Thomachot-Schneider et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40645-018-0213-6(2018) 5:72

Progress in Earth andPlanetary Science

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Open AccessRole of the capillary fringe on the dilatationof a low porosity limestone submitted tounidirectional freezing
Celine Thomachot-Schneider* , Emilie Huby, Kevin Chalons, Xavier Drothière and Patricia Vazquez

Abstract
As a rule, usually only one face of the building stones of a monument is exposed to climatic variations. Penetrationof temperature and humidity stress is unidirectional from the external surface while capillary absorption comesfrom the bottom part of the accumulation zones such as soil or cornice band. This configuration has to be taken
into account in the setting of frost weathering tests in the laboratory. Formation of ice is accompanied by changed
volumes and by movements of liquid water due to cryosuction. These phenomena lead to the dilatation of theporous network as assessed by strain gage monitoring. In this study, an experimental setting was developed tosimulate the condition of a building stone submitted to frost and water supply by capillary absorption. Strain gages
and thermocouples were attached to a limestone sample in order to assess thermal penetration and dilatation
changes. Two types of saturation conditions were applied to the sample: water supply only by capillarity and watersupply by capillarity after immersion during 48 h. Freeze-thaw cycles of 24-h freezing at − 15 °C and 24-h thawing
at + 10 °C were performed. Results showed that deformation perpendicular to the freezing direction was negligible
except for the fringe zone where it could reach 6 × 10−4. In contrast, on both sides of the wet fringe, a deformation
parallel to the freezing direction occurred, corresponding to an expansion upon freezing and a contraction upon
thawing, with an intensity correlated in both cases to saturation. This original test also showed the importance ofthe capillary fringe in the frost action on building stones that is not taken into account in classical frost weathering
tests. And it is to be noted that the strain gages allowed to measure immediate damage before it reached theinside of the stone and before it could be visually perceived.
Keywords: Frost weathering, Capillary fringe, Unidirectional freezing, Strain gages, Limestone

Introduction
Frost action is one of the major weathering factors ofbuilding stones. Freezing of the water inside the porous
network causes dilatation as a result of a change in its
volume (9%) as well as of the movements of liquid water
following cryosuction. Freezing in a porous network is
not uniform (Thomas 1938). Water can remain liquid attemperatures below zero, a process called “supercooling”(Chahal and Miller 1965; Prick 1995). In this case, thefreezing temperature depends on the pore size; thesmaller the pore, the lower the freezing temperature(Everett 1961). The saturation state of the porous* Correspondence: celine.schneider@univ-reims.fr
GEGENAA EA 3795, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne (URCA), Reims,
Francenetwork is thus a critical parameter in the stress causedby the movement of water while freezing. In the event ofa solute in the water, the solution can be cooled below
the freezing point of the corresponding pure liquid, thisbeing due to the presence of salts and called the “freezing point depression” (Conde et al. 2018). The freezing
temperature of the water decreases depending on thesalt content up to a minimum value corresponding to
the eutectic point.
In a porous network saturated by capillary absorption, it is only its free porosity that is taken up by
water while its trapped porosity (mainly macropores)
remains occupied by air (Hirschwald 1912). In thiscase, the changed volume of the ice is accommodated
by the trapped porosity and the ice crystallizes© The Author(s). 2018 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to
the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

Thomachot-Schneider et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2018) 5:72

without generating any pressure (Powers 1948; Everett
1961; Litvan 1978). Friction resistance to the water
movements following cryosuction is the main cause
leading to an expansion or contraction of the porous
network and thus to cracking (theory of hydraulic pressures of Powers 1948 and Litvan 1978). A high freezing
rate, a large amount of available water and a long distanceto reach a trapped pore will intensify the generated pressure. These water movements are irreversible and thewater attracted by cryosuction remains in the macroporeseven during thawing. In the event of a water supply, therepeated cycles of freeze-thaw will lead to the increase of
the amount of water in the porous network (Mc Greevy
and Whalley 1985; Thomachot and Jeannette 2002). As aresult, capillary saturation will progressively change into
total saturation.
n a porous network totally saturated under vacuum,
ice first grows within macropores but then because
all the porous network is occupied by water, it has nolonger any space to go on growing. It exerts a pressure on unfrozen water (Powers 1948) and whenmacropores are totally frozen, extrusion of ice toward
the finer pores occurs and leads to so-called capillarypressures (Everett 1961). These pressures are proportional to the difference between the macropore radius
and the bottleneck of the capillary.
In a monument, frost has the particularity of entering the stone only through the exposed facade. The
surrounding blocks and the milder indoor conditions
protect the other faces. To assess the effect offreeze-thaw on stones, standard tests are commonlyused or adapted in terms of temperature or freezingtime. All these tests, even the customized ones, consist in freezing the samples after prior immersion inwater and thawing them in room temperature water(EN. 12371 2010; Tan et al. 2011; Ruedrich et al.
2011). All the stone faces are exposed to damage, yetthese tests do not reproduce freeze-thaw conditions
in situ.
These standardized tests estimate the decay produced by the ice as causing loss of material (visible
or by weight measurements) and decrease in tensile
strength. In both cases, if the test itself is not destructive enough to produce material detachment,these evaluation methods are irrelevant. In addition,these tests cannot be performed outside laboratories
and in real monuments with immovable materials.
So in this study, we tested an alternative solution tothese constraints thanks to a non-destructive setting thatallowed freezing to be produced only on one face of thestone and to the use of strain gages attached along thestone as a way of assessing microscopical structural damage. This setting was tested on a common Lutetian limestone building in the surroundings of Reims (France).

Methods/Experimental

Page 2 of 9Materials

In order to develop an experimental setting able to simulate the natural conditions of a building stone placed inelevation, a building stone sample was necessary. The
Middle Lutetian limestone called Courville limestone waschosen for this study. It is a common building stone inReims (France) and its surroundings (Fronteau et al.
2010). Actually, the famous Reims Cathedral or the
St-Remi Basilica was originally built with Lutetian limestones (Turmel et al. 2014, Fig. 1a, b). One of the main
weathering patterns observed on this building stone is thescaling of millimetric layers of stones placed in the capillary zone or in elevation, especially when placed as cornice
band, column, or statues (ICOMOS, Fig. 1c). The angularparts of the blocks mainly suffer from scaling attributed tothe alternation of wetting-drying cycles combined withthe action of temperature variations. Nowadays, there are
no more quarries. The last one located 20 km west ofReims was closed in 2005. The Courville limestone is a
cream-colored packstone/wackestone presenting a heterogeneous micritic matrix, which was recrystallized into
microsparite with mainly shells, miliolids, and Orbitolites
complanatus formaminifera (Fig. 1d, e). In this study, theused Courville limestone belongs to the “Roche” bed,
which is the less porous bed of the formation (Fronteau etal. 2002). This special type of Courville limestone wasmainly used for the lower section of buildings. The porosity value of the studied block determined by mercury porosimetry is 11.2% with a mean pore radius of 0.05 μm
corresponding to a microporous network with a unimodal
distribution (Fig. 2a). Capillary kinetics is quite low withvalues of 790 g m−2 h −1/2 for the coefficient relative to theFig. 1 a Location of Reims (France), b Reims Cathedral built with
Lutetian limestone, c weathering patterns on a capillary zone of theCathedral, d Courville limestone (Lutetian) (G. Fronteau), and e thinsection of Courville limestone showing fossils of miliolid andOrbitolites complanatus inside a micrite (G. Fronteau)

Thomachot-Schneider et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2018) 5:72

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Fig. 2 a Pore distribution obtained by mercury injection porosimetry and b capillary kinetics of the Courville limestone “Banc Roche”

weight increase (first curve with diamond points in Fig. 2)
and of 0.58 m h1/2 for the coefficient relative to the migration of the weight fringe (Fig. 2b). Due to a weak capillarytransfer explaining its use for the low sections of buildings
or pavements, the wet fringe of a 15-cm high sample
stopped at around a 6 cm height (Fig. 2b). Even if the visible wet fringe stops at a 6-cm height after 50 h, capillary

absorption continues as shown by the first curve of theweight increase per surface unit. The break of slope, corresponding to the end of the capillary absorption strictly
speaking, occurs after 170 h. The saturation of the porous
network goes on by diffusion (curve with a weak slope).

Experimental setting

The aim of the setting was, as on the wall of the lower
section of a building, to reproduce unidirectional freezing on the vertical face of a sample while keeping its
other faces isolated, and with a capillary rise of waterfrom the ground, supplied in it base.
To produce freezing, a cooling plate Tetech J061
(8 × 13 cm) of temperatures ranging from 80 to − 30 °C
and a variation of 0.01 °C during the test was placed
vertically in contact with one vertical face of the prismatic sample of 5 × 5 × 15 cm. The rest of the faces

Fig. 3 a Diagram of the setting of strain gages and thermocouples
on the sample, b view of the horizontal and vertical strain gages,c lateral view of the face in contact with the cooling plate, andd, e setting of the unidirectional and vertical frost experiment withwater supply

Fig. 4 Main conditions of the experiment

Thomachot-Schneider et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2018) 5:72

was sealed with a thermal insulator to avoid evaporation and cooling (Fig. 3c, d).
To assess frost action, strain gages from Kyowa,
KFWSS-2N-120-C1-11L3M2R, with a length of 2 mm, agage factor of 2.12, and a resistance of 120.0 ± 0.8 Ω,
were set up at different heights of the sample with different orientations from the direction of freezing penetration. Strain gages measuring the vertical deformation
were placed offset at 1 and 3 cm away from the face incontact with the cooling plate, at 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and13 cm away from the bottom of the sample. Testing was
first performed in this setting, and subsequently horizontal strain gages, placed perpendicularly to the coolingplate, were added at heights of 2, 4, 6, and 8 cm on the
opposite face, and 0.5 cm away from the surface in contact with the cooling plate (Fig. 3a–c).
To control the freezing penetration inside the sample,
holes of 2 mm diameter were drilled at the same heights

Fig. 5 Temperature kinetics inside the sample a, c, e in the capillary zone and b, d, f above the capillary zone

Page 4 of 9

Thomachot-Schneider et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Scienceas the strain gages but from the face opposite the one
submitted to the cooling plate. Type K thermocouples
with an accuracy of 0.1 °C were placed within them at
depths corresponding to the location of the strain gagefor control of the penetration of freezing within thestone. Even though this was a partially destructive
method, it was necessary to confirm whether freezing
was produced within the stone and at which moment, inorder to establish the best experimental protocol. The
data from the strain gages and thermocouples were recorded with an Agilent Data Logger 3. The data wereobtained every 5 min by the interface Benchlink.
Before experimenting, the thermal dilatation of the stone
was recorded on the dry sample. The thermal expansion
coefficient alpha expresses the expansion of a material as afunction of temperature. The linear coefficient of thermal
expansion for the investigated samples was calculated
from the experimentally determined temperature and dilatation data (alpha = Delta L/L*Delta T: T is temperatureand L is length). Temperature was set at + 40 °C and thendown to − 15 °C to determine the average coefficient.
As regards freezing testing, two kinds of water saturation were tested: (i) partial saturation obtained by continuous capillary water supply, and (ii) partial saturation
obtained by a previous 48-h total immersion. Freeze-thaw
cycles were divided into 24 h freezing periods at − 10 °C
for the first five cycles then at − 15 °C for the next five cycles and 24 h thawing periods at + 10 °C (Fig. 4). The
whole experiment was repeated two times. During thewhole time of the two tests, water was supplied to thesample by capillary absorption from a bottom water tank.

Results and discussion
For the first five cycles, the temperature of the cooling plate
was set at − 10 °C. The temperature recorded at the surfaceof the sample was around − 6.7 °C (Fig. 5a, b). Thistemperature was enough to freeze only the surface of thesample and the first centimeter in depth, but freezing did
not reach the inner part of the sample. Thermocouples
placed at 1.5 to 3 cm in depth did not record temperatures
lower than around 1 °C. Regarding the distribution oftemperature extrapolated from the thermocouple data
(Fig. 6a), the maximum for freezing was reached in the central part of the sample surface corresponding to a 4 to 8 cm
height. This temperature distribution was similar in theother types of settings. This was due to a side effect of thecooling plate, the efficiency of which was maximum in thecenter. The time necessary to reach a stable temperature in
the sample was between 2 and 3 h according to the thermal
conductivity of the sample (Fig. 6).
For the next five cycles, the temperature was set at −15 °C. This allowed to reach a temperature of − 10 °C at
the surface of the sample and of 0 °C at around 3.5 cm indepth whatever the saturation of the sample (Figs. 5a, d–f(2018) 5:72

Page 5 of 9

Fig. 6 Temperature mapping inside the sample after a capillary
absorption and freezing at − 10 °C, b capillary absorption andfreezing at − 15 °C, and c after immersion and freezing at − 15 °C

and 6b, c). This difference in surface temperature of 3 °C
between the two settings (− 10 and − 15 °C) led to a 2 cmchange in frost penetration even if the kinetics of penetration was similar. The time necessary to reach a stabletemperature inside the sample was also between 2 and3 h. The gradient of temperature inside the sample wassimilar for both types of saturation (capillary andimmersion). Due to its low porosity (11.2%) and low capillary saturation, the saturation of the Courville limestone
by simple immersion was not enough to disturb significantly the heat conduction in the sample. In a porous network, a 0 °C temperature does not mean systematicallythat water is frozen. Water can remain in a liquid state at
a temperature below 0 °C, this being called supercooling(Chahal and Miller 1965). Supercooling, and thus thefreezing temperature of water inside a porous network,
depends on the size of the pores: the smaller the pores,
the lower the freezing temperature (Everett 1961; Blachère1975). For example, Tourenq (1970) determined a freezing
temperature around − 2 to − 4 °C for stones with main
porosity larger than 0.03 μm while Fagerlund (1971) determined freezing temperature around 0 to − 3 °C for stones
with main porosity ranging from 0.02 to 0.5 μm. The
mean radius of the studied limestone is around 0.05 μm
which means that freezing should occur at temperatures around − 2 °C. According to the gradient of
temperature (Fig. 6), with a cooling plate set at − 10 °C,
the freezing front, corresponding to the zone cooled attemperatures below − 2 °C, remained superficial (lessthan 0.5 cm in depth) (Fig. 6a). For the two other settings at − 15 °C with capillary absorption only and after
immersion, the zone cooled under − 2 °C was deeper
and corresponded to the first 3 cm.

Thomachot-Schneider et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2018) 5:72

The thermal dilatation of the stone was recorded on
the dry sample at temperature ranging from room
temperature to + 40 °C and then from room temperatureto − 15 °C. It showed values respectively of + 1.2 mm/m
and − 3.0 mm/m, which corresponded to thermal coefficients ranging from 1.0 to 2.0 × 10−6/K. These values
were of the same order of magnitude as those measured
by other authors on limestone, sandstone, porphyry, tuff,
or granite (Thomachot and Jeannette 2002; Ruedrich etal. 2011).
During the first part of the freezing test, the sample
was partially saturated by capillary absorption. The weak
capillary properties of this Lutetian bedding (“Banc

Roche”) due to its low porosity mainly made of microporosity, explained why the wet fringe on the 15 cm longprismatic sample did not reach a height of 6 cm or
more. Differential dilatation behavior between the capillary zone and the upper dry zone was expected.
In the second part of testing when the sample was saturated by immersion during for 48 h, a more homogeneous deformation along the sample was expected even
if the sample was still supplied by capillary absorption
from the bottom.
Dilatation recorded by the vertical strain gages during
the freeze-thaw cycles with the cooling plate set at − 10 °C
was negligible. The sensors, placed along the sample, were

Page 6 of 9

Fig. 7 Main horizontal and vertical dilatation behavior according to freeze-thaw cycles and corresponding temperature of the surface and in
depth at the level of the strain gage at a 1 cm, b 2 cm, c 4 cm, d 6 cm, e 8 cm, and f 10 cm

Thomachot-Schneider et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science

too far away from the ice front located in the first millimeters of the surface. A significant expansion of 1.2 × 10−4
was recorded only by the strain gage at 6 cm height duringfreezing.
Results of freeze-thaw cycles with the cooling plate setat − 15 °C showed that whatever the saturation of thesample, the dilatation behavior was not homogeneousalong the sample and that it could be divided into threeparts corresponding to the capillary zonation: the capillaryzone (0–6 cm, Fig. 7a–c), the fringe limit (6 cm, Fig. 7d),and the upper zone not soaked by capillary absorption
during the test (> 6 cm, Fig. 7e, f).
In the capillary zone and the upper zone, the dilatometric behavior recorded was similar. The deformation perpendicular to the freezing direction (verticalstrain gages) was negligible while the deformation
parallel to the freezing direction corresponded to an
expansion during freezing and a contraction during
thawing. Values of expansion were close to 4 × 10−4
whatever the position of the strain gage. In the zoneof the capillary fringe, the behavior was opposite: thedeformation parallel to the freezing direction (horizontal strain gages) was negligible while the verticaldeformation reached 6 × 10−4 expansion duringfreezing (Fig. 7b). During freezing, no contraction wasrecorded before expansion suggesting that no supercooling occurred.
The different dilatation behavior depending on theorientation of the freezing front showed that the deformation was mainly unidirectional (Fig. 8). Indeed, thedeformation did not occur in all directions but was conditioned by the combination of the water flux aroundthe water fringe and the freezing front. When a stone issubmitted to a previous imbibition, the water is homogeneously distributed through the porous network, andwhen the temperature decreases sufficiently for water tofreeze, the deformation of the stone will follow the penetration of the freezing front. A deformation perpendicular to the freezing front along the sample was thus
expected: indeed, this corresponds to the expansion of
ice when crystallizing and growing deeper in the porous
network as associated to cryosuction of remained liquidwater toward the ice front (Matsuoka 1990; Weiss 1992;
Prick 1996; Thomachot et al. 2005). The presence ofwater supply during the experiment introduced anotherwater flow perpendicular to the freezing front whose effect was increased by the 6 cm height threshold of thecapillary fringe. In a capillary absorption, the repartitionof water inside the stone is not homogeneous: the saturation is higher at the bottom of the sample suppliedby water and at the level of the capillary fringe(Tournier 2001). Initially, the capillary fringe zone wasmore saturated than the other parts of the sample.
Furthermore, the water supply during the freezing test

(2018) 5:72

Page 7 of 9

Fig. 8 Mapping of deformation inside the sample a vertically andb horizontallyenables cryosuction and leads to an increase of stone
saturation (Mc Greevy and Whalley 1985). This water
concentration interface inside the stone was enough tocause vertical expansion even if the freezing was superficial (cooling plate temperature at − 10 °C). With astronger freezing (− 15 °C), the vertical expansion, perpendicular to the frost penetration, was maximum at
the wet fringe zone due to the maximum water content
and the water flux associated to capillary rise and cryosuction. A higher amount of ice crystallizing extruded
toward less saturated zones led to a strain increasestronger than in less saturated parts. This phenomenon
was accentuated by the fact that the cooling plate wasmore efficient in the central part that corresponds tothe wet fringe. The penetration of the freezing front
was faster and stronger in the part corresponding to
the capillary fringe zone. Thus extrusion of ice during
the freezing penetration caused dilatation on both sidesof the wet fringe (upward and downward), causing vertical deformation.
When combining values of the different strain gages, itappears that deformation at the capillary fringe (6 cm)
was opposite to the 2 and 10 cm one below and above
the capillary fringe (4 and 8 cm), deformation was transitional with both directions of deformation (Fig. 8).
The lack of difference between dilatation after capillary
absorption or immersion showed that the liquid withinThomachot-Schneider et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2018) 5:72

the pore space had no influence in the dilatation behavior of this limestone.
The opposite strains developed around the capillaryfringe (Fig. 9) led to quite a lot of strains in this zone.
A stone submitted to ice pressure would be subjected
to an increase of porosity by cracking or widening of
the pores. This implies that with a number offreeze-thaw cycles, the porosity of the fringe zone will
increase as well as its saturation. If because of a modification of the porous network the maximum height of
the wet fringe changes positions, the sensitive zone will
increase with time. The zone submitted to a differential
expansion will extend and consequently a larger part ofthe stone will be more prone not only to frost weathering but also to salt crystallization and drying impact inside the stone, and thus increase scaling as observed inmonuments (Fig. 1c).
The stone tested is a homogeneous limestone in which
the anisotropy of the capillary rise is weak to null. However, in the case of an anisotropic stone such as one ofseveral limestones and sandstones, the damage producedby capillary frost weathering will be more evident. In elevations, stones are placed in a horizontal bedding while
they are placed vertically when used for columns or rails.
Capillary kinetics are usually higher when parallel to thebedding. The water movements associated to thefreezing front will be easier and will cause less strain in
the horizontal direction in blocks in elevations and in
the vertical direction in columns or rails. The repartition
and intensity of strain around the capillary fringe asshown in this study will change accordingly. Further experiments simulating rain with a water supply on the external surface would complete the display of straincaused by climatic changes in buildings.

Page 8 of 9

Conclusions
Strain gages are a very accurate non-destructive techniquethat could be applied in real stone monuments. They
measure the mechanical stress produced on their surface
not only by ice but also by temperature changes or liquidwater movements. The gages provide reliable measurementof the immediate damage before it reaches the inside of thestone and before its visual and irreversible degradation.
This original test shows the importance of the zone
around the capillary fringe in the frost action on building stones. Around this zone, the directions of dilatationin the stone are opposite to the rest of the sample. This
could lead to the growth of high mechanical stress on
the fringe zone, making it more sensitive to frost action.
Abbreviation
GEGENAA: Groupe d'étude des géomatériaux naturels, anthropiques etarchéologiques
Acknowledgements
CTS and PV gratefully acknowledge PEPS grant to attend the JpGU
symposium 2017 held at Tokyo, Japan. KC gratefully acknowledges American
Geoscience Union travel grant to attend the JpGU symposium 2017 held inTokyo, Japan. Our thanks to A Thomachot for her editing assistance.
Funding
This work was supported by GEGENAA EA 3795, URCA, and Grand Reims
through the Remitherm project.
Availability of data and materials
Please contact author for data requests.
Authors’ contributions
CTS proposed the topic, conceived and designed the study. KC, EH, and XD
carried out the experimental study. CTS, KC, and EH analyzed the data andhelped in their interpretation. PV collaborated with the corresponding author
in the construction of the manuscript. All authors read and approved thefinal manuscript.
Authors’ information
CTS and PV are assistant professors at Reims University in a laboratory(GEGENAA EA-3795) involved in understanding and providing solutions to
the weathering mechanisms of building materials. EH and KC are respectively
PhD and Bachelor students who work on the thermal behavior of buildingstones. This study is the result of their work.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Fig. 9 Schematic distribution of expansion strains duringunidirectional freezing of a sample supplied by water

Publisher’s NoteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims inpublished maps and institutional affiliations.

Thomachot-Schneider et al. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science

Received: 8 February 2018 Accepted: 30 August 2018

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