CHARACTERISTICS OF VIOLENT OFFENDERS IN JAPANAND PREVENTION OF REOFFENDING– FOCUSING ON COMMUNITY-BASED TREATMENT –TANI Masayuki *This paper will show the general situation of violent crimes in Japan, especially those in which womenand children became victims, based on public statistics. Next, it will introduce findings from recent researchon the characteristics of violent offenders (Research Department Report 60) and community-based correctional
treatment of violent offenders in Japan. Finally, it will discuss the desirable policy for violent offenders andwhat should be considered and implemented when treatment techniques for violent offenders, which werepreviously introduced in other countries, are transferred to Japan.

I. VIOLENT CRIMES IN JAPANOf the victims of violent crimes (homicide, robbery, injury, and assault), excluding sex crimes, that occur
in Japan, children under the age of 19 account for 12.9% and adult women account for 34.6%, which accounts
for about half of all victims (White Paper on Crime 2018). In the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
adopted by the United Nations in September 2015, the following are included as sustainable development
goals (SDGs): eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres(goal 5.2); significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere (goal 16.1); and end
abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of children (goal 16.2). The
prevention of reoffending by violent offenders is also an important policy challenge for the achievement of
the international goal of protecting women and children.
The incidence rate of violent crimes in Japan (incidents per 100,000 population) is significantly lower thanother countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom (UNODC Statistics, 2018). In addition, thenumber of violent offenders who are sentenced to imprisonment or on probation has been on a downward
trend over the past 15 years in Japan, and many of those arrested for violent crimes have their prosecution
suspended or are fined in court to end their criminal proceedings. On the other hand, the rate of reimprisoned inmates for injury/assault within two years after release has remained stable over the past tenyears. Therefore, in Japan, there is a need for correctional treatment that emphasizes “quality” rather than“quantity,” especially for violent offenders with a high-risk of reoffending. It is necessary to consider thisunique situation in Japan when considering a desirable policy.

II. CHARACTERISTICS OF VIOLENT OFFENDERS IN JAPANThe Research and Training Institute of the Ministry of Justice conducted a survey of violent offenders
etc. who were imprisoned in Japan in 2016. (For details, see the summary of Research Department Report
60 http://www.moj.go.jp/content/001289624.pdf). The survey found the following major factors as thecharacteristics of inmates who repeatedly receive criminal punishment for violent crimes: history of belonging
to an organized crime group, history of unstable work, drinking at the time of the incident, and romantic
entanglement with the victim, etc. The survey also found that the type of inmates who repeatedly commit
violent crimes was more aggressive and had a higher risk of alcohol use disorder and drug dependence thanthose who did not. Among these factors, the most important factor was the history of belonging to anorganized crime group. As there seemed to be a difference in characteristics between foreign gangs andJapanese Yakuza, further research needs to be conducted based on cultural differences. On the other hand,
many previous studies in other countries have clarified the relationship between violence and aggression,
alcohol/drug abuse, and violence against an intimate partner, etc. The importance of intervening in theseneeds has been confirmed in Japan as well.
＊Probation Officer, Tokyo Probation Office, Rehabilitation Bureau, Ministry of Justice, Japan.

33RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 110

Research Department Report 60 also conducted a survey of adult probationers. The survey showed that
alcohol problems and a tendency toward family violence had a strong effect on reoffending. The difference
from the survey of inmates is that the survey of adult probationers revealed that the history of protective
measures taken when they were juveniles was an important factor. In addition, compared with inmates,
adult probationers were more closely related to domestic violence and child abuse. These differences suggest
the necessity of treatment that takes into account differences in characteristics of violent offenders dependingon the stage of criminal punishment.

III. TREATMENT OF VIOLENT OFFENDERS IN JAPANIn Japan, the “Violence Prevention Program”, based on cognitive-behavioural therapy, has been
implemented in prison and communities for violent offenders. The programme is designed to address risk
factors by referring to programmes in Canada and other countries and composed of the following sections:anger management, reconstruction of cognition that affirms violence, acquisition of skills for communicationand interpersonal conflict resolution, and relapse prevention, etc. Probation offices conduct additional work
according to the results of a brief assessment, especially for: (1) those with a tendency to commit domestic
violence and (2) those with alcohol problems, with the aim of responding to the diverse needs of violentoffenders.
In addition to the community-based Violence Prevention Program implemented for a limited period, a
total of five times in approximately three months, probation offices designate particularly high-risk violent
offenders as “specific violent offenders” and conduct high-intensity interventions tailored to their needs, suchas frequent home visits and coordination of psychiatric care, throughout the entire probation period. The
conditions for the designation include having a history of multiple violent crimes and having special needs,
such as being dependent on alcohol and drugs, being associated with an organized crime group, having atendency to commit domestic violence, and having mental illness, etc.
These forms of treatment are consistent with the characteristics of violent offenders described in II.
above, and their results are linked with basic research. However, unlike the Sex Offender Treatment Program,their effect at preventing reoffending has not been verified by the Violence Prevention Program. Therefore,
it is necessary to carry out research of effectiveness and develop tools for assessing the risk of violence with
sufficient predictive validity.
Stalkers are also offenders associated with the risk of violence. In Japan, after a case in which a stalker
on probation killed a victim, probation offices and the police have cooperated to take multi-agency approaches.
Probation offices provide support to perpetrators, such as job support, coordination of social welfare services,and housing support, etc., in addition to the Violence Prevention Program, and the police are responsible forprotecting victims in an emergency. Probation offices and the police share information on behaviours ofperpetrators beyond the jurisdiction of the prefecture.

IV. POLICY FOR VIOLENT OFFENDERSAs our survey revealed, the characteristics of violent offenders are diverse, and the factors considered tobe related to reoffending include those common in previous studies in other countries and those reflecting
cultural differences. Regarding elements of effective treatment programmes for violent offenders as pointed
out in the meta-analysis (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2007), it is desirable to conduct basic research on thecharacteristics of violent offenders subject to treatment in one’s own country and reflect the results inpolicies before transferring treatment techniques for the Violence Prevention Program and other programmes
to one’s own country.
In addition, it is necessary to conduct process evaluations (including staff training) on treatment
programmes and outcome evaluations on the prevention of reoffending, and to verify and develop evidencein the country whether treatment techniques are properly transferred from other countries that takepioneering approaches.
Finally, in light of the diversity and seriousness of problems faced by violent offenders, it is difficult to34

173RD INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSE
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS
finish treatment to prevent them from reoffending solely by intervening in prison and at probation offices fora limited period. Elements of treatment programmes do not meet all needs of violent offenders. As withapproaches in the treatment of stalkers taken at probation offices in Japan, it is considered possible toovercome the limitations of treatment in prison and at probation offices, realize throughcare based on aconsistent policy, and provide effective aftercare even after the period of criminal punishment, by involving
welfare service organizations, the Employment Security Bureau, and other relevant organizations in thecommunity.
Aside from the effectiveness of individual treatment programmes, the most important role of probation
for long-term aftercare will be to motivate violent offenders to continue to receive treatment and support intheir communities. As Raynor and colleagues (2013) revealed, probation officers’ motivational interviewing
skills significantly reduce recidivism rates. We must engage in improving the professional skills of probation
officers and multi-agency collaboration with the clear vision of desistance and rehabilitation.

35