and that in higher education are slightly different, butthey both started with similar focus on Buraku issues. This does not meanthat the theme of human rights education in Japan is only about discrimination. There is lack of teaching from the legal aspect of human rights as wellas their universal character. Human rights education also tends to teach morality and equality focused on specific individual issues. The method of one
instructor in using a legal case in teaching human rights has not been seenamong instructors as a good practice. Second, in Japan, people consider discrimination issues as other people’s issues, and try not to consider them as
their own. This view makes it difficult for students to understand discrimination properly. This point applies to Japanese human rights education at
all levels of formal education. Third, since Dowa and Buraku issues are notyet considered as constituting an academic field, these issues are difficult
to research and teach in universities. This leads to lack of academics in thisfield, as well as lack of connection with other researchers in other academic
fields. This in turn results in a small number of academics who teach humanrights courses in Japan. Fourth, it is important to see other countries’ practices in order to review and improve Japanese human rights education. The
studies also point to the need to consider human rights education programs
that cover a wide range of fields including law, philosophy, ethics and otherfields of study.
Human Rights Education in Japanese Universities
The author surveyed the human rights education syllabuses of universities inJapan during the June 2018 to March 2020 period. One hundred twenty-five
universities were covered by the survey. They included education universi-

Human Rights Education in Japanese Universities: Challenges and Suggestions

165

ties, national and public universities, and private universities. Universities
with specialized focus were not included in the survey such as universities
for medicine, nursing, dentistry, technology/technical field, fashion andsports, and also junior colleges. These higher education institutions offer
human rights courses related to their specific areas of study (e.g., medicine
and human rights). It is difficult to compare these specialized and uniquecourses with courses under the General Education framework. Thus, in thissurvey, the courses under the General Education curriculum (that all students could take) were selected. These courses give insights on what should
be taught in human rights education for students in general.
The different categories of universities in Japan are based on the type ofstructure on ownership, system of policymaking and curriculum development. Academic fees and the number of students of the universities differ
depending on the categories. In this survey, each university category is defined in the following manner:••••

Education universities: they are teacher training institutions wherestudents study to become teachers after graduation;
National universities: they are universities administered by theState/national government;
Public universities: they are universities administered by local governments (city and prefectural governments);
Private universities: they are privately owned and managed
universities.

The survey reviewed human rights syllabuses available in the websitesof Japanese universities. Of one hundred twenty-five universities surveyed,
three hundred ninety-two courses related to human rights were found.
There are likely other courses that were not found using the online searchengine. In searching the syllabuses, the key words “Human Rights” wereused. Among these universities, the author visited eight universities in different parts of Japan to learn more about practices such as teaching andevaluation methods. The eight universities were chosen due to their uniquehuman rights courses in relation to themes covered. Among the eight interviewees, seven were instructors, who actually taught the human rights
courses, and one was an administrative staff. After observing educational
practices, a semi-structured interview for approximately one hour was con-

166

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

ducted. The interview included: (1) themes raised in human rights courses,(2) methods used, (3) assessment, and (4) challenges. Interviews in theseselected universities do not necessarily explain all the characteristics ofJapanese human rights education. In addition, Human Rights Centers weresurveyed by checking university website.
Human rights education courses
An analysis of the results of the online survey of university syllabuses
confirms the lack of human rights degree programs in Japanese universities.
There are individual human rights courses offered for undergraduate andgraduate students in the Department of Law or as part of General Education
subjects. In this article, the author narrows the survey analysis to humanrights courses offered under General Education, which is open to all students, in order to find out what students taking any course or studying any
field would learn about human rights.
Chart 1 shows the number of courses offered under General Educationof universities in different prefectures.
Chart 1: Breakdown of human rights courses by regions

Human Rights Education in Japanese Universities: Challenges and Suggestions

167

The chart shows the percentage of human rights courses among theuniversities in each prefecture. Many courses are offered in the Kansai region, especially in Osaka, Kyoto and Hyogo prefectures. The existence of
Buraku problems (which have existed for a long time and remain at present)in this region is a likely explanation for the existence of many human rights
courses. There are human rights courses in universities in other prefecturesand regions but with much less number. The general characteristics of thecourses according to the type of universities are the following:•••

Education universities offer human rights education as part ofteacher training;
National and public universities do not offer many courses compared to private universities, andPrivate universities offer a variety of human rights courses especially in the Kansai region and in Tokyo. This implies that the practicesof these universities do not influence the other universities.

The results of the survey indicate that universities conduct human rights
education under their own curriculum, or their instructors make the programs and courses to teach human rights through their own specialty suchas gender and Dowa issues. Detailed explanation on why Japanese universities’ human rights courses are based on instructor’s specialties is provided in
the section on human rights education practices in universities.
Chart 2 shows the themes raised in human rights courses in Japanese
universities. This survey used key words to search each syllabus, and collected multiple answers of each course. While reading each syllabus, the author and three research assistants who were graduate students in literature
discussed and identified the key words in this survey.
Of the themes chosen for human rights education, “Discriminatedcommunity/hamlet,” specifically the “Buraku and Dowa problem,” is mostcommon among the universities. This topic is taken up mostly in the Kansai
region. In other regions, the following tendency is observed on themes
chosen:1.
2.

“Education site (teaching methods at school), moral and bullying”
issues for education universities;“Sex difference, gender” for many private universities in Tokyo;

168

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3Chart 2: Themes raised in human rights courses

3.
4.

“Human Rights Law and Constitution” for national universities;
and“Minorities and foreigners in Japan” for public universities.

Importantly, content related to “International Human Rights Law,
Constitution,” “thought, theory and Human Rights” and “Global andInternational” issues were listed very frequently in all types of universities.
As discussed in the review of human rights education in Japan, domestic
issues are frequently listed. This implies the potential of changing Japanesehuman rights education by introducing not only individual discrimination
issues, but also the universal and global aspects of issues in Japanese society.

Human Rights Education in Japanese Universities: Challenges and Suggestions

169

In addition, the online survey reveals that private universities tend tohave a variety of themes, while national and public universities have courses organized under their specific curriculums. Education universities offer
courses for students who will become teachers after graduation, thus thefocus of their human rights courses was different.
Human rights centers
Some universities in Japan have established human rights centers. The
online survey of these human rights centers revealed information on theirobjectives, see Tables 1 and 2. The surveyed human rights centers generally organize lectures, symposiums, “enlightenment”18 (awareness-raising)activities along with surveys and research activities, production of publications, and setting up of a human rights library. The research areas in eachcenter differ and cover the following, among others: elimination of Buraku
discrimination, race and ethnic issues, disability discrimination, gender, international human rights security, the United States military presence in
Okinawa, culture of the Ainu (indigenous people in northern Japan), ethnic
discrimination, world peace, the abolition of nuclear weapons, community
development, and other human rights issues.
Table 1. List of universities with human rights centers
Type

University

National University

Tokyo University

National University

Hokkaido University

Public University

Osaka Metropolitan University

Public University

Hiroshima City University

Private University

Kansai University

Private University

Kindai University

Private University

Kansai Gaidai University

Private University

Hanazono University

Private University

Kwansei Gakuin University

Private University

Otani University

Private University

Ritsumeikan University

Private University

Tenri University

Private University

Kyoto Sangyo University

Private University

Doshisha University

Private University

Kanagawa University

Private University

Sophia University

170

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Table 2. Human rights centers: Objectives
CenterObjectives

Center for Documentation of
Refugees and Migrants (CDR)- Tokyo University

1. To collect, organize and disseminate information related to themigration of peoples, and especially the study of migration;
2. To become the center of knowledge and experiences of refugees andmigrants.

Center for Ainu & Indigenous Studies- Hokkaido University

1. To hold open lectures to share research findings with the public andencourage Ainu people to utilize them;
2. To hold public lectures and other events regularly with researchers
specializing on languages, histories, cultures, legal systems, intellectual
property rights and other aspects related to Ainu and other indigenous
peoples;
3. To research on Ainu and other indigenous peoples in a range ofacademic fields such as political science, pedagogy and tourism studies.

Research Center for Human Rights –Osaka Metropolitan University

To undertake research on a broad range of issues affecting the Japanesesociety at present, namely, Burakumin discrimination, gender, ethnic,
disability and other minority/human rights issues.

Hiroshima Peace Institute - Hiroshima
City University

To establish the flamework of “Peace Education” based on theexperiences in Hiroshima by systematizing the previous research andcontinuous research outcome.

Institute of Human Rights Studies Kansai University

1.To facilitate the fulfillment of human rights both within and outside theuniversity;
2. To contribute towards the human rights awareness of people at large;
3. To help advance research in the realm of human rights.

Center for Human Rights - Kindai
University

To contribute to the realization of human rights by carrying out research on
discrimination at home and abroad, including Buraku discrimination, race/
ethnicity, gender discrimination and disability discrimination.

Human Rights Research Institute Kansai Gaidai University

To learn basic human rights and enjoy them in reality through researchand practice.

Research Center for Human Rights Hanazono University

To contribute to the promotion of human rights education and raiseawareness of human rights in the university through collection of
information about human rights problems, and investigating andresearching on human rights issues.

Institute for Human Rights Researchand Education - Kwansei Gakuin
University

1. To undertake research on human rights issues;
2. To establish and administer regular courses on human rights;
3. To implement awareness-raising programs and produce human rights
materials.

Human Rights Center - Otani
University

1. To respect students’ and staff’s human rights, and create anenvironment for study and research;
2. To provide a library of human rights publications and a desk forstudents and staff to consult on human rights issues.

Peace Education and ResearchInstitute - Ritsumeikan University

To undertake research jointly with the staff and academics from various
fields such as peace and human rights.

Human Rights Research Laboratory Tenri University

To investigate, research, collect publications, and publish books andpapers related to human rights.

Human Rights Center - Kyoto Sangyo
University

To hold seminars for promoting human rights education, and to provide
human rights books and audio-visual resources.

Human Rights Education in Japanese Universities: Challenges and Suggestions

171

Center for Christian Culture Doshisha University

To provide various programs such as music concerts and programs forstudents, staff and the public in order for them to come together.

International Human Rights Center Kanagawa University

1. To establish a network among students, lawyers, local government
officials, NGO/NPO workers, citizens, and to research and practice humanrights issues;
2. To protect socially weak people.

Institute of Global Concern (IGC) Sophia University

1. To raise the consciousness of students and the wider society regarding
the promotion of social justice;
2. To apply interdisciplinary inquiries into issues of justice in today’schanging world to both the education of Sophia students and its practicalactivities (primarily refugee assistance).

One notes that human rights centers exist only in few national andpublic universities. Only two national universities (Tokyo University and
Hokkaido University), and two public universities (Osaka Metropolitan
University and Hiroshima City University) have established human rights
centers. Probably because they are owned by central and local governments,
many other national and public universities do not yet recognize humanrights as an academic field. In this case, they probably do not find a justification for the establishment of a university-based/academic human rights
center.
However, aside from human rights centers, there are also universitybased human rights committees. These committees are found in all categories of universities and have the authority to discuss and resolve humanrights issues within the university. They work on complaints involving discrimination, harassment (academic and sexual harassment), bullying, violence, privacy, etc. Table 3 provides the list of committees found in university
websites. This is a list of universities that have not established human rights
centers, but have created human rights committees. These committees holdseminars and symposiums related to human rights for the university staff,
students and general public.
Table 3. Human rights committees in the Universities
N/P

University

Committee

Main Research
AreaOsaka University

Human Rights
Issue Committee

Dowa issues, andother human rights
issuesSymposium on human rights issues

NN

Osaka Kyoiku
University

Promoting Human
Rights Committee

Dowa issues, andother human rights
issuesSymposium on human rights issues forstudents and staff

Activities

172

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3N

Saga University

Promoting Human
Rights Committee

Gender, Buraku
issues, humanrights issues

Symposium on human rights issues, andopen seminars for citizens

N

Kyoto University

Human Rights
Committee

Dowa issues, andother human rights
issuesBooks and references related to Dowa
issues, and human rights issues at
library

Human Rights
Committee,
counseling staff
of human rights
issuesHarassment,
human rights
violations

Counseling, harassment, consultant of
human rights abuse, library

PInternational
Christian
University

Showa University

Promoting Human
Rights Committee

General humanrights issues (suchas handicap,
disability)

Seminar on promoting human rights,
publishing leaflets

P

Meiji University

Human Rights
Committee

General humanrights issues(gender, equality,
peace education)

Symposium on human rights issues, 2times a year

P

Rikkyo University

Committee on
Human Rights andHarassment

General humanrights issues,
harassment, humanrights abuse

Symposium on human rights issues, anddealing with human rights abuse andharassment

P

Otani University

Human Rights
Education
Committee

Human rights
education

Symposium on human rights education
for students

P

Osaka Universityof Arts

Promoting Human
Rights Committee

Advertisingpromoting humanrights words

Seminar and showing films abouthuman rights issues, advertising thehuman rights words, using Twitter tospread the informationP

St Andrew’s
University

Promoting Human
Rights Issues
Committee

Human rights
abuse

Seminar about human rights issues,
publishing report about the activities
related to human rights issues

P

BukkyoUniversity

Human Rights
Education Center

Human Rights
Education

Promoting human rights, setting library,
consultation

P

Kyoto Koka
Women’s
University

Human Rights
CenterSports and Human
Rights, Gender

Symposium on human rights issues, anddealing with human rights abuse andharassment

P

Kio University

Promoting Human
Rights Committee

Education

Symposium on human rights issues
for staff

Otemon Gakuin
University

Promoting Human
Rights Committee

Human Rights
Abuse, Promoting
Human Rights(no information on activities since 2014)

PP

Human Rights Education in Japanese Universities: Challenges and Suggestions

173

Human Rights Education Practices in Japanese Universities
Based on the data gathered in the online survey, the author chose eight
universities belonging to all categories which offer university-wide humanrights courses for further research. The author interviewed seven instructors and one administrative staff in the eight universities. Information onsuch practices were not available in university websites and syllabuses.
On the themes covered by the human rights courses, the interviewees
identified not only Buraku issues, but also issues on peace. The discussion ofpeace issues is linked to human rights issues in the context of the droppingof atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki during the World War II. Thisis unique in Japan when compared to issues taken up in other countries.
University A in Hiroshima is an example of teaching the peace issue. The
instructor asks students to visit one of the peace memorials and write a report on the visit. This assignment requires the students to personally visit
the place and learn its history. This can be done in Japan since it is the only
country in the world that experienced atomic bombing.
The interviews likewise covered the teaching methods employed by the
instructors in their human rights courses.
Practices in University A
University A is located in Hiroshima city, also known as a Peace City,
where an atomic bomb was dropped for the first time ever in 1945. The city
subsequently adopted the principle of “Freedom and Peace.” One of the five
mission statements of University A is about the promotion of the “spirit ofpeace.” In order to achieve this mission, several liberal arts subjects related
to peace are being offered for first- and second-year students in the university, such as “Hiroshima and Peace,” “Peace and Human Beings” and “Peaceand Human Rights.” The author asked an instructor about the practice of thethird subject called, “Peace and Human Rights - Perspective of Globalization
and Gender … a compulsory subject for 1st year undergraduate students.”
The instructor said that instructors decide on the teaching method to use
due to lack of teaching guideline from the university. She decided to use thediscussion method. The university does not provide the guidelines on whatshould be included and how to teach peace and human rights. She made her
own lesson guided by the curriculum and mission of the university.

174

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3This was the reason for the decision of the instructor in teaching the
topic from the perspective of gender because this was her specialty. She
made a portfolio for each student so that they could use it during the classand keep it as their record. The number of students who take the course varied depending on the year, for example, the number ranged from ninety-fiveto three hundred students. She gave lectures with accompanying student
discussion exercise. Since the class size was big, she divided the students
into small groups for discussion. She also tasked the students to go to oneof the peace memorials either in Hiroshima or Nagasaki by themselves andwrite what they learned by visiting them.
In her lectures, she raised issues regarding poverty, lgbt, children andwomen, among others. After teaching various topics, she asked the students
to choose the most interesting topics and research on them in group. Eachstudent had to write an individual report as a final assignment. Although
the class was big (with about a hundred students on average), the instructorused a teaching technique to make students learn by themselves (such as bymaking them write their reflections on what they learned from the class).
Practices in University B
The author interviewed an instructor who teaches “Human Rights andPeace” course. This is the course for any undergraduate students, but a lot ofstudents taking this course are freshmen. Ideally, this course should be taken after students have studied the “Japanese Constitution.” The course canaccomodate one hundred twenty students, and an average of sixty to one
hundred students take the course. The main topics are human rights, peace,and human rights history. Students are required to think about the relationship between human rights and peace throughout the course. There is noprescribed textbook, but handouts are distributed in each class. Lectures
are mainly given in the class and the choice of topics is flexible dependingon the world events being reported at the time and students’ interest suchas gender and human rights, lgbt, equality, disability, freedom of expression, hate speech, and others. For assessment, students are required to write
reports (four to five reports), and take a final examination. Attendance inclass is also considered. This course aims at not only making students gain
knowledge of human rights but also develop a thinking that human rights
issues are their own issues as well.

Human Rights Education in Japanese Universities: Challenges and Suggestions

175

Practices in University C
The author interviewed an instructor who taught the course “Human
Rights and Gender.” This course is part of the human rights course that has
been officially approved by the university. According to the instructor, while
serious human rights incidents do not seem to exist in Kanazawa city, where
the university is located, gender issues are evident. People in the city tend
to have a male-dominated society mindset. This dominance of men in thesociety requires the need to raise awareness of gender equality in the society.
This provides a context to the “Human Rights and Gender” course.
The human rights course is a compulsory subject for around 1,200 students in the university. With this large number, ten classes are offered withan average of one hundred twenty students taking the course in each class.
The course is handled by four instructors, who have different specialties or
issues of focus. Thus, the course also includes discussions on disabilities,
human rights system and various human rights issues aside from the genderissue. Instructors use textbooks that they wrote and published themselves.
This means that the course contents are dependent on the instructors’ specialties, and instructors teach students human rights issues by using theirown publications.
Also, in the university, active learning is recommended as pedagogy
in teaching the course. The instructor interviewed by the author asks students to write the definition of human rights using comment sheet, organizes group discussions, and requires group presentations and discussions
in class. For assessment, students choose one topic they find interesting, andwrite about what they learn in the class. The instructor faces the challenge ofraising the students’ motivation in learning the subject. The instructor uses
YouTube videos on the latest news in order to engage the students in classand get them interested in starting a discussion.
Practices in University D
In the 1970s, a student in University D complained about a statement ina textbook that declared, “Political community is like Buraku community.”
The student complained that this statement was not right because the political community and Buraku community did not have the same meaning. The
student thought that equating “political community” with “Buraku community” would give negative connotation to the latter. The university accepted
the necessity of providing human rights education to students for them to176

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

become aware of Buraku issues. This incident started the support of theuniversity to human rights education.
The university developed an intensive human rights course held on two
Saturdays in May and June for a total of four sessions. An average of forty
students takes the course every year, and many of them are taking literature,
education and agriculture as their major.
Lecture is the main mode of teaching, with the latest news as teachingmaterial. Students choose topics that they are interested in from newspapers, paste newspaper clippings on the board in the classroom, and express
their thoughts about them. The instructor tries to encourage the students
to be as active as possible inside the classroom. Students are expected torecognize human rights issues as their own issues. Reference books are also
introduced on various issues including Buraku, hate speech, Hansen’s disease, gender discrimination, bullying, and others. Students fill out a review
sheet at the end of the class and prepare a required final report. The final
report has to answer the following questions:1.
2.

Why are Buraku issues being taught in schools?
Based on what the students learned about the issues, explain thesocial structure that causes discrimination.

In the past, students wrote the following statements:
I have never learned Buraku discrimination before. This is
the first time that I learned the Buraku issue, and found this issue an important one.
Students raised different topics and issues. A lot of students pointed outthat we had to know the facts about discrimination, and education has animportant role in order to do this.
The instructor has difficulty motivating students to study human rights,
but continues nevertheless with the course.
There were several other challenges raised in teaching human rights in
University D. Students who aim to obtain a teachers’ license are required totake a human rights course. Thus, some students take the course because itHuman Rights Education in Japanese Universities: Challenges and Suggestions

177

is a required course, and not because they are interested in human rights.
They lack the motivation to learn about human rights. Another issue isabout instructors put in charge of the human rights course. They are parttime lecturers who face difficulty in sharing human rights knowledge andexperience due to limited time available for teaching.
Practices in University E
Nagasaki has three big human rights issues, namely, Buraku, Atomic
Bomb, and “hidden” Christians (Kakure Kirishitan).19 In western Japan, human rights courses are typically taken by students who are in teacher training. In University E, the human rights course is a mandatory course for 3rdyear students who study in the education department. The author interviewed an instructor who has been teaching the human rights course formore than twenty years. The instructor notes that students at present study
human rights in relation to issues that were not existing before such as covid-19. In 2023, new issues like the covid-19 pandemic were added in thelist of present human rights issues.
University E is located near a Buraku area that makes it easy for students to think about Buraku issues. Each class has an average of one hundred thirty students. The course content include human rights in generalsuch as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, definition of humanrights, United Nations and individual issues such as Buraku, LGBT, nonJapanese living in Japan, hate speech and Ainu issues. The course employs
lecture and group discussions. In group discussions, students play different
roles such as leader, presenter and others. Normally a group of five to six
students work together and share their discussion summaries in the class.
For assessment, students write a report answering this question: “Whatkind of human rights education is ideal?” Besides the final report, students
are required to write two essays in the middle of the course. The first essay is
about the students’ impression on human rights after reading the textbookof the course. The second essay summarizes the human rights education in
students’ hometown; this refers to each student’s human rights education
experience in school.
Practices in University F
University F offers a “Human Rights Education” course. Normally, forty
to fifty students join the course. The instructor, who is from Nepal, uses the

178

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

technique of giving lectures and making students discuss issues. This classis unique as non-Japanese and Japanese students learn together in English.
The instructor introduces quizzes and makes own handout for students tomaintain students’ concentration on the classes.
The instructor considers human rights as a key topic for students fromdifferent backgrounds to start discussing. She designed the course in a waythat not only makes students seek knowledge but also make them express
their views on the topics. She mainly uses the latest news reports. She introduces human rights activities to explain ongoing issues and how to tackle
them. She raises topics such as cultural relativism, refugee, women’s rights,
child rights, genocide and terrorism. At the end of the class, students watch
a video on the Rwanda genocide and other videos to make the students understand what is happening in the world.
Practices in University G
University G offers seventeen courses on human rights for the firstand second year students. The courses are held on Fridays. None of thesecourses are compulsory. The courses have about one hundred fifty students
in one class. Also, if students want, she allows the students to do fieldwork
during the course. Examinations are given to assess learning, but she gives
some questions beforehand so the students can prepare before the test. The
contents of the course include the universal concept and history of humanrights. She also teaches the human rights mechanisms and provides the latest information related to human rights. She teaches not only the universal character of human rights but also specific human rights issues such as
Buraku and gender issues. Since the number of students is big, she gives lectures in class. She makes the effort of making students understand not only
the universal dimension of human rights but also the specific human rights
issues. She also teaches human rights theory alongside human rights issues,and gives students examples and problems to think about and discuss.
Practices in University H
The author also interviewed the administrative staff member of a private university about human rights courses. She was a chief member of thehuman rights center and the human rights courses team representing theuniversity administration. The university committed in the 1970s to solve the
Buraku discrimination incidents that occurred not only in its EngineeringHuman Rights Education in Japanese Universities: Challenges and Suggestions

179

Department but also in the dormitories of the Departments of Sociology
and of Economics and Business. In the engineering department, an instructor made discriminatory statements during a lecture. In the dormitories,
discriminatory graffiti was found. Since then, the students demanded theoffering of human rights courses and holding of seminars to address theissues. In response, the university established a human rights center to undertake research and education activities to address the problems.
Human Rights Courses started to be offered in 2009, along with
about fourteen other courses related to human rights. The Human Rights
Courses have four themes including the Buraku issue, Sexuality, Disability
and Women. The instructors of the Courses choose one of the four themes
for their classes. The Courses are part of the liberal arts subjects (similar
to General Education) that students at any year level and specialty could
take. But they are not compulsory subjects for the students. There are no
guidelines regarding contents and methods of teaching the Human Rights
Courses. The instructors make their own decision on what and how to teachthe courses.
The number of students in each course varies from ten to one hundred. The method is mainly giving lecture, but some instructors invite guest
speakers or take students on field trips to learn from the sites being visited.
Assessment is mainly done by examination, but participation is evaluated aswell. The instructor’s fields of expertise are varied - international law, minority studies, social welfare and others.
Besides these courses, the university holds a faculty development activity once a year for those teaching human rights courses. During the activity, instructors share what the students found interesting in the topics andmethods of teaching. The university also holds training sessions on humanrights for members of the staff and the students twice a year. About sixty to
one hundred members of the staff and students participated in these sessions annually. A separate training for all the new members of the staff isheld in order to enhance their awareness of human rights.
Analysis of Human Rights Education Practices in Japanese Universities
Human rights education practices in Japanese universities can partly beanalyzed based on information from eight universities in different parts ofthe country.

180

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3The eight universities offer different human rights courses, whose components and other characteristics are summarized below:
•

•
•
•
•

Topics: Peace, Buraku/Dowa issue, human rights history, humanrights movement, Zainichi Koreans (ethnic Koreans who are permanent residents in Japan), lgbt, global society and human rights,
child rights, bullying, issues related to disabilities, women’s rights,
sexuality, etc.;
Number of students in class: The number of students attending human rights courses range from ten to two hundred, depending on
the type of course involved;
Assessment: students are assessed through examinations, reports
or short essays, etc.;
Outcome: Students become aware of discrimination and the realities about it (appreciation of the facts involved);
Teaching Methods: the instructors give lectures, engage students
in group discussions, invite guest speakers, do fieldtrips, and use
videos (available online) and newspapers as teaching materials.

The instructors and staff members of the universities confirm that they
themselves choose topics and teaching methods in the courses. The teaching methods allow students to participate in the class actively, and help themto learn about human rights issues through a variety of means.
A lot of the courses are aimed at developing the thinking among students that human rights issues are their own issues as well. However, there
are other problems such as the tendency of some courses to focus on learning facts, not aimed at learning the individual rights, and not developing theconcept of taking action to solve current problems for a better society. Theselimitations mean the lack of intention to empower students.
Some Japanese universities treat human rights education as a compulsory subject, but the universities do not provide guidelines for teaching
human rights. Also, while the human rights courses are compulsory, theinstructors face the challenge of lack of interest on human rights among
students. As a consequence, students take the courses because they are required and not due to personal interest on human rights. This makes it difficult for the instructors to motivate students.

Human Rights Education in Japanese Universities: Challenges and Suggestions

181

Universities in the Kansai region, where the Buraku/Dowa issue is morewell-known, are the most active in offering human rights courses for undergraduate students.
The university human rights centers play a significant role in promoting
human rights through research and educational initiatives. The online survey of human rights centers reveals several characteristics of these centers.
First, as summarized in Tables 1 and 2, their research on human rights
issues focuses on issues on the local area where they operate, such as Ainu
culture, US military base in Okinawa and Buraku. For example, the Center
for Ainu and Indigenous Studies at Hokkaido University focuses on Ainu
and other indigenous peoples. The Hiroshima Peace Institute at Hiroshima
City University focuses on peace and abolition of nuclear weapons. There
are a few centers that research on global human rights issues, such as refugees. The International Human Rights Center in Kanagawa University focuses not only on domestic human rights issues but also on broader humanrights issues in the world. They research on international human rights issues and involve people in the university and ngo/npo and the citizens tothink about their solutions.
There is little indication that the research of the centers on local humanrights issues is undertaken in cooperation with other human rights centersor with regional or international organizations, such as the United Nations,in order to address the issues from an international perspective.
This tendency leads to the weakness of human rights education in
Japanese universities: focus on domestic issues, especially on the various
forms of discrimination which occur in the different regions of the country,
and the lack of connection with organizations inside and outside Japan.
Second, the human rights courses being offered are not always part of
the activities of the centers. This implies that instructors individually offer
human rights courses, and not necessarily as part of a center’s program. The
human rights centers mainly undertake research and hold seminars for the
public, university staff and students. The topics of research and seminars
are not always directly related to the educational programs and courses forstudents. The human rights center websites explain the center program, activities and research areas but fail to present the human rights courses forstudents on the same page. In some universities, human rights courses areoffered separate from the centers.

182

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Third, the content of human rights courses being offered connected tothe centers is dependent on the area of research of the instructors rather
than based on a broader education program that covers the general humanrights issues and systems. This can be seen in the focus on domestic humanrights issues, such as the Buraku/Dowa issue, the lack of understanding ofindividual rights and lack of attention to discussion of solutions to humanrights issues. Also, instructors do not have much chance to share their practices among fellow instructors in the university, or to link up with instructors in other fields. The instructors are forced to plan the courses by themselves. A good example mentioned earlier that can address this issue is theFaculty Development and Staff Training for raising human rights awarenessin a private university. This program can help instructors in the university towork together for human rights education.
The online survey used here to collect information and to select universities to visit to obtain additional information prevents the making of a general conclusion on human rights education in Japanese universities. Further
research and literature review are necessary.
Also, the online survey used only “Human Rights” as key words. Usingother key words related to human rights such as gender, child rights, education, and others can provide more information on characteristics and challenges in human rights education programs in Japanese universities.
A Proposal
The findings of the survey of university human rights education programs
present a number of issues on the human rights content as well as the pedagogy being employed. They highlight the limitations as well as the goodpractices in teaching human rights in Japanese universities. These survey
findings, therefore, serve as bases for developing a good university humanrights education program.
Below is a proposal on what should constitute a university human rights
education program:(1) Name of the Program: Multicultural Coexistence and Human Rights
Education(2) Purpose and Outline of the Program:

Human Rights Education in Japanese Universities: Challenges and Suggestions

183

This program covers knowledge, skills and behavior needed to become global citizens by learning under the theme, “Multicultural coexistence and human rights.” Students will learn and discuss various
topics such as human rights history, multicultural coexistence, outcast
people, indigenous people, war and peace, gender, LGBT and others.
This course aims to apply human rights knowledge in analyzing
various topics, discussing and writing about human rights issues frompersonal perspective, and develop a plan on taking action on humanrights issues. The program also aims to create a classroom environment,
where students learn from each other by knowing each other’s views
and taking them into consideration. More specifically, the programaims to allow the students to participate as facilitators in group discussions, and leaders in making group presentations.
(3) Study Goal
The program aims
1. To deepen understanding of human rights and how to cooperatewith others in a multicultural society;2. To develop skills in expressing views and listening to others’ views;
3. To acquire skills to think creatively and critically;
4. To develop skills and perspectives on active participation in theclassroom and in the society;5. To understand others and ways to cooperate with others in multicultural society;6. To gain the ability to take action and practice human rights inreality.
(4) Important points in teaching practice:
1. Approach the learning of human rights from not only universal but
also from individual and regional perspectives;
2. In order for students to be active, give students tasks and examples
to make them think of the issues as their own;
3. Set classroom rules that establish a human rights culture by discussing what is necessary to make this happen with the students;
4. Aim at changing the society in a better way and coexisting withpeople of different backgrounds.

184

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3(5) Teaching methods:
Lectures, classroom discussion, video viewing, fieldtrips, interacting with guest lecturers and other methods will be part of the teaching
methods in the program. After each class, students review their study
outcome and write their thoughts in a portfolio so that they record theirlearning and compile them at the end of the course.
(6) Number of participants
In order to ensure effective classroom discussion, a class size of lessthan thirty students is an ideal number that allows instructors to handle
the class better. Having more than thirty students in class limits theinteraction of students with each other, and of the students with theteacher. Also, discussion groups with five to six members in each group
allow more participation for students.
Since students have their own experience related to human rights
and since the classroom can become a “human library,” students canshare experiences and learn from each other. For assessment purposes,
the students discuss human rights problems and practical solutions inwriting. This supports human rights education that does not only aim
at learning human rights knowledge but also related skills and attitude.
(7) Assessment (if necessary)
As shown in the following criteria, grading is based on regular attendance and active performance in each discussion:• Participation in the class (20 percent)• Worksheet and Review Sheet (30 percent)• Group Presentation and Peer Review (30 percent)• Test or Report (20 percent).
(8) Evaluation of participants’ study outcome:
Evaluation of the progress of students’ learning is necessary. A
questionnaire can be used for this purpose.
This program can be used in different education levels - primary,secondary and tertiary levels, or even for adults. This program is forstudents/participants to recognize human rights issues as their own,
and share their experiences to understand the reality. In the end, stu-

Human Rights Education in Japanese Universities: Challenges and Suggestions

185

dents/participants think about the solutions, and take action to createa society where people can cooperate with each other and show respectfor multicultural perspectives.
Conclusions
The analysis of the results of research and survey identifies the challenges
and suggestions for human rights education in Japanese universities.
First, human rights education in Japanese universities tends to focus on
individual issues, and lack the universal dimension of human rights. Humanrights education should include not only local issues such as discrimination,
atomic weapons, natural disasters and rights of individuals but also the history of human rights, and theory and philosophy of human rights.
Second, human rights education in Japanese universities tends to focus
on learning facts. It should teach how to analyze problems and find solutions by themselves. Also, it is important to empower them by providing
knowledge of their individual rights.
Third, there should be human rights degree programs at university level
in Japan. This requires Japanese universities to have more academics to doresearch and human rights education. Human rights should be recognized
as a separate academic field. It is important that research outcome and educational practices are shared among universities, human rights centers andeven individual researchers.
Lastly, it is important to provide a guideline for human rights educationin higher education in Japan that universities can follow in setting the curriculum and instructors can make the course programs according to it. This
gives university instructors the guide on what to teach and how to promote
human rights education in Japanese universities.
Throughout this article, the author explains the situation of humanrights education in Japanese universities, identifies the challenges and weaknesses, and finds ways of improving them. The conclusion may not be particularly new, but if the suggestions are taken into consideration among theJapanese universities, human rights education in higher education of Japan
will be changed. Since the final goal of human rights education is to provide
people with the knowledge, skills and behavior supporting human rights,

186

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

this will empower people to create a society where they respect each otheraccording to human rights principle.
Endnotes
1 See World Programme for Human Rights Education, www.
ohchr.org/en/resources/e duc ators/human-r ight s -e duc ation- training/world-programme-human-rights-education.
2 See II. Youth empowerment through human rights education: plan of action for the fourth phase (2020–2024) of the World Programme for Human Rights
Education, www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-10/OHCHR-OSGEY-UNESCOWorld_Programme-for-Human-Rights-Education_Fourth-Phase.pdf.
3 II. Youth empowerment through human rights education: plan of action
for the fourth phase (2020–2024) of the World Programme for Human Rights
Education, ibid.
4 Ibid.
5 SDG 4.4 states as target the ensuring of “equal access for all women and men
to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including
university.”
6 学校における人権教育：文部科学省, www.mext.go.jp. This is the website of
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, which explains theobjectives and important points in practicing human eights education at school.
7 Hirasawa, pages 18-19.
8 “Buraku people are a Japanese social minority group, ethnically and linguistically indistinguishable from other Japanese people. They face discrimination in
Japan because of an association with work once considered impure, such as butchering animals or tanning leather.” See International Movement Against All Forms ofDiscrimination and Racism, www.imadr.org/sayama/buraku.html.
9 Mori, pages 10-11.
10 Ikuta, http://mailsrv.nara-edu.ac.jp/~ikuta/research1.html.
11 Ikuta, page 18.
12 Sowa, page 64.
13 Itayama, pages 64-65.
14 Itayama, page 6.
15 Kumamoto, pages 17-19.
16 Akuzawa, pages 39-49. For more discussion on university courses on humanrights in Southeast Asia, read Mike Hayes, “Developing Networks of Human Rights
Teaching Universities in the Asia-Pacific: The Establishment of SEAHRN and AUNHRE,” Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific, volume nine, 2019, www.hurights.
or.jp/archives/asia-pacific/section1/hreap_v9_formal_education.pdf.
17 Majima, page 120.
18 The term “enlightenment” (啓発) is frequently used as English translation ofpromoting human rights and awareness-raising on human rights.

Human Rights Education in Japanese Universities: Challenges and Suggestions

187

19 Watch “The secret world of Japan’s ‘Hidden Christians’,” for a short introduction to the “hidden Christians in Japan. bbc, www.bbc.com/reel/video/p0b3frjr/
the-secret-world-of-japan-s-hidden-christians-.

References
Akuzawa M. 2007. “Ajia taiheiyo chiiki ni okeru Daigakuin no JinkenkenkyuKokusaijinken shushi program no igi” [The Meaning of an MA in Human
Rights in Asia-Pacific Regions], Hyogo Kenritsu daigaku kankyo ningengakubu
kenkyuhoukoku, 19, 39-49.
Banks, A. J. 1993. “Multicultural Education: Development, Dimensions, andChallenges.” Phi Delta Kappa International, Vol. 75 (1), 22-28.
Banks, A. J. & McGeeBanks, A.C. 2010. Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives (7th edition). New York, NY: Wiley.
Banks, A. J. 2017. “Failed Citizenship and Transformative Civic Education,”
Educational Researcher, Vol. 46 (7), 366-377.
Fujiwara, T. 1994. “Gurobaru kyoiku no gakushunaiyo to sono jissenjirei ni tsuite”[Concerning the Syllabus for Global Education and Case Studies of its Practice:
Issues and Considerations for Developing Curriculums for High School
International Liberal Arts Education], Doshisha daigaku bungakubu kyoikukenkyushitsu, Kyoiku Bunka, 3, 59-82.
Hirasawa Y. 1991. “Kaigai no jinkenkyouiku no riron to jissen” [Theory and Practiceof Human Rights Education in Foreign Countries], Buraku kaiho kenkyu, 80,
15-32.
Ikuta S. 2005. Jinkenkyoiku no nihontekiseikaku to tenbo ni kansuru kenkyu[Research Concerning Japanese Characteristics in Human Rights Educationand its Prospects]. Nara kyoiku daigaku gakujutsu ripojitori: Ikuta kenkyushitsu, http://mailsrv.nara-edu.ac.jp/~ikuta/research1.html.
International Human Rights Institute HP. (2020). Retrieved from www.ihri.jp/index.
html
Ishimoto K., Okuda H., Kokubo S., and Kano E. 2017. “30th Anniversary Symposiumof Kansai University Institute of Human Rights Studies reorganized fromBuraku Studies (1986): Its roles and perspectives as research institution attached to the university,” Kansai daigaku Jinkenmondaikenkyusho kiyo, 73, 1-72.
Itayama K. 2018. “1950-80 nendaino kotokyoikukikan-niokeru Dowa/Jinken-kyoiku
no seiritsu/hatten no katei – Kansai-chiku no kotokyoikukikan wo chushintekina jirei toshite“ [Development and Stating of Dowa and Human Rights
Education at Higher Education in 1950-80s – Case Study of Higher Educationin Kansai-region-]. Riberashion, 170, 64-82.
Itayama K. 2020. “Gakuseiniyoru kokuhatsu oyobi youkyu to kotokyoikukikan ni
okeru douwa/jinkenkyouiku no suishin: 1960-70 nendaino Osaka ichiritsudaigaku wo jirei toshite” [Students’ Accusation and Request and Promoting
Dowa and HRE at Higher Education: Case of Osaka City University in 196070’s]. Jinkenmondai Kenkyu, Vol. 17, 5-20.
Japan Association for International Education. 2015. Kokusairikaikyoiku handobukku: Gurobaru shitizunshippu wo hagukumu [Handbook of Education for

188

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3International Understanding: Fostering Global Citizenship]. Tokyo: Akashi
ShotenKumamoto R. 2010. “Daigaku ni okeru Dowa kyoiku-Torikumi no rekishi kara mietekuru kadai” [Dowa Education at University-Challenges Found through theHistory of University Practices-]. Jinken mondai kenkyuusho kiyou, 24, 71-83.
Majima, K. 2010. “Hanketsusho kyozai wo katsuyoshita jinkenkyoiku: Daigaku
niokeru jugyojissen wo chushin ni” [Education of Human Rights by Way of
Judgment Materials: The Teaching Practice to make Undergraduate Students
Grow up to be Good Teachers]. Aichikyoikudaigaku Jissensogosenta Kiyo, 13(2),119-126.
Mori, M. 2005. “Nihon no jinkenkyoiku no mirai” [Future of Japanese Human Rights
Education Movement]. Kyoikuhyouron, 704, 10-13.
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2020). World Programme for
Human Rights Education (2005-ongoing). Retrieved from www.ohchr.org/documents/issues/education/training/infographic-wphre.pdf
Osler, A., & Starkey, H. 2010. Teachers and Human Rights Education. Stoke-onTrent: Tretham/IOE Press.
Osler, A. 2018. “Reflections on structural inequality, struggle and the meanings ofcitizenship: a zainichi Korean teacher narrative,” Multicultural Education
Review, 10(1), 52-70.
Otsu, K. 1994. “Gurobaru kyoikukarikyuramu no kousou: chushin gainen, gino,taido, tangen” [Planning Curriculums for Global Education: Central Concepts,
Skills, Attitudes, and Teaching Units]. Hokkaido Kyoiku Daigaku Kiyo, 45(1),193-201.
Sowa, S. 2008. Jinken no shisou to kyoiku no genzai [The Current State of Human
Rights Thought and Education]. Kyoto: Aunsha.
Tada, T. 1997. Gakko niokeru kokusairikai kyoiku: Gurobaru maindo wo sodateru[Education for International Understanding in Schools: Fostering a Global
Mind]. Tokyo: Toyokan Shuppansha.
University of Connecticut 2020. Teaching Human Rights. Retrieved from https://teachinghumanrights.uconn.edu/browse-all-syllabi/

Human Rights Education Through the Lens
of Loglocal Pedagogy – A Case Study
Munir Moosa SadruddinIn recent times, the growing turmoil within academia brought about
by global crises, including human rights violations, has underscored thenecessity of advocating for peace, supporting social justice, and promoting human rights values through multiple avenues. The emergence of intolerance, hatred, and challenges associated with well-being among youth further underlines the pressing need to guide young individuals toward making
meaningful and constructive contributions to society. Youth are disengaged,
and their involvement in addressing global challenges is restricted to sharing their viewpoints, which frequently leads to heated arguments rather
than generating valuable intellectual output. Shifting from passivity to actively contributing to the world’s problems remains an idea that demands
willingness, ownership, acceptance, tolerance, resilience, and skills such as“ethrical thinking” and digital literacy to address local and global challenges
through conscious and in-depth analysis, and communities of practice.
The practice of human rights within academia commences with institutional policies, including educational policies, which shape the curriculum, teaching, and societal values, and provide a foundation for respecting and upholding human rights. In Pakistan, the lack of a clear stance on
this subject has hindered their effectiveness, resulting in limited productive
outcomes across academia. One possibility to promote human rights is byintroducing the subject of human rights education through which positive
values can be instilled in students. However, before that, it is crucial to trainteachers so that they possess the knowledge and skills needed to impartthese positive values to their students.
In Pakistan, elements of human rights are infused in subjects like social
studies, humanities, and civic education. However, there is currently no formal subject dedicated to human rights education at the school or university
level. The primary reasons are the shortage of experts in the field of human
Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific | Volume 13, 2023

189

HURIGHTS OSAKA

190

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

rights education and a lack of awareness about its significance. Assumingthat experienced teachers can automatically serve as effective human rights
educators is a misconception. Becoming competent human rights educators
requires a combination of experience and exposure. Furthermore, there isa prevailing belief that human rights education is a Western concept andshould be avoided in discussions to prevent potential ideological clashes.
At the teacher education level, this subject has not garnered much attention from the policymakers as it is often assumed that the role of teachers is
to deliver lessons as provided in the courses, focusing more on their pedagogical skills rather than on supporting students to become value-driven
individuals.
I successfully piloted a course on human rights education for futureteachers at the Sindh Madressatul Islam University (smiu) (Sadruddin,2017). The student-participants’ recommendations on additional elementsthat were missing in the first pilot session of the course were taken into consideration including counseling skills, teaching internship, etc. in the subsequent version of the course.
This reflective article explores the introduction and application of theloglocal teaching pedagogy for human rights education, delving into the elements that were piloted within this framework.
Development of Human Rights Education
Our understanding of human rights and their significance continues to
evolve. As societies progress, new perspectives, challenges, and issues arise,requiring us to adapt and expand our approach to human rights education.
As I wrote in 2019, human rights education
is a conscious incessant socio-cognitive and eco-ethical learning process that gradually empowers individuals about the rightsof self and others. It involves a readiness to make rational andcivilized decisions through the conscious filtration of [humanrights] ideologies, sociocultural context, and political will. It is a
critical component to achieving sustainable development, maintaining human dignity, and applying social justice. It permeatesa sense of openness towards embracing multiculturalism, pluralism, and diversity. (Sadruddin, 2019)

Human Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy

191

The definition encompasses four main purposes of human rights education: identity, ownership, consciousness, and acceptance.
Human rights education can promote rationale-based thinking which
can lead to a more inclusive and equitable society where human rights arerespected and protected. More significantly, it can lead to conscious ownership and decision-making skills, based on ethical leadership. I coined theterm “ethrical thinking” that fits into this situation. It refers to valuing critical thinking in personal ethics to make clear and better decisions.
By educating individuals on human rights and values, they can develop
an understanding of self-dignity and of all individuals, as well as recognize
the importance of respecting diversity. This can lead to increased empathy,
compassion, and a deeper appreciation for differences, ultimately reducing
the likelihood of violence and intolerance. It also can foster social and adversity quotient, placing less emphasis on intellectual quotient.
Social Quotient (SQ) refers to one’s ability to understand self and others’ actions and manage interpersonal relationships. It is developed throughexperience and exposure. Interaction is a key to developing SQ. Whereas
Adversity Quotient (AQ) is one’s ability to perceive and manage challenges,
traumas, crises, and setbacks with resilience. Both help in understanding
self and others through human interaction, foster resilience in navigating
challenges, and promote human rights in diverse and adverse contexts.
The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (udhr) catalyzed thedevelopment and promotion of education that promotes tolerance, respectfor human rights, and fundamental freedom. In 1953, the unesco Associated
Schools Program initially attempted to teach human rights in formal school
settings. In 1974, unesco adopted the “Recommendation concerning
Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and
Education relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.”1 This is
the “first international document that brings together and articulates education’s role in contributing to peace, international understanding, humanrights, and fundamental freedoms.”2 The unesco General Assembly adopted a revision of this document on 9 November 2023.3 In 1993, the representatives of one hundred seventy-one United Nations (UN) member-states
adopted the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action of the World
Conference on Human Rights, which highlighted the significance of humanrights education to foster peace, unity, and tolerance among communities
around the globe. It also recommended incorporating subjects of human192

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

rights education in formal and non-formal learning settings. In 1995, theUN declared the UN Decade for Human Rights Education (1995-2004), urging all member-states to promote human rights education through the planof action for the decade. In 2005, the UN General Assembly proclaimed
the World Programme for Human Rights Education to advance the implementation of human rights education programs in all sectors. This program
has progressed through four distinct phases. The initial phase concentrated
on primary and secondary school systems. Subsequently, the second phaseextended its reach to higher education, civil servants, law enforcement officials, and the military. In the third phase, efforts were directed toward
strengthening the implementation of the first two phases and promoting
human rights training for media professionals and journalists. Finally, thefourth phase focuses on empowering youth through human rights education, aligning with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and specifically targeting sdg 4.7. In 2011, the UN General Assembly adopted theUnited Nations Declaration on Human Rights Education and Training as aframework for human rights education. It aims to promote respect for human rights and values through education at all levels and in various areas. In
2014, different non-governmental organizations (ngos) formed the Global
Coalition for Human Rights Education.4 The Coalition raises awareness of
integrating human rights education and serves as a pressure group to implement, monitor, and assess the achievements of countries in the process of
implementing human rights education.
Despite these initiatives, questions persist regarding the establishmentof a consensus on the definition and scope of human rights education, as
well as the assessment of the current status of human rights education invarious countries. Much of the published work on human rights education is set in the Western context leaving other regions more susceptible
to ideological clashes within the realm of human rights education. Theseissues in human rights education have remained unresolved largely due tothe absence of a sequential hierarchy5 and the lack of thorough field analysis
before introducing it in various contexts. For instance, the phases of theWorld Programme for Human Rights Education did not incorporate theinsights gained from previous phases and failed to outline a sustainability
plan. Consequently, it remains uncertain whether it was effectively incorporated at all levels of education and professional development. Teachers were
not given due consideration at any stage, leading to insufficient justification

Human Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy

193

for the claim of implementing human rights education on a global scale atthe same pace and capacity.
While some academic institutions have introduced programs in human rights education, encompassing degree courses, and non-formal andinformal training, the efficacy of many of these programs remains undocumented. Additionally, intergovernmental organizations have played a vitalrole in researching and implementing human rights education programs,
but their efforts are often constrained by their reliance on project-based
funding grants, which may not fully align with instilling positive values on asustainable basis. There is still much work to be done to realize the desired,fruitful outcomes in this field.
Human Rights Education in Pakistan
In Pakistan, human rights education is not on the agenda of its national education policy. An exception is the National Education Policy of 1998-2010,
which promised the inclusion of issues such as population and the environment. However, it lacked a clear definition of how to introduce humanrights education or how to integrate these issues into multidisciplinary subjects. In 2002, for the first time, a national plan of action for human rights
education was made to build an infrastructure for human rights education(Government of Pakistan & unesco, 2002). But this initiative has remained
unrealized and has largely remained an idea on paper. At the school level,
elements of human rights are integrated into subjects like social studies.
However, there is no dedicated subject for human rights. Moreover, the coverage of these elements is quite limited, and they are typically taught by subject teachers who lack the specialized pedagogical skills required for effective human rights education. Parvez Ahmed Pirzado’s (2019) study identified
several key issues, including a lack of commitment among decision-makers,
unclear implementation guidelines for human rights education, a shortageof professional development opportunities for teachers in this field, and an
absence of supporting materials for teaching human rights education in theclassrooms. The same is the case at the higher education level.
At the teacher education level, courses on Global Citizenship Education(gced) and human rights education are not integrated, thus a lack of opportunity for future teachers to learn and apply human rights values among
the teaching community and learners (Sadruddin 2017). To address this gap,

194

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

I introduced a Human Rights Education course at Sindh Madressatul Islam
University, one of Pakistan’s oldest public-sector universities, aiming to prepare future teachers for global competencies.
The following sections define the different components of the courseand discuss their implementation during 2022.
Research-based Course
The human rights education course is implemented using a participatory
action research method. Loglocal pedagogy is piloted to manage various
activities within the course. The research results are considered in further
developing the course.
Background of the prospective teachers
Initially, when the course was first launched, it consisted entirely of female students. However, in subsequent iterations, it was introduced to bothmale and female students. Forty students participated in this study. The
majority of the student-participants had previously attended private sector
schools and aspired to become school-level educators in the future.

Student-participants in a group case-study activity.

Human Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy

195

Student-participants discussing human rights issues.

The Course
This course was initially developed in 2016 and subsequently revised in
2022, incorporating recommendations from the student-participants, andrelaunched in 2022, marking the first implementation of the loglocal pedagogy within the course.
This course was a requirement for a Bachelor of Science and spanned
one semester (four months), comprising forty-eight contact hours, divided
into two sections and eight units. The first section covered topics including
introduction to human rights; historical development of human rights; areas of human rights; rights and responsibilities; laws and policies about human rights in Pakistan and world; state of human rights in Pakistan and theworld; state of human rights across academia. The second section focusedon the historical development of human rights education; themes of humanrights education; good practices in human rights education; human rights
education models; challenges and opportunities of teaching human rights
education; skills to become competent human rights educators; pedagogicalskills; curriculum planning; human rights education resource development,
lesson planning, field visits, and teaching internship. See Annex A for thecourse syllabus.
In the Class of 2022, students from the Bachelor of Science in Education
program were chosen to participate in the course. Data was gathered
through focus group interviews and a reflective diary. The course equipped
future teachers with the knowledge and skills essential to become humanrights educators. They acquired a range of strategies for teaching Human

196

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Rights Education, such as case studies, theater, music, storytelling, andmore. They gained skills like ethrical thinking, resilience, mental healthfirst-aid, decision-making, and self-identity skills. Student-participants took
ownership and collaborated in developing localized human rights teaching resources. Furthermore, their involvement in community development
work allowed them to closely observe human rights challenges and suggest
remedial measures.
Teaching methodologies
Not all available methodologies for teaching human rights education
can be universally applied since sensitivities vary significantly across countries and regions. Therefore, it is crucial to be aware of the context andconsider any limitations that may be present when teaching human rights
education. This may require adapting or selecting teaching methodologies
and learning resources that are suitable for the specific context. It may also
involve focusing on widely accepted aspects of human rights or emphasizing the shared values that form the foundation of human rights.
Human rights education is sometimes seen as a Western concept bysome in the East, which has impeded the adoption of global practices within
academia. In reality, subjects like human rights education and gced begin
with the local context before expanding to the global context. There is resistance to accepting global values when the local values are disregarded.
While local and global values may align at some point, it is essential to design a contextual course that can accommodate both.
In education, the term “global” can evoke resistance in various contexts,
primarily because it is frequently misunderstood. Local problems sometimes turn out to be global problems, and vice versa. Also, certain local educational approaches may bear a resemblance to global practices.
With this approach in mind, I introduced loglocal pedagogical approachto teaching human rights education. This pedagogy uses a minimally invasive intellectual approach to avoid unnecessary complexity while achieving
the desired result. It aims to promote a deeper understanding and appreciation of local practices by first building on students’ existing knowledge
and experiences parallel with understanding local policies and practices on
the subject matter. This is done to ensure that the content being taught isrelevant and meaningful. Once we have a solid grasp of the local context,
the approach then involves evaluating global knowledge, perspectives, poli-

Human Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy

197

cies, and practices within the framework of multicultural and social contexts. Subsequently, global content is filtered, scrutinized, and adapted tosuit local contexts. This is turned into reality by encouraging students tocritically examine global perspectives and identify ways in which they canbe applied to the local context. This ensures that the content being taught is
not only relevant but also culturally sensitive and respectful. Loglocal pedagogy is thus participatory and takes a fluid approach to teaching humanrights education.

The learning approach taken in loglocal pedagogy is heutagogy- a
self-determined learning method, and connectivism.6 Here, the role of theteacher is that of a facilitator and the student is the co-creator of knowledge.
Further, the focus of this pedagogy lies on developing the social and adversity quotient of students.
I utilized a variety of pedagogical activities to actively engage the students in reflective discussions. Throughout these activities, which included
case studies and readings, a loglocal approach formed the foundation.
In all the activities, student-participants were given open access not
only to share their viewpoints but also to engage in designing activities, ultimately leading them to take ownership.

198

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Activities
Phase 1: Co-creator of knowledge
To gather input for improvements from the current student-participants, a preliminary survey was conducted to comprehend their expectations. It helped to refine the existing course outline. Once the course draft
was finalized, it was shared with the student-participants for input. This approach empowered them to take ownership of the entire learning process,granting them a significant role as co-creators of knowledge. A notable aspect of this activity was allowing student-participants to express their views
regarding what to include or omit, with justifications. For example, in thecourse, I added a topic on human rights challenges, but the rights of refugees
and persons with disabilities were not taken into consideration. Studentparticipants stressed incorporating them into the course. Additionally, a
few student-participants suggested including storytelling as one of the activities. It was also suggested that I arrange guest speaking sessions to hear
experts’ perspectives on human rights education. This activity played a significant role in fostering resilience among the student-participants. It also
equipped them with self-motivation, as their voices were included in thecourse through mutual sharing.
Phase 2: Ground Realities
Comprehending the practical aspects of human rights is vital for educators. Rather than teaching students about human rights challenges fromglobal documents, I decided to take a shift and ask student-participants to
explore the possible challenges and solutions. To facilitate this, I suggested
that the student-participants conduct a field analysis through podcasting,recognized as one of the most effective methods for learning about humanrights issues. Student-participants were tasked with exploring their surroundings and collecting narratives concerning the human rights challenges
faced by university students. Beforehand, I guided the discussion regarding
what to avoid and what to include, making them more cognizant of humanrights education during the preparation of the script and podcast recording.
These podcasts were later shared with the group. They were then asked toform a group and discuss the issues gathered through survey activity, andsuggest remedial measures for the challenges. They were also encouraged
to share their narratives to gain a deeper understanding of these challenges.

Human Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy

199

At some point during the discussions, certain student-participants sharedpersonal grievances and experienced strong emotions, including frustration, concern, and a sense of uncertainty. They channeled these emotions
into productive outcomes when they took the initiative to represent diverse perspectives and proposed innovative solutions. I expressed my appreciation and encouraged them to continue exploring constructive paths
toward solutions. We also organized a brief activity of compiling a list of
global challenges from internet sources and compared them with the issues
collected from our immediate surroundings. This exercise helped us identify the commonalities among these challenges. This strategy proved to bea potent tool for amplifying human rights narratives and enhancing theirpresentation and communication skills. Additionally, it served as a means toraise consciousness and enhance their digital literacy, ethrical thinking, anddecision-making abilities.
Other Activities
There were other activities undertaken during the course that were intended
to make the student-participants understand human rights in a practical andcontextualized manner as well as learn how to effectively promote humanrights to society in general including to the particular sections of society.
Policy drafting
In the process of teaching human rights education, decision-making andtaking ownership are crucial aspects. To achieve this, we initiated a studyof both local and global human rights education policies and conventions.
The process commenced by comprehending the local policies regarding human rights and their integration into educational policies before transitioning to the exploration of global policies. The student-participants crafted adocument outlining the essential elements of human rights that should betaught, and they compared this with the elements integrated into the policy
documents or identified any missing components. This comparative analysis was instrumental in identifying gaps and providing a rationale for thenecessary improvements. Later, they were asked to prepare a revised udhr,
adding more articles that they wished to be included in the document. Many
new ideas emerged like the right to technology, the right to parenting, therights of widow, the right to hijab, the right to expression, the right to learn

200

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

a language, etc. Finally, all the student-participants were provided with aguideline for creating a policy document and were tasked with crafting a
15-point policy on human rights practices for the university, encouraging
mutual sharing. This activity instilled a sense of ownership, confidence, andexpression, enabling student-participants to document their perspectives.

Examples of proposed rights to be added to the UDHR.

Situation-based Case Studies
I developed local case studies that could be applied in a global context.
All case studies were adapted from real-life situations, making them more
relatable and relevant to the student-participants. I also invited studentparticipants, if they wished, to contribute to the development of case studies
based on social and educational challenges highlighted in the local newspapers. These case studies were distributed among the student-participants toread individually, and then discuss in groups and suggest solutions to theprovided questions. Involving student-participants in creating case studies
from newspaper-highlighted challenges fostered active learning and problem-solving skills, empowering them to make a real-world impact. Anothervaluable aspect of this activity was that it encouraged student-participants
to put themselves in the shoes of others, fostering a sense of connectedness
and empathy.

Human Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy

201

Examples of ideas of student-participants on how to solve issues.

Unconference
To transition student-participants from dependency to independence7
and involve them in critical discussions and dialogues on human rights, they
were tasked with organizing an unconference on human rights education. In
this unconference, they were responsible for making decisions on topics for
keynote speeches, panel discussions, and so on. They acted as speakers andpanelists. It was fascinating to observe how this activity prompted them to202

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

conduct research in preparation for planning and selecting discussion topics. The activity helped develop leadership skills, communication skills, andcritical discussion skills among student-participants. They also took part ina mock press conference, which provided training on adopting a civil andresponsive approach to challenges, with the use of concrete examples anddocumentary evidence.
Introducing Open Educational Resources (oer)According to unesco, “oer are learning, teaching and research materials in any format and medium that reside in the public domain or are under
the copyright that has been released under an open license, that permits
no-cost access, re-use, re-purpose, adaptation and redistribution by others.”8 In the realm of human rights education, oer is an underutilized but
promising resource. Oer has the potential to facilitate the development ofcontextual educational materials in local contexts and their sharing with abroader audience. It can also be used to remix or adapt resources, be it textual or visual. A notable gap exists in the availability of books, stories, folklore, and narratives from local perspectives on human rights. To transformstudent-participants into active learners, I guided them on how to create
oer and introduced them to platforms where they could share their work.
As a result, a few student-participants decided to write stories on the issueof corporal punishment9 and later published them as Creative Commonslicensed resources. See Annex A for the course syllabus. This initiative not
only enhanced their creative thinking skills but also provided them with themeans to express their ideas through storytelling. It helped develop digital literacy, digital consciousness, and ownership skills. This activity further
helped them learn how sensitive issues (that could not be expressed generally to others ) could be shared through storytelling among the masses.

Launch of book on stories about corporal punishment

Human Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy

203

Inclusive Language
Human rights education makes a significant contribution not only topromoting awareness of the rights of self and others but also to recognizing
and valuing languages that are often overlooked or marginalized. With thisgoal in mind, I asked student-participants if they wished to learn any inclusive language. Based on their suggestion, a hands-on workshop on Braille
was arranged for the student-participants. This activity served a dual purpose: it equipped them to become inclusive educators and underscored theimportance of not only learning global languages but also languages thatcater to the diverse needs of learners in the classroom.

Glimpse of hands-on workshop on Braille.

Global Exposure through Workshop
The student-participants were given the choice to select a topic foran online workshop, and after discussion, they decided to focus on drug
education. From a local perspective, I conducted a six-hour workshop on
this topic. Later, Mr. Rogers Kasirye, Ph.D., in collaboration with the World
Federation Against Drugs (wfad) in Sweden conducted a workshop via video link to educate the student-participants about drug literacy. The workshop covered topics such as drugs commonly used by teenage students, diagnostic symptoms of drug users, consequences of drug usage, treatment
options, and preventive measures to avoid drug use and address drug addiction through strategies like socialization and counseling skills, which plays

204

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

a vital role in reducing children’s exposure to drugs. Mr. Rogers also introduced teaching strategies for drug education. In the end, case studies fromteaching perspectives were discussed in groups.

Student-participants in the webinar on Drug Education.

Interaction with Global Participants
The gap among human rights educators worldwide has widened because
they tend to work in isolation within their contexts, without making connections with human rights educators from different continents. I guided
the student-participants in building online networks with teachers worldwide, sharing human rights practices, and learning through collaboration.
Initially, some student-participants were hesitant and skeptical, but a few
successfully connected with students and teachers in different countries,
learning not only about their courses on human rights education but also
about diversity and pluralism. Many student-participants expressed that

Human Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy

205

they had misconceptions about other people and stressed the importanceof communication for understanding. They also suggested arranging global
exchange programs for real exposure to different cultures. This activity has
also facilitated a shift from dependency to independence, enabling them torealize the potential of establishing online connections to share resources
and learn from each other’s teaching practices.
Participation in International Courses
I introduced them to a course titled “Socioecoethical Model of Human
Rights Education” (Sadruddin, 2019). The purpose of this activity was to acquaint them with the intellectual resources available on digital platforms
at no cost. They gained knowledge about the history of human rights education and the human rights education model. They wrote reflections onwhat they appreciated about the course and provided feedback on areas that
could be improved, allowing their voices to be documented. As a result, all
the student-participants received a certificate and an invitation to become amember of the Global Forum for Teacher Educators.10 This activity served asa stepping stone for their future studies in education, enabling them to pursue their professional development as human rights practitioners throughonline avenues.

Certificate distribution to student-participants.

Mental Health Education
This aspect is among the most crucial when teaching human rights education, yet it remains one of the most overlooked areas. Sharing mental healthconditions is often viewed as shameful and taboo in many cultural settings. I

206

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

chose to educate student-participants about strategies for coping with mental health challenges including art and music therapy, and also guided counseling and meditation skills that are crucial for teachers involved in humanrights education. In practical terms, we engaged with school-going children
to gain insight into their fears and concerns. Student-participants were allowed to apply their knowledge by counseling these students and assistingthem in enhancing their overall well-being. This practical approach allowed
student-participants to put their learning into action and make a positive
impact on the students they interacted with.
Video as an Instructional Tool
Using video as an instructional tool is a potent strategy for teaching humanrights education. However, it can be challenging to find videos that are directly relevant to the context of Pakistan, which may lead to frustration andanger among student-participants. To address this issue, I curated a selectionof videos from sima Academy and YouTube and asked student-participants
to watch three videos, engage in discussions, and share their feedback on thefollowing questions: (1) What did you like in the video? (2) What message
did you learn? (3) How will you apply this to teaching practice? Most of thestudent-participants viewed the following videos: “Heal Paradise,” “Marie’s
Dictionary,” “Wolf Dog Workshop,” “Tuning the Students’ Minds,” “Motherof All Rivers” and “Out of Plastic.” These videos were chosen to align withthe context and themes relevant to human rights education, fostering discussion and awareness among the student-participants. This activity developed a sense of realization and connectivity among student-participants.
The impact of this activity extended beyond watching the selected videos; it
ignited curiosity among the student-participants to create videos addressing
various human rights topics in the local context. They expressed their desire
to produce content that could shed light on local issues and share them withthe world, fostering broader discussions and awareness about these specificconcerns.
Community Development
The student-participants decided to visit special children in an institution
and spend time with them to learn about the challenges they face and toHuman Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy

207

develop any plans that can improve their well-being. The community visit
was instrumental in helping the student-participants gain insight into theneeds of the special children. This adversity experience instilled a sense of
responsibility and social consciousness in future teachers, preparing them
to be compassionate educators who are committed to promoting humanrights education.

Student-participants with special children

Edupreneurship
Edupreneurship is an idea to introduce educational product by the educator through a business mindset. Student-participants were encouraged todesign, develop, and pitch products that could be used by school-going students for teaching human rights education using innovative approaches. A
variety of ideas emerged, such as creating a human rights-themed versionof board games or a human rights scrabble game. Student-participants developed prototypes and engaged in discussions with one another during thisactivity. One of the remarkable games was an ethical version of the classic“Snake and Ladder” game. In this game, a variety of ethical practices, suchas respecting parents and taking care of the environment, were incorporated, with positive points awarded for these actions and negative points forbehaviors like littering or throwing garbage on the street. We also created a208

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

fish-catching game that utilized a magnetic rod to collect examples of good
ethical practices.
The activity enabled student-participants to think inventively about
how to convey human rights concepts to school-going students throughinnovative products. Through the development of products, student-participants explored engaging and interactive methods of teaching humanrights. The activity encouraged teamwork and collaboration as student-participants shared their ideas, discussed prototypes, and provided constructive feedback to one another. It emphasized the importance of adaptability and responsiveness to the evolving needs of students and the changing
educational landscape. Further, it promoted entrepreneurial skills that are
valuable for future teachers, allowing them to create educational tools andresources tailored to their specific teaching environments. By pitching theirproduct ideas, student-participants developed presentation and communication skills, which are essential in conveying complex human rights topics
to young learners effectively. The activity also fostered creativity and innovation, and encouraged student-participants to consider accessibility, diversity, and inclusivity when designing their educational products, aligningwith the principles of human rights education.
Advocacy through Writing
One of the most civil and effective ways to address human rights issues
is by writing. I organized a workshop to guide student-participants on how
to craft such letters. Subsequently, a significant number of student-participants reached out to local newspapers and had their letters to the editor
published. After the publication, they received guidance on how to write
even more impactful letters with improvements and refinements. This activity served a dual purpose: it not only taught them how to articulate andaddress human rights concerns through intellectual discourse rather thanstreet demonstrations but also enabled them to convey their messages to abroader community, allowing them to take ownership of their teaching andadvocacy efforts through a more civilized and constructive medium.

Human Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy

209

Examples of published letters to the editor sent by student-participants.

Teaching InternshipStudent-participants were tasked with applying their knowledge to marginalized communities and educating them about human rights. They discussed themes and activities with fellows and later spent a week in the field
conducting a teaching internship. Most of the student-participants chose toserve public schools, whereas a few decided to visit orphanages and elderly
homes. The primary focus was on imparting fundamental knowledge, values, and practical skills through the use of videos, storytelling, coloring activities, and case studies. Before fieldwork, I discussed ethical guidelines andprovided guidance on maintaining a reflective diary and conducting action
research. The community members valued the commitment and dedication
displayed by the student-participants.
Interacting with these communities helped future teachers develop empathy and cultural sensitivity. Teaching in the field required adaptability andthe ability to tailor educational approaches to specific community needs,
honing their teaching skills. The teaching internship encouraged studentparticipants to reflect on their methods and refine their approaches for better engagement and understanding. Engaging with marginalized communities allowed them to build relationships and trust, fostering community
involvement and collaboration. This experience instilled a sense of advocacy

210

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

in future teachers. Teaching in the field also prompted student-participants
to consider the broader societal impact of human rights education. Overall,this activity equipped future teachers with the practical skills, capable ofadvocating the educational rights of individuals, especially those in marginalized communities.
Human Rights Education Course: A New ApproachThis course has adopted an innovative and integrative approach by prioritizing the needs of the student-participants. Their active involvement throughout the course has helped them understand how human rights education
can be taught using a variety of approaches, taking a shift from the traditional approach of teaching and learning. All the activities were designed
to encourage student-participants to take ownership, resulting in more engaging outcomes. Numerous new ideas and activities emerged during thecourse discussions, which will be considered for implementation in the next
iteration of the course.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the loglocal approach has demonstrated its immense potential as a pedagogy that can be effectively applied in various contexts whenteaching human rights education to future teachers. Through its emphasis
on localized content, community engagement, and practical application,
this approach equips educators to not only impart theoretical knowledge
but also cultivate empathy, cultural sensitivity, and advocacy skills, which
are essential for promoting human rights and social justice. By fostering a
deep understanding of human rights issues within specific communities andenabling future teachers to adapt their teaching methods, the loglocal approach empowers them to become compassionate, adaptable, and effective
educators, ready to inspire and advocate for the rights and well-being of all
individuals.

Human Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy

211

Endnotes
1 Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding,
Co-operation and Peace and Education relating to Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms, www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/recommendation-concerning-education-international-understanding-co-operation-and-peace-and-education.
2 Unesco,
What
you
need
to
know
about
unesco’s
1974
Recommendation,www.unesco.org/en/articles/
what-you-need-know-about-unescos-1974-recommendation
3 The revised document entitled “Recommendation on Education for Peace andHuman Rights, International Understanding, Cooperation, Fundamental Freedoms,
Global Citizenship and Sustainable Development” was adopted on 9 November 2023
during the Education Commission Meetings on the occasion of unesco General
Conference - 42nd session which was held in Paris, France. This document is available at https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000386924?posInSet=1&queryId=88262d97-74b6-4100-bd33-8cc96a779989.
4 Global Coalition for Human Rights Education. http://www.hre2020.org/.
5 Sequential hierarchy refers to understanding the local context in terms ofperceptions, attitudes, values and practices.
6 Connectivism means learning effectively through digital networking.
7 Instead of being passive students, they become actively engaged in creating
resources and participating in decision-making.
8 OpenEducational
Resources,
unesco,www.unesco.org/en/
open-educational-resources.
9 Aftermaths of Punishment, Merlot, https://www.merlot.org/merlot/viewMaterial.htm?id=773417533
10 Visit gfte account on Facebook, www.facebook.com/GlobalTeacherForum.

212

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Annex A. COURSE OUTLINEHUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATIONCOURSE DESCRIPTIONThis interdisciplinary course is designed based on a human-centric approach,aiming to nurture knowledge and skills among participants while fostering a
dedication to human values applicable in teaching, research, and the design ofteacher training programs and curricula. The course focuses on a series of casestudies and activities intricately linked to human rights issues within an educational
context, encompassing human rights education policies, practices, and pedagogies.

COURSE GOALS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Acquire knowledge of the historical, conceptual, and philosophicalfoundations of human rights.
Develop awareness of local and global issues related to human rights.
Comprehend documents relevant to human rights, both within local andglobal contexts.
Deepen understanding of key concepts and frameworks in human rights
education.
Explore the application of models in human rights education.
Engage in discussions about experiences, challenges, and opportunities
in the field of Human Rights Education (HRE).
Empower participants with essential competencies, skills, and pedagogies
crucial for promoting HRE.
Learn to develop activities and course materials aligned with HRE policies,
curriculum, and manuals.

Human Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy

213

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying the course, the participants will be able to:• Demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the historical, conceptual,and philosophical foundations of human rights.
• Exhibit increased awareness of diverse local and global issues abouthuman rights, demonstrating the ability to identify connections andinterdependencies.
• Interpret and apply documents related to human rights, showcasing theability to analyze and evaluate their significance.
• Demonstrate a deepened understanding of key concepts and frameworks inhuman rights education, and the ability to integrate them into educational
practices.
• Apply various models in human rights education to real-world scenarios,
showcasing proficiency in selecting and adapting appropriate models fordifferent contexts.
• Participate actively in discussions on experiences, challenges, andopportunities in the field of human rights education.
• Exhibit essential competencies, skills, and pedagogies necessary forpromoting human rights education.
• Demonstrate the ability to create and adapt activities and course materials
aligned with human rights education policies, curriculum guidelines, andmanuals.

COURSE CONTENTS AND TOPICS
Course Plan
Wk

Unit

Session Topic

Suggested Readings & Learning Activities

1

Unit 1:Introduction to
Human Rights

1.1 Fundamental
Concepts ofRights andHuman Rights
1.2 Historical
Development of
Human Rights

https://www.humanrights.com/what-are-human-rights/brief-history/
the-united-nations.html
https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/
sites/134/2018/06/Marks-and-Henson-Human-Rights-andDevelopment_July-5-2018.pdf
http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/edumat/hreduseries/hereandnow/Part-1/
short-history.htm
Activity:
Situation-based Case Study

214
2

3

4

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Unit 1:Introduction to
Human Rights

Unit 2: Human
Rights Policies

Unit 2: Human
Rights Policies

1.3 Generationsof Human Rights
1.4 Principles of
Human Rights
1.5 Need andSignificance of
Human Rights

https://carrcenter.hks.harvard.edu/files/cchr/files/risse_fourthgeneration.pdf

2.1 Cairo
Declaration of
Human Rights
2.2 Constitutionof Pakistan
2.3 National
Policy Frameworkon Human Rights
2.4 Universal
Declaration of
Human Rights

http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/instree/cairodeclaration.html

2.5 National
Commission forChild Welfare andDevelopment
2.6 Convention
on the Rights of
the Child
2.7 The Domestic
Violence(Prevention andProtection) Bill,2021
2.8 The Domestic
Violence(Prevention andProtection) Bill,
2021
2.9 Sustainable
Development
Goals

https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2016/12/
cedaw-for-youth#:~:text=The%20Convention%20on%20the%20
Elimination,women’s%20and%20girls’%20equal%20rights
https://www.unicef.org/child-rights-convention

https://www.hurights.or.jp/archives/other_publications/section1/pdf/
Principles%2C%20Rights%2C%20Duty%20and%20Pedagogy.pdf
Activity:
Situation-based Case Study

https://mohr.gov.pk/SiteImage/Misc/files/NPFW%20on%20
HR%2022-27.pdf
https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-humanrights
Activity: Local policies on human rights and their integration into
educational policies

https://senate.gov.pk/uploads/documents/1623998886_516.pdf
https://mohr.gov.pk/Detail/MzFjMTM5ODctODkwYS00NTUyLTk2NjQtMmNjZjEwNzJlN2Fk
https://www.sdgpakistan.pk/uploads/pub/Lead_Pakistan_Briefing_
Note_SDGs.pdf
https://sdgs.un.org/goals
https://www.hec.gov.pk/english/services/universities/Documents/
HEC%20-%20POLICY%20FOR%20STUDENTS%20WITH%20
DISABILITIES%20AT%20HEIs%20IN%20PAKISTAN.pdf
Activities:
Revision of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Comparative Analysis

Human Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy

215

5

Unit 3: Human
RightsPractices

3.1 Human
Rights Issues
3.1.1 Refugee
Rights
3.1.2 Climate
Crises
3.1.3 Mental
Health Issues
3.1.4 Genderbased Violence
3.1.5 Rights
of Persons with
Disabilities
3.1.6 Armed
Conflicts andHumanitarian
Issues
3.1.7 Elderly
RightsActivities:
Case Studies
Role Play
Field Analysis through Podcasting

6

Unit 3: Human
RightsPractices

3.2 State of
Human Rights inPakistan
3.3 State of
Human Rights inthe World

https://hrcp-web.org/hrcpweb/wp-content/
uploads/2020/09/2023-State-of-human-rights-in-2022.pdf

4.1 Personal
Identity Skills
4.2 Mental HealthFirst Aid
4.3 CrossCulturalCompetence
4.4 Negotiation
Skills
4.5 Empathy andCompassion
4.6 Networking
Skills
4.7 Digital
Literacy and
Advocacy
4.8 Community
Practicehttps://www.mind.org.uk/media/7593/mind-mental-and-physicalactivity-toolkit-guide-1.pdf

7Unit 4: Human
Rights Skills

https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2021
Activity:
Crafting policy on HR practices for the university

https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1112062/
FULLTEXT01.pdf
https://pce.sandiego.edu/digital-literacy/
Activity:
Visit to Elderly home/ Inclusive learners

216

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

8Unit 4: Human
Rights Skills

4.9 Inclusive
Language
4.10
Humanitarian Aid
Skills4.11 Climate
Justice4.12 Social
Counseling Skills
4.13 Artistic Skills
4.14 Research
Skills4.15 Advocacy
through Writing
4.16 Ethrical
Thinking
Story Telling

Activities:
Workshop on Braille
Online Course
Visit to Art Gallery
Story Telling Session

9

Unit 5:Introduction to
Human Rights
Education

5.1 Human
Rights Education
5.2 Evolution of
Human Rights
Education
5.3 Goals andPrinciples of
Human Rights
Education

http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/edumat/pdf/hreh.pdf

Unit 5:Introduction to
Human Rights
Education

5.4 Challenges
andOpportunities
in Teaching
Human Rights
Education

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11125-018-9425-1

Unit 5:Introduction to
Human Rights
Education

5.5 Models of
Human Rights
Education

https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=1002&context=ijhre

1011

https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/HRTreaties2en.pdf
https://bemis.org.uk/PDF/hre_theory_and_practices.pdf

Activity: Guest Speaking Session

https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3755005
Activity:Completion of online course

Human Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy
12217

Unit 6:
PedagogicalTechniques for
Human Rights
Education

6.1 Pedagogical
Strategies
6.1.1. Loglocal
Approachto Teaching
Human Rights
Education
6.1.2.
Gamification
6.1.3 Case
Studies
6.1.4 Artistic
Approachhttps://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=1009&context=soe_fac

13Unit 6:
PedagogicalTechniques for
Human Rights
Education

6.1.5 Story
Telling
6.1.6 Advocacy
through Writing
6.1.7 Podcast
6.1.8
Edupreneurship

Activity:
Videos from SIMA Academy

14

Unit 7:
Resource
Development in
Human Rights
Education

7.1 Processof Course
Developmentin HRE
7.2 Human
Rights Education
Lesson Planninghttps://teaching.uncc.edu/teaching-guides/course-design/basic-steps

15

Unit 7:
Resource
Development in
Human Rights
Education

7.3 Introduction
to Open
Educational
Resources

Activities:
Workshop
Development of an Open Educational Book

Unit 7:
Resource
Development in
Human Rights
Education

7.4 Developing
resources forteaching Human
Rights Education

16

http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/edumat/hreduseries/hrhandbook/part4B.htm

https://www.oecd.org/education/ceri/38654317.pdf
Activity:
Recycling resources
Microteaching and Field teaching practice218

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

GENERAL SUGGESTED READINGS
Monisha Bajaj. (2017). Human Rights Education Theory, Research, Praxis. Universityof Pennsylvania Press
Susan Roberta Katz and Andrea McEvoy Spero. (2015). Bringing Human Rights
Education to US Classrooms: Exemplary Models from Elementary Grades to University.
Palgrave.
Rolf Gollob. (2010). Educating for democracy: background materials on democratic
citizenship and human rights education for teachers. Council of Europe.
United Nations Publication. (2004). ABC- Teaching Human Rights- Practical Activities
for Primary and Secondary Schools. OHCHR.
National Human Rights Commission. (2007). Recommendations of National Human
Rights Commission Module on Human Rights Education for Teaching Professionals
Imparting Education in Primary, Secondary, Higher Secondary Level. National Human Rights
Commission.
Dean, B. L., Joldolshieva, R., Faria, C., Amin, U., & Tanveer, T. (2007). Youth and civic
participation: Government accountability to citizens. Karachi: The Asia Foundation.
Amnesty International. (2002). First Steps: A Manual for Starting Human Rights
Education. Amnesty International.
Monisha Bajaj, Beniamino Cislaghi and Gerry Mackie. (2016). Advancing
Transformative Human Rights Education. Open Book Publishers. Available at https://www.
openbookpublishers.com/shopimages/The-UDHR-21st-C-AppendixD.pdf
The Human Rights Education Handbook- Effective Practices for Learning, Action, andChange by Nancy Flower. Available at: http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/edumat/pdf/hreh.pdf
Human Rights Education in the School Systems of Europe, Central Asia and North
America: A Compendium of Good Practice. Available at https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/
Publications/CompendiumHRE.pdf

References
Government of Pakistan and UNESCO. 2001. National Plan of Action for Human Rights Education,
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000139606
Pirzado, P. A. 2019. “Teaching human rights in Pakistani schools: What are the potential barriers?,”
International Journal of Social Sciences, 4(3), 1741-1760. https://dx.doi.org/10.20319/
pijss.2019.43.17411760

Human Rights Education Through the Lens of Loglocal Pedagogy

219

Sadruddin, M.M. 2017. “Teaching human rights through global education to teachers in Pakistan,”
Prospects, 47 (1-2), 73–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-018-9425-1
Sadruddin M.M. 2019. “Socioecoethical model of human rights education, https://dx.doi.
org/10.2139/ssrn.3755005

Human Rights Promotion Using Language and Cultural Means:
Same-Sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society
Helix Lo*C

ulture is considered a system of meanings containing elements such as norms, traditions, and beliefs which construct theworldview of a person and hence influence how he/she decides his/her behavior and interacts with the world (see Jasper, 2005, pages 123-126;
Ross, 2005, pages 137-141). To put it simply, culture is about the logic of appropriateness. If a person believes eating meat is appropriate, he/she eats
meat; if a person believes what a religion promotes is appropriate, he/she
supports it; if a person believes playing video games is inappropriate, he/she refuses to play the games. The logic also has an unconscious aspect. For
example, spontaneously speaking in mother tongue is rarely questioned as
inappropriate.
Education on human rights values after World War II is based on the
logic of appropriateness on a global scale. For example, it asks people tomove from believing in the appropriateness of treating females as inferior tomales to considering them as equals. The fundamental goal of human rights
promotion is to empower people to live with dignity and rights. The Vienna
Declaration and Program of Action, adopted on 25 June 1993, states:
The World Conference on Human Rights reaffirms the solemn commitment of all States to fulfil their obligations to promote universal respect for, and observance and protection of, allhuman rights and fundamental freedoms for all in accordancewith the Charter of the United Nations, other instruments relating to human rights, and international law. The universal natureof these rights and freedoms is beyond question. (I(1))*
Helix Lo is a PhD student and a research and teaching assistant at The University ofTokyo. He is also the Membership Director at Young Professionals in Foreign Policy (Tokyo).
His research focuses on elections and political participation, citizenship education, andJapanese politics, and concerned with the human rights development and democracy in Asiawith a particular focus on Japan, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. He can be contacted at helixlo2240@
gmail.com.

Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific | Volume 13, 2023

221

HURIGHTS OSAKA

222

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Whether a state agrees with it or not, human rights values nowadays
have become the moral boundaries of state-parties and individuals andshape the public expectation toward their behavior.
The promotion of human rights did not proceed without a hitch, however. When the government of Hong Kong was replying to the list of questions raised in the fourth report for the Universal Periodic Review of the
Human Rights Council, for example, it tried to justify its violations andquoted two sentences from President Xi Jinping of China
There is no one-size-fits-all path for human rights development in the world. There is no best way, only the better one”
(cmab, 2021).
The illogical claim by some state-parties1 of incompatibility between human rights [universality] and national culture [particularity] hasbeen regarded as one of the greatest barriers to human rights promotion.
Simultaneously, there is an increasing amount of literature suggesting and/or analyzing the “vernacularisation” of universal human rights – how humanrights concepts intertwine with local culture and create new discourses, andhow human rights are promoted through local channels such as culturalactivities (e.g., Acharya, 2004; Caudwell, 2018; Levitt et al., 2013; Plantilla,2019).
This article focuses on the promotion of human rights from a bottomup perspective. Human rights promotion, a life-long process involving diverse forms and actors, includes both formal and informal types. While
formal education on human rights usually takes place in schools and universities, the civil society (as distinguished from the government) usuallyengages in informal education and adopts casual methods (e.g., using songs)
and actively mobilizes people (e.g., protests) in promoting particular rights.
In this study of human rights promotion by civil society, two elements deserve greater attention – the language and the means to express messages.
Both are fundamental and contextualized carriers of values used by the civilsociety in engaging with the larger society. These two elements are essential
in the dialogue that the civil society actors would like to have with othermembers of society. Language as used in this article not only refers to verbal
expression but also to symbolic representations (e.g., flag) that are widely
associated with particular rights and/or groups. In promoting human rights,

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society223

it is necessary to understand the opposition that civil society faces and how
such opposition is constructed and expressed.
This article discusses the languages and materials used in promoting(and opposing, if any) particular human rights during the last decade in
Taiwan, and the roles culture played in the promotion process. It focuseson the same-sex marriage movement and the discussions on same-sex marriage rights in Taiwan.
This article argues that same-sex marriage rights are human rights,
though these rights have not yet been covered by any international humanrights instrument.
The IssueSame-sex marriage rights were not intensely discussed until the 2010s afteran administrative proceeding was filed against the Department of Household
Registration in Taipei. This case involved the rejection of an application forregistration of two people of the same sex as a married couple. This incident
led to a widespread discussion of same sex marriage in society. Protests,
assemblies, and activities were continuously initiated by different groups toexpress either support or objection to the legalization of same-sex marriage.
The claims of the pro-lgbtq+ groups included but were not limited to thelegalization of same-sex marriage, the promotion of sexual liberation, andthe implementation of inclusive education. On 24 May 2019, a law recognizing same-sex marriage was passed as the Act for Implementation of Judicial
Yuan Interpretation No. 748.2 This was a milestone for Taiwan and the firstsuch law in Asia.
This article provides insights on how lgbtq+ rights were promoted andcontested in Taiwan, which is a leading liberal ethnic Chinese society in theworld. It offers a glance at how civil society actors use languages and means
to promote as well as oppose lgbtq+ rights. It suggests that civil society
actors should understand the character of the human rights or the humanrights issue that they would like to promote to be able to adopt corresponding strategies to successfully promote such rights. These strategies include
the use of languages that express ideas different from existing cultural concepts, the means that can directly convey human rights messages in a dialogue with society, and the changing societal contexts.

224

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3Compatibility between Confucianism and Human Rights
The debates over the compatibility between Confucian culture and humanrights have continued for decades even in a liberal (i.e., Taiwan) or a semiliberal (i.e., Hong Kong, particularly before 2021) ethnic Chinese society.
Whereas Confucianism is perceived as deep-rooted in Asian and ethnic
Chinese society, its strong emphasis on harmony, order and hierarchy simultaneously earns itself a derogative image among those who promote freeand equal society. Online posts discussing Confucianism in two most popular local online forums in Taiwan and Hong Kong (ptt and lihkg respectively) can help understand the everyday opinions regarding Confucianismin (semi-)liberal ethnic Chinese society (See Annex A for the titles and content of the posts shown on Google).
As expected, the views expressed were divided. Those who criticize
Confucianism believe that it promotes inequality, absolute obedience toauthorities, blind filial piety, and subordination of oneself. Education on
Confucianism is labeled as an education of servility, serving as an antidemocratic tool to preserve the dictatorship and limiting modernization. In
contrast, those who view Confucianism positively believe that the incompatibility between Confucianism and liberal values is an artificial one thatstarted in ancient China. Authorities in the past distorted Confucianism andtailored it as a cover to support the absolute power of the emperor over its
people. Therefore, the problem is not Confucianism but those who use it forgoverning purposes and private interests. This debate can also be observedin commentaries about Confucianism, politics, and liberal values in local
news media; though the commentaries are more inclined toward supporting Confucianism that facilitates dictatorship (e.g., Hung, 2016, Yu, 2018; seealso BBC, 2015). Regardless of their stances, they have generally agreed that,firstly, the Chinese authority nowadays is a typical example that has instrumentalized Confucianism to reject human rights, equality, freedom, and/or
diversity. Secondly, Confucianism tends to encourage a vertical relationship(i.e., social hierarchy) instead of true equality.
Reformists, educators, and scholars have raised the view that ruling regimes since a century ago had used Confucianism and traditional culture toenslave the Chinese people,3 there is an increasing number of literature defending the compatibility between Confucianism and human rights values
in recent decades. For example, Tang (2010) argues that common grounds

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

225

can be found in the two ideologies by looking into the duty language (義務語言) and rights language (權利語言) in Confucianism. According to her,the Confucian world social order and harmony are built on a human relationship model in which family is the core. From personal life and family
to society and state, individuals are required to play roles to fulfill their responsibilities (pages 33-34). Yet, rights are not neglected in Confucian expression. Emphasizing the duty of the state to the people (e.g., protecting
the life of the people) is simultaneously emphasizing the fundamental rightsthat people can enjoy (e.g., the right to live) from a Confucian perspective(page 35). Most importantly, Confucianism not only carries the principles ofmutual obligation and the collective responsibility in each relationship but
also equality of dignity by highlighting the need to think about others when
taking action (page 33). Therefore, although Confucianism does not speak ofhuman rights, Tang believes that the ideology itself is not entirely unrelated
to what are being promoted nowadays (rights and equality in particular).
She further argues that language adopted by Emperor Wu of Han (141 BC to
87 BC) and succeeding regimes distorted Confucianism and turned it intoa unidirectional relationship by highlighting social status, stressing the dutyof obedience, and emphasizing loyalty or even unquestionable submission
to authority (pages 37-39).
Despite the subtle variances in the interpretation of Confucianism,
scholars who support the compatibility between Confucianism, democracy,
and human rights generally share similar view with that of Tang (e.g., Chan,
2011; Dan & Choy, 2011; Fetzer & Soper, 2007; Lee, 2002). They believe in thepossibilities of developing and enhancing human rights with Confucian values and agree on the view that Confucianism has been distorted to become
a tool of authoritarianism. As for the opposition, the strong emphasis ofConfucianism on social hierarchy is regarded as one of the main difficulties
in the promotion of human rights. From the Confucian perspective, duties
outweigh rights, obedience outweighs challenge, and harmony outweighs
conflicts (see also Chen, 2006; Gao, 2003; Weatherley, 2002). Additionally,some scholars, like Samuel Huntington, contend that the core values promoted in Confucianism (e.g., authority, cooperation, and responsibilities)
make the ideology contrary to democratic values (e.g., liberty, competition,and rights), and democracy can only succeed by weakening Confucianism
in society (Elstein, 2010; Fukuyama, 2010, page 22; Spina et al., 2011).4 Albeit
a consensus regarding the compatibility between Confucianism and human226

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

rights values (including democracy) is not yet established, it is clear thatthey are not entirely unrelated or hostile to each other.5 A path to coexistence may exist indeed.
Dialogue between Confucian Traditions and the Marriage Rights of Sexual
Minorities in Taiwan
Despite the suggested theoretical compatibility between Confucianismand human rights, Confucian concepts are barely found in the discourseof individuals or non-governmental organizations/non-profit organizations(ngos/npos) in promoting same-sex marriage rights in Taiwan. Rather,
Confucianism is regarded as an enemy to their cause. In July 2016, Jennifer
Lu,6 the current General Coordinator of the Taiwan Equality Campaign,7wrote an article for the Thinking Taiwan Forum,8 titled [Jennifer Thinking]
The Future of Marriage Equality in Taiwan – United to Change Confucianism
and Traditional Authoritarian Family Values. She argued that the key obstacles to promoting equal marriage rights were Taiwanese Confucian values and its affiliated family ethics, and thus accomplishing the expectationof parents and emphasizing family values were indispensable traditional
thoughts to the ethnic Chinese community (paras 6-7). Consequently, anindividual act of “coming out of the closet” challenged the entire family andsocial structure (para 9). From this viewpoint, furthering the developmentof lgbt rights and democratic and civil society requires people to unite and“challenge the parent-child relationship” and “alter the meaning of children
to the parents” (para 10).
This attack on Confucianism and traditional values, however, was relatively rare in 2010s when the same-sex marriage movement engaged themainstream society with the logic of appropriateness. Instead, the movement used the human rights language (see photos below for examples of human rights expressions, Figures 1 and 2) such as the Rainbow Flag, “(Anti-)
Bullying”, “(Anti-)Discrimination”, “Human Rights”, and “Equal Rights”, andalso individual-centered language such as “Self/I”, “Sex”, and “Love”. Thesesymbols and terms are different from the traditional Confucian language
which stresses “Us”, “Parents” and “Collectivity.” Although the movement
did not attack traditional values, it also did not localize the conceptual expression of lgbt rights in Taiwan. Nevertheless, there were attempts to incorporate universal claims of lgbt rights with local symbols, such as rec-Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society227

reating the national flag and map with the colors of the Rainbow Flag (seeFigure 2).

Figure 1. A pro-LGBTQ+ activity held in Taipei on 28 November 2016.

From left to right, top to down, the words shown in the images are:“Marriage equality is human rights, human rights cannot wait”; “Marriage
equality, forming a home because of love” (shown on the pink board) and“Pluralistic sexual desire” (shown on the green board); “Refuse to be a second class citizen, legislating a separate law = discrimination”; “Allowing
Stephen Curry to Cheat but barring lgbt from marriage”.9

Figure 2. A pro-LGBTQ+ protest in Taipei on 29 October 2016.

228

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

The board on the left side of the photo (Figure 2) states “Marriage equality;” the board on the right side of the photo states “Diverse Families.”10
Aside from organizing massive gatherings (e.g., protests) and formal
activities (e.g., public speaking, forums and lobbying), promoting lgbtq+
rights through cultural means is also observable in the work of ngos/npos.
For example, the Taiwan Alliance to Promote Civil Partnership Rights has
its own thematic song. Part of the lyrics are translated below:
The Right to Love Each Other11[Translated from Mandarin Chinese]…
It is more than the body existing between you and me, and inevery night.
It is more than the inseparable soul between you and me, between two persons.
It is not only about you and me, but a fair opportunity to beheard by more people.
To hear the right of us to love each other.
(Lyricist/Composer/Arranger/Signer: Vanny)
Similarly, the song used human rights and individual-centered language
such as “Rights” and “Love.” They neither criticize Confucianism nor selectively use Confucian concepts. More interestingly, when an outsider – who
is not familiar with the Taiwan Alliance to Promote Civil Partnership Rights– hears the song, it is quite difficult for him/her to recognize the lgbtq+
meanings carried by it. Rather, the song is more likely to be consideredmerely a romantic song. Thus, this strategy can help promote lgbtq+ rights
by avoiding triggering instant caution and resistance from an ordinary citizen when he/she hears the song. Songs, additionally, are a powerful cultural
tool to promote ideologies in human histories, such as La Marseillaise12
composed during the French Revolution in France (1789-1799), and Glory to
Hong Kong13 composed during the Anti-Extradition Bill Movement in Hong
Kong (2019-2021/present14). They are easy to disseminate and emotionallyinfluential and effective in strengthening the bonds between individuals
who uphold the same values.
In 2017, Mandopop singer Tanya Chua15 rearranged the song We Are
16
One to support the International Day against Homophobia, Transphobia,
and Biphobia. The lyrics echo those discussed in the previous paragraphs.
Eight Taiwanese singers were invited to sing the song and more than one

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society229

hundred Taiwanese celebrities were included in its music video. Celebrity
effects are exceptionally prominent in contemporary society. Since they are
public figures and have branding value, their endorsement not only increases
the visibility of the issue they promote but also emphasizes the appropriateness of accepting it. In other words, they have the power to reshape existing
culture in society. A study done in Canada shows that political statements
made by celebrities can make unpopular statements more acceptable to the
public (Jackson & Darrow, 2005).
Advertisements and videos are another set of tools that the pro-lgbtq+
organizations often used to communicate with the public during the samesex marriage movement. For example, Marriage Equality Coalition Taiwan(n.d., page 38) produced an advertising video titled “The Innate Thought ofa Father” on 2 December 2016. The video describes a father’s reaction when
he found out his oldest daughter was a lesbian, with the narrations doneby the father himself. While he was initially shocked by the revelation of
his daughter, he started to search for information about the lesbian concept
and relevant matters and was delighted to know that his daughter was living
happily with her partner and daughter. The video ends with a scene wherefamily members gathered for a family picture (photo below, Figure 3), interspersed with family pictures taken in the past. The video content challenges
the mundane understanding of Confucianism in at least two ways. Firstly,
the father is active in learning and accepting the behavior of his offspring.

Figure 3. Screenshot of the video “The Innate Thought of a Father”, The Present Tense of Family, 3
December 2016.17

230

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

From a traditional Confucian perspective, offsprings should fulfill the expectations and follow the instructions of parents (Chen, 2006, page 61). They
are supposed to understand their parents instead of seeking understanding
from them. Secondly, the family looks happy even when the oldest daughter
comes out of the closet and does not submit to the established hierarchy.
The meaning and image in the video imply that same-sex couples may not
impair family relationships. Whether intended or not, the video confronts
Taiwanese traditional family values and presents to the Taiwan public thepossibility of having an alternative way of living.
Another promotional material used is poster. One poster challenges the
traditional family structure, yet perhaps had won greater resonance in society (Figure 4). Wearing red sweaters, the two men (a homosexual couple)
are in separate reunion dinners with their family members during a Chinese
New Year Festival. The man in one photo is asked “Do you have a girlfriend?,”while the man in the other photo is asked, “Why haven’t you married a wife?”.
These questions are exceptionally familiar at the present time to most ethnic
Chinese when meeting relatives in meals to celebrate Chinese New Year.
Since being married and having offspring are significantly valued in terms of
performing filial piety to parents and family members in Confucian culture,these questions are endlessly repeated until one has fulfilled his/her family
mission. To some youth, these questions are a source of conflict during dinners. Hence, the poster captures the attention of heterosexual people (youth
in particular) as the situation resonates with their experiences.
Moreover, to homosexual couples, the poster shows the awkward situation where they can neither confess to their family members about their relationship nor be together in the same dinner. Maintaining harmony during
festivals is essential to traditional Chinese families. Revealing their relationship during dinner would make them a “common enemy” of relatives who
uphold traditional family values and subject them to criticism for breaking
family harmony. This perceived pressure within the family deters them fromcoming out of the closet. With the two characters looking straight at thecamera, the poster establishes a direct conversation with the audience as
well.
This poster astutely arranged verbal and visual languages. It not onlyinteracts with traditional Confucian values but also seeks to educate andstimulate the compassion of other (ethnic Chinese) citizens regarding theSame-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

231

dilemma of homosexual couples during the celebration of one of the mostimportant festivals in an ethnic Chinese society.

Figure 4. A poster created by the Marriage Equality Coalition Taiwan in 2017.

232

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3The two sentences written in white color in the lower portion of theposter translate to “In every Chinese New Year, (they) can only think of eachother by wearing similar clothe. (We) hope that we can join the reunion dinner together in the next Chinese New Year.”18
These promotional materials are crucial in connecting the culture of
the lgbtq+ community to mainstream society. They serve as a channel toinform the majority in the society about the needs of the lgbtq+ people
and the dilemmas encountered in their daily lives, and hence aimed at creating a culture by which lgbtq+ is not seen as something arcane or far frombeing understandable. In the promotion of their logic of appropriateness(i.e., marriage equality and protection of lgbtq+ rights), the pro-lgbtq+
bloc in Taiwan was active in adopting human rights and individual-centeredexpressions such as “Rights” and “Equality” and visual languages such as the
Rainbow flag. This choice of language contributes to the concept of familyby the same-sex marriage movement – a concept based on individual choice
and the love between two persons. The choice of language also helps to increase the visibility of the lgbt-supporting groups. Moreover, since thisculture goes contrary to Confucian traditions, Confucian values are barely
used to localize or promote their claims. Confucian and traditional elements
are often presented as either part of the background context or as ideas hostile to pro-lgbtq+ claims.
Rejecting Same-sex Marriage and LGBTQ+ Rights to Defend Confucian
Traditions
The promotion of lgbtq+ rights in Taiwan in the last decade did not happen without challenges. Like the pro-lgbtq+ bloc, the anti-lgbtq+ bloc
also adopted promotional materials to make their claims visible to the public, but using different verbal and visual languages. The anti-lgbtq+ blocin the last decade had four leading local anti-same-sex marriage organizations (established in 2013 – 2014): (1) the Coalition for the Happiness of
our Next Generation which is an advocacy group; (2) the Family Guardian
Coalition which represents religious parties; (3) the Defend Family Student
League which represents students; and (4) the Mothers Shield Alliance for
the Protection of Families and Children in Taiwan which represents women(mothers). Their ultimate goals are generally the same: oppose same-sex
marriage and/or lgbtq+-oriented inclusive education.

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

233

Despite their common objectives, the reasons behind their stanceare different. For example, the Coalition for the Happiness of Our Next
Generation listed six reasons for opposing same-sex marriage (2013, modified on 15 November 2016):
1. Legalizing same-sex marriage will consume enormous national resources and impact the government’s efforts to boost the economy;
2. Same-sex marriage has ignited social conflicts in many countries,
and Taiwan’s hasty promotion of it is bound to trigger social conflicts and internal divisions;3. The European Court of Human Rights has not reached a verdict on
the issue, so Taiwan should not become the first guinea pig in theethnic Chinese region;
4. Same-sex marriage lacks the potential for natural reproduction,
which is not conducive to family continuation and population
growth in Taiwan;
5. The largest group affected by HIV/AIDS is men who have sex withmen, and it has become one of the top ten causes of death among
teenagers;
6. Same-sex marriage does not align with the best interests of underage children.
Though disputable, the reasons (except for point six) are relatively plausible viewed objectively from social and economic perspectives. Acutely
articulating their claims with rational language (such as cost-benefit discussion) also makes their argument less sensitive and more plausible to local citizens. The Family Guardian Coalition was more outspoken about its
stance. In response to a proposal to amend Article 972 of the Civil Code tochange the definition of marriage as between a male and a female to twoparties, the Coalition made a public statement in 2016 about three reasonsfor the objection, summarized as follows:
1. Attempts to legalize homosexual relationships are considered as
official recognition and encouragement of the state to the sexual
activities between two homosexual persons. It will, therefore, leadto misconceptions and biases among the next generation regarding
sexual behavior;
2. Sexual activities between homosexual persons will not be acceptedby the majority;

234

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

3.

Legalization of same-sex marriage will “result in the breakdown ofhuman relationships and family hierarchies” and hence endanger
the traditional ethical structure.
Confucian language became more apparent in their statement, whichis especially reflected in point three when they used the term “human relationships (人倫)” and “family hierarchies (輩分)”. To understand how theyeducated the public about their logic of appropriateness (i.e., same-sex marriage and lgbtq+ rights should not be accepted), it is necessary to analyze
the promotional materials used.
Similar to the pro-lgbtq+ bloc, a series of massive gatherings and formal activities were launched by the anti-same-sex marriage bloc to maketheir concerns visible. Photo below (Figure 5) presents two pictures taken
and reported by news media in an anti-same-sex marriage rally held on 3
December 2016. In the first picture, people were sitting on the floor andholding a white sheet printed with the words “Marriage, Family, to be
Decided by All Citizens.” In the second picture, the words shown on the
backdrop are “To Be Decided by All Citizens, To Be Decided by Parents.”
The first sentence is about same-sex marriage, while the second sentence isabout inclusive education. Apart from the political calculation and context,19
it is not surprising that they connected the issue (same-sex marriage) to theidea of people making decisions on marriage issues. Family and family relationships lie at the core of Confucian ethics, the foundation of society. From
this perspective, the attempt to legalize same-sex marriage challenges theentire existing social institutions. Since children should follow the instructions of their parents, inclusive education is regarded as a device to disrupt
this established relationship by instilling in children a set of values different from their parents.20 The language used here is quite different from thewords and phrases that the pro-lgbtq+ bloc used in promoting their claims
to Taiwanese citizens.
Figure 5 shows the anti-same-sex marriage rally organized by The
Coalition for the Happiness of Our Next Generation that advocated‘Marriage and Family, To Be Decided by All’, asserting that “any government
effort to change the definition of marriage must go through a nationwide
referendum.”21
The Coalition for the Happiness of our Next Generation organized ananti-same-sex marriage rally on 3 December 2016 that prominently featured

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

235

Figure 5. An anti-same-sex marriage rally held on 3 December 2016.

Figure 6. Another picture taken during the anti-same-sex marriage rally held on 3 December 2016.

236

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

a large ball with the words “Black-Box Legislator Yu Mei-nu” on the stage(Figure 6).22
The advertisement videos, social media promotional materials, andbanners of the anti-lgbtq+ bloc use the Confucian language. In late 2016,
two advertising videos were broadcast on television in Taiwan. Both videos ask parents and families to participate in an upcoming anti-same-sex
marriage protest to be held on 3 December 2016. The videos immediately
brought controversies in society. Although the official source of the videos
was not found online, the videos were saved by citizens and uploaded on
YouTube. The narrations of the videos are translated below:
Video 1. Narrations [Translated]
One Husband and One Wife.
This is our marriage system.
“Homosexual people can marry” sounds fine, but “Husband
and Wife” will no longer exist on legal documents [after the legalization of same-sex marriage].
They can only be called as “Spouses”.
If “Husband and Wife” do not exist, neither can we call
“Father and Mother”, “Grandfather and Grandmother”, “Uncle”,“Auntie”, “Cousin (Male)”, “Cousin (Female)”.
All mess up together.
In order to allow same-sex couples to marry, “Father andMother” disappear,“Grandfather and Grandmother” vanish.
Do you agree with this sort of marriage system?
Millions of families, stand up on 1203!
The Civil Code must not be amended. Consider Alternative
Ways.
Video 2. Narrations [Translated]…(Content Missing in the Video)
This is the current form of sex education.
“Homosexual people can marry” sounds fine, but schools
have to educate our kids about what is “male having sex withmale” and “female having sex with female” since then (the legalization of same-sex marriage),
And parents cannot disagree.
Homosexual orientation can be acquired later in life.
Do you agree with this sort of education?
Millions of families, stand up on 1203!

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

237

The Civil Code must not be amended. Alternative ways canbe considered.

Figure 7. Screenshot of the video “Back-up of the Anti-Same-Sex Marriage Advertisement ‘1203 Million
Families Stand Up on 1203’ YouTube 360p.”23

Figure 8. Screenshot of the video “1203 Million Families Stand Up on 1203.”24

Materials published by other anti-same-sex marriage organizations andindividuals carry similar messages as in these videos. For example, on 31
December 2016, the Defend Family Student League posted a material on its
Facebook page titled “Anti-Same-Sex Marriage to Save Taiwan” (see Figure9) in Taiwanese Mandarin. A slogan was put below the title that reads “Notstriving for economic development, only igniting controversies, accepting

238

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3Same-Sex Marriage Bill, the end of family.” Four consequences of the billare listed in the material: (1) Kids will lose their fathers or mothers for theirwhole life; (2) The concept of a marriage built upon “One Husband, One
Wife” will be threatened; (3) It will become illegal to protest on the street (ifsame-sex marriage is legalized); (4) Providing service to homosexual people
cannot be refused in the future. Regarding the fourth point, the texts explainthat legalization of same-sex marriage would impact on religious freedom,
freedom of conscience, and the right of parents to participate in the education of their children.
The column on the left side of the table are about the consequences of legalizing same-sex marriage. Relevant
examples are provided in the columnson the right side of the table.25
Before the presidential election was held on 11 January 2020,
a massive number of banners wasused to promote anti-same-sex marriage claims and support or attack
the politicians based on their stanceon the issue.26 One of the most frequently seen banners was made by
the Mothers Shield Alliance For theProtection of Families and Children
in Taiwan. Figure 10 is an example ofit. With a picture of a woman holding a baby, the banner starts with two
Figure 9. A digital promotional material against sentences blaming the legislators ofsame-sex marriage.
the Democratic Progressive Party forpassing the same-sex marriage bill. In
the middle of the banner, it states “We want to have grandson/daughter(s)!”and “May the incense continue, passing down through generations.” In an
ethnic Chinese society, “incense (香火)” refers to offspring. Hence, “passing
down” means continuing the family bloodline. Some banners specified thename of a legislator while some did not. Nevertheless, three more banners
are shown in Figures 11-13, which were all found from November 2019 toJanuary 2020, as examples of messages that the anti-same-sex marriage bloc
is trying to convey to the public.

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

239

Figure 10. A banner made by the Mothers Shield Alliance for the Protection of Families and Children in
Taiwan found in a public area.

In the campaign propaganda against same-sex marriage, the slogan“End the lineage” is spreading throughout Taiwan, while pro-same-sex marriage groups are calling for votes for “lgbtq-friendly legislators.”27

Figure 11. A banner blaming the Democratic Progressive Party for promoting same-sex marriage.23

240

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Figure 12. A banner asking if homosexual couples can give birth to children.28

The sentences in the banner (Figure 12) state “We want to have grandson/daughter(s). We care about our incense and to pass it down to the next
generations. Men married men, women married women. Can (they) givebirth to a child? This is the bill forcefully promoted by G. I. Khu.” 29

Figure 13. A campaign banner of a Chinese Nationalistic Party candidate, Ai-Lun Meng, in an election
for Legislative Yuan members.

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society241

On the left side of the banner (Figure 13), from top to down, it states“Refuse drugs, aids, and Abusive Sexual Relationships. Do not educate
students to become homosexual persons. Oppose inclusion of same-sex
relationships and desire in the curricula for elementary and junior highschools.”30
Three prominent and interconnected Confucian values can be identified
from these promotional materials created by the anti-same-sex marriage
bloc when trying to educate the public about the justification of their claims.
First, marriage is relationship between male and female, one of the mostessential foundations of human relationships according to Confucianism.
Of the five constant relationships mentioned by Mencius (孟子) Teng Wen
Gong (Part One), one is “Distinction should exist between husband and wife
(夫婦有別).” The distinction not only refers to gender differences but also
to their role – men should work while women should assist the husband ineducating their offspring. From a traditional perspective, marriage is also
not a matter between two persons but between two families.
Necessarily, the second value is the family hierarchy and social status.
“Mother”, “Father”, “Grandfather”, etc. are not mere titles or call signs but
are status-reflecting terms. In traditional Chinese family dinner held during the Chinese New Year, for example, all relatives and their partners are
required to greet each other. When the youngest member talks with otherfamily members, he/she needs to call their titles instead of their names. It
will be regarded as disrespectful if he/she calls his/her uncle “Ken” instead of“Uncle”. In contrast, the oldest member of the family is entitled to call othersby their names, titles, or nicknames. Different from English, moreover, sometitles in Mandarin Chinese carry a more precise status-reflecting meaning.
For example, although “A Bwo (阿伯)”, “Shu Shu (叔叔)”, “Da Jyou (大舅)”,and “Er Jyou (二舅)” are all translated as “Uncle”, the first two are used todescribe the brothers of the father while the latter two are used to describe
the brothers of the mother. In other words, these titles also serve as a tool
to recognize the lineage background among family members. This is thesocial system (ritual and music system) according to Confucianism – thecorresponding etiquette and behavior of every person in a clearly defined
hierarchy. Therefore, when a Taiwanese associate professor of law told publicly that he would fall into pieces if his grandson/daughter did not call him“grandfather” (ETToday, 2014), he is not the first who had that concern, norwould he be the last saying so within the anti-same-sex marriage bloc.

242

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Third, and most importantly, is about offspring. Despite the fact that ordinary people may not recognize the Confucian-ness of it, there is an idiomthat ethnical Chinese parents and older generations frequently talk about –“There are three ways to be unfilial; the worst is to not have offspring (不孝有三，無後為大).” It is a quote from the book Li Lou (Part One) written by
Mencius. According to the explanation provided by the Revised Mandarin
Chinese Dictionary (Ministry of Education, 2021), the three unfilial behaviors are: (1) Blindly obeying parents, witnessing their wrongdoing without
providing them advice, and causing them to fall into injustice;31 (2) Though
the family is poor and parents are old, the child is neither working to feed
his/her family nor pursuing fame; (3) Not marrying a wife and having neither descendants to continue family traditions and bloodline, nor having
someone worship the graves of the ancestors in designated dates. Whereas
the first two ideas are often forgotten, the third is particularly memorized
and reiterated by older generations in ethnic Chinese society. Having a
grandchild is also somewhat regarded as a right of the elderly parents, andis “shown off ” to other relatives in reunion dinners and festivals. From theperspective of parents in traditional Chinese families, therefore, lighting
up incense is always regarded as one of the most prioritized missions the
younger generations should accomplish.
The concept of family to the anti-same-sex marriage bloc, hence, isbuilt upon traditional languages such as “One Man and One Wife,” “Sexual
Relationship Between A Husband and A Wife”, “Offspring,” “Titles,” and“Lineage.” These Confucian values reflected in the languages used in theirpromotional materials not only empowered them with a sense of appropriateness and the justification for making their claims but also functioned as athrust to promote their logic to the general public in Taiwan. Since Taiwan
is mainly composed of ethnic Chinese, their claims should have a stronger
resonation with the cognition of ordinary people than the pro-lgbtq+ bloc
whose languages are new from the traditional culture perspective.
To summarize, the triangular dialogic relationship between the prolgbtq+ bloc, the anti-lgbtq+ bloc and the general public on the same-sex
marriage issue in Taiwan has interesting characteristics. The means used topromote their respective causes have no great differences, but they used distinct sets of verbal and visual languages in their promotional materials andpositioned Confucianism – the local traditional culture – in very dissimilar
ways. To the anti-lgbtq+ bloc, Confucianism is clearly its most robust ally

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society243

to make their claims visible and tenable in Taiwanese society.32 But to the
pro-lgbtq+ bloc, Confucian language is either hidden or raised as an idea
detrimental to their cause. The pro-lgbtq+ bloc is more inclined to employ
human rights and individual-centered languages to redefine the concept offamily and love in society.
Future Challenges to the Promotion of Rights
Ever since the legalization of same-sex marriage in 2019 and the success of
the Democratic Progressive Party candidates in winning the presidency anda majority in the Legislative Yuan in the elections held in 2020, the development of lgbtq+ rights has been unprecedentedly positive in Taiwan. In civilsociety, pro-lgbtq+ organizations continue to educate the public about theexperiences, rights, and needs of their community through different activities. For example, in October 2022, they held an artistic event called the
Taiwan Queer Galart, an exhibition about the history of lgbtq+ protests
and movements in the past twenty years,33 and a “rainbow” bazaar that soldthings related to or supporting lgbtq+ community. The languages used in
the materials do not show great differences with the past materials. Formal
activities like forums or speeches are also frequently held in different cities in Taiwan. These events are not only about the presence of the lgbtq+
community but also connect to their past and work for a brighter future. In
the legal aspect, the government implemented new measures in 2023 thatallow homosexual families to adopt children and homosexual Taiwanese toregister his/her marriage with a non-Taiwanese. The protections of lgbtq+
rights, hence, are gradually expanding in the country.
In stark contrast, the anti-lgbtq+ bloc has lost its momentum. The
two largest anti-same-sex marriage organizations, the Family Guardian
Coalition and the Coalition for the Happiness of our Next Generation,
have stopped updating their Facebook account since 9 January 2020 and
14 December 2020 respectively. The latter has its own official website, yet
the last “updated news” was published on 31 March 2020. Among the fourorganizations, the Mothers Shield Alliance is the only one that continues
updating its Facebook account as of 2023. However, the materials they use
to defend their cause are rarely seen in public. Whereas the politicians ororganization leaders might have continued their work in alternative ways,
abandoning their platforms and retreating from public space indicate that

244

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

they have somewhat given up communicating with the pro-lgbtq+ bloc
and the public. Their opinions minimally appeared in the media, have goneunderground, or were presented as individual views.34
Is this the destination where the dialogue between Confucianism andlgbtq rights stops? As discussed in the literature review, democracy isbetter realized in a society with a weakened Confucianism. Hence, are therights of sexual minorities successfully promoted in an ethnic Chinese society because of the downfall of Confucianism? Or, did the promotion of
lgbtq rights succeed because Taiwan is already a democracy?
In the case of the same-sex marriage movement in Taiwan, the pro- andanti-lgbtq+/same-sex marriage blocs positioned themselves clearly to educate the public about their way of living and what they stand for. Both blocs
made little effort to appreciate the values supported by each side. While
the past political context led to the rise of the two blocs, that context haschanged with the existence of more space for reevaluating the possibilities
of incorporating some Confucian values into the claims of the pro-lgbtq+
bloc.35 This incorporation of Confucian values can help promote sexual minorities’ rights to people other than those who already have liberal orientation and reach those who have solid faith in Confucian traditions.
However, it is also possible that some of the Confucian values are notcompatible with sexual minorities’ rights. Those Confucian values that wereconsidered not compatible with sexual minorities’ rights were ignored or
disregarded by the pro-lgbt+ bloc. At the same time, some Confucian values as seen in the 2016 video “The Innate Thought of a Father” discussed
earlier are being redefined instead of being disregarded.
It must be noted that the goal of promoting human rights is not to silence a culture. Since culture is about a way of living which involves personalized interpretations, no proponent of a particular view should beteased, mocked or bullied. Though silencing could occur as a consequenceof human rights promotion, it should never be justified as one of its goals.
Otherwise, the human rights promotion will mean education of fear among
dissidents and deviants.
Use of Cultural Products in Human Rights Promotion
Cultural products such as video clips, movies and dramas are not uniquetools for human rights promotion in Taiwan. Looking back to the past de-Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

245

cade, they have been utilized as a tool and a place for promoting humanrights issues such as ethnic diversity, gender equality, and the rights ofsexual minorities in other countries (including western countries through
Hollywood in particular). In Taiwan, there are movies discussing lgbtq+
rights such as “Dear Tenant” (2020) and “Marry My Dead Body” (2023).
Noteworthily, Taiwan is not the only ethnic Chinese society where humanrights issues can be found in movies and dramas.
As of late 2023, for example, a terrestrial television channel in Hong
Kong broadcasted a love comedy called “Food Buddies”. In the first ten episodes, two sets of romantic relationships were depicted. The first set involved one female who directly mentioned her sexual orientation as pansexual, another female whose behavior in the drama looks pansexual, and a“straight” male who later learned to accept the pansexual orientation of thefemales. In episode two, the pansexual female explained to the male the concept of pansexuality and gender identity using a sauce plate as a metaphor.
She said, some people like having simple sauce while others prefer adding
condiments like garlic, green onion, or cilantro into the sauce. People choose
what they like and hence each person’s sauce plate is unique. Gender identity, therefore, is like the ingredients of a mixed sauce. The metaphor perfectly
localized the gender identity issue since making a mixed sauce is somethingthat Hongkongers would do whenever they eat Da Bin Lou (打邊爐).36 This
type of hotpot food is one of the most common meal choices for people who
would like to gather friends or family members. People create their own
sauces by selecting condiments before the meal starts. The metaphorized
language helps the public to understand one of the most important topics
in the contemporary human rights agenda. The drama, therefore, creates asimplified dialogue between gender identity and local culture, and between
sexual minority issues and the public. The drama also includes other sexualand romantic issues such as homosexuality, polyamory (having or desiring
multiple intimate relationships at the same time with the full knowledge andconsent of all parties involved37), marriage, and netorare (ntr).38
While the role and merits of cultural products in shaping and promoting culture are recognized (Cayla & Eckhardy, 2008; Maisuwong, 2012), themain question is about the extent of help the cultural products can provide
in promoting human rights in a formal way (i.e., legal way). For example, it
should not be forgotten that Japan is a pioneer and one of the most influential countries in promoting “soft power” (power based on intangible or246

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

indirect influences such as culture, values, and ideology39) and has a welldeveloped entertainment industry which frequently used Boy’s Love (andGirl’s Love) as a genre of novels and anime since decades ago. And yet Japanis not a pioneer in legalizing same-sex marriage in Asia; Taiwan pioneered
it. Does it mean that in the East Asian context, what happens in entertainment stays as entertainment? Or is it a country-based problem caused byother factors? These questions deserve further attention and investigation.
Implications and Framework of Analysis
This article discusses two implications. Firstly, the choice of languages andmeans in the bottom-up promotion of a particular right depends on thecharacter of the issue involved. “3+1” questions can help in this regard.
The “3” questions refer to the following: Whether or not the humanright or human rights issue involved
1. has obtained official recognition,
2. relates to local cultural heritage, and3. requires challenging one or more existing concepts with established cultural meaning in mainstream society.
Answering these questions would facilitate understanding of how theright or issue involved is viewed in society and hence the availability of strategies for its promotion. For example, in the case of the same-sex marriage
movement, the issue did not have an official recognition (e.g., protection oflaw) and did not involve local cultural thinking.40 But its promotion must
challenge the cultural understanding of the concepts of “Family,” “Love” and“Relationship” which are deeply rooted in society. The movement had toborrow definitions from non-Chinese cultures and adopt the human rights
language to distinguish its message from the existing concepts in society
and increase its visibility.
The “+1” question helps to identify the characteristics of the promotional measures by looking into the primary purpose of the actions (i.e., adoption of the means) taken by relevant parties. The pro-lgbtq+ bloc aimed
to redefine the current logic and strive for official recognition. Hence, theyneeded to be active and direct in interacting with society.

Figure 14. An inquiry framework to understand the position (strategies) of the promotion of human rights issues in civil society.

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

247

248

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3The inquiry framework of the promotion of human rights or humanrights issues in civil society, shown in the flow chart (Figure 14), not only assists civil society actors in locating themselves and employing corresponding strategies in their context, but also provides scholars and researchers agateway to understand why one or more specific languages or means wereadopted and how they were different from other cases of promotion of human rights in different societies. (See Annex B for additional explanation of
the framework.)
However, two things regarding this framework should be noted. Firstly,
the framework is built upon the cases studied in this article. Its application
to other societies awaits further examination. A more thorough quantitative analysis of the languages used in the promotion of lgbtq+ in Taiwan
can provide additional insights on this framework, and its modification as
well. Secondly, the framework does not guarantee that the promotion ofhuman rights or human rights issues in every society will always fit any ofthe eight promotion models. Human rights promotion is a dynamic process
in which the needs and positions vary depending on the context. One ofthe determinants of this framework is that the country is presumed to be aliberal democracy in which civil society is free to discuss, support or oppose
any issue. If human rights languages are illegal in an authoritarian country,
for example, the promotion of particular rights will be forced to repress its
human rights character. If human rights are seen as foreign and illegal ideas
in an authoritarian country, for example, the promotion of particular rights
as human rights will be repressed and promotional activities will be constrained to incorporate only the existing cultural concepts. Nevertheless,the framework is suggested as a useful tool for civil society actors to determine ways to promote human rights and for scholars to study how languages and means are used according to the appreciation of human rights
issues in a society.
The second implication of this article is that theoretical compatibility
does not indicate that the culture will be used by civil society to promoteparticular rights. Although Confucian values are argued to be compatible
with human rights values, they were not adopted by the pro-lgbtq+ bloc
to promote their rights in the same-sex marriage movement. Instead, it
was more common for the anti-lgbtq+ to speak of Confucianism. Insteadof generalizing the relationship between local culture and human rights,
it seems better to work on specific human rights or issues and to portray

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

249

the relationship using more accurate and specific situations. Additionally,neither bloc was interested in the discussion about “classic” or “neo-”
Confucianism, which is somewhat a hot topic for scholars. Therefore, rather
than focusing on the theories about or on top-down efforts in portraying
the relationship between local culture and human rights, there is a need tounderstand how people in society interpret and practice them in their daily
lives. This can provide insights for deepening human rights promotion indifferent societies and enriching academic discussion.
Conclusion
This article presents the use of languages, culture and means in the promotion of same-sex marriage rights in Taiwan in the last decade (2010s-2020s).
The pro-same-sex marriage movement employs proactive measures to educate the ordinary people about lgbtq+ issues and to contest the logic of
the anti-lgbtq+ bloc. It is forced to be selective in the languages used inorder to be distinguished in the arena of logic of appropriateness and society. Consequently, the pro-lgbtq+ bloc marginalized Confucianism – if notregard it as harmful – and its affiliated expression and chose human rightsrelated terms and expressions as the pillar in their promotional materials.
The anti-lgbtq+ bloc chose the opposite. While their means of promotion
are largely the same, their distinct sets of cultural languages can be observed
throughout most of the materials used in the last decade. Since the languages employed by the two blocs are distinctive, the cultural interactions(dialogues) were direct, intense, loud and clear.
Moreover, the case of Taiwan can be unique among ethnic Chinese societies. Compared to China, Hong Kong, and even Singapore, Taiwan has
developed more favorable institutions for human rights and democratic education. In terms of formal institutions, it has free and fair elections, the ruleof law, and legal protections on freedom of expression and other fundamental rights. Some also believe that human rights promotion in Taiwan is relatively less problematic in the sense that the Taiwanese society has alreadyaccepted Westernized ideology in education since the 1990s (Dan & Choy,2012, page 96). As for informal institutions, it has an active civil society withmany of its members having faith in democracy and general human rights
values. Most importantly, the conservative political party lost its presidency
and majority in Congress since 2012. When the conservative political party

250

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

won the presidency in 2009, there was a regression in equality and diversity
promotion (Cheung, 2022, page 101). These conditions formed the most robust ground for free, diverse and influential dialogues on human rights andsociety and resulted in more active human rights promotion programmingin Taiwan during the last decade.
Hong Kong is supposed to be the second ethnic Chinese society where
democratic education and human rights promotion can thrive. It shares thesame conditions and a similar culture with Taiwan, with two exceptions onsovereignty and democratic institutions issues. These issues are the mostlethal obstacles to human rights promotion in Hong Kong; which has been
exacerbated since 2021. Aside from the gloomy future of political rights andthe rule of law, civil rights such as religious freedom and the rights of sexual
minorities are also in danger. Since the autocratization in Hong Kong requires the city to “Chinanize” itself, it would not be surprising if sexual minorities would be penalized and religions institutions would have to submit
themselves to the superior power of the Chinese Communist Party in the
future. The use of fear in ruling Hong Kong has turned the city into one of
the most unfavorable cities for human rights promotion in East Asia.
Therefore, although the experiences of Taiwan in the promotion of lgbtq+ can provide references for civil societies in Asian (and other) democracies, they are neither immediately nor directly replicable to other ethnic
Chinese societies since there is a great institutional difference between the
countries. Civil societies should search for their paths in human rights promotion by referencing each other and considering the framework offeredin this article. Nevertheless, it should be emphasized that a unidirectional
top-down refusal to search for the possibilities of promoting human rights
in society should not be praised. Otherwise, human rights development will
only be distorted or thwarted for private as well as governance purposes.
Acknowledgment
I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to Jeff Plantilla for hiscomments and suggestions in preparing this article.

251

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

Annex A. Online discussion of Confucianism in Taiwan andHong Kong
The first ten results of ptt and lihkg posts discussing Confucianism
shown on Google Search when the two sets of key terms (“Confucianism” &“ptt” and “Confucianism” & “lihkg”) were searched .
Date of Publication

Title of the Post [Translated]

Theme of the Post [Summary]

30 April 2023

When did Confucianism deviate from its
original path?

When did Confucianism become a trashstressing filial piety and social hierarchy?

16 February 2016

Is Confucian culture the main obstacle tothe progress of ethnic Chinese?

Is Confucianism the reason why the West isleaving the East behind?

28 June 2014

Re: Any gossip about Confucianism
causing harm to people?

Confucian ritual religion (禮教) is not thecore idea of Confucius but is an articulationof thoughts instead. Confucianism wasturned into a tool to enslave citizens by theEmperors and the ruling authorities.

5 October 2021

What are the problems with the kindnessof Confucianism?

Confucianism stresses kindness. Why is it
confused nowadays?

5 April 2022

Re: Is Confucian culture a malignant
tumor?

Since the adoption of militarism in the Qin
dynasty, Confucianism had been transformed
into a brainwashing tool for governance. The
Chinese world (中華世界) is the parallelworld in which Nazi Germany defeated U.S.
and U.K.

30 April 2023

Re: Is Confucianism the main reason for
China’s lag behind the West?

The social hierarchy stressed by
Confucianism favors governing “garlic chives[human] farm” in ancient China.

7 August 2023

Re: Why is there no one questioning
Confucianism in Chinese history?

The author quoted criticisms from theGerman philosopher Max Weber regarding
the values of Confucianism.

1 May 2023

Re: Is Confucianism the main reason for
China’s lag behind the West?

Rather than Confucianism, rulers who use thethought to limit the thoughts of the people
are those who should be criticized.

13 February 2023

What are the drawbacks of Confucianism
in modern society?

What are the defects of Confucianism incontemporary society? Why can foreigncountries develop well without it?

22 August 2019

Is Confucianism beneficial or harmful tothe development of modern nations?

Asking for the pros and cons ofConfucianism to modernization.

Another set of Top 10 results of LIHKG posts discussing Confucianism shown on Google search
25 October 2021

Confucianism must be eliminated.
Otherwise, equality will not be achieved
even if the Chinese people founded their
new regime.

Confucianism does not promote equality
but only hierarchy. Therefore, freedom andequality will not be enjoyed even if thecommunist party is destroyed.

252

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

22 April 2022

[Provocation] People often complain
The author argued that the subject ofabout Confucian brainwashing education
National Language in secondary educationin Chinese language and literature classes. did not brainwash students.
Did they actually pay attention in class?

2 November 2020

Is Confucian thinking still relevant?

The social hierarchy promoted by
Confucianism can encourage harmony since
everybody is regulated by the hierarchicalstructure without conflicts.

26 May 2023

What is new about New Confucianism?
Introduction to the historical perspectiveof New Confucianism, reasons for
opposing Buddhism, and concerns about
democracy and science. [“Contemporary
Issues Faced by New Confucianism andIts Development”]

Introducing Neo-Confucianism.

14 May 2020

Confucius was f _ _ king harmful topeople.

Confucianism has overly promoted social
status and hierarchy which has poisoned
Chinese for generations and led to thesituation in which Chinese people havebecome a lap dog to the Communist Partyof China.

13 June 2022

Many bookworms read a lot of books
and constantly citing literature, but theirinference is a mess.

The author criticized an article that argues
the positive relationship between patriarchy
and Confucianism.

15 April 2023

If we rewrite history, we should replace
Confucianism with Mohism.41

Praising the merits of Mohism.

24 Feb 2023

After some understanding of Buddhism/
Christianity/Taoism/ Confucianism, I foundthat Buddhism and Taoism are mostsuitable for me.

The author expressed his own opinion about
which Chinese ideology fits him/herself/.

8 November 2018

So-called Confucianism is like a drug.
Hong Kong will have no future if it is notcompletely eradicated.

The author believes that the new futureof youth can only be built on a complete
destruction of Chinese culture (Confucianism
in particular).

21 April 2022

Are there any English books that
introduce Confucianism and Taoism?

Asking for recommendations about books
introducing Confucianism and Daoism inEnglish.

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

253

Annex B. Additional explanation of the analytical frameworkpresented in Figure 14
The first question about official recognition from the central government defines thefundamental character of a particular human right or human rights issue in a country. If thestate officially recognizes that right/issue, there should be more legal and policy-related(political) means available for the promotion of that right/issue in society. For example,
in a situation where an anti-discrimination law has been legislated, the promotion of
the equality of indigenous people can stress that “Article OO of the Anti-Discrimination
Law prohibits any discrimination acts based on indigeneity, race, or gender.” If someone
discriminates against indigenous people with malice, pro-indigenous rights groups
can employ legal means (e.g., lawsuits) to defend the rights and promote the legal
significance of the right. Civil society actors can also promote that right/issue by informal
and civil-society-based means such as protests and street banners, while incorporating
the languages (i.e., choice of words, definition, and concepts) stipulated in that law or
relevant policies to increase the credibility of their promotion materials. As for the rights/
issues without official recognition, however, promotions mainly rely on informal and civilsociety-based means with limited accesses to legal and policy measures.
The second question concerns the localness of a right/issue. Localness refers
to the local cultural properties [heritage] carried by that right/issue. For example, thediscussion of the rights of a group of indigenous people must involve the discussion of
their indigenous culture (e.g., dialects, customs, and traditions). These cultural properties
are not attached to the issue but are the backbone of it. Hence, the “localness” here ismore than just about “relatedness” – in a strict sense, it is about “innateness”; in a casual
sense, it is about “thickness”. A typical set of cultural properties includes but not limited
to spoken and written languages, collective history, traditions and customs, land, and/or
visual and acoustic symbols (e.g., ideograms and ballads). Atayal, one of the indigenous
groups in Taiwan, for instance, has its own linguistic system which writes and pronounces
words differently from Taiwanese mainstream society (Taiwanese Mandarin). They also
have traditional festivals and customs that are different from those of mainstream society
in Taiwan. The innateness/thickness of local cultural properties inherited by indigenous
peoples enriches the options of languages and means in the promotion of indigenous
rights. For example, they can write a song in Atayal about a specific history or custom of
their people and utilize the power of pop culture to spread it out, or they can educate thepublic about their traditions and rituals by celebrating their festivals regularly and publicly.
In contrast, as explained previously, the LGBTQ+ issue in Taiwan does not hold such
sort of cultural properties. Therefore, they had to rely on informal and civil society-based

254

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3means and human rights languages in the promotions made in the last decade.
The third question, which is about whether the promotion of a right/issue will
challenge an existing concept that has an established cultural meaning in mainstream
society, delineates the critical position of that right/issue in society. To put it simply, achallenge will be posted if the promotion contains a concept that is exclusive and/or has
been culturally defined. For example, the promotion of the preservation of indigenous
festivals is unlikely to overthrow the existing concept of “Festival” since it is relatively
neutral. A challenge will be posed, however, if the promotion is trying to redefine “Chinese
New Year Festival” – a culturally exclusive concept to ethnic Chinese. In the case of LGBT+
marriage rights in Taiwan, although the word “Family” is neutrally definable, the concept
of it is tightly bound to the Confucian culture in ethnic Chinese society. Consequently, thepromotion of LGBT+ marriage rights was (is) considered a challenge to the establishedconcept of “Family”. Since a successful promotion of it requires a new “family” concept,
the foremost job of civil society actors was to make their logic distinguishable from theexisting one. Without the availability of local culture, laws, and policies, human rights
languages were the most robust tool to achieve this goal.
With the three questions as the filters of a funnel, the promotion of human rights
or human rights issues will eventually fall into one of eight models with corresponding
characteristics as shown in Figure 14. They are summarized below:
Model 1(a). Without state recognition and lack of local cultural properties, yet not
challenges the mainstream meanings of existing concepts.
The promotion of human rights/human rights issue requires borrowing or referencing
a definition of relevant concepts from a foreign culture and are human rights languageoriented. Means are mainly informal and civil society-based, which are employed toeducate the public about the new concepts.
Model 1(b). Without state recognition and lack of local cultural properties, yetchallenges the mainstream meanings of existing concepts.
The promotion of human rights/human rights issue requires borrowing or referencing
a definition of relevant concepts from a foreign culture and are human rights languageoriented. Moreover, languages are selectively adopted to distinguish themselves from themainstream cultural meanings of existing concepts. Means are mainly informal and civilsociety-based, which are employed to educate the public about the differences between
their logic and the existing logic.
Model 2(a). Without state recognition, yet holds unique local cultural properties.
Promoting the concept of human rights/human rights issue equals promoting theculture of it. It is possible that heritage-based cultural languages are mingled withhuman rights languages to create new or enhance understanding, and/or increase theSame-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

255significance of a particular right/issue. Promotions are composed of traditional, cultural,modern, and/or informal and civil society-based means.
Model 2(b). Holds local cultural properties, yet lacks state recognition andchallenges the mainstream meanings of existing concepts.
Whereas local cultural languages are used in the promotion of human rights/humanrights issue, languages are selectively used since it needs to distinguish themselves fromthe mainstream cultural meanings of existing concepts. Hence, it is more likely that thelanguages used in promotion are mingled with human rights languages. Promotions arecomposed of traditional, cultural, modern, and/or informal and civil society-based means.
Model 3(a). Lack of local cultural properties, yet state recognition has beenobtained and no or limited distinguishment is required.
The promotion of human rights/human rights issue requires borrowing or referencing
a definition of relevant concepts from a foreign culture. Promotions are also able to adopt
legal and/or policy languages to make their claims more credible. Human rights languages
are quite likely to be incorporated into promotions as well. Since the state has recognized
the right/issue, society should have been developing a value-based culture by whichcitizens should have faith in the institutions of that right/issue. Promotions are composedof modern, cultural (valued-based), formal, and/or informal means.
Model 3(b). Without local cultural properties, distinguishment is required eventhough official recognition is obtained.
The promotion of human rights/human rights issue requires borrowing or referencing
a definition of relevant concepts from a foreign culture. Promotions are also able toadopt legal and/or policy languages to make their claims more credible. Human rights
languages are very likely to be adopted. Languages are selectively adopted to make theright/issue distinguishable. Promotions are composed of modern, cultural (valued-based),
formal, and/or informal means.
Model 4(a). All-rounded promotion.
Without the need to seek state recognition or to make distinctions, the languages andmeans available for the promotion of human rights/human rights issue are all-rounded. It
is very likely that the meanings of the concepts contained in that right/issue have become
the mainstream meanings as well.
Model 4(b). All-rounded promotion with the need to be distinctive.
Without the need to seek state recognition, the languages and means available forthe promotion of human rights/human rights issue are nearly all-rounded. However, since
mainstream society still upholds meanings of certain concepts that are different fromthe meanings promoted by that right/issue, promotions are required to continue the256

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

distinctions.
Last but not least, the Plus-One question helps identify the choices of languages andmeanings in promotions. Technically speaking, all acts – as long as they have audiences– are promotions. Hence, the purpose of the act will define the characteristics of thelanguages and means used in a promotion. For example, if a person would like to express
his support for the legislation of LGBT+ marriage rights, the simplest way is to write apublicly accessible post on Facebook or Instagram. As an act of expression, neither does it
seek active conversation with the public, nor it is a direct promotion of the right. The choiceof languages can be simple and lacks deliberation as well. Another example would be thefestivals of indigenous people. If they are celebrating the festivals mainly because of theirtraditions, seeking conversation with the public will be considered as a secondary or side
goal. The promotion of indigenous rights/issues is hence indirect since it mainly relies on
the media or government bodies who report their practices and increase their visibility tothe public. In contrast, in the case of needing to create a new logic of appropriateness,
like the pro-LGBT+ bloc in Taiwan as discussed, active conversations with mainstream
society are required. The promotion of rights is the primary goal of the acts since they are
all about human rights education – the education of a new logic. Therefore, the Plus-One
question helps understand what languages and means are preferable for the promotionof human rights or human rights issues, and why a particular set of languages and meansare (more likely to be) adopted in the promotion of those rights and issues in certain
contexts.
Overall, the analytical framework proposed and explained here gives insight into thestrategies of human rights promotion in different contexts. The first three questions clarify
what is included in a stationary box, while the Plus One question determines which tool
should or will be picked to carry out the act of promotion. When the context changes,
the decision-making process of how to promote a human right or human rights issue is
supposed to go through the funnel again. Consequently, the tools sit inside the stationary
box will be shuffled accordingly.

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

257

Endnotes
1 For example, it would be unconvincing to claim that human rights and democracy do not fit with the culture in Hong Kong since the local people have been
enjoying partial freedoms since decades ago and mainstream society was urging forthem. Therefore, the violations are not because of the incompatibility between cultures but the political interests of the ruling parties.
2 In Judicial Yuan Interpretation No. 748, the Constitutional Court made thefollowing ruling:
The provisions of Chapter II on Marriage of Part IV on Family of the Civil Codedo not allow two persons of the same sex to create a permanent union of intimate
and exclusive nature for the purpose of living a common life. The said provisions, tothe extent of such failure, are in violation of the Constitution’s guarantees of both thepeople’s freedom of marriage under Article 22 and the people’s right to equality under Article 7. The authorities concerned shall amend or enact the laws as appropriate
in accordance with the ruling of this Interpretation within two years from the dateof announcement of this Interpretation. It is within the discretion of the authorities concerned to determine the formality for achieving the equal protection of thefreedom of marriage. If the authorities concerned fail to amend or enact the laws as
appropriate within the said two years, two persons of the same sex who intend tocreate the said permanent union shall be allowed to have their marriage registration effectuated at the authorities in charge of household registration, by submitting
a written document signed by two or more witnesses in accordance with the said
Marriage Chapter.
No. 748 [Same-Sex Marriage Case], Judicial Yuan Interpretation No. 748,
Constitutional Court, 24 May 2017, https://cons.judicial.gov.tw/en/docdata.
aspx?fid=100&id=310929.
3 The New Culture Movement initiated in the 1910s and 1920s – after the fallof the Qing dynasty – was one of the most potent events in the modernization ofChina. The Movement criticized traditional Chinese culture and advocated embracing Westernized ideals such as science and democracy. It was led by outstanding scholars such as Lu Xun and Hu Shih whose literature and theories still exert
influence nowadays. Among the leaders, Liang Qichao is one of those who held astrong opposition to Religious Confucianism. Although he agrees with the meritsof Confucianism as a moral philosophy, he believes that the long-existing despotism
in China had created a traditional morality of servility, and hence the correction of
it not only requires criticism but also the need to implement the rule of law and democracy (Chao, 2000, pages 74-75). See also Lai (2015).
4 The claims made by particular governments in protecting themselves fromthe implementation of human rights protections are not included in this section.
Compared to scholars, it is more often to see authoritarian countries, such as theexamples mentioned in the first section of this article, using Confucianism or traditional values to justify their violations of human rights.
5 See the following articles for further discussions: Dallmayr, F. (2017). “Asianvalues” and global human rights. In Theories of Rights (pages 393-409). Routledge; He,
B. (2017). “Persistent conflicts between Confucianism and democracy”; Wei-ming, T.

258

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3(2012). “A Confucian perspective on human rights,” in Confucianism, Chinese history
and society (pp. 1-22).
6 She is a politician affiliated with the Social Democratic Party since 2015 andan activist in promoting the rights of lgbt in Taiwan.
7 It is an organization promoting gender inequality and a diverse and inclusive
Taiwan. Its predecessor is the Marriage Equality Coalition formed by five women’s
rights and lgbtq+ rights organizations (Taiwan Equality Campaign, n.d.).
8 The forum was created by the Thinking Taiwan Foundation.
9 “[Video] Support Same-Sex Marriage, Oppose Special Legislation! Tens ofThousands Gather at the Legislative Yuan”, CTS, November 28, 2016, https://news.
cts.com.tw/cts/politics/201611/201611281825096.html.
10 “The deadline for legalizing same-sex marriage on May 24th is approaching. Lgbt advocacy groups will station themselves at the legislative Yuan next
week,”
Liberty Times Net, May 11, 2019, https://news.ltn.com.tw/news/life/
breakingnews/2787285.
11 The full version of the song can be found on the website of the Taiwan Allianceto Promote Civil Partnership Rights: https://tapcpr.org/tapcpr-news/about-tapcpr.
12 This song is available on YouTube (La Marseillaise, French National Anthem(Fr/En), www.youtube.com/watch?v=4K1q9Ntcr5g).
13 This song is available on YouTube (Glory to Hong Kong, First version, with
ENG subs), www.youtube.com/watch?v=y7yRDOLCy4Y).
14 Although the Anti-Extradition Bill Movement ceased in Hong Kong inaround 2021, the diasporic community of HongKongers has continued to hold activities in different countries around the world.
15 She was born in Singapore and is now living in Taiwan.
16 This song is available on YouTube (We Are One Feat. Tanya X aMei X Sandy
X Naying X Rainie X Elva X Alin X S, www.youtube.com/watch?v=UiFgnS1eJRM&p
p=ygUUd2UgYXJlIG9uZSDolKHlgaXpm4U%3D).
17 Thisvideo
isavailableon
YouTube,www.youtube.com/
watch?v=FC_F0UKu1kQ&t=1s.
18 From the Facebook of Taiwan Equality Campaign, 25 January 2017, www.
facebook.com/equallovetw/photos/a.201735676949226/236632286792898/?type=3.
19 Although they were proposing a referendum to decide the future of samesex marriage, it was not formally proposed, accepted, and held in 2018.
20 According to traditional logic, children should follow parental instructions.
If inclusive education is implemented, their kids may uphold different sets of values that challenge their parents. As a result, harmony in family relationships will beendangered.
21 R. Y. Yen, The Storm Media, 3 December 2016, www.storm.mg/
article/197345?page=1.
22 Yen, ibid.
23 Generally speaking, the Democratic Progressive Party (dpp) tends to support same-sex marriage and lgbtq+ rights while the China Nationalist Party (kmt)
tends to be against them. When an article related to the right of same-sex couples toregister their marriage was voted in the Legislative Yuan, for example, more than 50
legislators of those who voted for Yes were from the ddp (with one voted for No andSame-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

259

twelve either abstained or did not participate in the meeting) (MainStream News,2019). In contrast, only seven legislators from the KMT voted for Yes, and 23 voted
for No.
24 Coalition for the Happiness of our Next Generation, 2 December 2016, Eve
Chen YouTube Channel. www.youtube.com/watch?v=P4KWS8tN2zE.
25 “Anti-Same-Sex Marriage to Save Taiwan”, Defend Family Student League,
31 December 2016, www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=699276583580641&set=
pb.100064513969795.-2207520000.
26 Generally speaking, the Democratic Progressive Party (dpp) tends to support same-sex marriage and lgbtq+ rights while the China Nationalist Party (kmt)
tends to be against them. When an article related to the right of same-sex couples toregister their marriage was voted in the Legislative Yuan, for example, more than 50
legislators of those who voted for Yes were from the dpp (with one voted for No andtwelve either abstained or did not participate in the meeting) (MainStream News,2019). In contrast, only seven legislators from the KMT voted for Yes, and 23 voted
for No.
27 K. F. Lee, The News Lens, 7 January 2020, www.thenewslens.com/
article/129736/page4.
28 “Against same-sex marriage of the Democratic Progressive Party, exterminating descendants,” Y. S. Liao, Facebook, 30 November 2019, www.facebook.com/
photo/?fbid=1310925539079308&set=pcb.1310932819078580.
29 “[A banner asking if homosexual couples can give birth to child],” Y. C. Lin,
Facebook, 27 December 2019, www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=10221084854567983&set=a.10220996286953848.
30 “[A campaign banner of a Chinese Nationalistic Party candidate]”, Facebookof Y. C. Lin, 19, December 2019, https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=102210008
58268128&set=a.10220996286953848.
31 This is another example of literature indicating that traditional Confucianism
does not promote absolute obedience or absolute hierarchy which are always used
to argue the incompatibility between Confucianism and human rights (and democracy). According to this traditional thought, children who obey their parents blindly
are blamed as unfilial for their foolish behavior.
32 In the battle of culture (i.e., fighting for the majority’s support to their logic
of appropriateness and against same-sex marriage), additionally, the anti-same-sex
marriage groups had been twisting their use of language in a strategic way. Figure
13 is an example, in which they linked inclusive education to the “education of ahomosexual child”. Another example is the request made by the Coalition for theHappiness of Our Next Generation (Xie, 2018). They asked the media to call them “
愛家團體 (a group that loves home)”, instead of “反同團體 (anti-homosexual group)”
which has been used for a while. By changing the name, it presents an image indicating that people who share the same stance with the Coalition are those who lovehome (or family), while those who do not (i.e., pro-lgbtq+ individuals and organizations) are not. Despite their potentially discriminative nature and stigmatization
character, such strategies are sometimes quite effective in making their culture more
appropriate than others to the swing citizens who have a stronger attachment totraditional values.

260

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

33 The title of the exhibition is “Walk with Pride”. See www.songshanculturalpark.org/exhibition/activity/8168ad8d-f113-4033-af27-c70d3855f5ea (in Mandarin
Chinese).
34 In the pro-lgbtq+ protest held on 30 October 2022, a Taiwanese was standing alone and holding a board with the text “I am normal. Oppose same-sex marriage” (Liberty Times Net, 2022). Two males were standing right beside him and one
was kissing the other.
35 During the same-sex marriage movement, both blocs had to gain supporters
by presenting their ideologies in an outspoken way. Any attempts to use the values
or languages of the opposition were not preferable in that those elements would
confuse their supporters.
36 According to the romanization system established by the Linguistic Societyof Hong Kong, the formal romanization of the Hongkongese words “打邊爐” is “Da2
Bin1 Lou4.”
37 Polyamory, Britannica, www.britannica.com/topic/polyamory.
38 Netorare (寝取られ), a Japanese word meaning cuckold, has been used todescribe cases of adultery.
39 Glen S. Fukushima, Japan’s “Soft Power,”Japan Foreign Trade Council, www.
jftc.jp/monthly/archives/001/201802/9480ee77341ac62987618120e86cd807.pdf.
40 Arguably, the pro-same-sex marriage group has two cultural properties.
First, the value (i.e., the right to same-sex marriage is needed and should be protected) shared among the pro-lgbtq+ bloc members. Second, the collective memories
of being not officially recognized or discriminated against in the country. However,
the history is short, and the cultural thickness is still weak.
41 Mohism is one of the Chinese philosophies proposed during the period of
the Hundred Schools of Thought in the Zhou dynasty. It is famous for suggesting
equality and universal love – indiscriminate caring – between individuals, and also
in opposing invasion. Yet due to the influences of modern culture (e.g., the movie “A
Battle of Wits”), the image of being good at military tactics (especially in defending acity) may be more prevailing indeed. See Fraser (2002) and Robins (2012).

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

261

References
Acharya, A. 2004. “How ideas spread: Whose norms matter? Norm localization andinstitutional change in Asian regionalism,” International organization, 58 (2),239-275.
BBC. 2015. Gwan chapikungdzwunkungdushrgung gutung jrgung jyu [Observation:
The worship of Confucius and the Confucian ideology have both beenused as tools to strengthen rule], BBC, www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/
china/2015/01/150116_pilinpikong_zunkong
Caudwell, J. 2018. “Configuring human rights at EuroPride 2015,” Leisure Studies,37(1), 49-63.
Cayla, J., & Eckhardt, G. M. 2008. “Asian brands and the shaping of a transnational
imagined community,” Journal of Consumer Research, 35(2), 216-230.
Chan, J.C.W. 2011. “Confucianism and Human Rights,” in J. Witte & M. C. Green(editors), Religion and Human Rights: An Introduction, Oxford Academics.
Chao, S. C. 2000. Kang janchyanjung gwogwo mindangtung jrjeng dangsyingji chujryan jyou [Research on the Legitimacy Foundation of the Chinese Nationalist
Party (Kuomintang) Rule Before the War of Resistance Against Japan],National Taiwan Normal University, http://rportal.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/items/
c9ff9560-23f2-4cb4-90f9-a016deff2995.
Chen, X. W. 2006. “Lwun yujung difu dzgwan syiyushr jye ren chywan sywan yandehwun yindz ju chywanjrtan tau” [The Exploration of Father-Son Relationships
in the Analects and the Marriage Autonomy in the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights], Newsletter for Research of Applied Ethics, 39, 60-67.
CMAB. 2021. Replies of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s
Republic of China to the List of Issues in relation to the Fourth Periodic Report,
Constitutional and Mainland Affairs Bureau, www.cmab.gov.hk/doc/en/documents/policy_responsibilities/response_to_loi-iccpr-en.pdf.
Coalition for the Happiness of our Next Generation. 2013, 2016. Fan dweitung syinghwun yinrufasyangli you [Six Reasons to Reject the Legalization of Same-Sex
Marriage], Coalition for the Happiness of our Next Generation, https://taiwanfamily.com/related-posts/artice02.
Dan, J. & Choy, Y. 2011. “Jung gwochwan tungsz syangsyi fangjyau yu je syweyutaiwanren chywanjyau yudejing yan,” Taiwan Human Rights Journal, 1(1), 107-122.
Elstein, D. 2010. “Why early Confucianism cannot generate democracy,” Dao, 9,427-443.
ETToday. 2014. “Fansyou gaimin fafa sywejyau shouswun dzbu jyaua gung wohweibeng kwei” [Opposition to Amending the Civil Code: Law Professor Says, ‘If
My Grandson Doesn’t Call Me ‘Grandpa,’ I’ll Be Devastated’], ETToday. www.
ettoday.net/news/20141017/414634.htm.
Family Guardian Coalition. 2016. “Jen dweiyoumei nyujwun beidzai duti ansyou gaimin fatyau” [Regarding You Mei-nu’s preparation to propose another amendment to Article 972 of the Civil Code], Family Guardian Coalition, www.facebook.com/familyguardiancoalition/posts/1917348931825836/.

262

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3Fetzer, J. S., & Soper, J. C. 2007. “The effect of Confucian values on support for
democracy and human rights in Taiwan,” Taiwan Journal of Democracy, 3(1),143-154.
Fraser, C. 2002. “Mohism,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mohism/?historical.
Fukuyama, F. 1995. “Confucianism and democracy,” J. Democracy, 6, 20.
Gao, W. Y. 2003. “The Idea Changing of Father & Son between Two Dynasty Chou,”Pingtung Normal University Journal [pingdungshrywansywe bau], 19, 235-254.
Hung, T.W. 2016. “Wei hedung yadu tsai jeduairu jya” [Why do East Asian dictators
all favor Confucianism?], Voicettank, https://voicettank.org/%E7%82%BA%E4%
BD%95%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%9E%E7%8D%A8%E8%A3%81%E8%80%85%E9%8
3%BD%E6%84%9B%E5%84%92%E5%AE%B6/
Huntington, S. P. 1991. “Democracy’s third wave,” J. Democracy, 2(2), 12-34.
Jackson, D. J., & Darrow, T. I. 2005. “The influence of celebrity endorsements on
young adults’ political opinions,” Harvard International Journal of Press/
Politics, 10(3), 80-98.
Jasper, J. 2005. “Culture, knowledge, and politics,” in The Handbook of Political
Sociology, 115-134.
Lai, Q. L. 2015. “Wei hedung yadu tsai jeduairu jya” [Why do East Asian dictators
all favor Confucianism?], Journal of Shu Zen Junior College of Medicine andManagement, 12 (2015), 29-50.
Lee, M. H. 2002. “Ru jyachwan tungyuren chywan” [Confucian Tradition and
Human Rights], Chwan tungjung hwawen hwayusyan daijya jrdeji dangyutyaurung [The Collision and Integration of Traditional Chinese Culture and Modern
Values], Himalaya Foundation.
Levitt, P., Merry, S. E., Alayza, R., & Meza, M. C. 2013. “Doing vernacularization:
the encounter between global and local ideas about women’s rights in Peru,”
in Feminist Strategies in International Governance (pages 127-142). Routledge.
Liberty Times Net. 2022. Tung jryou syingjingjyanfantungjye hwunkan banwujyunyanting yungaidi kangbau li [‘Anti-Same-Sex Marriage’ Signs Appeared at
Pride Parade; Wu Junyan Stands Strong: Using Love to Resist Violence], Liberty
Times Net, https://news.ltn.com.tw/news/life/breakingnews/4105932.
Lu, J. 2016. Taiwandzweichyangdefantungtwan tibu shrhujyamengershrru jyayu chwan tungjya tingjya jr gwandeji ban [The strongest anti-LGBT groupin Taiwan is not the Family Protection League but rather the constraints ofConfucianism and traditional family values], Thinking Taiwan, https://buzzorange.com/citiorange/2016/07/05/marriage-equality-tradition-rebel/
Maisuwong, W. 2012. The promotion of American culture through Hollywood movies to the world (Doctoral dissertation, Faculty of Political Science, Thammasat
University).
MainStream News. 2019. Sheijr chrtunghwundeng jili weiming dankanje li [Whosupports ‘same-sex marriage’ registration? Check the list of legislators here],
MainStream News. https://msntw.com/10974/.
Marriage Equality Coalition Taiwan. n.d. 2016-2017 Progress Report. https://equallove.tw/sites/default/files/report-files/2017%E5%A9%9A%E5%A7%BB%E5%B9%

Same-sex Marriage and Taiwanese Civil Society

263

B3%E6%AC%8A%E5%A4%A7%E5%B9%B3%E5%8F%B0_%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E5%A0%B1%E5%91%8A%E6%9B%B8.pdf.
Ministry of Education. 2021. “There are three ways to be unfilial; the worst is to not
produce offspring [bu xiao you san wu hou wei da],” in X. Li, D. K. Li & R. F.
Zeng (Eds.), Revised Mandarin Chinese Dictionary Taiwan Academic Network
Version 6. National Academy for Educational Research. https://dict.revised.
moe.edu.tw/dictView.jsp?ID=21107&la=0&powerMode=0
Owen, M. (2014, February 22). “Vladimir Putin’s New Plan for World Domination,”
The Spectator, www.spectator.co.uk/2014/02/putins-masterplan/.
Plantilla, J. R. 2019. “Human Rights, Culture and Education,” Human Rights Educationin Asia-Pacific, Volume Nine, 277.
Robins, D. 2012. “Mohist care,” Philosophy East and West, 60-91.
Ross, M. H. 2000. “Culture and Identity in Comparative Political Analysis,” originally published as M. Lichbach and A. Zuckerman, “Comparative Politics:
Rationality, Culture, and Structure,” 1997, Culture and Politics: A Reader, 39-70.
Spina, N., Shin, D. C., & Cha, D. 2011. “Confucianism and democracy: A review ofthe opposing conceptualizations.” Japanese Journal of Political Science, 12(1),143-160.
StreetVoice. n.d. “Kinqoyat – Introduction,” StreetVoice. https://streetvoice.com/
tomaawards/songs/598811/.
Taiwan Equality Campaign. n.d. About Us. Taiwan Equality Campaign. https://equallove.tw/en/about-us.
Tang, M. 2010. “Taiwanren chywanjyau yufa jandewen hwatan jyoute shu syingyupushr jya jrdedwei hwa” [Exploring Human Rights Education Development in
Taiwan: Dialogue between Particularity and Universality], Education Journal,
37 (1-2), 29-56.
The Storm Media. 2016. Fantungtingtungjye touhuchyangdayou syingjau pyanshwochugu shrdejen syang [Anti-LGBTQ vs. Pro-LGBTQ: Street Confrontations
Tell the True Story behind the Grand Parade Photos]. The Storm Media, www.
storm.mg/article/197345?page=1.
Van Klinken, A. S. 2013. “Gay rights, the devil and the end times: public religion
and the enchantment of the homosexuality debate in Zambia,” Religion, 43(4),519-540.
Weatherley, R. 2002. “Harmony, hierarchy and duty based morality: The Confucian
antipathy towards rights,” Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 12(2),245-267.
Xie, N. Y. 2018. “Fantungsan gungtouyinjung nusying fumengyaumei tijeng ming:
wo menshraijyatwan tiaijyagungtou” [Outrage Over ‘Anti-Same-Sex Marriage’
Three Referendums; Happiness Alliance Calls for Media to Use Correct
Terminology: We Are a ‘Family Love’ Group, ‘Family Love’ Referendum], The
Storm Media, www.storm.mg/article/430755.
You, J. 2018. “Jung hwawen hwaji benjyau tsaijin nyanyan geyusheng hwoshr jyan”[The Evolution and Practical Applications of ‘Fundamental Teaching Materials
for Chinese Culture’ in Recent Years], Gwo wentyan di [World of Chinese
Language and Literature], 34(1), 17-21. https://tpl.ncl.edu.tw/NclService/pd
fdownload?filePath=lV8OirTfsslWcCxIpLbUfhqD9W-i3vsGcgopJgNkxuA

264

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Yg_0TFopWQGZOK73_3WTa&imgType=Bn5sH4BGpJw=&key=kZy2f23
GWh7m0wMVtipzoP4kJzzv9gpiGQEH725SpDaKgWSYS08VnQ==&xml
Id=0006954498
Yu, J. 2018. “Jwan lanru jyawen hwashrdu tsaijwan jrdebang syung” [Confucian
Culture as an Accomplice to Authoritarianism], People Media, www.peoplemedia.tw/news/87e9edf5-2810-46b8-b34c-3758b93a2ee3.
Zhang, M. G. 2022. “Chyan tantaiwanren chywanjyau yudefa janhwei guyuchyanjan”[A Brief Discussion on the Development of Human Rights Education in Taiwan:
Retrospect and Prospect], Syin shr jijrkulwun tan [New Century Think Tank
Forum], 99-100, 98-104.

Global Citizenship Education in the Philippines:
Adaptations and Innovations
Serafin A. Arviola Jr. and Carl O. Dellomos

G

lobal Citizenship Education (gced) is an emerging conceptthat promotes the development of knowledge, skills, and attitudes
necessary to live in a world that is interdependent and interconnected. The Philippines is among the countries that have taken significant
steps in implementing gced for the past seven years. In this report, we present the Philippine initiatives on gced and how it has impacted the country’s
education sector.
One of the most significant initiatives that the Philippines has taken on
gced is its integration in the national curriculum. This integration aims toequip learners with the knowledge, skills, and values to become global citizens who can contribute to the development of the country and the world.
Moreover, the Philippine government has launched various programs andprojects that promote gced. One of these initiatives is the Global Educators
Program (gep), which aims to develop teachers’ competencies in teachinggced. This program provides opportunities for teachers to participate ininternational conferences, workshops, and immersion programs that focus
on gced. Through the gep, teachers are equipped with the necessary skills
and knowledge to facilitate gce in their classrooms.
Furthermore, the Philippines has established partnerships with international organizations like United Nations Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization (unesco), Asia-Pacific Centre of Education forInternational Understanding (apceiu) and Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (asean) to promote gced. In 2016, the Philippines hosted the asean Integration Through Education (ite) program, which aimed to foster
cooperation and understanding among asean countries through education.
This program focused on gced as a means to promote peace, tolerance, andunderstanding among asean youth. The Philippine government’s initiatives
on gced have also been recognized by international organizations. In 2019,
Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific | Volume 13, 2023

265

HURIGHTS OSAKA

266

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

the Philippines embarked on a three-year gced project with apceiu andDepartment of Eduction (DepEd) to integrate gced in the K-12 curriculumand develop gced lesson exemplars. This is a testament to the Philippines’
commitment to promoting gced as a means to achieve sustainable development and global understanding.
These gced initiatives constitute a significant part of the work in thePhilippines towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (sdgs)
by 2030.1
The GCED Idea
The multidirectional globalization process enabled countries and their citizens to interact openly, most prominently in the economic sphere. With internet, virtually everyone is able to participate online on a global scale not
only on economic issues but also on issues regarding the political, sociocultural and environmental dimensions of development. The increasingly
globalized world led to global citizenship, a new kind of citizenship that
accommodates global perspectives in addition to the traditional definitionof citizenship tied to a nation-state. Unesco referred to global citizenship asa “sense of belonging to a broader community and common humanity” anda “way of understanding, acting and relating oneself to others and the environment in space and in time, based on universal values, through respectfor diversity and pluralism” (unesco, 2014, page 14). Global citizenship puts
emphasis on the interdependence and interconnectedness of political, economic, social, and cultural dimensions between and among the local, thenational, and the global (unesco, 2015).
Gced is crucial in the formation of global citizens who are equippedwith essential knowledge, skills, and attitudes to participate and contributeto societal development at local and global levels. It “aims to empower learners to engage and assume active roles, both locally and globally, to face andresolve global challenges, and ultimately to become proactive contributors
to a more just, peaceful, tolerant, inclusive, secure and sustainable world”(unesco, 2014, page 15). To achieve such educational goals, gced holistically targets three dimensions of learning: cognitive, socio-emotional andbehavioral (unesco, 2015). The cognitive domain ensures that learners acquire the necessary knowledge, understanding and critical thinking on vari-Global Citizenship Education in the Philippines: Adaptations and Innovations

267

ous global, regional, national and local issues. The socio-emotional domain
provides students with a sense of belonging to a common humanity, sharing
values and responsibilities, empathy, solidarity and respect for differencesand diversity. The behavioral domain expects students to act responsibly at
local, national, and global levels for a more peaceful and sustainable world.
Efforts and initiatives to integrate gced-related concepts, values andbehaviors in the current K to 12 curriculum in the Philippines have emergedin recent years. For example, the Division of City Schools-Manila participated in a capacity-building program called In Scientia Nos Solidaritas (InScience, We are United). This program aimed to prepare science teachersof Manila to integrate gced on existing secondary school science subjects
through teaching demonstrations, writing lesson exemplars and developing a contextualized and age appropriate gced Learning Resource Material(lrm) suited to Filipino students.
DepEd and GCED
During the First United Nations Association of the Philippines (unap)
Stakeholders Conference held on 30-31 July 2018 at the University of
Makati, then DepEd Secretary Leonor Magtolis Briones highlighted theDepartment’s effort in strengthening the K to 12 curriculum, with a focus onpeace and global citizenship education.2
According to Secretary Briones(t)opics on peace and security are already integrated in our curriculum, but we, in DepEd, continuously conduct efforts to uplift our education system, and revisiting and further improving
our curriculum is a part of it… If there is peace and security
in the largest unit of government, in the biggest office with thelargest number of people, the largest number of learners, thenperhaps a major contribution can be made.
Secretary Briones noted that “one cannot have quality education if there
is no peace and security.”
The conference carried the theme, “The Role of Education in Our
Journey to Peace and Security,” and was attended by peace advocates, education leaders, youth, and other stakeholders from various government agen-268

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

cies, non-governmental organizations (ngos), educational institutions, andinternational organizations.
She explained that DepEd is in constant talks with education stakeholders to strengthen the K to 12 curriculum: “We have been getting feedbacks
from industry, parents, schools heads, teachers, and other stakeholders,
especially on how our curriculum treats issues of peace and security.” The
Secretary added that these issues are becoming more urgent not only in thePhilippines, but also in a global scale. Thus, ensuring ways in instilling lessons about achieving a more inclusive, just, and peaceful world in students
is vital.
She then presented several measures to address the need to have education on peace and security:3
1. Safe Schools Declaration
Briones also reiterated the Department’s strong commitment inmaintaining the neutrality of schools as zones of peace to ensurethat students and teachers are in an environment conducive tolearning and free from harm through the DepEd Order No. 44,
series of 2005, or the Declaration of Schools as Zones of Peace:“DepEd has long been implementing the policy on safe
schools; Schools that are established and registered with DepEd,
whether public or private, are safe from any military visitors,[military] activities, and we campaigned heavily for this during
the Marawi siege,” she stated.
The Secretary likewise noted that DepEd, the Departmentof National Defense (dnd), and other national government
agencies fully support and are signatories of the Safe Schools
Declaration (ssd), “an inter-governmental political agreement
dedicated to protecting education in armed conflict.”4The ssd was crafted and developed through consultations
among various states as “an inter-governmental political commitment that provides countries the opportunity to express support for protecting students, teachers, schools, and universities
from attack during times of armed conflict; the importance ofthe continuation of education during armed conflict; and theimplementation of concrete measures to deter the military useof schools.”5
2. Learners’ safety in schools
Aside from ensuring that no armed conflict or personnel are allowed near and within the premises of a learning environment,
the Education chief emphasized that the Department stronglyGlobal Citizenship Education in the Philippines: Adaptations and Innovations

269

implemented policies that safeguard students from incidencesof bullying and physical violence. “Bullying is absolutely forbidden and there is a protocol for handling cases of bullying; hazingis also forbidden, physical acts of violence, whether among thechildren, or as sometimes claimed from teachers, or from children to their teachers, these undesirable actions are all forbidden,” Briones remarked.
3. On Global citizenship
Briones also noted that because of the rapid globalizing stateof the society, advancing lessons in global citizenship is important in order to have platforms for meaningful exchange, where
people can learn each other’s history, culture and circumstances
to foster greater respect and tolerance for each other’s identity.
“Through partnerships, we are sending our teachers to visit
other countries to get vital insights which we can use for the betterment of our educational system,” she said.
“Peace, security, and global citizenship are already in the
curriculum but we are further strengthening it, especially interms of instructional materials, ways of teaching, and even theuse of films, dances, and other forms of art in order to transmit these ideas and concepts to our learners,” Briones expounded. Also present at the event were Presidential Peace Adviser
Secretary Jesus Dureza, Commission on Higher Education(ched) Commissioner Ronald Adamat, unap President and former DepEd Secretary Mona Valisno, unap President Emeritus
Aurora Reciña, and former Senator Anna Dominique Coseteng.
Established in 1947, unap aims to help promote global understanding, cooperation and peace in the Philippines and among
nations based on human dignity and universal services

GCED in Higher Education and Other Institutions
Promotion of gced has gained traction in the last five years with various
higher education institutions, as well as government and non-governmentalorganizations and advocacy groups, conducting activities on gced. The following activities show the increasing recognition of gced in the country:•

2017 International Assembly of Youth for unesco with the theme“unesco Clubs Collective Actions Towards a Peaceful and Just
Society” held on 1-3 September 2017 at icon Hotel, Quezon City

270

•

•

•

•

•

•

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

sponsored by National Coordinating Body of unesco Clubs in thePhilippines and unesco National Commission of the Philippines;
1st Global Citizenship Education Workshop for Teacher Education
with the theme “Embedding gced in the New Teacher Education
Curriculum of the Philippines” held on 14-16 October 2017 at
Eurotel Hotel, Manila sponsored by apceiu and unesco National
Commission of the Philippines;
2018 International Assembly of Youth for unesco with thetheme “Protecting Heritage and Fostering Creativity for Global
Citizenship” held on 6-8 September 2018 at icon Hotel, Quezon
City sponsored by National Coordinating Body of unesco Clubsin the Philippines and unesco National Commission of thePhilippines;
2nd Global Citizenship Education Workshop for Teacher
Education with the theme “Towards the Establishment of gced
Network in the Philippines” held on 6-8 September 2018 at icon
Hotel, Quezon City sponsored by unesco-Bangkok and unesco
National Commission of the Philippines;
3rd Global Citizenship Education Workshop for Teacher Education
with the theme “Whole-School Approach to Global Citizenship
Education” held on 12-14 December 2018 at St. Giles Hotel,
Makati City sponsored by unesco-Bangkok and unesco National
Commission of the Philippines;
Under the 2019 gced Roadshow: Promoting Global Citizenship
Education in Philippine Basic Education Schools, workshops forteachers and principals were held in Pampanga, Bacolod City andButuan City sponsored by unesco-Bangkok and unesco National
Commission of the Philippines. The project had two major components: the seminar-workshops on Whole School Approach to
gced for school heads and teachers and the Module Development
anchored primarily on gced concepts and principles;2019 International Assembly of Youth for unesco with the theme“Protecting Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in the context of
Global Citizenship Education” held on 5-7 December 2019 at
Eurotel Hotel, Angeles City, Pampanga sponsored by National
Coordinating Body of unesco Clubs in the Philippines (ncbucp)
and unesco National Commission of the Philippines;

Global Citizenship Education in the Philippines: Adaptations and Innovations

•

•

271

Conference on Reflecting on Global Citizenship Education (gced)
in the Time of Pandemic held on 17 July 2020 via Zoom andFacebook, organized by the Philippine Normal University (pnu)with apceiu, seameo, and Philippine National Commission for
unesco. Participants came from at least thirty countries;
2022 International Assembly of Youth for unesco with the theme“sdg 14: Harnessing the Power of Youth as a Global Citizen to Heal
the Ocean,” held on 9-11 December 2022 at Bayview Park Hotel,
Manila sponsored by National Coordinating Body of unesco Clubsin the Philippines (ncbucp) and unesco National Commission of
the Philippines.

The International Assembly of Youth for UNESCO convened youth leaders and advocates of UNESCO
and the SDGs (9-11 December 2022).

272

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3In light of the existence of internet technologies that have enabled
Filipinos to take part in various social spheres at the global level, the needto develop responsible Filipino global citizens through education had neverbeen more pressing. gced offers a framework to systematically respondto this educational need. The aims of gced have always been part of thePhilippines’ goals being a democracy. Moreover, institutions (particularly
DepEd) have started to promote gced-related concepts and ideals within
the education system. These favorable conditions can facilitate smooth
gced integration in the basic education curriculum, which is necessary todevelop the ideal Filipino global citizens.
Philippine Normal University
The Philippine Normal University (pnu) started to integrate gced in various curricular and co-curricular programs in 2017. Faculty members are familiar with the values related to gced but they might not explicitly mention
gced in their teaching.
pnu, as the National Center for Teacher Education, embeds gced in
Teacher Education Curriculum. It considered the following changing contexts of education and the corresponding educational reforms to embed
gced in its Outcomes-based Teacher Education Curriculum:
1. Growing internationalization of education which requires harmonization of standards and policies for evaluation, assessment
standards, teacher training, curriculum, instruction, and testing
between and among countries;
2. Scientific and technological developments which are revolutionizing the teaching-learning processes in the 21st Century;
3. Imperatives of education for sustainable development which will
promote sustainable living and improve the capacity of people toaddress the environmental and development issues;
4. Impact of globalization which requires addressing both specificitiesof culture and tolerance of cultural diversity between and amonggroups in a borderless world and at the national level; and5. Restructuring of Basic Education anchored on lifelong learningand Education for All which requires a new set of competencies
for teachers.

Global Citizenship Education in the Philippines: Adaptations and Innovations

273

gced principles and values are integrated into General Education andProfessional Education courses offered at pnu. In the General Education
courses, gced is integrated in subjects like “Understanding the Self,”“[Jose] Rizal’s Life and Works,” “Readings in Philippine History,” “Ethics,”“Contemporary World,” “Art Appreciation,” “Mathematics in the Modern
World,” “Purposive Communication,” and “Science, Technology, & Society.”In the Professional Education courses, gced is integrated in “Foundationof Education,” “Psychology of Learners,” “Theories of Learning,” “Guidance
and Counseling,” “Developments in Education,” “Educational Technology,”“Principles and Methods of Teaching,” “Introduction to Curriculum
Development and Instructional Planning,” “Assessment and Evaluation of
Learners,” “Introduction to Special Education,” “Developmental Reading,”“Professional Ethics and Relevant Laws,” and “Practice Teaching.”
In 2022, the pnu and apceiu established the gced Cooperation Centre
Philippines (gcc Philippines) to serve as the hub for teacher training, research and curriculum development, and information dissemination on
gced in the country. It aims to engage teachers, school heads, and educational supervisors on gced content and teaching methods to advance gced
in the Philippine educational system; to direct research and exercises promoting the improvement of the gced educational plan; and to expand training partners’ familiarity with gced drives and ventures. gcc Philippines
aims to become a champion for the advancement of gced in the Philippine
educational contexts.6

Lim Hyunmook, Director of APCEIU (left) and Bert J. Tuga, PhD, President of PNU (right) signed a
Memorandum of Agreement on 15 March 2022 designating PNU as the GCED Cooperation Centre in
the Philippines.

274

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

In the same year (2022), gcc Philippines established a network of statecolleges and universities on gced. These higher education institutions,mainly teacher education institutions (teis) which advocate gced in theirrespective regions, were recognized as “gcc Regional Hubs”. These colleges and universities have a long history of actively participating in different projects and programs concerning the welfare of their students. They
are also the leading institutions in the regions in terms of implementing
gced. Top-performing teis were chosen as the first gcc Regional Hubs inthe country, to wit, Pangasinan State University, pnu North Luzon, Tarlac
Agricultural University, City College of Calamba, Romblon State University,
Bicol University, pnu Visayas, University of Eastern Philippines, Bukidnon
State University, Mindanao State University, pnu Mindanao, Sulu State
College, Kalinga State University, Marikina Polytechnic College and Sulu
State College.

Philippine Normal University and seventeen TEIs signed Memorandum of Understanding designatingthem as GCC Regional Hubs.

Global Citizenship Education in the Philippines: Adaptations and Innovations

275

The Institutional Capacity-building on gced project was launched in
2022 to build a stronger foundation of gced knowledge and application for
pnu faculty and staff by providing a series of capacity-building activities.
This project is perceived as the cause of multiplication of leaders on gced
within the university.

GCC Philippines spearheaded a series of GCED trainings for PNU Faculty and Staff as part of its
Institutional Capacity Building on GCED Project.

GCED Integration Project: The Tripartite Project of APCEIU, PNU, and DepEd
The integration of gced in basic education is critical in achieving quality
education, which is Goal 4 in sdgs. As defined by unesco, global citizenship is a “sense of belonging to a broader community and common humanity” and a “way of understanding, acting and relating oneself to others and276

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

the environment in space and in time, based on universal values, throughrespect for diversity and pluralism” (unesco, 2014, page 14). Indeed, theglobalized world has brought to the fore the need for global citizenship to bemainstreamed in the basic education curriculum in order to develop a newkind of citizens who would work together in making this planet peaceful,just and sustainable. Toward this end, the systematic integration of gced
in basic education must be seriously considered by the education sectors
across the globe.
More than the expected commitment of the Philippine government tomeeting the sdgs, integrating and mainstreaming gced into the basic curriculum can contribute to the country’s overall goal of improving the qualityof education.
While gced-related concepts have always been promoted in the education system of the Philippines, the efforts were sporadic and fragmented.
In the current K to 12 curriculum, cultural tolerance, respect for humanrights, social justice, gender respect and equality, environmental sustainability, peace advocacy, collaboration, and cooperation are highly evident
in the standards and competencies (Andaya, 2019). However, a systematicand intentional integration of gced in the basic curriculum is necessary forstudents to become the ideal Filipino global citizens.
Integration of gced in the intended and implemented curriculum canbe challenging. Aside from it being a new term to education professionals
like curriculum developers, teachers and education leaders, Filipino teachers may not be aware of the global guidance document on the overall teaching and learning objectives of gced (apceiu, 2019). Education leaders, withthe support of global organizations advancing global citizenship and international understanding like apceiu, must come together in efforts to scaffold integration of gced from the intended to implemented curriculum. The
Philippines, along with Kenya, Lebanon and Sri Lanka, under the auspicesof the unesco - apceiu, embarked on a three-year (2019-2020) project
named Global Citizenship Education (gced) Curriculum Development andIntegration with the aim of mainstreaming gced in the national curriculums.7 DepEd, as the lead agency for this project, conducted the situation
analysis that aimed to determine the entry points of gced integration during the first year of implementation. For its second year of implementation,
which focused on the drafting of the gced-integrated curriculum, DepEd
designated pnu as its implementing partner.

Global Citizenship Education in the Philippines: Adaptations and Innovations

277

The second phase of this international project had four objectives: 1)
develop the Philippine gced indicators; 2) map Philippine gced indicatorsin the basic education curriculum; 3) develop the Philippine gced framework; and 4) elaborate the gced framework in the Philippine K to 12 Basic
Education Curriculum through the identification of knowledge, skills andattitudes of gced.

APCEIU and PNU Letter of Agreement designating PNU as APCEIU implementing agency for the
Curriculum Development and Integration Project with DepEd (2019).

Development of the Philippine GCED Framework
Curriculum mapping was a crucial first step in developing the Philippine
gced Framework. This intensive review of the curriculum identified gcedrelated concepts and themes and established the patterns and manner bywhich they were found in the curriculum. Within a learning area (LA),278

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

curriculum experts analyzed the specific topics, units, or grading periods
where specific gced concepts, values and behavior were most prominently
integrated. They looked at how the curriculum was developed to meet theneeds of integrating gced principles in the K to 12 curriculum. Further, they
provided a comparative view on the level of integration of gced indicators
across LAs.
Looking at the results of the curriculum mapping, a Project Core Teamsynthesized the patterns that emerged across levels, across learning areasand how they were horizontally developed. The integration in the curriculum of gced competencies and practices required an inward look to examine the intended curriculum. Curriculum mapping revealed various insights
and illustrations of gced in the Philippine K to 12 curriculum. Mapping
results were categorized further on the basis of LAs and grade levels (GLs).
The findings on the varying levels of integration of gced concepts andthemes in the country’s basic education curriculum point to the need for aframework that can guide all those who have stake at designing the curriculum and in identifying the needed educational experience to be provided to
students for a proper integration of gced both in the intended and implemented curriculums.
A constructivist approach guided the development of the gced-integrated curriculum by responding to the following questions:
1.
2.
3.

What educational purposes do we seek to attain?;
What educational experiences can be provided to students by integrating gced in the K-12 curriculum?; andHow should these gced experiences be effectively organized in the
curriculum?

This started the development the Philippine gced framework.
The Philippine gced Framework had to clearly outline the intent, purpose, and functionality of gced integration in the learning areas and gradelevels. The development of this framework was done at several levels.
The first level of analysis involved examining the existing context andrealities of the Philippine educational system in conjunction with the reviewof the curriculum mapping results. Drawing from various legal, pedagogicaland educational sources, and the essential elements of Global Citizenshipamidst the challenges of globalization, the Project Core Team realized that

Global Citizenship Education in the Philippines: Adaptations and Innovations279

the intended national curriculum was an important institutional vehicle topromote and propagate the ideals of Global Citizenship. Looking at the rangeof statutes, department orders, and educational philosophies, the ProjectCore Team recognized that policies and programs were already in place tosupport the teaching of gced knowledge skills, values and behaviors.
On the second level of analysis, the Project Core Team examined theinternational and local contexts and how these were entangled in the daily
life experiences of Filipinos. Significant global developments, challenges andproblems have heightened the need for gced in the Philippines.
In the context of the Philippines, elements of gced are related to thenational principles and policies expressed in the 1987 Constitution.8 The
Constitution gives prime importance to education by aiming to “[e]stablish,
maintain, and support a complete, adequate, and integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the people and society.” (Section 1, Article XIV).
The Constitution also highlights the Bill of Rights (Article III). The national
principles and policies serve as guiding tenets in enacting laws in the country.
Additionally, the government issued Executive Order 570, Institutionalizing
Peace Education in Basic Education and Teacher Education, in 2006.9 All
these were inputs in the development of the Philippine gced Framework.
The third level of analysis focused on deeper understanding of the visionof gced. The Project Core Team reviewed the notions of global citizenshipsuch as gced as a global educational endeavor and a call to action intended
to emphasize humanity’s solidarity. The focus on global citizenship resulted
from increasing global and regional initiatives with implications on policy,
curriculums, teaching, and learning. The Project Core Team identified theimportant gced attributes and skills to be developed among the students.
The Project Core Team underwent a visioning process where gced
served as a vehicle to build more just, peaceful, tolerant and inclusive societies, acknowledging that this would require appropriate visions, policies,
strategies, commitments and sustained actions. Through a critical education process, the root causes of conflicts and crises had to be fully understood, followed by the design and implementation of appropriate actions
for resolving them. Through gced, the next generation of youth and adults
form their values, principles and knowledge of peaceful futures and develop
their sense of responsibility and accountability in taking personal and social
actions necessary for transformation towards a culture of peace. The Project

280

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3Core Team enhanced the view of the global citizen as a person who take local action that contributes to addressing global problems.
The next layer of analysis was composed of reflective analysis of the
Project Core Team’s own biases as opposed to the general underpinnings of
gced. A workshop for this purpose tackled the theoretical and philosophical underpinning of gced as a critical and transformative education. This
was also the opportune time to look upon the appropriate pedagogies that
could be considered in teaching gced in the Philippines. The processes ofteaching and learning gced need to be consistent with the values and principles of transformative education (e.g., democratic, dialogical, holistic, participatory, creative, critical empowerment) in order to facilitate the growthof socio-emotional and behavioral or action capacities and competencies(Toh, 1997; Cawagas, 2007). For education to be transformative, knowledge(cognitive domain) must touch the heart (socio-emotional) and turn into
action to bring about positive change (behavioral dimension). gced should
foster students’ engagement by examining global issues and contextualizingthem in the local issues to promote earth stewardship, social conscience andlove of country. This workshop identified the enabling factors needed for
gced to thrive in the educational context.
The last layer of analysis was the identification of the content, scope andcomponents of gced in the Philippine K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum.
gced indicators developed for the Philippines were based on the three domains of learning – the cognitive, socio-emotional and behavioral.
In this last step, the Project Core Team deliberated on how the interconnections and cohesive integration of the identified aspects of gced in
the Philippines could be presented. Moreover, the Project Core Team carefully deliberated on how these layers of contexts and dimensions of gced
should be organized to depict the envisaged experience of learning on how
to become an ideal Filipino global citizen. This led to the development of a
proposed national framework on gced.
Curriculum experts and mappers, DepEd officials and unesco-apceiu
representatives examined the proposed national framework on gced. Theircomments improved the overall quality of the framework and ensured its
relevance. Further, the Project Core Team asked two gced Expert validators to make an overall evaluation of the pertinent parts of the final copy ofthe proposed national framework. Their inputs led to minor revision of the
proposed national framework on gced.

Global Citizenship Education in the Philippines: Adaptations and Innovations

281

PAGHABI: The Philippine GCED Framework
The Philippine gced Framework is formally titled Philippine Adaptationof gced: Holistic Approach in Basic Education and Institutionalization. It
has the acronym paghabi, which is a Filipino word for traditional weavingin Philippine culture. paghabi is the metaphor for the process of weaving
the interconnections among the different elements/strands and processes
including complexities of gced, reflecting the unique and artistic aspects ofa curriculum design process.
At the center of the framework is the Filipino global citizen who embodies the gced competencies needed to build a just, peaceful and sustainable
society. The framework emphasizes the goal of making the Filipino students
become “globally adaptive and competent,” highlighting the ultimate goal of
K to 12 curriculum of making the Filipino students optimize a whole world
approach (i.e., recognizing the importance of other countries’ best practices
in various fields [interests] across contexts [cultures]). These global competencies are driven by two forces of global citizenship coming from within
and from the outside. Global citizenship mula sa loob (from within) refers
to factors that influence the Filipino students to identify themselves according to their socio-political origins, cultural roots, and consciousness and tounderstand their significance in the inclusive community of global citizens.
The framework is founded on deep understanding of the concept of kapwa
by the Filipino students. Kapwa (fellow) is defined as a shared identity, corevalue and relationship among Filipinos which can be highlighted as the local
culture-based conceptualization of global citizenship that emphasizes oneness, social justice, and communal development. Kapwa leads to pagiging
makatao-mabuting tao (being a good person) and makataong pagtrato (humane treatment) of fellow human beings (Liao, 2016), which are importantfor Filipinos in uplifting and maintaining solidarity and peace. A Filipino
imbued with the four national core values promoted by DepEd (makatao[pro-people], maka-Diyos [pro-God], maka-kalikasan [pro-environment],
and maka-bansa [pro-country]) is the Filipino global citizen. The students
should learn and manifest the global competence in the family, community,
nation and the world.
Global citizenship mula sa labas (from outside) refers to factors that
influence the Filipino students in using and adopting the best practices fromother parts of the world to become responsible and accountable global citi-

282

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

zens. The 21st century skills and other global competencies are what theFilipino students have to use to face the challenges of living in the community affected by global influences. Filipino students should be able to gauge
the relevance of these global contexts and experiences through their own
meaningful experiences. This approach ensures that learning the competencies of global citizenship is not promoting the distortion, alienation andmarginalization of Filipino students’ experiences and represent themselvesbetter in a pluralist world by valuing their own identity, respecting communal welfare, loving common humanity and acting towards a just, peacefuland sustainable world.
Adapting gced to the Philippine K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum,
the paghabi is structured according to five major threads (international
context, local context, gced pedagogies and approaches, whole curriculum
strategies and the gced domains, outcomes and themes) that are interwoven to guide the development of the Filipino global citizen. The weaving of
gced into the K to 12 curriculum provides a systematic integration acrosslearning areas and grade levels. The threads on the ksas (knowledge, skills
and attitude), entry points in the curriculum and pedagogical practices areinterwoven to make a beautiful tapestry of gced in the Philippine basic
education curriculum. paghabi institutionalizes gced integration in basic
education.
Lastly, paghabi uses the whole school approach to make gced not justintegrated into the intended curriculum but also ingrained in the school
ethos. In this approach, everyone in the learning community and in the
broader community collaborate to achieve the gced outcomes. Teacher
empowerment is an essential part of the process of seamlessly weaving
gced to the Filipino way of life. Teachers must be given curricular guidelines, pedagogical guides, textbooks, or teaching-learning resources on
gced. They should be provided further training and consultation service
to enhance their capacity. Similarly, all members of the school community
must be involved in curriculum development and integration.
To make the development of paghabi effective and impactful, it needed the collaborative and collective efforts of different institutions in laying
and weaving-in numerous threads with DepEd, pnu and apceiu as the main
players along with all others who wanted to be involved in the process.

Global Citizenship Education in the Philippines: Adaptations and Innovations

283

A Conceptual Diagram of PAGHABI: The Philippine gced Framework.

In 2021, pnu formally submitted paghabi to DepEd for adoption as thenational framework for gced integration across learning areas. It was usedduring the revision of K to 12 curriculum for kindergarten to Grade 10 (i.e.,
matatag Curriculum). At present, the paghabi framework is also being
used by various schools as basis for their local gced curriculum development and integration initiatives.
Philippine GCED Themes, Topics and Human Rights
Complementing paghabi, pnu faculty members (Professors Carl O.
Dellomos, Serafin A. Arviola, PhD, Rowena R. Hibanada, PhD, Zyralie L.
Bedural, PhD, and Wensley Reyes, PhD) identified themes and topics related to human rights within the Philippine gced context as shown in Table
1. These themes and topics cover local, national, and global dimensions, andalso delve into areas other than human rights such as cultural relations, environmental sustainability, and socio-economic development. Table 1 not
only provides guidance for educators in developing their own exemplars but
also reflects the collaborative efforts of pnu faculty members in developing
a comprehensive resource.

284

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Table 1. GCED themes and topics in relation to human rights
Themes and Topics
Local, National ,Global Systems,
Structures, andProcesses

Culture andIntercultural
Relations

Environmental
Protection andSustainability

Socio-economic
Development andInterdependence

Institutions,
Conflicts, Social
Justice, andHuman Rights

Underlying
Assumptions andPower Dynamics

Identity Formation,
Protection,
Recognition, andAdvancement inMulticultural
Societies

Environment
and Natural
Resources

Economic
Interaction andInterdependence

Promotion andAdvancement of
Peace

Historical
Development of
Global Systems
and Structures

CulturalExpressions
and Intercultural
Exchanges
and Communication

Environmental
Justice, Risks,and Policies

Inclusivity andEquitable
Development

Political
Participationand Engagement

Interconnectednessof Global, National,
and Local Systems

Diversity,
Coexistence,
Indigenization, andGlocalCommunities

Environmental
Practices andBehaviors

Human Capital
Development andEqual
Opportunities

Human Rights
and Humanitarian
Law

Globalization:
Processes andChallenges

Discrimination basedon Gender,
Ethnicity,
Disabilities,
andReligious Beliefs

ClimateChange,Biodiversity,
andSustainable
Development

Health Issues
AffectingInteraction andConnectedness ofCommunities at
Local, National,
and Global Levels

Prevention ofConflicts, Cultural
Inequities andHate Crimes

Under the theme “Local, National, Global Systems, Structures, andProcesses,” the topic “Historical Development of Global Systems andStructures” include discussion of the international system mainly theUnited Nations human rights system covering international human rights
standards and mechanisms and the subregional systems, namely, the asean
Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights (aichr)10 and the asean Commission on the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Womenand Children (ACWC)11 with their own set of mechanisms and documents
on various issues.
The topic “Interconnectedness of Global, National, and Local Systems”
covers discussion of the Commission on Human Rights and the Commission
on Women of the Philippines and their link to the UN mechanisms such as

Global Citizenship Education in the Philippines: Adaptations and Innovations

285

the treaty monitoring bodies and the Universal Periodic Review process andthe aichr and acwc mechanisms.
Under the theme “Culture and Intercultural Relations,” several topics cover human rights. The topics “Identity Formation, Protection,
Recognition, and Advancement in Multicultural Societies” and “Diversity,
Coexistence, Indigenization, and Glocal Communities” covers discussion of
the Indigenous People’s Rights Act (ipra)12 and the work of the National
Commission on Indigenous Peoples (ncip).13
The topic “Discrimination based on Gender, Ethnicity, Disabilities, andReligious Beliefs” covers discussion of national policies and mechanisms ongender, ethnicity, disabilities, and religious beliefs. For Filipinos with disabilities, Presidential Decree 1509 of 1978 (as amended by Presidential Decree1761 of January 4, 1981) creating the National Commission Concerning
Disabled Persons (nccdp)14 is an important content for discussion.
Under the theme “Environmental Protection and Sustainability,” thetopic “Environmental Justice, Risks, and Policies” covers discussion of laws
and mechanisms that protect the rights of indigenous Filipinos as well as
those of upland farmers and subsistence fisherfolk to natural resources aswell as their role in protecting them (e.g., use and protection of the ancestral domain be it land or water resources15). The topic “Climate Change,
Biodiversity, and Sustainable Development” covers discussion of national
development policies on natural resources and sustainable development.
Under theme “Institutions, Conflicts, Social Justice, and Human Rights,”
gced aims to elucidate the roles of various institutions in safeguarding human rights or violating them. It delves into the analysis of conflicts, emphasizing their impact on the rights of individuals and communities, encouraging students to explore solutions through the human rights lens.
The topic “Promotion and Advancement of Peace” which underscores
the inseparable link between peace and human rights, educates students onconflict resolution skills, emphasizing that sustainable peace is contingent
on the protection and promotion of human rights. In the topic of “Political
Participation and Engagement,” elucidates citizenship rights, empowering
students to recognize their role in political processes and stressing the significance of free and fair elections as integral components of human rights.
“Human Rights and Humanitarian Law” forms a critical topic guiding
students through the intricate legal frameworks at both national and international levels. This includes studying human rights law and humanitarian

286

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

law during armed conflict, with a focus on the role of international bodies inenforcing and monitoring human rights standards.
Lastly, the topic “Prevention of Conflicts, Cultural Inequities, and Hate
Crimes” integrates human rights principles into education, advocating forinclusive learning environments that respect and celebrate cultural diversity. Through discussions and projects, students are encouraged to understand, combat, and prevent hate crimes, fostering a culture of tolerance andacceptance.
In essence, gced in the Philippines is a holistic approach to education,intertwining the core principles of human rights across various themes toempower students to become informed, responsible, and proactive global
citizens.
GCED and Human Rights: Legal Policy Support
The key concepts of gced are found in the country’s national goals as stipulated in the 1987 Philippine Constitution. The 1987 Constitution contains
the elements of gced such as cultural tolerance, respect for human rights,
social justice, and gender respect and equality. The Preamble of the 1987
Constitution highlights the Filipinos’ aspirations to establish a governmentthat would “promote the common good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and secure to ourselves and our posterity the blessings of independence
and democracy under the rule of law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom,
love, equality, and peace.”16
Other constitutional provisions include Article II (Declaration of
Principles such as renunciation of war; maintenance of peace and order, theprotection of life, liberty, and property; promotion of a just and dynamic
social order that will ensure the prosperity and independence of the nationand free the people from poverty; recognition of the youth and women innation-building; social justice in all phases of national development; protection and advancement of the right of the people to a balanced and healthfulecology. Major parts of the Constitution on safeguards to human rights andsocial justice (i.e., Article III: Bill of Rights; Article XIII: Social Justice andHuman Rights) should be highlighted. Educational institutions are tasked
by the state to ensure that its citizens are instilled with these concepts andvalues as stipulated in Article XIV Section 3, to wit:
[educational institutions] shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity, respect for human rights, appre-

Global Citizenship Education in the Philippines: Adaptations and Innovations

287

ciation of the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country, teach the rights and duties of citizenship,
strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral characterand personal discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking,broaden scientific and technological knowledge, and promote
vocational efficiency.
Ideals, key concepts and goals of gced are found in the Philippines’
national laws and DepEd issuances on basic education. As early as 1987,
human rights inclusion into the school curriculum was directed throughDepartment Order (DO) 61, s. 1987 - Inclusion of the Study of Human Rights
and Accompanying Responsibilities in the School Curricula. This issuance isfor “education to develop consciousness among the citizenry of the need torespect human rights and to help deter violation.” To further strengthen human rights, schools were directed to celebrate Human Rights Consciousness
Week under DO 31, s. 2003 in compliance with Republic Act No. 9201, An
Act Declaring December 4 to 10 as National Human Rights Consciousness
Week in the Country and for other purposes.17 In 2006, peace education, an
integral part of gced, was promulgated through Executive Order No. 570, s.
2006 – Institutionalizing Peace Education in Basic Education and Teacher
Education, which instructs DepEd to “mainstream peace education in thebasic formal and non-formal education curriculum, utilizing the existing
peace education exemplars and other peace-related modules, and enhance
the knowledge and capability of supervisors, teachers and non-teaching
personnel on peace education through the conduct of in-service trainings.”
The law on the current basic education curriculum, also known as the
Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 (Republic Act No. 10533),18 categorically states the direction of education in the Philippines by highlighting the“co-existence” of local and global aims. According to Section 2: “…it is hereby declared the policy of the State that every graduate of basic education
shall be an empowered individual who has learned, through a program thatis rooted on sound educational principles and geared towards excellence,
the foundations for learning throughout life, the competence to engage inwork and be productive, the ability to coexist in fruitful harmony with local
and global communities, the capability to engage in autonomous, creative,
and critical thinking, and the capacity and willingness to transform others
and one’s self.”

288

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

In December 2021, RA 11476 also known as the GMRC and Values
Education Act explicitly provides for the teaching of global citizenship alongwith principles that are covered by gced:19
Sec. 5: Coverage of Values Education - It is hereby mandated that Values Education shall be an integral and essential
part of the DepEd’s K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum. Values
Education as herein provided shall encompass universal human, ethical, and moral values, among others. It shall inculcate
among our students the basic tenets of the observance of respect
for oneself, others, and our elders, intercultural diversity, gender
equity, ecology and integrity of creation, peace and justice, obedience to the law, nationalism and global citizenship, as well as
the values of patience, perseverance, industry, honesty and integrity, and good faith in dealing with other human beings alongwith all other universal values.
These enabling laws are testament to the Philippines’ commitment tohuman rights and to facilitating the creation of a humane, peaceful, and sustainable world by making Filipinos responsible and proactive global citizens.
Policy Recommendations
Recognizing the Philippines’ commitment to fostering a culture of respectfor human rights and global citizenship, a policy aimed at integrating gced
and human rights principles into the national educational framework should
be proposed. Emphasizing the fundamental values enshrined in Article 26of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (udhr)20 and Article 13 of theInternational Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (icescr),21
these policy recommendations seek to cultivate an informed, responsible,
and socially conscious citizenry.
Policy Recommendations:
1. Development of curricular guidelines
Development of comprehensive curricular guidelines that embed gced
principles, encompassing themes such as institutions, conflicts, social justice, human rights, promotion and advancement of peace, political partici-Global Citizenship Education in the Philippines: Adaptations and Innovations

289

pation and engagement, human rights and humanitarian law, and the prevention of conflicts, cultural inequities and hate crimes.
• Rationale: Recognizing the interconnectedness of global issues, thisis a policy on continuing and substantial incorporation of gced in
the curriculums.
2. Professional development
Implementation of targeted professional development programs, workshops, and courses that empower educators to integrate gced themes into
their teaching methodologies.
• Rationale: Acknowledging the pivotal role of educators, this policyemphasizes the need for specialized training to equip teachers withthe knowledge and skills necessary for effective gced delivery.
3. Integration of human rights education into the school curriculum
Integration of human rights education into existing subjects, dedicating
specific modules to explore the principles outlined in the udhr and icescr.
Promote extracurricular activities that enhance students’ understanding of
human rights issues.
• Rationale: Aligned with Article 26 of the udhr, which underscores the right to education for the full development of humanpersonality, this policy strengthens the promotion of human rights
awareness among students that DepEd started three decades ago
on human rights integration, by having identified themes and topics based on Philippine context that link human rights to gced
principles.
4. Collaborative mechanisms with other institutions
Establishment of collaborative mechanisms among NGOs, UN agencies,
and other relevant entities to share resources, expertise, and best practices
in implementing gced and human rights education programs.
• Rationale: Recognizing the importance of collaboration, this is apolicy on partnerships with civil society organizations and international bodies to enrich gced initiatives and human rights
education.
5. Assessment and measurement of impact
Development of assessment tools and criteria to measure the impact ofgced and human rights education initiatives, with the results informing ongoing improvements and adjustments.

290

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3•

Rationale: Ensuring accountability and effectiveness, this is a policy
on regular assessment and monitoring mechanisms to evaluate
the integration of gced and human rights education in the school
system.

These policy recommendations are meant to solidify the Philippines’
commitment to gced and human rights principles, aligning with international standards set forth in the udhr and icescr. By adopting these measures, we aspire to nurture a generation of Filipino citizens who are not only
academically proficient but also socially responsible, respectful of humanrights, and globally aware, contributing to a more just and interconnectedworld.
Insights and Observations
gced in the Philippines has emerged as a vital medium in promoting human rights awareness and education. The gced initiatives so far undertaken
reflect a conscious effort of instilling a sense of responsibility and respectfor human rights at both local and global levels. Noteworthy is the integration of diverse themes such as institutions, conflicts, social justice, humanrights, and topics such as promotion and advancement of peace, politicalparticipation and engagement, human rights and humanitarian law, and theprevention of conflicts, cultural inequities, and hate crimes in the basic education curriculum to learn about gced. These themes are strategically woven into the educational fabric, fostering a comprehensive understanding of
global issues among students. The integration project underwent a rigorous
process, where curriculum experts from the DepEd and various teis collaborated on the integration of gced and human rights into the curriculum,and validation by experts from various fields. Afterwards, exemplars weredeveloped to facilitate teacher’s teaching practice.
The initiatives and innovations implemented in the Philippines arecommendable. The curriculum adjustments that incorporate gced themes
and human rights principles showcase a commitment to producing sociallyconscious and informed citizens. Moreover, the emphasis on teacher training ensures that educators are equipped to effectively deliver gced content, creating a multiplier effect in reaching a broader student population.
Partnerships with civil society organizations and international bodies fur-Global Citizenship Education in the Philippines: Adaptations and Innovations

291

ther enrich the educational experience, providing students with real-world
insights into the application of human rights principles.
The link between gced and human rights in the Philippines is intrinsic to cultivating a generation that not only comprehends the theoreticalaspects of human rights but is also actively engaged in promoting and upholding these principles. The integration of human rights themes within the
broader gced framework serves as a bridge between theoretical knowledge
and practical application, preparing students to become advocates for justice, equality, and peace. By nurturing a culture of respect for diversity, inclusivity, and social responsibility, these initiatives lay the foundation for asociety that values and safeguards the rights of every individual.
In conclusion, the initiatives undertaken in the Philippines regarding
gced and human rights education exemplify a progressive and holistic approach to shaping the next generation of global citizens. The intentional
fusion of these themes into the educational landscape reflects the nation’scommitment to fostering not only academic excellence but also a deepseated respect for human rights. As the Philippines continues to innovateand expand these initiatives, the ripple effect is anticipated to contributesignificantly to a more just, interconnected, and rights-respecting society,both nationally and globally.
Endnotes
1 Goal 4 of the SDGs pertains to the achievement of inclusive and equitable
quality education. Target 4.7 stipulates that global citizenship, along with education
for sustainable development, gender equality and human rights, should be mainstreamed and integrated in national education policies, curriculums, teacher education and student assessment.
2 Department of Education, DepEd to bolster peace, global
citizenshipeducation,(2018),
www.deped.gov.ph/2018/08/30/
deped-to-bolster-peace-global-citizenship-education/.
3 Department of Education, ibid.
4 The Safe Schools Declaration, https://ssd.protectingeducation.org/.
5 Safe Schools Declaration, Right to Education, www.right-to-education.org/
resource/safe-schools-declaration.
6 For more information, visit the website of GCC at https://gced.pnu.edu.ph/.
7 See Kick-Off Meeting for GCED Curriculum Development andIntegration, APCEIU, 12 April 2019, www.gcedclearinghouse.org/news/
kick-meeting-gced-curriculum-development-and-integration?language=en.
8 The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines (1987), www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/.

292

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

9 See full text of Executive Order 570 (2006), Institutionalizing Peace
Education in Basic Education and Teacher Education, in www.officialgazette.gov.
ph/2006/09/26/executive-order-no-570-s-2006/.
10 ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights (AICHR),
https://aichr.org/about-aichr-2/.
11 ASEAN Commission on the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of
Women and Children (ACWC), https://acwc.asean.org/.
12 See text of The Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act of 1997 in www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1997/10/29/republic-act-no-8371/.
13 See National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP), https://ncip.gov.
ph/.
14 See National Commission Concerning Disabled Persons (NCCDP), https://ncda.gov.ph/.
15 A good example is the ancestral domain of the Tagbanwa in Palawanthat includes the water surrounding the island where the indigenous community resides. See The Ancestral Lands and Waters of the Indigenous Tagbanwa
Communities of Northern Palawan, https://chr-observatories.uwazi.io/api/
files/1589915210176lt7irghr12b.pdf.
16 The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, op. cit.
17 Republic Act No. 9201, An Act Declaring December 4 to 10 as National
Human Rights Consciousness Week in the Country and for Other Purposes, 2003,
www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2003/04/01/republic-act-no-9201/.
18 Republic Act No. 10533, An Act Enhancing the Philippine Basic Education
System by Strengthening Its Curriculum and Increasing the Number of Years for
Basic Education, Appropriating Funds Therefor and for Other Purposes, 2013, www.
officialgazette.gov.ph/2013/05/15/republic-act-no-10533/.
19 Republic Act No.11476, An Act Institutionalizing Good Manners and Right
Conduct and Values Education in the K TO 12 curriculum, appropriating funds
therefor, and for other purposes, 2020, www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2020/06/25/
republic-act-no-11476/.
20 Article 26 (2) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states:
Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendshipamong all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activitiesof the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, www.un.org/en/about-us/
universal-declaration-of-human-rights.
21 Article 13 (1), of the International Covenant on Economic, Social, andCultural Rights states:
1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right ofeveryone to education. They agree that education shall be directed to thefull development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity, andshall strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
They further agree that education shall enable all persons to participate effectively in a free society, promote understanding, tolerance and friendshipGlobal Citizenship Education in the Philippines: Adaptations and Innovations

293

among all nations and all racial, ethnic or religious groups, and further theactivities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
International
Covenanton
Economic,
Social,andCulturalRights,www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/
international-covenant-economic-social-and-cultural-rights.

Study on Challenges, Effective Policies, and Best Practicesof Ordinary Schools in Educating Students with Special
Educational Needs in Hong Kong
Equal Opportunities Commission

In 1994, the unesco Salamanca Statement was announced at the World
Conference on Special Needs Education held in Spain by the unesco.
It was the first United Nations document addressing special educational
needs (sen) and inclusive education. The statement emphasized the importance of recognizing the right to education for all children, including thosewith sen, and advocated against limiting educational opportunities forchildren (unesco, 1994). The statement called for the inclusion of inclusive education in the discussions on education and urged society toaddress the needs of students with sen to ensure that their learning opportunities are not compromised by their needs. In response to the principles
outlined in the Salamanca Statement, Hong Kong initiated a pioneeringresearch in inclusive education.
Another significant legislation that accelerated the promotion of inclusive education (IE) in Hong Kong was the Disability Discrimination
Ordinance (ddo) enacted in 1996. The ddo clearly states that educational institutions cannot reject admission applications or deny participation in any activities within the institution based on the disabilities ofstudents, unless the institution can demonstrate unreasonable difficulties
or inability to provide necessary activities or curriculum for students withsen. To fulfill the obligations and responsibilities outlined in the aforementioned documents, the Hong Kong Government began to implement inclusive
teaching in the public education system and launched a pilot programme for
IE in 1997.

Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific | Volume 13, 2023

295

HURIGHTS OSAKA

296

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 31997 Pilot Project on Integrated Education and the Code of Practice on
Education in 2021
In 1997, the Hong Kong Government launched a pilot project on IE in sevenprimary schools and two secondary schools. The programme focused on“whole school approach” (wsa) with the goal of “creating an inclusive
school culture” (Education Bureau, 1999). The related documents indicatedthat the pilot project aimed to encourage all stakeholders in the school towork together to promote individual education plans (ieps) and enable
students with sen to receive education within the ordinary school environment through guidance teachers, accommodations to the curriculum
and teaching content, and assistive devices. The end-of-term evaluation
report of the programme after two years showed that the IE programme
performed well, but improvement was needed in areas such as leadershipand teacher training. The report also stated that the interaction mechanism between teachers and parents, as well as the division of responsibilities
among stakeholders in the school, were important for IE. Based on the report, the programme was expanded to twenty primary and secondary schools
in the 1999/2000 academic year and increased to forty in the 2000/01 academic year with the support of school management, teachers, students withsen, and parents.
At the same time, the Equal Opportunities Commission (eoc) published the “Code of Practice” in 2001, attempting to clarify the legal responsibilities of educational institutions under the ddo, explain how todevelop equal opportunity policies, and provide examples of the roles andresponsibilities of school management and teachers.
Intensive Remedial Teaching Programme in 2001 and Learning Support Grant
in 2003
The Intensive Remedial Teaching Programme (irtp) was launched by
the Hong Kong Government as a follow-up initiative to the Pilot Project on
Integrated Education in 2001, after the latter ended. The irtp was mainly
divided into two parts. It allowed each school to set up additional classes foreight to fifteen eligible students and allowed the school to retain one “enhanced class” teacher and grant. The goal was to provide schools with anopportunity to move away from the traditional class-based teaching modeand use additional resources to allow students with sen to get the help

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong

297

they need (Education Bureau, 2019a).Starting from 2003, the Hong Kong
Government suspended the provision of the irtp to primary schools.
Schools that had adopted the irtp could retain the programme, but new
schools or those that had not used the irtp before had to use the Learning
Support Grant (lsg) to hire staff and purchase services (Education Bureau,
2019a). The lsg subsidy level was divided into three levels according to theseverity of students’ sen, with more resources allocated to students withmore severe needs. However, there was a limit on the amount of subsidy foreach school, with a maximum allocation of hkd 1.65 million.
“Operation Guide on the Whole School Approach to Integrated Education” in2008.
In 2008, the Education Bureau (edb) launched the “Operation Guideon the Whole School Approach to Integrated Education” (the Guide) tofurther assist schools in promoting the wsa model. The Guide included
multiple areas of school operation, including school management andorganization, learning and teaching, student support and performance,collaboration with external stakeholders, as well as monitoring and promoting effectiveness (Education Bureau, 2020). The Guide was also updated
and some content was removed according to the Government’s funding
model for special education and IE.
2019 Learning Support Grant Updated Measures
According to an edb document in 2019, the edb believed that the current
system lacked flexibility and failed to provide appropriate adjustments forstudents with sen. As a result, they proposed a reconfiguration of IE,
merging the irtp and lsg into a single funding model. The schools fully
adopt the lsg model. This would enable schools to adopt a more flexible andefficient approach to funding allocation (Legislative Council, 2019).
Support for Students with Special Educational Needs
Three-tier Support Model
According to different edb documents, Hong Kong currently adopts
a three-tier support model, which provides support to students based on
their individual situations (Education Bureau, 2020):

298

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Tier 1 - Students with mild or short-term learning or adaptationdifficulties will be identified early and their needs will be addressed
through optimized teaching.
Tier 2 - If students continue to experience learning and adaptationdifficulties in classroom learning or daily life, the school will arrange
group training, additional support or counseling for them. Teachers
should allow students to practice the skills and knowledge acquired inTier 2 in regular and Tier 1 support classes.
Tier 3 - If students have persistent and severe learning or adaptation difficulties, the school will plan the students’ individual learning goals through an iep, and repeatedly allow students to apply theknowledge and skills learned in Tier 3 support classes in Tier 1 and 2
support classes (Education Bureau, 2020).
Individualized education system refers to the use of systematic assessments, including questionnaires filled by teachers, scales filled by parents,and observations of relevant education workers, to develop a tailored learning plan for the student. Each student will have corresponding crossdisciplinary professionals to assist in analyzing the data and defining
suitable learning goals for the student (Education Bureau, 2020). In orderto help Tier 3 students apply the skills they have learned in different situations, the iep is not limited to one-on-one counseling, but is a plan that spans
the three-tier support structure, ensuring that students can use the skills
they have learned in regular classes, specially designed support groups, andindividual counselling. At the same time, parents can use the tools developed by professionals at home to practise and train their children indifferent skills. Through individualized intensive and specialized support
and training, the individualized learning system hopes to supplement the
shortcomings of students in Tier 1 and 2, ensuring that students can practise, apply, and master skills in different situations.
The edb stated that the three-tier support model aims to identify students in need early so that teachers do not have to wait for assessment andfunding before providing assistance. Some scholars also agree that such arrangement can address the issues of “Test and Treat” and “Wait-to-Fail” in thepast, thus providing better quality education and practicing IE in Hong Kong
(Lu Xiuxia and Cheng Peiyun, 2009; Education Bureau, 2020). However,there have been cases reflecting loopholes in the three-tier support model,

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong299

including the fact that the model is mainly based on school-based support
and cannot provide individualized assistance to students. Classes that offer
additional training also require a certain number of students to be opened,
and complaints have been made about the lack of transparency in theseclasses. The school may also not proactively report to parents the level of
support their child is receiving, the services they have received, and whether
the grant has been used on their children, raising doubts about whether
the services can effectively improve the learning experience and outcomesof students with sen (Oriental Daily, 2019).
Whole School Approach
According to the Guide, wsa refers to the coordination of school policies, culture, and measures (Education Bureau, 2020), and it has seven major characteristics:
Table 1. Characteristics of Whole School Approach proposed in the “Operation Guide on the Whole
School Approach to Integrated Education”
Characteristics of WSA
Whole School Consensus

All staff of the school acknowledge the responsibility of establishing an inclusive
environment to cater for the needs of all students;

Curriculum Accommodation

The school curriculum can be adjusted or expanded to cater for students’
diverse learning needs;

Accommodations in Teaching

Diversified teaching techniques and assistive equipment to cater for
students’ diverse learning needs;

Peer Support

Learning groups, peer tutoring and circles of friends are strategicallyorganized;

Teacher Collaboration

Teachers work together and support each other, for example, bycollaborative teaching;

Classroom Support

Specialists collaborate with teachers in improving the learning environment,e.g., arrange collaborative teaching for the benefit of all students;

Assessment Accommodation

Assessment methods are adjusted to facilitate students’ demonstration of
their learning outcomes.

The Guide also lists various performance indicators for schools andhow to achieve a culture of inclusion, clearly indicating that the edb hopesthat every member of the school community can be respected and the differences among different members are understood. Through integrated measures, students, whether with or without sen, can receive quality education.
The Guide provides the basis for schools to promote IE, such as what

300

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

measures to take, what documents to compile, and what professional
personnel to hire, so that schools can start with the basics, assign roles toall educators in the school, and enable students with sen to integrate into
ordinary schools.
The edb has also developed various tools to identify students withlearning difficulties, including the “Checklist”, the “Observation Checklist
for Identifying Students with Speech and Language Impairment”, the“Chinese Literacy Assessment”, the “Child Assessment” and other assessment tools. Regarding students transitioning to secondary school, schools
can also obtain “the specialist assessment reports” and the scores of “PreSecondary One Hong Kong Attainment Test” from primary schools for a
detailed understanding.
It can be seen that the edb has already provided a timetable for schools
to identify and assist students with sen, as well as providing multiple tools
to help teachers identify students in need as early as possible. However,this system cannot avoid being questioned by many parties. First, the current
sen assessment procedure is mainly through teachers’ observation before
referral to professionals. If teachers have not received relevant professional
training, some students may be overlooked, or some students’ problems
may be exaggerated, thus delaying their learning. Moreover, becausesome students did not study in Hong Kong in their early years and are often
ignored when they transfer to primary schools in higher grades, students
are only identified when they enter secondary school, reflecting the loopholes in the current system - only identification during the initial stagesof Primary 1 and Form 1, ignoring transfer students or students who enter
higher grades (Hong Kong Economic Journal, May 21, 2018).
Establishment of “Student Support Team” and Special Educational
Needs Coordinator
Members of the “Student Support Team”
As mentioned above, the school will be advised to establish a student
support team, whose main members include the principal and vice-principal, the Special Educational Needs Coordinator (senco) and sen support
teachers (sensts), the school-based speech therapist, teaching assistants
responsible for supporting students with sen, subject teachers responsible for related students, curriculum development director, counseling
director, counselors and school social workers. Educational psychologists

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong

301

(EPs) or other professionals dispatched by the edb will attend when needed(Education Bureau, 2020).
Home-School Cooperation
An important part of IE is to ensure good cooperation between
schools and parents for accommodating information exchange about thestudent’s situation and developing the most appropriate strategies. To
maintain good operation of home-school cooperation, each school should
establish a continuous communication mechanism. At the beginning of thesemester, teachers will explain the “Three-tier Support Model” to parents,
provide detailed information, and establish contact channels. During the semester, if students are identified as being in Tier 2 or Tier 3, meetings withprofessionals will be arranged as needed, and progress reports, such as reporting student progress on parent day, will be used to report student progress and explain relevant information. At the same time, the school will also
encourage parental involvement, proactively contact parents and express
understanding, care, and sympathy for their performance (Education Bureau,2020). The home-school mediation mechanism will also be an effective
mediation channel when there is any conflicts or disputes between thetwo parties. The school will also follow the consistent personal data privacy
protection system to protect the rights and interests of parents and students.
Home-school cooperation plays an important role in the promotionof IE because communicating with parents helps to ensure that any adjustments to the curriculum, teaching, and assessment can incorporate
parents’ opinions. In addition, parents generally accept IE, believing thatit helps their children to interact with different people and develop goodqualities such as care, tolerance, and responsibility (Hong Kong Institute of
Education Special Educational Needs and Inclusive Education Centre, 2012).
However, insufficient channels for parents to receive information can prevent
students from receiving corresponding services. Even though the edb now
provides schools with different levels of support, establishes a senco, provides subsidy support, and arranges professional services, some schools may
be concerned about their reputation and may not want outsiders to knowthat there are students with special needs in the school, thereby choosing
not to disclose the information (Lu, 2016). This situation was also reflectedin the report of the Audit Commission (2018), which showed that the School
Profiles published by the “Committee on Home-School Co-operation” only

302

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

disclose a small amount of information about supporting special education,
making it difficult for parents to find suitable schools and adding anotherlayer of difficulty to home-school cooperation. In short, the most important
issue with home-school cooperation is actually related to public perception.
Parents and the public lack understanding of special education needs, andeven if their own children may have different learning difficulties or special
needs, parents may refuse to recognize or avoid discussing them, resulting
in students not being diagnosed and intervened in a timely manner.
Current Situation and Data of Integrated Education in Hong Kong
The number of students with sen in Hong Kong has been steadily increasing
in recent years, from around 43,000 students in the 2016/17 academic year
(Figure 1), to nearly 60,000 students in the 2021/22 academic year, of whichapproximately 40 percent are students with specific learning difficulties(sld) and the rest have other types of sen (Legislative Council Secretariat,
2022).
Figure 1. Number of students with SEN in Hong Kong Public Sector Ordinary Schools (Legislative
Council Secretariat, 2022)

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong

303

Figure 2. Types of SEN students in public sector primary and secondary ordinary schools(Legislative Council Secretariat, 2022)

In addition, the number of students with sen participating in public examinations has also increased. According to data from the edb, the numberof students who applied to be special needs candidates in the Hong Kong
Diploma of Secondary Education Examination, and requested special arrangements such as modified test papers and response formats, assistive
devices, and extended examination time, has increased from approximately
2,700 in 2018 to about 3,200 in 2020, accounting for an increase in the
proportion of the total number of candidates from 4.5 percent to 6 percent(Education Bureau, 2021b).
Distribution of students with Special Educational Needs
In the IE model currently promoted by the Hong Kong Government,
the “three-tier support system” is an important tool for supporting students
with sen. The number of students who continue to have special needs in the
Tier 2 and Tier 3 is an important indicator for understanding and observing
the overall distribution of students with sen in Hong Kong and their integration into ordinary schools.
In terms of the number of Tier 2 students in each primary and secondary school, the number of students in primary schools has increased

304

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

from just under 28,000 in the 2019/20 academic year to over 30,000 in
the 2021/22 academic year. For secondary schools, the number of students has increased from over 21,000 in the 2019/20 academic year to over
24,000 in the 2021/22 academic year (Education Bureau, 2023) (Table 2).
The number of Tier 3 support students has increased from just under 2,100
in primary schools in the 2019/20 academic year to over 2,300 in the 2021/22
academic year, and from over 1,500 in secondary schools in the 2019/20 academic year to over 1,800 in the 2021/22 academic year. This reflects that more
schools are accepting students with more severe sen, and more schools are
implementing IE. (Education Bureau, 2023)
Table 2. Number of Tier 2 and Tier 3 students with SEN in Hong Kong Public Sector Ordinary
Schools (Education Bureau, 2023)
Tier of support
required by
students

No. of students
Primary

SecondaryPrimary

SecondaryPrimary

SecondaryTier-2 support

27,95921,50228,60923,03330,02824,377

Tier-3 support

2,094

1,552

2,252

1,671

2,324

1,836

2019/20

2020/212021/22In terms of the number of schools, the overall figures were lower before
the 2018/19 academic year as schools could support students with sen fromother resources. In the 2018/19 academic year, only three hundred eightyone primary schools provided Tier 2 support services and t h r e e h u n d r e d f o r t y - n i n e primary schools provided Tier 3 support services.
However, as of the 2020/21 academic year, the numbers had increased
to f o u r h u n d r e d f i f t y - f o u r primary schools providing Tier 2 support
services and four hundred thirty-one primary schools providing Tier 3 support services (Education Bureau, 2022) (Table 3). In secondary schools,
there were three hundred eighty-four schools providing Tier 2 support services and three hundred thirty-five schools providing Tier 3 support services in the 2018/19 academic year. However, in the 2020/21 academic year,
these numbers had slightly increased to three hundred eighty-nine schools
providing Tier 2 support services and three hundred forty-two schools
providing Tier 3 support services (Education Bureau, 2022) (Table 3).
This reflects that more ordinary schools are gradually accepting more
students with sen requiring Tier 3 support, while also illustrating the continuous increase in the overall number of students with sen in Hong Kong.

305

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong
Table 3. Number of public sector ordinary primary and secondary schools providing Tier 2
and Tier 3 support (教育局，2022)1
Tier of support
required by
students

No. of schools
Primary

SecondaryPrimary

SecondaryPrimary

SecondaryTier-2 support

381

384

455

389

454

389

Tier-3 support

349

335

427

340

431

342

2018/192019/20202/21

Study on Challenges, Effective Policies, and Best Practices of Ordinary Schools
in Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong
In view of the fact that IE has been implemented in Hong Kong for sometime, the eoc has commissioned the Centre for Excellence in Learning andTeaching from the Education University of Hong Kong (referred to as theresearch team below) to carry out a project entitled “Study on Challenges,
Effective Policies, and Best Practices of Ordinary Schools in Educating
Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong”. This Study collected data and stakeholders’ opinions through methods such as questionnaire
surveys, focus group interviews, individual interviews, and case studies, tothoroughly examine the overall effectiveness of IE in primary and secondary
schools at present, and to provide relevant policy recommendations for the
future development of IE. The entire Study began in October 2019. Due tothe outbreak of covid-19 in 2019, all research data collection was completed
in December 2021.
Key Findings of School Questionnaire Survey
The entire school survey was conducted from October 2020 to November
2021, and the collected data was based on the 2020/21 academic year. Afterthe data compilation, a total of one hundred forty-one ordinary schools participated in this Study, with sixty primary schools and eighty-one secondary
schools. There were one hundred forty-one principals, one hundred fortyone sencos and 1,532 teachers participated in the questionnaire survey,
including seven hundred four primary school teachers and eight hundred
twenty-eight secondary school teachers.

306

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Challenges of Implementing IE and effectiveness of support measures
The majority of the school principals (81.6 percent), teachers (85.3 percent)and sencos (85.8 percent) surveyed agreed that the most difficult aspectof implementing IE was the tight teaching schedule/heavy teaching workload. Besides, over 70 percent of principals (70.2 percent) and sencos (70.9
percent) expressed that the administrative work brought about by IE was
heavy, while 68.8 percent of the teachers surveyed considered the lack of
manpower as the second difficulty in implementing IE.
Principals thought that the setting up of the post of senco was the mosteffective support measure with the overall mean score of 3.48 (in a 4-point
scale from 1 to 4, where 3 represents that the policy/support measure is helpful). sencos considered that the promotion of School-based Educational
Psychology services and the provision of more systematic and adequate
teacher training were the most effective support measures with the meanscores of 3.48 for both items. Yet, teachers considered adding the post of
School-based Speech Therapist as the most effective support measure withthe highest mean score of 3.21, while primary school teachers rated a higher
mean score of 3.24.
Stress Level Perceived when Handling Students with SEN
According to the survey, both sencos and teachers pointed out that theyfelt quite stressed when facing students with Autism Spectrum Disorder(asd) or Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (adhd). While taking
care of students with mental illness, the stress experienced by sencos was
significantly higher than that of teachers.
Findings of Individual and Focus Group Interviews with School Stakeholders
The research team conducted interviews with various stakeholders involved
in IE, including principals, sencos, frontline teachers, professional support
personnel, and parents, to collect their opinions on the implementationof IE and explore the overall policy effectiveness and the impact of support measures on schools, teachers, students, parents, and professional
support personnel. In addition, individual and focus group interviews
were analyzed through triangulation analysis to provide preliminary

307

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Konginterpretation of the questionnaire results. Therefore, this Study had amulti-category design, conducted focus group interviews with different
stakeholders and had a sample size that is representative to a certain extent.
Interview Samples
The research team interviewed a total of one hundred six stakeholders
from twenty-seven schools, including fifteen primary schools and twelve
secondary schools. Half of the schools were considered more successful
in implementing IE, while the other half still had room for improvement. The
team conducted individual interviews or focus group interviews starting in
June 2021 and completed them in December 2021. The details are as follows:
Table 4. Sample details of interview respondents
Stakeholder

Primary Schools

Secondary Schools

Total No. of
Respondents

Principals

15

12

27

SENCOs and SENSTs

15

16

31

Professional Support Personnel

15

13

28

Parents

10

10

20

The interview transcripts quoted below (information within parentheses) are coded using the combination of the school code and participant
code, representing individual schools and participants.
Individual Interview and Focus Group Interview Findings
Status of Curriculum Implementation (Teaching, Learning, and Assessment)
Curriculum and Assessment in Secondary Schools
Stakeholders in both primary and secondary schools (including principals, sencos, and teachers) clearly pointed out that the biggest problem
in the current implementation of IE is the tight schedule of the existing
curriculum, which makes it difficult for schools and frontline teachers toallocate sufficient resources to effectively address the needs of students withsen.
“Our timetable is packed, completely packed, and the biggest problem we face is that in a classroom, the class timetable

308

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

is very intense, and basically there is no free time.” (Secondary
school principal) (SS02-PR)“In schools, lessons are resources that colleagues notice. If
you allocate some of the lesson periods to support moral education, and you allocate some of them to [IE], instead of tellingteachers to teach outside of their normal classes, it affects themoral education of some students, and I did allocate a lesson
period, so I know you value it.” (Secondary school principal)(SS01- PR)
They also unanimously agreed that requiring students with sen to
simultaneously receive mainstream education courses and assessment criteria is the root cause of educational inequality in Hong Kong.
“Our principle for extra time [during exams] is that for
students in Form 1 to 3, if there is a medical certificate and arequest from their parents, basically we would approve it andarrange a special room for them with extra time. However, forForm 4 students who are considering extra time, they needto think again if they really need it for their dse (Diploma of
Secondary Education) [examination]. Even if they are in a lower
form, if they don’t take extra time, they can still rejoin this line
(apply for extra time) later, but whether it is approved or not is
up to the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority.”(Secondary School senco) (SS02-SE)
Currently, secondary school students still need to take the Hong
Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examination (hkdse). This not
only brings heavy pressure to schools but also prevents students with senfrom keeping up with the curriculum and affects their overall learning effectiveness throughout their secondary school years.
“The teachers have high expectations for themselves andhope that their students excel. They also feel that going to university is the only way to a good future. Sometimes, teachers
themselves think that going to university is the only option.
Students with sen reflected to counselling teachers and social
workers that ‘Teachers always told us to enter university at lessons and which subject to study. I feel like they are letting everyone down because they cannot get into university’. Somestudents may even lose motivation and feel like it’s not worth
trying. So it is important for teachers to understand that there
are different pathways available for students.” (Secondary School
Principal) (SS03-PR)

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong309

“If a family sees that a certain subject or career path is suitable for their child with sen, [they should think] whether [thechild] should be able to take the public exams. There are somecases where students with anxiety or physical conditions may
struggle to cope with the stress of exams at the expense of theirhealth. It would be good to give parents some choices, say inForm 3, that are widely accepted and recognized by everyone.”(Secondary School senco)(SS04- SE+SW+ST)“There are challenges in terms of academic performance forstudents with sen. Their abilities are limited and there are gaps
in their learning. It is especially difficult for higher grade students, even with all the support provided by teachers such as
study groups and tutoring from alumni. This may not necessarily
result in a significant improvement in their grades and performance, and it may be difficult for them to pass the dse exam andenter university.” (Secondary School senco) (SS05-SE)“We know that they are a bit behind others, they are backward, not just two years of difference. Some of them may only beat the level of junior primary school when they enroll in secondary school. If you make them take the dse exam, you’re basically pushing them too hard.” (Secondary School senco) (SS16-SE)
Teachers also cannot adjust their daily assessments given the difficulty of
the content in public exams, which further undermines their students’ motivation to learn.
“Hong Kong places too much emphasis on academic performance. I think if we can change this mindset— there are many
ways to learn, right? Each student with sen has [his/her] own
strengths. For example, we know that some students with sen
may have weak reading skills, but they may be good at drawing.... If you ask them to take the dse exam and answer so manyquestions, they will definitely fail. No matter how you adjust it,
it’s not about their ability. I think what you need to do is givethem something they can excel at, rather than something theyknow they will fail. It’s about changing our mindset.”(Secondary
School senco) (SS16-SE)
Although students with sen can apply for various exam accommodations, they are not very effective for them.
“Although you provided resources, does it mean that a student with MI in an ordinary school can definitely handle thedse? I don’t think so. They still have to study the dse curriculum,310

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

which I think is quite challenging.” (Secondary School senco)(SS16-SE)“Actually, for students who are weaker in terms of learning abilities, extra time and other accommodations may not get
many scores for them. In contrary, sen may imply some behavioural problems or relatively complicated family backgrounds,
support [in this regard] is more inadequate. For them, there
are more problems, most likely about emotions or behaviours.”(Secondary School Social Worker) (SS09-SW)
Primary School Curriculum and Assessment Situation
In primary schools, due to the need to regularly take the Territorywide System Assessment (tsa) and the Pre-Secondary One Hong Kong
Attainment Test (Pre-S1 hkat), the curriculum schedule is also very tight,
and teachers have actual difficulty in having sufficient room to effectively cater to the learning diversity of students with sen.
“I think sometimes teachers’ primary concern is not to hinder classroom progress, of course, if it seriously affects the progress, I understand. Or sometimes they may not have the time orwillingness to deal with it, because teachers have to deal with
TSA, Pre-S1 (hkat), and various assessments. If there is a problem, it may take half a lesson to handle, and teachers may notwant to lose this half lesson and affect the progress afterwards.”(Primary school senco) (PS04-SE)
However, as the school has a curriculum development leader (CD), theinterviewed senco stated that the Tier 1 (T1) assistance of the CD in improving classroom support effectiveness is crucial and helps improve overallteaching outcomes.
“The new CD was willing to think together on how to
improve lessons of all colleagues to reduce individual differences, and the EP is also very helpful.” (Primary School senco)(PS02-SE)“So I think the CD is promoting the T1 support, helping toaddress the learning diversity in T1, promoting a positive school,
putting people first...and can take care of the learning diversityof students. So, the first step is to adjust the learning when thesubject ability is not good. Then, we can focus on improving theabilities of the top students. Because I think this is what theywant to do. If I can also help with this, they will be very moti-

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong311

vated to start, and it will also make the teacher feel better andhave a sense of ability and success in teaching.” (Primary School
senco) (PS06-SE)
Impact of Current Education System and Environment on the
Implementation of Integrated Education
Some interviewed primary and secondary school principals believethat the current school system lacks space and flexibility in curriculum
accommodations. Relying solely on daily homework and exam accommodations do not help improve the learning effectiveness of students with sen.
“As for class hours, our timetable in Hong Kong is fixed, or
what is called flexible class hours, it is a concept that is flexible
to the extent that the students know how to move around automatically. It’s like some kindergartens I’ve seen, where once youenter, the children know exactly what they want to do and moveon to the next activity. Can this degree of freedom be introduced
into our primary and secondary schools, which have very structured systems?” (Primary school principal) (PS06-PR)“In the overall [educational] environment, teachers face certain difficulties, especially in how to help these students [withsen]. It seems to me that controlling them in the classroom forordinary learning is a huge [challenge].”(Secondary school principal) (SS01-PR)
The interviewed sencos, social workers, and clinical psychologists
from primary and secondary schools further emphasized that due to theovercrowded curriculum in Hong Kong, subject teachers often say thatclassroom progress cannot be hindered, or there may not be too much time
to care for students with sen. The relationship between teachers and students is mostly built in the classroom and in learning, lacking other exchange opportunities. Teacher-student dialogue is focused only on learningand it is difficult to establish good communication with students, and support for students is not comprehensive enough. This is indeed an unsatisfactory situation at present.
“I think that for the T1 support, I may not really be able tosupport teachers in learning. Maybe in terms of student behavior, for example, he may have asd or adhd, I have some feasible
solutions for colleagues, but in actual teaching, how to teach,maybe I majored in Chinese and I can help with Chinese, or
our CD can help. But maybe for colleagues who teach English
or mathematics, it is difficult for them to effectively take care of

312

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

the differences in classroom, and the curriculum is too rushed,so they feel the difficulty, which is understandable.” (Primaryschool senco) (PS03-SE)“The teaching and learning aspect are actually something
we have always struggled with. The edb may hope that we cando it well, but it really depends on the situation of each school.
While we understand that learning diversity can be promoted,
simply sharing the message doesn’t mean it can be implemented
or that certain teachers, who may have had exposure to training and so on, can [try to] carry out the practice in their own
classrooms or subjects.... It can be difficult for them to try it out,
unless they are, say, already a subject head. So, I find this aspect
challenging.” (Secondary School senco) (SS02-SE)“However, within the entire education system, there is noplace for teachers to relieve some of their workload and provide more space for teachers and students to have some informal communication, instead of just exchanging knowledge fromtextbooks. I am certain that this can reduce many cases of emotional difficulties and the negative effects of hyperactivity disorder.” (Primary school social worker) (PS08-rsw)“I actually reflect on the concept of inclusion, the whole ideaof IE, when I look at clinical practice. I personally think that thisis a vision. That is, we actually hope for social inclusion, thatsome students with learning difficulties can also learn in thesame environment. However, from actual observations, I feelthat different schools will share: some students, or actually thestudents’ behavioral problems are not too serious. When teachers may not be able to handle them, it not only affects the individual students themselves but also affects the learning of thewhole class. Maybe after the teacher spent half of the class timedealing with their emotional problems, there are only 15 minutes
left.” (Secondary school clinical psychologist) (SS02-CP)
In addition, sensts interviewed also said that some teachers have reported losing a sense of success when teaching students with sen, which isconsistent with the survey data and an area for improvement in the future.
“Half of the class are students with sen. How can we teach?
Many colleagues say they do not feel successful in their teaching,because no matter how much effort they put in, the students still
end up with a U grade (ungraded). For example, there aresome “helicopter parents” (parents who excessively intervene intheir children’s lives).They always ask me, ‘please tell them notEducating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong313

to take the exam, or ask them to be absent?’” (Secondary School
senco) (SS15-SE)
Based on the above interviews, in terms of curriculum arrangements,
both primary and secondary schools face the problem of a tight curriculum and difficulty in accommodating, making it difficult for teachers tocare for students with sen in their daily teaching. In terms of assessment arrangements, both primary and secondary schools make accommodations forstudents with sen, such as extra time, reading papers, etc. However, due tothe restrictions of the hkdse, secondary schools face greater constraints inmaking accommodations for exams, while primary schools still have someflexibility. However, such flexibility may not be a real help for students, as
using the same exam to assess students with sen is inherently unfair, andaccommodations are merely a “fair” arrangement in terms of policy.
In the implementation of IE, education is the key. However, theexam culture and curriculum arrangements established in Hong Kong formany years have made it difficult for schools and teachers to improve the effectiveness of education under the policy of IE. For secondary schools, they
have to face the hkdse, and some compulsory courses and designatedskills have become content that students must learn in secondary school.
In order for students to be in line with the public exam, schools andteachers are unable to make curriculum cuts in the form of school-based curriculum. For primary schools, facing the tsa and the Pre-S1 hkat, thecurriculum frameworks and teaching objectives set by the edb in the
curriculum guidelines of various subjects also limit the accommodation ofprimary school curriculum. Based on the curriculum and policies establishedover the years, the inclusion of IE at present has not given primary and secondary school teachers room to make changes in the existing curriculum,and it is the tight curriculum that makes it difficult for teachers to do the“education” work in IE, and also makes it difficult for teachers to abandon theelitist thinking that has been established for many years.
Effectiveness of Government’s Continuous Investment in Integrated Education
Functions and Roles of SENCO
With the development of IE, the edb began to establish the positionof senco in every school starting from the 2017/18 school year to sup-314

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

port students with sen. However, the scope of work involved in the role ofsenco is extensive and the workload is enormous. It is difficult for a senco
to handle everything alone. The interviewed sencos reflected that the work
involved in supporting students with sen is diverse, including early identification, planning support, and setting up ieps. The work cannot be done
independently by the senco alone and requires the support of students,
parents, teachers, and other professional support personnel to implement
the WSA.
“Because sen work involves many interconnected aspects.
After identifying a Primary 1 student with sen, you need to provide support, and after providing support, you need to forma support group. Within that group, some students may havepractical needs, such as adhd or autism. There are many things
that are interconnected. When I need to create an iep, for example, I may not be able to do it alone. I need to train my colleagues
on how to create an iep and how to handle different types ofstudents. There may not always be support from colleagues, butthat does not mean I have completed everything. When I need
to follow up, I need to communicate with colleagues A, B, C, or
the whole school on how to adjust for exams or how to handledifficulties encountered in assignments. Most of the time, colleagues or parents will come to me for help.” (Primary school
senco) (PS03-SE)
In addition to being responsible for serving as a bridge to communicate
and negotiate with stakeholders, the time, skills and effort required for sencos to handle complex administrative work has been a long-term source ofpressure. Based on the need to coordinate the opinions of various stakeholders and support students with sen according to the edb’s procedures,
sencos’ work often require a long-term effort to gradually take effect.
“The senco really has to take care of everything. I have tofollow up on the curriculum, but I can only slowly learn something, and I can’t follow up in depth. I’m just a bridge to coordinate things, such as exam adjustments. My team has someone who goes into the exam committee, and I have a colleague
who specializes in exam accommodations for students withsen, including dse arrangements.” (Secondary School senco)(SS06-SE)

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong315

In interviews, sencos in primary and secondary schools also indicatedthat current school policies and support staff are insufficient to meet theirwork demands. Within the schools, sencos often need to collaborate withsubject teachers or administrators to provide students with different accommodations, but they lack the ability to strengthen collaboration among
teachers.
“In fact, the learning support team is in the academic sideof edb...it requires some effort to push forward... I asked for amathematics vice teacher, a Chinese vice teacher, and a support
teacher for English. For Chinese, English and Mathematics, I canpush forward in junior forms, but for some curriculum-related
matters, I need to rely on the three subject panel [heads], but
how do I get them to listen to me?” (Secondary School senco)(SS09-SE)Interviewed primary and secondary school principals agreed that caring for students with special learning needs should not be the sole responsibility of the senco, but rather should involve the participation and promotion of all teachers in the school. The senco needs to be empowered
to enhance their coordination ability to promote the overall development of
IE in the whole school.
“I think it is important for all colleagues to agree to a mindset that we need to join forces to teach students with sen, notjust the responsibility of the senco, but also for all colleagues tohave the heart to make our school inclusive. In addition, in thepast, everyone was very taboo about privacy, but if we know
the symptoms of the child’s syndrome to some extent, we will beable to handle it better. All teachers in the school know about
it, so when it comes to handling it, we understand it somewhat
and reduce conflicts.” (Primary School Principal) (PS05-PR)
In addition, general teachers also have the responsibility and awareness to assist the senco in providing early support for students with special learning needs so that students can feel the care and assistance of theschool as a whole.
“I think communication in terms of information is very important. Because if there are some more severe cases, sometimes
even students with self-harm tendencies, it is only a momentary
thing, so we need to grasp [the situation] more to provide sup-316

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

port. I understand that it is really difficult to handle in private,but I think if the teacher often meets this student, they actuallyneed to know.” (Secondary School Social Worker) (SS15-SW)
From the interviews, it can be seen that the edb has established theposition of senco in each school, and has formulated relevant work
guidelines and procedures. Sencos in primary and secondary schools
also expressed that they can clearly understand the criteria and arrangements for their work. However, the relevant work cannot be completed
solely by themselves, and the lack of understanding among other teaching
staff also hinders support for students.
At the secondary school level, the needs of students with sen are notlimited to learning, and may involve emotional management, social skills,
etc. All teaching staff need to participate and prevent dangerous situations
in order to effectively support students in need. However, sencos lacksufficient ability to promote cooperation among teachers. Most of the
support is still led by the sencos, which makes their situation very difficult. The problem faced by primary schools is to identify students whoneed support early. The identification process also requires the participation of all teaching staff, including daily observation, communication withparents and students, etc. However, teachers are burdened with the busy
teaching work and do not have time to establish good communication withstudents beyond teaching, which also affects the efficiency of identification. After identification, various support work and plans also require theimplementation by all teaching staff together. However, ordinary teachers
still rely on the senco’s planning and instructions, rather than supporting
students’ needs based on their own understanding.
Current School Support on Integrated Education
Although different professionals, such as EPs and speech therapists,
regularly visit schools to provide professional assistance, resources arestill insufficient. EPs reflected in interviews that due to inadequate visits toschools, they were unable to meet the needs of too many students withsen, which prevented students with special learning needs from receiving
continuous assessments and made it difficult to adjust their support according to students’ changes.
“Perhaps the work of EPs is also limited, that is, now EPs
serve alone, with a ratio of one to seven. Therefore, what canbe done must be limited to the emergency cases. Then, when

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong317

it comes to schools hoping to implement something, after theylisten to my advice on how to do it, they can work in pairs withthem or I can demonstrate it, and then they try to do it themselves. At least, I think that more confidence in the overall teachers will make it easier for them to implement in their own classes
or with their own students... If the ratio of EPs in schools continues not to decrease, and the number of students with sen ina school is so high, the ratio of one EP to students is constantly
increasing. Therefore, I believe that more manpower is more important than money.” (Secondary school EP) (SS01-EP)
Interviewed social workers also stated that because EPs are not able
to be stationed at schools, sometimes teachers and social workers at theschool need to replace EPs to provide support, but the different professional
skills weaken the effectiveness of support.
“The division of labor on sen work may belong to the groupof EPs, with more support available. There is also a senco, andon our social work level, we also have EPs. Unlike in the past
where EP was full-time at school, our division of labor does nothave such a distinction. But now in schools, EPs only visit school
according to schedule. So I think, in this situation, students with
sen will be taken cared of by teachers or supported by in-schoolsocial workers.” (Secondary School Social Worker) (SS05-SW)“That is to say, I guess now only a psychiatrist can diagnose
whether a student has MI [mental illness], EP, CP (clinical psychologists), we all can’t do it. Waiting for this takes the longest
time, and I can only refer them to some very urgent services.
Some students, I cannot immediately make referrals and can
only chat with them, provide some temporary support, or referthem to go to public hospitals and wait, etc.” (Secondary School
Social Worker) (SS01-SW)
Regarding ieps, the sencos interviewed stated that the plans canbring significant impacts on students. However, ieps require the participation of different stakeholders to achieve its ideal effects.
“Because we have three meetings a year, the first one is actually for planning, and the second and the third one are for reviewing how the first half of the year went or the progress for thesecond half of the year. We need to adjust our support direction
among us, which I think is very important. It’s more systematicto plan some support for the students, different units also know
how to cooperate with systematic support to review how each318

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

unit is doing, how students’ progress is adjusted, whether it’sgoals or strategies, we will try to do it again, I think it’s very important in the process.” (Secondary School EP) (SS03-EP)“Actually, the Tier 3 of iep is necessary because some students may not really benefit from Tier 2 support, or we used toonly provide some individual counseling, which is not perfect.
In fact, iep needs to be complemented with many things, including regular meetings, regular contact with parents, and EPs,
maybe together with writing some learning plans for each case,so the plan actually sets some small goals for the students. Iep isa focused project that can help children, especially cases of ID[intellectual disabilities] and asd, where progress is significant.”(Primary School EP) (PS01-SE)
The sencos of primary and secondary schools interviewed stated that inorder to ensure that students can receive practical support, schools will
select students based on their urgent needs and circumstances to ensurethat ieps can be effectively implemented. In primary schools, schools tend
to prioritize students who have difficulties in both academic, self-care, andpersonal growth aspects, such as students with autism or adhd, while students with only special learning needs are usually not the first choice.
“For iep to be opened, it is best to provide individual support, but I don’t want to open it and then fail to provide the quality of Tier 3 support that he needs. Because there are many meetings to follow up on for iep, and the current staff of our support
team cannot handle iep.” (Primary School senco) (PS02-SE)
Secondary school sencos stated that due to restrictions of public examinations, ieps are mostly for students in Form 1 to Form 3 to provide moretime for support.
“For students in Form 1 to Form 3, emotional management,
daily routine, and interpersonal relationships may require [iep],for example, for students with adhd, asd, or MI, there is achance that they may be the target of our iep. For sld, we may
also consider whether we can help them while promoting theirpersonal growth. We don’t want to waste the positions for iep,but we can’t be excessive. Because an iep is not just written, we
examine several categories, so colleagues are busy, our subject
teachers need to help, our Resource Teacher needs to support
subject teachers, sometimes some parts may require senst tohelp, and sometimes social workers are needed, such as personalemotions or communication with family members. So we cannot be excessive. If not, if you write so much, everyone cannot
do it, it is meaningless.” (Secondary school EP) (SS01-EP)

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong

319

Regarding the Tier 3 support model in IE (i.e., iep), both primary andsecondary schools agree that the plan can effectively provide students withmore comprehensive support, and this kind of support needs the joint efforts and implementation of different staff within the school to achieve
results. However, primary and secondary schools also face a common
problem, that is, the shortage of resources and staff, which leads to theneed for schools to make choices when implementing the Tier 3 support inorder to ensure the effectiveness of the support plan. In particular, secondary schools need to make choices in response to the restrictions of public
exams, and student academic performance may also be a factor to consider.
Primary schools tend to choose based on the student’s personal growth andself-care abilities. These criteria are also based on the school situation andthe school’s approach to decide which students to support, which meansthat this effective support model cannot be widely used in more students.
For primary and secondary schools, the role of EPs is to assess students
and provide professional support and advices. However, both primary andsecondary schools have reported that EPs visit schools infrequently, andoften rely on teachers or social workers to provide support measures forstudents. The difficulty is that social workers do not have publicly recognized
qualifications in student assessment, and all support plans are only recognized with reports from EPs or psychiatrists. This situation means that themost commonly engaged professionals (such as social workers), who know
students and understand their needs best, must wait for the judgments ofother professionals before they can provide further support. This has a greater impact on primary schools, as the focus of primary education is to identify and support students early, and the need for long-waiting professional
reports makes it difficult to achieve this “early” support. Therefore, teachersand social workers who work at the school can only identify individual cases
early and provide support as soon as possible.
Resource Deployment and Flexibility
Stakeholders in primary and secondary schools, including principals,
sencos, teachers, and various professional support personnel, have allindicated that the Government’s sustained increase in resources hashelped schools promote IE. Schools can use lsg to employ different professional support personnel, which can be used for different students, suchas non-Chinese speaking students.

320

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3“For example, when you talk about ncs (non-Chinese speaking students), it is also a way of caring for diversity... Personally,
I think that non-Chinese speaking is also a branch of IE. If wehave some funding or professional support that can be flexibly
used according to the school’s situation and needs, I think it
would be ideal.” (Secondary school principal) (SS03-PR)“We use funding of lsg to hire some support teachers andassistants. I mainly coordinate the work of these teachers, ask
them to divide the administrative and in-class support work. In
addition, basically all students and support group administrative work have to be handled. The most time-consuming thingis contacting parents and meeting with parents, as well as contacting parents of students with sen, which takes up more time.”(Primary school senco) (PS02-SE)
However, when utilizing related lsg, the sencos pointed out that they
are constrained, and the sensts they hire may not be able to fully support
their work because it is difficult to find suitable staff to assist schools in
implementing IE, especially the lack of professional support personnel
specialized in caring for a certain type of students with sen.
“Nowadays, the Government’s IE is mainly in ordinary
schools. The benefit is that they can integrate into mainstream
society and live with ordinary people. This can enhance their social skills. However, on the other hand, although the Government
has provided a lot of resources in recent years, we still lack theso-called expertise to take care of a certain type of students. It
depends on the overall school atmosphere and team because if
it is not handled properly, it is easy to have bullying, but if handled properly, of course, it can achieve their educational goals.”(Secondary school principal) (SS15-PR)“Is it really that way? The current policy is to give you money to solve it anyway, but the problem is that I can’t find it in thecommunity, not that I can’t find the people, but whether I canfind suitable people who have the willingness and ability to help
with IE.” (Primary school principal) (PS06-PR)
Moreover, most of the resources are used to hire professional support
personnel, which does not help solve the problem that sencos have too
many administrative tasks but insufficient working hours.
“There is a lot of paperwork involved in our work, such as
helping students with their dse. The process of obtaining exemp-

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong

321

tions involves a lot of paperwork and is very time-consuming.”(Secondary school principal) (SS15-PR)
Therefore, to address the issue of staffing, it is recommended to establish permanent positions for professional support personnel to attract relevant professionals to join schools and provide support. This can help createa supportive atmosphere on campus and achieve a more ideal model of wsa.
“If this [position] is not stable and is always filled throughcontracts, it is not enough to simply increase lsg and hire moreteachers to deal with the increasing number of sen paperwork.
Students and parents require support, and using contracts is not
ideal.” (Primary school senco) (PS06-SE)
In addition, some school principals pointed out that simply increasing
resources without changes in the education system does not help improvethe difficulties faced by IE.
“In fact, for everything to be implemented, it is said thatthe whole school should participate. I think the edb should
offer some flexibility to schools. The edb has implemented somany policies. Will there be priorities? We are not saying that
we won’t do the others, but we will gradually do them. Because
there are too many things, our teachers don’t have enough time.
Sometimes teachers say, ‘to take care of students’ mental health,I also have to take care of my own mental health.’ So one of ourstaff development is to take care of teachers’ mental health.”(Secondary school principal) (SS03-PR)
From the above interviews, it can be seen that the Government’s increase in resources for IE allows primary and secondary schools to havemore funding to hire additional teachers or assistants. Secondary schools
will use these resources to support more student groups, such as nonChinese speaking students, while primary schools will use the resources
to handle time-consuming administrative work.
Although primary and secondary schools have more human resources
to support IE, they still face the challenge of finding support teachers or
assistants with professional knowledge in IE, which hinders the optimaluse of funds. This situation is related to the establishment of relevant positions. The edb allocates funds for schools to hire teachers or assistants,
which only allows primary and secondary schools to hire relevant person-

322

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

nel on a contract basis. Such instability results in high turnover rates forthese positions and affects the continuity of support.
Professional Development of Teachers in Integrated Education
All interviewed principals believed that enhancing teachers’ awareness is an important factor in implementing IE. Through training, teachers can deepen their understanding of IE, improve their skills in caring
for students with sen, and help teachers in different roles, including
discipline/guidance team, career planning teams, and class teachers, understand how to support students in different roles. This reduces theover-reliance of teachers on student support team or sencos and promotes the participation of the whole school in implementing IE.
“In fact, everything we do, such as the whole school lesson
planning system we just talked about, is based on Continuous
Professional Development (cpd). Because we know that our
professional development as educators will inevitably involve
cpd at a certain stage. The most important thing about cpd isthat you learn while doing it, and it’s not just about you as anindividual, but your team as well. So our belief is that the teamis very important. We have put in a lot of effort in the past few
years in building the team, and we believe that if we integratestudents with sen into it, it will be easier to achieve our goals.”(Secondary school principal) (SS01-PR)“Wsa means a role for everyone. Everyone has something
to contribute, and there is a whole-school policy. Every year, theedb provides some sen training, even mental health training,
and ngos also have similar training. We arrange colleagues toattend these training sessions, not just in the counseling teamor sen team, but gradually in other teams such as the discipline
team, career planning team, class teachers, and even other colleagues. We have invited relevant professionals such as psychiatrists, social workers, and clinical psychologists to come andtalk to us about how teachers should deal with students’ growth
problems and mental health issues.” (Secondary school principal) (SS03-PR)
For teachers, encountering students with special learning needs at
campus and in classroom is common and inevitable. Therefore, the interviewed principals stated that most teachers are willing to attend various
training to help themselves deal with the possible situations they may face.

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong

323

“They are very cooperative with the school’s arrangements.
When colleagues in charge require other colleagues to takecourses on Tier 1, 2 and 3 or special courses on sen, generally speaking, colleagues are very willing, possibly because theyknow there is a real need. In class teaching, they will definitely
have the opportunity to encounter these students. Therefore,
when they know that it is helpful to strengthen sen teaching,colleagues are very willing to comply with the policy.” (Primaryschool principal) (PS07-PR)
However, interviewed teachers also expressed some pressure on
training. Currently, in-service teachers mainly improve their skills throughtraining courses offered by tertiary institutions. But the quality and content
of the courses can affect their effectiveness. The edb and different tertiary
institutions organize various types of training activities, including sharing
sessions and lectures, but some teachers expressed that some course content overemphasizes theory and lacks practical applications in teaching.
Teachers can only use the case sharing in the course as a “reference”, butthey may not be able to apply it in daily teaching, especially since course
instructors have limited subject expertise and find it difficult to provide
practical support to teachers of different subjects.
“To be honest, after completing the senco course, I eventook the online version. At most, I could only talk about things
like differentiated worksheets and visual strategies, but I haven’t
really implemented them. Maybe I’ve used them in mathematics
or business, accounting and financial studies, but how do I applythat specialized knowledge to English, Chinese, and mathematics?” (Secondary school senco) (SS09-SE)“I had been senst for two years, we took a lot of courses, but
none of them were really formal, and I believe they wouldn’t havehelped me much. Because they were still categorized, and theytaught you how to do things, the sharing methods used by the
public may not have as much theoretical support.” (Secondary
school senst) (SS09-ST)
As society and the education sector increasingly value IE, the interviewed primary and secondary school principals believe that it is worth
considering adding IE as a core subject in teacher training. This will enable
teachers to have a deep and professional understanding of caring for stu-

324

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

dents with special learning needs and IE before entering the profession, andto understand the characteristics and needs of different students with special
learning needs. This will help them to identify students’ needs early in theirteaching, and to collaborate with in-school support personnel in handlingstudent situations in wsa during the theoretical and practical stages of theiremployment.
“I think that in teacher training, we should add basic training for taking care of students with sen. Taking care of different
students with sen can be an elective, but at least you need toknow about it. Knowing that it is common, you should learn it.
You don’t have to worry about chasing the standard all the time.”(Secondary school principal) (SS04-PR)“Just as in teacher training, now that IE has become mainstream, the sen course will be a core subject. It is a must-read.”(Primary school principal) (PS09-PR)
In the wsa, the awareness of teachers is important, but the IE policies andbeliefs of decision-makers are equally important. Some EPs have pointed outthat while training courses to support students with sen have been implemented for several years, the courses also need to be updated in a timely manner to keep up with policy changes, increase in awareness as well as improvements in treatment methods and standards, so that frontline personnel can
improve the situation more effectively and accurately.
“A few years ago, mental health issues were included in sen,which increased the focus in training and education. During
their studies, they should have less exposure to real cases withmental health problems. EPs should handle some subclinicalcases, even some standard cases of depression or anxiety, andhave the ability to do so. Therefore, they will spend extra timeafter graduation to learn about different treatment methods andmake up for the lack of experience in this area, so that they can
do it with confidence. I think this is one of the areas that can be
improved.” (Secondary school EP) (SS11-EP)
Some interviewed parents believe that the success of IE in schools depends on the belief of the principals. If schools lack an open and long-term
vision in the development of IE, the effectiveness of policy implementation
will be weakened.
“I think the Government needs to educate school principals to accept [IE]. Secondly, they need to be open-minded.
How much resources the school has received and spent on sen

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong325

from the Government and how those resources are allocatedshould be transparently monitored, so that we can make surethat children are not mistreated. I think monitoring is necessary.
If schools use this money, the role of senco needs to be clear.
Parents, teachers, and even training teachers should be educatedtoo.” (Primary school parent) (PS-PA02)
Sencos also believe that the Government can collaborate more with universities to conduct research on IE and review the effectiveness of implementation at local schools. Principals also agree that such research is usefulfor schools to learn from and review their own measures, in order to further
improve their own development.
“I know some research is conducted by universities, or the
edb itself has a team to conduct such research. I think thesestudies need to be localized. Different ngos such as the Jockey
Club have also invested in trying out some work. We need tosummarize our local experiences and find our own methods, because our environment is unique.” (Secondary school principal)(SS02-PR)
For principals of primary and secondary schools, they believethat teacher participation is an important factor in implementing IE.
Professional training not only helps schools establish a team consistent in
its vision, but secondary school principals also believe that it contributes
to the continuous development of individual teachers. The interviews
show that in addition to recommending individual teachers to participate
in external training, primary and secondary school principals also organizedwhole-school teacher training to provide teachers with more opportunities
to access relevant information. Given the current lack of IE training, primaryand secondary school principals also suggest that relevant teacher training should be extended to pre-service teacher education programmes sothat every prospective teacher has a certain understanding of students withspecial learning needs before entering the workplace. This would enable themto have certain abilities and skills to provide support in actual classroom
situations and instructional design, while also alleviating the pressure
brought by teacher development programmes.
For primary and secondary school teachers, in the context of IE,
some teachers also agree that development programmes can help improve or support their teaching in the classroom, such as enhancing theirunderstanding of students with special learning needs and understanding

326

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

various accommodation strategies. However, the quality of courses offeredby external organizations varies. Even after spending time studying, teachers may not be able to apply what they have learned in their own teaching.
After all, IE is a whole-school policy, and the entire school team should continue to progress with policy development in order to achieve more ideal
results. For secondary schools, the special learning needs that schools often face are mental health issues among students. Although mental healthissues have been included in the scope of support in recent years, there isa lack of related professional training, which puts professionals in a “learning
while doing” situation and affects the effectiveness of support. Therefore,
secondary school EPs suggest that when implementing various support
measures at the frontline, relevant training should also be added to training
courses to allow professionals to be better prepared for support work.
Impact of Cross-Professional Support on Integrated Education and Creation of
Inclusive Campus
Situation and Support for Students’ Mental and Emotional Health inGeneral and During the Epidemic
The mental health of students is closely related to their personal growth,and both students themselves and parents and teachers should pay attention to their mental health. In order to enhance school’s attention tomental health, according to interviews with primary and secondary school
principals, schools will conduct mental health education for students,
parents, and teachers through various activities in daily life, to increase
stakeholders’ awareness, and support students’ mental health with preventive strategies.
“Especially in the past year, we have done more preparatory work rather than defensive work. In education, we give
students more understanding of their emotions and let themknow that it is not taboo to talk about their difficulties andtroubles. Sometimes they really cannot concentrate and sleep,
which makes it difficult for them to return to school. It is notabout avoidance, but about seeking help.... In recent years, thecounseling team and sen groups have made efforts to help students understand their emotions.” (Secondary school principal)(SS03-PR)

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong

327

However, with the changes brought about by the epidemic in recent
years, such as the reduction of face-to-face communication opportunities
and changes in lifestyle habits, students’ emotional problems have worsened. Especially during online learning periods, students in need may not
actively seek help, making it more difficult to provide professional support
which entails parents’ insight and assistance to a larger extent.
“For students with emotional issues, it is even more difficult
because they may not be willing to seek help themselves and can
only rely on others to actively ask them. However, during the
pandemic, they may be even less willing to actively seek help,
making the situation more difficult.” (Secondary School EP)(SS03-EP)“The first is mental health. For some people, face-to-facecommunication is very important. With fewer opportunities
for this during the pandemic, many students, whether they haveemotional problems or not, may face difficulties with their mental health. During the pandemic, many of their daily routines
were disrupted, and they might not be able to master some ofthe self-care skills. From our observations, especially every time
we resumed classes, they were very confused and unable tograsp the rhythm of going to school. This can also affect manyother things, such as their emotions in learning, which I think isa difficult area for both secondary and primary school students.”(Secondary School EP) (SS02-EP)
Based on the above situations, most of the interviewed social workers
also believe that parental involvement is an important factor in supporting
students’ emotions, and continuous parental education can help parents
understand mental health-related information, such as symptoms of MI,
how to identify students’ mental needs, etc.
“The school counseling team continuously holds some mental health lectures. For example, if you are studying in juniorforms here, there may be three or four times when mental healthis discussed, which enables students to learn about relevant
knowledge, such as symptoms. There are also some large-scale
programmes that the entire grade may participate in. The school
also sets up booths and holds many different activities to give
students some concepts of MI and mental health.” (Secondary
School Social Worker) (SS02-SW)
The school can also provide more opportunities and platforms for parents to openly discuss mental health issues so that all stakeholders can face328

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

mental health problems and make it easier for students with mental healthneeds to receive support and assistance.
“I think what needs to be done is to at least make the wholething more normalized. For example, enhance everyone’s acceptance level of mental health and emotional distress, becausesome students cannot accept these names, or parents cannot
accept these names, and they are unwilling to seek treatment.
Everyone thinks they have this need, but they are unwilling toface it, thinking that such things are weird, like monsters, so they
are unwilling to see a doctor. Therefore, I think that if we canpopularize these things and let everyone know that these things
are normal and many people have them, when their acceptancelevel is higher, it will be smoother and easier for them to receive
support.” (Secondary School Social Worker) (SS01-SW)
Regarding parental education methods, interviewed parents also agree
that some activities organized by institutions or universities, such as talks
and training, can help them and their children, while also establishing a
sense of community support.
“We definitely cannot rely solely on schools, we also needsupport from doctors, nurses, social workers, and the community. [I hope that if the community] has more [lectures], just like
Baptist University has a subject on early childhood education[and] does a lot of research and holds many of these talks. I think
the talks are very helpful because they have a lot of data that canquickly support me in finding ways to help my child.” (Primaryschool parent) (PS-PA03)
In terms of supporting students’ mental health, in addition to improving the identification skills of students, parents, and teachers, more professionals are needed to assist parents and teachers after identifying students
with needs early on. Social workers interviewed in this Study indicatedthat identifying students in need of mental health support often requires theobservation of people around them and early evaluation and referral, which
also depends on the level of awareness of mental health of people aroundthem.
“First, it’s observation, to see if there are any students thatthe teacher has noticed or sometimes it may be a classmate who
noticed that this student is a bit different, or it may be the parents. When we receive this information, the first thing we do is
ask for more information, that is, to understand their perfor-

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong329

mance at school and at home, and then we will contact the student to understand if they have any symptoms of MI. If so, after
we complete the evaluation and think that he may have somemental health problems, we will make some referrals. If it is urgent, there are some community services that will be faster for
him to see a psychiatrist; for those who may not be so urgent,
they may be referred to public hospitals and other services. If heis diagnosed with some emotional problems, he can discuss withthe school what accommodations can be made when he talks
to the school and students.” (Secondary school social worker)(SS01-SW)“The changes in MI cases are significant. Even if students
experience the same low mood, their symptoms and conditions
may be very different. Therefore, it is crucial to provide adequate
training for teachers to support these students. We are used toproviding Tier 2 or Tier 3 support for students, but there aremany resources available for students with MI. We may onlyintervene when their condition worsens and sounds an alarm.
Regarding exam and homework accommodations, I think weprovide relatively little support for students with MI comparedto Tier 2 support.” (Secondary school EP) (SS01-EP)
Although primary and secondary schools now have professionals supporting students, such as social workers, counsellors, and EPs, mental healthissues involve more privacy concerns, making it more difficult for social
workers to collaborate with the student support team in schools. Therefore,
they are unable to provide comprehensive support to students’ study, emotional, and personal growth needs.
“The tension level of MI cases is higher than the other eightcategories, but because of privacy concerns, many people areunaware. When fewer people know, the support for these cases
is unknown. The student support team is not responsible forthese cases. Usually it goes to social workers. However, collaboration is difficult to define, such as how we support students inlearning, and how social workers support them in mental health.
It is challenging to know how to handle this type of students.”(Secondary school social worker) (SS15-SW)
In addition, social workers interviewed in primary and secondary
schools all reflect that the long waiting time for psychiatric diagnosis andassessment currently hinders immediate support for students. The diagnosis by doctors only confirms the student’s condition and may not neces-

330

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

sarily provide support and accommodation methods for the student’s psychological problems, which makes it difficult for schools to provide support.
“If there is a medical certificate the success rate is higher,that is, if the doctor states clearly, when the school sees the
medical certificate, it will be easier to accept, and the successrate will be higher. But sometimes, there are some psychologicalproblems which doctors may not be able to provide too muchsupport or accommodation methods, which will make it moredifficult.” (Secondary school social worker) (SS01-SW)“As far as mental health issues are concerned, if there canbe more resources to shorten their time to wait for a doctor, it
would be a great help, because it really takes too long in termsof diagnosis and assessment. Some students doubt whether they
have emotional problems, and in areas where the boundaries areunclear, it takes a long time for us to take them to see a doctor.
I think that if we can reduce the wait, it will be much better forsupporting them.” (Secondary school social worker) (SS01-SW)
From the above interviews, primary and secondary schools are committed to enhancing the attention of students, parents, and teachers to mental
health. Through educational activities, they increase the awareness of all
stakeholders in order to identify and support students in need early, and toestablish an open and inclusive environment for students and parents whoare in need. School principals are also committed to creating a caring learning environment to reduce the chances of students experiencing emotional
problems and taking preventive measures. However, in recent years, due tothe impact of the epidemic, there have been significant changes in students’learning environment, from school learning to home learning, which has reduced opportunities for group life at campus and also affected schools’ support for students. Due to the lack of direct interaction opportunities, schools
have difficulties in providing timely support to students and need to relyon students or parents to actively seek help before remote support can beprovided, greatly weakening the effectiveness of support.
However, in the support process, primary and secondary schools alsoneed the help of professional staff. Currently EPs or psychiatrists have notbeen able to provide comprehensive support in either diagnosis or support.
This situation means that although schools have spent a lot of effort andtime preparing for parents and students, they still lack sufficient resources,
especially professional human resources, to provide further support, resulting in schools being in a situation where they need to identify cases

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong331

and then wait for support together, which affects the effectiveness of support and gradually affects the progress and results of support.
The interviews show that people whom students come into contact within their lives should also have a certain awareness of mental health, which
is closely related to the understanding of schools and society. Improving
the public’s awareness of mental health can help build a shared participation and early support environment. The above interviews also show thatprimary and secondary schools have been committed to gradually establishing an inclusive school environment through various educational workand then promoting it to the community. However, the changes in mental
health cases are great, and symptoms or conditions can be very different for
students with emotional needs, which is also a severe challenge for parents
and teachers. Schools often only provide individual support when students
raise an alarm, which is not ideal.
Inclusive and Healthy Campus
Schools are places for group activities. School atmosphere and mutual
support among students are extremely important. In interviews, primaryand secondary school principals also mentioned that they actively promotemutual assistance among students at campus, establish integrated andpositive values, and allow students to learn more comfortably and feel moreat ease at school. They also try to make good use of peer support to handle
students’ emotional problems.
“We are very accommodating to students with sen, andthere is no discrimination among students because of sen. Firstof all, we won’t tell students that this classmate has sen, but students can recognize it, especially those with mild ID. In implementing IE, it’s not just about supporting students, but caring
policies should also take care of their health, assistance, andeven discipline. The discipline and counseling team is not justhandling the problems of students with sen. Basically, some students with mild ID are very well-behaved, but there are cases ofbullying towards these students. Our policy is not to punish thebullying students, but to persuade them and encourage mutual
support and help among classmates.” (Secondary school principal) (SS14-PR)“From the perspective of ordinary students, their mentality
is very pure, without the complexity of adults. They just thinkthat the classmate occasionally can’t sit still or is sometimes noticed more by the teacher. We try to maintain a non-labeling332

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

campus, which is also the campus atmosphere we want to create. For parents who enroll their children in a school, for theschool to admit students, and for the life of students with sen on
campus, not labeling is the basic premise. We will treat them as afamily and not particularly label two-thirds of the family as ‘ordinary family members’ and one-third as ‘special family members’.”(Primary school principal) (PS07-PR)
Establishing a good school atmosphere relies on the participation ofteachers. Interviewed teachers indicated that all parties should equally value the mental health of teachers and address their needs, in order to gradually instill positive values in students during daily teaching, allowing them togrow up in an open environment, appreciate themselves, and develop theirstrengths from a young age.
“I think it should start with the teachers, because if teachers
themselves are under great pressure or often look worried, they
won’t be happy either. So, I would step back and first address themental health of teachers, and then think about the students andhow to instill positive values in them. It’s something that needs
to be done slowly, and holding large-scale activities can leave
a deep impression on them. Also, the teacher’s personal charmand how to manage the class are also important.” (Secondary
school teacher) (SS06-CL)
With the development of IE, teachers need to face the learning diversity
among students. However, teachers in the classroom need to spend moretime dealing with the special learning needs of students, making it difficult
to care for all students in the class, which is also unfair to students who do
not have special learning needs. Some interviewed primary school principals also believe that while promoting IE, the teacher-to-student ratio andstudent-to-class ratio should be emphasized, allowing every student toreceive comprehensive care.
“In the classroom, there are students with different types ofsen. How to help them is a challenge because each type of students has different needs. I can help one type of students witheducational accommodations, but [I] may not be able to help thesecond type of student, yet they are all in the same classroom.
The most difficult situation for teachers is when there are two or
three students with asd and 8-10 students with adhd in the sameclassroom. It’s not just about taking care of them, but it’s also

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong333

difficult to [do] normal teaching.” (Secondary school principal)(SS02-PR)“The Government wants to promote IE throughout Hong
Kong, but they should also consider whether there are enoughteachers to support this. Many special schools have already beenclosed. So, how do you use your resources? Can the overall ratioof students to teachers get better?” (Primary school principal)(PS05-PR)
In terms of mode of integration, both primary and secondary school
principals and support teachers interviewed believe that placing students
with different types of sen in the same classroom is not always ideal.
Instead, when students have similar needs and characteristics, they canbe taught together using more accommodating teaching methods. For example, if there are students in the class with poor concentration and a needto move around, teachers can design interactive activities in the classroom
to facilitate learning in a more suitable environment.
“If we idealize it, we can put children of similar categories
and situations in the same class, which would make it easier for
us to handle... For example, if there are children with attention
deficit in the class, who need to move around, the teacher shouldincorporate more movement activities in the lesson design, andeven have them do some exercises such as jumping during class.”(Primary School sen) (PS02-ST)
The above shows that primary and secondary schools are committed
to building an inclusive campus and creating an “education for all” school.
Primary and secondary schools also start with teachers to change their attitudes and mental health, so as to create conditions for promoting caring andinclusive culture at school. At the same time, primary and secondary schools
are committed to building a social circle for students, using peer support
to help all students grow in a caring environment, where peers can also beaware of each other’s needs and seek help early.
The “Catering for Student Differences - Indicators for Inclusion” established by the edb indicates that the values of inclusion require all teachersand staff, students, school management committees, and parents to work
together to create an integrated, collaborative, and stimulating campus. Fromthe interviews, it can also be seen that primary and secondary schools are
striving to establish this ideal vision in terms of culture, policies, and measures according to the indicators. However, during the process in which

334

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3schools have made dedication and efforts, the implementation has madethem powerless even with good intentions. Facing the diversity of special
learning needs of students, handling the special situations of students inclass, especially taking care of the learning differences is the most challenging part for teachers. If a student with special learning needs affects the class,
the teacher needs to deal with their problems or situations first, then takecare of other students’ learning, and at the same time, also think of appropriate methods to ensure that students have some learning effectiveness.
This increases the pressure on teachers in the classroom. Overwhelmedteachers also find it difficult to cater to the needs of each student, and can
only make trade-offs and sacrifices, which also affect the establishment of
an inclusive culture.
Status of Parental Care for Children with SEN and Home-School Cooperation
Situation of Family Support
Regarding parental attitudes, based on the results of interviews with parents, secondary school parents are more accepting of their children’s special
learning needs than before and are willing to actively seek help and cooperate with relevant support. However, primary school parents are still relatively resistant to accepting that their children have special learning needs.
“Six years ago, parents were more conservative about theindividual needs of students. Many times, we would take a moreproactive role and ask students if they have any learning needs
that we can support. Then, parents would start to submit reports
to the school. But now, many times on registration day, parents
are already very proactive and want you to know about their children’s situation so that they can receive appropriate help. Thissituation is really different from before. Now, parents are much
more proactive.” (Secondary school social worker) (SS15- SW)“If the school only refers students in Primary 1, there is a gap
in the acceptance level of parents, their willingness to participate, and their ability to provide support at home. They may still
not accept that their child has some special learning needs orthat they are different from other children in their grade. In this
aspect, we need to convince parents and children to practise.”(Primary school support teacher) (PS03-ST)
During the interviews, some parents were found to have not let theirchildren receive support early enough during their primary school years,

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong

335

causing them to miss the golden period of professional therapy. Therefore,
interviewed sencos and social workers pointed out that parental education is indispensable, and early strengthening of parents’ understandingof special learning needs can help reduce their wariness and enable theirchildren to be assessed and receive treatment as early as possible.
“In fact, we need to educate both parents and students because parents often have a huge influence on their children. For
example, a friend recently discovered that her child has autism,
but the mother was very out of control and would say negative
things. It may be necessary for professionals to provide relevant
knowledge and advice to parents as soon as they get hold of
their children’s diagnosis, as it can actually affect the student’s
growth.” (Primary school social worker) (PS13-SW)
A primary school principal also stated that there have been parents
who did not recognize their children’s special learning needs outside ofacademic achievements, which shows that parental education is necessary
to change their mindset.
“I have seen students who have special learning needs but
have not been reported. It is very obvious, especially for thosewith autism. Their family members refuse to report it, and there
is not much we can do to help. So the student continues to attend school without much progress because their mother does
their homework for them, and their family does not have highexpectations for their learning. Therefore, I think parental education is very important.” (Primary School Principal) (PS01-PR)“Basically, he doesn’t have any talent in studying, or maybe
his talent is not in academics, but rather in crafts or sports. But
parents might think that crafts and singing are not useful at all.
They might wonder what’s the use of being able to run fast on a
sports field if you can’t do well in academics. This can cause frustration for the child, as parents may not be satisfied because they
focus on the child’s grades, which the child is unable to produce.”(Primary School Principal) (PS08-PR)“I have also seen some new arrival mothers say, ‘we havenever encountered such things before. Perhaps our child misbehaved and didn’t listen to us before.’ Therefore, I think parental education is important, and it should start early, not just insecondary school. We hope to identify and provide support tostudents earlier, rather than waiting until problems arise before
remedying them. We need to take action in all areas, and parental
education should start early, even in primary school. Sometimes

336

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

we request parents to give us the records of their child in primary school.” (Secondary School senco) (SS04-SE+RSW+ST)
Quality and Waiting Time of Professional Support Services
Primary school parents interviewed indicated that the waiting time forgovernment services is too long and the other private therapeutic services
are also very expensive. Apart from affordability, it also results in their children with special learning needs being unable to receive timely service support. For example, children with Asperger’s syndrome may need long-term
treatment. If parents cannot afford private therapeutic services, it will affecttheir growth.
“Because I am a single parent, I know that there are some
services available outside, but many of them are very expensive,
so I cannot afford them. The government services are not available to me either because of long waiting time. In fact, there are
difficulties in this regard.” (Primary school parent) (PS-PA06)“My son started music therapy from Primary 2 onwards, it
was private and referred by the principal. It was helpful to thebrain of children with Asperger’s syndrome. Listening to frequencies, it costs $700 per session, and we spent a lot of money[on] listening [sessions] for several years.” (Primary school parent) (SS-PA05)“My son was diagnosed with Asperger’s syndrome, and newenvironment would cause him a lot of stress, which I also haveto bear…. If he stays in the community where the previous kindergarten was, it might be better for him to study in the sameschool with the kindergarten classmates. Everyone would feel
more comfortable, and the transition would be better. They arewilling to accept that he has Asperger’s syndrome, and I am more
willing to accept it too. In the end, there are some resources thatallow us to let him receive treatment at the Heep Hong Society.
Looking back, the resources around us were sufficient, including
occupational therapy and physiotherapy until he was in Primary
5, and later transferred to [Prince of ] Wales Hospital.” (Primaryschool parent) (SS-PA05)
In addition, the lack of suitable support services is also a weakness of thecurrent overall professional support services.
“In fact, there was a community center downstairs from myhome, and they tried their best to help my son with his homework. During the process of registration, I told the staff that hehas dyslexia. I understood that as a tutor, it might be frustrating

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong337

to teach him as a regular student, but I couldn’t find any othersuitable services back then...so we went with it. But who knewthat my son only started going in June, and by August it closed
down. The reason was that the center had been relying on government subsidies, which were just barely enough, but when therent went up, they couldn’t sustain it.” (Primary school parent )(PS-PA0)
Home-School Cooperation
Regarding home-school cooperation, parents stated that if there is regular and good communication with the senco, they will have greater confidence in the school and allow their children to receive support at school.
sencos also stated that gaining the trust of parents is an important partof promoting home-school cooperation and makes it easier to begin supporting students with sen.
“The parents like me very much and they even added me on
WhatsApp. No wonder we have parents willing to volunteer. I
have my own parent group, and parents like to see the one called
coordinator...When I have a good relationship with parents, I
am very honest and say, ‘Mom, you’re not doing it quite right’.
Actually, parents are receptive because we have a good relationship. These are built on relationships.” (Secondary School senco) (SS15-SE)“The vast majority of parents are clearly starting fromscratch, and they are the most difficult to deal with. If we cancontact them well at this stage, it will be very easy for us to referthem to relevant resources. Basically, most parents have agreed
in recent years, but there are three who didn’t agree this year.
However, I will call each of them and say, ‘What will be the consequences if you don’t do this? When you get to secondary school,
the teacher won’t know anything, there won’t be timely support,
you’ll have to queue up to see an EP again. When they get to secondary school, they have a chance to get exam accommodations,which are even more necessary, and it will affect their university
entrance.’ When I talk about these things, they get scared, andthen they agree!” (Primary School senco) (PS02-SE)“I have a work phone and communicate with others throughWhatsApp. I think WhatsApp is a great instant messaging tool
because you don’t have to coordinate times like you used to withphone calls. Sometimes when parents are busy, they might nothave time to answer our phone calls, but with WhatsApp, I canleave a message or a voice recording and they can respond to me

338

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

later when they have time. I think my communication with parents is good and very close. They can also contact me throughWhatsApp if they have any issues and don’t have to worry about
me being off duty. Of course, I may not be able to respond immediately during holidays, but most of the time, they don’t haveto wait too long. These communication tools are very useful.”(Secondary school teacher) (SS06-CL)
The interviewed principals also indicated that the key to promoting
home-school cooperation is to gain parental support, which relies heavily
on the efforts of the sencos. In addition, EPs believe that there is an increasing trend of parent-child conflicts during the school suspension period
due to the epidemic. How parents can improve their communication andinteraction with their children in the future is a major challenge for promoting home-school cooperation, as it will affect the behavior of students withspecial learning needs in school and have an impact on the school.
“Firstly, parents may not necessarily know how to handle
students with sen. During the school suspension period, bothparents and students are at home, so there may be more friction.
Besides dealing with how students socialize and communicate,
we also have to handle some parent-child conflicts, such as how
to help students with hyperactivity to concentrate. Therefore,
this has become even more difficult. Secondly, some schools ororganizations provide some training online, but most responses believe that face-to-face interaction is better. Of course, it is
not completely ineffective, but the effectiveness of face-to-facetraining is greater than that of online training. So I think this is abigger challenge. (Secondary School EP) (SS02-EP)
In summary, parents of primary school students have insufficientunderstanding and tolerance towards students with special learning needs.
Even if primary schools provide assistance, the parents may not accept theirchildren situation and needs. It affects the support and growth of students.
On the other hand, parents of secondary school students are more proactive in seeking assistance when their children are promoted to secondary
school, making it easier for secondary schools to respond to students’ needs
and situations, and establish a good home-school cooperation relationship.
In order to improve parents’ understanding of special learning needs, principals and social workers in primary and secondary schools unanimously
believe that parental education needs to be strengthened to help parents ac-

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong

339

cept their children’s needs and dispel stereotypes about students with special
learning needs. In addition to enabling students to receive appropriate
support as early as possible, a culture of appreciation and care should
also be established for parents to appreciate students’ talents beyond academics, so that students with special learning needs can also develop theirpotential and showcase their strengths.
In terms of parental support, some parents expressed their willingness toseek various forms of support, such as government and external organizations’ therapy. However, government treatment has a long waiting time, andparents need to seek services from other organizations. The cost of these
services is high, and parents have difficulty affording them. Also, suitable
services for students’ needs are lacking, and they cannot provide effective
support for students. This forces parents to rely on school assistance, affecting the effectiveness of support and preventing the promotion of inclusive
culture from schools to communities.
When promoting IE, schools and parents should understand each other’sroles and responsibilities and actively strengthen communication and cooperation to provide appropriate support for students with sen. The actual
situation in primary and secondary schools shows that effective homeschool cooperation can establish a relationship of mutual trust, enabling
schools to help students connect with secondary schools early and receive
support early after their transition to secondary school. For secondary
schools, real-life cases illustrate the importance of communication with parents. In addition to working together to support students, a relationship ofmutual trust can enable schools to support parents, deescalate parent-childconflicts, and allow students to grow up in a positive and healthy family
atmosphere.
Certain Social and Cultural Beliefs Remain Deep-SeatedHong Kong’s Exam-Oriented Culture
At the school level, some secondary school teachers still view attending
university as the only way out, which puts a lot of pressure on students
with special learning needs. They may become demotivated because theycannot keep up with the learning pace. Moreover, the entire Hong Kongsociety places too much emphasis on academic achievement, which loses
sight of the personal abilities of students with special learning needs.

340

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3“In fact, Hong Kong has a relatively special situation, whichis that we place more emphasis on grades. So parents are very
nervous about this, and they are not willing to make accommodations... even if you offer them a chance, they will not want it,
especially in some elite schools... Some children clearly need to
go to special schools, but parents still want them to try, and theschool has no right to refuse them. [Schools would say] ‘We willtake care of them’. However, the problem is that when parents realize that they cannot force their children, they want to go backto special schools, but they may have to wait in line for a longtime and waste several more years.” (Primary school principal)(PS01-PR)
Some parents even claim that their children are more enthusiastic about
taking the hkdse than they are, which shows the great impact of theexam-oriented culture. At the primary school level, the principals saythat the current education system requires primary school students to facevarious assessments, exams, and tests, the only thing the school can do isto try to make them not hate studying. In the long run, in an exam-oriented
culture, whether it is students, teachers, or schools, all may be losers.
“Actually, sometimes I would just cheer up teachers and students. In primary school, you have to make them hold a pen anddo your best to make them not hate studying, because we haveto take the Pre-S1 hkat to evaluate our school. And there’s tsa
tests, some of which even force the students to take it, especiallythe difficult ones, like for non-Chinese classes.” (Primary School
Principal) (PS06-PR)
Level of Social Acceptance and Growth of Students with SEN
Although society’s tolerance for students with sen has significantly improved, there is still room for improvement in overall social acceptance.
During interviews with primary school parents, some mentioned that
other parents were unhappy with their children being disturbed by students with special learning needs during class.
“Of course, parents want their children to learn in a goodenvironment. There are a few students in the class who are assumed to be prone to violence or emotional outbursts, or they
don’t follow the rules in class, which prevents their children
from learning or make them feel disturbed during class...The
contradiction is the view of other parents to this student. If theteacher accommodates this student, the teacher or school will
face great pressure and need a long time to figure out how weEducating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong341

can accept this student. This is more difficult.” (Primary School
Principal) (PS08-PR)
Interviewed principals, sencos, and social workers also reported instances where parents falsely declared their children as having sen in orderto gain an advantage during exams.
“I used to teach a student whose mother gave them medication to improve their concentration, which resulted in them performing well in their studies. When they were in Primary 5 and
6, I didn’t think they had adhd, and many of my colleagues also
didn’t think so. But the mother was determined to make theman adhd student... if a well-intentioned educator sees this, they
will not only shed tears but also feel very heartbroken.” (Primaryschool principal) (PS06-PR)
In a fiercely competitive environment, some parents still insist on placing their children with severe sen in ordinary schools, ultimately wasting
their entire primary school years. The actual social atmosphere has not
yet become truly inclusive, as some parents still do not accept their children attending special schools.
“In my district, some parents think, ‘Oh, you want my childto attend a special school? I won’t transfer them, or are you labeling my child?’ The overall social atmosphere has not yet reachedtrue inclusion. So when adults are not thinking in this way, how
can children easily accept and discover each other’s strengths?”(Primary school senco) (PS06-SE)
The current examination system in Hong Kong creates a culture where
society and parents place a strong emphasis on obtaining good grades.
Primary and secondary schools are required to conduct various assessments and examinations according to the standards set by the edb andsociety. This leads to schools and parents placing a high value on exams andtraining students for the sake of good grades. Primary schools focus on
improving students’ performance in the territory-wide system assessment to achieve good ratings and analysis. For secondary schools, the Pre-S1
hkat serves as a placement test and also analyzes the abilities of students toreflect whether their level matches the school’s standards. As public exams
result in relevant score analysis and data, schools compete with each other,and these data become a bargaining chip for attracting students. Therefore,
primary and secondary schools strive to improve exam results, forming a

342

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

learning culture focused on grades, which requires students with special
learning needs to receive exam “training”. As for parents, the exam culture
also makes them focus on grades, and they need to act according to theschool’s level and development, viewing grades as the key to their children’s
learning. Parents’ attention to grades also prompts schools to make more
accommodations to meet parental expectations and societal expectations,forming a vicious cycle.
As a result, the existing examination system influences parents, teachers, and schools, promoting the emergence of exam culture, which makes
students more focused on grades than learning itself. The developmentof knowledge and skills becomes a tool for achieving good grades, which
also makes stakeholders strive to improve students’ grades while ignoring
their other potentials and strengths. With the development of IE, parents
can see that the Government and schools are investing a lot of resourcesin students with special learning needs, but they have different attitudes
towards special arrangements for students. Regardless of their views, parents see their children’s learning as a kind of interests, linking learning,
grades, and future prospects, neglecting the purpose of learning forstudents’ growth. Parents who accept IE only see the measures as beneficial,while those who oppose it resist their children learning together with thosestudents, creating conflicts that frontline teachers and schools must bear.
The policy of integration only puts students in the same space, and parents
and students cannot truly view students with special learning needs as theirpeers. The atmosphere of integration often only remains in the classroom
and the school. Therefore, changes need to be made at the parental and societal level to achieve true integration.
Key Findings of School Case Study
Through conducting case studies with schools (including four primaryschools and four secondary schools) with relatively successful implementation of IE, it was found that the good exemplars of IE in primary schools
include the adoption of a small-class teaching approach, rescheduling teachers’ timetables to allow them more spare time, inviting parents to join classactivities for observation and more interaction, explaining students’ performance with parents to reduce their doubts and resistance, and cooperatingwith professional groups to provide comprehensive support.

Educating Students with Special Educational Needs in Hong Kong343

As for the good exemplars of IE in secondary schools, the success factors include adopting a pull-out approach through co-teaching (1:4 or 1:5;
Teacher: Students with sen), encouraging teachers to participate more intraining of IE, conducting research to review and improve teaching andlearning effectiveness of students with sen in tier-1 support and promoting
cross-disciplinary cooperation for whole-person development.
Full Report of the Study
Readers may refer to the full report of the Study, including its recommendations at https://www.eoc.org.hk/Upload/files/research-report/SEN%20
Study%20(Jun%202023)/senrep~4.PDF.
Endnote
1. In the 2018/19 school year and before, ordinary schools were provided
with additional resources under various modes, including the lsg, the Integrated
Education Programme and the irtp, to support students with sen. Since such additional resources were provided under different modes, some of the schools (e.g.,
primary schools adopting irtp) were not required to report to the edb on the tierof support of each student. Hence, the figures for the 2018/19 school year are lower
than the actual figures.

APPENDIX“Roadmap” for the Implementation of the National
Programme for Human Rights Education of the Republicof Uzbekistan
Preface“Improving the quality of education is the only right way to develop the New
Uzbekistan.”- Sh.M. Mirziyoyev, the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
In Uzbekistan, the promotion, protection, and observance of human rights constitute apriority area of state policy. Targeted measures are being implemented under the National
Human Rights Strategy to ensure the guarantee of personal, political, economic, social,and cultural rights. Simultaneously, significant steps have been taken to enhance humanrights education.
A procedure has been established for increasing and assessing the level of legal
literacy of government employees. The National Center for Human Rights has organizedtraining courses for employees of government bodies and civil society institutions toimprove the skills of personnel in the field of observance and protection of human rights.
To train highly qualified scientific and scientific-pedagogical personnel in the fieldof human rights and to facilitate fundamental research in this direction, an institute of
postgraduate education specializing in “Human Rights” (legal sciences and sociologicalsciences) has been established.
The fourth phase of the World Programme for Human Rights Education is underway,
spanning from 2020 to 2024. This phase seeks to educate young people, fostering
equality, respect for human rights, and non-discrimination. The objective is to train themin creating inclusive and peaceful societies.
On June 7, 2021, the Presidential Decision was issued, establishing the National
Commission for the implementation of the fourth phase of the World Programme for
Human Rights Education in the Republic of Uzbekistan. The National Commission was
tasked with drafting the National Programme for Human Rights Education in the Republicof Uzbekistan. This program was subsequently adopted on February 7, 2023.
The adoption of the National Programme for Human Rights Education in Uzbekistan
aims to implement the provisions of the United Nations Declaration on Human Rights
Education and Training, along with the fourth phase of the World Programme for HumanAppendix

345

Rights Education. It also seeks to raise awareness among all segments of the population
about national and international standards of human rights and freedoms, emphasizing
the effectiveness of the work carried out in this area.
The National Programme for Human Rights Education, along with the Road Map,
encompasses 7 directions and 30 points.
The implementation of tasks outlined in the National Programme for Human Rights
Education aims to enhance efforts in improving literacy rates, especially among young
people. This involves disseminating information, providing education, and elevating
cultural proficiency in the field of human rights. The goal is to foster understanding of
the essence and content of human rights and freedoms, promote gender equality, anddevelop knowledge and skills for the practical application of human rights among various
population groups. Additionally, the program emphasizes the need for government officials
to acquire knowledge and skills in the practical application of human rights, with a focus
on applying the provisions of the United Nations Declaration on Human Rights Education
and Training and the execution of the fourth phase of the World Programme for Human
Rights Education.
AKMAL SAIDOV
Director
National Center for Human Rights of the Republic of Uzbekistan

346

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Appendix No. 2
to the Resolution of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan
dated “7” February 2023 No. PR–46“ROADMAP”
FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAMMEFOR HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLICOF UZBEKISTAN

No.

Activities

Mechanism of realization

Terms

Responsible bodies

I. Raising the awareness of young people of human rights and freedoms
Conducting “Human
Rights” week

1. Approval of the program for “Human
Rights Week”.
2. Taking steps to ensure widespread
media coverage of Human Rights
Week.

Introduction of the“Human rights,”“Women’s rights,”
and “Children’s
rights” educationaland special courses.

1. Formation of a specific list of state
professional and higher educational
institutions, where training and special
courses “Human Rights”, “Women’s
Rights”, “Children’s Rights” will be
introduced.
2. Taking measures to improve therelevant educational programs.
3. Starting from the 2023/2024
academic year, the state educational
institutions and organizations includedin the list, the introduction of training
and special courses “Human Rights”,“Women’s Rights”, “Children’s Rights”.
4. Preparation and publication of aseries of manuals and brochures“Human Rights and Freedoms
in Uzbekistan”, “Human Rights”,“Children’s Rights”, “Women’s Rights”,“Rights of Persons with Disabilities”.

February
2023

June 2023

April 2023

National Centre for
Human Rights, Ministryof Higher Education,
Science and Innovation,
Ministry of Preschool and
School Education,
Agency for Youth Affairs,
Commissioner for Human
Rights (Ombudsman),Commissioner for
Rights of the Child,
Youth Union, Agency
for Information and
Mass Communications,
National Television andRadio Company of
Uzbekistan
Ministry of Higher
Education, Science andInnovation,
National Centre for
Human Rights, TSUL,UWED, Academy of
Law Enforcement
Agencies, Academy of
the Ministry of Internal
Affairs, Supreme Schoolof Judges , University of
Public Security, Instituteof State and Law

347

Appendix
Conducting National
contest “Educationand innovations tohuman rights andfreedoms”.

1. Development and approval of
the Regulations for conducti[ng]the National contest “Education andinnovations to human rights andfreedoms” and the program.

May 2023

Organization of asummer school
and competitions
among students
and pupils on thetheme “Human
Rights for Future
Generations,” aswell as sociologicalresearch.

1. Development of the concept andprogram of the summer school andcompetitions on the theme “Human
Rights for Future Generations”.
2. Organizing a summer school as wellas competitions.
3. Conducting a sociological study
on “Youth Rights and Freedoms:
Assessment, Requirements, andIssues.”May-June,
2023

Developmentof proposals forthe introductionof the “Human
Rights»” curriculum
for medical
higher education
institutions.

1. Development of proposals forthe development of the “Human
Rights” curriculum for medical higher
education institutions.

May 2023

Annuallyfrom
2. Conducting a contest, awarding the June 1,
winners of the [contest] by nominations. 2023

August2023
September
2023

National Centre for
Human Rights, Ministryof Higher Education,
Science and Innovation,
Ministry of Preschool and
School Education,
Agency for Youth Affairs,
Youth Union
National Centre for
Human Rights, Agency
for Youth Affairs,
Ministry of Higher
Education, Science andInnovation,
Youth Union

Ministry of Health,National Centre for
Human Rights

II. Development of knowledge and skills of employees of state bodies in the field of human rights andgender equality
Implementation oftraining courses on
issues of humanrights and genderequality in thesystem of retraining
and advanced
training of seniorpersonnel.

1. Developing a module and programof training courses on human rights
and gender equality issues, taking into
account the specifics of the fields.
2. Organization of training courses inonline and offline format.

April 2023

Organizing a“summer school”
with the participationof judges andprosecutors on
the topic “Ensuring
human rights in theadministration ofjustice”.

1. Development and approval of
curriculum and module.
2. Organization of “Summer School”
with the participation of international
expert trainers.

July-August2023

From May
2023

Public Service
Development Agency,
Academy of Public
Administration, National
Centre for Human Rights,
Committee for Family
and Women,
Ministry of JusticeSupreme School ofJudges,Supreme Court, Law
Enforcement Academy

348

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Organization ofregular short-term
training courses
regularly on
combating torture forpre-trial inspection,
investigation,and preliminary
investigative
bodies and penal
institutions.

1. Developing a schedule of combating
torture training courses.
2. Organization of training courses
in online and offline format involving
national and international experts.

February
2023
From 1March 2023

National Centre for
Human Rights, General
Prosecutor’s Office,Ministry of Internal Affairs,
interested ministries andagencies

Organization in theinformation andlibrary centers of
the Republic of
Karakalpakstan
and regions of thedirection “Human
Rights Literature”.

1. Organization of the direction ofhuman rights literature.
2. Human rights literature, includingcollections of international treatiesin the state language, educational,
scientific, methodological, andinternational publications on humanrights, and a chronology of ongoing
human rights reforms.

February
2023

Information and Mass
Communications Agency,
Council of Ministersof the Republic of
Karakalpakstan, regional
khokimiyats,
National Centre for
Human Rights

Publishingcollections ofinternational humanrights treaties of
the Republic of
Uzbekistan in thenational language.

1. Translation of the texts of theinternational human rights treaties of
the Republic of Uzbekistan into thestate language.
2. Publishing a collection ofinternational treaties on human rights.

MarchSeptember
2023
November2023

National Centre for
Human Rights, Ministry ofForeign Affairs, Ministryof Justice, Ministry of
Economy and Finance,
Institute of State and Law

Organization ofregular trainingof specialists ofstate bodies andorganizations
participating in
the fulfillment of
the international
obligations of
the Republic of
Uzbekistan in thefield of human rights
on international
standards of humanrights

1. Approving the training plan of statebodies and organizations in training
courses on human rights complianceand human rights protection.
2. Organization of the training course
in online and offline format with theparticipation of international andnational experts.
3. Development of suggestions
for improvement of training course
activities.

February2023

National Centre for
Human Rights, interested
ministries and agencies

From April
2023
January2024

349

Appendix
III. Improving the system of training pedagogues in the field of human rights and supporting scientificresearch
Development ofproposals for the
integration of humanrights disciplines(training courses)
into the systemof pedagogicalpersonnel training
and retraining.

1. In the system of training andretraining of pedagogic personnel,
critical analysis of the status ofeducation, training programs andcourses on “Human rights”, “Women’s
rights”, “Children’s rights”, “Rights ofpersons with disabilities”.
2. Preparation of proposals for thedevelopment and implementation of
methodological manuals, modules oncourses of “Human rights”, “Women’s
rights”, “Children’s rights”, “Rightsof persons with disabilities” in thesystem of training and retraining of
pedagogues.

May-June
2023

Developing ideas
for the master’s
program in“International Human
Rights Law” as wellas the creation of abachelor’s degree
program in “lawyerteacher”.

1. Preparation of proposals forthe creation of the direction ofundergraduate education “lawyerteacher” at the Tashkent State
Pedagogical University named after
Nizami and other higher educational
institutions.
2. Development of proposals for
improving the direction of the master’s
program “International Human Rights
Law.”

March 2023

Ministry of Higher
Education, Science andInnovation, Ministry ofJustice, TSPU named
after Nizami
Law Enforcement
Academy, TSUL, UWED,Supreme School ofJudges, National Centre
for Human Rights

Improvement of
post-secondary
education in thespecialty “Humanrights”.

1. Establishing the quota of doctoral
studies in the specialty “Human rights”
every year based on needs.
2. Creating necessary conditions for
the Scientific Council and researchers.

August2023

National Centre for
Human Rights, Ministryof Higher Education,
Science and Innovation

To announce acompetition inaccordance withthe requirements ofthe state order for
scientific researchworks for the
implementation ofscientific research
projects related
to human rights
education.

1. Organization and announcementof the competition “Actual issues ofhuman rights” by the Ministry of Higher
Education, Science and Innovations.
2. Carrying out technical examinationof the selected projects, ensuring thefinancing of the projects.

From April 1
2023

Ministry of Higher
Education, Science andInnovation,
National Centre for
Human Rights

September
2023

Ministry of Preschool
and School Education,
Ministry of Higher
Education, Science andInnovation, National
Centre for Human Rights

350

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Organization ofundergraduate,
graduate anddoctoral educationand training of
foreign higher
educationand scientificorganizations on
current issues ofhuman rights.

1. To study the need for personnel
on human rights issues and develop
proposals for the preparation of target
indicators.
2. Announcing open scholarshipcontests for undergraduate, master’sand doctoral education as well as
professional development abroad incurrent areas of human rights.

Starting from2023
permanent“El-Yurt Umidi”
Foundation, National
Centre for Human Rights,
interested ministries andagencies

IV. Improving the effectiveness of the human rights training system among the population in need of social
protection
Conducting seminars
and trainings on therights of persons
with disabilities.

1. Development and approval of theseminar-training program and moduleon the rights of persons with disabilities.
2. Organization of seminar-trainings inonline and offline format.
3. Organization of seminars andtrainings on the provisions of theConvention on the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities in special boarding
schools

Starting from
June 1,2023
permanent

Ministry of Employment
and Poverty Reduction,
Ministry of Preschool
and School Education,
National Centre for
Human Rights

Introduction oftraining courses on“Women’s rights”
for employees
of women’s
rehabilitation andadjustment centers.

1. Development of training courses on“Women’s rights”.
2. Putting it into practice with the
involvement of expert trainers intraining courses.

From June
1, 2023

National Centre for
Human Rights,
Committee for Family
and Women

Conducting training
seminars on the
topic “International
human rights
standards” forinspectors on
the prevention ofjuvenile delinquency.

1. Development of seminar-training
program and educational module.
2. Attract international and national
experts to conduct seminar-training.
3. Conducting seminar-training in
online and offline format.

From June1,2023

National Centre for
Human Rights,
Ministry of Internal
Affairs, Commissioner forChildren’s Rights

Organization oftraining courses
for employees ofstate bodies andorganizations on therights of migrants.

1. Development of a training course
program on “Migrants’ rights”.
2. Publication of the “Migrants’
Rights” textbook, educational andmethodological manuals.
3. Putting it into practice with the
involvement of expert trainers intraining courses.

From
September
1, 2023

National Center for
Human Rights, Agency
for Foreign Labor
Migration, Ministry ofInternal Affairs,
Law Enforcement
Academy351

Appendix
V. Increasing the activity of civil society institutions in the field of human rights education
Introduction of acompetition forstate grants andsocial orders for
non-governmental,
non-profit
organizations andother civil society
institutions in the
direction of “Humanrights education”.

1. Announcing and conducting acompetition for state grants and social
orders in the field of “Human Rights
Education”.
2. Announcing and conducting a grantcompetition in the direction of “Humanrights education” at the expense of
the public fund for the support of nongovernmental non-profit organizationsof Uzbekistan.

Starting from2023
permanent

Public Fund for Supportof NGOs and othercivil society institutions
under Oliy Majlis of the
Republic of Uzbekistan,
NANNOUz

Implementation oftraining activities
in human rights
education incooperation with civilsociety institutions.

1. Conducting a series of seminars,
trainings, round-table discussions forcivil society institutions on “Humanrights”, “Women’s rights”, “Children’s
rights”.
2. Organizing seminars and trainings
for civil society institutions on the topic“Preparation of alternative reports on
the implementation of the provisions ofinternational treaties on human rights”.

During 2023

NANNOUz, National
Centre for Human Rights,
Ministry of Justice,Commissioner for Human
Rights (Ombudsman),
NGO “Madad”

Conducting training
courses “Businessand human rights”
for entrepreneurs
and farmers.

1. Development and approval of
the training module “Business andhuman rights” taking into account the
specificity of the field.
2. Organization of training courses inonline and offline format

July 2023

Preparation of
proposals for theorganization oftraining courses on
issues of humanrights protection
mechanisms at the
Academy of Laborand Social Relations.

1. Development of a training course
program on issues of protectionof human rights, improvement ofprotection against all forms of forcedlabor.
2. Organization of training courses inonline and offline format.

Startingfrom theacademic
year
2023/2024
permanent

May-June
2023

From
September
2023

Chamber of Commerceand Industry of
Uzbekistan, Councilof Farmers, Dehkan
farms and owners ofhomestead lands of
Uzbekistan,
National Centre for
Human Rights, BusinessOmbudsman
National Centre
for Human Rights,
Federation of Trade
Unions of Uzbekistan,
Academy of Labor andSocial Relations

352

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

VI. Improving the effectiveness of the human rights education and training system through the use ofmodern technologies, works of art, and mass media
Creating amethodologicalmanual “Teaching
the rights of thechild” for thepedagogic staff
of preschool
educational
institutions anda demonstration
manual “The rightsof the child” for the
students.

1. To create a working group for the
purpose of creating methodologicaland visual manuals on children’s rights.
2. Development and printing of
methodological and visual guides.
3. To introduce the use of thesemanuals during the training organizedin accordance with the state curriculum“First Step”.

May 2023

To strengthen
education andupbringing in thefield of human rights
in the Republicof Uzbekistan, toorganize a series ofradio and television
programs and shows
about the national
system of humanrights.

1. Preparing and broadcasting a seriesof programs and broadcasts about
the work being done to strengthen
education and training in the fieldof human rights in the Republic of
Uzbekistan.
2. Ensuring wide participation ofinternational and national experts inradio and television programs.
3. Showing social videos and audio
clips about human rights through TV
channels and social networks.

During 2023
- 2024NTRCU, Agency for
Information and Mass
Communications,
National Centre for
Human Rights,
Ministry of Preschool and
School Education,
Ministry of Higher
Education, Science andInnovation,
Commissioner for Human
Rights (Ombudsman)

Organization oftraining courses
on the topic “State
policy in the fieldof human rights
protection andissues of fulfillmentof international
obligations inthis area” foremployees of
information servicesof ministries,
departments,organizations andkhokimiyats, as wellas the media.

1. Development of a training module
on human rights
2. Organization of training courses inonline and offline format.
3. Development of proposals for theestablishment of the “Human rights andmedia” department at the University of
Journalism and Mass Communicationsof Uzbekistan.

July 2023

National Centre
for Human Rights,
Information and Mass
Communications
Agency, University of
Journalism and Mass
Communications of
Uzbekistan

Development of anelectronic platform
for human rights
education.

1. Placing contents on the electronic
platform for human rights education.
2. Launching an electronic platform forhuman rights education.

April 2023

August2023
September
2023

September
2023
September
2023

National Centre for
Human Rights, Ministryof Preschool and School
Education, Ministry ofJustice, Commissioner
for Children’s Rights

National Centre for
Human Rights, Ministryof Digital Technologies,
Ministry of Economy and
Finance353

AppendixVII. Development of international cooperation in the field of human rights education
Development ofcooperation in thefield of human rights
education with the
Office of the UN
High Commissioner
for Human Rights,
the Organizationfor Security andCo-operationin Europe andother internationalorganizations.

1. Organization of an international
conference in the field of human rights
education.
2. Translation and printing of
publications of the Office of the UN
High Commissioner for Human Rights,
OSCE into Uzbek.
3. Ensuring the participation of
employees of the Centre and otherorganizations in training courses,
seminars, conferences and round-tablediscussions organized by internationalorganizations.

December
2023

Improving thequalifications ofspecialists on humanrights in conjunction
with the programof the Council ofEurope “Human
Rights Education for
Lawyers”.

1. Development and approval of theseminar-training program and module
on human rights education.
2. Forming a list of potential listeners.
3. Organizing seminars and trainings inaccordance with the plan.

September
2023

permanent

permanent

National Centre for
Human Rights, interested
ministries and agencies
Office of the UN HighCommissioner for Human
Rights, in cooperation
with the OSCE

National Centre for
Human Rights, Supreme
School of Judges, Law
Enforcement Academy,
Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Ministry of JusticeAbout the Authors
Serafin Arviola Jr.
Director
GCED Cooperation Centre-Philippines
Philippine Normal University
Manila, Philippines
e-mail: arviola.sa@pnu.edu.phCentre for Social Justice and Legal Empowerment
Ahmedabad, Gujarat, Indiae-mail: socjust@gmail.com
Corporate Federation for Dowa and Human Rights Issue, Osaka
Osaka city, Japan
c/o HURIGHTS OSAKA
e-mail: webmail@hurights.or.jp
Carl Dellomos
Deputy Director
GCED Cooperation Centre-Philippines
Philippine Normal University
Manila, Philippines
e-mail: dellomos.co@pnu.edu.ph
Equal Opportunities Commission (Hong Kong)
Hong Kong Special Administrative RegionChina
e-mail: eoc@eoc.org.hk
ECCC Resource Centre
The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
Phnom Penh, Cambodia
e-mail: resource.centre@eccc.gov.kh

354

Legal Aid of Cambodia
Phnom Penh, Cambodia
e-mail: sarayr@laccambodia.org
Helix LoPhD Student
Department of Advanced Social and International Studies
The University of Tokyo
Tokyo, Japane-mail: helixlo2240@gmail.com
Mwatana for Human Rights
Sanaa, Yemen
www.mwatana.org/en/contact
National Center for Human Rights of the Republic of
Uzbekistan
Tashkent, Republic of Uzbekistane-mail: nhrc@mail.ru
Pacific Islands Students Fighting Climate Change
Suva, Fiji
www.pisfcc.org/contact
Munir Moosa Sadruddin
Assistant Professor of Education
Sindh Madressatul Islam University (SMIU)
Karachi, Pakistane-mail: munirmoosa@yahoo.com
Mino Takamatsu
Associate Professor
Institute for Excellence in Higher Education
Global Learning Center
Tohoku University
Sendai, Miyagi PrefectureJapane-mail: mino.takamatsu.c3@tohoku.ac.jp
355

356

H U M A N R I G H T S E D U C AT I O N I N A S I A - PA C I F I C · V O L U M E 1 3 , 2 0 2 3

Aparna Tiwari
New Delhi, Indiae-mail: tiwariaparna509@gmail.com

The Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center or HURIGHTSOSAKA, inspired by the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, formally opened in December 1994.
HURIGHTS OSAKA has the following aims: 1) to engender popular
understanding in Osaka of the international human rights standards;
2) to support international exchange between Osaka and countries in
Asia-Pacific through collection and dissemination of information andmaterials on human rights; and 3) to promote human rights in Asia-Pacificin cooperation with national and regional institutions and civil society
organizations as well as the United Nations.

Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center(HURIGHTS OSAKA)
8F, CE Nishihonmachi Bldg.
1-7-7 Nishihonmachi, Nishi-ku
Osaka 550-0005 Japanph (816) 6543-7002
fax (816) 6543-7004
e-mail: webmail@hurights.or.jp
www.hurights.or.jp