ETHNIC FOLKWAYS LIBRARY FE 4420
SIDE I
Band 1: TAOS-MOONLIGHT SONG
Band 2: TAOS-GAMBLING SONG
Band 3: SAN lLDEFONSO-EAGLE DANCEBand 4: ZUNI-RAIN DANCEBand 5: HOPI-BUTTERFLY DANCESIDE II
Band 1: NAVAJO-NIGHT CHANT
Band 2: NAVAJO-ENEMY WAY SONG
Band 3: WESTERN APACHE-DEVIL DANCEBand 4: WESTERN APACHE-BUNRISE SONG
Band 5: YUMA-BIRDS SONG CYCLE(Amer. Museum of Natural History collection)
Band 6: PAPAGO-BAGUARO SONG
Band 7: WALAPAl-FUNERAL SONG
Band 8: HAV ASUP Al-BTICK GAME SONG

MUSIC OF THE
AMERICAN INDIANS
OF THE SOUTHWEST

Archival Property
Smithsonian Institution
Office of the Assistant Secretaryfor Public Service

DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ARE INSIDE POCKET

Library of Congress Catalogue Card No. R 58-605® ©1951 FOLKWAYS RECORDS AND SERVICE CORP.
43 W. 61 st ST., N.Y.C., U.S.A. 10023

WARNING: UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF THISRECORDING IS PROHIBITED BY FEDERAlLAWANDSUBJECTTOCRIMINAL PROSECUTION.

ETHNIC FOLKWAYS LIBRARY FE 4420

ETHNIC FOLKWAYS LIBRARY N~. FE 4420
© 1951 by Folkways Records & Service Corp., 43 W. 61st St., NYC, USA 10023

MUSIC OFTHE AMERICAN INDIANS
SOUTHWEST

ON CULTURAL GROUNDS IT IS POSSIBLE TO CLASSifY
THE INDIANS or THE SOUTHWEST INTO THREE MAuORGROUPS: (I) THE PUEBLOS; (2) THE SOUTHERN ATHABA·SCANS; AND (3) THE RANCHERIA TRIBES. IN SEVERALRESPECTS THE PLATEAU YUMANS (WALAPAI AND HAVASUPAl) fALL OUTSIDE THIS THREEfOLD CLASSIFICATION
AND MUST BE CONSIDERED SEPARATELY.

I NTRCDLCT I 00
IY HARRY TSCHOPIK, ~R. ASSISTANT CURATOR OfETHNOLOGY, AMERICAN MUSEUM Of NATURAL HISTORY

THE TERM "SOUTHWEST" DESIGNATES A VAST NATURALGEOGRAPH ICAl AREA LV I NG TO THE SOUTH Of THE MORE
CLEARLY DEfiNED ROCKY MOUNTAIN RANGES BETWEEN THE
COLORADO RIVER AND THE RIO GRANDE - PECOS DRAINAGE SYSTEM. IN lARGE PART, THIS REGION liES WITHIN THE BOUNDARIES Of ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. THE
NORTHERN PORTION IS A HIGH, SEMI-ARID PLATEAU,
8CUlPTURED IY THE ACTION Of WIND AND WATER INTO
SPECTACULAR BUTTES AND MESAS, SHEER-WAllED CANYONS, AND DRY SANnY WASHES. VEGETATION CONSISTSIN THE MAIN or PI~ON AND ~UNIPER WITH fOREST' or
PINE AND DOUGLAS fiR CLOTHING THE HIGHER MOUNTAINS. AT THE SOUTHERN ESCARPMENT or THE COLORADO PLATEAU, MARKED BY THE WATERSHED IETWEEN
THE liTTLE COLORADO AND SALT RIVERS, ELEVATIONDECREASES ABRUPTLY, AND THE MOUNTAINS GIVE WAY
TO rlAT, ARID DESERT COUNTRY. HERE THE SUNBAKED TERRAINE IS COVERED BY MESQUITE, CREOSOTE BUSH, AND A GREAT VARIETY Of CACTI.
ALTHOUGH AS A MATTER or CONVENIENOE ANTHROPOloHAVE l~G CONSIDERED THE SOUTHWEST AS A
CULTURE AREA, THE REGION IS CONSPICUOUSLY 'lACKING IN CULTURAL UNITY. rEW TRAITS MAY BE
CITED THAT ARE CHARACTERISTIC 0; THE AREA A8 A
WHOLE. WHEN THE rlRST SPANISH EXPLORERS ENTERED
THESE DESERT WASTES IN 1539, THEY ENCOUNTERED
NATIVE PEOPLES WHO RANGED IN CULTURAL COMPLEXITY rROM THE PRIMITIVE WAlAPAI HUNTERS ANDGATHERERS ON THE ONE HAND TO THE SOPHISTICATEDTOWN-DWElliNG PUEBLOS ON THE OTHER. lANGUAGE
liKEWISE REVEALS AN ESSENTIAL lACK 0; UNITY.
THE NAVAuC AND APAOHE SPEAK ATHABASCAN DIALECTS,
YUMA, WAlAPAI, AND HAVASUPAI !ELONG TO THE YUMAN STOCK, WHilE PAPAGO AND HOPI ARE UTo-AZTECAN lANGUAGES. Ih REGARD TO OTHER PUEBLO GROUPS,
TA08 AND SAN ILDEFONSO ARE TANOAN WHilE ZUNI'PEECH 18 ISOLATED AND 18 CONSIDERED UNRELATEDTO ANY OTHER KNOWN lANGUAGE. SIMILARLY, ALTHOUGH
THEY ARE ALL CLASSED AS "AMERICAN INDIANS", THE
SOUTHWESTERN PEOPLES EXHIBIT NO PHYSICAL UNIFORMITY AND MAY IE DIVIDED IhTO SEVERAL DISTINCTIVE
TYPE' ON THE BASIS or RACIAL CRITERIA.
~ISTS

NAVAuO ENCAMPMENT
THE PUEBLO INDIANS AND THEIR ANCESTORS AND PREDECESSORS HAVE INHABITED THE CANYONS AND MESAS
0; THE COLORADO PLATEAU SINCE THE BEGINNING or THE
CHRISTIAN ERA. PRESENT DAY DESCENDANTS or THE ANCIENT PEOPLE, REPRESfNTED· IN THIS ALBUM BY THE
HOPI, ZUNI, SAN ILDEfONSO, AND TAOS INDIANS, ARE
DISTRIBUTED IN A SERIES or TOWNS FROM THE liTTLE
COLORADO RIVER TO THE RIO GRANDE. THE CULTURE or
THE PUEBLO TRIBES IS HIGHLY DISTINCTIVE AND ISSET OFF FROM THAT 0; THE SURROUNDING GROUPS IN A
NUMBER OF WAYS. INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE FORMS THE
BASIS OF THE ECONOMY, AND IMPORTANT NATIVE CROPSINCLUDE MAIZE, BEANS, SQUASH, AND COTTON. TOWNSCONSIST OF MULTI-STOREYED TERRACED COMMUNITY
HOUSES CONSTRUCTED OF MASONRY A~~ ARRANGED AROUNDONE OR MORE PLAZAS. EACH CONTAINS SEVERAL SPECIAL
CEREMONIAL STRUCTURES OR KIVAS. orTEN SUBTERRANEAN, IN WHICH IMPORTANT SACRED RITES TAKE PLACE.
THE PEACEfUL PUEBLOS ARE EXPERT CRAfTSMEN, AND
EARLY ATTAINED GREAT TECHNICAL PROFICIENCY IN
THE ARTS, ESPECIALLY IN POTTERY AND WEAVING.
MOST DISTINCTIVE OF PUEBLO CULTURE, PERHAPS, IS
ITS COMPLEX CEREMONIAL ORGANIZATION AND THE DE6REE TO WHICH RITUAL AND MYTHOLOGY HAVE BEEN ElABORATED. PUEBLO RELIGION IS CONCERNED CHIEFLYWITH FERTiliTY AND THE GROWING or CROPS, AND IS
CHARACTERIZED BY SHRINES, ALTARS, rETISHES, AND
OFFERINGS, AS WELL AS BY COMPLEX RITUAL DANCESDURING WHICH THE COlORrULLY COSTUMED AND MASKED
PERrORMERS IMPERSONATE SUPERNATURAL SEINGS.

ALTHOUGH THESE PATTERNS TEND TO BE TYPICAL OF
PUeBLO CULTURE AS A WHOLE, IMPORTANT REGIONAL
DIFFERENCES EXIST. THUS SUCH RIO GRANDE TOWNS A8
SAN ILDEfONSO ARE CHARACTERIZED BY A DUAL DIVISION Of THE COMMUNITY WHICH FUNCTIONS IN 80CIAL
AND CEREMONIAL LIfE, AND BY PATRILINEAL DESCENT.
THE EASTERN PUEBLOS LIKEWISE EMPHASIZE CURING
SOCIETIE8 AND ANIMAL DANCES, AND MAKE LITTLE USE
OF RITUAL MASKS. SPANISH INfLUENCES ARE MORE
MARKED IN THIS AREA, AND THE INDIANS OF TAOS AND
OTHER PUEBLOS ON THE NORTHERN RIO GRANDE HAVE IN'DDITION BORROWED EXTENSIVELY FROU THE NEIGHBORING TRIBES Of THE PLAINS. THE WESTERN PUEBLOS OF
HOPI AND ZUNI, ON THE OTHER HAND, TRACE DESCENT
THROUGH THE FEMALE LINE, AND ARE ORGANIZED INTO
MATRILINEAL CLANS AND LINEAGES THAT fUNCTION
IMPORTANTLY IN RELIGIOUS LIfE. IT is IN THISAREA THAT CEREMONIALISM, CENTERING CH!EfLY
AROUND THE KACHINA OR ANCESTOR-RAIN ~'R'T CULTAND THE ~ GROUPS, RECEIVES ITB GREATEST ELABoRAT I ON. MYTHOLOGY AND SYMBOll SM ARE MORE COMPLEX,AND SOMETHING APPROACHING A TRUE PRIESTHOOD IS
CHARACTERISTIC.

PUEBLO OF TAOS, NEW MEXICO

IT 18 NOT KNOWN WHEN THE 80UTHERN ATHABASCANS
fiRST ENTERED THE 80UTHWEST AfTER MIGRATING
SOUTHWARD fROM THEIR ANCESTRAL HOME IN NORTHWESTERN CANADA. AT ANY RATE THEY WERE fiRMLY ENTRENCHED IN THEIR NEW ENVIRONMENT WHEN THE FIRSTSPANISH EXPLORERS ENCOUNTERED THEM AND DESIGNATED THEM COLLECTIVELY A8 "APACHES". THE WE8TERN APACHE SETTLED THE HEADWATERS Of THE GILAAND SALT RIVERS WHILE OTHER BANDS SPREAD OVER
80UTHERN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO, EA8TWARD INTO
THE PLAINS, AND SOUTHWARD INTO THE NORTH MEXICAN DEBERT. THE NAVAvO (ONCE CALLED THE "APACHESOf THE GREAT PLANTED FIELDS") ELECTED TO DWELL
AROUND AND BETWEEN THE PUEBLOS WHOM THEY ATTACKED WHENEVER THE OPPORTUNITY PRESENTED ITSELf
AND fROM WHOM. NEVERTHELE88, THEY BORROWED MANY
E LEME NTS OF CU LTURE.
IN SPITE Of THE HEAVIER PUEBLO VENEER Of NAVAvO
CULTURE, THESE PEOPLE AND THE WESTERN APACHE
SHARED A WAY Of LIFE THAT WAS BASICALLY SIMILAR.
BOTH, ALTHOUGH THEY ADOPTED AGRICULTURE fROM
THE PUEBLO FARMERS, DEPENDED IN FORMER TIMESTO A CONSIDERABLE EXTENT UPON HUNTING AND THE
GATHERING Of WILD fOODS. BOTH LED A ROVING,
SEMI-NOMADIC EXI8TENCE, CONDUCTING SAVAGE RAIDSAGAINST MEXICAN AND OTHER INDIAN SETTLEMENTS FORLIVESTOCK AND BOOTY. THE WESTERN APACHE AND
NAVAvO ALIKE WERE ORGANIZED INTO MATRILINEAL
CLANS AND DWELLED IN WIDELY SCATTERED FAMILY ENCAMPMENTS RATHER THAN IN FIXED VILLAGE8. BOTH
POSSESSED RITES FOR ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND VIEWED
DEATH WITH UNUSUAL HORROR AND DREAD. TOGETHER
THEY 8HARED A RELIGION WHICH TENDED STRONGLY TO
PER80NIFY ANIMALS. PLANT8, AND THE ELEMENT8 A8BOTH DE8TRUCTIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVE SUPERNATURALAGENCIES. BASIC CEREMONIALISM WAS EXTREMELY SIMILAR EVEN TO SUCH SPECIFIC TRAIT8 AS SANDPAINTINGS.
SWEATHOUSE RITES, THE 8PRINKLING OF POLLEN AND
CORN MEAL, AND TO DETAILS Of RITUAL PROCEDURE.
THE MYTHOLOGIES OF BOTH GROUPS DEALT IN PARTWITH THE DEEDS OF A LEGENDARY HERO, SLAYER OF"ONSTERS.

ZUNI WATER-CARRIER, NEW MEXICOWESTERN APACHE - CEREMONY FOR ADOLESCENT GIRLS, ARIZONA

2

OwiNG, IN LARGE ~ART, TO THE INTENSIVE CONTACTS
Of" THE NAVAuO WITH THEIR PUEBLO NEIGHBORS, THE
FORUER TRIBE WAS DISTINGUISHED f"ROM THE WESTERNAPACHE IN A NUM8ER Of" RESPECTS. THE NAVAuO ADOPTED PUE8LO DRESS AND POS~ESSED A FAR RICHERMATERIAL CULTURE, INCLUDING LOOM WEAVING AND
PAINTED POTTERY. TO THE TOWN-DWELLERS ALSO THE
NAVAuO OWE MUCH OF THEIR INTRICATE CEREMONIALISM
WHICH, HOWEVER, THEY REINTERPRETED IN TERMS OF
THEIR DOMINANT CULTURAL INTEREST -- THE CURING
OF DISEASE. DURING A LATER PERIOD THE NAVAuO
BORROWED PATTERNS OF SHEEP HERDING, HORSE BREEDING, AND SILVERSMITHING FROM THE SPANIARDS, AS
WELL AS DETAILS OF SPANISH COSTUME.

STANDARDS, THE PAPAGO WERE EXPERT BASKET MAKERS
AND TRADED THEI~ PRODUCTS WITH THE LESS SKILLED
YUMAHS. OWING EITHER TO PUEBLO OR ANCIENT MEXICANCONTACTS, THE PAPAGO POSSESSED A IAORE COMPLEX RELIGION WHICH WAS PREOCCUPIED PRIUARILY WITH BRINGING RAIN TO THE PARCHED FIELDS. RITUAL ELEMENTS
INCLUDED A CEREMONIAL ENCLOSURE, SHRINES, ALTARS,OFFERI NGS, AS WELL AS IAASKED DANCES. A .AAuOR RITEWAS THE SAGUARO FESTIVAL, DURING THE COUR~E Of"
WHICH QUANTITIES OF LIQUOR MADE rROM FERMENTEDSAGUARO CACTUS FHUIT WERE CONSUMED.

Bu IL T ON MUCH THE SArAE CULTURAL BASE THE YUMANWAY Of" LIFE WAS ORIENTED SOMEWHAT DIFFERENTLY.
THE YUMAN T~IBES CONCERNED THEMSELVES WITH THE
ESOTERIC, AND EMPHASIZED DREAM EXPERIENCES AND
DEATH. ALL PROF'ESSIOllAL ~'TATUSES, ALL SUCCESS,
AND ALL POWER WAS ACHIEVED THROUGH DREAMS, WHILERITUAL, CEREMONIALISIA, AND OTHER EXTERNAL TRAPPINGS Of" RELGION WERE RUDIMENTARY OR ABSENT. ESPECIALLY CHARACTERISTIC Of" THE YUMA WERE THE
ELASORATE SONG CYCLES, 08TENSIBLY LEARNED IN
DREAMS, THAT RELATED THE DREAMER'S ADVENTURESAND EXCURSIONS INTO THE REMOTE MYTHOLOGICAL PAST.
PUBL I C CEREMON I ALS CENTERED AROUND COMPLEX FUNERAL RITES INVOLVING CREMATION OF" THE DEAD, SINGING,
AND NUMEROUS FORMAL ORAT IONS. THE 'MOURN I NG COfAIAEMoRATION RITE, '&'CCOfAPANIED ~Y MOCK WARFARE, ALSO REPRESENTED A rMJ)II CULTUR.&.L INTEREST.

LACKING SUCH INTENSIVE PUEBLO CONTACTS, THE WESTERN APACHE WAY Of" LIFE APPEARS IMPOVERISHED IN
CONTRAST TO THE NAVAuO, AND REMAINS A MORE GENERALIZED SOUTHERN ATHABASCAN CULTURE. IN BASKETRY
ALONE DID THE WESTERN APACHE EXCEL THEIR MORE ADVANCED KINSMEN. ALTHOUGH CURING RITES WERE IMPORTANT, THE RITE FOR ADOLESCENT GIRLS BECAME THE F"OCUS OF" TRIBAL INTEREST AS EXPRESSED IN RITUAL, AS
WELL AS THE I R MOST SPECTACU LAR PUBL I C CEREI~ ;)N I AL.

THE THIRD MAuOR CULTURAL GROUP, USUALLY DESIGNA'rED THE IRANCHERfA" TRIBES, INCLUDES THE PAPAGOAND RELATED PIMA OF THE SOUTHWESTERN ARIZONADESERT AND THE YUMAN-SPEAKING TRI8ES OF" THE LOWER COLORADO AND GILA RIVERS. LITTLE IS KNOWN OF
THE HISTORY OF THESE GROUPS SAVE THAT THE PAPAGO,
AT LEAST, MAY REPRESENT THE DESCENDANTS Of" THE
ANCIENT HOHOKAM PEOPLE OF THE REGION. ALTHOUGH
THE RANCHER fA TRIBES WERE FARMERS. THEY DEPENDEDPERHAPS EQUALLY UPON WILD PLANT PRODUCTS, PARTICULARLY THE "MESQUITE BEAN", AS WELL AS UPON SMALLGAME AND f"ISH. F"IXED VILLAGES WERE OCCUPIED, BUT
THE POPULATION SHIF"TED f"ROM ONE LOCALITY TO ANOTHER
IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE SEASONS. GENERALLY SPEAKINGARTS AND CRAF"TS WERE INDIF"F"ERENT AND RUDIMENTARYAND VASTLY INFERIOR TO PUEBLO PRODUCTS. SOCIAL
ORGANIZATION WAS CHARACTERIZED BY RATHER WEAK PATRILINEAL CLANS AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION BY CHIEF"SWHO WERE ACCORDED CONSIDERABLE PRESTIGE, BUT HAD
LITTLE ACTUAL POWER. ALL PEOPLES OF" THE AREA POSSESSED A STRONG SENSE OF NATIONALISM AS WELL AS
WARLIKE TRADITION, ESPECIALLY ELABORATED AMONG THE
YUMAN TRIBES WHERE IT ACHIEVED THE CHARACTE~ OF A
NATIONAL SPORT. THE RELIGION Of" THE RANCHERIATRIBES AS A GROUP WAS CAST IN THE SHAMANISTIC RATHER THAN IN THE PRIESTLY TRADITION, AND EVERYWHERE -- ALTHOUGH WITH VARYING LOCAL EMPHASIS -DREAMS f"URNISHED THE BASIS OF SUPERNATURAL POWER.
ALL INDULGED IN F"ORMAL ORATIONS DELIVERED ON ALL
CEREMONIAL OCCASIONS, AND BELIEVED IN THE MAGICALPOWERS INHERENT IN SONGS AND SINGING.

THE PRIMITIVE WALAPAI AND HAVASUPAI, WHILE
LINGUISTICALLY RELATED TO THE RIVER YUMANS, ARE
INCLUDED IN THE SOUTH ,aEST MERELY ON THE BASIS OF
THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION. ALTHOUGH THEY LIVEIN AND AROUND THE GRAND CANYON IN NORTHWESTERN
AftIZONA, THEY DESERVE TO BE CLASSED ON THE BASIS
or CULTURAL CRITERIA RATHER WITH THE HUNTERS ANhGATHERERS OF THE GREAT SASIN. BOTH THE WALAPAIAND THE HAVASUPAI -- SAVE WHEN THEY WERE PLANTING THEIR CROPS ON THE WATERED CANYON BOTTOMLANDS -- LED A SCATTERED, MIGRATORY EXISTENCE,COLLECTING WILD SEEDS AND NUTS AND HUNTING SMALL
GAME. l~ATERIAL CULTURE WAS EXTREMELY MEAGER,
SOCIAL AIID POLITICAL ORGANIZATION WAS Of" THE
SIMPLEST, AND RITUAL AND CEREMONIALISM wERE UNELABORATED. SOME ELEMENTS OF" CULTURE LINKED THEM
WITH THE WESTERN PUEBLOS, WITH WHOM THEY CONDUCTED REGULAR TRADE Ih BUCK~KI~S AND HIDES, AND
CERTAIN MOURNI~G RITES AND SONGS REVEAL CONTACT
WITH THE LOWER COLORADO TRIBES. THE BASIC AffiLIATIONS OF PLATEAU YUMAN CULTURE, HOWEVER, ARE WITH
THE WEST.

As MIGHT BE EXPECTED, MUSIC REFLECTS THE MAvOR
Of" THE SOUTHWEST AS THESE HAVE BEENESTABLISHED ON OTHER CULTURAL GROUNDS. ALTHOUGH
THE VARIETY or MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS CHARACTERISTICOf" THE REGION WAS NOT EXTENSIVE, NO SINGLE TRIBEOR CULTURAL GROUP POSSESSED ALL TYPES. THE GREATEST RANGE IS EXHlelTED BY THE PUEBLOS WHO EMPLOYGOURD RATTLES, TURTLE SHELL RATTLES WORN BY
DANCERS, NOTCHED RASPS, POTTERY DRUUS, TAMBOURINE
DRUUS, HOLLOW LOG DRUMS, AND END FLUTES. RANCHERIA MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS ARE LIMITED PRINCIPALLY
TO GOURD RATTLES AND BASKET DRUMS, ALTHOUGH THE
SUBDIVISIC~6

ALTHOUGH BASIC CULTURE WAS ESSENTIALLY SIMILAR
THROUGHOUT THIS ARID DESERT REGION, CERTAIN CULTURE PATTE~NS DI'FERENTIATED THE PAPAGO SHARPLYFROM THE YUMANS. OF THE TWO SUB-GROUPS THE
FORMER CULTIVATED OOTTON IN ADDITIO~I TO FOOD
CROPS, AND PRACT I CED I RR I GA TI ON 011 A CONS I DERABLESCALE. WHILE WEAVING AND POTTERY FELL BELO~ PUEBLO

3

PAPAGO ALSO PLAY END FLUTES AND THE RIVER YUMANS
FLAGEOLETS. OCCUPYING AN INTERMEDIATE POSITIONGEOGRAPHICALLY, THE NAVAJO AND WESTERN APACHE
ARE I~TERMEDIATE WITH RESPECT TO MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS AS WELL. LIKE THE PUEBLOS THEY USE THE
POTTERY DRUM, WHILE THE NAVAJO HAVE GOURD RATTLES,RASPS, AND E~n FLUTES A8 WELL. AT THE SAME TIME
THE NAVAJO SHARE THE BASKET DRUM WITH THE RANCHERIA PEOPLES, AND THE WESTERN APACHE PLAY A YUMANTYPE FLAGEOLET. THE CHIEF MUSIOAL INSTRUMENT OF
THE PLATEAU YUMANS IS THE GOURD RATTLE, ALTHOUGH
THE HAVASUPAI HAVE PUEBLO-TYPE LOG DRUMS AND THE
WALAPAI OCCASIONALLY USE FLAGEOLETS.
IN EACH AREA MUSIC IS MADE TO SERVE THE DOMINANT
CULTURAL INTEREST. THUS AMONG THE PUEBLOS IT
FO~ THE MOST PART ACCOMPANIES THE ELABORATE RITUAL DANCES AND THE ATTENDANT SACRED RITES. NAVAJOMUSIC IS AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE NUMEROUS CURING
CEREMONIALS, OR "8INGS", WHILE MANY WESTERN APACHESONGS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH THE RITE FOR ADOLESCENT
GIRLS. NEARLY ALL PAPAGO 80NGS ARE CONNECTEDDIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY WITH RAIN BRINGING, AND
ANY OF THE YUMAN 80NG CYCLES MAY BE PERFORMED DURING FUNERAL OBSERVANCES. MUSIO IS RELATIVELY UNIMPORTANT TO THE WALAPAI AND HAVA8UPAI, BUT IS
ASSOCIATED WITH SHAMANISTIO ACTIVITIES, GAMBLING,
MOURNING, AND WITH THE INFREQUENT GROUP CEREMONIALS.

PAPAGO SINGER

MuSICAL STYLE LIKEWISE REFLECTS THE MAJOR
CULTURAL GROUPINGS. PUEBLO GROUP SINGING REPRESENTS THE MOST COMPLEX MUSICAL DEVELOP~MENT IN ABORIGINAL AMERICA NORTH OF MEXICO. ALTHOUGH IT I~
MUCH MI XED AS TO I NFLUE NCES AND SOURCES, SOMEAUTHORITIES POINT TO STYLISTIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WESTERN AND EASTERN PUEBLO MUSIC, A DIVISION CLEARLY MARKED ON OTHER CULTURAL GROUNDS.
JUST AS THE MUSIC OF HOPI AND ZUNI IS MORE INTRICATE, SO THE TEXTS OF WESTERN PUEBLO SONGS ARE
MORE ELABORATE. THE LYRICS OF MANY EASTERN PUEBLO
SONGS, ON THE OTHER HAND, ARE COMPOSED MERELY OF
MEANINGLESS SYLLABLES, REMINISCENT OF THE PLAINSSTYLE, AND PLAINS INFLUENCES ARE ESPECIALLY MARKED
IN THE MUSIC OF SUCH RIO GRANDE TOWNS AS TAOS.

NAVA,JO S,NGER

NAVAJO AND WESTERN APACHE GROUP SINGING 18 EQUALLYDISTINCTIVE, WITH ITS RAPID, BOUNDING MOVEMENT,SUBTLE VARIATIONS, AND RESTLESS, BEAUTIFUL MELODIES. 80ME LYRICS ARE REMINISCENT OF THE PUEBLOS,
AND PLAINS INFLUENCE8 ARE DETECTABLE IN OTHERSONGS. IN SEVERAL RESPECTS, HOWEVER, NAVAJO AND
WESTERN APACHE MUSIC RESEMBLES MORE SPECIFICALLY
THAT OF NORTHWESTERN CANADA, WHENCE CAME THE ANCESTRAL SOUTHERN ATHABASC~NS. WHILE THE STYLE OFSINGING PROVIDES MORE SCOPE FOR INDIVIDUAL EXHIBITIONISM THAN DOES PUEBLO MUSIC, THERE ARE NO
TRUE SOLOISTS, BUT RATHER INDIVIDUALS WHO ACT A8
SONG LEADERS AND WHOSE TASK IT IS TO SET THE
PITCH AND TEMPO FOR THE GROUP. IN ADDITION TO THE
STYLISTiC FEATURES THAT THE WESTERN APACHE ANn
NAVAJO SHARE IN COMMON, THE LATTER EMPLOY FALSETTO AS AN EMBELLISHMENT TO THE MELODY.

As OPPOSED TO ,PUEBLO AND SOUTHERN ATHABASCAN
MUSIC, RANCHERIA 81NGING TENDS TO BE STRONGLYHAVASUPAI - MOTHER AND CHILD

4

INDIYIDUALISTIC. THE RIYER VUMAN STYLE HAS BEEN
DESCRIBED AS PERHAPS THE MOST DISTINCTIYE IN THE
SOUTHWEST. IT IS CHARACTERIZED BY SaNG CYCLES,
EACH COMPOSED OF A HUNDRED OR MORE SONGS THATFORM A COHERENT SERIEI AND ARE SUNG IN A SETORDER. EACH SONG CYCLE, WHICH IS THEORETICALLYLEARNED DI.R I NG A DREAM, FOLLOWS THE OUT LINES
OF A LONG MYTH, ·AND IS SUNG WHEN THE MYTH IS RELATED. WITH THE RIYER YUMANS THE PAPAGO SHARE SONGCYCLES, BUT DIFFER FROM THEM MARKEDLY IN REGARDTO MUSICAL STYLE. 80ME AUTHORITIE8 HAVE POINTED
TO PUEBLO I NrLUENCES IN PAPAGO MUSI C flH I LE OTHER8
HAYE TRACED RESEMBLANCES BETWEEN PAPAGO SINGING
AND THAT OF THE GREAT BA81N TRIBES TO THE WEST.
THE MUSIC OF THE WALAPAI AND HAVASUPAI 18 BUT
POORLY KNOWN AT PRESENT. THE FORMER ACKNOWLEDGE
HAVING BORROWED RIVER YUMAN SONG CYCLE8 IN RECENT TIMES, WHILE THE LATTER MAY HAVE BEEN INFLUENCED IN SOME MEASURE BY WE8TERN PUE8LO MU8IC.

MUSIC OF THE PAST THREE CENTURIES WHICH ADHERESTO TWO SCALES, MAJOR AND MINOR, AMERICAN INDIAN
MUSIC EMPLOY8 A COUNTLE88 NUMBER OF SCALES WHICH
EMERGE FROM THE TONAL MATERIAL OF THE MUSIC. THE
LI8TENER'S AE8THETIC 8ENSE IS 8ATI8FIED AND HIS
P8YCHOLOGICAL NEEDS ARE rlLLED BY ANCHORING EACHPIECE TO A TONAL CENTER or GRAVITY CORRE8PONDING
TO THE TONIC TONE OF OUR OWN MUSIC. 81NCE THE MUSIC GROWS 80 DIREOTLY OUT OF EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION
UNrETTERED BY THEORY, AND SINCE THE TONAL MATERIAL,ALMOST EXCLUSIVELY VOCAL, IS NOT LIMITED TO A SYSTEM OF rlXED PITCH A8 IN OUR MUSICAL CULTURE WHERE
INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC HAS PLAYED 8UCH A DOMINANT ROLE,
THERE RE8ULTS A VARIETY OF SCALE FORMS THAT ARE
SLIGHTLY BEWILDERING TO THE INITIATE.
NOR IS AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC BOUND TO A METRICrRAMEWORK or REGULARLY RECURRING TIME UNITS OF
TWO BEAT8 (2/4 OR 4/4 TIME) OR THREE BEATS (3/4
OR 6/a TIME) WHICH LIES AT THE BASIS or THE RHYTHM OF 80 MUOH WESTERN EUROPEAN MUSIC. MANY SONGSARE STRICTLY REGULAR IN THEIR RHYTHMIC PATTERNING
WITH AN EVEN, PULSATING BEAT UNDERLINING PERFECTLYBALANCED, SYMMETRICAL PHRASES. THE WALAPAI rUNERALSONG IS AN EXAMPLE or THII TYPE. SUCH 80NGS ARE
READILY UNDER8TOOD BY THE NON-INDIAN LI8TENERBECAUSE IN THEIR RHYTHMIC REGULARITY AND SYMMETRICAL STRUCTURE THEy BEAR A SIMILARITY TO FAMILIAR
MUSIC. HOWEVER, THE MUSIC LOVER WILL SOON DI8COVER
HIDDEN DELIGHTS IN THE MORE 8UBTLE AND SOPHISTICATED RHYTHMS OF PUEBLO MUSIC.

WS IC OF THE AtJER ICAN I r.D I ANS OF THE SOUTHWEST
BY WILLARD R-lCDES AS800IATE PROFESSOR OF MUSIC,COLUMBIA UNIVER81TY

THE MUSIC or THI8 ALBUM WILL MAKE CLEAR TO THE
LISTENER THAT THERE 18 NO SINGLE MUSICAL ITYLErOR THE lOUTHWEST. IN8TEAD ONE riNDS A VARIETY
OF MUSICAL 8TYLE8 WHIOH ARE DISTINCTLY CHARACTERISTIC or A CULTURE AREA OR ETHNIC GROUP WITHINTHI8 VA8T GEOGRAPHICAL AREA • •THOUGH ATTEMPTS
HAVE BEEN MADE TO ANALYZE AND DEFINE THE MUSICALSTYLE or SOME or THE TRIBE8 REPRESENTED HERE,SUCH STUDIES MU8T BE REGARDED A8 TENTATIVE.
COMPARATIVE MU81COLOGIST8 HAVE NOT YET DETERMINEDTO WHAT EXTENT A MUSICAL STYLE 18 INHERENT IN THE
FUNCTIONAL NATURE or THE SONG AND THE RE8ULTANT
SONG TYPE, OR TO WHAT EXTENT IT DERIVE8 FROM THE
BA81C CULTURE or THE ETHNIC GROUP WHICH PRODUCE8
IT. THE DIVER81TY ENCOUNTERED WITHIN THE MUSICOF A OULTURE AREA 8UGGEST8 THE CULTURE CONTACTS
THAT HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE FORMATION or THE
MUSICAL STYLE AND POSE8 A PROBLEM FOR THE SCHOLAR
WHO ATTEMPTS TO DEFINE AND EXPLAIN IT. THE WIDEDIFFUSION OF CERTAIN SONG TYPES WITH THEIR INTEGRATED STYLISTIC FEATURE8 HAS TENDED TO OBSCURE
THE PROFILE AND DEFINITION OF MUSICAL 8TYLE FOR
ANY GROUP. SINCE EACH AREA HAS DEVELOPED A MU81C
WHICH 8ERVE8 ITS DOMINANT CULTURAL INTERE8T, IT
IS AMONG THOSE PARTICULAR SONGS WHICH GIVE EXPRES810N TO THAT INTEREST THAT ONE MAY LOOK rOR
THE rULLE8T 8TATEMENT OF A DISTINCTIVE MU81CALSTYLE.

THE MUSIC OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS OF THE SOUTHWEST OFFERS AN AMAZING VARIETY OF STYLES, FORMS,
AND EXPRESSION. HERE IS A WEALTH OF 8UBTLE MUSICAL ART THAT HAS BEEN TOO LONG NEGLECTED. THI8SENSITIVE AND EVANESCENT EXPRE8SION OF A PEOPLE
WHOSE CULTURAL HISTORY HAS HAD UNTIL RECENTLY 80
FEW POINT8 OF CONTACT WITH OUR OWN MERITS THE
8AME APPRECIATION AND UNDERSTANDING WHICH WE HAVESO FREELY ACCORDED THEIR OTHER ART8 AND CRAFl8,
ARCHITECTURE, POTTERY, WEAVING, 8ILVERSMITHING,
PAINTI-NG, ETC. THE MUSIC LOYER WHOSE EXPERIENCE
HAS BEEN LIMITED TO WE8TERN EUROPEAN MU81C WITH
IT. HARMONIC AND POLYPHONIC COMPLEXITIES AND
HUGE TONAL MAS8ES RESULTING FROM THE ELABORATION
AND DEVELOPMENT or ES8ENTIALLY SIMPLE THEME8WILL BE PUZZLED AT FIRST 8Y THE 8EEMING 8IMPLICITY OF AMERIOAN INDIAN MUSIC. JUST AS HE IS REQUIRED TO CHANGE HIS AURAL PERSPECTIVE IN SHIFTING FROM SYMPHONIC MUSIC TO CHAMBER MUSIC WITHINHIS OWN CULTURE, 80 MUST HE ADJUST HIS SCALE OF
MUSICAL VALUES IN APPROACHING THIS VERY 8PECIAL
AND 8TRANGELY BEAUTIFUL MU8IC.
LIKE THE MU810 OF THE GREEK8, AMERICAN INDIAN
MUSIO II PREDOMINANTLY MONOPHONIC WITH OOCASIONAL EXCUR810NS INTO HETEROPHONY. THI8 SINGLELINED, MELODIO MUSIC IS FRAUGHT WITH AN ABUNDANCE OF TONAL AND RHYTHMIC DETAIL AND VARIETY
or PATTERN8 IN rORM AND STRUCTURE WHICH REMOVES IT FROM THE rlELD or SIMPLICITY, EVENTHOUGH IT MAY BE CLASSED AS PRIMITIVE OR rOLKART. UNLIKE THE BULK or OUR WESTERN EUROPEAN

THI8 ALBUM OFrER8 A 8MALL SAMPLING or A
VA8T
MU810AL CULTURE WHICH IS KNOWN TO ONLY A rEw
PERSON8. IN MAKING THIS EXCITING MU81C AVAILABLE
TO A LARGER PUBLIC, IT 18 HOPED THAT THE AMERICAN
INDIAN8 OF THE 8OUTHWE8T WILL BE JU8TLY REPRE-

5

SENTEn THROUGH THE ART MEDIUM WHICH EXPRESSES SO
VITALLY AND STRIKINGLY THE RICHNESS ArID COL~ Of
THEIR DAILY SOCIAL AND RELI~IOUS LIFE.

CO!.t.tEMORAT I NG THE SAY I NG OF THE PUEBLOS tROM
PLAGUE THROUGH THE INTERVENTION OF THE EAGLE WHO
WITH HIS WINGS FANNED THE BREEZES INTO RAIN CLOUDS
WHICn DESCENDED AND WASHED AWAY THE EVIL DI8EASE.

TAOSTHIS MIMETIC DANCE 18 USUALLY PRE8ENTED BY TWOYALE DANCERS WHO WITH THEIR GRACEFUL MOVEMENT8llAlTATE THE STEPPING, HOPPING, SOARING, LIGHTINGAND MATING OF THE MALE AND FEMALE EAGLE$. THE
FEATHERED HEADGEAR SIIAULATING THE EA~LE'~ HEAD,
THE LONG rEATHERED WINGS EXTENDING FR~ THE NECK
DOWN THE UNBENT ARMS OF THE DANCER, COMBINE WITH
THE BODY PAINTING TO GIVE THE DA~ERS A BEAUTIFUL AND REALISTIC APPEARANCE. THE DANCE IS ACCOMPANIED BY A CHORUS OF SINGERS WITH DRUM. THE
SONG OPENS WITH A SLOW INTRODUCTION WHICH SERVESTHE DANCERS FOR THEIR ENTRANCE INTO THE PLAZA.
THIS IS FOLLOWED BY A SECTION IN 8LOW TEMPOLEADING TO A FAST, SPIRITED MIDDLE SECTION AND
THE EVENTUAL RETURN TO THE SLOW SECTION AND ITSREPETITION. THE MUSICAL rORM 18 THAT WHICH IN
WESTERN EUROPEAN MUSIC IS COYMONLY CALLED SONG
FORM- ABAA WITH A PRErATORY ItlTRODUOTION.

THE MUSIC or T~OS, NORTHERMOST OF T~E EASTERNPUEBLOS, IS PERHAPS MORE HOMOGENOUS THAN THAT OF
THE WESTERN PUEBLOS. T~E INFLUENCE OF PLAINSMUSI~ IS REFLECTED IN MANY SOtlGS, NOT OULY IN T~E
OONSTITUENT FEATURES OF THE MUSIC ITSELF BUT
ALSO IN T'1E MANNER Of' SING I NG AND VOCAL TECHNIQUE EMPLOYED, DIAGNOSTIC ELEMENTS LONG RECOGNIZED AS SI~NIFICANT IN IDENTIFYING MUSICALSTYLI:S, T~IS IS NOT SURPRISING IIHEN ONE COtlSIDERSlHE GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF THE PUEBLO AND T~E
CONTACT WHICH THE PEOPLE Of TAOS HAVE HAD WITH
THE KIOWA AND OTHER PLAINS TRIBES.

ON MOOtlLIT SUI.WE H NIGHTS THE YOUI~G MEN GATHERON THE BRIDGES OVER THE RIVER WHICH SEPARATES THE
THE TWO COMMUNITY HOUSES AND ENGAGE IN SONGCONTESTS. T~E HUGE MASSES OF THE TWO PUEBLOSLOOMING AGAINST AN ENDLESS DE8ERT SKY IN THE
MOONLIGHT REFLECTED FROM THE BABBLING STREAMPRESENT A PICTURESQUE 8ETTING FOR THESE HAUNTING MELODIES. T'iE MOONLIGHT SONG REPRODUCEDHERE MAY BE REGARDED AS A SERENADE SONG WITHNO OTHER FUNCTION THAN THAT Of GIVING AESTHETIC PLEASURE TO THE SINGERS AND LISTENERS THROUGH
THE SHEER 8ENSUOU8 BEAUTY Of I TS MELODY. A SONGWITHOUT WORDS AND WITHOUT ACCOMPANIMENT, IT
OFfERS THE 81NGERS A CHALLENGING OPPORTUNITYTO REVEL IN PURE VOCALISM AND VIRTUosITY.
THOUGH THE STY LE OF SING I NG HERE I S LESS DI 0NYSIAC THAN THAT OF MUCH PLAIN8 MUSIC IT 18
CERTfd I~LY BOLDER AND LESS RESTRA I/IED THAN THAT
FOUNn IN MOST PUEBLO CEREMOrllAL MUSIC.

ZUI~I
tI

ZUNI HAS BEEN DESCRIBED AS THE "DANCINGEST PUEBlO or THE SOUTHWEST. THIS IS ONE WAY OF SAYING
THAT IN ZUNI CEREMONIAL LIFE IS HIGHLY ORGANIZEDAND THAT THROUGHOUT THE YEAR COLORFUL CEREMONIESAND DANCES rOLLO. ONE ANOTHER IN A SEQUENCE AS
ORDERED AS THE MOVEIAENT OF THE PLANETS OF THE UNIVERIE. THE MAKING OF RAIN IS OF PRIMARY CONCERN
IN PUEBLO RELIGIONS AND IAOST OF THE CEREMONIESARE DIRECTED TOWARD THAT OBJECTIVE. THE RAIN DANCEPRESENTED HERE 18 CHARACTERISTIC or THE MORE COMPLEX, ELABORATED MUSICAL 8TYLE OF THE WESTERNPUEBLOS WHICH HAS BEEN NOTED BY SEVERAL AUTHORITIES. THE LOW-PITCHED, RICH-VOICED UNISONAL SINGING OF THE WELL REHEARSED MALE CHORUS PRODUCES A
COUPULSIVE AtID HYPNOTIC EFFECT THAT 18 COSIAIC INITS SCOPE. BENEDICT WRITES, "THE DANCE, LIKE THEIRRITUAL POETRY, IS A MONOTONOUS COUPULSION or NATURAL FORCES BY REITERATION. THE TIRELESS POUNDING
or THEIR FEET DRAWS TOGETHER THE IAIST IN THE SKY
AND HEAPS IT INTO THE PILED RAIN CLOUDS. IT FORCESOUT THE RAIN UPON THE EARTH. THEY ARE BENT NOT AT
ALL UPON AN ECSTATIC EXPERIENCE, BUT UPON SO
THOROUGH-GOING AN IDENTIFICATION WITH NATURE THAT
THE FORCES OF NATURE WilL SWING TO THEIR PURPOSES."GAMBl I NG SONGS, SO WIDELY 0 I FFUSED ArAOIIG THE
INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA, ARE CHARACTERIZED BY
8EVERAL FEATURE8 WHICH SEEM TO GROW OUT or THEIRFUNCTIONAL NATURE O\ND WHICH CON8TITUTE A SONG
TYPE AND 8TYLE THAT TRANSCEND8 THE BOUNDARIE8
OF TRIBE8 OR OULTURE AREAS. IN THESE 8ONG8 ONE
NOTES THE LHIITED TONAL MATERI AL, 8HORT IAElODIC
AND RHYTHMIC JNIT8 WHICH ARE REPEATED WITHOUTVARIATION OR DEVELOPMENT, 8YNCOPATION OF RHYTHM
AND A STEADY, RECURRING BEAT IN THE ACC~APANIIAENT.
THE GAMBLING SONG RECORDED IN TAOS EMPLOY8 ONLY
THREE TONES. TWO PHRASES, ALMOST IDENTICAL, ALTERNATE THROUGHOUT THE SONG. EO\CH PHRASE 18 SIX BEATSIN LENGTH, REPRESENTING AN EXPANSION OF A BASIC
rOUR-BEAT UNIT SINCE THE FIFTH AND SIXTH BEAT8 OF
EACH PHRASE REPEAT LITERALLY THE MATERIAL or THE
THIRD AND FOURTH 8EATS.

AuONG THE MUSICAL FEATURES TO BE OBSERVED ARE THE
SLOW, STEADY TEMPO, RHYTHIAIC SUBTLETIES, SYNCoPAT~D ACCENTS, AND THE LOW PITCHING AtID WIDE MELODIC RAllGE Of THE CHANT. THE \AUSICAL STRUCTURE AND
FORM IS A HIGHLY SOPHISTICATED ONE. PHRA8ES AND
SECTIONS, CLEARLY DEFINED AND CONTRASTED, ARE
ORGANIZED INTO A PATTERN THAT 8ATISFIE8 THE CANON
or UNITY AtID VARIETY TO BE FOUND IN GREAT WORKS
or ART. REPEATED HEARING8 OF THIS \AUSIC .ILL ENABLE THE LI8TENER TO IDENTIFY AN INTRODUCTORYPHRASE FOLLOWED BY A 8ECTION WITH A DESCENDING
MELODIC OUTLINE, WHICH IN TURN IS CONTRASTEDWITH A NEW SECTION TONALLY CENTERED rOUR TONESHIGHER AtID WITH AN UPWARD MELODIC MOVEMENT, AND
THE ULTIMATE RETURN TO THE TONIC TONE IN THE CODA
WHICH BALANCES SO NICELY WITH THE INTRODUCTION.

SAN I LDE Fa~O
To THE AMERICAN INDIAN THE EAGLE WAS A SACRED
BIRD VENERATED FOR HIS aUPERNATURAL POWER. THE
EAGLE DANCE, WIDELY PRAOTIOED AMONG THE PUE8LOS
or THE SOUTHWEST, AND NOW BEING COPIED 8Y PLAINSTRIBES, 18 REPORTED TO IE PART Of' AN ANCIENTOEREMONY RELATING TO RAIN AND CROPS. BY S~AE IT
IS THOUGHT TO IE A FRAGMENT or AN OLD CEREIAONIAL

6

HOPI
THE YEIBICHAI SONG8, GENERALLY REGARDED AS THE
UOST CHARACTERI8TIC AND ATTRACTIVE OF NAVAuO MU81C, ARE UNIQUE IN 8TYLE. THEY ARE READILY RECOGNIZED BY THEIR MOST OBVIOUS rEATURE, THE MANNER
or 8INGING, A TECHNIQUE WHICH ALTERNATE8 BETWEENTHE NORMAL SINGING VOICE AND AN INCREDIBLY HIGHFAL8ETTO OR EMPLOYS EXCLU81VELY THE FALSETT~ A8
IN THE EXAMPLE OFFERED HERE. OTHER DISTINCTIVE
8TYLISTIO FEATURES ARE THE FLORID, MELI8MATIO
CHARACTER OF THE MELODIE8 WHICH ADHERE IN THEIROUTLINE TO THE TONES OF THE MAuOR TRIAD, THE UPWARD LEAPING INTERVAL8 OF A SIXTH OR AN OCTAVE,THE FORMALIZED INTRODUCTION AND COOA WITH THEIRINSISTENT REPETITION OF THE TONIC TONE, THE MELODIC WEIGHT GIVEN TO THE DOMINANT TONE, CERTAIN
RHYTHMIC 8UBTLETIES, AND THE ACOOMPANIMENT OF
THE GOURD RATTLE.

THE HOPI BUTTERFLY DANCE, ONE OF THE PRETTIESTAND MOST COLORFUL OF THIS WESTERN PUEBLO PEOPLE,
IS PRESENTED IN AUGUST IN THE SUN-DRENCHEDPLAZAS OF THEIR ANCIENT VILLAGES. LIKE MOSTDANCES IN THIS AREA, IT IS A PETITION FOR RAIN
AND BOUNTEOUS CROPS. THE DANCE OCCURS IN THE
SAME PUEBLO ONLY ONCE IN THREE YEARS FOLLOWING AWEEK OR TEN DAYS OF INTENSIVE REHEARSALS. TWO LINESOF YOUNG MEN AND WOMEN DANCERS APPROACH AND RETREATIN A SHUFFLING TROT THAT IS CAREFULLY COORDINATED
WITH THE CHANGING RHYTHMS or THE DANCE SONGS SUNGBY A YALE CHORUS WITH DRUM ACCOMPANIMENT. THE GIRLDANCERS WEAR A TOWERING WOODEN HEADDRESS ON WHICHA SYMBOLIC CLOUD DESIGN IS PAINTED IN RED, GREEN,
YELLOW AND BLACK, AND TO WHICH PLUMES or TURKEY
FEATHERS ARE ATTACHED. TURQUOISE EARRINGS, CORALBEADS, SILVER NECKLACES, BUCKSKIN MOCCA8INS, DARKDRESS AND THE CEREMONIAL BLANKET COMPLETE THE COSTUME OF THE FEMALE DANCER8.

THE ENEMY WAY OR WAR DANOE, A OHANT WHOlE ORIGINAL FUNCTION WAS THE PURIFICATION OF THOSE WHO
HAD BEEN DEFILED BY CONTACT WITH THE ENEMY, IS
PRACTICED TOOAY A8 A CURATIVE CEREMONY FOR
THOSE WHOSE SICKNE88 18 BELIEVED TO RESULTFROM OONTACT WITH NOH-NAYAuOS. THE OHIEF ATTRACTION OF THE OEREMONY IS THE GIPLS' DANOE, MOREOOMMONLY KNOWN A8 THE 8QUAW DANCE. THle DANCE8ERVES A SOCIAL FUNCTION NOT UNLIKE THAT OF THE
DEBUTANTE BALL OR "OOMING-OUT" PARTY IN WHITE
SOCIETY, FOR IT 18 HERE THAT GIRL. OF MARRIAGEABLE AGE ARE BROUGHT TO MEET PROSPECTIVE HU8BAND8. THE GIRL', onEN WITH COACHIt.:G AND U"9ING FROM THEIR MOTHERS, CHOOSE THEIR PARTNER8
FOR THE DANCE FROM AMONG THE ELIGIBLE YOUNG
MEN, AND IT IS CU8TOMARY FOR THE MAN TO PAY
THE GIRL FOR THE DANOE. THE SONG8 FOR THIS DANCEARE 8HORT AND AnER A FEW REPETITION8 IT 18
U8UAL FOR 80ME LEADER TO 8TART ANOTHER 8ONG.
THUS THE 8ONG8 ENCHAIN THEMSELVES INTO FORTUITOU8 CYCLE8 WHICH ARE NOT FIXED AND IN WHICH
THERE 18 NO ORGANIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN lONGS,THE SQUAW DANCE, BECAUIE OF ITS SOCIAL AND IECULAR CHARACTER, OFFER8 .ONG-MAkER8 AN OPPORTUNITY IN CREATIVE ACTIVITY AND ORIGINALITY WHICH
18 DENIED THEM IN MOST OF THE CEREMONIAL MU81C
WHERE GREAT STRESS 18 PLACED ON ACOURACY OFPERFORMANCE OF CHANTS A8 THEY WERE RECEIVED
FROM THE GOD8 •.

THE MUSIC OF THE HOPI PARTAKES OF THE GENERALMUSICAL STYLE OF THE WESTERN PUEBLOS WITH ITS WIDETONAL RANGE, COMPLEX RHYTHMS, CHANGES OF TEMPO,AND EXTENDED ELABORATED FDRUB. IN THE BUTTERFLYDANCE 80NG THE 8TRUCTURAL PATTERN IS A SYMMETRICALONE CONSI8TING OF AN INTRODUCTION, ALTERNATING,BALANCING SECTION8, AND A CODA.

NAVAJO
NAVAuO RELIGION IS AN ELABORATE, HIGHLY DEVELOPEDCOMPLEX OF BELIEFS, MYTHOLOGY, RITUALS, SONGS, AND
PRAYER8, WHICH PERVADES EVERY ASPECT OF NAVAuO
LIFE. IT IS THROUGH THE LIVING OF THEIR RELIGION,
AND THE CAREFUL OB8ERVANCE AND PRACTICE OF FIXEDRITUALS AND CEREMONIES THAT "THE PEOPLE" MAINTAINA HARMONIOUS RELATIONSHIP WITH THE MYSTERIOUS
FORCES OF THE UNIVERSE AND GAIN A SENSE OF SECURITY. THERE ARE THIRTY-FIVE MAuOR CEREMONIALS,
GENERALLY REFERRED TO AS CHANTS, MOST or WHICH
ARE DIRECTED TOWARD CURING 8ICKNESS. THESE CEREMONIALS, VARYING IN LENGTH F"ROM TWO TO NINE DAYS,ARE CONDUCTED BY A MEDICINE MAN KNOWN AS A 8INGER • IT IS BELIEVED THAT THE CEREMONIALS AND THE
ESOTERIC LORE OF" THE 81NGER HAVE BEEN TRANSMITTED THROUGH AN UNBROKEN 8UCCE.810N OF SINGERSFROM THE GODS WHO GAVE CEREMONIAL POWER TO THE
F"I RST NAVAuOS.
THE NIG~T CHANT, POPULARLY KNOWN AS THE YEIBICHAI(GRANDFATHER OF THE GOD8), 18 AN IMPORTANT NINE
DAY CEREMONY WHICH MAY NOT BE PERFORMED UNTIL
AFTER THE FIR8T KILLING FROST. IT IS AT THI8
CEREMONY THAT BOYS AND GIRL8 ARE INITIATED INTO
THE CEREMONIAL LIFE or THE TRIBE BY TWO MA8KEDDANCERS WHO IMPERSONATE THE GRANDFATHER OF THE
MONSTERS AND FEMALE DIVINITY. ON THE LAST NIGHT
OF THE CEREMONY WHICH 18 OPEN TO THE PUBLIC,YEIBICHAI APPEARS WITH A OOMPANY or MA8KED DANCER8. AFTER A WIERD, UNEARTHLY CALL OF THE G008,
THE DANCER8 SHAKE THEIR RATTLES WITH A 8WEEPING
MOVEMENT FROM THE GROUND TO THEIR HEADS, THEN
WHIRL TO THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION AND REPEAT THE
RATTLING. FOLLOWING THI8 FORMALIZED INTRODUCTION,
THE DANCERS BEGIN THEIR RHYTHMIC DANCE AND SONG,ACCOMPANYING THEMSELVES WITH THE RATTLE8.

WESTERN APACHE
THE GIRL.' PUBERTY RITE or THE WESTERN APACHE
II A YA~OR OEREMONIAL WHICH RITUALIZEI THE CRITICAL TRANIITION FROM GIRLAOOD TO WOMANH()(I). THISNI NE DAY OEREMONY CALLa FOR A GROUP OF MAIKEDDANCER8 TO IYPERIONATE THE MOUNTAIH-DWELLING
SUPERNATURALI AND PRESENT THE DEVIL DANCE, SOMETIWES CALLED THE CROWN DANCE BECAUSE OF THE ELA8oRATE, FORKED HEADPliOE WHICH IS ATTACHED TO THE
BUCKlklN MASK. IN ADDITION TO ITI ~INOIPAL OBJEOTIVE THE EVENT PROVIDES OCOAIION FOR MINORCURING OEREMONIES AND SOCIAL EXCHANGE AND ENTERTAINMENT CELEBRATED BY IOCIAL DANCING.

7

WITH LIQUOR TYPIFIES AND PRODUCES THE SATURATION
OF THE EARTH WITH RAIN. EVERY ACT OF THE PROCEDURE IS ACCOMPANIED WITH CEREMONIAL"SINGING OR
ORATORY DESCRIBING RAIN AND GROWTH.

OPLER aTATES, "THE SONGS OF THE THIRD AND LASTSOCIAL DANCE or EACH NIGHT or THE PUBERTY RITE
MAY APPROPRIATELY BE CALLED THE MORNING DANCESONGS SINCE THE DANCE ~HEY ACCOMPANY BEGINSSEVERAL HOURS BErORE DAWN AND CONTINUES UNTILDAYBREAK". IT 18 TO THIS GROUP or SONGS THAT THF.
SUNRISE SONG BELONGS.

THE PAPAGO MANNER OF SINGING IS DISTINGUISHEDBY A MILDNESS OF TONE QUALITY, GENTLENESS OF
VOCAL ATTACK, AND A RESTRAINED DYNAMIC RARELY
EXCEEDING A FORTE. CHARAOTERISTICS WHIOH SET
IT APART FROM THE PUEBLO SINGING TECHNIQUE.
THE SONG IS IN A SLOW TEMPO AND CONTAINS MANYLONG SUSTAINED NOTES, PARTICULARLY AT THE END
OF PHRASES. THE UPWARD INTERVAL OF A SIXTH,RELATIVELY RARE IN NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC,OCCUPIES AN EXPOSED POSITION AND CONTRIBUTESCONSIDERABLY TO THE INDIVIDUALITY OF THE PAPAGOMUSIC. THE MANNER OF SINGING AND THE STYLE OF
THE MUSIC SUGGEST SPANISH INrLUENCE.

THE MUSIO or THE WESTERN APACHE BEARS AN OBVIOUS KINSHIP TO THAT or THEIR ATHABASCAN-SPEAKING RELATIVES, THE NAVA~O. THOUGH LESS VARIEDAND ELABORATED THAN NAVA~O Mu81C IT FOLLOWS APATTERN OF ORGANIZATION FOUND IN MUCH NAVAJOCEREMONIAL MUSIC, THE CHANTING OF LONG PRAYERS
ON ONE OR TWO TONES WI TH A SHORT RErRA I N or NONSENIE SYLLABLES (HE-NE-YA) PUNCTUATING AND ·ALTERNATING .,TH THE PHRASES or THE CHANT. THE
LIMITED TONAL RANGE or THESE SONGS AND THEIR
CLOSE ADHERENCE TO THE MA~OR TRIAD ARE MUSIOALrEATURES TO BE NOTED.

VIALAPAI

VIJM
THE WALAPAI FUNERAL SONG OR MOURNING SONG AS IT
MAY WELL BE CALLED IS COMPLETELY YUMAN IN ITSSTYLE, STRUCTURE AND FUNOTION. CONFINED TO A NARROW MELODIC RANGE or FIVE TONES IT STILL MANAGESTO CONFORM TO THE YUMAN STYLE BY SATISFYING THE
MOST DISTINCTIVE FEATURE OF YUMAN MUSIC, THE UPWARD RISE OF THE SECOND MELODIC ELEMENT OF THE
SONG. IN DESIGN, THE PATTERN or THE SONG IS
A, A, A, B, A, A, A, A, 6, A. THE TEMPO AND
METER OF THE SONG ARE STEADY AND EVEN, EACHPHRASE BEING SIXTEEN BEATS IN LENGTH AND CONSISTING OF TWO SUB-PHRASES WHICH BEAR A BALANCING RELATIONSHIP TO EACH OTHER. THE B PHRASE, WITH ITSINITIAL INTERVAL OF AN ASCENDING THIRD, REPRESENTS A VARIATION AND TRANSPOSITION OF THE A
PHRASE. MANY OF THESE SONGS WERE BORROWED FROMTHE YUMA AND THE WORDS ARE NO LONGER UNDERSTOOD
BY THE WALAPAI.

THE MUSIO or THE YUMAN TRIIES PREIENTS A REMARKABLE HOMOGENEITY IN STYLE WHIOH SETa IT
APART FROM THE MUIIC OF OTHER aOUTHWEITERN
PE~LES. THE SONG OYCLES POI lEas A STYLIITIC
UNITY WHICH ENAlua A NATIVE TO PLAOE ANYSONG IN THE aERIES TO WHICH IT IELONGS. IN
MoaT YUMAN IONGI 0Jm OAN REc.oGNI IE TWO DIITINCT PARTI, THE ONE A PRINCIPAL MOTIVE WHICH IS
CONSTANTLY REPEATED, THE OTHER CONSISTING OF
MELCXlIOALLY DlFrERENT PHRASES WHICH ALTERNATE'ROM TIME TO TIME .,TH THE rl~ST PART AND TURNUPWARD IN THEIR MELODIC MOVEMENT. HERZOG riNDS,"THIS SHirT or THE MELCXlIC WEIGHT UPWARD 18 THE
MOST NOTEWORTHY FEATURE or THE STYLE". AMONGOTHER STYLISTIC FEATUREI WHIOH ARE rOUND IN YUMANMUSIO ARE THE UNUSUAL MANNER or SINGING, THE RHYTHMICAL SEQUENCE or IHOUTI (HA, HA, A, A) WITH WHICH
SONGS ARE FREQUENTLY OONCLUDED, THE PREDOMI NANT
USE or THE RATTLE, THE CONVENTIONALI ZED MOVEMENTS
or THE HAND IN RATTLING, OOHERENCE OF SONGS INTO
LARGE CYOLES, STRONG OONNEOTIQN WITH MYTHS AND
WEAK RELATION T8 C£~IALISM.

HAVASUPAI
THE MUSIC OF THE HAVASUPAI, LIKE THEIR GENERALCULTURE, IS SIMPLE AND RELATIVELY POOR. THE
STICK GAME SONG WITH ITS LIMITED UELODIC RANGE,STEADY TEMPO, AND UNVARYING REPETITION OFPHRASES IS LESS INTERESTING, MUSICALLY, THAN
THE MUSIC OF THE OTHER ETHNIC GROUPS OF THE
SOUTHWEST. A RHYTHMIC UNIT OF THREE PULSATIONS,RATHER RARE IN THE BULK OF NORTH AMERICAN
INDIAN MUSIC THOUGH COMMON TO THE MUSIC OF THE
YUMAN TRIBES, ATTRACTS OUR ATTENTION TO THISSONG.

THE "BIRDS", ONE OF TKE BElT-KNOWN AND COMMONESTor THE SONG CYCLES AMONG THE MOHAVE AND YUMA, IS
SUNG rOR THi DANCE AT THE ANNUAL FIESTA ON THE
rOURTH 0' oWLY. LI Ki ALL OTHER SONG CYCLES I T MAY
IE USED AT THE CEREMONY OF BURNING THE DEAD.
PAPAGOIN ~ULY THE PAPAGO HOLD THEIR MOST IMPORTANTOOMMUNAL OEREMONY, THE 08~ECT or WHICH IS THE
MAKING or RAIN. IN PREPARATION 'OR THIS EVENT
THE RIPE FRUIT or THE SAGUARO OACTUS IS GATHERED,IOJ·LED I NTO A TH 10K IYRUP AND F'ERMENTED I NTO A
LIQUOR WHIOH F'OR" THE BAS[ OF A DRINK OF' LOW.ALCHOHOLI C CONTENT WHICH THE PAPAGO CALL "TISWIN".
THla IS DRUNK CEREMONIALLY. UNDERHILL EXPLAINS,"THE IDEA II THAT THE SATURATION or THE BCXlY

A-tOfO CREDITS
THE ~~ERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY,HARRY TSCHOPIK, ~R., HELMUT DE TERRA
RECORDINGI THROUGH THE COOPERATION OF THE
AMERICAN INDIAN BUREAU, DEPARTMENT OY THE INTERIORPRODUCT ION SUPERV ISORSl HAROLD COURLANDER,
MOIE8 ASCH

8

LITHO IN u.S.A.

~ IS.