An Investigation into the Use of Action Logging
in a General English Course
Ian Downer
English Education Center, Institute for Education and Student Support, Ehime University

Introduction
The purpose of this study was to assess thecontribution of action logs-writing forms used to record(Man & Walsh, 2017). As a result, the contribution of
written reflection to teacher training development has
also been well supported by a significant body of research(Farrell, 2013; Hatton & Smith, 1995; Moon, 2006).

student feedback-toward first-year students’ learning

In comparison, studies which have investigated theat a Japanese university. Despite the widespread use ofcontribution of written reflection to student learning, andaction logs by language teachers, a degree of ambiguity

the student perception of these activities, are considerably

still surrounds the effectiveness of this technique infewer in number. This is particularly surprising given therelation to student learning and the student perceptions

potential of written reflection to greatly improve learningof the activity. Furthermore, while promising views in

outcomes for students, and the possible flow on effects

support of the technique as a teaching and learning tool

to professional teacher practice. In the following section,

have steadily emerged, there still remains an ongoingan overview of the principle benefits of written reflectionneed for an evidence-based appraisal of the activity in thefor student learning is presented under four categories:

Japanese university context. Methodologically, the paper

academic outcomes, meta-cognitive self-regulation,

represents a conceptual replication of Matsumoto (1996),

affective regulation, and motivation.

who utilized retrospective diaries, questionnaires andDespite an absence of studies, there is modest evidence

interviews to investigate university students’perceptions

to suggest a positive correlation between studentof self-reporting tasks. The paper is divided into five

written reflection and academic performance. In a study

sections. In section one, relevant literature related toof 40 undergraduate biology students McCrindle andwritten reflection and action logging is reviewed with

Christensen (1995) found that students who kept learninga specific focus on the pedagogical benefits of the tool

journals significantly outperformed those in the control

for teachers and students. Section two outlines thegroup. However, other studies have been less conclusive

participants and data collection methods used in thein their findings.

study, followed by the presentation and a discussion

a limited relationship between journaling and academicof the results. The paper concludes with limitations ofachievement for the students in the study. The authors

the study and pedagogical implications for the futureconcluded that self-reflection was effective only to a small

implementation of action logs in this context.

extent in improving student academic performance.

Lew & Schmidt (2011) reported only

A more conclusive benefit of the technique relates to

Literature Review

the role of written self-reflection in the development ofmeta-cognitive self-awareness. Referring to the ability

The benefits of written reflection have been wellto essentially think about one’s thinking, self-reflection

established in the field of teacher education. Reachinghas been positively correlated with students’ability toa position of near ubiquity in the teacher education

manage and plan their learning, as well as tactfully apply

programmes around the world, reflective practice inlearning strategies to improve their learning outcomesthe form of written self-reflection has been thoroughly(Chick, 2013; Oxford, 2011). In particular, the process of

integrated into training disciplines and has become a core

written reflection provides an opportunity for students

cross-disciplinary method of instruction and assessment

to set goals and monitor their learning in reference to

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Ian Downerevidence of what they’ve learned (Elias, 2010).

accounts are then collected by the teacher at frequent

Reflective writing can also contribute to an independentintervals during the course, and are returned to theengagement of the learner in the learning process. In

students with feedback comments from the teacher.

this regard, it has been argued that for learning to occur,

Upon collection, the comments of students may thenmotivation needs to shift from external motivators

be used by the teachers to inform their lesson planning

to internal ones through the ascription of meaning inand better tailor the lessons to meet the needs of their

the learning process (Yancey, 98). Written reflection is

students.

effective in this capacity, as it provides a tool for learners

Previous studies which have documented the use of

to ascribe personally relevant meanings to learning

action logs have varied in time and nature of the prompts

events and the content they receive in class. Doing sogiven to the students. Tim Murphey, a key central

allows the learner to exercise more independence overproponent of the technique, suggests that the procedure

the learning and develop a greater awareness of theircan be given as homework task, where prompts ask theagency in the process (Cavilla, 2017).

students to write what they did in the previous classWritten reflection can also help students to emotionallyand how they liked it (Murphey, 1993). Other teachers

regulate stressful aspects of the learning process.

have used class time for writing of action logs and the

For some students, learning a second language in thecollection of these documents.

classroom can be a stressful experience. As Arnold

In terms of their form, previous literature provides(2011) suggests, the students’self-concept is particularly

little information about the most pedagogically effective

vulnerable in language learning classes, where students

ways to structure action logs, nor the types of prompts

may feel they lack the means of expression afforded toto be used for reflection. Hooper (2020), supplied action

them by their L1. To this end, reflective writing offers

logs to first year Japanese university students, anda mechanism whereby these tensions can be registeredprovided spaces for students to write their target andand addressed, and adjustments made to the curriculum

actual use of English in the class, key learning tasks fromaccordingly.

each class, and a four-point response system to evaluate

The above section has supplied evidence in support

the tasks with categories including interest, difficultyof the use written reflection for teachers and students.

and usefulness. Additional spaces were also provided

In the latter half of this review, discussion will shift tofor students to write open ended comments and ways

the specific mode of written reflection used in this study;

to improve their performance for next time. These logs

action logs.

were completed in class time and collected on a weekly
basis. While not used in this study, the utilization of atask scale provides an efficient method for teachers to

Action Logs

gauge the effectiveness of activities in the classroom

In this paper, action logs shall be used to refer to

Action logging benefits language teachers in various

writing forms“in which students record mainly forways. Firstly, the activity removes a degree of guessthemselves the activities of a class and their evaluations,work from the lesson planning and review process,which are later read by the teacher in order to adjust

and replaces it with experientially derived evidence

the activities to student needs”(Warkentin, Hooper &from classroom activity. In this regard, the student

Murphey, 2019, p. 341). An important distinction between

logs represent a valuable source of information fromother forms of diary keeping and action logging is thatwhich teachers can begin to evaluate the merits andaction logs are specifically focused on the sharing ofstudent comprehension of specific learning activitiesstudent perceptions of their learning and the events that

(Hooper, 2020; Murphey, 1993). Additionally, action

occur in a particular class (Murphey, 1993).

logging can contribute toward a greater personalization

The activity typically takes place at the end of aof the learning process between teachers and students

classroom session or at home via the student completion(Murphey, 1993). Via the collection of action logs,

of brief written comments about classroom activities,

communication between teachers and learners can occur

points of enjoyment and difficulty, student use of English

and a positive sense of rapport can be fostered.

during the session, and other aspects of the class that

There are also benefits of keeping action logs forwere useful for their learning (Hooper, 2020). Thesestudents. According to Warkentin, Hooper & Murphey

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大学教育実践ジャーナル 第21号 2022

An Investigation into the Use of Action Logging in a General English Course(2019), the activity contributes to a productive cycle ofProcedure and Instrumentation

reviewing and recycling information which can contribute

The first stage of the data collection process involved

to the retention of learnt content. Furthermore, action

the completion and submission of daily action logs by

logging can also help to foster a sense of student agency

students via the online learning platform Moodle. At

in relation to the curriculum (Warkentin, Hooper &the end of each class, students were required to write

Murphey, 2019). Specifically, through a dialogue with the

a comment in English in response to prompts on ateacher, students can begin exert a greater influence onPowerPoint screen, and submit this response to Moodle

the classroom planning and activity design.

via a Microsoft Word file before the next class. In

Despite the reported benefits of action logging referred

addition to providing included spaces for the students toto above, there remains an absence of literature on

write their comments, the Microsoft Word file allowed

the student perspective with respect to the activity.

the students to sequentially review their submissions

In one notable study of 106 Japanese college students,

during the course. The average completion rate for thisMatsumoto (1996) assigned diaries, questionnaires andactivity was 87.85%.

interviews to students in an investigation of university

In line with the prompts used by Murphey (1993), the1questions were deliberately open-ended to allow for a

Utilising Likert scale questions and unstructured

variety of student responses. The prompts asked theprompts, the findings of the paper indicated the value

students to comment on something they enjoyed aboutof dairies in raising student awareness of their learning.

the lesson, a challenge they faced, and a space to write

Building on these findings, this paper focuses specificallyany additional comments about the class2. Upon theon action logs in the classroom and seeks to address thecollection of these responses, the teacher provided thefollowing research questions (adapted from Matsumoto,students with written feedback and encouragement in1996):

relation to the content of their comments.

students’perceptions of these self-reporting tasks.

1. Do the students in the study perceive the inclusion ofReflecting the approach of Matsumoto (1996), theaction logs as beneficial to their language learning?

second stage involved the student completion of an

2. If so, how did the inclusion of these activities assist

end of course online questionnaire, including a spacethem in their learning?

for the provision of demographic data and Likert scalequestions related to the influence of action logs on their

Methods
Participantslearning. In an attempt to provide a fuller descriptionof the numerical data received from these responses, ashort answer section was also included which asked the

The 136 participants in the study (94 males andstudents to comment on how action logs had contributed

42 females) were first year students at a Japaneseto their learning. All responses were then translated from

University, aged 18-20. Students from five classes andJapanese to English.

three faculties took part in the study with three classes

The qualitative data from the student action logs, andfrom Engineering and one each from Medicine andshort answer responses were then coded according to

the Department of Law and Letters, respectively. The

the approach outlined by Corbin & Strauss (1998). The

students in the study were enrolled in a mandatory

three stage process involves the initial open coding

general English course covering the four skills ofand ascription of category labels to responses, second,

speaking, listening, writing, and reading. At the time of

the theoretical coding of items to identify relationships

data collection, the students were completing the 15 week

between these categories, and then selected generation of

speaking component of the course. This group of learners

core categories from the data.

received instruction once a week, and were taught by the
researcher.

1

While not specifically referred to as action logs, the reflective diaries in Matsumoto’s study shared similarities to this technique in this study byencouraging the students to systematically write comments related to classroom activities and their learning.
The inclusion of this prompt reflects the action log design of Miyake-Warkentin & Hooper (2019)2

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Ian Downer

Results
Action log responses
The qualitative analysis of student action log responses

the following example, the student provides an appraisalof a particular event in class when the students wereasked to describe specific items using descriptive
language:revealed the following dominant categories related to“When I spoke to everyone about my word, I was a little

the student learning: content specific information, meta-

nervous. However, I was pleased to be praised. I enjoyedcognitive monitoring and the organization of learning,

describing and guessing words.”

affective regulation, teacher interaction, and class-based
student interaction.

In the following end-of-course comment, anotherstudent detailed their initial concerns about participating

The majority of student comments were related toin a predominantly L2 learning context, and theirclassroom content. Thematically, comments in thisreconciliation of these concerns with the reality of theircategory were linked to the processing of information

classroom experience:learnt in class, and the ascription of personal value to“English 1 was my first class as a college student, so I was

specific content. As the following student comment

nervous. I was worried about whether I could continue theillustrates:class because the teacher spoke only basic English. However,“I worried about continuing conversation, but I found “And”

the teacher supported me in various fields, such as replying“So” “Also”, connection words, are very useful. So, I want toto me at any time what I did not understand in my homework,

master them!”and speaking in Japanese when I spoke English and theIn this case, the student appears to be integrating thelearnt content in the class, conjunctions, with the ability
to maintain and structure a conversation.

students could not understand it. The class was really easy tounderstand.”A smaller but recurrent category of responses related

Other content focused comments related to theto interactions with the teacher. In particular, following

identification of perceived shortcomings in knowledge, or

action log prompts given by the teacher to assess thethe absence of specific skills, as one student related:

speed of teacher talk, several students commented on“I found I should practice the English reaction more! I havethe comprehensibility of the teacher’s use of English invery small vocabulary, so I was not able to use a lot of kinds

the class. As an example, on the first day, one studentof reaction! I will do my best to improve my reaction skill fromsuggested that they could understand 60% of thenow!”

teacher’s English, however, the following session, theThe final sentence here also overlaps with the second
category of student comments, meta-cognitive monitoringsame student commented again with the following:“I understand 85% of your speaking English. No problem.”and the organization of learning. In this category, student

A smaller number of teacher directed commentscomments were focused on planning and the organizationreferred to technical issues related to the use of Zoomof their studies. Many of these comments in this category

synchronous conferencing software, and other aspects ofreflected the formulation of informal goals, as illustrated

course organization such as homework and assessment.

by the following student comment:

The final main category of comments reflected the“I feel that I have acquired talking skill gradually. I want tointeractional aspects of the lesson with other learners. In

use new words actively in the next class and I want to expand myaddition to the documentation of memorable interactions,vocabulary.”a number of the students used the comments to

A further example exemplifies the reflexive relationshipdocument the process of building friendships andbetween events in the class and the process of informal

individual interactions with other students in the class.

goal setting evident in a number of comments with:“I could listen to your English and speak fluently. So, in nextclass, I want to answer and ask faster than today class.”

Likert scale survey responses
In response to the question regarding the contribution

The third dominant category related to the affectiveof action logs to their learning on the course, 44 students

regulation of aspects of the learning process. A number(32.4%) indicated strong agreement with the statementof these students used the comments to reflect on theirthat action logs had been helpful to their learning, withemotional state during the classroom sessions, or detaila further 55 students (40.4%) also proffering agreement.

their emotional response to specific classroom events. In

From the remaining responses, 19 students (14%)

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An Investigation into the Use of Action Logging in a General English Course

remained undecided, with a further 12 students (8.8%)

vocabulary items. The following examples provide a good

disagreeing and 6 students (4.4%) registering strong

illustration of this theme:

disagreement.

3.“授業の振り返りをかくことでわからない単語を調べる機会が増えた”-By looking back on and writing about

Short answer survey responses
Five main categories were generated through thethe lesson, I gained opportunities to look up words I
don’t understand.

analysis of student short answer survey responses. In

4. 様々な表現をコメントの中で用いていくことで，それをthis question, students were asked to write answers

実際に使うことができるようになりました -By using

in Japanese in relation to the question of how action

various expressions in comments, I have become ablelogs influenced their learning. The following section

to actually use them.

presents these five main thematic categories of responses
generated through the coding process with examples
from each.

A third category corresponded to the meta-cognitive
organizing of learning in the form of planning and self-

Overall, the main category of responses was related

management. The 19 student entries in this category

to the role of action logs in facilitating review of lesson

often referred to the benefit of action logging for thecontent. In total, 36 responses were recognized in thisclarification of study goals:

category. Comments tended to focus on the role of1.“毎授業の自分の英語の話し方や，使ったフレーズを振

action logs in the recall of lesson content. Some examples

り返ることで，次回までに改善したいところを認識でincluded:きた点”-By looking back on my own English speaking

1.“自分自身がなにを学んだのかを確認することで意識

style and phrases used in each class, I was able to

することができていたと思う”-I think I was able torecognize what I wanted to improve by the next time.

become aware of what I had learned by checking back2.“自分を振り返る機会となり，次の授業に向けて新たなon what I had learned.
2.“毎回授業の内容を振り返ることができた”-I was able
to look back on the content of each lesson.

目標を立てることに役立った”-It was an opportunity
to look back on myself and help me set new goals forthe next lesson.

3.“コメントを書くことでその日に行ったことを振り返り，身につけることができると思うから”-By writing

Still other comments related to the student ability to

a comment, I think I can look back on what I did thatorganize aspects of the learning process. The following

day and learn more.

student comment provides an illustration:
3.“今回の授業で学んだことを整理することができた。後The second main category of responses highlighted

日見直した際にその日に何を学んだのかが分かった”-I

the benefit of action logging for the students’thinking,

was able to organize what I learned in this class.

writing, and lexical development. Sixteen of the student

When I reviewed it at a later date, I knew what I had

responses specifically referred to the relationshiplearned that day.

between the act of written reflection and their ability tothink and write in English. The following examples typify

A smaller number of responses (n=8) suggested asome of the themes of these comments:

linkage between action logging and motivation. The

1.“頭の中で英語を使って考える能力が向上した”-My

following two examples have been included to exemplify

ability to think in English has improved.

comments from this category:

2.“Writing 能力も身につけられたと思う。コメントを

1.“自分の苦手な部分が浮き彫りになっているため，学

書くのにわからない文法や単語を調べたことも語学学

習意欲が向上した”-My motivation for learning has

習に役立った”-I think I have also acquired writing

improved because my weaknesses are highlighted.

skills. Searching for grammar and words that I didn’t

2.“少しずつ上達していることがわかってやる気が出た”-I

understand when writing comments also helped me inwas motivated to find that I was improving little bylearning the language.

little.

Other student comments (n=7) relayed the contribution

The final category identified from responses wasof action logging to the acquisition and review of new

related to expression. In this category, the comments of

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Ian Downersix students related to the ability to express thoughts

This somewhat unexpected finding accords with theand emotions in English through the comments. One

established view that reflection is closely linked to thecomment included:

development of critical thinking and other forms of skill

1.“自分の考えを英語で表現する力が身についた”-I havedevelopment (Dewey, 1933). While outside the scope ofacquired the ability to express my thoughts in English.

this study, the relationship between written reflection
and skill acquisition would appear to be a very promising

Discussion

area of future inquiry in this learning context.
Action logging appeared to benefit the students’

In response to the first research question, the majority

learning by providing opportunities for them to organizeof numerical responses received by students suggest thatand plan their studies. Here, a number student comments

the inclusion of action logs was perceived as beneficial toand questionnaire responses indicate that action logs

the students’learning in this context. Of the 136 students

were facilitating the development of meta-cognitive

who took part in the study, 99 (73%) responses indicatedawareness of different aspects of the learning process.

either strong agreement or agreement that action logs

This aspect of the study aligns with the established view

had contributed to their language learning on the course.

that reflection is an integral aid to the development ofThis finding closely resembles that of Matsumoto (1996),

meta-cognitive awareness (Colley, Bilics & Lerch, 2012).

who similarly found the majority of students rated theIt also correlates with the findings of Matsumoto (1996),

activity highly in their questionnaire responses.

where it was found that diary keeping was assisting

Furthermore, the qualitative data from student shortanswer responses also confirmed that action logging wascertain students in the development of an objective
perspective on the learning process.

valued by many of the students in this study as method

Reflecting the findings of Rusche and Jason (2011),

of content review, a tool for writing and vocabulary

action logging seemed to afford the students in this study

development, and a facilitating component in the

an affective outlet in relation to the content and events

organization and planning of their learning. For otherof the classes. This can be most clearly observed fromstudents, supporting the opinion of Murphey (1993), action

the collected action logs, where students made sense

logging was serving to motivate certain students andof potentially stressful situations and integrated theseoffer others a tool for self-expression in English. Overall,

events into their broader understanding. Despite this

this data provides evidence to support the view thatfinding, very few questionnaire responses referred toaction logging was valued by the majority of the students

the benefits of action logging in relation to emotionalin this study, and has an ongoing legitimate role to playawareness or regulation. It is therefore the author’s

in this learning context.

view that while action logs appear to be providing an

Concerning the second question, the analyzed student

emotional outlet for students, more research needs to becomments indicate that action logging was facilitating

conducted through follow up interviews with students to

many of these students to process aspects of lesson

ascertain the extent to which this is consciously valuable

content. In particular, there was notable overlap in theto them.

categories between the action log reflections and the post

To a reasonable degree, this study confirms thecourse short answer questionnaire answers in this study.

view that written reflection is positively correlated toClearly, for a number of these students, action logging

sustaining learning motivation (Kritt, 1993). From thewas providing a vehicle to process the information theyquestionnaire responses of a smaller group of students,

had learnt in classes, assess any problems, and integrate

the activity of writing reflections at the end of each classthese understandings into new knowledge. To this extent,

appeared to be acting as a motivating force for thesethis finding supports the view of Perkins & Salomon

students by focusing their attention on areas of weakness(1989), that self-reflection aids in the integration ofand strength.

recently acquired knowledge with prior understanding in
the learning process.

The findings of this study show that not all students
in this study perceived action logging as useful to their

Short answer questionnaire responses also suggest

learning. This was reflected in the responses of 37

that action logging was benefiting the writing andstudents who remained undecided (19), disagreed (12), or

vocabulary development of many students in this study.

strongly disagreed (6) with the learning benefits of the

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An Investigation into the Use of Action Logging in a General English Course

activity. To an extent, these results are comparable toand learning organization, a forum to express emotional

those of Chan & Wong (2021), who found that a number

aspects of the learning, and valuable source of motivation.

of students in their study preferred face-to-face methodsof reflection over written forms.

While beyond the scope of the research questions inthis paper, the student action logs also represented a

Other issues remain regarding the pedagogical use

rich source of pedagogical feedback for the researcher inof this technique in the future. Firstly, as the students

this study. Particularly, the activity afforded the teacher

in this study were asked to complete their logs inwith a reflexive way to modify instruction to facilitate

English, it is conceivable that this requirement restricted

the needs of these students. As case in point, thetheir ability to fully express their thoughts on theirstudent comments regarding the speed of teacher talklearning. A future study in this context may seek togenerated an invaluable source of feedback to gauge thedraw comparisons between the length and content

comprehensibility of the teacher talk in the classroom.

of reflections when completed in the students’ L1 or

Following the receipt of these comments, the speed of

L2. Secondly, the onset of the Covid 19 virus in Japanteacher talk was able to be reduced to ensure student

necessitated the online collection of action logs on thisunderstanding.

course. In comparison to traditional paper-based collection

Student action logs also generated a valuable source

methods, the collection of student reflections online addedof feedback to the teacher in regard to student learning

to the complexity of the submission and comment returnand classroom organization. Specifically, student

process. While this did not appear to detrimentally affectcomments on the course were invaluable in making

the length of student reflections, it is possible that the

informed pedagogical decisions in relation to the online

burden of completing the tasks online contributed to a

management of speaking classes and planning decisions

degree of student dissatisfaction with the task indicatedaround conversational activities. These examples

in the paragraph above.

represent just a small portion of the pedagogicallyvaluable information provided to the teacher through

Limitations

the collection of action logs. It is the author’s opinion

This study is limited in certain aspects. Firstly, timethat a useful follow up study may seek to investigate therestrictions prevented the inclusion of interviews withpedagogical feedback offered to teachers through the use

participants. While it is the author’s view that theaction logs. While this topic has begun to be canvassed

analysis of student logs and questionnaire data provided

in field, further research would provide a rich source ofa reasonably firm basis from which to draw conclusions

information for action research and teacher developmentin this study, the addition of follow up interviews within this learning context.

students would allow for a more nuanced perspective on

Finally, it is hoped that this paper has contributed tothe contribution of this activity to student learning and athe ongoing pedagogical validation of action logging andgreater triangulation of the data.

a source of encouragement from which other teachers

Furthermore, while the findings of this study support
the benefits of reflection for the students in this context,

may wish to incorporate the activity into their own
classrooms.

a longitudinal approach taken over a longer time period
and involving a greater number of participants would

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