PHILIP S. PEEK

Ancient Greek I
A 21st Century Approach

ANCIENT GREEK I

Ancient Greek I
A 21st-Century Approach

Philip S. Peek

https://www.openbookpublishers.com© 2021 Philip S. Peek

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https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264
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Contents

Prefaceix

Introduction

xi

Module 1
The Greek Alphabet

1Module 2More Sounds and Punctuation

13

Module 3
Accents and Accenting Verbs I

19

Module 4
Adverbs

27

Module 5
Conjunctions and Accenting Verbs II

35

Module 6
Endings Create Meaning

45

Guest Feature 1
Stefan Hagel Teaches Us How to Sing

53

Module 7
Nouns, Pronouns, and their Case Functions

59

Module 8
Prepositions and Prefixes

79

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Ancient Greek I

Module 9
The Verb and μι-Verbs εἰμί, δίδωμι, τίθημι

93

Module 10
The Verbs ἔχω, ποιέω, ἔρχομαι, φημί

111

Module 11
The Definite Article and Persistent Accent

127

Module 12
Substantive Adjectives and the Article

139

Module 13
Third Declension Nouns

147

Self-Assessment Modules 1–13

167

Guest Feature 2
Tom Holland on the Art of Translating Herodotos

169

Module 14
First Declension Nouns in –η and -ᾱ and τίς, τί; τις, τι; ὅστις,ἥτις, ὅτι

171

Module 15
Attributive and Predicate Position

187

Module 16
Second Declension Nouns

203

Module 17
The Future Indicative and Infinitive Active of ἔχω, ἐλαύνω,ἔρχομαι and the Dynamic Infinitive213

Module 18
The Personal Pronouns; εἷς, οὐδείς, and μηδείς; the Dative andAccusative of Respect; Time Expressions

229

Module 19οἶδα and the Present and Future Indicative and Infinitive
Middle and Passive of ἐλαύνω, καλέω, φέρω, δίδωμι, τίθημι

245

vii

Contents

Guest Feature 3
Joe Goodkin, Singer and Songwriter

267

Module 20
First and Second Declension Adjectives and Common Adjectives
and Pronouns: αὐτός, οὗτος, ὅδε, ἐκεῖνος, and -ων, -ουσα, -ον

273

Module 21
First Declension Short Alpha Nouns

295

Module 22
The Relative Pronoun

305

Self-Assessment Modules 14–22

317

Module 23
The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι,δίδωμι, τίθημι

319

Module 24
Contract Verbs

353

Module 25
The Infinitive in Indirect Statement and πρίν- and ὥστε-Clauses

367

Guest Feature 4
Amy R. Cohen on Performing and Translating Ancient Greek
Drama

387

Module 26
Additional Common Adjectives: πᾶς, μέγας, πολύς, ἡδύς, ἀληθής, 391
and -ᾱς, -ᾱσα, -ανModule 27
Comparative and Superlative Adjectives and Adverbs; Dative ofDegree of Difference

405

Module 28εἰμί and εἶμι421

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Ancient Greek I

Module 29δείκνυμι and φημί

433

Guest Feature 5
Diane Rayor on Translating Sappho and Euripides

449

Module 30ἵημι and ἵστημι

453

Self-Assessment Modules 23–30

479

Appendix

481

Answer Key

551

References

605

Index

607

Preface

I teach Classics at Bowling Green State University and remain passionate about
helping students learn how to read ancient Greek. I hope this elementary text
assists them. This text owes a part of its existence to a CURS grant, which fundeda collaboration between myself and Adam Lewton, who read through themanuscript and suggested many improvements.
I thank the team at Open Book Publishers for their amazing work, Alessandra
Tosi, Lucy Barnes, Anna Gatti, and Luca Baffa; Evan Hayes, Stephen Nimis, andGeoffrey Steadman, to whose running vocabulary texts my second- and thirdyear Greek students responded so very well that their reading ability improved
significantly and quickly;1 James Keenan for all he has been and done; the guest
contributors: Amy R. Cohen, Joe Goodkin, Stefan Hagel, Tom Holland, Diane
Rayor; and Roshan Samtani for creating a musical translation of Anakreon’s
Thrakian Filly poem.
I also thank the founding members of OMEGA, a consortium for the teachingof ancient Greek: E. Del Chrol, Christian Franzen, Jennifer Larson, Deborah
Lyons, and William Owens. E. Del Chrol’s knack for storytelling and teaching is
on display in his Etymology Corner. Deborah Lyons and William Owens carefully
read the text, fixed errors, and suggested revisions. As a result of their efforts,
input, intellects, and keen eyes, this text has been substantially improved.
Their conviviality and general good will make me blush with appreciationand gratitude. My son Zachary Peek read a good portion of the manuscript
and amazed me by his ability to improve the text in a myriad of ways. Also ofgreat value were the suggestions of my students Jada McDowell and Thomas
Ziegler. I thank the anonymous reader of OPB for challenging me to improveand to reimagine the text in all ways and the perspicacious Hilary Goy for her
excellent suggestions. I credit and thank Wilfred Major for making me rethinksequencing, particularly in regard to third-declension nouns. Finally, I thank the1	Texts with running vocabulary on the same or on a facing page offer students developing theirlanguage skills two distinct advantages: (1) the running vocabulary saves them invaluable
time and (2) it keeps their attention focused on the logic of the sentence and the paragraph. In
making these texts, care should be taken to present students with a connotative and denotative
range of meanings so that their vocabulary develops flexibility and nuance.

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Ancient Greek I

Center for Undergraduate Research and Scholarship (CURS) at BGSU for a 2015
grant supporting this project in its initial phases, my colleagues Nicholas Dee
and James Pfundstein, and the many ancient Greek students I’ve taught over theyears, including Brad Corfman, Dan English, Jordan Kilpatrick, Adam Lewton,
Ethan Zaborowski, and the Fall 2021 Consortium students. Any mistakes remain
mine.
Finally I thank my parents, my wife Elaine, and my children Zachary,
Brandon, and Madeline for all they were, are, and will be.

Introduction

This text contains twenty-five years of learning and teaching experience. During
this time, I have had the pleasure of introducing ancient Greek to a variety ofstudents and thank them for giving me the opportunity to teach them. In thisbook a guiding philosophy is to present as much as possible with as little aspossible: οὐ πολλὰ ἀλλὰ πολύ (“depth not breadth”). Attempting to do so has
been a labor of love.
Since teaching ancient Greek at BGSU, I used several different textbooks
before settling on Chase and Phillips’ elementary textbook. I began writing
my own textbook as a reworking of their A New Introduction to Greek, a text
that, though lacking in some essentials, I admire for its restraint. Using Chaseand Phillips as a model for accomplishing much with less, I then built thisbook around the principles of memory, synthesis, and analysis. Students will
memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring ancient Greek words, theessential word endings, the eight parts of speech, and the grammatical concepts
they will most frequently encounter when reading authentic ancient texts. The
logic behind this approach is obvious: students should learn first the vocabulary
and concepts that they will encounter most often. The hope is that familiarity
with the commonplace will turn more efficiently and effectively into a masteryof reading this beautiful language. Vocabulary outside of the top 250 is glossed
as it is in texts with running vocabulary. Glossing these words on the same or
adjoining page enables students to focus as much of their attention as possible on
acquiring the reading skills that they will need as they progress in the language.
Many years ago, I had the privilege of learning from Drs. Hansen and Quinn
and their text Greek: An Intensive Course. The authors, their book, and theirteaching methodology were transformative for me. I hope that, in some way,
I keep alit the flame of the Latin and Greek Institute and the excellence they
instill in their students.

My Teaching Philosophy
The difficulties involved in teaching a subject that is as data intensive as Greek
took me, early in my career at BGSU, to the Lilly Conference at Miami University© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.41

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Ancient Greek I

on how to improve teaching. There I listened to the keynote talk by Dr. Jeanette
Norden, Professor Emerita of Cell and Developmental Biology at Vanderbilt. A
neuroscientist by training and a researcher by passion, she came to teaching
reluctantly. Assigned to teach the course no one wanted, she bucked the normsof her department and taught neurology from the point of view of what learning
the students would have to apply once they became practising doctors. What
had been a difficult rote-memory course became an even more demanding
memory, logic, and diagnosis course, even though she significantly reduced theamount of memorization she required of her students. As I began assembling
this textbook on learning Greek, her approach has been one of my guiding
principles. I have taken every effort to keep the information to be memorized
to a minimum and to combine memory, analysis, and synthesis as much as
possible. I asked myself two questions: what memorized working information
do I rely upon when reading ancient texts, and what method do I employ when
diagnosing sentences, especially when I struggle to understand what is being
said?
In thinking about this guiding principle and what people are capable oflearning, it strikes me that survival and adaption are what humans do best.
Suited to thrive in an infinite number of environments, homo sapiens is born
ready to learn and to create and to communicate. As we age, we can lose touchwith our innate ability to learn—so natural to us when young—especially upon
encountering novel problems, like the learning of a new alphabet and of waysof creating meaning that differ from our current paradigm and understandingof how our native language works.
For this reason, learning and teaching start with belief. If we do not havefaith, we and our students are doomed. Teachers must believe that their students
are capable of more than they realize. Students must believe that they can excel
and master physics, a second language, or the world that irrational numbers
inhabit. They also must believe that they can memorize the large quantities offactual material that many subjects, including languages, demand.
An extreme example helps us to see what is possible. In the land thatsuper-memorizers inhabit, people are able to memorize 500 random numbers
in as little as 10 minutes. Grand master of memory Kevin Horsley holds theworld record for memory and recall of 10,000 numbers of pi. Another supermemorizer, featured in the Netflix series, The Mind Explained, Yanjaa suggeststhat rote-memory is dead and creative-memory is its superior successor. Kevin,
Yanjaa, and others show us how to use our creative mind to increase our ability
to memorize many random items quickly. Their techniques are not dissimilarfrom those of the memory palace, possibly invented by Simonides of Keios.
Since in an average elementary ancient Greek course students are responsible
for memorizing about 1,200 items of discrete factual information, belief coupledwith memorization techniques are essential to student success.

Introduction

xiii

Facts and rote memory form just the base level of Bloom’s revised taxonomy.

Fig. 1 Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy with descriptions. This represents a visual of Bloom’s Revised
Taxonomy, Taken on July 14, 2008. Some rights reserved, https://www.flickr.com/photos/
ddmeyer/2666448493/

We all know that memorization is one essential aspect of learning. As teachers,
we are obliged to teach students how to move from the base of Bloom’s learning
pyramid to the pinnacle, creativity. Ancient Greek, due to its complexity, isespecially suited to helping us meet this obligation. The number of conceptual
items Greek requires—including case functions for nouns, pronouns, andadjectives; definitions of parts of speech; verbal qualities; and grammaticalconstructions, such as the indirect statement, purpose and result clauses, andconditional statements—adds up to some sixty items. It is much harder for
students to attain competence and understanding of these concepts than it isfor them to acquire vocabulary.
Consequently, dividing our courses into memory-based learning and conceptand skill-based learning enables students to differentiate between rote learningand higher-level cognitive skills. Translate-and-parse quizzes help students
acquire the skills of applying factual information to solve novel problems
through analysis and synthesis. When translating, students develop a skill set
that enables them to solve complex problems, for even simple Subject Object
Verb sentences require from our students dexterity of thought. Translating
develops their ability to synthesize. Parsing develops their analytical skills,
which are widely applicable to any endeavor, as parsing develops in them anuanced understanding of how languages work. Seeing a subject from the inside,xiv

Ancient Greek I

as parsing encourages them to do, opens up doors to ever greater refinementsin thinking and enriches their understanding, just as interpreting the Iliad fromthe inner world of its characters’ choices, dreams, fears, hates, and hopes, gives
us a greater understanding of the epic than does a plot summary that maps
exactly what happens to whom when.
In the classroom it is also helpful to teach students metacognitive strategies.
Teaching students metacognitive strategies empowers them to take chargeof their own learning and to teach themselves. As they learn to apply factual
information to solving the decoding of a collection of letters, words, phrases,
and clauses written in a strange alphabet, with strange but meaningful endings
and a novel word order, teaching them how to think about thinking develops inthem the skills they will need as they journey through life.
Authentic content is another key to creating a rigorous course. About 10
years ago in second-year Greek I started using texts with running vocabulary forselfish reasons. Hitherto the amount of material I was able to get the students
to read during a 50-minute class was abysmal and painful for both students andteacher. Upon adopting texts with running vocabulary in intermediate Greek, I
was surprised by how successful the students were at reading and translating
not a little bit more but a considerable amount more. We went from 10 lines of
excruciatingly slow translation of the Iliad to 40–50 lines of impressive reading
and translation work. I adopted this same running vocabulary approach inassembling the materials of this text. A benefit of doing so at the elementarylevel is that it freed me up to choose a variety of content-rich sentences from anumber of different authors.
Compelling content is a great asset to any course. The humanities, with theircontent-rich media, such as film and literature, have an enormous capacity tocreate complicated ethical questions about what this or that character thinks,
and what the whole film or poem or story may be saying. The humanities
reflect our capacity for play, for empathy, and for the contrafactual. Imagined
contrafactual worlds and ethical questions of utilitarianism (maximizing thegood of everyone) and deontology (intrinsic rights and wrongs) are two of thebiggest reasons why the humanities matter. They enable us to imagine alternate
selves and fictive worlds that give us the capacity to transform ourselves andthose around us. Understanding other people and ourselves lets us imagine
new ways of being human. To change our world, our selves, and our society
we have to think about what we ought to be like, as well as what we actually
are like. Imagining ourselves as a different person allows us to become thatdifferent person; imagining new worlds allows us to create these worlds. The
humanities invite us to play and help us imagine and feel and see and be more.
Contrafactuals, imagination, fictions, and ethics matter, for how we read, teach,think, translate, write, live, and love. Ancient Greek even at the elementary levelprovides us with this rich content and with the ability to embrace ambiguity,

Introduction

xv

diversity, and ambivalence about the lack of a definitive solution to life’s difficultand meaningful questions.
Learning new factual information (endings and vocabulary) and thinking
differently about this information can be stressful. Stress inhibits learning.
We can assist students by informing them that learning information in orderto teach it is less stressful. We can also create assignments that require themto demonstrate proficiency through teaching. Good teaching requires goodlearning. But there is a clear line between what students are responsible for andwhat we, their teachers, are. We cannot learn for our students nor can we makethem understand the concept of a direct object. We can explain the concept asclearly as possible. We can give them practical exercises to assist their learning
the concept. We can support and encourage and guide them. We can make themaware that mistakes are necessary, that setbacks and barriers are part of theprocess. We can make sure that they do not feel stupid or inadequate as theystruggle. With love and empathy, we can care about them as students and as
people. Ultimately it is they who determine whether they learn and how deeply
their thinking goes.
And the potential is enormous. Recently, inspired by reading Use Your Perfect
Memory by Tony Buzan; Deep Thinking: What Mathematics Can Teach Us about
the Mind by William Byers; The Philosophical Baby: What Children’s Minds Tell Us
about Truth, Love, and the Meaning of Life by Alison Gopnik, Unlimited Memory
by Kevin Horsley, and Teach Students How to Learn by Saundra McGuire, I
added Learning Tips to my teaching repertoire. These Tips attempt to clarify
the instructor’s role in learning, as well as the student’s (McGuire); to explain
the mysteries of the learning process itself (Byers, Gopnik, and McGuire); toteach students how to learn (McGuire); to provide students with a variety ofmemorization strategies (Buzan and Horsley); and to introduce creativity anddeep thinking to the process (Buzan, Byers, Gopnik, and Horsley). I have used
this textbook in beta form for a few years. Most of its contents have proven theirworth in the classroom. At the time of writing this introduction, the successof the Learning Tips is uncertain, though anecdotal evidence suggests thatsome students have had good results when they have consistently applied theprinciples they espouse. Dissatisfied with the results of applying the brute forceof rote memory to my own learning, I have been pleasantly surprised by myability to learn more efficiently when I use the strategies found in the Learning
Tips.
Creative memory, deep learning, and thinking involve discontinuity. It is anapproach to learning that goes beyond rote memory, analysis, and synthesis
into the realm of the unknown that requires a transformation from old ways ofthinking to new ways of understanding. It is a paradigm shift. We all understandthat 1+1 = 2 and that 15 divided by 5 = 3. Those of us challenged by math havedifficulty understanding that 1 +1 can = 10 when we are in a binary conceptualxvi

Ancient Greek I

system. Learning to think differently and to imagine new paradigmatic ways ofthinking is challenging. In Greek, one of the main concepts students must learn
is that endings create meaning. The right side of their brain is engaged when
they learn new information. As they memorize, process, and understand thisnew information, their understanding moves from the right half of the brain to
the left. Thus learning involves both halves of the brain.
The right side of the brain processes new information. As we process this new
information, the left half of the brain brings analysis, logic, and reason to what
we have learned. In the end both hemispheres come to a shared understandingof our new knowledge. When we engage in further defining information, we
use the left hemisphere. The left half of our brain rationalizes information andrejects anomalies. It looks out, holding the intense beam of a flashlight. If agorilla walks through a volleyball game, the left side of our brain tends to missthe strangeness completely. When we consider ambiguities and contradictions,
we use the brain’s right side, which lights our way with the radiant glow of alantern. Dissonance in the right side of our brain opens us to novelty, to new
ways of thinking, to creativity. Dissonance is essential to our survival as aprofession and as a species.
To sum up, just as we know that carbon dioxide emissions affect the weather
but even with this knowledge cannot predict exactly what kind of storm will
hit exactly where, so do we know the general qualities that create constructive
learning experiences. The individual autobiographies and stories that makeup our pedagogical lives are the irreplaceable narratives that comprise goodteaching and good living, with no set solution to the complicated equation ofgood teaching and of good living, and with no application of a set formula forhappiness and success. Belief, knowledge, analysis, synthesis, metacognition,
care and creativity, and ethics and contrafactuals are general characteristics
that enable us to provide students with opportunities to take charge of theirown learning. Once they do, the doors to a well-lived life open wide. With thisexhortation, I hope that I have given you things to think about as you practice inthe great guild we have chosen to join.

For Instructors
In teaching with this book, I recommend experimentation and flexibility. The
module on adverbs I assign as homework in a flip-the-classroom approach.1 I
then assess student learning of the material in the next day’s class. At semester’s
1	Students are required to outline the module on adverbs before coming to class. In class I
answer any questions they have about adverbs. Once their questions are answered, they takea proficiency quiz. In eighth grade, my daughter learned algebra by this method. She hated
it and the teacher for the first month or so. Then she came to like the method and love theteacher.

Introduction

xvii

start I spend a lot of class time chanting and teaching students how to memorize
endings and vocabulary. Later in the term I assess their development of reading
and translating skills by giving them translate-and-parse quizzes.
The material covered in this book is designed to enable students to begin
reading authentic texts as soon as possible. It is important for students to develop
a process-oriented approach each time they translate. If an approach is logicaland repeatable, students will continue to improve as they learn new material.
I encourage students to become their own teachers and to use the answer key
in the back of the book. Learning how to teach oneself is an excellent skill thatthey will take with them and apply throughout their lives. Using the answer
key to learn how to learn develops this skill. For the student learning ancient
Greek, finding a balance between working hard on a translation before turning
to the answer is one that each will need to find for herself. I encourage you to
encourage your students to find this balance as they teach themselves how tolearn.
In assessing mastery of essential information, the quiz format works
particularly well for me. Through quizzes, students can display mastery ofconcepts, endings, functions, skills, and vocabulary. Once the course is about athird of the way to completion, I regularly give translate-and-parse quizzes that
present students with ancient Greek they have not seen before and that ask themto utilize the identification and reading skills that we have been developing inclass.

For Students
Memorize the definitions of the eight parts of speech and acquire a deep
understanding of how they work. Use your understanding of English to develop
your understanding of Greek. Memorize the essential vocabulary for the Greek
adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. These words are not glossed in the
text and the better you know them, the easier your development as a reader ofancient Greek will be. These words, for the most part, function just as they doin English and so, once you know their definitions, translating them is typicallystraightforward.
Greek nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs are not as straightforward.
They all use endings to create meaning. You must memorize these endings
and their functions. Memorizing them is essential to your development in thelanguage. If you cannot identify the word you are looking at and do so quickly,
your translation and reading skills will not improve and you will become easily
frustrated.
Once you identify a word correctly, create expectations for its function in
the sentence based upon context and frequency. For instance, the majority ofthe time you encounter a noun or pronoun in the genitive case you will need

xviiiAncient Greek I

to supply the preposition “of” in order to translate the word correctly into
English. Consequently, when you encounter a genitive noun or pronoun, supply“of” right away. A percentage of the time you will be incorrect and context will
require you to adapt your expectations, but most of the time you will be correct.
As you encounter nouns and pronouns, this process of identifying the form
and then translating based upon the form’s possible functions and function
frequency is repeated time and again. For certain cases it is easier than others.
Nominative nouns and pronouns typically have the function of subject and so,when you identify a noun or pronoun as nominative, expect that the word is the
subject of the sentence. Other cases have more possibilities in their functions
and, as a result, are a bit more complicated to anticipate. In these instances, besure to apply critically the Case and Function Chart.2 Most times a given nounor pronoun’s function is obvious; at other times it can be narrowed down to
one or two choices. Once you have narrowed down your choices, use context tofigure out which one makes the most sense.
Easier to translate are adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions because, as
already noted, they function just as their counterparts in English do. Adjectives,
nouns, pronouns, and verbs, however, create meaning through endings and sofunction differently from the way they do in English. Thus in order to translatethem successfully, an adjustment in your thinking about how language works
is necessary.
As you reflect on your own language and how meaning is created, youwill note that meaning is created in English mainly through word order andprepositional phrases. In ancient Greek, meaning is created in three main ways:(1) through endings placed upon adjectives, nouns, pronouns, and verbs; (2)through prepositional phrases; and finally (3) through word order, though notdecisively so as in English. This text strives to communicate as comprehensiblyas possible the repeating patterns Greek uses in its creation of meaning throughthese three paths.
As you strive to understand these patterns, another suggestion that
I recommend is for you not to write out an English translation of the Greek
sentences and narratives. Rather read through the Greek several times so that,when you come to class, you can translate the Greek as easily as you would read
aloud an English sentence.
Developing this skill takes more time initially than writing down a translation,
but devoting more time at first to developing a reading approach will resultin your taking much less time to translate sentences whose complexity keeps
increasing as the semester wears on. As you translate from the Greek, youwill find your vocabulary increasing naturally and find that your ability tounderstand how Greek creates meaning through word order also develops
naturally.
2	In a few instances the text cites Smyth, Greek Grammar and Boas, Rijksbaron, Huitink, andBakker, The Cambridge Grammar of Classical Greek, abbreviated to SSG and CGCG in the text.

Introductionxix

When translating ancient Greek into English, the requirements for how
English creates meaning result in our rearranging the beautiful and effective
arrangement of a given ancient Greek sentence. Were we ancient Greeks, nosuch rearranging would occur and we would hear and understand each wordin the order it is presented to us. Reading the Greek several times, so that you
can read it as easily as you would a sentence in English, develops this natural
understanding of Greek and Greek word order and greatly increases yourenjoyment of the language.
As you work your way through the text, remember that we all are language
geniuses and that were we born in another time and place we would speak
fluently a language other than English. And so, when Greek proves challenging
and as you memorize more and more information, be sure to remind yourself
of your innate language ability and to call to mind those first few days of classand how much you have learned since that time.

Dialects
This textbook uses a mixed dialect designed to enable you to read authentic
texts written by a variety of writers using a variety of dialects, including Attic,
Epic, and Ionic, though most forms are Attic or Ionic. Ionic -σσ- is used and not
Attic -ττ-. Ionic σφεῖς is presented as the third-person pronoun as are the obliqueforms of αὐτός, used in the Attic dialect. Infinitives, finite verb forms, and noun
forms are generally uncontracted until after contract verbs are presented(Modules 10, 17, 19, and 24). Then a mixed approach is used, with deference
given to the original Greek form. For detailed information on Herodotos’ mixed
dialect and on the Ionic-Attic dialect, see Appendices XI and XII. I address dialect
differences throughout the book as opportunities arise.

Moral Philosophy
This text seeks to embrace change, difference, and diversity, recognizing that
there is no one right way to solve life’s difficult and interesting questions. It
strives to make students comfortable with making mistakes and comfortablewith engaging in debate and disagreement. It offers compelling reading
selections in English and in Greek, chosen as starting points for contemplation,
debate, and reflection. It recognizes we can do right for wrong reasons andwrong for right ones. The richness that deep thinking offers us can be absurd,
ironic, perplexing, contradictory, and joyous. Current advances in quantum
theory and practice seem destined to take us further along these interesting
subjective paths.

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Ancient Greek I

Pronunciation
Over 20 ancient Greek dialects existed and, until one became standard in about
400 BCE, many alphabets. Although no one knows for sure how ancient Greeks
spoke their language and their pronunciations varied from person to person andcity-state to city-state and over time, I offer a set pronunciation system. It is thesame as is used by Mastronarde at his website, AtticGreek.org Pronunciation
Guide, with some simplifications made for the sake of speakers of American
English.3
For the vowel sound of eta I use the more familiar ay as in date insteadof ê as in the French tête, and for the short vowel sound of upsilon I use the morefamiliar short u as in put or long u as in boot instead of the short French u as
in lune and long French u as in French ruse. For the diphthong υι, I use the wi
sound of wit instead of combining the rounded vowel ÿ with semivocalic i as
Mastronarde recommends.
Like Mastronarde, I also use the conventional pronunciations for the soundsof the letters theta and phi, pronouncing theta θ as the th of thin instead of
the unaspirated t in top, and pronouncing phi, φ, as the fricative f as in footinstead of the aspirated p of pot. JACT in their pronunciation system maintainthe distinction between these aspirated and unaspirated sounds. Their systemdiffers from the one I offer in these ways,Η η: hairΘ θ: toy (note the exhalation of breath when pronouncing the t).
Ο ο: potΥ υ: French lune or German Müller
Φ φ: pool (note the exhalation of breath when pronouncing the p).
Ω ω: saw
If the pronunciation of ancient Greek intrigues you, see•

Allen, W. S. 1987. Vox Graeca: A Guide To The Pronunciation Of ClassicalGreek (Cambridge, TAS, Australia: Cambridge University Press)•

Daitz, Stephen G. 1984. The Pronunciation and Reading of Ancient
Greek: A Practical Guide (Guilford, Connecticut: Jeffrey Norton
Publisher)•

Danek, G. 1989. “‘Singing Homer,’” Überlegungen Zu Sprechintonation
Und Epengesang, Wiener Humanistische Blätter, 31: 1–15•

Devine, A. M. and Stephens, L. D. 1994. The Prosody of Greek Speech(Oxford, England: Oxford University Press)3	
http://atticgreek.org/pronunc/pronunc_guide.html.

Introduction

xxiSome Tips on Using This Book
If using a hardcopy, to minimize flipping back and forth, open the book withthe spine flat and two pages visible. If using a digital copy, use the word searchfeature to find information.
Whichever version you are using, print and then keep at your elbow theCase and Function Chart, the handout on Adjectives, Adverbs, Nouns, andPronouns, and the handout on Verbs.
Resist the urge to write down your English translation. Learn to translate
into English while reading directly from the Greek. Resisting this graphical urge
will improve your vocabulary retention and your reading ability.

Vocabulary
Ancient Greek has a rich vocabulary that permitted the creation of neologisms(new words) as needed. Aristophanes, the comic poet from Athens, created thelongest attested word in the Greek language,λοπαδοτεμαχοσελαχογαλεοκρανιολειψανοδριμυποτριμματοσιλφιοκαραβομελιτοκατακεχυμενοκιχλεπικοσσυφοφαττοπεριστεραλ
εκτρυονοπτοκεφαλλιοκιγκλοπελειολαγῳοσιραιοβαφητραγανοπτερύγων.
It is the name of a dish with a recipe that called for fish, flesh, fowl, and sauces.
It has 172 letters and 78 syllables. For information on the creation of neologisms
in a variety of languages, follow this link:
Neologisms.4

In this text you memorize the top 250 most commonly occurring Greek words,
about 18 words over a period of 14 weeks, starting with adverbs, conjunctions,and prepositions. The words marked by an asterix are in the top 250 and are to
be memorized. I based this list on the list compiled by Dickinson commentaries,
located here,
Ancient Greek Core Vocabulary5

and on my own many searches in,
Logeion,6

which I encourage you to explore on your own.

4	
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2DzeDU6QMZM.
5	
https://dcc.dickinson.edu/greek-core-list.
6	https://logeion.uchicago.edu/lexidium.

xxii

Ancient Greek I

The definitions given in the modules are simplified. As you encounter each of thewords in the wild you will develop a more nuanced understanding of the rangeof meanings some words have. Many words are straightforward, without muchcomplexity. For example, ναῦς means ship. Other words have many degrees ofcomplexity. λόγος has a wide range of denotative and connotative meanings,
including word, speech, story; reason, account; value, esteem, talk, conversation;τῷ λόγῳ for the sake of argument, in word, i.e., falsely; ἐν λόγῳ in the rank of;κατὰ λόγον according to the value or esteem. As your vocabulary increases sowill your ability to understand a word’s possible meanings in a specific context.
Join the course on Quizlet to access vocabulary flashcards and drills, https://
quizlet.com/class/19147013/.
As is true of most things in life, the top 250 list is not perfect and can be
improved. Send me your suggestions.

Vowel Length
In the accent and pronunciation exercises and paradigms, macrons mark alpha,iota, and upsilon if long and not accented with a circumflex. Short alpha, iota,
and upsilon are unmarked. In the glosses and readings vowels are generally
unmarked for quantity.

A Word on the Title
For several years I have gone back and forth between two titles for this book:Ancient Greek I: A Reading Approach and Ancient Greek I: A Cognitive Approach.
Upon reading Deep Thinking: What Mathematics Can Teach Us about the Mind
(William Byers); The Philosophical Baby: What Children’s Minds Tell Us about
Truth, Love, and the Meaning of Life (Alison Gopnik); and Teach Students How to
Learn (Saundra McGuire), I leaned toward Ancient Greek I: A Cognitive Approach.
Finally, as I continued revising the modules, I settled on a third, Ancient Greek I:
A 21st Century Approach, since I wish students to approach learning Greek fromthe standpoint of learning any subject in depth. Though this book has content
that no other textbook on learning Greek contains, it is often traditional in its
approach to grammar and morphology. As a stretch goal it asks students toimagine themselves as ancient Greeks and to process the language as a native
speaker would.

To Instructors and Students
Should you have any corrections or suggestions for improving the text, pleasecontact me.

Introduction

Sincerely,
Philip S. Peek
Professor, Ancient Greek, Latin, Classical Studies
Bowling Green State University
peekps@bgsu.edu

xxiiiModule 1

The Greek Alphabet

The Alphabet
About 300,000 years ago homo sapiens regularly used fire—one of our greatest
technologies, enabling us to create many more technologies dependent upon
it. The agricultural revolution dates to about 12,000 years ago. Before thisrevolution, we hunted and gathered in small bands requiring vast territories
to sustain us. Farming enabled our species to feed many more mouths per acre
and for ever-increasing numbers of us to settle in small areas. It also enabled thefirst empires, which date to about 4000 years ago. The administration of a large
state required written records, and so in this period we see the rise of various
writing systems, none of which were alphabetic, instead relying on ideograms
and syllabaries. Today there are dozens of alphabets with no set characteristics.
The Khmer alphabet, which represents Cambodian, has 74 characters. The
writing systems of most languages, such as English, are based on the Latinalphabet, which was derived from the Greek, and have 24–26 characters. The
alphabet made possible a vast number of additional technologies dependent
upon writing.
The origin of the Greek alphabet dates to about 800 BCE, though there isdisagreement on exactly when it was invented. When the Greeks adapted the
Phoenician syllabary, which represented consonants only, they introduceda refinement, taking the symbols for glottal stops, which do not appear in
Greek, and using them instead to represent vowels. The new alphabet gave
the Greeks the ability to represent in their entirety each sound that made up
a word. Exactly how, when, and why the adaptions occurred is uncertain andthe story of how it happened is fascinating and not without its oddities. Someof the consonantal adaptions of the Phoenician syllabary to the Greek alphabet
represent a correspondence between sounds, just as the sound of the English
consonant l is similar to the sound of the Greek consonant λ. One oddity isthat the sounds of the Greek letters chi χ and phi φ were not represented atall, though they easily could have been, and were added to the alphabet much
© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.01

2

Ancient Greek I

later. Oddities aside, the most astounding feature of the new invention was theadding of vowels to the syllabary. It is one that in retrospect seems obvious. It
was not. The Greek inventors took a syllabary of a Semitic language, outside
the Indo-European family tree to which Greek belongs, and adapted it, creating
something novel. The innovation was discontinuous and revolutionary. Due tothe addition of vowels, the Greek alphabet is called the first true one.1
Throughout Greece and its many independent city-states, there were overtwenty different dialects in use and a number of variations in the alphabet.
Some Greek letters differed from one district to the next and a few disappeared,
notably digamma ϝ, a w-sound, koppa Ϙ, a q-sound, and san Ϻ, or sampi ϡ,whose sound is unclear. In about 400 BCE Athens officially adopted the 24-letter
Ionian alphabet, which is the one presented in this book. The ancient Greeks
wrote in all capitals. We owe the lower-case letters to a later time of Byzantine
scribes and the ingenious printers of the Renaissance. Look over this alphabet
and notice that you are familiar with many of the letters and the sounds they
make. Many of the English words have been chosen to present as accurately as
possible the rendering of the Greek sound. For example spot for π is pronouncedwith no aspiration accompanying the p-sound.

Alphabet Chart
Sound equivalents are bolded.
Letter

Name

ὄνομα

Pronunciation

Αα

alpha

ἄλφα

long ᾱ: father short α: about

a

Ββ

beta

βῆτα

bit

b

Γγ

gamma

γάμμα

go

g

Δδ

delta

δέλτα

dot

d

Εε

epsilonἒ ψιλόν

always short: bet

e

Ζζ

zeta

ζῆτα

wisdom

z

Ηη

eta

ἦτα

always long: ate

e

Θθ

theta

θῆτα

theater

th

Ιι

iota

ἰῶτα

long ῑ: meet short ι: bin

i

Κκ

kappa

κάππα

skin

k, c

Λλ

lambdaλάμβδα

lit

l

Μμ

mu

μῦ

meet

m

Transliteration

1	For detailed information on the invention of the alphabet, see Roger D. Woodard, ‘Phoinikēia
Grammata: An Alphabet for the Greek Language’, in A Companion to the Ancient Greek
Language, ed. by Egbert J. Bakker (Malden: Blackwell, 2010), pp. 25–46.

Module 1 | The Greek Alphabet

3

Letter

Name

ὄνομα

Pronunciation

Νν

nu

νῦ

neat

n

Ξξ

xi

ξῖ

box

x

Οο

omicronὂ μικρόν

always short: thought

o

Ππ

pi

πῖ

spot

p

Ρρ

rho

ῥῶ

rrat (slight roll)

Σσς

sigma

σίγμα

set (ς replaces σ at the ends

Transliteration

r, rh
s

of words)
Ττ

tau

ταῦ

sting

t

Υυ

upsilonὖ ψιλόνlong ῡ: muse short υ: put

u, y

Φφ

phi

φῖ

fit

ph

Χχ

chi

χῖ

lunkhead

Ψψ

psi

ψῖ

upset

ps

Ωω

omega

ὢ μέγαalways long: totalokh, chPronunciation
The equivalents given above represent a close approximation of the sounds eachletter made, though some sounds have been chosen because native speakers ofEnglish find them easier to pronounce. Except in these few cases, this text uses
the same pronunciation as does Mastronarde in his text and on his website,
AtticGreek.org Pronunciation Guide.2

For the differences between this text and the website, see the Introduction,
Pronunciation.
A tenet of this book is embracing change, difference, and diversity. Since
no one knows exactly how ancient Greek was pronounced, below are a few
alternative pronunciations. Should you wish to adopt them, note the following
differences, which follow the pronunciation system used by JACT in their
Reading Greek series.
Η η: hairΘ θ: toy (note the exhalation of breath when pronouncing the t).
Ο ο: potΥ υ: French lune or German Müller
Φ φ: pool (note the exhalation of breath when pronouncing the p).
Ω ω: saw2http://atticgreek.org/pronunc/pronunc_guide.html.

4

Ancient Greek I

Memorize the Names of the Alphabet
In this module your goal is to memorize the alphabet and know it as well as you
know the English alphabet. As a first step, memorize the names of the letters bysinging or chanting them as you did when you first learned the English alphabet.
Chunking the names into groups of four may make the task more manageable.
•alpha, beta, gamma, deltaἄλφα, βῆτα, γάμμα, δέλτα•epsilon, zeta, eta, thetaἒ ψιλόν, ζῆτα, ἦτα, θῆτα•iota, kappa, lambda, muἰῶτα, κάππα, λάμβδα, μῦ•

nu, xi, omicron, pi

νῦ, ξῖ, ὂ μικρόν, πῖ•

rho, sigma, tau, upsilon

ῥῶ, σίγμα, ταῦ, ὖ ψιλόν•phi, chi, psi, omegaφῖ, χῖ, ψῖ, ὦ μέγαLong and Short Vowel Sounds
Greek vowels have length or quantity; their quantity is either long or short.
Long vowels take approximately twice as long to pronounce. Say out loud theEnglish word drama. Note the difference in the amount of time you take topronounce the first syllable dra and the second syllable ma. The a of the firstsyllable takes longer to pronounce, just as in Greek the long alpha takes longer
to pronounce than does the short alpha.
Greek has five long vowels and five short vowels. Eta and o-mega (big o) arealways long. Epsilon and o-micron (little o) are always short. Alpha, iota, andupsilon can be long or short. A long mark or macron (μακρόν) is placed above
these vowels when they are long, as in ᾱ. Short vowels and vowels that arealways long (η, ω) are not marked. When you read out loud, pay attention to thevowel sounds and their quantity. Hearing quantity is especially important whenattempting to feel the rhythm of a line of poetry or of a prose sentence.
Long Vowels

Short Vowels

long alphaᾱ

fathershort alpha

α

about

eta

η

ate

epsilonεbetlong iotaῑ

meetshort iota

ι

pit

omega

ω

total

omicronο

thought

long upsilon

ῡ

muse

short upsilonυfoot, putModule 1 | The Greek Alphabet

5

1. Note that in authentic texts macrons are not used. In this textbook macrons
are used in the paradigms. Otherwise they are typically omitted.

Memorize the Long and Short Vowel Sounds
Memorize the alphabet and the sounds the letters make.
•Write out each vowel from memory.

•

As you write out each vowel, pronounce the sound it makes out loud.

•

Pronounce the sound of each vowel out loud as you write it in yourmind or in the sky.

•

When you pronounce each sound, picture the corresponding letter.

•

Reproduce from memory the above chart.

Diphthongs
Some pairs of vowels, called diphthongs, are pronounced together, producing a
combined sound of two vowels in a single syllable. The English words loud, loin,
and lair all have diphthongs that produce a combination of two differing vowel
sounds. Greek diphthongs function similarly. The second letter of a diphthongis always iota, ι, or upsilon, υ. For meter and accentuation, diphthongs are
considered long with one exception. The diphthongs αι and οι, when final or
the last two letters of a word, are short except in the optative, a mood learned inPart II of the 21st-Century series. Note that the breathing and accent, explained
below, are placed over the second vowel of the diphthong: αἰθήρ, ηὗρον.

Pronunciation of Diphthongs
Except for pronouncing the diphthong υι like the wi sound of wit, instead of
combining the rounded vowel ÿ with semivocalic i as Mastronarde recommends,
this text uses the same pronunciation for diphthongs as does Mastronarde.
DiphthongPronunciation

Transliteration

αι

fine

ai, ae, e

ει

eight

ei, e, iοιboyoi, oe, e, i

υι

wit

ui

αυ

scowl

au

6

Ancient Greek I

DiphthongPronunciation

Transliterationευ(ε + υ: few; feud)euηυ(η + υ: hey + you)

eu

ου

boot

ou, u

1. All diphthongs are long with these exceptions: -αι and -οι, when
they are the last two letters of a word (final -αι and -οι), are short for
purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part
II of the 21st-Century series. As you work through the text, the shortquantity of final -αι and –οι will make sense. Note that ει and η arepronounced alike, as are ου and ῡ.
Follow this link to listen to a chanting and a singing of the alphabet by me andby Dr. E. Del Chrol of Marshall University, followed by me pronouncing the longand short vowels and diphthongs:
Alphabet, Long Vowels, Short Vowels, Diphthongs.3

Memorize the Sounds of the Diphthongs
Memorize the diphthongs and their sounds so that you know them by heart.
•

Write out each diphthong from memory.

•

As you write out each diphthong, pronounce out loud the sound it
makes.

•

Pronounce the sound of each diphthong out loud as you write it in yourmind or in the sky.

•

When you pronounce each sound, picture the corresponding diphthong.

•Reproduce from memory the above chart.

Rough and Smooth Breathings
Greek also has an h-sound, which occurs only at the beginning of certain words.
This sound is not indicated by a separate letter but by the symbol (῾) called arough breathing. Say out loud the English word, hi. Notice the sharp exhalationof breath. The technical word for this exhalation is aspiration. Say the word pea
out loud while holding your hand in front of your mouth. Note that when you
make the sound of the letter p at the start of words, you expel air. Now say theword hope and note that you do not expel air. The p of pea is aspirated and the3https://loom.com/share/4b0c8a33da2e49f6a265d4295fc4aeb5.

Module 1 | The Greek Alphabet

7

p of hope is unaspirated. In Greek the h sound appears only at the beginning ofcertain words.
ἑξάγωνον

hexagon῾Ελένη

Helen

Note that the rough breathing is placed above lower-case letters and before
upper-case ones.
Words beginning with a vowel or diphthong, which do not have the h-sound,have a smooth breathing (᾿) indicating the absence of the h-sound.
ὀλιγαρχίαoligarchy᾿ΗλέκτραElectraContrast the placement of the breathing over the lower- and upper-case vowels
with its placement over the second vowel of a diphthong:εἰρωνεία

irony

εἵλως

helot

All words beginning with an upsilon have a rough breathing.
ὑπόθεσις

hypothesis

Likewise, all words beginning with rho have a rough breathing. Say the English
word rooster and note that when you pronounce the letter r you expel breath.
Now say the word bird and note that you do not expel any breath when you
pronounce the r. Initial rho is pronounced like the r in rooster. Note that therough breathing is captured in the English spelling of rhetoric and rhythm.
ῥητορική

rhetoricῥυθμός

rhythm8

Ancient Greek I

Memorize the Letters of the Alphabet
Memorize the letters themselves. For each letter, memorize the upper- andlower-case symbol. To assist you in memorizing the letters, try these techniques:•

Write out the upper- and lower-case letters from memory.

•

Picture the upper- and lower-case letters in your head as you write
them.

•

Write out the upper- and lower-case letters as you say the name of theletter.

•Write out the upper- and lower-case letters as you pronounce thesound the letter makes.

•

Reproduce from memory the alphabet chart.

Practice Pronouncing the Words Below. Note that macrons mark the longvowels and short vowels are unmarked.
Quantity

Greek

Equivalent

Quantity

Word

Equivalent

ᾱ, α

δρᾶμα

drama

α, ι, ᾱκαρδίᾱ

heart

η, ο

δῆμος

peopleε, ε, οἕτερος

other

ῑ, α, ωνῑκάωI conquer

ι, ο

βίος

life

α, ω, οἄνθρωπος

humanο, η, οὍμηρος

Homer

ῡ, ω

λύω

I freeα, υ, α, οἀδύνατος

unableTo hear the words pronounced, follow the link:
Practice Pronouncing.4

Orthography
In the above in addition to the rough and smooth breathing marks, certain
vowels have marks over or in front of them, ᾶ, ῆ, ά, ἄ, ύ, ί, ἕ, ί, Ὅ, ύ. These marks
are accents, indicating a special intonation given to the vowel’s pronunciation.
In Greek, three accents—acute, grave, or circumflex—mark a raising (acute)or a neutral (grave) or a raising and lowering (circumflex) of pitch. In English,
instead of raising or lowering a syllable’s pitch, we place an emphatic stresson one syllable. Pronounce the word rhetoric and note that the syllable rhe isstressed.

4https://loom.com/share/ce863b2b5e9d4ce4a820a5958f56af60.

Module 1 | The Greek Alphabet

9

Originally, ancient Greeks wrote using all capital letters, no punctuation, andoften no spacing. Eventually as cursive writing became more common, lowercase letters replaced upper-case and accents were added as part of the spelling.
Accents and their marks will be explained in Modules 3, 5, and 11. Learning
accents will assist you in reading the language out loud, in distinguishing forms
that are identical but for accent, and in identifying forms that are difficult todecipher.
More Pronunciation Practice.
Greek

Equivalent

Derivative

γαῖᾰ

earth

Gaia

δεινός

awesome, terrible

dinosaurποιέωI makeonomatopoeiaναύτης

sailornauticalγονεύς

parent

gonad

ηὗρον

I foundeureka!

πλοῦτος

wealthplutocracyἄνθρωποςmananthropology

βίος

life

biologyγλῶττᾰ

tonguepolyglotδιδάσκᾰλος

teacher

didacticἐνθουσιᾰσμός

enthusiasm

enthusiasm

ζῆλος

zeal

zeal

ἦθος

character

ethos

θεός

god

theologyἱστορίᾱ

investigation

historyκαρδίᾱ

heart

cardiac

λόγος

word

logic

μετᾰφορά (ᾱ)

metaphor

metaphor

ναῦς

ship

nauticalξένος

foreignxenophobia

ὀφθαλμός

eye

ophthalmology

πᾰτήρ

fatherpaternityῥινόκερος

nose-hornrhinoceros

σοφός

wise

philosophy

10

Ancient Greek I

Greek

Equivalent

Derivativeτύρᾰννοstyranttyrantὕβρῐςinsolencehubris

φόβος

fear

phobiaχρόνος

time

chronologyψεῦδος

falsity

pseudonym

ὥρᾱ

hour

hour

To hear the words pronounced, follow the link:
More Pronunciation Practice.5

Herodotos of Halikarnessos (Halicarnassus), Ἡρόδοτος ὁ Ἁλικαρνησσέοςc. 484–425 BCE. Herodotos was an ancient Greek historian who hailed fromHalikarnessos, a Greek city founded by the Dorians, ruled by a monarchy, andpart of the Persian empire until conquered by Alexander the Great. Creditedwith inventing the discipline of history, Herodotos wrote in a mixed Ionic
dialect. To learn more about this dialect Herodotos, see Appendix XI, Herodotos’
Mixed Dialect.
Module 1 Practice Reading Aloud. Practice reading aloud the beginning of
Herodotos’ Histories, paying attention to the sound each syllable makes.
Ἡροδότου Ἁλικαρνησσέος ἱστορίης ἀπόδεξις ἥδε, ὡς μήτε τὰγενόμενα ἐξ ἀνθρώπων τῷ χρόνῳ ἐξίτηλα γένηται, μήτε ἔργα μεγάλα
τε καὶ θωμαστά, τὰ μὲν Ἕλλησι τὰ δὲ βαρβάροισι ἀποδεχθέντα,ἀκλεᾶ γένηται, τά τε ἄλλα καὶ δι᾽ ἣν αἰτίην ἐπολέμησαν ἀλλήλοισι.
Translation
This work of research belongs to Herodotos of Halikarnessos. So thathumankind’s achievements do not become forgotten in time and sothat the great and wondrous works of barbarians and Greeks do
not perish unsung, I have investigated a variety of things, including
why they fought one another.
To hear me read, followed by Stefan Hagel’s expert reading with a pitch accent,follow the link below:
Herodotos’ Proem.65	
https://loom.com/share/1f0ae9055a644c6e9f4d3d551d126b53.
6https://loom.com/share/fc83af84a232435b80a012505e35020a.

Module 1 | The Greek Alphabet

11

Etymology Corner I by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Knowledge of etymology will give you control over the world. . . is probably a false statement, but lots of people in the ancient world believed it. Oneof the earliest branches of philosophy looks a lot like modern linguistics, since thosephilosophers believed that if you could get to the heart of a word, the true (ἔτυμος true,
real, actual) word or reasoned account (λόγος word, speech, story; reason, account),
where it came from, and its original meaning, you could learn something profoundabout it. Ancient etymology was half a quest for magical power—if you learned thetrue name for something, you could control it—and half a quest for the machine
language of the brain—languages are overlays on how we think.
What to Study and Do 1. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you
can do the following from memory: chant or sing the alphabet, write out the lowerand upper-case letters, and say the sounds while picturing or writing down the letters.
Learning Tip 1: Our Amazing Minds. We all think that we have terrible memories.
For most of us this belief is self-fulfilling and destructive, preventing us from reachingwhatever goals we would otherwise be able to reach. This textbook offers you specificstrategies for placing new information into your medium-term memory quickly,
efficiently, and effectively so that you can recall it whenever you need to. Though
the majority of information I present to you in the textbook has been tested in theclassroom over the past twenty-five years of my teaching career, I only started using
these memory strategies in earnest in December 2020. In this short time I have foundthe way I think about encoding new information has completely changed. Hitherto
I used the brute force of repetition, which has served me okay but often fails when
I need instant and accurate recall. I came upon these strategies while looking foreffective strategies for memorizing vocabulary. YouTube was the first place I looked.
One video led me to an interview with Kevin Horsley, a super-memorizer and authorof Unlimited Memory. This book and Tony Buzan’s Use Your Perfect Memory explain
most of the memory strategies I present to you in the 21st-Century series. Follow thelink below if you wish to listen to Kevin’s story:
Interview with Kevin Horsley.1

Kevin Horsley has not invented these strategies but he has excelled at making thema part of his life, a feat that is all the more impressive given the story of Kevin’s
struggles during his formative years. When he was eight years old, Kevin’s inability
to concentrate and to memorize was so bad that a school psychologist thought hehad brain damage. He now is a grandmaster of memory, holding the world record
1https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sjEkwznBV7k.

12

Ancient Greek I

for memorization and timely recall of the first 10,000 digits of pi π. Having barely
graduated from high school and deemed a failure as a student, Kevin’s successful
implementation of these learning strategies have enabled him to build a successful
life for himself, teaching others the learning and memory strategies he excels at using.

Module 2More Sounds and Punctuation

Iota Subscript and Adscript
When the long vowels, ᾱ, η, and ω are combined with a short iota, the iota is
written beneath the long vowels as an iota subscript. The prefix sub- means
under.
ᾳῃῳ

If the long vowel is capitalized, the iota is written beside the long vowel and iscalled an iota adscript. The prefix ad- means beside.
Αι

Ηι

Ωι

The iota is not pronounced and the pronunciation of these combined letters isthe same as it is for the plain vowels, ᾱ, η, and ω. Practice pronouncing the nameof Hades, the Greek god of the dead, Ἅιδης.
Note that the writing of the iota as a subscript or adscript is a writing convention
begun in the Middle Ages. Originally the iota was pronounced with the longvowels, ᾱ, η, ω, as a combination of two sounds. From the fourth century to
the second century BCE the iota weakened to a glide, similar to the way the
English y can affect vowels. Pronounce out loud late and day, noting how they influences the sound of the vowel a. After the second century BCE the iota
was not pronounced. When reading ancient Greek, you will soon discover thatthe iota adscript or subscript often helps you identify the form of the word it
appears in.

© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

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Ancient Greek I

Gamma Clusters
When followed by a gamma γ, kappa κ, xi ξ, or chi χ, gamma γ, forms a clusterthat creates the combined sound indicated by the bold letters below.
γγ

diphthongδίφθογγος

γκanchorἄγκυραγξ

larynx, Sphinx λάρυγξ, Σφίγξ

γχ

synchronyσύγχρονος

Punctuation
Greek uses the same period and comma as English. A single mark ( · ) serves as
either a colon (:) or a semicolon (;) depending on context.
῾´Ελληνες· Σοφοκλῆς, Περικλῆς, Δημοσθένης.
Greeks: Sophokles, Perikles, Demosthenes.
ὁ δὲ λέγει· ἡ δὲ ποιέει.
He speaks; she acts.
The question mark in Greek is represented by (;) and looks the same as the
English semicolon (;).
σὺ δὲ τίς καὶ τί βούλει;
Who are you and what do you want?

Capitalization
Proper names and adjectives are capitalized, as are the first words of paragraphs
and of quotations. The first word of a sentence is not typically capitalized. Notethe capitalized words bolded in the paragraph below:Ἡροδότου Ἁλικαρνησσέος ἱστορίης ἀπόδεξις ἥδε, ὡς μήτε τὰγενόμενα ἐξ ἀνθρώπων τῷ χρόνῳ ἐξίτηλα γένηται, μήτε ἔργα μεγάλα
τε καὶ θωμαστά, τὰ μὲν Ἕλλησι τὰ δὲ βαρβάροισι ἀποδεχθέντα,ἀκλεᾶ γένηται, τά τε ἄλλα καὶ δι᾽ ἣν αἰτίην ἐπολέμησαν ἀλλήλοισι.
Ἕλλησι is the Greek word for Greeks.

Module 2 | More Sounds and Punctuation

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Who Were the Greeks?
The non-Greek Minoan civilization of Krete (Crete) flourished from c. 2200–
1500 BCE and influenced the Greeks. The Iliad and the Odyssey mention
Minos, legendary king of Krete (Crete), who ruled the island and those nearby
with his many ships. Around 2100 BCE Greek-speaking people arrived on
mainland Greece, bringing with them their customs, language, and religion.
The geographic area we call ancient Greece or Hellas never became a nation
state, but rather was a collection of independent city-states which were diverse,
comprising many different customs and dialects. Though diverse, Greek culture
shared important features, including architecture, athletics, literature, music,
religion, and science. The ancient Greek love for athletics led to our establishing
the modern Olympic games. Their polytheistic religion and the accompanying
stories of gods and heroes, their mythology, permeated much of what they
accomplished and believed. Through their music, poetry, and prose writings
they made sense of the world and their place in it. The richness the Greeks
created continues to influence people all over the globe.

Greek Dialects
The earliest known dialect is the Mycenaean, attested in the Linear B syllabic
script deciphered by the self-taught linguist, Michael Ventris. In the Classicalperiod, roughly 750–350 BCE, there were about twenty-three Greek dialects,
including Aeolic, Attic, Doric, and Ionic. At the end of the 4th century, the koine
or common dialect began to be used, spreading to Asia and Egypt and eventuallyreplacing the dialects that preceded it. The many dialects correspond roughlywith Greek geography and their diversity was caused by many factors, including
conquest, lineage, migrations, and natural barriers. Another influence on dialect
was literature itself. The Homeric or epic dialect is a literary dialect, comprisedof elements of the Ionic, Aeolic, and Arcado-Cypriot dialects. Later writers suchas Apollonios Rhodios in his Argonautica, and Nonnos in his Dionysiaca, imitate
Homer’s literary dialect. Ionic was the dialect used to write elegiac poetry andpoets used Doric for composing choral lyric poetry. For specifics on the IonicAttic dialect, see Appendix XII.
Arkhilokhos of Paros, Ἀρχίλοχος Πάρου, c. 680–645 BCE. The son of Telesikles,
an aristocrat, and a slave woman, Arkhilokhos was a mercenary soldier andpoet from Paros, a chief center for the worship of Demeter. In association with
Demeter and Dionysos there was a tradition of iambic poetry, ἴαμβοι, a genre of
poetry marked first by invective and scurrility, scatology, and sex, and second by
its iambic meter. This iambic genre may have originated in the cult of Demeter,where insulting and abusive language, αἰσχρολογία, formed part of the ritual
worship of the deity. In iamboi a first person narrator regales the audience with

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Ancient Greek I

accounts of extravagant orgies or other escapades in which he claims to havetaken part. Some of Arkhilokhos’ iamboi were concerned with Lykambes andhis two daughters, one of whom was named Neobule. In addition to iambics, hewrote about current events and military, personal, and political concerns. It isbelieved that his poetry was banned at Sparta because of its seditious qualities.
In 708 B.C. his fellow islanders colonized Thasos, a northern Aegean island. The
Parians who colonized it were often attacked by tribes from Thrakia. At somepoint Arkhilochos went to Thasos and fought against the Thrakians. The Saians,
mentioned in the poem below, are a Thrakian tribe.
Module 2 Practice Reading Aloud. Practice reading this poem by Arkhilokhos.
Read the poem a few times, trying to hear the rhythm of the words.
ἀσπίδι μὲν Σαΐων τις ἀγάλλεται, ἣν παρὰ θάμνῳἔντος ἀμώμητον κάλλιπον οὐκ ἐθέλων,αὐτὸς δ᾽ ἐξέφυγον θανάτου τέλος. ἀσπὶς ἐκείνηἐρρέτω· ἐξαῦτις κτήσομαι οὐ κακίω.
Verse Translation
Dropped beside a bush, my shield no more some Saion
With grasp and grin takes up. I blame myself.
Sadly leaving, fleeing gladly, I sidestepped Death.
Without a shield I live to buy anew.
To hear me read, followed by Stefan Hagel’s expert reading with a pitch accent,follow the link below:
Arkhilokhos’ Ripsaspis Poem.1

Etymology Corner II by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Knowledge of etymology will give you control over Greek. . . is probably a true statement. You are going to learn a lot of new, strange, precise
terminology in your quest to accurately describe the syntax of a sentence. When you
learn the origin of these terms, you will learn they are actually straightforward. Early
grammarians were trying to convey information, not create a secret code that only
experts can use. Unfortunately, these terms are usually in Latin or Greek, languages
you don’t speak (yet!). These Etymology Corners are designed to demystify the precise
terminology of this textbook and thereby help you understand the concepts much
faster.

1

https://loom.com/share/02a004f496ca45a2904e772ce874af59.

Module 2 | More Sounds and Punctuation

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What to Study and Do 2. Familiarize yourself with the additional sounds andpunctuation conventions. You will encounter this information frequently. As you
work through this text you will find yourself easily memorizing each sound andpunctuation convention.
Learning Tip 2: Memorize and Internalize the Sounds. When memorizing thesounds of Greek, learn them well. The first time you learn the vowel sounds, you may
feel as though you are learning a sequence of noises. Try associating each sound witha memorable image. Long alpha ᾱ may make you think of falling into grass on a warm
summer’s day. As you fall into the grass, say the sound ah and picture a long alpha ᾱin your mind. Imagine this picture of you and the smell of the grass and the sound ah
and the long alpha ᾱ as part of your lived experience. Link the next sound, eta, ay andη, to the ah, ᾱ, sound. Link the two by imagining the sun’s rays (r η s) warming you
as sink into the grass. Make sure that you connect the sound ay with an image of theletter eta, η, so that the two create a super-image in your mind. Link each image to thenext and you will find that the time it takes you to remember brand-new information
for the medium term is greatly reduced. By connecting new information, ᾱ and η,
which must begin as part of your short-term working memory, to old informationthat you already know, the English words ah and day, you create a link between yourshort-term memory and your long-term memory to create a medium-term memory.
The formula STM + LTM = MTM is a memorization strategy that this textbook will
recommend again and again. I have not invented this formula or these strategies.
They have existed for a long time and the most powerful of them, presented soon,
dates back to the ancient Greeks.
Next, think of a word in English that has the ee sound. Meet, ῑ, works well. As you
say ah ᾱ and sink into the grass warmed by the sun’s rηs, your eyes meet (m ῑ t) witha cloud moving in the blue sky overhead. This cloud takes the form of a big boat (b ωt) filled with pirates. The pirates stand in the bωt with black leather boots (b ῡ ts), as
they stare back right at yῡ. This linking strategy is powerful and can be used to place
any number of items into your medium-term memory very quickly. You will still needto review this information in order to retain it and to place it, eventually, into yourlongterm memory. Just willing yourself to remember new information will not work.
You need to use your imagination, if you wish to remember well and for the longterm. Repetition also works but takes longer and often fails when you need to recall
information. When creatively linking new information with old, remember to SEE
it. SEEing it means that you create an image that you can make come alive with yourfive Senses—hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, touching. You Exaggerate that image tomake it memorable. Finally you Energize the image by making it do something. This
may seem like a lot of work. It will be, especially at the start. But with continued use
the strategy will pay off and you will be able to use it for anything in life that you want
to remember well.

Module 3

Accents and Accenting Verbs I

Why Learn Accents?
Accents tell you how to pronounce words correctly. They can also assist in
identifying hard-to-decipher noun and verb forms. As you improve in reading
Greek, you will begin to hear how the syllable sounds and accents work together
to create meaning and beauty.

AccentMost Greek words have one syllable whose musical pitch varies slightly fromthat of the other syllables of the word. This difference of pitch is called theword’s accent (τόνος). In English, we accent words by increasing stress on theaccented syllable—relative, religious—rather than by a difference in musicalpitch.
In order to understand pitch better, say the following out loud:The house is there.
andThe house is there?
Note that when you pronounce the word house in the statement the intonationof your voice is neutral but when you pronounce house in the question thepitch of your voice raises. When you raise the pitch of house, you indicate thatyou are asking a question.
Unlike English, all Greek words have their accents marked. Marking accentsas part of spelling is a later convention, introduced possibly by the Alexandrian
scholar Aristophanes of Byzantium in 200 BCE. Before this time the Greeks
themselves did not mark their words with accentual notation, and, just likenative English speakers, did not require them to know how to pronounce the© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.03

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Ancient Greek I

words of their language. The accent of a Greek word is learned as a part of its
spelling.
Accent is indicated in the following way:´

Acute (ὀξύς) accent: marked a raising of the musical pitch`Grave (βαρύς) accent: marked a neutral musical pitch

῀

Circumflex (περισπώμενος) accent: marked a raising andlowering of pitch

Since English speakers accent words by stress not pitch, for the purpose of thiscourse, simply stress the accented syllable like you would in English, ignoring
the type of accent. If you wish to hear what a pitch accent in Greek may havesounded like, follow the links found at the end of this module.

Orthography
Note carefully the following orthographical conventions:•accents occur directly over vowels and over the second letter ofdiphthongs, as in ῾Ελένη, Εἰλείθυια, δρᾶμα, ψεῦδος;•

when an acute (´) or grave accent (`) and a breathing appear over thesame syllable, the breathing is written first: ἄνθρωπος, ὕπνος, ὅν;•

when a circumflex accent (῀) and a breathing appear over the same
syllable, the breathing is written under the circumflex, as in ἦτα;•accents, like breathings, are written before capitalized vowels,
including vowels followed by iota adscript, but over the second letter ofdiphthongs whose first letter is capitalized: ῾´Ομηρος, Αἵρεσις, ῾´Αιδης;•the circumflex accent (῀) only occurs over long vowels or diphthongs,
δρᾶμα, ψεῦδος.

As you read, translate, and write in ancient Greek you will readily internalize
these conventions and so there is no need to commit them to memory.

Syllabification
In order to accent a word correctly, you must know how to break it into syllables.
A syllable occurs for every vowel or diphthong a Greek word has. To determine
the number of syllables, count the vowels and diphthongs:
Ὅμηρος (3);Ἤτα (2);Αἵρεσις (3);Ἀχιλλεύς (3).

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A syllable in Greek includes any initial consonants + the vowel or diphthongthat directly follows + the first letter of a double consonant following the vowel
or diphthong:Ὅ-μη-ρος;Ἤ-τα;

Αἵ-ρε-σις;

Ἀ-χιλ-λεύς.

Practice Counting Syllables. Check your answers with those in the second
column.
αὐτόνομος

αὐ-τό-νο-μος (4)ὈδυσσεύςὈ-δυσ-σεύς (3)οἶνοςοἶ-νος (2)ΕἰλείθυιαΕἰ-λεί-θυι-α (4)φιλοσοφία

φι-λο-σο-φί-α (5)ἄγγελος

ἄγ-γε-λος (3)ἄγκυραἄγ-κυ-ρα (3)Ὀξύρρυγχος

Ὀ-ξύρ-ρυγ-χος (4)αἰθήραἰ-θήρ (2)εἰρήνη

εἰ-ρή-νη (3)Consider the Greek word, Εἰλείθυια, the goddess of childbirth. We break thisword into syllables like so: Εἰ-λεί-θυι-α. Each vowel and each diphthong is asyllable. The last three syllables are referred to by their sequence:Εἰ-

not named-λεί-antepenult
next-to-last)-θυι-penult (almost last)-αultima (last)(beforethe

The initial syllable Εἰ- is not named because it is not one of the last three syllables.

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Ancient Greek I

Vowel Length
In the paradigms and accenting practice of this text, macrons mark alpha, iota,
and upsilon if long. Short vowels and diphthongs are not marked. In authentic
texts and in the Practice Translating of this text, macrons do not occur.
Diphthongs are by definition long with this exception: final -αι and -οι are shortfor purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part IIof the 21st-Century series. -αι and -οι are final when they appear as the last two
letters of a word, λῦσαι but not λύσαις.

Recessive and Persistent Accent
In recessive accent, the accent occurs as far from the ultima as the possibilitiesof accent allow. Most verb forms have recessive accent. Nouns and otherparts of speech have persistent accent, presented in detail in Module 11. In
persistent accent, the accent stays on the same vowel or diphthong it is on in thenominative singular form, and does not change unless it has to in accordancewith the possibilities of where accents can occur.

Possibilities of Accent
Memorize these two possibilities. As the text progresses, you will learn how toaccent adjectives, nouns, pronouns, and verbs. Appendix X offers a complete
explanation of accent and contains additional practice exercises.
1. An acute accent can appear on the antepenult, penult, or ultima.
2. An acute accent can only appear on the antepenult if the ultima is short.

Accenting Verbs of Three Syllables or MoreLong vowels are marked with a macron. Short vowels are not marked. Readfrom top to bottom and apply the first line that meets the criteria:
1.

If the ultima is short, put an acute on the antepenult. ἔπαυε
Stop!

2.

If the ultima is long, put an acute on the penult. Stop!

παυσάτωAccent διδωμι.
Check the ultima. If the ultima is short, place the accent on the antepenult. Stop!
You are finished. If the ultima is long, place the accent on the penult. Stop! Youare finished.

Module 3 | Accents and Accenting Verbs I•

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The ultima, -ι, is short and so place the accent on the antepenult:δίδωμι.

Accent ποιεω.
Check the ultima. If the ultima is short, place the accent on the antepenult. Stop!
You are finished. If the ultima is long, place the accent on the penult. Stop! Youare finished.
•

The ultima, -ω, is long and so place the accent on the penult: ποιέω.

Practice Accenting Verbs of Three Syllables or More. Check your answers
with those in the Answer Key. Remember that final -αι and -οι are short for
purposes of accentuation, except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the
21st-Century series. There are no optative forms in the below.
1. διδωμι, ἐδιδου, διδομεθα, ἐδιδουν, διδομεν, ἐδιδομην, διδοται, διδοσαι
2. διδοιης, ἐδομην, διδοᾱσιν, διδοτε, ἐδιδους, ἐδιδοσο, διδοσθαι, διδονται3. διδοιην, διδομεθα, διδοσθε, διδοιημεν, διδοιμην, διδοτω
4. τιθημι, ἐτιθην, ἐτιθεις, τιθησιν, τιθεμεν, ἐτιθει, τιθεσαι, τιθεται5. τιθεμεθα, ἐτιθεμην, τιθεσθε, τιθετε, τιθεᾱσιν, ἐθεμην, τιθενται, τιθεσθαι
6. πραττετε, ἐπραξα, ἐπραχθην, ἐπραττον, ἐπραχθητε, πεπρᾱχα, πραττεται,πραττεσθαι
7. γενησομεθα, ἐγενομην, ἐγιγνου, γεγονα, γεγενησθε, γιγνεται, γιγνεσθαι
8. ποιεει, ποιησειν, ἐποιησα, ἐποιεον, ἐποιεου, ἐποιηθην, ποιεεται,ποιεονται9. δοκεεις, ἐδοκεες, δοκεειν, ἐδοξε, ἐδοχθη, ἐδοκεομην, δοκεεσθαι,δοκεεται10. ὁραω, ὀψομεθα, ὁραειν, ὀψεσθε, εἰδομην, ἑωρακα, ὁραεται, ὁραονται

Ancient Greek Pitch Accent
To hear what an ancient Greek pitch accent may have sounded like, follow thelinks below:
Stefan Hagel, Austrian Academy of Sciences1Ἰωάννης Στρατάκης, Podium-Arts.2

Anakreon of Teos, Ἀνακρέων ὁ Τήϊος, c. 582–c. 485 BCE. Alive during thetumultuous Archaic Age (700–480 BCE), Anakreon was born in Teos, a Greek
12https://www.oeaw.ac.at/kal/sh/demodokos.mp3.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MOvVWiDsPWQ.

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Ancient Greek I

city on the border of the Persian empire. In 545 the Persians attacked the Greek
city-states lying on and off the coast of Asia Minor. Anakreon fought against theinvaders, though, he says, he did nothing noteworthy in the battle. Anakreon
eventually fled Persian rule and found refuge at the court of Polykrates, tyrantof Samos. After the assassination of Polykrates, Hipparkhos, tyrant of Athens,brought Anakreon to his court. When Hipparkhos was murdered in an uprisingagainst him, Anakreon left Athens, returning to his native Teos, where he spent
the rest of his days. Considered one of the best of the lyric poets, in his poetry
Anakreon employs a deceptively simple style with subtle wit, humor, nuance,
irony, and complexity.
Module 3 Practice Reading Aloud. Practice reading aloud this poem byAnakreon; pay attention to the sound each syllable makes and the rhythm of
the words.
πῶλε Θρῃκίη, τί δή με λοξὸν ὄμμασι βλέπουσανηλέως φεύγεις, δοκεῖς δέ μ’ οὐδὲν εἰδέναι σοφόν;
ἴσθι τοι, καλῶς μὲν ἄν τοι τὸν χαλινὸν ἐμβάλοιμι,ἡνίας δ’ ἔχων στρέφοιμί σ’ ἀμφὶ τέρματα δρόμου·νῦν δὲ λειμῶνάς τε βόσκεαι κοῦφά τε σκιρτῶσα παίζεις,δεξιὸν γὰρ ἱπποπείρην οὐκ ἔχεις ἐπεμβάτην.
Verse Translation
Thracian filly, why eye me sidewise? With heartless
Glance you flee and see no skill in me. Yet look how
Deft I am, I can insert the bit, around the
Racecourse post with reins in hand I can ride astride
You. For now in meadows you graze, playing, lightly
Leaping, lacking any expert guide to ride you.
To listen to Anakreon’s poem read by me and performed by Stefan Hagel, follow
this link:
Anakreon’s Thrakian Filly.3

To listen to the translation set to an original music score by Roshan Samtani,follow this link:
Roshan Samtani’s Musical Translation of Thrakian Filly,4Guitarist, composer, and educator Dr. Roshan Samtani graduated with degrees
in jazz studies (William Paterson), music history (BGSU), and ethnomusicology(PhD. Brown Univ). He resides in Madrid, Spain, and occasionally takes on
dedicated students of the guitar.
3https://loom.com/share/175738b3a7fb48cbbdd3fee97b96bee0.
4	https://loom.com/share/46f05df53e694896b7dade62e9b8d99a

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Etymology Corner III by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Etymology to the Rescue
By now you’ve probably realized the reason why the alphabet is called the alphabet—it’s named after the first two letters of the Greek alphabet, alpha and beta. But are
you having trouble remembering whether an omicron or an omega is the long one?
O-micron is the O that is micro short, like in microscope. O-mega is the O that ismega big, like in megaphone or megabyte. An epsilon is a psilon bare, short E,
whereas an eta is just a plain long E sound. Etymology to the rescue
What to Study and Do 3. Before moving on to the next module, make sure you know
how to accent verbs of three syllables or more.
Learning Tip 3: Take Note of Two Goals for this Course. This course requires
analysis, logic, and memorization. These processes, though difficult to learn, areteachable. This course also attempts to initiate in you a process of deep learning andthinking. Deep learning and thinking involve discontinuity and creativity. They form
an approach to learning that goes beyond analysis, logic, and rote memory into therealm of the unknown, which requires a transformation from old ways of thinking
to new forms of learning. We humans are naturally creative. Our ability to sing andto communicate brought us out of the trees and on to the plains. We create manythings, including words. Throughout the world it is estimated that 5,400 new words
are created every year and 1,000 of them are used enough to make it into print (Global
Language Monitor).1 Note that it is easy to connect many English words with their
Greek ancestors. In the case of anthropology, biology, and chronology, we created theloan word directly from two Greek words,ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου human beingβίος, βίου lifeχρόνος, χρόνου timeandλόγος, λόγου word, reason, study.
As you memorize sounds and learn new vocabulary, consider coining your own
words: etymophilia, perhaps? Think about memorizing the facts of this course andabout using your creativity to make them live with special meaning inside you.
1	https://languagemonitor.com/number-of-words-in-english/no-of-words/.

Module 4Adverbs

Adverbs
In English, adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Many English
adverbs end in the suffix -ly. In Greek, adverbs are defined as they are in
English. A Greek adverb (ἐπίρρημα) typically ends in the suffix -ως, although
the majority of the high-frequency ones found below do not. When reading
Greek you often encounter adverbs right before or right after the word they
modify.
Memorize the definition of an adverb as given above and the three examples
found below. The adverb is in bold and what it modifies is underlined.
1. It may be only in dreams (only modifies the verb may be).
2. I told her we’d be so happy (so modifies the adjective happy).
3. I remember it so well (so modifies well which in turn modifies
remember).
The suffix ly does not always function as a morpheme1 indicating that an English
word is an adverb. Consider these two sentences,
1. There’s a motion in daily silence.
2. Your dear blue eyes how they haunt me daily.
Though the forms are the same, in the first daily functions as an adjective andin the second it functions as an adverb. Since the adverb in Greek functions
just like the adverb in English, use your understanding of English adverbs tounderstand the definition and the function of the Greek adverb.
Practice Identifying Adverbs. From this excerpt of Joseph Heller’s Catch-22,
practice picking out the adverbs and what they modify. Check your answers
with those in the Answer Key.
1	A minimal and indivisible morphological unit that cannot be analysed into smaller units: e.g.
in (prefix), come (stem), -ing (suffix), forming the word incoming (Oxford English Dictionary).
© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

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Ancient Greek I“Open your eyes, Clevinger. It doesn’t make a damned bit ofdifference who wins the war to someone who’s dead.”
Clevinger sat for a moment as though he’d been slapped.
“Congratulations!” he exclaimed bitterly, the thinnest milk-whiteline enclosing his lips tightly in a bloodless, squeezing grind. “I
can’t think of another attitude that could be depended upon to give
greater comfort to the enemy.”“The enemy,” retorted Yossarian with weighted precision, “isanybody who’s going to get you killed, no matter which side he’son, and that includes Colonel Cathcart. And don’t you forget that,
because the longer you remember it, the longer you might live.”
In doing the above exercise, aim for a complete understanding of what anadverb is and how it functions. Since the Greek adverb is nearly identical to theEnglish in definition and function, you can transfer your understanding of the
English adverb to your understanding of the Greek adverb.

Greek Adverbs
The below has a list of the most frequently occurring adverbs. Memorize them.
You will encounter them frequently in the rest of this book and they are notglossed. This book glosses (γλῶσσα tongue, language) all words except thefrequently occurring adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions by giving eachword’s English equivalent and the information you need to be able to identify
the word’s form.
AdverbAdditional Information

English Equivalentἀεί or αἰείalwaysἅμα

at the same time as, at onceἀνά

thereon, thereupon, throughoutἄρα or ῥάand so, therefore, then, in that caseγε(enclitic)

indeed, in fact, merely, at leastδέ(postpositive)on the other handδή

indeed, in fact, certainlyἔπειταthereupon, thereafter, thenἔτιyet, still

εὖ

well

Module 4 | Adverbs

AdverbAdditional Information

29

English Equivalentἤδηalready, by this time, nowκαίeven, alsoμάλισταespecially, mostμᾶλλον

more, ratherμέν(postpositive; typically followedon the one handby δέ)μέντοι

indeed, to be sure, howeverμετάafter, nextμή

(mostly found in hypotheticalno, not

contexts)μήν

truly, surely

νῦν

now

οὐ, οὐκ, οὐχ(proclitic; mostly found inno, not

factual contexts)οὖν

then, therefore; really, certainlyοὕτως or οὕτωin this way, such, so

πάλιν

back

πάνυ

perfectly, verily, by all meansποτε(enclitic)

at some time, once, ever

πῶς

how

τοίνυν

then, thereforeτότεat that time, thenὥσπερas, as if

1. Of these frequently occurring adverbs, only one, οὕτως, ends in -ως.
This is because most adverbs ending in -ως derive from adjectives.
2. Enclitics. Enclitics are pronounced closely with the word that precedes
them. Some common ones are the adverbs γε, ποθέν, ποι, ποτέ, που,
πως, and τοι; the conjunction τε; the pronouns με, μοι, μου, σε, σοισου, τι, and τις; and the verbs εἰμί, φημί. Enclitics sometimes havean accent and sometimes do not. They can also affect the accent of theword that precedes them. How they do this is covered in Part II of the
21st-Century series.
3. Postpositive. Certain words like μέν and δέ cannot stand as the firstword in a sentence.

30

Ancient Greek I

4. Proclitics. Proclitics are monosyllabic words, lacking an accent, andare pronounced closely with the word that follows them. Common
proclitics are the adverb οὐ; the conjunctions εἰ and ὡς; the prepositionsεἰς, ἐν, ἐκ; and these forms of the article: ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, αἱ.
5. μέν and δέ often work together and are often not translated into
English. They can contrast two things: he (μέν) did this; but she (δέ)
did that. They may also create a list or an accumulation of things: he(μέν) did this; and she (δέ) did that, and they (δέ) did this, etc. μέν isalmost always followed by an answering δέ. Additionally ὁ μέν . . . ὁδέ can mean the one . . . the other and οἱ μέν . . . οἱ δέ can mean some. . . others. At first you may find it helpful to translate μέν as on the
one hand and δέ as on the other hand. As your understanding of Greek
improves, you will develop sophisticated ways to translate them or
may decide not to translate them at all.
6. οὐ, οὐκ, οὐχ: use οὐκ if the word that comes after starts with a smoothbreathing; use οὐχ if the word that comes after starts with a roughbreathing; if the word starts with a consonant, use οὐ.
Practice Translating Adverbs. Translate the paragraph below from Catch-22,
paying attention to how the adverbs function. Often there is not an authentic
connection between how ancient Greek expresses the meaning of a sentence
and how English does. The main takeaway from exercises like these is a greater
understanding of how each part of speech functions, not a greater understandingof ancient Greek idiom. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
‘Every time another White Halfoat was born,’ he continued, ‘thestock market turned bullish. Νῦν whole drilling crews were
following us around with all their equipment γε to get the jump on
each other. Companies began to merge γε so they could cut downon the number of people they had to assign to us. But the crowd inback of us kept growing. We never got a good night’s sleep. When westopped, they stopped. When we moved, they moved, chuckwagons,
bulldozers, derricks, generators. We were a walking business boom,
and we began to receive invitations from some of the best hotels γε
for the amount of business we would drag into town with us. Someof those invitations were μάλιστα generous, but we could οὐ accept
any because we were Indians and all the best hotels that wereinviting us would οὐ accept Indians ὡς guests. Racial prejudice is aterrible thing, Yossarian. It μὴν is.
‘τοίνυν, Yossarian, it δὴ happened—the beginning of the end. They
began to follow us around from in front. They would try to guess
where we were going to stop next and would begin drilling before

Module 4 | Adverbs

31

we even got there, so we could οὐ stop. As soon as we’d begin tounroll our blankets, they would kick us off. They had confidence in
us. They wouldn’t καὶ wait to strike oil before they kicked us off. We
were οὕτως tired we almost did οὐ care the day our time ran out.
One morning we found ourselves μὴν surrounded by oilmen waiting
for us to come their way so they could kick us off. Everywhere you
looked there was an oilman on a ridge, waiting there ὡς Indians
getting ready to attack. It was the end. We could οὐ stay where wewere because we had νῦν been kicked off. And there was no placeleft for us to go. Only the Army saved me. Luckily, the war broke out
just in the nick of time, and a draft board picked me right up out of
the middle and put me down safely in Lowery Field, Colorado. I was
the only survivor.’

Why Study the Greeks?
The answers to this question are many and vary as much as beauty does tothe beholder’s eyes. One answer is this. Given our rapidly changing digitalworld, today more than ever we need to learn how to learn. Ancient Greek is agreat vehicle for doing so. It offers us information which must be memorized,
understood, and analyzed. And it offers us different conceptual systems forthinking about culture and language. A second answer is that the ancient Greeks
offer us compelling content. Ancient Greek culture is the starting point for
many subjects that continue to enthrall and influence us today. Anthropology,architecture, art, history, literature, mathematics, medicine, music, philosophy,
political science, rhetoric, science, and theology are some fields of study to which
the Greeks applied their curiosity and intellects. Studying their achievements inthese fields assists us by offering models and perspectives for thinking about
these subjects and for living our own lives. By studying a culture different fromour own, we can see more clearly how life is filled with complexity and nuance,
where there are few absolute saints and sinners. Like the rest of humanity, theGreeks achieved great things, some good, some bad, and much that was mixed.
The Greeks in all their complexity are there for us to study with a critical eyethat sees the bad and the good and realizes that most people have a mixtureof both within them. A third possible answer is that the Greeks were creativeand independent, willing to challenge the status quo and to invent new waysof doing and of thinking. Cultivating the creative spirit was integral to Greek
life and we can learn from them how to do so ourselves. And so this textbook
offers its answers to this question by assisting you in learning how to learn; byoffering you rich content; and by attempting to awaken the creative spirit thatlives within you.

32

Ancient Greek I

Mimnermos of Kolophon or Smyrna, Μίμνερμος ἐκ Κολοφῶνος ἢ Σμύρνας, c.
630–600 BCE. A Greek elegiac poet, Mimnermos wrote short polished poetry on avariety of themes including age, death, and love. He influenced Kallimakhos andthe Alexandrian poets and Properitus and the later Roman poets. Alexandrian
scholars collected his poems into two books. Today only paltry scraps remain. As
is the case with most of the ancients, what little we know of Mimnermos comesfrom what we glean from the small bits of his writings that have survived.
Module 4 Practice Reading Aloud. Practice reading this poem by Mimnermos.
Read the poem a few times, paying attention to the sound each syllable makes
and trying to hear the rhythm of the words.
Mimnermos, Fragment 1
τίς δὲ βίος, τί δὲ τερπνὸν ἄτερ χρυσῆς Ἀφροδίτης;
τεθναίην, ὅτε μοι μηκέτι ταῦτα μέλοι:κρυπταδίη φιλότης καὶ μείλιχα δῶρα καὶ εὐνή,οἷ’ ἥβης ἄνθεα γίνεται ἁρπαλέα
1.5
ἀνδράσιν ἠδὲ γυναιξίν· ἐπεὶ δ’ ὀδυνηρὸν ἐπέλθῃγῆρας, ὅ τ’ αἰσχρὸν ὁμῶς καὶ κακὸν ἄνδρα τιθεῖ,αἰεί μιν φρένας ἀμφὶ κακαὶ τείρουσι μέριμναι,οὐδ’ αὐγὰς προσορῶν τέρπεται ἠελίου,ἀλλ’ ἐχθρὸς μὲν παισίν, ἀτίμαστος δὲ γυναιξίν·
1.10οὕτως ἀργαλέον γῆρας ἔθηκε θεός.
Verse Translation
What’s life? Where’s joy without golden Love?
I welcome death when these delights depart:
Secret love and pleasing gifts and tangled beds,
The blossoms youth provides to grasping men and
Women. Aged pain then creaks its self in
And brings an ugly face and evil grin,
Rubbing sharpened cares upon our dulling minds.
No more do we enjoy the rays of day
Rather hostile lives we live despised byYoung loves. So god decreed pained age to be.
To hear me read, followed by Stefan Hagel’s expert reading with a pitch accent,follow the link below:
Mimnermos’ What is Life.22	
https://loom.com/share/6afdebc56f4542e7bfaf3ae35ccffe96.

Module 4 | Adverbs

33

Etymology Corner IV by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Why Bother?
Most of us these days don’t get a solid grammatical grounding in the language welearn at home—if you can express yourself in English, why do you need to know
how it fits together? It’s like how most of us drive cars—if you can obey the rulesof the road and get from A to B, why do you need to know how to change a tire or asparkplug? If something goes wrong, can’t you just call an expert? The great thing
about studying Greek is YOU will become that expert. When you start to understandhow the mechanics of Greek work, you’ll in turn start to understand some of those
things that are weird about English. Greek and English aren’t identical under thehood, but you will gain the tools to understand both of them.
Or to think of it a different way, to understand Greek you’ll need to learn some ofthese technical terms that you probably haven’t heard anyone talk about since 3rd
grade (if ever). It’s not your fault, but it’s now your problem!
What to Study and Do 4. Before moving on to the next module make sure that you
have learned the definition and the function of the adverb as found in the wilds ofthe English and Greek languages, keeping in mind that if you understand the English
adverb you also understand the Greek. As you work through this text, if you findyourself uncertain about the definition and function of the adverb, redo the exercisesin this module and check your answers with the Answer Key.
Learning Tip 4: Internalize and Apply. As you process and come to understandnew information, you make it part of your working knowledge. Going through aprocess of memorization, association, and review enables you to internalize the new
information. Active application of what you have memorized assists your learning of
the new material. The practice exercises on adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions
seek to assist you in making your understanding of the definitions of these parts ofspeech part of your internalized working knowledge by having you apply what you
have memorized, the definitions, to identifying the parts of speech in the wild. Memory
combined with application result in your mastering this analytical part of the course.

Module 5

Conjunctions and Accenting Verbs II

Conjunctions
Like adverbs, the Greek conjunction (σύνδεσμος) is the same as the English
conjunction in definition and function. Conjunctions are of two kinds,
coordinating and subordinating.
Coordinating conjunctions connect two words: our doubts and fears; crying
and laughing. They connect two phrases: by ship and on foot. They connect
clauses (words containing a subject and verb): a nation that was conceived inliberty and dedicated to the proposition that all are created equal.
Subordinating conjunctions connect a dependent clause to an independent
clause. Clauses, both dependent and independent, contain a subject and a verb.
Consider these two sentences,be mindful if you’re speaking,andbe careful when you go along.
If you’re speaking and when you go along are the dependent clauses. Be
mindful and be careful are the independent clauses. The subordinating
conjunctions if and when connect the two clauses.
Practice Identifying Conjunctions. From this excerpt from Catch-22, practice
picking out the coordinating and subordinating conjunctions in the passage
below. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
Each morning when they came around, three brisk and serious men
with efficient mouths and inefficient eyes, they were accompanied
by brisk and serious Nurse Duckett, one of the ward nurses who
didn’t like Yossarian. They read the chart at the foot of the bed andasked impatiently about the pain. They seemed irritated when he© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.05

36

Ancient Greek I

told them it was exactly the same. Nurse Duckett made a note togive Yossarian another pill, and the four of them moved along to thenext bed. None of the nurses liked Yossarian. Actually, although thepain in his liver had gone away, Yossarian didn’t say anything andthe doctors never suspected.
With this exercise your aim is a full understanding of what a conjunction is (itsdefinition) and how it is used in a sentence (its function).

Greek Conjunctions
The below has a list of the most frequently occurring conjunctions. Memorize
them. You will encounter them frequently in the rest of this book and they are
not glossed.
Coordinating

Additional Information

ἀλλά

English Equivalentbut, forγάρ(postpositive)

for

δέ

(postpositive; sometimes δέ justand, butindicates change of subject)ἤor, than

καί

and;

καί . . . καίboth . . . andμηδέand . . . notμήτεneither;μήτε . . . μήτεneither . . .

nor
οὐδέ

and not, but not, not evenοὔτεand not; neither;οὔτε . . . οὔτεneither . . . nor

τε(enclitic and postpositive)

andSubordinating

Additional Information

English Equivalent

ἐάν
εἰ
ἐπεί

if
(proclitic)

if
after, when, sinceModule 5 | Conjunctions and Accenting Verbs II

Subordinating

Additional Information

37

English Equivalentἵναin order that, so that, whereὅπως

so that, in order that; how;wheneverὅταν (ὅτε + ἄν)

whenever

ὅτε

when

ὅτι

that, becauseπρίν

beforeὡςὥστε(proclitic)

as, how, when, sinceand so, such that, with the resultthat

1. Enclitics. Enclitics are pronounced closely with the word that precedes
them. Some common ones are the adverbs γε, ποθέν, ποι, ποτέ, που,
πως, and τοι; the conjunction τε; the pronouns με, μοι, μου, σε, σοισου, τι, and τις; and the verbs εἰμί, φημί. Enclitics sometimes havean accent and sometimes do not. They can also affect the accent of theword that precedes them. How they do this is covered in Part II of the
21st-Century series.
2. Postpositive. Certain words like μέν and δέ cannot stand as the firstword in a sentence.
3. Proclitics. Proclitics are monosyllabic words, lacking an accent, andare pronounced closely with the word that follows them. Common
proclitics are the adverb οὐ; the conjunctions εἰ and ὡς; the prepositionsεἰς, ἐν, ἐκ; and these forms of the article: ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, αἱ.
4. τε . . . τε. Note the post-positive placement after what it links, ὁ ἥλιός τεἡ ἀγορά τε = καὶ ὁ ἥλιός καὶ ἡ ἀγορά both the sun and the marketplace.
Practice Translating Conjunctions and Adverbs. Translate the paragraphbelow, a translation of the beginning of Lucian’s The Ass, ὁ Ὄνος, paying
attention to how the conjunctions and adverbs function. Often there is not anauthentic connection between how ancient Greek expresses the meaning of asentence and how English does. The main takeaway from exercises like theseis a greater understanding of how each part of speech functions, not a greater
understanding of ancient Greek idiom. Check your answers with those in theAnswer Key.
I ποτε went to Thessaly. I had some family business there with aman from that region. My horse carried me καὶ my possessions
καὶ one slave attended me. I was travelling the dirt road ἐπεὶ along38

Ancient Greek I

came some travellers headed for Hypata, a city of Thessaly καὶtheir hometown. We shared bread ὡς we approached the end of
our journey καὶ the city. I asked them εἰ they knew about a manliving in Hypata. His name was Hipparkhos καὶ I carried for him aletter from home, requesting a stay at his house. They replied ὅτιthey knew Hipparkhos, ἵνα in the city he lived, ὅτι he had sufficientsilver, and ὅτι he kept only one slave and a wife, ἐπεὶ money was
his true love.
ὡς we neared the city, we saw an orchard καὶ on the grounds a small
but tolerable cottage ἵνα Hipparkhos lived. Bidding me farewell mycompanions left. I approached the door and knocked. After a longwait a woman answered, stepping outside.

Accenting Verbs II
Remember that there are three accent marks:
´

Acute (ὀξύς) accent: marking a raising of the musical pitch`Grave (βαρύς) accent: marking a neutral musical pitch

῀

Circumflex (περισπώμενος) accent: marking a raising andlowering of pitch

Since English speakers accent words by stress not pitch, for the purpose of thiscourse, simply stress the accented syllable as you would in English, ignoring
the type of accent. If you wish to hear what a pitch accent in Greek may havesounded like, follow the Stefan Hagel links throughout this text.

Vowel Length
In the paradigms and accenting practice of this text, macrons mark alpha, iota,
and upsilon if long. Short vowels and diphthongs are not marked. In authentic
texts and in the Practice Translating sections of this text, macrons do not occur.
Diphthongs are by definition long with this exception: final -αι and -οι are shortfor purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part IIof the 21st-Century series. -αι and -οι are final when they appear as the last two
letters of a word, λῦσαι but not λύσαις.

Module 5 | Conjunctions and Accenting Verbs II39

Recessive and Persistent Accent
In recessive accent, the accent occurs as far from the ultima as the possibilitiesof accent allow. Most verb forms have recessive accent. Nouns and other partsof speech have persistent accent. In persistent accent, the accent stays on thesame vowel or diphthong it is on in the nominative singular form and does notchange unless it has to in accordance with the possibilities of where accents canoccur.

Review Possibilities of Accent I
Review these two possibilities, rememorizing them if you need to.
1. An acute accent can appear on the antepenult, penult, or ultima.
2. An acute accent can only appear on the antepenult if the ultima is short.

Additional Possibilities of Accent
Memorize these four possibilities.
1. An acute accent can appear on the antepenult, penult, or ultima.
2. An acute accent can only appear on the antepenult if the ultima is short.
3. A circumflex accent can appear only on long vowels and never accentsthe antepenult.
4. A circumflex accent can appear on the penult if the penult is long andthe ultima is short, abbreviated PLUS: PENULT LONG ULTIMA SHORT.

Review Accenting Verbs of Three Syllables or More
Remember that long vowels are marked with a macron and that short vowels
are not marked. Read from top to bottom and apply the first line that meets thecriteria:
1. If the ultima is short, put an acute on the antepenult. Stop!

ἔπαυε2. If the ultima is long, put an acute on the penult. Stop!

παυσάτωAccenting Verbs of Two Syllables
Νote that there are no verbs of only one syllable unless contraction, like cannot
to can’t, has occurred. Contract verbs are introduced in Modules 10, 17, 19, and
24.

40

Ancient Greek I

1.

If the penult is long AND the ultima is short, put a circumflex παῦεon the penult. Stop!
A helpful acronym is PLUS: Penult Long; Ultima Short.

2.

In all other cases (there are three), put an acute on the
penult. Stop!
a. Short penult, short ultima

βάλεb. Short penult, long ultimaβάλωc. Long penult, long ultimaπαύειPractice Accenting Verbs of Two Syllables or More. Check your answers
with those in the Answer Key. Remember that final -αι and -οι are short for
purposes of accentuation, except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the
21st-Century series. There are no optative forms in the below.
1. λαμβανει, ληψει, ἐλαβε, ἐλαμβανε, ἐληφθη, ληψεσθε, λαμβανεται,λαμβανεσθαι
2. βουλει, βουλῃ, βουλησομεθα, ἐβουλου, ἐβουλετο, ἐβουληθησαν,βουλεται, βουλονται3. ἐρχεσθε, ἐλευσει, ἠλθον, ἠλθε, ἠλθομεν, ἠλθες, ἐρχονται, ἐρχεσθαι
4. καλεω, ἐκαλεον, καλεειν, ἐκαλεσα, κεκληκα, ἐκληθη, καλεεται,καλεονται5. πρᾱττον, ἐπρᾱττον, πρᾱττε, πρᾱξεις, πρᾱξω, πρᾱξει, πραττεται,πραττεσθαι
6. ἀρχεις, ἠρχον, ἠρχες, ἠρχου, ἠρξε, ἠρχθη, ἀρχεται, ἀρχονται
7. ἀκουει, ἀκουσει, ἠκουσα, ἀκουειν, ἀκουομεθα, ἀκουομεν, ἀκουεται,ἀκουονται
8. φερεις, φερει, φερον, οἰσον, φερε, οἰσει, οἰσεται, οἰσεσθαι
9. ἀγομεν, ἀγειν, ἠγε, ἠγου, ἠχθη, ἀξει, ἀγεται, ἀξονται
10. φαινεις, φαινον, ἐφαινον, φανεειν, ἐφανθη, φαινε, φαινεται, φανεεσθαιThere is additional accent practice in Appendix X.

Greek Lyric Poetry
Greek lyric poetry refers to poetry composed between the 600s to about 350
BCE, which is not epic, didactic, verse in hexameters, or dramatic (comedy,
satyr, and tragedy). Lyric poetry has its roots in folk songs and its subject matter
is as varied as the subject matter of song is today. Poets sung about friendships,

Module 5 | Conjunctions and Accenting Verbs II41

funerals, harvests, hatreds, love, philosophy, war, and weddings, to name afew topics. Lyric poems ranged in length from a few lines to several hundred.
Most of this poetry was sung to the accompaniment of a lyre or an aulos, adouble-reed wind instrument, commonly but mistakenly referred to as a flute.
Sometimes a harp was used instead of a lyre. Some lyric poets are Arkhilokhos,
Kallinos, Mimnermos, Semonides, and Tyrtaios, who lived in the 600s BCE;
Alkaios, Sappho, Solon, and Theognis, alive in the 600s and 500s BCE; Anakreon
in the 500s; and Bakkhylides, Pindar, Praxilla, and Simonides in the 400s. In thistext you have already read poems by Anakreon, Arkhilokhos, and Mimnermos.
You will also read poems by Sappho, hailed by her contemporaries as the tenthmuse, and by Praxilla, a poetess also of high repute.
Module 5 Practice Reading Aloud. Practice reading this poem by Anakreon.
Read the poem out loud a few times, paying attention to the sound each syllable
makes and trying to hear the rhythm of the words.
Anakreon 395πολιοὶ μὲν ἡμὶν ἤδηκρόταφοι κάρη τε λευκόν,χαρίεσσα δ’ οὐκέτ’ ἥβηπάρα, γηραλέοι δ’ ὀδόντες,5γλυκεροῦ δ’ οὐκέτι πολλὸςβιότου χρόνος λέλειπται·διὰ ταῦτ’ ἀνασταλύζω
θαμὰ Τάρταρον δεδοικώς·Ἄιδεω γάρ ἐστι δεινὸς10μυχός, ἀργαλῆ δ’ ἐς αὐτὸνκάτοδος· καὶ γὰρ ἑτοῖμον
καταβάντι μὴ ἀναβῆναι.

Verse Translation
Mine temples are grayMy pate gleams bright42

Ancient Greek I

Gone’s youth’s delight.

My teeth rot away
Not much remains
Of my cherished life.

And so I wail,In dread of Hell,And Hades’ fright-

Ful gloom. A steep
Step down, a grim
Descent, from which

We won’t return.
To hear me read, followed by Stefan Hagel’s expert reading with a pitch accent,follow the link below:
Anakreon 395.1

Etymology Corner V by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 1
Diphthongs, Module 1. You’ll remember that a diphthong is defined assome pairs of vowels pronounced together, producing one sound that starts
as one vowel and finishes as another. This makes sense because they are
two (di) sounds (phthong) coming together. Think of two strings on a
guitar being struck and making a simple chord—phthong!
What to Study and Do 5. Before moving on to the next module, makesure that you have learned the definition and the function of coordinating
and subordinating conjunctions and that you can identify them in thewild. Remember that if you understand the definition and function of1	
https://loom.com/share/94d49965d2174398aca850e5d0800897.

Module 5 | Conjunctions and Accenting Verbs II

43

the English conjunction, you also understand the Greek conjunction. As you workthrough this text, if you find yourself uncertain about the definition and function of thecoordinating and subordinating conjunctions, redo the exercises in this module andcheck your answers with the Answer Key. Also make sure that you have memorized
the possibilities of accent and that you can accent verbs of any number of syllables.
Learning Tip 5: Learn So As To Be Able To Teach. Learning anything new takes
time. As you progress through this course, learn the new information so as to be able
to teach it to a friend, enemy, pet, relative, or roommate. As you progress, review
regularly and often. What seems at first read a barbaric murmur of incoherence will
become an articulate and beautiful friend as you revisit it time and again.

Module 6

Endings Create Meaning

Greek Cases
In the next module the noun and pronoun case system is presented in detail. For
now, know that there are five cases in Greek: nominative, accusative, genitive,
dative, and vocative or, ordered differently, nominative, genitive, dative,
accusative, and vocative. Americans teaching ancient Greek use the latterorder. Those teaching in other parts of the world tend to use the former. So as
to reach both audiences, this text adopts both conventions, presenting NAGDV
first, and NGDAV second. Each case has specific functions associated with it.
In this module, three cases (nominative, accusative, dative) and their functions(subject, object, indirect object) are introduced.

In English, Word Order Creates Meaning
In English, meaning is created by two main things: word order and prepositional
phrases. Word order enables us to understand who acts and whom or what
receives the action.
Key:bold = subject of the verb
underlined = object of the verb
italics = verb
( ) = indirect object

Consider this sentence:
The woman sees the man.
The woman, the sentence’s subject, performs the action of the verb, sees. The
man, the sentence’s object, receives the action of the verb, sees.
If we change the order of the words,© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.06

46

Ancient Greek I

The man sees the woman.
we change the meaning of the sentence.
In the above, three items of complexity are present: subject, verb, object. In
the below a fourth item is added, an indirect object.
In the sentence,
I give (her) money
I, the sentence’s subject, performs the action of the verb, give. Money, thesentence’s object, receives the action of the verb, give. Her, the sentence’s
indirect object, indirectly receives the action of the verb give. Word order
determines who gives what to whom. If we change the order of the words,
Give money I her
we no longer have a meaningful sentence.

In Greek, Endings Create Meaning
In Greek, meaning is created by two main things: word endings and prepositional
phrases. Word order still has a role to play in creating meaning but, again, word
endings, much more than word order, determine meaning. Endings tell us who
acts and who or what receives the action.
In this sentence,ἡ γυνὴ τὸν ἄνδρα ὁράει,The woman sees the man,ἡ γυνή is the subject. Greek indicates the subject by the nominative case ending-η. The nominative case is the case that Greeks used in order to tell who or what
performs the action of a verb or has the action of the verb performed upon it.
τὸν ἄνδρα is the object of the verb—it directly receives the action of the verb.
Greek indicates object by the accusative case ending -α. The accusative case is
the case that Greek uses to tell who or what receives the action of a verb.
If we change the order of the words,
1. τὸν ἄνδρα ὁράει ἡ γυνή,
2. ὁράει ἡ γυνὴ τὸν ἄνδρα,3. τὸν ἄνδρα ἡ γυνὴ ὁράει,
the meaning remains the same because case ending, not word order, determines
meaning.
As already noted, the above sentence has three pieces of grammaticalcomplexity: subject, verb, direct object. In what follows we add a fourth, theindirect object.
In the sentences,

Module 6 | Endings Create Meaning

47ἡ γυνὴ χρήματα (αὐτῷ) δίδωσι,The woman gives him money,andἡ γυνὴ χρήματα (αὐτῇ) δίδωσι,The woman gives her money,ἡ γυνή is the subject. Greek indicates subject by the nominative case ending -η.
χρήματα is the object of the verb—it directly receives the verb’s action. Greek
indicates object by the accusative case ending -α. In the first sentence αὐτῷ isthe indirect object and in the second αὐτῇ is the indirect object. Greek indicates
indirect object by using the dative case endings -ῳ and -ῃ. Again if we change
the order of the words,χρήματα ἡ γυνὴ δίδωσι (αὐτῷ),
the woman gives him money,and(αὐτῇ) δίδωσι ἡ γυνὴ χρήματα,
the woman gives her money,
the meaning remains the same because case ending, not word order, determines
meaning.
Practice Writing in Greek. Using the vocabulary from the nouns and verbs,
compose the below sentences in ancient Greek. For nouns and pronouns be sure
to use the correct case. Nominative case endings are bolded; accusative endings
are underlined and dative endings are highlighted. Check your answers withthose in the Answer Key.
Case Ending:

Nominative Ending

Function-α, -η, -οςuse for the subject of the verb

Dative Ending

Function-ῃ, -ι, -ῳ

use for the indirect object of the verb

Accusative Ending

Function-α -ην, -ον

use for the object of the verb

48Ancient Greek IVerbs*ἄγει leads*γράφει writes*δίδωσι gives*ὁράει sees*ἔχει holds*πείθει persuades*καλέει calls*πέμπει sends*λαμβάνει takes*ποιέει does, makes*κελεύει commands*φέρει carries

Nouns and Pronouns
Νοminative Case

Dative Case

Accusative Case

English Equivalent*ἄνθρωπος

ἀνθρώπῳἄνθρωπον

human, person

*ἥδε

τῇδε

τήνδε

she, her, hers

*βίος

βίῳ

βίον

life

*γυνή

γυναικίγυναῖκαwoman, wife

*θεός

θεῷ

θεόν

god, goddess*ἵππος

ἵππῳ

ἵππον

horse

*νόμος

νόμῳ

νόμον

law, custom

*ὅδε

τῷδε

τόνδε

he, him, his*φίλος

φίλῳ

φίλον

friend*χρόνοςχρόνῳχρόνον

time*χρήματαχρήμασι (ν)χρήματαmoney

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
2. The letter nu in χρήμασι (ν) is a nu-movable. It may be added to theending when the following word begins with a vowel or at the end ofclauses or verses. Otherwise it is left off.
Using the vocabulary found above, translate the sentences into ancient Greek.
There is no Greek equivalent for the English a and so leave a untranslated in the
below. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
1. A person leads a horse.
2. Custom persuades man.
3. God gives him money.
4. He gives her money.
5. A woman sees a horse.

Module 6 | Endings Create Meaning

49

6. A person makes a god for him.
7. A horse carries her.
8. God gives her a friend.
9. A person calls a horse.
10. Time writes custom.

Practice Making Up Your Own Sentences
Using the above words, try writing sentences in Greek. Be creative and don’t
worry about making a mistake.

Epic Poetry
The Sumerian epic Gilgamesh, dated to c. 2000 BCE, tells the story in Akkhadianof the historical king of Uruk, Gilgamesh, and his companion, Enkidu. It is thefirst recorded literature that exists and concerns Gilgamesh’s unsuccessfulquest to obtain immortality. Epic poetry also flourished in Greece. The Iliad andthe Odyssey, believed to have been composed by Homer, record historical andfictional events that date to 3100 years ago, c. 1100 BCE. The epics were originallytransmitted orally and first written down around 750 BCE, the same time that
their possible author, Homer, lived. The ancient Greek epics tell the tale of twoheroes, Akhilleus and Odysseus, and are organized around a central thesis. The
Iliad concerns Akhilleus’ wrath and the destruction it caused when the Greeks
fought at Troy so as to take back for Menelaos his wife Helen. The Odyssey
explores Odysseus’ quest to return home after the fall of Troy and to reassert
himself as king of Ithaka. The Greeks believed that both epics were largely true
accounts of what they viewed as the ancient past. Today we believe that theepics are mostly fiction, though they include many non-fictional places, people,
and events. The epics (and other poetry) were sung by bards and accompanied
by a musical instrument, such as the phorminx or lyre. For more informationand to hear what the words and music may have sounded like, visit this site:
Georg Danek and Stefan Hagel“In the course of the last years, we have developed a technique of
singing the Homeric epics, which is appropriate for the primarily
oral tradition from which these poems emerge. The Homeric bard
sang his songs to the four-stringed phorminx, improvising his fournote melody at the same time as he improvised his text, which was
unique in every performance. His monotonous melody, far frominterpreting the text, served only as a medium to transport thewords and to catch the listeners’ attention by their intrinsic rhythm.

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Ancient Greek I

Our theory is not to be understood as the exact reconstruction ofa given melody, but as an approach to the technique the Homeric
singers used to accommodate melodic principles to the demandsof the individual verse, guided by the accentual structure andsentence-intonation of the Ancient Greek language as well as bymetrical structures.”
To listen to Stefan Hagel singing the Iliad, follow this link:
Stefan Hagel Singing the Iliad.1
Homer, Ὅμηρος, c. 750 BCE Homer is conventionally credited with thecomposition of the epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, although today manyscholars believe that the poems were composed by the different people. Homersung his poems to the accompaniment of a musical instrument, the fourstringed phorminx (φόρμιγξ). In the poems Homer speaks of the past and of his
own modern day, referring to it regularly. When telling the story of the heroes
Akhilleus and Odysseus, he refers to the events of their lives as having takenplace in ancient times. Like many things, time—and our conception of it—isrelative. Of the many accounts of Homer’s life the most common is that he was ablind bard from Ionia—blindness being associated with excellence in the poetic
craft. Of him not much else is known and less is certain. Time veils what weknow of Homer.
Module 6 Practice Reading Aloud. Practice reading this excerpt of the Odyssey,Book 19. 535–550. Read the excerpt a few times, paying attention to the soundeach syllable makes and trying to hear the rhythm of the words.
ἀλλʼ ἄγε μοι τὸν ὄνειρον ὑπόκριναι καὶ ἄκουσον.
χῆνές μοι κατὰ οἶκον ἐείκοσι πυρὸν ἔδουσινἐξ ὕδατος, καί τέ σφιν ἰαίνομαι εἰσορόωσα·ἐλθὼν δʼ ἐξ ὄρεος μέγας αἰετὸς ἀγκυλοχείλης
πᾶσι κατʼ αὐχένας ἦξε καὶ ἔκτανεν· οἱ δʼ ἐκέχυντο
ἀθρόοι ἐν μεγάροις, ὁ δʼ ἐς αἰθέρα δῖαν ἀέρθη.
αὐτὰρ ἐγὼ κλαῖον καὶ ἐκώκυον ἔν περ ὀνείρῳ,ἀμφὶ δʼ ἔμʼ ἠγερέθοντο ἐϋπλοκαμῖδες Ἀχαιαί,οἴκτρʼ ὀλοφυρομένην ὅ μοι αἰετὸς ἔκτανε χῆνας.
ἂψ δʼ ἐλθὼν κατʼ ἄρʼ ἕζετʼ ἐπὶ προὔχοντι μελάθρῳ,φωνῇ δὲ βροτέῃ κατερήτυε φώνησέν τε·«θάρσει, Ἰκαρίου κούρη τηλεκλειτοῖο·οὐκ ὄναρ, ἀλλʼ ὕπαρ ἐσθλόν, ὅ τοι τετελεσμένον ἔσται.
χῆνες μὲν μνηστῆρες, ἐγὼ δέ τοι αἰετὸς ὄρνις1	
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qAZg9aGbEU8&t=88s.

Module 6 | Endings Create Meaning

51ἦα πάρος, νῦν αὖτε τεὸς πόσις εἰλήλουθα,ὃς πᾶσι μνηστῆρσιν ἀεικέα πότμον ἐφήσω.»Verse Translation
Guest, interpret my dream, listen closely, please.
Twenty house-fed geese of mine are eating grain inside.
Fresh from swimming they came, bringing joy, and I admire them.
From afar a large beaked mountain eagle enters,
breaks their necks, and kills them all, a heap of bodies,
Piled in our hall. He then flies into the bright sky.
Still asleep I weep and caterwaul in dreams alive, andAltogether ‘round me stand long-haired Akhaians. And I
Sob—alas for me—my dead geese killed by eagle’s might.
Turning back he perches massive in our hall andEnds my tears, his human voice proclaiming clearly,“Courage, daughter, born of famed Ikarios. No
Dream was this but real, an act that shall occur. These
Geese are suitors; I, no more an eagle, bird ofPrey, am come, your husband once again returned. A
Dreadful foul and fateful death I throw upon them all.”
To hear me read, followed by Stefan Hagel’s expert reading with a pitch accent,follow the link below:
Odyssey Book 19. 535–550.2

Etymology Corner VI by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 2
Orthography, Module 1. Orthography refers to the correct way of writing a word,
and in Greek it’s not just a matter of getting the letters in the right order but we needto include accents and breathing for some vowels. Orthography comes from theGreek ὀρθός straight, correct, right (did you get braces from the orthodontist, correct
tooth doctor?) and γραφία drawing, writing (like calligraphy is beautiful writing,oceanography is writing about the ocean, and graffiti is writing on a wall or surface
in a public place).
What to Study and Do 6. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you
have learned that Greek indicates the subject, the person or thing that performs the2	https://loom.com/share/d2ab14e469a34546929bf3ce02d5cfad.

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Ancient Greek I

action of a verb or has the action performed upon her, by using a nominative caseending; that Greek indicates the object, the person or thing that receives the actionof the verb, by using an accusative case ending; and that Greek indicates the indirect
object, the person or thing indirectly involved in the action of the verb, by using thedative case ending. You should now have a good understanding of the two ways that
English creates meaning (word order and prepositional phrases) and the two waysthat Greek creates meaning (endings and prepositional phrases).
Learning Tip 6: Let What You Know Help with What You Do Not Know. You are
acquiring an understanding of how English and Greek create meaning in similar
and different ways. Use your knowledge of English to assist you in acquiring yourknowledge of Greek. As you identify parts of speech and determine their function,
your understanding of this book’s content (definitions, endings, and vocabulary)and its concepts (how Greek creates meaning) increases. Learning the content andconcepts of this course requires focused effort on your part. Apply this strategy toother aspects of life, building from what you know to what you do not.

Guest Feature 1

Stefan Hagel Teaches Us How to Sing

Singing Ancient Greek by Stefan Hagel
Why would you want to do such a weird thing? Perhaps because you realise mostof ancient poetry was meant to be sung, and you would like to experience it asproperly as possible. Or because it is a nice way of getting acquainted with theinterplay between rhythm and melodic accent that is at the core of ancient Greek
pronunciation. Or because, in the form of song, it is much easier to remember
poetry. Or to impress your friends (only recommended with a very special typeof friend).
If you do not like singing and are nevertheless fascinated with poetry, there is
still much to gain—epic poetry was generally recited at least from the Classicalperiod on, and so were all the ordinary dialogues in drama. Here the rhythm
alone, if executed in the ancient way in the form of long and short syllables, will
grant a genuinely musical experience even without a melody, and all the more
so if the gliding pitch contours of the language are respected as well. For those,
however, who take the easier route of singing, here are some ideas.
Regarding the music of ancient poetry, we are trapped between the excitingly
ancient and the reassuringly genuine. We do have some ancient tunes, some ofthem virtually complete, but most of these are from the Roman period, half amillennium after Classical Athens and even further removed from the music of
Sappho and Homer. Most famous among these melodies is the so-called Seikilos
song, inscribed on a small funeral monument. Then there is a number of pieces
by a certain Mesomedes, a highly valued musician at the Imperial court in Rome.
Apparently composed for elementary music schooling, they are still perfect
introductory material, having been preserved in medieval copies. The oldest
performable melody, in contrast, comes from the end of the second century
BCE, when a hymn staged at Delphi by the Athenian state orchestra was publicly
displayed on stone. Naturally, this is much more complex music, which will soundquite strange to ears not trained in the subtlety of ancient chromaticism.
© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.07

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Ancient Greek I

The aforementioned melodies are readily accessible in modern transcriptions.
There is only a small problem: most of these do not reflect the original pitch. Whenthe difference is in the range of only a semitone or tone, that may be negligible
for many purposes, but often—which unfortunately includes the best editions—the melodies appear much too high. This has complex historical reasons thatneed not concern us, but it is important to bear in mind. For the simpler pieces
mentioned above there is a simple guide: the Seikilos song, Mesomedes’ Hymn
to the Sun, and the two short Invocations in the same collection all start withthe same note. However we find it transcribed (most often as a or e), its original
pitch was very close to modern F#. Remember this note, in case you should everwant to play one of the chief ancient instruments, where it is a traditional bass
note (in ancient musical notation, it is written as C).
Even though the Greeks developed the idea of an octave being divided into
twelve equal semitone steps, they did not normally tune their instruments inthis way. Therefore, an original performance would often surprise modern
Western ears with some notes slightly ‘out of tune’. If you are interested in suchdetails, I have developed tools for bringing transmitted tunings to life on thecomputer and experimenting with them. You may download them here,
https://homepage.univie.ac.at/stefan.hagel/software/Harmogai_inst.exe

Finally, you may want to set your favourite lyric to melodies of your own. The
good news is that here we cannot do anything wrong, except a single thing:
to claim that what we are doing would amount to ‘reconstructing ancientmusic’. Otherwise we enjoy complete freedom, though it is always helpful
to remain aware of what exactly we are aiming at. In an approach towards
the unapproachable goal of ‘authenticity’, there are various possible steps—
challenges best faced one at a time: trying to understand the underlying
rhythm, rationally and as a bodily experience; roughly using ancient-stylescales; perhaps using real ancient tuning; using reconstructed instruments (inrecent years, good replicas of auloi and lyras have become available, though thebest-advertised are not necessarily the most authentic); and of course designing
the melody in an ancient way.
Unfortunately, our understanding of what the last may mean rests on the few
surviving music fragments plus some scattered remarks in ancient texts. Above,
we have already made the acquaintance of a typical starting note, which also
serves as a convenient final; we also learn that the note a fourth above it played ahighly important role in pre-Roman music, and the notes a tone below these two
respectively may conveniently serve as a harmonic contrast. An instrumental
accompaniment would underline such harmonic domains, while abstaining
from modern chordal harmony: instead of our cherished chords involving threeor more different notes in the octave, the ancient sources only ever talk about

Guest Feature 1 | Stefan Hagel Teaches Us How to Sing

55

a combination of two, creating intervallic concords but also discords, as well as
resolving the tensions created in this way into unison.
But how to develop the contours of a melody? In many of the extant ancient
pieces, there is a tendency to follow the rise and fall of speech melody, sometimes
roughly, sometimes so faithfully that scholars were able to derive crucial
parameters of ancient prosody from them. Many of us who have composed
melodies for ancient texts have therefore mimicked this practice, if only for lackof a better starting point. Probably this approach is indeed well suited for manykinds of poetry; it has been argued that even early epic song worked in a similar
way. But this will not help us with most strophic song. Whenever the ancient
Greeks composed in strophes, they replicated the rhythm in each of them withgreat precision, while taking (almost) no heed of where the accents were placedin the verses: in sharp contrast to English, for instance, Greek accents were
purely melodic and thus did not contribute to the rhythm of the language. As aconsequence, if ancient Greek poetry performed matching strophes to similar
melodies, these could not possibly all follow the contours of speech melody.
One may doubt the condition—might they rather have varied the melody fromstrophe to strophe? Unfortunately, the extant musical fragments contradictthat possibility at least for the songs of tragedy. Still, the matter may have beendifferent with the much shorter strophes of Sappho, Alcaeus, and other archaic
composers. Here the frequent repetition of a small structure may well havecalled for some melodic variation—especially when a single performer could
easily adjust melodic patterns on the fly, which a chorus cannot.
The guidelines for ‘composing according to the accent’ are rather
straightforward. In each Greek word, apart from small ones such as prepositions
and articles, there is a certain point where the gliding voice of speech reached thehighest pitch. This point is indicated graphically by the accent marks: an acuteor grave was located at the end of the vowel or diphthong, with a circumflex,
rather than at the beginning. After this point, the pitch dropped markedly—
except in the case of a grave accent, where the end of the word followed suit,leaving no time for a pitch drop. From the start of the next unit up until its own
accent point, the pitch does not fall again. Notably, there is never the need for a
sharp rise—it is the downward movement that defines the accent preceding it.
Converted from the continuous glide of the speaking voice to the individual
notes of song, this means: (1) within an accentual unit, the pitch should not
fall before the accent is reached. (2) If possible, fall immediately after it. In theextant melodies, syllables with circumflex often bear a couple of descending
notes (or even more), but often also a single note or even a rising movement,
followed by a drop on the next syllable. On the sentence level, melodies tend
to fall gradually, being reset to a higher level after a phrase boundary; this isjust a typical feature of human speech. Words bearing emphasis, including
proper names, may also be elevated to higher pitch, relative to their context.

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Ancient Greek I

It is worthwhile observing how the extant melodies bear these ‘rules’ out (ordon’t); for us, they may provide a conveniently tight framework within whichmusical creativity can unfold.
All this gives us a toolkit for raising ancient poetry from the dormancy of
printed form to the auditory life for which it was meant. The journey, however,does not end here. There was chromaticism, opening up potentials of modulation
unheard of in Western music. Most excitingly, perhaps, the music of the Classicalperiod involved the so-called harmonía, incorporating microintervals down toquartertones, typically played on kinds of doublepipes which music archaeology
has only just begun to make sense of. Lots of fun still lies ahead.

Practice Learning How To Sing
Read the first line of the Iliad, preferably memorizing it.
μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω ἈχιλῆοςNext listen to the singing of this line, paying attention to the high notes and thelower notes,
Stefan Hagel Sings the Iliad.1

Each accented vowel has a high pitch after which there is a falling off or a lower
pitch. For μῆνιν the high point and fall occur on the eta. For ἄειδε the high pointis on the alpha and the fall is on the diphthong ει. For θεὰ there is a rise to thealpha. For Πηληϊάδεω the fall occurs after the alpha. Ἀχιλῆος rises towards theeta and falls within it.
Try the same exercises with the first seven lines of the Iliad, again preferably
memorizing them.
μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆοςοὐλομένην, ἣ μυρίʼ Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγεʼ ἔθηκε,πολλὰς δʼ ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν
ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσινοἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δʼ ἐτελείετο βουλή,ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντεἈτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς.
Again listen to Stefan Hagel’s singing of these lines, paying attention to the highnotes and the lower notes,
Stefan Hagel Sings the Iliad.2

1	
https://soundcloud.com/stefan-hagel-448623467/il-1-1-100-3.
2	
https://soundcloud.com/stefan-hagel-448623467/il-1-1-100-3.

Guest Feature 1 | Stefan Hagel Teaches Us How to Sing

57

For comparison, listen to the same text in reconstructed classical Attic
pronunciation,
The Beginning of the Iliad Spoken.3

As you practice pitch accent, use this simple strategy to hear the rhythm andmelody of the words.

3	
https://soundcloud.com/stefan-hagel-448623467/il-1-1-100-spoken.

Module 7

Nouns, Pronouns, and their Case
Functions

Nouns
Nouns in Greek are defined just like nouns are in English, but the way theycreate meaning is different. As in English, Greek nouns (ὀνόματα) refer topeople, places, things, and ideas. Greek nouns have endings. English nouns
can change form when they show possession as in Jada’s book, where the ’s isadded as a suffix and indicates that the book belongs to Jada. English nouns alsochange form when expressing the plural: two suns, three oxen, four mice. The
endings on Greek nouns, as we have seen previously, create the same meanings
as English does through form change, word order, and the use of prepositional
phrases.

Pronouns
In both languages, pronouns have the same definition: they take the place ofnouns. The function of the Greek pronoun (ἀντωνυμία) differs from the English
because it creates meaning through case endings much more extensively thanthe English pronoun does.

Greek Noun Sets 1–10
In Greek there are three noun declensions: first, second, and third. In this text,
the third declension, noun sets 9 and 10, is taught first (Module 13) because it
offers the most complexity. Once you understand the third declension, it is easierfor you to learn the remaining two declensions. Learning the third declension
first also reinforces why the stem, the base to which endings are attached, is© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.08

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Ancient Greek I

taken from the genitive singular. Also by learning the third declension before
the first (noun sets 1–6) and the second (noun sets 7 and 8), you will be lessinclined to match or rhyme noun and adjective endings when you modify anoun with an adjective.
Since each Greek noun takes only one set of endings, this text numbers theendings by sets 1–10. Each numbered set has ten endings. The aim in numbering
them is to make clear that each noun has only one set of endings. The numbers
are also a helpful way to refer to the endings when identifying nouns anddiscussing things like case and function.
What follows explains what is meant by a noun’s gender, number, and case.
Gender is a grammatical category and not identical with a noun’ssex. Often, however, words that refer to living beings of the male
sex are masculine in gender; words that refer to living beings of thefemale sex are feminine in gender. In Greek non-living things canbe masculine, feminine, or neuter (neither masculine nor feminine).
Since noun gender is often random, each noun’s gender must be
memorized.
Number is singular (one) or plural (more than one).
The cases in English are three: subjective, objective, possessive.
In Greek they are five: nominative, accusative, genitive, dative,and vocative, or, ordered differently, nominative, genitive, dative,
accusative, and vocative. Each case has certain specific functions,indicating the meaning of each noun in relation to other words inthe sentence.
Remember that, in Greek, a noun’s case ending determines its meaning in thesentence.

The Five Cases
In what follows you learn some of the case functions of Greek nouns. For a list of
all the case functions covered in Parts I and II of the 21st-Century series, see theCase and Function Chart in Appendix I. In this Module and in Appendix I, thecase functions are placed in order of frequency of occurrence, relative to eachother. And so a case’s first function is the one you will encounter most often
when reading authentic texts. The case functions found below were chosen bothon the basis of frequency and because they illustrate an important function ofeach case. This latter is particularly true of the function of separation without
a preposition for the genitive case, which is not that frequent in occurrence.
Most of the noun functions below use case endings to create meaning. A few

Module 7 | Nouns, Pronouns, and their Case Functions

61of the noun functions create meaning through case ending or a prepositional
phrase. Remember that the basic building blocks for sentences in English areprepositional phrases and word order. In Greek, the basic building blocks areword endings, prepositional phrases, and word order. The preposition and its
object are presented in detail in Module 8. If you are eager and wish to better
your understanding of the preposition and its object in English now, you canfollow the links below:
Khan Academy Prepositional Phrases1
Quia Practice with Prepositions.2

The Nominative Case
The nominative has two main functions.
Function 1, Subject (Smyth’s Greek Grammar 938 and Cambridge Grammarof Classical Greek 30.2, hitherto abbreviated to as SGG and CGCG). The
nominative case’s most frequent function is to mark a subject of the verb.
In this sentence,ὁ ἀδελφὸς (the brother) φέρει (carries) λίθους (stones),
The brother carries stones,
brother is the subject. The verb is carries. Stones is the direct object. The
ending -ος tells us that the noun, ἀδελφός, is nominative in case. Since the mainfunction of the nominative case is as a subject, the ending -ος indicates thatbrother serves this function in the sentence.
Function 2, Predicate Nominative (SGG 939; CGCG 30.3). A second common
function of the nominative case is as a predicate nominative. Predicate
nominatives occur when there is a linking verb that connects the subject to anoun or a pronoun that gives information about the subject. The verb is is themost common linking verb.
This sentence,ὁ Ὅμηρός (Homer) ἐστι (is) ποιητής (a poet),Homer is a poet,includes two nouns in the nominative case, Ὅμηρος and ποιητής. The caseendings -ος and -ης are both nominative. One noun is the subject of the verb
and the other is a predicate nominative. Word order and context indicate
1	
h ttps://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/grammar/parts-of-speech-the-prepositionand-the-conjunction/introduction-to-prepositions/v/meet-the-preposition.
2	https://www.quia.com/quiz/298373.html?AP_rand=1278083422.

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Ancient Greek I

that Ὅμηρος is the subject and ποιητής is the predicate nominative: Homer(nominative, subject) is (verb) a poet (predicate nominative).
Though adjectives have yet to be introduced, it is helpful to compare and tocontrast the predicate nominative with the predicate adjective (SGG 910; CGCG
30.3). Adjectives, as you will learn soon, agree in gender, case, and number with
the nouns they modify. The difference between a predicate nominative and a
predicate adjective is that the predicate nominative is a function for nouns andthe predicate adjective is a function for adjectives.
This sentence,ὁ Ὅμηρός (Homer) ἐστι (is) ἀγαθός (good),
Homer is good,includes one noun in the nominative case, Ὅμηρος, and one adjective, ἀγαθός,in the nominative case. Each word has the nominative case ending -ος. Wordorder and context indicate that Ὅμηρος is the subject of the verb and ἀγαθός isthe predicate adjective. If we change the word order of the sentence,ἀγαθός ἐστι ὁ Ὅμηρος,good is Homer,
the meaning remains the same and the function of the noun as subject and of
the adjective as predicate adjective remain the same, good (predicate adjective)is (verb) Homer (nominative, subject). Module 9 presents more information
on linking verbs in English and in Greek. If you are eager to better yourunderstanding of linking verbs in English now, follow the links below:
Khan Academy Linking Verbs3
Quia Practice with Linking Verbs. 4

The Genitive Case
The genitive case has four commonly occurring functions.
Function 1, Genitive of Possession (SGG 1297; CGCG 30.28). The genitive ofpossession indicates that one noun owns another.
In this example,τὸ βιβλίον τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ,the book of the brother or the brother’s book,the brother possesses the book. In Greek there is no equivalent of the
preposition of. Rather the genitive case ending, -ου, on the noun ἀδελφοῦ3	
h ttps://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/grammar/parts-of-speech-the-verb/linkingand-helping-verbs/v/linking-verbs-the-parts-of-speech-grammar.
4	https://www.quia.com/rr/409539.html?AP_rand=155051551&playHTML=1.

Module 7 | Nouns, Pronouns, and their Case Functions

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brother, indicates ownership of the noun βιβλίον book. In Greek, case endings,
here –ου, will determine how we assign meaning to nouns when we translatethem into English. In English the preposition of or the apostrophe followed bys, ’s, creates ownership, informing us that the brother possesses the book. In
Greek we call this function a genitive of possession.
Function 2, Genitive of Dependence (SGG 1290; CGCG 30.28). The genitive of
dependence indicates a relationship between two nouns that does not involve
ownership where the noun in the genitive case further defines a second noun.
In this example,δῶρα χρυσοῦ,
gifts of gold,
the two nouns, δῶρα χρυσοῦ, work together to form the phrase, δῶρα χρυσοῦgifts of gold.
In English, word order and the preposition of work together so that weunderstand that gifts and of gold create a meaningful phrase. Again, in Greek
there is no equivalent of the English preposition of. Rather the genitive caseending, -ου, indicates that the noun χρυσοῦ gold gives defining information
about a second noun δῶρα. We call this function the genitive of dependence.
Function 3, Partitive Genitive (SGG 1306; CGCG 30.25). The partitive genitiveis a third commonly occurring function of the genitive case. The partitive
genitive expresses the idea of the greater whole of the smaller part.
In this example,οὐδεὶς τῶν Ἑλλήνων,no one of the Greeks,
the noun τῶν Ἑλλήνων the Greeks with its ending in the genitive case, -ων, gives
more information about the second noun, οὐδείς no one. The two together forma phrase οὐδεὶς τῶν Ἑλλήνων no one of the Greeks. οὐδείς no one is the smaller
part of the greater whole, τῶν Ἑλλήνων the Greeks.
In English word order and the preposition of work together so that weunderstand that no one and of the Greeks create a meaningful phrase. Again
in Greek there is no equivalent of the English preposition of. Rather the genitive
case ending, -ων, indicates that the noun τῶν Ἑλλήνων the Greeks gives defining
information about the noun οὐδείς no one. We call this function a partitive
genitive.
Function 4, Genitive of Separation (SGG 1392; CGCG 30.34). A fourth functionof the genitive is to express the idea of separation. Though the genitive ofseparation without a preposition does not occur frequently, it does express animportant conceptual function of the genitive case.
In the sentence,

64

Ancient Greek Iλύουσι (they free) τοὺς Ἑλλήνους (Greeks) δεσμῶν (fetters),
they free the Greeks from fetters,
they is the subject. Free is the verb. The Greeks is the direct object. Fromfetters expresses the idea of separating someone from some thing. In English
separation is expressed by the prepositional phrase from fetters. In Greek
there is no prepositional phrase. Rather Greek expresses separation by placing
the noun δεσμῶν, fetters, in the genitive case. The ending -ων tells us that thenoun δεσμῶν fetters is genitive. The genitive case and context work together toindicate the meaning of separation that the noun has in the sentence.
With the genitive of separation, the idea of motion is often present. Compareand contrast these two sentences,σὺ (you) βάθρων (steps) ἵστης (get up),andσὺ (you) ἐκ (from) βάθρων (steps) ἵστης (get up),
You get up from the steps.
In both sentences, you is the subject and get up is the verb. In the first
sentence, the idea of separation, from the steps, is expressed by the genitive
case ending, -ων, on the noun βάθρων steps. No preposition is present. In thesecond sentence, the prepositional phrase, ἐκ βάθρων from the steps, expresses
separation just as the prepositional phrase from the steps does in English. Notethat in authetic texts, the genitive of separation without a preposition does notoccur as frequently as does separation with a preposition.
In the above you have learned that Greek creates meaning through caseendings and English creates the same meaning by using prepositional phrases.
You have also learned that Greek and English can use prepositional phrases asbuilding blocks to create the same meaning. When translating the genitive caseinto English, remember that you will often have to supply the prepositions ofor from.

The Dative Case
The dative case has four main functions.
Function 1, Indirect Object (SGG 1457 and 1469; CGCG 30.37). A frequently
occurring function of the dative case is as an indirect object. An indirect object
indirectly receives the action of a verb or is indirectly involved in a verb’s action.
In the English sentence,
she gives money to him,

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She is the subject; gives is the verb; and money is the direct object. To him is
the indirect object and is indirectly involved in the action. To him is indirectly
involved because it receives the money. It is the money that she gives, not thehim.
Consider this sentence,δίδωσι (he gives) τό βιβλίον (book) τῷ ἀδελφῷ (brother),he gives the book to the brother.
He is the subject. Gives is the verb. Book is the direct object—it directly receives
the action of the verb. To the brother is the indirect object and indirectly
receives the action of the verb.
In English, the indirect object is expressed by the prepositional phrase to thebrother. In Greek, the case ending -ῳ tells us that the noun ἀδελφῷ brother isin the dative. The case ending -ῳ and context work together to create the noun’s
meaning in the sentence.
Consider two more examples,δεικνύουσιν (they show) ἀσπίδα (a shield) τῷ ἀδελφῷ (brother),they show a shield to the brother,andγράμματα (a letter) αὐτῷ (him) ἐκόμιζον (I bring),
I bring a letter for him.
In the first sentence they is the subject; show is the verb; a shield is the direct
object, directly receiving the action of the verb. Το the brother is the indirect
object and indirectly receives the action of the verb. In the second sentence, I
is the subject; bring is the verb; letter is the direct object; and for him is theindirect object. English creates the meaning of the indirect object through the
prepositional phrases, to the brother and for him. In Greek the ending -ῳ tells
us that each noun, ἀδελφῷ brother and αὐτῷ him, is in the dative case. The
dative case and context work together to create the meaning of the indirect
object in the Greek sentences.
Finally compare and contrast these two sentences,ταῦτα (these things) αὐτῇ (her) λέγω (I say)andταῦτα (these things) πρὸς (to) αὐτὴν (her) λέγω (I say).
I say these things to her.
In both sentences I is the subject and say is the verb. These things is the direct
object and to her is the indirect object. In the first the indirect object is expressedby the ending -ῇ of the dative case of the pronoun αὐτῇ her. In the second the

66Ancient Greek I

indirect object is expressed by the prepositional phrase, πρὸς αὐτήν to her, justas the prepositional phrase to her does in English.
Function 2, Dative of Means or Instrument (SGG 1503; CGCG 30.43–44).
Another frequently occurring function of the dative case is as means or
instrument.
In the sentence,βάλλει (he hits) με (me) πέτρῳ (rock),he hits me with a rock,
He is the subject. Hits is the verb. Me is the direct object, directly receiving
the action of the verb. The English prepositional phrase with a rock translates
the meaning of the Greek dative of means or instrument, informing us of themeans or instrument by which the action of the verb happens. English creates
this same meaning through the prepositional phrase with a rock. In Greek, thecase ending -ῳ tells us that the noun πέτρῳ rock is in the dative. The ending -ῳ
and context create the meaning of means or instrument for the noun, πέτρῳrock. English builds meaning with prepositional phrases and Greek does thesame through a mixture of case endings and prepositional phrases.
Consider this sentence,φεύγει εἰς τὴν γῆν νηί,
she flees to the land by ship.
She is the subject. Flees is the verb. To the land (εἰς τὴν γῆν) is a prepositional
phrase in both languages. In Greek the case ending -ι tells us that the nounνηί ship is dative. The ending -ι and context create the meaning of means or
instrument for the noun νηί ship. In English the prepositional phrase by ship
creates the same meaning as does the dative case of the Greek noun νηί ship.
Again we see that English creates meaning with prepositional phrases andGreek does the same through case endings.
Function 3, Dative of Possession (SGG 1476; CGCG 30.41). The dative ofpossession expresses ownership of one noun over another.
Like the genitive case, the dative case may express ownership, having thesame function as the genitive. Consider these two examples,τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ (the brother) υἱός (son),the brother’s son or the son of the brother,andτῷ ἀδελφῷ (the brother) υἱός (son),the brother’s son or the son of the brother.

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In each sentence, case ending -ου or -ῳ and context work together to create themeaning of ownership between the two nouns.
In these examples,Δαρείου (Dareios) ἡ γνώμη (judgment)
Dareios’ judgment or the judgment of Dareios;andΔαρείῳ (Dareios) ἡ γνώμη (judgment)
Dareios’ judgment or the judgment of Dareios,
the same explanation as given above applies: the case ending -ου or -ῳ andcontext work together to create the meaning of ownership between the two
nouns. Though less frequent than the genitive of possession, the dative ofpossession occcurs in places where the genitive does also.
When a linking verb, often the verb to be (εἶναι), is used in sentences likethese,τῷ Ὁμήρῳ (Homer) ἐστὶ (is) ναῦς (ship),there is a ship to Homer (Homer has a ship),andτῷ Ὁμήρῳ (Homer) ἐστὶ (is) κύων (dog),
there is a dog to Homer (Homer has a dog),then the dative case, more typically than the genitive, expresses possession.
In each case ending, -ῳ, and context work together to create the meaning ofownership between the two nouns.
English shows ownership through an apostrophe followed by s (the brother’sson) and through a prepositional phrase using of or to (the son of the brotheror the son to the brother). Greek expresses the same meaning through thegenitive or dative case endings.
Function 4, Dative of Place Where (SGG 1530; CGCG 30.47). The fourth mostfrequently occurring function of the dative case expresses place where: she lieson the ground; or they fight at Marathon.
When expressing place where in poetry Greek may use the dative casewithout a preposition,γῇ (ground) κεῖται (she lies),
she lies on the ground.
In prose Greek typically uses a preposition, often ἐν, followed by the noun in thedative case. In these two examples,ἐν (on) γῇ (ground) κεῖται (she lies),
she lies on the ground,68

Ancient Greek Iandἐν (in) τῷ νηῷ (the temple) ὁ στρατηγὸς (the general) ἦν (was),the general was in the temple,
the endings -ῃ and -ῳ tell us that the nouns γῇ and νηῷ are in the dative case.
The preposition followed by the noun in the dative case work together to createa prepositional phrase that expresses place where.
With some place names Greek uses the dative without a preposition,πολεμέουσι (they fight) Μαραθῶνι (at Marathon),they fight at Marathon.
The endings -ι tells us that the noun, Μαραθῶνι, is in the dative case. The nounin the dative case by itself, commonly called the locative, or with a preposition
express the idea of place where.
In the case of place where, both English and Greek may create the same
meaning through prepositional phrases. Greek often uses the preposition ἐνfollowed by a noun in the dative case. English typically uses the prepositions
in, at, or on followed by a noun in the objective case. As we saw in the previous
unit, nouns that are translated with prepositions create prepositional phrases
and are called the objects of the preposition.

The Accusative Case
The accusative case has two main functions.
Function 1, Direct Object (SGG 1553; CGCG 30.8). The main function of theaccusative case is as a direct object.
For example in the sentence,δίδωσι (he gives) τό βιβλίον (book) Ὁμήρῳ (Homer),he gives the book to Homer.
He is the subject. Gives is the verb. The book is the direct object and directly
receives the action of the verb. The case ending -ον tells us that the noun βιβλίονbook is in the accusative case. Ὁμήρῳ to Homer is in the dative case, indicatedby the dative case ending -ῳ and is the indirect object, indirectly receiving theaction of the verb.
Consider this sentence,ποίει (he holds) ὁρτὴν (a festival) Διονύσῳ (Dionysos),he holds a festival for Dionysos.
He is the subject. Holds is the verb. Festival is the direct object and directly
receives the action of the verb. The ending -ην indicates that ὁρτήν festival isModule 7 | Nouns, Pronouns, and their Case Functions

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accusative. Διονύσῳ Dionysos is in the dative case, indicated by the dative caseending -ῳ and is the indirect object, indirectly receiving the action of the verb.
Note that English uses word order to indicate a subject of the verb and direct
object. In the sentences,the man sees the woman,
andthe woman sees the man,word order determines who performs the verb’s action and who receives it. In
these examples,ὁ ἀνὴρ (the man, nominative subject) τὴν γυναῖκα (the woman, accusative
direct object) ὁράει (sees),
the man sees the woman,andἡ γυνὴ (the woman, nominative subject) τὸν ἄνδρα (the man, accusative
direct object) ὁράει (sees),
the woman sees the man,case ending, not word order, communicates who performs the verb’s action andwho receives it.
Function 2, Extent of Space and Duration of Time (SGG 1580; CGCG 30.15–16).
The accusative case expresses the ideas of extent of space or duration of time.
In the sentence,
they march for five miles,
They is the subject. March is the verb. For five miles expresses the idea ofextent of space.
Consider the similar Greek sentence,ἐλαύνουσι (they march) πέντε (five) στάδια (stades),they march for five stades.
Greek creates the meaning of extent of space by placing στάδια stades in theaccusative case. The ending -α of the noun στάδια stades indicates that στάδιαstades is in the accusative case. Context and case work together to communicate
to the reader the meaning extent of space. English creates the same meaning
through the prepositional phrase for five stades (a stade, by the way, isequivalent to about 200 meters or 600 feet).
Greek uses the accusative case to express duration of time. In this sentence,ἐλαύνουσι (they march) πέντε (five) ἡμέρας (days),they march for five days,

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Ancient Greek I

They is the subject. March is the verb. In English the prepositional phrase forfive days expresses the idea of duration of time. Greek expresses this same ideaby placing the noun ἡμέρας days in the accusative case. The case ending -ας tells
us that the noun is in the accusative. Context and case ending work together toindicate that πέντε ἡμέρας has the meaning duration of time.

The Vocative Case
The vocative case has one function.
Function 1, Direct Address (SGG 1283; CGCG 30.55). Greek uses the vocative
when one person is directly addressing another. In these sentences,Ὅμηρε (Homer), πῶς (how) οἰκήσεις (will you live),andὦ Ὅμηρε (Homer), πῶς (how) οἰκήσεις (will you live),
Homer, how will you live?,
the ending -ε tells us that the noun, Ὅμηρε, is in the vocative case. The ending -εand context work together to express the meaning, direct address. In the second
sentence, the interjection ὦ, the ending –ε, and context work together to express
the meaning, direct address. English creates direct address in writing by setting
the person addressed off from the rest of the sentence with one or two commas.
In speaking, English uses pause and intonation to indicate direct address.

Case and Function Chart
Since English uses prepositions in many situations where Greek does not, whentranslating into English you often need to supply prepositions not present in
Greek. The chart below tells you the case; the function of the case; and what
preposition you need to supply in English when there is no preposition present
in Greek. None indicates that there is no preposition to supply when translatingfrom Greek into English. None (ἐκ, ἀπό) indicates that there is no additional
preposition to supply when translating from Greek into English and gives the
preposition that is commonly present in ancient Greek.
Also noted below is that nouns and pronouns in the genitive, dative, andaccusative cases can all serve as objects of a preposition. Some prepositions taketheir objects in only one case. Other prepositions may have their objects in twoor in all three cases. Prepositions are covered in Module 8.

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CASE

FUNCTIONPREPOSITION

Nominative

1. Subject: she eats.

none

2. Predicate Nominative: he is a doctor.

none

1. Possession: the horse of Sally.

of

2. Dependence: a bag of gold.

of

3. Partitive: some of the Greeks.

of

4. Separation: she frees us from prison.

from, away from

5. O
 bject of Preposition (often indicating motion

none (ἐκ, ἀπό)

Genitiveaway from): she departed from the house.

Dative1. I ndirect Object: she gives a book to Sara; he madeto, fora coat for Jim.
2. M
 eans or Instrument: he kills the man with aby, withsword; she travels by ship.
3. D ative of Possession: a dog to Sara OR the dog of

to, ofSara OR Sara’s dog.
4. P
 lace Where (often with a preposition): henone (ἐν) or in,fights at Marathon; she sits on the rock.

on, at5. O
 bject of Preposition (often shows place

none

where): with Homer; in the temple

Accusative

1. D irect Object: she gives me an apple.

none

2. Extent of Space: she walks for 3 miles.

for

3. Duration of Time: he works for 3 hours.

for

4. Object of Preposition (often shows motion

none (πρός, εἰς)

toward): to Homer; to the sea.

Vocative

1. Direct Address: Sally, come here.

none

The above are all case functions for nouns and pronouns.

Apposition of Nouns and Pronouns
A common grammatical occurrence that happens in all cases of nouns andpronouns is apposition. Apposition is defined as an instance in a sentence
when two nouns or two pronouns are in the same case referring to the same

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Ancient Greek I

person or thing. The second noun or pronoun renames the first. Apposition canhappen to a noun in any case and the second noun matches the case of the first.
Consider the following examples. In each, the main noun is bolded and the noun
in apposition is underlined.
Nominativeἐγὼ ταῦτα τῷ Ὁμήρῳ, ποιητής, δίδωμι.
I, a poet, give these things to Homer.
Genitiveτὸ βιβλίον τοῦ Ὁμήρου, ποιητοῦ, σοὶ δίδωμι.
I give to you the book of Homer, a poet.
Dativeἐγὼ ταῦτα τῷ Ὁμήρῳ, ποιητῇ, δίδωμι.
I give these things to Homer, a poet.
Αccusativeὁράει τὸν Ὅμηρον ποιητήν.
She sees Homer, a poet.
Vocativeὦ βασιλεῦ Κῦρε, ἔλθε.
King Kyros, come.
The important items to note are that the two nouns refer to the same person orthing and each has the same case. Apposition occurs frequently in this textbook
and in the authentic texts you are preparing to read.

Parsing
Parsing English and Greek sentences enables you to understand what you havememorized, using analysis and logic. English has three cases: subjective forsubjects; objective for objects; possessive for ownership. In parsing you identify
the words in a sentence and give their case and function. In the sentence,
you stretch the frozen moments with your fear
you is in the subjective case and is the subject. Stretch is the verb. The and frozen
are adjectives modifying the noun moments. Moments is in the objective caseand is the direct object of stretch. With is a preposition. Your is a possessive
adjective modifying the noun fear. Fear is in the objective case and is the objectof the preposition with.
Parsing solidifies your understanding of the key conceptual system this bookpresents. It turns memorization into understanding. If you struggle with this
aspect of the course, do not stress. Struggling with understanding is a necessaryModule 7 | Nouns, Pronouns, and their Case Functions

73

part of learning. Persist in your struggles and eventually you will come tounderstand language itself in a novel way, exercising even greater ability tocommunicate effectively.
Lucian of Samosota c. 125 CE. Born on the banks of the upper Euphrates River,
Lucian was an Assyrian who wrote in ancient Greek but whose native language
was probably Syriac, a dialect of Aramaic. What we know of Lucian comesfrom his own works. He was a satirist and rhetorician. He ridiculed hypocrisy,
pedantry, religion, and superstition. Educated in Ionia, he lived in Athens forapproximately 10 years during which time it is surmised that he wrote manyof his works. Of the over 80 writings attributed to him, this textbook offers
excerpts from A True Story, Ἀληθῆ διηγήματα; The Lover of Lies, Φιλοψευδής;and The Ass, ὁ Ὄνος, though it is not certain whether Lucian is the author of thislast work. In his own day Lucian was very popular. Today his writings continue
to exert influence.
Practice Parsing in English. For this translation of an excerpt from Lucian’s The
Ass, ὁ Ὄνος, use the Case and Function Chart to tell these six things (1) whatcase each noun would have in Greek; (2) what function each case has; (3) where
Greek would use the preposition ἐκ or παρά + the genitive; ἐν + the dative; andεἰς + the accusative; (4) what words are verbs; (5) what words are adverbs; and(6) what words are conjunctions. Answers are found in the Answer Key.
1. My owner discovered a profit of many drachmae.
2. She spoke to my owner and promised payment of silver to him.
3. She lit a lamp with fire and it burned for three hours.
4. She pours fragrant oil from a bottle of alabaster and rubs her arm withit.
5. On the day of the spectacle we bring him and one of the women to thetheater.
6. The bed was large and adorned with gold.
7. They placed me in the middle of the theater and everyone shouted andclapped.
8. I went to Thessaly because there was to me a personal matter there.
9. I carried to Thessaly a letter from my father for Hipparkhos. He lived
there and was very miserly.
10. Loukios, my home, is small but generous. Treat it kindly.
Euripides of Athens, Εὐριπίδης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 480–406 BCE. An innovator who
did not gain wide acceptance until after his death, Euripides wrote satyr plays
and tragedies. He introduced comedy into tragedy and presented the heroes
and heroines of his plays as everyday people. He was a proponent of the new74

Ancient Greek I

music, which broke with tradition and is one feature of his work that shockedsome of his contemporaries. In several plays (Helen, Ion, Iphigeneia in Tauris),he created tragicomic plots that foreshadowed the so-called New Comedy. He
is said to have composed his tragedies in a cave on the island of Salamis, tohave been solitary and surly, and to have been prosecuted by Kleon for impiety.
In support of this charge, Diogenes Laertius says that Protagoras first read his
skeptical work on the gods at Euripides’ house, in which he argued that it did
not matter whether the gods existed—he was an agnostic; that there were twosides to every question, each opposed to the other; that the soul was nothing
apart from the senses; that everything is true; that all values were relative; andthat “man is the measure of all things, of things that are that they are, and ofthings that are not that they are not.” Euripides’ unpopularity probably caused
him to accept an invitation to the court of Arkhelaos in Makedonia in c. 408 B.C.,
where about two years later he died. He wrote ninety-two plays and had four
victories in the Athenian annual dramatic competition and festival in honor of
Dionysos. Nineteen of his plays survive, more than any other tragedian. Without
them our view of tragedy would be more rigid, dogmatic, and inaccurate. In
upcoming modules, this textbook offers adapted selections from Euripides’
Alkestis, Bakkhai, Helen, Herakles, Iphigeneia in Tauris, and Medea.
Module 7 Practice Reading Aloud. Practice reading this excerpt from
Euripides’ Alkestis. Read the excerpt a few times, paying attention to the soundeach syllable makes and trying to hear the rhythm of the words.
Ἄλκηστις
Ἅλιε καὶ φάος ἁμέρας,245

οὐράνιαί τε δῖναι νεφέλας δρομαίου

Ἄδμητος
ὁρᾷ σὲ κἀμέ, δύο κακῶς πεπραγότας,οὐδὲν θεοὺς δράσαντας ἀνθ’ ὅτου θανῇ.
Ἄλκηστις
γαῖά τε καὶ μελάθρων στέγαι
νυμφίδιοί τε κοῖται πατρίας Ἰωλκοῦ.
Ἄδμητος
250

ἔπαιρε σαυτήν, ὦ τάλαινα, μὴ προδῷς·λίσσου δὲ τοὺς κρατοῦντας οἰκτῖραι θεούς.

Module 7 | Nouns, Pronouns, and their Case Functions

Ἄλκηστις
ὁρῶ δίκωπον, ὁρῶ σκάφος ἐνλίμνᾳ· νεκύων δὲ πορθμεὺςἔχων χέρ’ ἐπὶ κοντῷ, Χάρων
255μ’ ἤδη καλεῖ· Τί μέλλεις;ἐπείγου· σὺ κατείργεις. τάδε τοί με
σπερχόμενος ταχύνει.

Ἄδμητος
οἴμοι· πικράν γε τήνδε μοι ναυκληρίαν
ἔλεξας. ὦ δύσδαιμον, οἷα πάσχομεν.
Verse Translation
Alkestis
Sun and light of day,Swirling clouds above
Admetos
Who gaze at you and me, we suffer,
Yet did the gods no wrong that merits death.
Alkestis
Land and house and childhood bed,
Iolkos, once my home.
Admetos
Arise, now up, poor dear, dare not betray me.
Beseech the powerful gods to pity you.
Alkestis
Look, I see oars; Look, I see a ship
Anchored there at port and see a ferryman,
Hands on punt. He carries souls away.
Kharon calls me, Ready? Why delay?
Hurry. You detain me. Urging me on, he
Presses me to go.

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Ancient Greek I

Admetos
Alas, this ship you call by name pains me.
Oh ill of fate, what sufferings must we endure.
To hear me read, followed by Stefan Hagel’s expert reading with a pitch accent,follow the link below:
Alkestis 244–259.5

Etymology Corner VII by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 3
Orthography, Module 1. Previously we learned that orthography refers to the correct
way of writing a word. In the orthography section of Module 1, there are three accents.
The rising pitch is the acute (ὀξύς) accent, which comes from the Latin acutus sharp;
grave (βαρύς) is an neutral accent, marking the end of a word’s pitch rise (reread Stefan
Hagel on pitch accent, if you need a refresher) from the Latin gravis heavy; and theone that flexes around, that is, bends up then down, is the circumflex (περισπώμενος)
accent, from the Latin circum- around and flectere to bend. As noted, the accents
originally denoted musical pitch. This makes etymological sense, since accent comesfrom the Latin prefix ad- towards and the Latin verb cantare to sing, meaning you areadding musicality to prose. When we run across the word prosody, we note that it isderived from the original Greek prefix προς- towards and noun ᾠδή song, the sametwo words that are used to build the word accent.
What to Study and Do 7. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you
have learned that case ending determines meaning, that you know how to use the Caseand Function Chart when reading and translating, and that you understand what
apposition is. It is a good idea to review the information in the Case and Function
Chart a couple of times a week.
Learning Tip 7: Create a Linked Story. This textbook presents you with a variety ofstrategies for remembering information. These strategies can be used to memorize
essential information that you need for this course, for life, or for any random
information that you need or want to remember. The strategies require you to use
your imagination. Imagination always beats your will to remember.

5	
https://loom.com/share/fc958326f10b478dbe22c07c4b54b684.

Module 7 | Nouns, Pronouns, and their Case Functions

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Try this experiment. Use your willpower to remember these 12 words:
fillmore, pierce, buchanan, lincoln, johnson, grant, hayes, garfield, arthur,cleveland, harrison, cleveland.
Spend a minute willing yourself to remember the words in order. After one minute,write down as many of the words as you can in order and from memory. Most people
can remember about four or five of the words.
Next, imagine that you are standing at your kitchen sink and you fill more water
into a pitcher than it can hold. You pierce the pitcher with a long needle and watch
as the water pours out of the hole and down the drain. Out of the drain a shiny new
cannon rises and situates itself on your countertop. Make the scene come alive inyour mind. The new cannon shoots links of chain at an inn across the street fromyour house. You run to the inn to warn the people inside. Upon entering the inn, youhave an urgent need to use the john. As you use the john, you call your son. You ask
your son if he will grant you one wish. He says yes. You ask him to take some freshly
harvested hay to a far field where King Arthur awaits, seated on his horse. Yourson cleaves to the hay as he picks it up from the land. He gets in a truck driven by ahairy son and once again cleaves tightly to the hay he grabbed from the land. Spenda minute using your imagination to place the images into your mind, visualizing theevents happening in real time. Use as many senses as you can when you replay theevents in your mind. You should find that after one minute or less you are able toremember all the words in order and with ease. You should also find that you canrecite the list forewards and backwards. Congratulate yourself on having memorized
US presidents 13–24. Try using a similar strategy for remembering the first twelve
US presidents. If you find you need some assistance, look at the Answer Key for one
possible solution. To watch Yanjaa, a super-memorizer, use a similar strategy toremember random items in a magazine, follow this link:
Yanjaa’s Memory Tips.1
1	
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8eRcAaTYfcU.

Module 8

Prepositions and Prefixes

Prepositions
A Greek preposition (πρόθεσις) has the same definition and the same function
as does its English counterpart. Prepositions are typically one to two syllable
words that take a noun or pronoun as an object. Consider these English examples:in a great civil war;
on a great battle-field;of that war;
above our poor power;
to the unfinished work;for the great task;
from the earth;and take note of the preposition and its object, which are referred to as aprepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases are a common building block forcreating meaning both in Greek and in English.
Consider the following passage from Herman Melville’s Moby Dick and note
how frequently prepositions occur (bold marks a preposition and underline its
object):Call me Ishmael. Some years ago—never mind how long precisely—
having little or no money in my purse, and nothing particular tointerest me on shore, I thought I would sail about a little and see thewatery part of the world. It is a way I have of driving off the spleen
and regulating the circulation. Whenever I find myself growing
grim about the mouth; whenever it is a damp, drizzly November
in my soul; whenever I find myself involuntarily pausing before
coffin warehouses, and bringing up the rear of every funeral I
meet; and especially whenever my hypos get such an upper handof me, that it requires a strong moral principle to prevent me from© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.09

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Ancient Greek I

deliberately stepping into the street, and methodically knocking
people’s hats off—then, I account it high time to get to sea as soon as
I can. This is my substitute for pistol and ball. With a philosophicalflourish Cato throws himself upon his sword; I quietly take to theship. There is nothing surprising in this. If they but knew it, almost
all men in their degree, some time or other, cherish very nearly thesame feelings towards the ocean with me.
In eight sentences there are twenty-three prepositional phrases. The preposition
comes before its object almost every time. Leaving out the prepositional phrases,
reread the passage, noting how much meaning is lost.
Call me Ishmael. Some years ago—never mind how long precisely—
having little or no money, and nothing particular to interest me, I
thought I would sail about a little and see the watery part. It is away I have. Whenever I find myself growing grim; whenever it isa damp, drizzly November; whenever I find myself involuntarily
pausing and bringing; and especially whenever my hypos get suchan upper hand that it requires a strong moral principle to prevent
me—then, I account it high time to get as soon as I can. This is mysubstitute. Cato throws himself; I quietly take. There is nothing
surprising. If they but knew it, almost all men, some time or other,cherish very nearly the same feelings.
Consider the following Greek passage from Herodotos’ Histories:ἀναχθέντες δὲ ἐκ τῆς Κρότωνος οἱ Πέρσαι ἐκπίπτουσι τῇσι νηυσὶ ἐςἸηπυγίην, καί σφεας δουλεύοντας ἐνθαῦτα Γίλλος ἀνὴρ Ταραντῖνοςφυγὰς ῥυσάμενος ἀπήγαγε παρὰ βασιλέα Δαρεῖον. ὁ δὲ ἀντὶ τούτωνἕτοιμος ἦν διδόναι τοῦτο ὅ τι βούλοιτο αὐτός. [2] Γίλλος δὲ αἱρέεταικάτοδόν οἱ ἐς Τάραντα γενέσθαι, προαπηγησάμενος τὴν συμφορήν·ἵνα δὲ μὴ συνταράξῃ τὴν Ἑλλάδα, ἢν δι᾽ αὐτὸν στόλος μέγας πλέῃ
ἐπὶ τὴν Ἰταλίην, Κνιδίους μούνους ἀποχρᾶν οἱ ἔφη τοὺς κατάγοντας
γίνεσθαι, δοκέων ἀπὸ τούτων ἐόντων τοῖσι Ταραντίνοισι φίλωνμάλιστα τὴν κάτοδόν οἱ ἔσεσθαι. [3] Δαρεῖος δὲ ὑποδεξάμενος
ἐπετέλεε· πέμψας γὰρ ἄγγελον ἐς Κνίδον, κατάγειν σφέας ἐκέλευεΓίλλον ἐς Τάραντα. πειθόμενοι δὲ Δαρείῳ, Κνίδιοι Ταραντίνους οὐκὦν ἔπειθον, βίην δὲ ἀδύνατοι ἦσαν προσφέρειν. [4] ταῦτα μέν νυνοὕτω ἐπρήχθη· οὗτοι δὲ πρῶτοι ἐκ τῆς Ἀσίης ἐς τὴν Ἑλλάδα ἀπίκοντοΠέρσαι, καὶ οὗτοι διὰ τοιόνδε πρῆγμα κατάσκοποι ἐγένοντο.
In this paragraph of similar length there are thirteen prepositions. Becausemuch meaning is created in Greek through the use of case endings on nouns andModule 8 | Prepositions and Prefixes

81

pronouns, Greek prepositions do not occur as frequently as they do in English.
Nonetheless the point to take from the above is that the prepositional phrase
is an important building block for creating meaning in Greek and in English.
Learning to recognize prepositions and their objects and understanding how totranslate them are key skills to acquire.
Practice Picking out Prepositions. From this excerpt of Moby Dick, practice
picking out the prepositions and their objects. Check your answers with thosein the Answer Key.
Circumambulate the city of a dreamy Sabbath afternoon. Go fromCorlears Hook to Coenties Slip, and from thence, by Whitehall,northward. What do you see?—Posted like silent sentinels allaround the town, stand thousands upon thousands of mortal men
fixed in ocean reveries. Some leaning against the spiles; some seatedupon the pier-heads; some looking over the bulwarks of ships from
China; some high aloft in the rigging, as if striving to get a still betterseaward peep. But these are all landsmen; of week days pent up
in lath and plaster—tied to counters, nailed to benches, clinched todesks. How then is this? Are the green fields gone? What do theyhere?
In doing the above exercise, aim for mastery—understand what a preposition
and its object are and be able to pick out prepositions and objects from any
sentence written in English. Since the meaning and function of English andGreek prepositions are the same, you will be able to transfer your knowledge ofthe preposition in English to your understanding of it in Greek.

Greek Prepositions
Remember that in Greek and in English prepositions must take an object. If
there is no object, then the word is not a preposition. In Greek the object may bein the accusative (acc.), genitive (gen.), or dative (dat.) cases, whose endings you
will learn shortly. Some prepositions take only one case as their object. ἐκ only
takes an object in the genitive case:ἐκout of+an object in the genitive case

Other prepositions take objects in all three cases, such as ἀμφί:
ἀμφί

about

+

an object in the genitive casearound+an object in the dative casearound+an object in the accusative case

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Ancient Greek I

Below is a list of the most frequently occurring prepositions. Memorize them.
You will encounter them frequently in the rest of this book and they are notglossed. Note that in some cases the definitions are simplified. See the glossary
for more complete ones.
Preposition

Additional Info.

English Equivalent

Case of Object

ἅμα

at the same time as+

dativeἀνάon, upon, onto+

genitive or dative

up to, throughout+

accusativeἀπό

from, away from+genitiveδιάthrough, throughout+

genitiveby+genitiveon account of+accusativeεἰς or ἐς

(proclitic)

to, into, against+

accusativeἐκ(proclitic)

from, out of, by+genitiveἐν(proclitic)

in, on, at, among+

dativeon account of+genitivefor the sake of+genitiveon, upon+genitivein the time of+genitivetowards+

genitiveon, at, next to+dativeon, to, against, for+accusative

down from+genitivedown toward+

genitiveἕνεκα orεἵνεκαἐπίκατάModule 8 | Prepositions and Prefixes

Preposition

μετά

μέχρι

παρά

περί

πρό

πρός

Additional Info.

83

English Equivalent

Case of Object

under

+

genitiveagainst+genitiveduring+accusative

throughout+

accusative

by, according to+accusative

with

+

genitiveafter+

accusative

up to, until+

genitivemeanwhile+

genitivefrom+genitiveat, beside+dativeto, toward+

accusative

contrary to+accusative

about, concerning+

genitivearound, concerning+

dativearound, concerning+

accusative

before, in front of+genitiveon behalf of+genitive

facing+genitivefrom+genitivein the eyes of+genitiveby+genitiveat, near+dativein addition+

dativetowards+

accusative

against+accusativein regard to+accusative

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Ancient Greek I

Preposition

Additional Info.

English Equivalent

Case of Objectσύν or ξύνwith, with help of+

dativeὑπέρabove, over+genitiveon behalf of+genitiveover, above, beyond+

accusative

by+genitive

under+

genitive

under+

dativesubject to+dativeunder+accusative

during+accusative

toward+accusativeὑπό

1. The preposition ἕνεκα or εἵνεκα usually has its object placed before
it, though the object may also follow as it does for most prepositions:ἕνεκα ὑγιείας for the sake of health or ὑγιείας ἕνεκα for the sake ofhealth. εἵνεκα instead of ἕνεκα is found in the epic and Ionic dialects
and in poetry.
2. Both εἰς and ἐς are used by Homer and by the Ionic poets. Herodotos,
writing in a mixed Ionic dialect, prefers ἐς. Attic inscriptions have εἰς,
which Attic prose prefers. In Attic tragedy, εἰς is slightly more common
than ἐς. Aeolic poets preferred εἰς before vowels and ἐς before
consonants.
3. Proclitics are monosyllabic words, lacking an accent, and arepronounced closely with the word that follows them. Common proclitics
are the adverb οὐ; the conjunctions εἰ and ὡς; the prepositions εἰς, ἐν,ἐκ; and these forms of the article: ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, αἱ.

Word Order
As in English, in Greek the object of a preposition typically comes right after it,ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ in the road. The object, τῇ ὁδῷ, follows the preposition ἐν. At times
words intervene between the preposition and its object, διὰ Διὸς πῦρ throughthe fire of Zeus. The noun Διός, of Zeus, possesses πῦρ fire and comes between
the preposition διά through and its object πῦρ fire. Note that for the preposition

Module 8 | Prepositions and Prefixes

85

εἵνεκα or ἕνεκα typical word order is object followed by εἵνεκα or ἕνεκα, as
noted above.

Anastrophe of the Disyllabic Preposition
In the majority of instances the object follows the preposition. In some instances
the order is reversed and a preposition of two syllables follows the object, as inthis example, κάλλους πέρι concerning beauty. Note that when anastropheoccurs, the accent shifts from the ultima to the penult, περί to πέρι.

Prepositions and Motion
For the genitive, dative, and accusative cases, a general rule of motion applies
in many instances.
The rules of motion are three and they are only generally true. In each the
preposition is bolded and its object is underlined.
A preposition with its object in the genitive case can express motion awayfrom:ἔρχονται ἀπὸ τῆς γῆςthey go from the land.
A preposition with its object in the dative case can express place where:ἵστημι ἐν τῇ ὁδῷI stand in the road.
A preposition with its object in the accusative case can express motion towards
or against:ἐρχόμεθα εἰς τὴν γῆν
we go to the land.
In poetry the preposition may be omitted altogether. When you encounter
prepositional phrases in the wild, keep in mind the general rule of motion.
Practice Identifying Prepositions. From this excerpt of Herodotos’ Histories(Ι.215) practice picking out the prepositions ἐν, ἐς, and περί. Check your answers
with those in the Answer Key.
Μασσαγέται δὲ ἐσθῆτά τε ὁμοίην τῇ Σκυθικῇ φορέουσι καὶ δίαιτανἔχουσι, ἱππόται δὲ εἰσὶ καὶ ἄνιπποι—ἀμφοτέρων γὰρ μετέχουσι—καὶ τοξόται τε καὶ αἰχμοφόροι, σαγάρις νομίζοντες ἔχειν. χρυσῷδὲ καὶ χαλκῷ τὰ πάντα χρέωνται. ὅσα μὲν γὰρ ἐς αἰχμὰς καὶ ἄρδιςκαὶ σαγάρις, χαλκῷ τὰ πάντα χρέωνται. ὅσα δὲ περὶ κεφαλὴν καὶζωστῆρας καὶ μασχαλιστῆρας, χρυσῷ κοσμέονται. [2] ὣς δ᾽ αὕτως

86

Ancient Greek Iτῶν ἵππων τὰ μὲν περὶ τὰ στέρνα χαλκέους θώρηκας περιβάλλουσι,τὰ δὲ περὶ τοὺς χαλινοὺς καὶ στόμια καὶ φάλαρα χρυσῷ. σιδήρῳ δὲοὐδ᾽ ἀργύρῳ χρέωνται οὐδέν· οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδέ σφι ἐστὶ ἐν τῇ χωρῇ. ὁδὲ χρυσὸς καὶ ὁ χαλκὸς ἄπλετος.
Translation
The Massagetai dress similarly to the Skythians and have a similar
way of life. They fight from horses and on foot, for they make useof both. They shoot bows and throw spears and customarily carry
the battle-ax. They make abundant use of gold and bronze. They use
bronze for the tips of arrows and spears and for their ax-heads. For
adorning their heads and belts and straps, they use gold. For theirtack, they take the same approach. They surround their horses’
chests with breastplates made of bronze. They adorn with gold thereins, bits, and cheek-plates. They do not use iron or silver because
their land has none, though gold and bronze are plentiful.
Practice Choosing the Preposition. In this translation of an excerpt of
Herodotos’ Histories, for the bolded words choose the Greek preposition thatbest translates them. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
Concerning customs all people think this way and it is possible
to prove it is so by many examples and also in the following way.
During his rule Dareios called some Greeks who were present andasked them at what price they would be willing to eat their deadfathers. They replied that they would do this at no price. After thisDareios called the Kallatians from India who eat their dead andwhile the Greeks watched and understood what was said throughan interpreter, asked at what price they would agree to burn withfire their dead fathers. They yelled loudly and bid him to watch his
tongue. So it is with customs and I think Pindar’s poem correctly
says that custom is the king of everything.
Practice Translating Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Adverbs. Translate
the paragraph below, paying attention to how the conjunctions, adverbs, andprepositions function. Often there is not an authentic connection between how
ancient Greek expresses the meaning of a sentence and how English does. The
main takeaway from exercises like these is a greater understanding of how eachpart of speech functions, not a greater understanding of ancient Greek idiom.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Module 8 | Prepositions and Prefixes

87

Paragraph I (from Moby Dick)
It was a humorously perilous business for both of us. πρὶν γὰρ
we proceed further, it must be said ὅτι the monkey-rope was fastἐπὶ both ends; fast to Queequeg’s broad canvas belt, and fast to mynarrow leather one. ὥστε for better or for worse, we two, εἰς νῦν,were wedded; and should poor Queequeg sink to rise no more, ἔπειτακαὶ usage καὶ honor demanded, ὅτι instead of cutting the cord, itshould drag me down in his wake. οὕτως, ἔπειτα, an elongated
Siamese ligature united us. Queequeg was my own inseparable
twin brother; nor could I any way get rid of the dangerous liabilities
which the hempen bond entailed.
οὕτως strongly and metaphysically did I conceive of my situationτότε, ὅτι μέχρι earnestly watching his motions, I seemed distinctly
to perceive ὅτι my own individuality was νῦν merged in a joint stockcompany of two; ὅτι my free will had received a mortal wound; καὶὅτι another’s mistake ἢ misfortune might plunge innocent me εἰςunmerited disaster and death.
Paragraph II (translation from Lucian’s A True Story)
Athletes καὶ those seeking physical fitness pay attention to health καὶexercise. They καὶ contend ὅτι well-timed relaxation is a vital partof training. Students καὶ I think profit ἐκ rest μετὰ reading serious
works and οὖν return εἰς their studies invigorated. This rest works
best εἰ they spend time σὺν books which provide contemplation
καὶ inspiration ἀλλὰ καὶ wit, charm, καὶ attraction, just the sort ofrestful thought I think this work provides. I note οὐ only the noveltyof the content and the charm of a compelling story ἀλλὰ καὶ thewitty allusions πρὸς the ancient classics, filled with legends andmonsters, written ὑπὸ poets, historians, and philosophers.

Prefixes
Many verbs have prefixes added to them. The prefix typically changes the verb’s
meaning, doing so sometimes in slight, and other times in significant, ways. Notethe following verbs and their meanings:*δίδωμι give; δίκην δίδωμι I pay the penalty; δίδωμι χάριν I give thanksἐκδίδωμι give up, surrender, give out (of one’s house), give (in marriage)προδίδωμι betray, abandon, give up (to an enemy)

88Ancient Greek I*εἰμί be, be possible*πάρειμι be near, be present; (imper.) be possible*εἶμι come, go*πάρειμι go in, enter, pass by*ἵστημι standἀνίστημι make stand up, wake, break up (an assembly)*καθίστημι appoint, establish, put into a state; (intrans.) be established, beappointed*τίθημι put, placeπροτίθημι place before, propose, prefer*φερω bring, bear, carryπροσφέρω bring to, apply to
1. Some meanings differ more from the meaning of the root verb thanothers do.
2. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.

Object of Prefix
A preposition always has an object. The prefix does not always but may at times
also take an object as in these examples:βίαν προσφέρω αὐτῷ,
I apply force to him;βίαν is the object of φέρω and αὐτῷ is the object of the prefix προς-;andτῆς δὲ γῆς ἀπέρχονται,they depart the land.
γῆς is the object of the prefix ἀπο-.
In each example above, the noun serves as the object of the prefix. In thisnext example, note that Herodotos uses the same prefix and preposition, one
reinforcing the meaning of the other. The prefix and preposition are in bold.
The preposition’s object is underlined.
περὶ τὰ στέρνα χαλκέους θώρηκας περιβάλλουσιThey surround their chests with breastplates made of bronze.
The preposition περί and its meaning around are reinforced by the prefix περι-.
In this next example there is a similar repetition of the preposition and prefix.

Module 8 | Prepositions and Prefixes

89ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ τέλματι βαθεῖ ἐντυγχάνω.
Ι stumble upon a deep puddle in the road.
In this sentence the preposition ἐν and the prefix ἐν- do not work together,reinforcing each other as περί and περι- do above. Rather the noun τέλματιis the object of the prefix ἐν- and the prepositional phrase ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ locatesτέλματι βαθεῖ the deep puddle.

ElisionA final short vowel at the end of a word or a prefix may be elided (eliminated)when the word or verb that follows starts with a vowel or diphthong. Whenelision occurs between two words, the missing short vowel is marked by anapostrophe. When elision occurs between a prefix and its verb, the short vowelof the prefix is eliminated. Note these instances of elision:
ἀλλὰ ἔχω becomes ἀλλ’ ἔχω.

ὅδε εἶπεν becomes ὅδ’ εἶπεν.

ἀμφὶ ἡμῶν becomes ἀμφ’ ἡμων.

παρὰ ὑμῶν becomes παρ’ ὑμῶν.

ἀπο έρχομαι becomes ἀπέρχομαι.

παρὰ ἔχω becomes παρέχω.

ἀπο ἱκνέομαι becomes ἀφικνέομαι.

τοῦτο οὐ becomes τοῦτ’ οὐ.

ἀπο ὄλλυμι becomes ἀπόλλυμι.

ὑπὸ ἄρχω becomes ὑπάρχω.

When the consonant directly before the elided vowel is kappa, pi, or tau—κ, π,or τ—and is followed by a word with a rough breathing, the consonant changes
to the corresponding aspirate: κ becomes χ; π becomes φ; and τ becomes θ.
ἐπὶ ᾧ becomes ἐφ᾽ ᾧ.
κατα ἵστημι becomes καθίστημι.
In addition to the elision of short vowels, final -αι and -οι are occasionally elided:εἶναι ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ becomes εἶν’ ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ.
οἴμοι ὡς ἀθυμέω becomes οἴμ’ ὡς ἀθυμέω.
Consider contractions that occur in English, such as can’t or watcha gonna do,noting the different ways that words combine.
Module 8 Practice Reading Aloud. Practice reading this excerpt from
Euripides’ Alkestis. Read the excerpt a few times, paying attention to the soundeach syllable makes and trying to hear the rhythm of the words.
Ἄλκηστις
ἄγει μ’ ἄγει τις· ἄγει μέ τις (οὐχ260

ὁρᾷς;) νεκύων ἐς αὐλάν,

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Ancient Greek I

ὑπ’ ὀφρύσι κυαναυγέσι
βλέπων, πτερωτὸς Ἅιδας.
τί ῥέξεις; ἄφες. οἵαν ὁδὸν ἁ δειλαιοτάτα προβαίνω.
Ἄδμητος
οἰκτρὰν φίλοισιν, ἐκ δὲ τῶν μάλιστ’ ἐμοὶ265

καὶ παισίν, οἷς δὴ πένθος ἐν κοινῷ τόδε.

Ἄλκηστις
μέθετε, μέθετέ μ’ ἤδη·κλίνατ’, οὐ σθένω ποσίν.
πλησίον Ἅιδας, σκοτίαδ’ ἐπ’ ὄσσοισι νὺξ ἐφέρπει.
270τέκνα τέκν’, οὐκέτι δὴοὐκέτι μάτηρ σφῷν ἔστιν.
χαίροντες, ὦ τέκνα, τόδε φάος ὁρῷτον.

Ἄδμητος
οἴμοι· τόδ’ ἔπος λυπρὸν ἀκούειν
καὶ παντὸς ἐμοὶ θανάτου μεῖζον.
275

μὴ πρός <σε> θεῶν τλῇς με προδοῦναι,μὴ πρὸς παίδων οὓς ὀρφανιεῖς,
ἀλλ’ ἄνα, τόλμα.
σοῦ γὰρ φθιμένης οὐκέτ’ ἂν εἴην·ἐν σοὶ δ’ ἐσμὲν καὶ ζῆν καὶ μή·σὴν γὰρ φιλίαν σεβόμεσθα.

Verse Translation
Alkestis
Someone pulls and pulls me—don’t you see?—
Pulls me nigh where dwell the dead, andStares with darkened brow, winged Hades.

Module 8 | Prepositions and Prefixes

What will you do? Let me go. What journey
I’m to make, a soul most sorrowful.
Admetos
One sad to friends but most of all to me
And our poor progeny who share this grief.
Alkestis
Let me down, down, now.
On my back, I cannot stand.
Here is Hades. Black of night creeps
Up against mine eyes.
Children, children, mother dies,
Yours no longer, mother dies.
Children, look, enjoy the rays of day.
Admetos
Alas your words pain my ear,
Are worse than any death to me.
By gods, do not forsake me, dear,
By ours, those whom you leave now orphaned.
But up, arise.
Without you here I live no more.
In you there rests my life and death.
I honor you, my love.

To hear me read, followed by Stefan Hagel’s expert reading with a pitch accent,follow the link below:
Alkestis 259–279.1

1	
https://loom.com/share/80cb5fca014942a990485c0764381a1a.

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Ancient Greek I

Etymology Corner VIII by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 4
Accents, Modules 3, 5, 11. A syllable is the smallest spoken chunk of a word, andcomes from the Greek prefix συν- together, with and verb λαμβάνειν to take, (just likein synchronize, to make two times (χρόνοι) the same, or in sympathy, to feel (πάθος
experience, suffering, emotion) with someone.
When accenting, there are three syllables we care about. There is the final one,the ultima, from the Latin ultimus last, final (anything that is the ultimate had best
be the final one!). There’s the one that is almost or nearly the final, the penultimate,from the Latin paene almost and ultimus last, final (a peninsula is nearly an island,
from the Latin insula, island because a peninsula has water on three sides). The thirdfrom the last is the ante- before the pen- almost ult final syllable, the antepenult, (justas the Antebellum South, from Latin ante- before and bellum war, was the South
before the war and just as in poker the ante comes before the bets).
The last datum we need to add is whether the accent is persistent, meaning it tries
to stay over the same syllable, (per, thoroughly, sistere, to stand firm, like in insist) or
recessive, meaning it tries to fall back towards the antepenult (re, again, like redo,
and cess from Latin cedere, meaning to yield or move back, like in cede or recession).
What to Study and Do 8. Before moving on to the next module make sure that you
have learned the definition and the function of prepositions, prepositional phrases,
and prefixes. Remember that the English and Greek prepositions have the samefunction. If you understand the English preposition, you understand the Greek. As
you work through this text, if you find yourself uncertain about the definition andfunction of the preposition, redo the exercises in this module and check your answers
with the Answer Key.
Learning Tip 8: Work through Difficulties. Break seemingly intractable problems
into tractable sub-problems. Break down each problem into its knowable andunknowable parts. Figure out what you do and do not know. Expose and examine
your assumptions. Make guesses without being afraid of being wrong, recognizingthat mistakes are necessary for growth and learning. Discover your errors quickly.
Ask for assistance.

Module 9

The Verb and μι-Verbs εἰμί, δίδωμι,τίθημι

The Verb
In Greek and in English, verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs
are words that represent actions (throw) and states of being (be or exist). They
differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English
counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English doesnot. The Greek verb (ῥῆμα) in its finite form has an ending that indicates what
person and number the subject is. The Greek infinitive has an ending thatindicates that it is unmarked for person and number.
In this module you will see how the Greek verb functions with three μι-verbs:
εἰμί, δίδωμι, and τίθημι.

Finite Verbs
The finite verbs I run or we run have a person I or we and a number, singular I
or plural we. Note that the combination of a verb with its subject forms a clause.

Infinitives
Infinitives are not marked for person or number. In English the infinitive ispreceded by to. To run, to go, to walk, to carry, to mark, and to sing are all
infinitives and are all unmarked for person and for number.

Intransitive and Transitive Verbs
Verbs are either intransitive or transitive. Intransitive verbs do not take adirect object. εἰμί I am is an intransitive verb. Transitive verbs take a direct
object. ὁράω I see is a transitive verb. It takes a direct object. In the sentence,ὁράω αὐτόν I see him, αὐτόν is the direct object of the transitive verb ὁράω.
Some verbs can be intransitive or transitive depending upon their use incontext. For example the English verb walk is intransitive in the sentence, I
walk to the store. And it is transitive in the sentence I walk my dog to the© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.10

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Ancient Greek I

store. Dog functions as the direct object of walk. Consider the verb smell. In thesentence, the flower smells good, the verb smell is intransitive and describes aquality of the flower’s aromatic existence. In the sentence I smell the sauteeing
onions and garlic, the verb smell is transitive and represents an action that I
perform. Onions and garlic function as the direct objects of smell. Module 30
has practice translating exercises with the μι-verb ἵστημι, which can be both
intransitive and transitive.

Linking Verbs
Linking verbs connect two items in a sentence. The verb to be is the mostcommon linking verb. In the sentence she is a doctor, the verb is connects the
subject she and the predicate nominative doctor. In the sentence he is hungry,
the verb is connects the subject he and the predicate adjective hungry. Somecommon linking verbs in English are these: appear, become, feel, grow, look,remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, and turn. Some common linking
verbs in Greek are these: γίγνομαι be, be born; δοκέω seem; εἰμί be; κεῖμαι lie,remain; and φαίνω seem. The two items connected by the linking verb are in thesame case, which in Greek is typically nominative. In the examples below, thelinking verbs are bolded and the words in the same case are underlined.
ἰατρὸς γίγνεται ὁ Ἱπποκράτης.

Hippokrates is a doctor.

τὸ δὲ δοκέει ἄριστον.

It seems best.

ὄνομά μοί ἐστιν Φίλιππος.

My name is Philip.

ἥσυχος κεῖμαι.

I remain quiet.

μεγάλα τὰ τόξα φαίνεται.

The bows seem large.

Verb Tense
English and Greek have a variety of verb tenses which express time. Tenserefers to the times of the past, present, and future. Each tense indicates when
the action of the verb occurs. The present tense indicates action that is currently
happening. The future tense refers to an event that will happen at some later
point. The past tense refers to actions that have already occurred.

Tense-Aspect
Time (tense) refers to the past, present, and future. Aspect refers to whether anaction is incomplete (imperfective), completed (perfective), or in a state (stative).
The present tense stem, which is used to form the present and imperfect tenses,
communicates an incomplete action. The beginnings and ends of the action
are undefined. Thus the tense-aspect for the present is present ongoing or
repeated, and the tense-aspect for the imperfect is past ongoing or repeatedModule 9 | The Verb and μι-Verbs εἰμί, δίδωμι, τίθημι

95(imperfective). The aorist tense stem communicates a completed action as asingle whole. The boundaries of the action’s beginning and end define the action
as completed (perfective). The tense-aspect of the perfect and future perfect (notcovered in this text due to its rarity) have a completed state that results froma previous completed action or have a completed state (stative) whose effects
are still relevant. The future tense stems have a temporal value but no aspect,showing no distinction between the imperfective (incomplete) and perfective(completed) aspect (CGCG 33.4–6).
Incomplete Aspect. In the sentences,
she picks flowers,

andshe was picking flowers,
the aspect is called incomplete because the beginning and end of theaction are undefined.
Completed Aspect. In the sentence,
she picked flowers,
the aspect of picked is completed because the boundaries of the
beginning and end of the action are defined.
Stative Aspect. In the sentence,
he is amazed,
the aspect of is amazed is stative because the action of the verb resultsin the subject’s being in a certain state, here amazement.
In sum the aspects are three: incomplete, completed, or stative. In English,
aspect depends upon verb tense and context. In Greek, verb tense is a clearer
determinant of aspect, though context still matters.

Verb Mood
English has these moods: the conditional, imperative, indicative, infinitive,
and subjunctive.
The conditional mood uses the helping verbs could, might, should, would. For
the conditional mood, the proposition (could, might, should, would) depends
on a condition (if). In this sentence,
If I show you my weak side, would you take me home?,
upon the successful conclusion of the conditional if, the proposition may be
fulfilled.

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Ancient Greek I

The imperative mood gives someone a command,
So kick back, dig, while we do it.
Here the mood of the verb kick gives a command that may or may not be
fulfilled.
The indicative is the mood of fact. This mood makes declarations that arepresented as true. In this sentence,
Generals are gathered in their masses,
we are to believe that the generals have crowded together.
The infinitive is unmarked for person and number. Ιt is classified as averbal noun and is best understood by thinking of its function as completing or
enhancing the meaning of adjectives, clauses, nouns, and verbs. This is why theinfinitive is referred to as a complement. Sometimes classified as a mood, theinfinitive is potential in meaning, ἐν δυνάμει, because its action may or may
not be realized. In this phrase,standing in line to see the show tonight,
there is no guarantee that the person standing in line will get to see the show.
The subjunctive mood communicates ideas that are contrafactual, hypothetical,
or uncertain.
I wish you were here.
I ask that he be still a moment and this mystery explore.
Oi, where be the bar, John?
Be, explore, and were are all subjunctives. In the first sentence the were iscontrafactual, indicating that the subject I is in fact not here. Contrast thiscontrafactual sentence with the factual one: we were two lost souls. The two
weres are identical in form but not in function. Context enables us to understandthe difference in meaning between them. Be and explore both refer to events inthe future that may or may not be fulfilled. In the third sentence the be expresses
uncertainty as to where the bar be.
Greek also has five moods: imperative (command); indicative (factual
statements usually); infinitive (potential); optative (factual or hypothetical);and subjunctive (hypothetical). English often uses helping verbs such as may,might, should to express hypothetical or uncertain situations that Greek
expresses through a verb’s mood.

Verb Voice
English has two voices: active, (she throws) and passive, (she is thrown). Greek
has three voices: active, middle, and passive.

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Active Voice. In the active voice the subjects perform the verb’s action. In thesentence
she throws,
she performs the act of throwing and so throws is active voice.
Passive Voice. In passive voice the action of the verb is performed upon thesubject. In the sentence,
she is thrown,
the act of throwing is performed upon the subject she. The verb is thrown
is passive voice.
Middle Voice. Middle voice expresses actions the subjects perform uponthemselves or actions that the subjects are personally interested in. Greek uses
the middle voice to translate the English sentence,
she washes herself,λούεται.
Greek also uses the middle voice to translate the sentence,
she has her daughters educated,παιδεύεται τὰς θυγάτερας.
In sum the voices are three. The Greek active and passive voices function justas they do in English. English does not have a middle voice. The Greek middle
voice, covered in more detail in Module 19, often has a reflexive meaning: I see
myself; I wash my hands. Typically you will translate it via the English active
voice.

Principal Parts
English and Greek verbs have principal parts. In English the principal parts arethese: go, went, gone, going. Speakers of English use these principal parts tocompose the variety of tenses, moods, and voices the English verb enjoys.
Greek verbs have these six principal parts:
I. Form:ἄγωEnglish Equivalent:

I lead, I am leading, I do lead

Identification:

first person singular, present indicative active

II. Form:ἄξωEnglish Equivalent:

I shall lead, I shall be leading

Identification:

first person singular, future indicative active

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Ancient Greek IIII.

ἤγαγον

Form:
Translation:

I ledEnglish Equivalent:

first person singular, aorist indicative active

IV. Form:ἦχαEnglish Equivalent:

I have led

Identification:

first person singular, perfect indicative active

V. Form:

ἦγμαιEnglish Equivalent:

I have led or I have been led

Identification:

first person singular, perfect indicative middle
or passive

VI. Form:ἤχθηνEnglish Equivalent:

I was led

Identification:

first person singular, aorist indicative passive

From these six principal parts are formed all the various tenses, moods, andvoices the Greek verb enjoys.
Practice with Verbs in English. Read (or sing) this song by Little Richard andgive as much information as you can about each verb. Check your answers withthose in the Answer Key.
[Intro]La, la, la da da da da da[Verse 1]
I hope that I should live to see
When every man should know he’s free
Prayers and suffrage from the past
All make our heart to be this sad[Chorus]
I got my duty rock and rollNow everybody, everybody, everybody’s got to be free, y’all[Refrain]La, la, la da da da da da[Verse 2]
Let’s get rid of that old man, hey hey hey hey

Module 9 | The Verb and μι-Verbs εἰμί, δίδωμι, τίθημι

99

And bring our government up to date
It may seem very hard to do
Just open your mind, let love come through[Chorus]
You hear me calling, hear my plea
Everybody, everybody, everybody’s gotta be free
Oh yes!
[Refrain]La, la, la da da da da da[Verse 3]
We did our thing and we paid our dues
And let’s get rid of these freedom blues
It may seem very hard to do
Just open your mind, let love come through[Chorus]
I got my duty rock and rollNow everybody, everybody, everybody’s got to be free, y’all[Outro]La, la, la da da da da

The purpose of this exercise is to have you think actively about how the English
verb conveys meaning. In doing this exercise reflect on how much you intuitively
know about your native language. Also look to transfer this knowledge to yourunderstanding of the Greek verb.

The μι-Verb εἰμί
εἰμί frequently occurs. In all languages the verb to be is used so frequently thatits forms resist change and they tend to be highly irregular. The finite forms ofverbs indicate person and number. Because the forms of εἰμί are unique, it isdifficult at first to discern the person and number of each form. When you learnδίδωμι, τίθημι, and the omega- or ω-verb, you will understand clearly how
verb endings indicate person and number.
Memorize the below forms of εἰμί. Note that each form of the verb contains
its own subject. The Greek language does have equivalents for the English
pronouns I, you, he, she, it; we, you, they. You will learn them in detail in
Module 18. Greek often does not state them separately from the verb. Contrastεἰμί I am with ἐγὼ εἰμί I am. εἰμί without the pronoun ἐγώ occurs more
frequently. When the ancient Greek pronoun is present, it is often there for
emphasis or for contrast or for sound or for some other aesthetic or practicalreason.

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Ancient Greek I

Memorize εἰμί so that you are able to recite and write the forms, going fromGreek to English and vice versa. Remember that present refers to time now; thatthe indicative is used to state facts; and that in active voice the subject performs
the verb’s action or state of being.

Present Indicative Active of εἰμί
Verb Form

Translation

Person and Number

εἰμί

I am

1st person singularεἶ εἶς

you are2nd person singularἐστί (ν)

he, she, it is; there is

3rd person singularἐσμέν

we are

1st person pluralἐστέ

you are2nd person pluralεἰσί (ν)

they are; there are

3rd person plural

1. The letter nu in the third person singular and plural is a nu-movable.
It may be added to the ending when the following word begins with avowel or at the end of clauses or verses. Otherwise it is left off.

Present Infinitive Active of εἰμί
εἶναι

to be

unmarked

1. All forms but εἶ and εἶναι are enclitic. Enclitics are pronounced closelywith the word that precedes them. Some common ones are the adverbs
γε, ποθέν, ποι, ποτέ, που, πως, and τοι; the conjunction τε; thepronouns με, μοι, μου, σε, σοι σου, τι, and τις; and the verbs εἰμί,
φημί. Enclitics sometimes have an accent and sometimes do not. They
can also affect the accent of the word that precedes them. How they dois covered in Part II of the 21st-Century series.
Practice Translating εἰμί. Translate the sentences below, which have been
adapted from Lucian’s The Ass, ὁ Ὄνος. Remember the meanings and functionsof the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded andgenitive endings are italicized. Also in these sentences, the definite article,
which will be learned systematically in Modules 11 and 12, is present in these
forms: τῆς, τό, τῶν. Translate each one as the. Check your understanding withthe translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or
three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understandingof the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Module 9 | The Verb and μι-Verbs εἰμί, δίδωμι, τίθημι

CaseEnding

Function

Nominative-α, -η, -ης, -ο, -οι, -ον,

subject or predicate of the verb

-ος, -υGenitive-ας, -εως, -ης, -ου, -ων

dependence; object of preposition;translated with adverb and adjective

1. ἐκ Ὑπάτης πόλεως τῆς Θετταλίας εἰμί.
2. ἐκ τῶν ἄνω εἶ.
3. πλησίον ἤδη τῆς πόλεώς ἐσμεν.
4. ἐγὼ μὲν ἔρομαι εἰ ἔνδον ἐστέ.
5. τὸ δὲ οἰκίδιον οὕτως μικρόν ἐστι.
6. ἐγὼ Ἄβροιά εἰμι· ποῖ δέ καὶ κατάγῃ;7. σὺ δὲ καὶ νέη εἶ καὶ καλή;8. τὸ χωρίον ἐστί τῆς ὁδοῦ τραχύ.
9. σὺ δὲ νέος εἶ καὶ εὔτονος παλαιστής;10. οἱ δὲ οὐκ ἄπειροι τῆς τέχνης εἰσίν.
Adverbs and Verbs
ἄνω upκατάγῃ you stay, you lodge*εἰμί be, be possibleπλησίον near + gen.

ἔνδον within*ποῖ where*ἔρομαι I ask
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative Case

Genitive Case

English EquivalentἌβροιαἈβροίας

Abroia (woman’s name)ἄπειροιἀπείρων

inexperienced in + gen.

*ἐγώ

ἐμοῦ

I, me, mineεὔτονος

εὐτόνου

fit, well-strung, vigorousΘετταλίαΘετταλίας

Thessaly

*καλή

καλῆς

beautiful, noble, good*μικρόνμικροῦ

small, little, short

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Ancient Greek IΝοminative Case

Genitive Case

English Equivalent

*νέη

νέης

new, fresh, young

ὁδός

ὁδοῦ

road, path; journey*οἱ δέ

τῶν δέ

they, them, theirsοἰκίδιονοἰκιδίουabode, house

παλαιστής

παλαιστοῦwrestler*πόλις

πόλεως

city

τέχνη

τέχνης

skill, artτραχύτραχέος

roughτὰ ἄνω

τῶν ἄνωthe northὝπαταὙπάτης

Hypataχωρίον

χωρίου

place, area

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.

The μι-Verbs δίδωμι and τίθημι
Though not as numerous as omega- or ω-verbs, μι-verbs occur frequently.
μι-verbs conjugate differently from ω-verbs in some tenses, typically thepresent, imperfect, aorist, and sometimes the perfect. In conjugating these verb
forms, learn which stem to combine with which ending. The stem is the baseof the word to which the ending is joined. Once you have the correct stem andending, combine them to create the correct form. You may memorize the stems
and endings or you may learn how to combine stems and endings so that you
can recognize the forms as you encounter them. In the readings that occur in the
textbook, use your knowledge of δίδωμι give and τίθημι put, place to identify
the present indicative active forms of other μι-verbs, including ἀπόλλυμι kill,lose; die; δείκνυμι show, display; ἵημι release, hurl, send; (mid.) hasten andἵστημι place, stand, make stand.

Present Tense Stems
Use the long vowel grade stem for the singular (I, you, he, she, it) and the shortvowel grade for the plural (we, you, they). Note that the stems differ even within
the same tense, mood, and voice.

Module 9 | The Verb and μι-Verbs εἰμί, δίδωμι, τίθημιlong vowel grade stem

short vowel grade stem

(use for the singular)(use for the plural)

διδω-

διδο-

τιθη-

τιθε-

Present Tense Endings
Add to the correct tense stem.
Primary Active (use for the present tense)
S

Pl

1st

-μι

-μεν

2nd

-ς

-τε

3rd

-σι (ν)-ᾱσι (ν)

Present Infinitive Active-ναιPresent Indicative Active of δίδωμι
Stem Vowel Grade

Verb Form

Eng. Equivalent

Person and Numberlongδίδωμι

I give

1st person singular

long

δίδως

you give

2nd person singularlongδίδωσι (ν)

he, she, it gives

3rd person singularshortδίδομεν

we give

1st person pluralshortδίδοτεyou give

2nd person pluralshortδιδόᾱσι (ν)

they give

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Active of δίδωμι
shortδιδόναιto give

unmarked

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Present Indicative Active of τίθημι.
Stem Vowel Grade

Verb Form

Eng. Equivalent

Person and Numberlongτίθημι

I put

1st person singular

long

τίθης

you put

2nd person singularlongτίθησι (ν)

he, she, it puts

3rd person singularshortτίθεμενwe put

1st person pluralshortτίθετεyou put

2nd person pluralshortτιθέᾱσι (ν)

they put

3rd person plural

to putunmarked

Present Infinitive Active of τίθημι
shortτιθέναιReaders of Euripides of Athens, Εὐριπίδης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 480–406 BCE.
Readers of Euripides tend to view him in polarized ways. There are those who
think that he criticized traditional religion and shocked contemporaries byrepresenting mythical figures as everyday, unheroic people or even as abnormal
or neurotic personalities. Others view him as conventionally religious. He is
considered by some a misogynist because of his unsparing analysis of feminine
passion. Others view him as highly sympathetic to the plight of women. Euripides’
enormous range spans these contradictory tendencies: he is both a rationalist
and a romantic; he both criticizes the traditional gods and celebrates religion;some of his plays are more comic than tragic with happy endings, while others are
bitter tragedies. He incorporates the new intellectual and scientific movements
into his works but also conveys the irresistible power of the irrational. In modern
times, Euripides has come to be increasingly appreciated for his intellectual
subtlety, bold and original dramatic power, brilliant psychological insight, andability to elicit unexpected symbolic meaning from ancient myth and cult.
Practice Translating δίδωμι. Translate the sentences below, which havebeen adapted from Euripides’ Medea (Μήδεια). Remember the meanings andfunctions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings arebolded, dative endings are highlighted, and accusative endings are underlined.
Also in the sentences the definite article, which will be learned systematicallyin Modules 11 and 12, is present in these forms: ἡ, τῇ, τό, τόν. Translate eachone as the. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key.
Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with eachrereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make
this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Module 9 | The Verb and μι-Verbs εἰμί, δίδωμι, τίθημι

CaseEnding

Function

Nominative-α, -η, -οςsubject of the verb

Dative-ῃ, -ι, -ῳ

indirect object of the verb

Accusative-α, -ην, -ν, -ο, -ον

object of the verb

1. οὔκ, ἀλλὰ ἄλλος τὸν παῖδα ἐκδίδωσιν αὐτῇ.
2. ἡ γυνὴ τῇ παιδὶ τιτθόν δίδωσιν.
3. τὸ ὄχημα ῞Ηλιος δίδωσιν αὐτῇ.
4. τὸν κόσμον ῞Ηλιος δίδωσιν αὐτῇ.
5. Φοῖβος αὐτῇ φάρμακα δίδωσιν.
6. καὶ οὐκ αὐτὴ αὐτὸν προδίδωσιν.
7. αὐτῇ διδόναι χάριν προθύμη εἰμί.
8. τῇ νύμφῃ διδόᾱσιν δῶρα.
9. καὶ αὐτὴν προδίδοτε.
10. δίκην αὐτῇ καὶ αὐτῷ δίδως.
Verbs*δίδωμι give; δίκην δίδωμι I pay the penalty; δίδωμι χάριν I give thanksἐκδίδωμι give up, surrender, give out (of one’s house), give (in marriage)προδίδωμι betray, abandon, give up (to an enemy)
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative Case

Dative Case

Accusative Case

English Equivalent*ἄλλος

ἄλλῳ

ἄλλον

another, other

*αὐτή

αὐτῇ

αὐτήν

she, her, hers*αὐτός

αὐτῷ

αὐτόν

he, him, his*γυνήγυναικίγυναῖκαwoman, wife

*δίκη

δίκῃ

δίκην

justice, penalty

δῶρον

δώρῳ

δῶρον

gift

῞ΗλιοςἩλίῳ῞Ηλιον

Heliosκόσμος

κόσμῳ

κόσμον

ornament, dress

νύμφη

νύμφῃ

νύμφην

bride

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Ancient Greek IΝοminative Case

Dative Case

Accusative Case

English Equivalentὄχημα

ὀχήματιὄχημαcarriage, chariot

*παῖς

παιδί

παῖδα

child

προθύμηπροθύμῃπροθύμηνeagerτιτθόςτιτθῷτιτθόν

a woman’s breastφάρμακαφαρμάκοις

φάρμακαdrugs, medicineΦοῖβος

ΦοίβῳΦοῖβον

Phoibos Apolloχάριςχάριτιχάριν

grace, favor, thanks*χρόνοςχρόνῳχρόνον

time*χρήματαχρήμασι (ν)χρήματαgoods, money

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Translating τίθημι. Translate the sentences below, which have been
adapted from Euripides’ Alkestis, (Ἄλκηστις). Remember the meanings andfunctions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings arebolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; andaccusative endings are underlined. Also in the sentences the definite article,
which will be learned systematically in Modules 11 and 12, is present in thisform: τούς. Translate it as the. Check your understanding with the translationsin the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times,
noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of thesentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Case

Ending

Function

Nominative-ηρ, -ι, -ον, -οςsubject of the verb

Genitive-ου, -ων

dependence; possession

Dative-ῃ, -ι, -ῳ

indirect object of the verb;
possession

Accusative-α, -ας, -ε, -ην, -ι, -ο,

object of preposition and verb

-ον, -ους

1. Ἄδμητος: ποῖ πόδα τίθημι; ποῖ ἵστημι; τί λέγω;2. Χορός: ἦ βαρυδαίμονα σὲ μήτηρ τίκτει.

Module 9 | The Verb and μι-Verbs εἰμί, δίδωμι, τίθημι

107

3. Ἄδμητος: Ἅιδου ἐπιθυμέω δώματα ναίειν.
4. Χορός: τὰ ἄνω κάτω τίθης καὶ ζηλόεις τοὺς φθιμένους;5. Ἄδμητος: γυναῖκα Ἅιδῃ Θάνατος παραδίδωσιν.
6. Χορός: σύ γε πάσχεις αἰαγμάτων ἄξια.
7. Ἄδμητος: ψυχὴν Ἅιδῃ ἐν χερσὶ τίθημι· οὐ γὰρ αὐγὰς θέλω προσοράειν.
8. Χορός: δι’ ὀδύνας βαίνεις· σάφα τοῦτο οἶδα.
9. Ἄδμητος: τί γὰρ ἀνδρί ἐστι κακὸν μεῖζον ἔχειν;
10. Χορός: θρόνον τίθης ἐμοὶ ἀλλὰ πέρας δέ γ’ οὐκ ἀλγέων τίθης.
Adverbs and Verbs
βαίνεις you goναίειν to inhabitἐπιθυμέω I desire + inf.

*οἶδα I know*ἔχειν to have*πάσχεις you sufferζηλόεις you envyπροσοράειν to look uponθέλω I wish + inf.

σάφα clearly*ἵστημι stand, make stand, placeτίκτει gives birth to*λέγω I say
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

EnglishEquivalentἌδμητος

ἈδμήτουἈδμήτῳ

Ἄδμητον

Admetosαἰάγματααἰαγμάτων

αἰάγμασι (ν)αἰάγματαwails, cries

Ἅιδης

Ἅιδου

Ἅιδῃ

Ἅιδην

Hades

ἄλγεα

ἀλγέων

ἄλγεσι (ν)ἄλγεα

pain, grief*ἀνήρἀνδρός

ἀνδρί

ἄνδρα

man, husband

*ἄξια

ἀξίων

ἀξίοιςἄξιαworthy things +
gen.

αὐγή

αὐγῆς

αὐγῇ

αὐγήν

sunlight

βαρυ-δαίμων-δαίμονος

-δαίμονι-δαίμοναluckless*γυνήγυναικόςγυναικίγυναῖκαwoman, wifeδώματαδωμάτωνδώμασι (ν)δώματαhouses

*ἐγώ

ἐμοῦ

ἐμοί

ἐμέ

I, me, mine

108

Ancient Greek IΝοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

EnglishEquivalentΘάνατος

ΘανάτουΘανάτῳ

ΘάνατονDeathθρόνος

θρόνουθρόνῳθρόνον

seat, chair

κακόν

κακοῦ

κακῷ

κακόν

bad, evil, cowardlyμεῖζον

μείζονος

μείζονιμεῖζον

greater*μήτηρ

μητρόςμητρίμητέραmotherὀδύνηὀδύνηςὀδύνῃὀδύνην

pain, grief, distressοἱ φθί-μενοιτῶν -μένωντοῖς -μένοιςτοὺς -μένουςthe deadπέραςπέρατος

πέρατι

πέρας

end, limit,
boundary

πούς

ποδός

ποδί

πόδα

foot

*σύ

σοῦ

σοί

σέ

you, you, yoursτὰ ἄνω

τῶν ἄνωτοῖς ἄνωτὰ ἄνω

the things above

τί

τίνος

τίνι

τίνα

who, what, which,whyτοὺς φθιμένους see οἱ φθίμενοιτοῦτοτούτου

τούτῳ

τοῦτο

this, this thing

Χορός

Χοροῦ

Χορῷ

Χορόν

Chorus-leader*χεῖρεςχειρῶν

χερσί (ν)χεῖρας

hands; force, army

*ψυχή

ψυχῆς

ψυχῇ

ψυχήν

soul, life

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentences foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person,
number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them.
For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object.
ἐγὼ μὲν ἔρομαι εἰ ἔνδον ἐστέ.
δίκην αὐτῇ καὶ αὐτῷ δίδως.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
Module 9 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words,
the greater mastery of the language you will have.

Module 9 | The Verb and μι-Verbs εἰμί, δίδωμι, τίθημι

109

Verbs
δίδωμι give; allow ‘x’ in dat. or acc. + inf., ἐμὲ (έμοί) εὐτυχέειν δίδως you allow
me to prosperεἰμί be, be possibleἵημι release, hurl, send; (mid.) hastenπάρειμι be near, be present; (imper.) be possibleφημί say, affirm, assert

Etymology Corner IX by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 5
Enclitics, Postpositives, Proclitics, Module 4. Let’s talk about three additional
technical words. Enclitics are pronounced closely with the word that precedes
them and sometimes even affect the accent of that word. The etymology of enclitic
is expressed in lexical entries like this: English enclitic < Latin encliticus, < Greekἐγκλιτικός, < ἐν on + κλίνειν to lean, where the symbol < means is derived from). Thinkof enclitics as leaning (κλίνειν to lean) on (ἐν in, on, at) the word preceding them (likehow a recliner is a chair you lean back on, from Latin re back and clinare to lean)—arare instance of Latin and Greek using the same root for a technical term. Proclitics
modify the word coming next. Think of them as leaning forward from προ- before, infront of and κλίνειν to lean. Some words can’t come first in a sentence, so they are
positioned after the first element of the sentence. The word postpositive is built fromthe Latin prefix post- after and positus placed. The word postpone from Latin post
after and ponere to place is built from the same Latin words as postpositive is.
What to Study and Do 9. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you
have memorized the high frequency verbs εἰμί, δίδωμι, and τίθημι so that you canwrite out from memory the verb forms of the present indicative and infinitive activeof each. In order to remember these verbs over the long term, review them a few times
each week. When reviewing, make sure that you can write them out from memory
without looking at the answers.
Learning Tip 9: Be Persistent. Learning is innate and fundamental to our existence.
Learning requires us to adapt to the wide variety of environments we experience.
Learning a different language, or a yoga pose, or any new thing, requires you to adapt
to new ways of knowing. Persistence in adapting results in your assimilating new
knowledge. Once you have assimilated it, this new knowledge becomes a part of you
and your understanding of the world.

Module 10

The Verbs ἔχω, ποιέω, ἔρχομαι,φημί

The Verb
In Greek and in English, verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs
are words that represent actions (throw) and states of being (be or exist). They
differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English
counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English doesnot. The Greek verb (ῥῆμα) in its finite form has an ending that indicates what
person and number the subject is. The Greek infinitive has an ending thatindicates that it is unmarked for person and number.
In this module you will see how endings create meaning in the omega- orω-verb ἔχω, the contract ω-verb ποιέω, the deponent ω-verb ἔρχομαι, and theμι-verb φημί.

Present Tense Stems
To obtain the present tense stem, remove the ending –ω or –ομαι. What remains
is the present tense stem, the base of the word the ending is joined to. To thisstem, add the present tense endings.

Present Tense Endings
Add to the correct tense stem.
Primary Active (use for the present and future active tense)© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

S

Pl

1st

-ω

-ομεν

2nd

-εις

-ετε

3rd

-ει

-ουσι (ν)

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.11

112

Ancient Greek I

Present Infinitive Active-εινThe ω-Verb ἔχωἔχω is referred to as an ω-verb because it ends in omega in the first person
singular, present indicative active of the first principal part. ω-verbs differ
from μι-verbs in stems and in endings in some tenses. All ω-verbs form theirpresent indicative active just as ἔχω does. In the readings that follow, use yourknowledge of ἔχω to recognize and translate the forms of other ω-verbs.

Present Indicative Active of ἔχωVerb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberἔχω

I have

1st person singularἔχεις

you have

2nd person singularἔχειhe, she, it has

3rd person singularἔχομεν

we have

1st person pluralἔχετεyou have

2nd person pluralἔχουσι (ν)

they have

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Active of ἔχωἔχειν

to have

unmarked

Practice Translating ἔχω. Translate the sentences below, adapted from avariety of ancient Greek authors. Remember the meanings and functions of
the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded, dative
endings are highlighted, and accusative endings are underlined. Check yourunderstanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and readeach sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how muchbetter your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you
will improve quickly.
Case

Ending

Function

Nominative-η, -οι, -ον, -οςsubject of the verb

Module 10 | The Verbs ἔχω, ποιέω, ἔρχομαι, φημί

CaseEnding

Function

Dative-ῃ, -ι, -οις, -ῳ

indirect object of theverb

Accusative-α, -αν, -ην, -ν, -ον,

object of a verb or-ους

preposition

1. αὐτὴ μητρὶ διαφορὰν ἔχει.
2. ἔργον γὰρ ἔχει τέρψιν αὐτῇ.
3. ἔμψυχοί ἐσμεν καὶ γνώμην ἔχομεν.
4. οὐχ οὕτως ἔχει γυναικί.
5. καὶ νῦν ἔχομεν καλῶς ἔχειν.
6. καὶ φόβος αὐτὸν ἔχει καὶ διὰ ταῦτα φεύγει.
7. νύμφῃ γὰρ ἔστι γῆν καὶ δόμους ἔχειν.
8. πολλὰ γὰρ αὐτῷ εἰπεῖν ἔχω.
9. εἶ σοφὴ καὶ δόξαν ἔχεις.
10. ἀλλ᾽ ἔχεις ἥσυχος καὶ οὐ πολλὰ λέγεις.
Verbs*εἰμί be, be possible*εἰπεῖν to say*ἔστι it is possible*ἔχω have, hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be well*λέγω say, tell, speak*φεύγω flee
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative Case

Dative Case

Accusative Case

English Equivalent

*αὐτή

αὐτῇ

αὐτήν

she, her, hers*αὐτός

αὐτῷ

αὐτόν

he, him, his

*γῆ

γῇ

γῆν

land, earth

γνώμη

γνώμῃ

γνώμην

judgment, thought*γυνήγυναικίγυναῖκαwoman, wifeδιαφοράδιαφορᾷδιαφοράνdisagreement

δόξα

δόξᾳ

δόξαν

belief, reputation

113

114

Ancient Greek IΝοminative Case

Dative Case

Accusative Case

English Equivalentδόμοιδόμοις

δόμους

house, housesἔμψυχοιἐμψύχοις

ἐμψύχους

alive*ἔργον

ἔργῳ

ἔργον

deed, task, workἥσυχοςἡσύχῳἥσυχον

quiet*μήτηρμητρίμητέραmother

νύμφη

νύμφῃ

νύμφην

bride*πόλλαπόλλοις

πόλλαmany things

σοφή

σοφῇ

σοφήν

wise

*ταῦτατούτοις

ταῦταthese thingsτέρψις

τέρψει

τέρψιν

enjoyment, delight

φόβος

φόβῳ

φόβον

fear

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.

The Contract ω-Verb ποιέωποιέω is referred to as a contract ω-verb because its stem ends in epsilon in thefirst person singular, present indicative active of the first principal part. Whenthe stem of principal part I or II ends in epsilon, the epsilon may contract withthe endings in accordance with the chart below. In the readings that follow, use
your knowledge of ποιέω to recognize and translate the forms of other epsilon
contract ω-verbs. A second type of contract verb with its stem ending in alpha isintroduced in Modules 17 and 19. Module 24 presents contract verbs in alpha,epsilon, and omega.
ε + ε > ειε + ο > ουε + ει > ειε + οι > οιε+η>ηε + ου > ου

ε+ῃ>ῃ

ε+ω>ω

Present Indicative Active of ποιέωVerb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberποιῶ (ποιέω)I do, I make1st person singularποιεῖς (ποιέεις)

you do, you make2nd person singularModule 10 | The Verbs ἔχω, ποιέω, ἔρχομαι, φημίποιεῖ (ποιέει)

he, she, it does or makes

3rd person singularποιοῦμεν (ποιέομεν)

we do, we make1st person pluralποιεῖτε (ποιέετε)

you do, you make2nd person pluralποιοῦσι (ν) (ποιέουσι(ν))

they do, they make3rd person plural

115

Present Infinitive Active of ποιέωποιεῖν (ποιέειν)

to do, to makeunmarked

1. Uncontracted forms are in parentheses. In order to produce an accurate
form, accent before you contract.
2. The accent on a contracted ultima is a circumflex. The accent on
contracted penults and antepenults is determined by the rules for the
possibilities of accents.
Practice Translating ποιέω. Translate the sentences below, adapted from avariety of ancient Greek authors. Remember the meanings and functions of
the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitiveendings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings
are underlined. Also in the sentences the definite article, which will be learned
systematically in Modules 11 and 12, is present in these forms: ὁ, τάς, τήν, τῆς,τό, τοῖς, τοῦ. Translate each one as the. Check your understanding with thetranslations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or
three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understandingof the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Case

Ending

Function

Nominative-ευς, -ης, -ο, -οςsubject of the verb

Genitive-ης, -ου, -ους, -ων

dependence; genitive with ἄξια andἐναντίον

Dative-οις, -ῳdative with ἔκδοτον; indirect object ofthe verb; object of the preposition

Accusative-α, -αν, -ας, -ε, -ην,

object of a verb or preposition-ο, -ον

1. ἀναγκάζουσιν αὐτὸν ποιεῖν ὃ βούλονται (Lysias, Attic orator).
2. ποιεῖς τὸ ἐναντίον οὗ βούλομαι (Demosthenes, Attic orator).
3. ἔκδοτον σεαυτὴν ποιεῖς πόντῳ τῆς λύπης (Anna Komnene, Byzantine
author).

116

Ancient Greek I

4. ἐμέ τʼ ἄχθεσθαι ποιεῖ (Αristophanes, Lysistrata).
5. ἐμὲ ποιεῖτε κοιμᾶσθαι ψυχροῖς τοῖς παρὰ προθύροις (Kallimakhos,Alexandrian poet).
6. ταῦτα δʼ ἄξια σεαυτῆς τε ποιεῖς καὶ τέκνων (Euripides, Andromakhe).
7. πολλὴν ἐμὲ τοῖς θεοῖς ποιεῖς χάριν ὀφείλειν (Xenophon, Kyropaidia).
8. τί γὰρ Ζεὺς ποιεῖ; ἀπαιθριάζει τὰς νεφέλας ἢ συννέφει (Aristophanes,
Birds);
9. ὁ πινοτήρης ὁ σμικρότατος τοῦ γένους τὴν τραγῳδίαν ποιεῖ(Aristophanes, Wasps).
10. πῶς ὃ θέλομεν οὐ ποιοῦμεν καὶ ὃ μὴ θέλομεν ποιοῦμεν (Epiktetos, Stoic
Philosopher);Verbsἀναγκάζω force, compelκοιμᾶσθαι go to sleepἀπαιθριάζω clear awayὀφείλω owe; be obliged to + inf.

ἄχθομαι be annoyed, vexed, grieved*ποιέω, ποιήσω do, make, cause*βούλομαι want, prefer; wish, be συννέφω collect clouds
willing*θέλω wish, be willing
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalent

*ἄξια

ἀξίων

ἀξίοιςἄξιαworthy, deserving +gen.

*αὐτός

αὐτοῦ

αὐτῷ

αὐτόν

he, him, his*γένος

γένους

γένει

γένος

race, kind, sort

*ἐγώ

ἐμοῦ

ἐμοί

ἐμέ

I, me, mineἔκδοτος

ἐκδότουἐκδότῳ

ἔκδοτονsubject to + dat.

ἐναντίονἐναντίουἐναντίῳ

ἐναντίον

opposite

*θεοί

θεῶν

θεοῖς

θεούς

gods

λύπη

λύπης

λύπῃ

λύπην

pain, griefνεφέλαινεφελῶννεφέλαιςνεφέλας

clouds

*ὅ

οὗ

ᾧ

ὅ

what

πινοτήρης

πινοτήρου

πινοτήρῃπινοτήρην

crab

Module 10 | The Verbs ἔχω, ποιέω, ἔρχομαι, φημίΝοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalent*πόλλη

πόλληςπόλλῃ

πόλλην

much, manyπόντος

πόντουπόντῳπόντον

seaπρόθυρονπροθύρουπροθύρῳπρόθυρον

front doorσεαυτή

σεαυτῆςσεαυτῇ

σεαυτήν

yourselfσμικρότατος

σμικροτάτουσμικροτάτῳσμικρότατονsmallestτέκνατέκνων

τέκνοις

τέκναchildren

*τί

τίνος

τίνι

τί

what

τραγῳδίατραγῳδίαςτραγῳδίᾳτραγῳδίαν

tragedyχάριςχάριτος

χάριτιχάριν

grace, favor, thanksψυχράψυχρῶν

ψυχροῖς

ψυχρά

cold

117

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.

The Deponent Verb ἔρχομαι
Deponent verbs are similar to other verbs except that they do not have active
forms. Rather they have middle and passive forms that have active meanings.
All deponent ω-verbs form their present indicative just as ἔρχομαι does. In thereadings that follow, use your knowledge of ἔρχομαι to recognize and translate
the forms of other deponent ω-verbs.

Present Tense Stems
To obtain the present tense stem, remove the ending -ομαι. What remains, ἔρχ-,is the present tense stem.

Present Tense Endings
Primary Middle and Passive Endings (with active meaning). Add theseendings to the correct tense stem.
S

Pl

1st

-ομαι

-ομεθα2-ει, ῃ (-εσαι)

-εσθε

-εται

-ονται

nd

3rd

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Ancient Greek I

Present Infinitive-εσθαι

Remember that deponent verbs are active in meaning and middle and passive
in form.

Present Indicative of ἔρχομαι
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberἔρχομαι

I go

1st person singularἔρχει, ἔρχῃyou go2nd person singularἔρχεταιhe, she, it goes

3rd person singularἐρχόμεθα

we go

1st person pluralἔρχεσθεyou go2nd person pluralἔρχονταιthey go

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive of ἔρχομαι
ἔρχεσθαι

to gounmarked

Historical Present
The present tense in Greek can be used when writing about past events. In thesesituations, it is referred to as a historic, or storytelling, present. The reason why
authors switch to the present tense when writing about the past varies. Somepossibilities include emphasis, vividness, and stating current or general truths.
Practice Translating ἔρχομαι. Translate the sentences below, adapted froma variety of ancient Greek authors. Remember the meanings and functions of
the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitiveendings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings
are underlined. Also in the sentences the definite article, which will be learned
systematically in Modules 11 and 12, is present in these forms: τά, τῇ, τήν, τῆς,
τό. Translate each one as the. As you translate, consider the frequent use of
the historical present in Greek. Check your understanding with the translationsin the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times,
noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of thesentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Module 10 | The Verbs ἔχω, ποιέω, ἔρχομαι, φημί

CaseEnding

Function

Nominative-α, -η,-ος

subject of the verb

Genitive-ης, -ου, -ων

object of a prefix

Dative-ῃ, -ι, -ῳ

indirect object of theverb; object of verb’s
prefixAccusative-α, -αν, -ην, -ν, -ο, -ον

object of verb or
preposition

1. προσέρχεσθε τὴν πόλιν ὅτι κακῶς ἔχετε.
2. ἄλγος εἰς αὐτὴν ἔρχεται ὅτι κακῶς ἔχουσιν.
3. τῆς δὲ γῆς ἀπέρχονται τὰ ἄλλα ἰδεῖν καὶ μαθεῖν.
4. ὁράω γὰρ ὅτι οὐκ ἔρχῃ πρὸς καιρόν.
5. καίτοι οὐκ ἐπέρχεται τό γ᾽ αἴνιγμα διειπεῖν.
6. καὶ ἐρχόμεθα εἴσω καὶ τῇ γυναικὶ ταῦτα δίδομεν.
7. αὐτῇ συνέρχομαι καὶ τῆς δὲ γῆς ἀπερχόμεθα.
8. οὐκ ἔχω φόβον ἐπεὶ φίλος ἔρχομαι.
9. ἐγὼ δὲ προσέρχομαι καὶ κόπτω τὴν θύραν.
10. ἐγὼ δὲ παρέρχομαι εἴσω καὶ αὐτῷ τὰ γράμματα δίδωμι.
Adverbs and Verbs
ἀπέρχομαι depart, leaveκαίτοι and indeed, and yet; though*δίδωμι give; δίκην δίδωμι I pay κόπτω strike
the penalty; δίδωμι χάριν I give
thanksδιειπεῖν to explain*ἰδεῖν to see*εἰπεῖν to say*μαθεῖν to learnεἴσω inside*ὁράω seeἐπέρχομαι approach, attackπαρέρχομαι come forward, passby, go by*ἔρχομαι come, goπροσέρχομαι advance, go, cometowards*ἔχω have, hold; be able + inf.; συνέρχομαι come together, conferκαλῶς ἔχειν to be well

119

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Ancient Greek I

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalentαἴνιγμααἰνίγματοςαἰνίγματιαἴνιγμαriddleἄλγος

ἄλγεος

ἄλγει

ἄλγος

pain, grief

*ἄλλα

ἄλλων

ἄλλοις

ἄλλαother things

*αὐτή

αὐτῆς

αὐτῇ

αὐτήν

she, her, hers*αὐτός

αὐτοῦ

αὐτῷ

αὐτόν

he, him, his

*γῆ

γῆς

γῇ

γῆν

land, earthγράμματαγράμματοςγράμματιγράμματαletter*γυνήγυναικόςγυναικίγυναῖκαwoman, wife

θύρα

θύρας

θύρᾳ

θύραν

door

*καιρόςκαιροῦκαιρῷκαιρόν

right moment, criticaltime, opportunity*πόλις

πόλεως

πόλει

πόλιν

city

*ταῦτατούτων

τούτοις

ταῦταthese things*φίλος

φίλου

φίλῳ

φίλον

friend*φόβος

φόβου

φόβῳ

φόβον

fear

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.

The μι-Verb φημί
Though not as numerous as omega- or ω-verbs, μι-verbs occur frequently.
μι-verbs conjugate differently from ω-verbs in some tenses, typically thepresent, imperfect, aorist, and sometimes the perfect. In conjugating these verb
forms, learn which stem to combine with which ending. The stem is the baseof the word to which the ending is joined. Once you have the correct stem andending, combine them to create the correct form. You may memorize the stems
and endings or you may learn how to combine stems and endings so that you
can recognize the forms as you encounter them.

Present Tense Stems
Use the long vowel grade stem for the singular (I, you, he, she, it) and the shortvowel grade for the plural (we, you, they). Note that the stems differ even within
the same tense, mood, and voice.

Module 10 | The Verbs ἔχω, ποιέω, ἔρχομαι, φημίlong vowel grade stem

short vowel grade stem

(use for the singular)(use for the plural)

φη-

φα-

121

Present Tense Endings
Add to the correct tense stem.
Primary Active (use for the present tense)
S

Pl

1st

-μι

-μεν

2nd

-ς

-τε

3rd

-σι (ν)-ᾱσι (ν)

Present Infinitive Active-ναιPresent Indicative Active of φημί
Stem Vowel

Verb Form

Grade

EnglishPerson and Number

Equivalent

long

φημί

I say

1st person singularlongφής, φῄς, φῇσθα

you say

2nd person singularlongφησί (ν)

he, she, it says

3rd person singular

short

φαμέν

we say

1st person plural

short

φατέ

you say

2nd person pluralshortφᾱσί (ν)

they say

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Active of φημί
short

φάναι

to sayunmarked

Practice Translating φημί. Translate the sentences below, adapted from
Euripides’ Alkestis (Ἄλκηστις). Remember the meanings and functions of thecases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive

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Ancient Greek I

endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings
are underlined. Also in the sentences the definite article, which will be learned
systematically in Modules 11 and 12, is present in this form: ὁ. Translate it asthe. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now goback and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading
how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this ahabit and you will improve quickly.
Case

Ending

Function

Nominative-ης, -ο, -οςsubject of the verb

Genitive-ας, -ου

dependence, possession

Dative-ᾳ, -ι, -οις,indirect object of the verb

Accusative-αν, -ε, -ην, -ον, -ος

object of a verb or preposition

1. Ἄλκηστίς φησι· Ἥλιον καὶ φάος ἡμέρας ὁράω.
2. Ἄδμητός φησι· ὁ Ἥλιος ὁράει σὲ καὶ ἐμέ.
3. Ἄλκηστίς φησι· ὁ Ἥλιος ὁράει γῆν τε καὶ πατρίαν Ἰωλκοῦ.
4. Ἄδμητός φησι· σοί φημι μὴ προδιδόναι ἐμέ.
5. Ἄλκηστίς φησι· ὁράω δίκωπον καὶ ὁράω σκάφος ἐν λίμνᾳ.
6. Ἄδμητός φησι· ἐμοὶ φὴς πικράν γε ναυκληρίαν.
7. Ἄλκηστίς φησι· ἄγει με. ὁ Ἅιδης ἄγει με. οὐχ ὁράεις;
8. Ἄδμητός φησι· καὶ οἰκτρὰν φίλοις καὶ παισὶ φῄς γε ναυκληρίαν.
9. Ἄλκηστίς φησι· δεῖ σοὶ μεθιέναι με ἤδη.
10. Ἄδμητός φησι· οἴμοι· φῇσθα ἔπος λυπρὸν ἀκούειν.
Ιnterjection and Verbs*ἄγω, do, drive, leadοἴμοι alas*ἀκούω hear, listen*ὁράω see*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or προδιδόναι to betraydat. or acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it isnecessary to comeμεθιέναι to release, to let goφημί say, tell, speak ofModule 10 | The Verbs ἔχω, ποιέω, ἔρχομαι, φημί123

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

EnglishEquivalentἌδμητος

ἈδμήτουἈδμήτῳ

Ἄδμητον

Admetos

Ἅιδης

Ἅιδου

Ἅιδῃ

Ἅιδην

Hades

*γῆ

γῆς

γῇ

γῆν

land, earthδίκωπονδικώπουδικώπῳ

δίκωπον

two-oared

*ἐγώ

ἐμοῦ

ἐμοί

ἐμέ

I, me, mine

ἔπος

ἔπεος

ἔπει

ἔπος

word, speech῞Ηλιος

Ἡλίου

Ἡλίῳ

῞Ηλιον

Heliosἡμέραἡμέρας

ἡμέρᾳἡμέρανdayἸωλκός

ἸωλκοῦἸωλκῷἸωλκόν

Iolkos (city)λίμνα

λίμνας

λίμνᾳ

λίμναν

lake

λυπρόν

λυπροῦλυπρῷλυπρόν

wretched, poorναυκληρία

ναυκληρίας

ναυκληρίᾳναυκληρίανship, voyageοἰκτρά

οἰκτρᾶςοἰκτρᾷ

οἰκτράν

pitiable*παῖςπαιδός

παιδί

παῖδα

child

πατρίαπατρίαςπατρίᾳ

πατρίανfatherlandπικράπικρᾶςπικρᾷπικράν

sharp, bitter

*σύ

σοῦ

σοί

σέ

you, you, yoursσκάφος

σκάφεος

σκάφει

σκάφος

hull of a shipφάος (φῶς)φάεος (φωτός)φάει (φωτί)φάος (φῶς)

light, daylight*φίλοι

φίλων

φίλοις

φίλους

friends

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentences foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs give person,
number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them.
For prepositional phrases give the preposition and the preposition’s object.
καὶ φόβος αὐτὸν ἔχει καὶ διὰ ταῦτα φεύγει.
ὁράω γὰρ ὅτι οὐκ ἔρχῃ πρὸς καιρόν.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

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Ancient Greek I

The Greek Olympics
Our first official record of the holding of the Olympic games dates to 776 BCE.
The Greeks celebrated the Olympics in the city-state of Olympia in honor of Zeus,
king of the gods. They held the Olympics once every four years. At first there
were two events, the 200- and 400-meter footrace. Soon added were boxing,
horse racing (single horse and four-horse chariot), a long distance race, thepankration (boxing, brawling, judo, wrestling), the pentathlon (discus, javelin,long jump, 200-meter sprint, wrestling), and wrestling. Training took place in thenude at the gymnasium (γυμνός, -ή, -όν naked). Greeks revered their athletes,
composing poems in their honor, dedicating statues to them, and giving them
cash and free board.
Module 10 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words,
the greater mastery of the language you will have.
Verbsβούλομαι want, prefer; wish, be ἔχω have, hold; (+ adv) be, καλῶς ἔχωwilling
I am well; ὧδε ἔχει it is like so; be able
+ inf.
γίγνομαι (γίνομαι)
happen, become

be,

be

born, λαμβάνω take, receive; captureδεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or dat. λέγω say, tell, speakor acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary
to comeδοκέω seem, think; seem best, think ὁράω seebest + inf.
ἔρχομαι come, goποιέω do, make, cause; (mid.) consider

Etymology Corner X by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 6, Parts of Speech
Adverbs, Module 4. The first part of speech we have learned is the adverb (ἐπίρρημα),
which can modify modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. The word modify torestrain or to restrict is derived from the Latin verb facere (-ify, -fy) to make and theLatin noun modus limit, amount. When you say you are mostly done cleaning yourroom you are putting a limit on the amount of doneness there is. And why is an adverb

Module 10 | The Verbs ἔχω, ποιέω, ἔρχομαι, φημί

125

an adverb? Because it’s a word that has been added, from the Latin prefix ad- to, tothe verb (from the Latin verbum word), just as the Greek word for adverb, ἐπίρρημα,
is built from the prefix ἐπι- to and the noun ῥῆμα word, line, verb. In Latin, verbummeans word, and this isn’t very useful, except if you take it as THE word. As we will
see shortly, a whole sentence in Greek, like in Latin, can be contained in a single verb.
This is part of the reason why in grammatical terms verbum or ῥῆμα means verb, theword indicating an action or state of existence in a sentence. Unlike its Latin parent,
the meaning of the English word verb maintains a narrow definition. The semanticchange of the Latin verbum word to the English verb is called specialization.
Contrast the semantic change of the Greek noun δίσκος discus which derived into
the general English noun dish and specific noun disc. This type of semantic change iscalled generalization.
What to Study and Do 10. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you
have memorized the high frequency verbs ἔχω, ἔρχομαι, and φημί so that you canwrite out from memory the verb forms of the present indicative and infinitive activeof each. In order to remember these ending and verbs for the long term, review thema few times each week. When reviewing, make sure that you can write them out frommemory without looking at the answers.
Learning Tip 10: Move Up Bloom’s Pyramid. Benjamin Bloom edited the first volumeof Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals. In 2001
the revised version of the taxonomy was published. At the base of the revised pyramid
is knowledge. Thus, memorization initiates the first step of learning. Understandingcomes next and is achieved through applied practice in novel situations. Memorizing
the facts of a language (definitions, endings, and vocabulary) and understanding how
to interpret these facts in a variety of different contexts (sentences in a setting) areessential to learning. In learning how to interpret these facts you must also learn
key concepts. One main concept you are currently learning is that endings create
meaning. The right side of your brain is engaged when you learn new information. As
you memorize, process, and understand this new information, it moves from the righthalf of the brain to the left. Thus learning involves both halves of the brain. If you do
not memorize, process, and understand this new information, you will not learn it.
Once you have done so you are freed and can move up Bloom’s revised taxonomy:
knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, evaluation, creativity.

Module 11

The Definite Article and Persistent
Accent

The Definite Article and Adjectives
In Greek and in English the definite article, the, is an adjective. Greek andEnglish adjectives have the same function, though the Greek adjective has
endings and the English adjective does not. Adjectives in both languages arewords that describe nouns and pronouns. In the below,
a midnight dreary,andI ponder, weak and weary,a and dreary describe the noun midnight; weak and weary describe thepronoun, I. In English, words can change their function and part of speechwithout changing form. Consider the sentence,
I left my gal and home.
In this sentence home is a noun. In the sentence,
I go home,
home is an adverb. In the sentences,I miss my home town,
andI hit a home run,home is an adjective. In Greek, words do not typically change function and partof speech without changing form. In Greek the adjective has endings becauses
each adjective agrees in gender, case, and number with the noun it modifies.
© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.12

128

Ancient Greek I

The Definite Article
Though in Greek and in English the definite article is an adjective, the functionsof the two definite articles have important similarities and differences. Often
the Greek definite article, ὁ, ἡ, τό, is best translated with its English equivalentthe. In this case the function of the article in both languages is the same. In othersituations English calls for a translation of the Greek article with a possessive
adjective: my, your, his, her, our, your, their. As you proceed through this text
and Part II of the 21st-Century series, you will encounter additional differences
between the way the Greek and English articles function and the meanings theycreate.
Memorize the forms of the article. Be sure to memorize letters, breathings,
and accents so that you can reproduce from memory each form of the article.
Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

ὁ

ἡ

τό

N

οἱ

αἱ

τά

A

τόν

τήν

τό

A

τούς

τάς (ᾱ)

τά

G

τοῦ

τῆς

τοῦ

G

τῶν

τῶν

τῶν

D

τῷ

τῇ

τῷ

D

τοῖς

ταῖς

τοῖς

Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

ὁ

ἡ

τό

N

οἱ

αἱ

τά

G

τοῦ

τῆς

τοῦ

G

τῶν

τῶν

τῶν

D

τῷ

τῇ

τῷ

D

τοῖς

ταῖς

τοῖς

A

τόν

τήν

τό

A

τούς

τάς (ᾱ)τά

1. Note that the masculine and feminine singular and plural nominative
forms, ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, and αἱ do not have an accent. They are proclitics andpronounced so closely with the word that follows them that theyalmost form a single word. All of the genitive and dative singular andplural forms have a circumflex accent. The remaining nominative andaccusative forms have an acute accent.
Remember that the article is an adjective. In Greek and in English adjectives
are words that describe nouns. In Greek, adjectives agree with the nouns thatthey modify in gender, number, and case. In translating Greek, the ability to
see the relationship between an adjective and the noun it modifies is one thatyou will use in every sentence you translate. Consequently, understandingModule 11 | The Definite Article and Persistent Accent

129

how the adjective relates to the noun it modifies is essential to your learning
the language. The article is the most commonly occurring adjective in ancient
Greek. It is also very versatile. In the next module, we will see how it affects
meaning in three common instances.

Persistent Accent
Adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, nouns, and pronouns mainly have a persistentaccent. Since they are declined, accents on adjectives, nouns, and pronouns canchange nature—acute, grave, circumflex—and position—antepenult, penult,ultima. When presented with any noun or pronoun in a lexicon, the nominative
case of the noun or pronoun is given first, the genitive case of the noun or
pronoun, second, and the article, third:
Nominative

Genitive Singular

ArticleEnglish Equivalentαἵματος

τό

blood

SingularαἷμαRemember that the article indicates gender. Persistent accent remains thesame accent (acute, grave, circumflex) over the vowel or diphthong it is on, as
given by the nominative singular in all forms of the word, unless forced by thepossibilities of accent to change in nature (acute, circumflex, grave) or position(antepenult, penult, ultima). If an accent violates one of the possibilities (youcannot have a circumflex on the antepenult), the accent will change in nature(acute, grave, circumflex) before position (antepenult, penult, ultima). The
accent of most noun forms is persistent and is learned as part of the vocabulary.

Vowel Length
In the paradigms and accenting practice of this text, macrons mark alpha, iota,
and upsilon if long. Short vowels and diphthongs are not marked. In authentic
texts and in the Practice Translating of this text, macrons do not occur.
Diphthongs are by definition long with this exception: final -αι and -οι are shortfor purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part IIof the 21st-Century series. -αι and -οι are final when they appear as the last two
letters of a word, λῦσαι but not λύσαις.

Review Possibilities of Accent
Review these four possibilities, rememorizing them if you need to.

130

Ancient Greek I

Acute Accent
1. An acute accent can appear on the antepenult, penult, or ultima.
2. An acute accent can only appear on the antepenult if the ultima is short.
Circumflex Accent
1. A circumflex accent can appear only on long vowels and never accentsthe antepenult.
2. A circumflex accent can appear on the penult if the penult is long andthe ultima is short. Try using the mnemonic PLUS: Penult Long Ultima
Short.

Additional Possibilities of Accent
Memorize these additional possibilities.
Acute Accent
1. An acute accent can appear on the antepenult, penult, or ultima.
2. An acute accent can only appear on the antepenult if the ultima is short.
3. An acute accent on the ultima changes to a grave when followed by asecond word in a sentence.
4. An acute accent on the ultima does not change to a grave when followed
by a second word in a sentence if there is a pause (comma, raised dot,
period, question mark).
Circumflex Accent
1. A circumflex accent can appear only on long vowels and never accentsthe antepenult.
2. A circumflex accent can appear on the penult if the penult is long andthe ultima is short. Remember PLUS: Penult Long Ultima Short.
3. A circumflex accent can appear on a long ultima.
Grave Accent
1. A grave accent can only appear on the ultima.
2. A grave accent can only appear on the ultima when a second word ina sentence follows without a pause. A pause is indicated by a comma,
raised dot, period, or question mark.

Module 11 | The Definite Article and Persistent Accent

131Chart for Possibilities of Accent
Key: a stands for antepenult; pe for penult; and u for ultima.

Antepenult

Acute

Grave

Circumflex

Possible if ultima is

Never

Never

Never

Possible if penult isshort: á-pe-ŭ
PenultPossible but not if

Ultimapenult is long andlong and ultima isultima is short: a-pé-ushort: a-pê-ŭ

Possible if pause

Possible if no pause

follows: a-pe-ú + pause

follows: a-pe-ù + no

between words

pause between words

Possible: a-pe-ũ

If, when reading the above, your head is left spinning, do not worry. Most people
need to start applying what they are learning before they can begin to enter
into understanding. In the below exercises you can learn from the examples. As
you need to, go back and reread the possibilities for accent, committing them tomemory through applied practice.
Application of the Chart for Possibilities of Accent in Persistent Accent.
Consider the following examples.
1.

ἄνθρωπος (nominative):ἀνθρώπου, ἀνθρώπῳ

2.

βιβλίον (nominative):βιβλίου, βιβλίῳ

3.

νῆσος (nominative):νήσου, νήσῳ, νῆσον4.

δρᾶμα (nominative):δράματος, δραμάτων5.

ἀρετή (nominative):ἀρετήν, ἀρετάς

Explanations.
1. ἀνθρώπου, ἀνθρώπῳ: the ultima is long and so the acute accent mustchange in position from the antepenult to the penult, but not in nature.
2. βιβλίου, βιβλίῳ: no violation of the possibilities and so no change.
3. νήσου, νήσῳ: the penult and ultima are long and so the accent mustchange in nature from a circumflex to an acute, but need not change
position. νῆσον: the penult is long and the ultima is short and so theaccent remains a circumflex on the penult.
4. δράματος: the accent remains over the syllable δρᾱ but must change innature to an acute, because the number of syllables changed from two

132

Ancient Greek I

to three and it is not possible to have a circumflex on the antepenult.
δρᾱμάτων: the accent must change position because the ultima is long.
5. ἀρετήν, ἀρετάς: there is no violation of the possibilities and so nochange.
Use these examples and the Chart on Possibilities of Accent to help you
complete the persistent accent practice.
Practice with Persistent Accent. The first word in bold gives the persistentaccent. Accent the unbolded words. Check your answers with those in theAnswer Key.
1. θεός: θεον, θεοι, θεους
2. λόγος: λογου, λογῳ, λογον, λογων, λογοις, λογους, λογοι
3. ἄνθρωπος: ἀνθρωπου, ἀνθρωπῳ, ἀνθρωπον, ἀνθρωπων, ἀνθρωποις,ἀνθρωποι
4. ἀρχή: ἀρχην, ἀρχαι, ἀρχᾱς
5. πρᾶγμα: πραγματος, πραγματι, πραγματα, πραγματων
6. πόλεμος: πολεμου, πολεμῳ, πολεμον, πολεμων, πολεμοις, πολεμους,πολεμοι7. λιμήν: λιμενος, λιμενι, λιμενα, λιμενες, λιμενων, λιμενας
8. χώρᾱ: χωρᾱς, χωραις, χωραι
9. ὄνομα: ὀνοματος, ὀνοματι, ὀνοματα, ὀνοματων10. σῶμα: σωματος, σωματι, σωματα, σωματωνThere is additional accent practice in Appendix X.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below adapted from Euripides’
Alkestis (Ἄλκηστις). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases
presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings
are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings areunderlined. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key.
Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with eachrereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make
this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Case

Ending

Function

Nominative-α, -αι, -ευς, -η, -ηρ, -ο,subject of the verb

-ος
Genitive-ας, -ης, -ος, -ου, -ους, -ων

possession; dependence; object of a verb or
preposition

Module 11 | The Definite Article and Persistent Accent

Case

Ending

Function

Dative-ῃ, -ι, -οις, -ῳ

indirect object of the verb; object of a133

preposition
Accusative-α, -αν, -ας, -ε, -ην, -ον, -ος,object of the verb, preposition, or prefix-ουςἈπόλλων: ὁ Ζεὺς κτείνει παῖδα τὸν ἐμόν, Ἀσκληπιόν, καὶ στέρνοις ἐμβάλλει
φλόγα. αὐτὸν γὰρ χολόω ἐπεὶ τοὺς τέκτονας Δίου πυρὸς κτείνω, τοὺς Κύκλωπας.
θητεύειν δὲ ἐμὲ ὁ πατὴρ θνητῷ παρ’ ἀνδρὶ τούτων ἄποινα ἀναγκάζει. ἔρχομαιδὲ τὴν εἰς γαῖαν καὶ βουφορβέω ξένῳ καὶ τὸν σῴζω οἶκον. ὅσιὸς μέν εἰμι καὶὁσίου δὲ ἀνδρὸς τυγχάνω, παιδὸς Φέρητος, Ἀδμήτου· αὐτὸν θανεῖν ῥύομαι καὶΜοίρᾱς δολόω. αἰνέουσι δὲ ἐμοὶ αἱ θεαί τε καὶ λέγουσιν ὅτι ὁ δὲ Ἄδμητος Ἅιδηναυτίκ’ ἐκφεύγει καὶ διαλλάσσει ἄλλον τοῖς κάτω νεκρόν. ὁ δὲ πάντας δ’ ἐλέγχει
καὶ διεξέρχεται φίλους, πατέρα τε καὶ μητέρα. ὁ δ’ οὐχ εὑρίσκει οὐδένα, πλὴνγυναικός· ἡ μήτηρ αὐτὸν τίκτει ἀλλὰ οὐ ἐθέλει θανεῖν πρὸ αὐτοῦ. ἡ μὲν γυνὴἐθέλει μηκέτ’ εἰσοράειν φάος· ὁ δ’ αὐτὴν κατ’ οἴκους ἐν χερσὶ βαστάζει καὶ ἡ δὲψυχορραγέει.
Adverbs, Prepositions, and Verbsαἰνέω tell of; praise; promise, vow*ἔρχομαι come, goἀναγκάζω compel, force*ἔχω have, hold; be able + inf.; καλῶςἔχειν to be wellαὐτίκα immediately*θανεῖν to die

βαστάζω lift, raiseθητεύω be a slave, to serve + dat.

*βούλομαι want, prefer; wish, bewillingκτείνω killβουφορβέω be a cowherdλέγω say, tell, speakδιαλλάσσω change, exchange, give in μηκέτι no longer
exchangeδιεξέρχομαι go through; be past, begone byοὐκέτι no more, no longer, no furtherδολόω trick, deceiveπλήν except for + gen.

*εἰμί be, be possibleῥύομαι draw to oneself, save; αὐτὸνθανεῖν ρύομαι I save him from dyingεἰσοράειν to look uponσῴζω saveἐκφεύγω flee, escapeτίκτω bear, give birth

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Ancient Greek Iἐλέγχω cross-examine; put to the test; *τυγχάνω obtain, meet + gen.
prove; refute*εὑρίσκω findχολόω anger, upset*ἐθέλω (θέλω) wish, be willingψυχορραγέω let the soul break loose,be at the last breathἐμβάλλω throw in, put in; put ‘x’ inacc. into ‘y’ in dat.
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English EquivalentἌδμητος

ἈδμήτουἈδμήτῳ

Ἄδμητον

Admetos

Ἅιδης

Ἅιδου

Ἅιδῃ

Ἅιδην

Hades

*ἄλλος

ἄλλου

ἄλλῳ

ἄλλον

another, other*ἀνήρἀνδρός

ἀνδρί

ἄνδρα

man, husbandἄποιναἀποίνωνἀποίνοις

ἄποιναransom, payment

Ἀσκληπιός

ἈσκληπιοῦἈσκληπιῷἈσκληπιόν

Asklepios

*αὐτή

αὐτῆς

αὐτῇ

αὐτήν

she, her, hers*αὐτός

αὐτοῦ

αὐτῷ

αὐτόν

he, him, hisβουλεύματαβουλευμάτωνβουλεύμασι

βουλεύματαwillβροτοί

βροτῶν

βροτοῖςβροτούς

mortals

γαῖα

γαίας

γαίᾳ

γαῖαν

earth, land*γυνήγυναικόςγυναικίγυναῖκαwoman, wife

*ἐγώ

ἐμοῦ

ἐμοί

ἐμέ

I, me, mine

*ἐμόν

ἐμοῦ

ἐμῷ

ἐμόν

my

*Ζεύς

Διός

Διί

Δία

Zeus

*θεαί

θεῶν

θεαῖς

θεάς

goddessesθνητός

θνητοῦθνητῷθνητόν

mortalΚύκλωπεςΚυκλώπωνΚύκλωψι (ν)Κύκλωπας

Kyklopes*μήτηρ

μητρόςμητρίμητέραmotherΜοῖραι

Μοιρῶν

Μοίραις

Μοίρας

Fatesνεκρός

νεκροῦνεκρῷνεκρόν

corpseξένος (ξεῖνος)

ξένου

ξένῳ

ξένον

stranger, guest-friendοἱ κάτωτῶν κάτωτοῖς κάτωτοὺς κάτωthose below

Module 11 | The Definite Article and Persistent AccentΝοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalent

οἶκος

οἴκου

οἴκῳ

οἶκον

house, palace

ὅσιος

ὁσίου

ὁσίῳ

ὅσιον

devout, holy*οὐδείςοὐδένος

οὐδένι

οὐδένα

noone

*παῖς

παιδός

παιδί

παῖδα

child

*πάντεςπάντων

πάσι (ν)πάντας

all*πατήρ

πατρός

πατρί

πατέραfather

πῦρ

πυρός

πυρί

πῦρ

fire

στέρνονστέρνουστέρνῳ

στέρνονbreast, chest*ταῦτατούτων

τούτοις

ταῦταthese thingsτέκτονες

τεκτόνωντέκτοσι (ν)τέκτονας

makers, artisansφάος (φῶς)φάεος (φωτός)φάει (φωτί)φάος (φῶς)

light, daylightΦέρηςΦέρητος

Φέρητι

ΦέρηταPheres*φίλος

φίλου

φίλῳ

φίλον

friend, loved-oneφλόξ

φλογός

φλογί

φλόγα

flame, fire*χείρχειρός

χειρί

χεῖρα

hand; force, army

135

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentence foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person,
number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them.
For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For
adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.
ὁ Ζεὺς κτείνει παῖδα τὸν ἐμόν, Ἀσκληπιόν, καὶ στέρνοις ἐμβάλλει φλόγα.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Herodotos
Born in Halikarnessos (Halicarnassus), a gateway between the Greek and Persian
worlds, Herodotos began the telling of history. Most biographical information
about him is gleaned from his historical work, his Histories. In writing it,
Herodotos traveled throughout the Mediterranean and the surrounding lands,
interviewing sources and looking over data. In helping to create the genre ofhistory, Herodotos focuses on the eighty-two years from 560 to 478 BCE. Outsideof this frame he looks back to the origins of the first eight gods, and forward to

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the events of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 B.C.E.). In crafting his narrative,
he makes use of a variety of source material, records events he does and does
not believe, and passes judgment where he deems it appropriate, taking pains toestablish the truth of what occurred. Where this is not possible, he still preserves
what his sources relate. As he worked, he made mistakes and he got things right.
His scope is a broad one. As he crafts his narrative, he discusses many othersubjects, including the great struggle between the Persian Empire and the Greekspeaking city-states at the dawn of the classical era. These other things include
chronology, colonies, customs, deeds, flora and fauna, food, funeral practices,
genealogy, geography, great works, lineage, marriage, origins, religion, and sex.
Herodotos does not merely list events or tell tales; his history inquires into thecauses of events, and casts its net wide to include ethnography and legend as
well as military and political history. Though parts of his work read as though
Herodotos is a carnival barker, calling his audience to view the strange andincredible world of flying snakes, fish-eating horses, and gold-digging ants,
underlying even these fantastic accounts is a reasonable and rational mind,
seeking to present what it has gone to great lengths to discover. In presenting
his findings, Herodotos weaves a variety of perspectives into his work, creating
a complexity that recognizes the difficulties involved in explaining the past. The
result is a rich narrative, full of nuance, that offers certainty when it can anduncertainty when it cannot.
Module 11 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring words, the greater
mastery of the language you will have.
Adjective and Particle
ὁ, ἡ, τό the (proclitic, ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, αἱ)ὦ (precedes a noun, marks for the vocative case, often not translated) ohVerbsἄγω do, drive, leadἀκούω hear, hear of or about, listen, heed + gen. or acc. of thing or gen. of personἄρχω rule, command; begin + gen.
δύναμαι be able, be strong enough + inf.
καλέω callοἴομαι (οἶμαι) think, suppose, believeπράσσω (πράττω) do, make; fare; + κακῶς sufferφέρω bring, bear, carry; endureModule 11 | The Definite Article and Persistent Accent

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Etymology Corner XI by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 7, Parts of Speech
Conjunctions, Module 5. The root meaning of the Greek word for conjunction,σύνδεσμος, is very close to the root meaning of its Latin counterpart, conjunction.
We already met συν- together, with. Its equivalent in Latin is con-, co-, cum-. δεσμόςbond binds, chains, or links things together. The Latin jungere to join also binds,
chains, or links. Think about how a junction is where two roads or wires meet. The
root of jungere to join is part of a large number of English words like join and yoke(something that binds animals to a plow). The English word yoga is derived from the
Sanskrit word yoga act of joining, which is derived from the same Indo-European
base as yoke. Two words, like yoga and yoke, which are derived from a common
source word are called cognates. Derivatives or loan words, like postpositive, arealiens that come from a non-native source. All English words whose etymologies are
Greek or Latin are derivatives or loan words. A crude estimation suggests that of the
20,000 most commonly spoken English words about 12,000 are loan words from Greek(2,000) and Latin (10,000).
What to Study and Do 11. Before moving on to the next module, make sure thatyou can write out the forms of the article from memory and that you understand theconcept of adjective and noun agreement. In order to remember the article for thelong term, review the forms a few times each week. When reviewing, make sure thatyou can write them out from memory without looking at the answers. Also memorize
the possibilities for accent and make sure that you are able to accent nouns.
Learning Tip 11: Own Your Learning. Teachers can assist your learning but cannot
bring about your understanding. Good teaching explains information clearly. Good
teachers encourage, guide, inspire, and support you, reminding you that mistakes arenecessary, that setbacks and barriers are part of the process, and that stress inhibits
learning. Ultimately it is you who control your learning and how deeply your thinking
goes.
When you memorize vocabulary, repetition is a standard strategy. Some words, suchas ἄνθρωπος or βίος, you will remember based upon your knowledge of the meaningsof the Greek loan words anthropology and biology. Continue to use the memorization
strategies that work well for you. For words you need help memorizing, try as analternative the strategy of linking. This strategy is the same as the one introduced forlearning vowel sounds. Applying this strategy well takes concentration, so clear yourmind and focus your attention. You need to SEE each word. Your senses—hearing,seeing, tasting, touching, smelling—are closely linked with your memory. When you
use your imagination to create an image in your mind, make it come alive with yourSenses. Exaggerate the image and Energize it, causing it to act. When you use your138Ancient Greek I

imagination in this way, the tedium of memorization is replaced by the excitementof invention. Take the Greek word, ἀνήρ man, husband. In linking, you associate theEnglish equivalent man, husband with the word you need to remember, ἀνήρ. First
think of an English word or two that sound like the Greek word. To me ἀνήρ sounds
similar to on air. To link the two come up with an interaction between man and on
air, exaggerating the image so as to make it memorable. I imagine a man floatingon air over Greece, in a flying suit made out of the blue and white Greek flag. As
he flies, the man is eating fresh-baked bread dipped in tzatziki. On his finger is ahuge wedding ring made of gold with many doves etched into it. The wedding ring
reminds me that the noun ἀνήρ also means husband. You can apply this same strategy
to English words you have difficulty recalling. I consistently falter in recalling theword hibiscus. Recently I linked the hibiscus plant with Biscuit, the dog belonging
to my in-laws. I picture Biscuit sitting in the plant with a big hibiscus flower on his
head, wagging his tail hi. Since I created this link, I no longer have trouble recalling
this word. To watch Nelson Dellis explain the process of linking for remembering
vocabulary, follow the links below,
Nelson Dellis, The Linking Method I1
Nelson Dellis, The Linking Method II.21	https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fjk5nBtqM3c.
2	
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z6j2mU8OCsA.

Module 12

Substantive Adjectives and the
ArticleSubstantive Adjectives
A Substantive Adjective is created by using an adjective as a substitute for anoun or pronoun. Greek often uses the article and other adjectives to create
substantive nouns. English uses it also but not as frequently. Some well-known
examples are these:
The meek shall inherit the earth.
The Good, The Bad, The Ugly.
Only the good die young.
If feces were gold, the poor would not have any anuses.
The Article may be used in conjunction with an adverb, another noun, or a
prepositional phrase to create a substantive adjective.
(1) Article with Adverb: the feminine plural article αἱ joins with thearticle τότε to create the noun αἱ τότε the women of the past.
(2) Article with Noun: the neuter plural article τά joins the genitive
plural noun τῶν ἀνθρώπων to create the noun τὰ τῶν ἀνθρώπων thepossessions of people.
(3) Article with Prepositional Phrase: the masculine singular article ὁ
joins with the prepositional phrase ἐπὶ τῷ ἵππῳ to create the noun ὁ ἐπὶτῷ ἵππῳ the man on the horse.
Practice Translating Substantive Adjectives. Translate the phrases below.
After translating each as best as you can, check your answers and be sure tounderstand why each translates as it does. Once you understand why eachphrase translates as it does, read through the exercises at least two more times.

© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.13

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Ancient Greek I

Doing so helps your brain process the information as part of your working
knowledge of Greek. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
1. αἱ νῦν
2. οἱ τότε3. οἱ ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ
4. αἱ μάλιστα5. τὰ νῦν
6. τὰ τότε7. αἱ ἐκ τῆς γῆς8. ὁ ἀνὰ τῷ ἵππῳ
9. οἱ κάτω10. τὰ περὶ τοῦ πολέμου
11. εἰς τοὺς ἐν τῇ θαλάττῃ
12. παρὰ τὰ τῆς ἀρετῆς
13. διὰ τῆς ἀνάγκης τῶν τοῦ πολέμου
14. κατὰ τοὺς ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ
15. πρὸς τὰ ἐν τῇ ἀρχῇ τοῦ χρόνου
16. ὑπὸ τῷ νόμῳ τῶν ἐν ἀρχῇ17. ὁ μέν . . . ὁ δέ18. οἱ μέν . . . οἱ δέ
Vocabulary*ἀνάγκη, ἀνάγκης ἡ force, necessity, κάτω belowfate*ἀρετή, ἀρετῆς ἡ virtue, excellence*νόμος, νόμου ὁ law, custom*ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς ἡ rule, command; ὁδός, ὁδοῦ ἡ road
beginning; province*γῆ, γῆς ἡ land, earth*πόλεμος, πολέμου ὁ war*θάλασσα (θάλαττα), θαλάσσης ἡ *χρόνος, χρόνου ὁ timesea*ἵππος, ἵππου ὁ ἡ horse; (fem.)
cavalry
Practice Making Up Your Own Phrases. Using the vocabulary above, create
your own substantives. Be creative and don’t worry about making mistakes,

Module 12 | Substantive Adjectives and the Article

141

which are necessary for you to have success in any activity you pursue. Own theancient Greek language and your learning of it. Make it yours.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, adapted from Euripides’
Iphigeneia at Tauris (Ἰφιγένεια ἐν Ταύροις). Remember the meanings andfunctions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings arebolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; andaccusative endings are underlined. Check your understanding with thetranslations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or
three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understandingof the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Case

Ending

Function

Nominative-α, -ας, -η, -ηρ, -ης, -ξ, -ο,subject of the verb

-ος, -ς, -ων
Genitive
Dative-ας, -εως -ης, -ος, -ου, -ους,dependence; possession; object of-ων

preposition or verb; separation-ᾳ, -αις, -ῃ, -ι, -οις -ῳ

indirect object of the verb; means or
instrument; object of preposition

Accusative-α, -αν, -ας, -ε, -ην, -ν, -ο,

object of the verb or preposition-ον, -ος, -ουςἸφιγένεια: ὁ Ταντάλειος εἰς Πῖσαν ἔρχεται καὶ θοαῖς ἵπποις
Οἰνομάου γαμέει κόρην. ἡ δὲ τίκτει Ἀτρέα. Ἀτρέως δὲ παῖς Μενέλαος
Ἀγαμέμνων τε. καὶ ἐκ αὐτοῦ καὶ τῆς Τυνδαρείας γίγνομαι Ἰφιγένεια.
ἐμὲ δὲ σφάζει Ἑλένης ἕνεχʼ ὁ πατὴρ Ἀρτέμιδι κλειναῖς ἐν πτυχαῖςΑὐλίδος. ἐνταῦθα γὰρ δὴ χιλίων νηῶν στόλον Ἑλληνικὸν συνάγειἈγαμέμνων ἄναξ καὶ τὸν στέφανον Ἰλίου ἐθέλει λαβεῖν. ὁ Ἀτρείδηςτοὺς γάμους Ἑλένης ἐθέλει μετελθεῖν καὶ Μενελάῳ χάριν φέρειν. ὁτῆς ἄναξ στρατηγίας, Ἀγαμέμνων, καίπερ ἐθέλει νῆας ἀφορμίζεσθαιχθονός, οὐκ ἔχει. δεινῆς δʼ ἀπλοίας τυγχάνει ὥστε εἰς ἔμπυρα
ἔρχεται καὶ αὐτῷ λέγει ὁ Κάλχας ταῦτα. Κάλχας λέγει ὅτι τῷ πατρὶμὲν δεῖ ἐμέ, κόρην τὴν Ἰφιγένειαν, σφάζειν Ἀρτέμιδι καὶ αὐτῇ δὲ
λαβεῖν ἄποινα. καὶ Κάλχας λέγει αὐτῷ ὅτι κάλλιστον εὔχεται παῖδαφωσφόρῳ θύειν θεᾷ. τὴν παῖδʼ οὖν Ἰφιγένειαν ἡ Κλυταιμήστρα
τίκτει. ὁ Κάλχας τὸ κάλλιστον εἰς ἐμὲ ἀναφέρει ὥστε χρὴ τὸν πατέραθύειν. ὁ δὲ ἐμὲ Ὀδυσσέως τέχναις μητρὸς παραλαμβάνει ἐπὶ γάμοις
Ἀχιλλέως.

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Adverbs and Verbs
ἀναφέρω bring up, bring back, *λαμβάνω take, receive, capturereferἀφορμίζομαι loose, set loose*λέγω say, tell, speak

γαμέω marryμετελθεῖν to send for, chase after,
go after*γίγνομαι be, be born

παραλαμβάνω take, take ‘x’ in acc.
from ‘y’ in gen.

*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or συνάγω gather, collect; convene
dat. or acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it isnecessary to come*ἐθέλω (θέλω) wish, be willingσφάζω slay, slaughterἐνταῦθα here, there, thenτίκτω bear, give birth*ἔρχομαι come, go*τυγχάνω obtain, meet + gen.

εὔχομαι pray, vow, promise + inf.

*φέρω bring, bear, carry; endure
bring, bear, carry; endure*ἔχω have, hold; be able + inf.; *χρή it is necessary + inf.
καλῶς ἔχειν to be wellθύω sacrifice
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

EnglishEquivalentἈγαμέμνωνἈγαμέμνονος

ἈγαμέμνονιἈγαμέμνονα

Agamemnonἄναξἄνακτος

ἄνακτι

ἄνακταprince, lord, kingἀπλοίαἀπλοίαςἀπλοίᾳ

ἀπλοίανfailure to sailἄποιναἀποίνωνἀποίνοις

ἄποιναransom, paymentἌρτεμις

Ἀρτέμιδος

ἈρτέμιδιἈρτέμιδαArtemisἈτρεύς

Ἀτρέως

Ἀτρεῖ

Ἀτρέα

AtreusἈτρείδης

ἈτρείδουἈτρείδῃἈτρείδην

son of AtreusΑὐλίςΑὐλίδος

Αὐλίδος

Αὐλίδα

Aulis

*αὐτή

αὐτῆς

αὐτῇ

αὐτήν

she, her, hers*αὐτός

αὐτοῦ

αὐτῷ

αὐτόν

he, him, his

Module 12 | Substantive Adjectives and the Article

Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

143

EnglishEquivalentἈχιλλεύςἈχιλλέωςἈχιλλεῖἈχιλλέαAkhilleus

γάμοι

γάμων

γάμοις

γάμους

wedding,marriage*δεινή

δεινῆςδεινῇδεινήν

awesome; terrible

*ἐγώ

ἐμοῦ

ἐμοί

ἐμέ

I, me, mineἙλένηἙλένηςἙλένῃἙλένην

HelenἙλληνικόςἙλληνικοῦἙλληνικῷἙλληνικόνGreek

ἔμπυραἐμπύρωνἐμπύροις

ἔμπυραburnt sacrifice

*θεά

θεᾶς

θεᾷ

θεάν

goddess

θοαί

θοῶν

θοαῖς

θοάς

swift

Ἴλιον

Ἰλίου

Ἰλίῳ

Ἴλιον

Troy

*ἵπποιἵππων

ἵπποις

ἵππους

horsesἸφιγένεια

Ἰφιγενείας

ἸφιγενείᾳἸφιγένειανIphigeneiaκάλλιστοςκαλλίστουκαλλίστῳκάλλιστονmost beautifulΚάλχας

Κάλχαντος

ΚάλχαντιΚάλχανταKalkhasκλειναίκλεινῶνκλειναῖςκλεινάςfamous

κόρη

κόρης

κόρῃ

κόρην

maiden, girlΜενέλαος

ΜενελάουΜενελάῳ

ΜενέλαονMenelaos*μήτηρ

μητρόςμητρίμητέραmother

*νῆες

νεῶν

ναυσί (ν)ναῦς or νῆας

ships

ὈδυσσεύςὈδυσσέως

ὈδυσσεῖὈδυσσέα

OdysseusΟἰνόμαοςΟἰνομάου

ΟἰνομάῳΟἰνόμαονOinomaos*παῖςπαιδός

παιδί

παῖδα

child

*πατήρ

πατρός

πατρί

πατέραfather

Πῖσα

Πίσης

Πίσῃ

Πῖσαν

Pisa

πτυχαί

πτυχῶν

πτυχαῖςπτυχάς

folds, glensστέφανος

στεφάνουστεφάνῳστέφανον

crown, wreath,prizeστόλος

στόλου

στόλῳστόλον

expeditionστρατηγία

στρατηγίας

στρατηγίᾳστρατηγίαν

office; campaignΤαντάλειος

ΤανταλείουΤανταλείῳΤαντάλειονTantalean, here
Pelops144

Ancient Greek IΝοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

EnglishEquivalent*ταῦτατούτων

τούτοις

ταῦταthese thingsτέχναι

τεχνῶν

τέχναις

τέχνᾱς

skill, craftΤυνδαρεία

Τυνδαρείας

ΤυνδαρείᾳΤυνδαρείαν

Tyndarean, here
Klytaimnestraφωσφόρος

φωσφόρουφωσφόρῳφωσφόρον

light-bringingχάριςχάριτος

χάριτιχάριν

grace, favor,
thanksχθώνχθονός

χθονί

χθόνα

earth, groundχίλιαι

χιλίων

χιλίαις

χιλίᾱς

thousand1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentence foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs give person,
number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them.
For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For
adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.
δεινῆς δʼ ἀπλοίας τυγχάνει ὥστε εἰς ἔμπυρʼ ἔρχεται καὶ αὐτῷ λέγει ὁΚάλχας ταῦτα.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Classics and Our Modern World: the Aquila Theatre andTheater of War Productions
Presenting classics from throughout time, the Aquila Theatre puts flesh andblood on the great works of the past. Past performances from the ancientworld include, Herakles, the Iliad and Odyssey, and Philoktetes. Aquila seeks toreinterpret the Classics for contemporary audiences and to bring diversity tothem. Aquila expands the canon and attempts to change our perceptions. It also
provides extensive educational offerings and is an award-winning leader in thefield of public humanities programming. For more information, follow this link:
Aquila Theatre.1

1	
https://www.aquilatheatre.com/.

Module 12 | Substantive Adjectives and the Article

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Theater of War Productions presents dramatic readings of classical Greek
tragedies and modern and contemporary works. After the performance, it holds
town-hall-style discussions designed to confront social issues by discussing thethemes highlighted in the plays. The open discussions invite audience members
to share their perspectives and experiences and seek to break down stigmas,
foster empathy, compassion, and a deeper understanding of complex issues. Inan effort to reach communities directly, Theater of War Productions partners
with a range of organizations and government agencies. For more information,
follow this link:
Theater of War Productions.2

Module 12 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words,
the greater mastery of the language you will have.
Verbsἐθέλω (θέλω) wish, be willingπείθω persuade + inf.; (mid. or pass.) listen to, obey + dat. or gen.
τυγχάνω happen; meet + gen.; obtain + gen.; hit the mark, strike + gen.
φαίνω show, reveal; (pass.) appearχράομαι use, employ, experience + dat.

Etymology Corner XII by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 8, Parts of Speech
Coordinating Conjunctions, Module 5. Think about map coordinates—you go over on
the x axis for a bit, then go up on the y axis. Both halves of the coordinates are equallyvaluable. If your clothing coordinates, your attire comes together in complementarycolors or styles and no particular piece sticks out. This is because they are orderedwith the other pieces of clothing, from Latin co- with, together and ordo row, order,
rank (ordo is the word from which the English word order derives). This is why acoordinating conjunction has both words or clauses on an equal footing: one isn’t
dependent on another. Creating dependence is what a subordinating conjunction
does. More on that next.

2	https://theaterofwar.com/about.

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Ancient Greek I

What to Study and Do 12. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you
have learned what a substantive adjective is and how Greek uses the article to create
one. After you have completed Modules 14 and 15, come back to this module andcomplete for a second time the practice exercises for the substantive adjective. Notice
how much your understanding of this fundamental concept has improved.
Learning Tip 12: Consonance and Dissonance. The right side of our brain processes
new information. As we process it, the left half of our brain brings analysis, logic,
and reason to what we have learned. In the end both hemispheres come to a sharedunderstanding of the new information. When we engage in further defining information
we use our left hemisphere. The left half of our brain rationalizes information andrejects anomalies. It sees things through a flashlight’s beam. If a gorilla walks througha volleyball game, the left side of our brain tends to miss the strangeness completely.
When we consider ambiguities and contradictions, we engage the right side of ourbrain. We look out, holding a lantern’s light. Dissonance in the right side of our brain
opens us to novelty, to new ways of thinking, to creativity. When using your long-term
memory to assist your short-term memory, you are accelerating your brain’s ability
to store new information. Remember the formula LTM + STM = MTM and rememberthat by using your imagination to create memorable images that you can SEE, you
improve your brain’s ability to process and store new information.

Module 13

Third Declension Nouns

Nouns
Nouns in Greek are defined just as nouns in English; but the way they create
meaning is different. As in English, Greek nouns (ὀνόματα) refer to people,
places, things, and ideas. Greek nouns have endings. English nouns can change
form when they show possession, as in Jada’s book, where the ’s is added as asuffix and indicates that the book belongs to Jada. English nouns also change
form when expressing the plural: two suns, three oxen, four mice. The endingson Greek nouns, as we have seen previously, create the same meanings that
English does through form change, word order, and the use of prepositional
phrases.

Greek Nouns
In Greek there are three noun declensions: first, second, and third. In this text, thethird declension, also called the consonant declension, is taught first because it
offers the most complexity. Once you understand the third declension, it is easierfor you to learn the remaining two declensions. Learning the third declension
first also reinforces why the stem, the base to which endings are attached, istaken from the genitive singular. Also by learning the third declension before
the other two, you will be less inclined to match or rhyme noun and adjective
endings when you modify a noun with an adjective.

Noun Sets 1–10
Since each Greek noun takes only one set of endings, this text numbers theendings by sets 1–10. The aim in doing so is to make clear the correspondence
between one noun to which one set of endings is added. It is also a helpful way to© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.14

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Ancient Greek I

refer to the endings when identifying nouns and discussing things like case andfunction. The noun sets learned in this module are sets 9 and 10, so numbered tomaintain consistency across the traditional order of nouns of the first, second,
and third declension.

Noun Gender
Most nouns have only one gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter. Sometimes
the noun’s gender matches biological sex: ὁ πατήρ father is masculine and ἡμήτηρ mother is feminine. At other times noun gender and biological sex do
not match: the noun τὸ παιδίον child is neuter in gender. Occasionally the samenoun may have a common gender that depends upon biological sex: ὁ θεός
god; ἡ θεός goddess; ἡ παῖς girl; ὁ παῖς boy; ἡ ἵππός mare; ὁ ἵππος stallion.
Τhe article, ὁ, ἡ, τό, indicates the noun’s gender. ὁ indicates that the noun ismasculine. ἡ indicates that the noun is feminine and τό that it is neuter.

Third Declension Nouns
All third declension nouns have a stem that ends in a consonant or an iota ι-, or
upsilon υ-. All third declension nouns use the same endings but for some nouns
the ending is disguised by ablaut, contraction, or quantitative metathesis. In
this module you learn the endings and also how to recognize them when they
are disguised. Unlike nouns of the first and second declension, the nominative
singular of nouns of the third declension varies. For this reason a blank, ---,
is written for the nominative singular of these nouns. The gender of third
declension nouns that take set 9 endings is either masculine or feminine. The
gender of nouns that take set 10 endings is always neuter. The gender of third
declension subtype nouns is indicated within each paradigm.

Identifying Noun Sets
As already noted, the article, roughly equivalent to the English the, tells you thegender of each noun. Most nouns have one gender, though occasionally a noun
can have the common gender of either feminine or masculine, i.e. it can be either
feminine or masculine. In lexical entries like the ones below, the nominative
singular form comes first. The genitive singular comes second and the article
third. From these three pieces of information you can identify each noun’s
gender and you can identify what set of endings any noun has. Remember thateach noun has only one ending set. By the end of Part I of the 21st-Century series
you will have learned 10 noun sets found in three noun declensions.

Module 13 | Third Declension Nouns

149

Nominative

Genitive

ArticleGenderSet #English Equivalent

αἴξ

αἰγός

ὁ or ἡ

masc. or

9

goat

fem.
ἄρχων

ἄρχοντος

ὁ

masc.

9

ruler

ἐλπίς

ἐλπίδος

ἡ

fem.

9

hope

σῶμα

σώματος

τό

neut.

10

body

φύλαξ

φύλακος

ὁ

masc.

9

guard

χάρις

χάριτος

ἡ

fem.

9

grace

Declining Third Declension Nouns
To decline third declension nouns, first get the stem by removing the genitive
singular ending -ος. What remains is the stem, the base of the word the ending isjoined to. To the stem add the endings from either Set 9 or Set 10, in accordancewith what set the noun belongs to.
M/F

Neuter

Set 9

Set 10

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

---

-ες

N

---

-α

A

-α or -ν

-ας

A

---

-α

G

-ος

-ων

G

-ος

-ων

D

-ι

-σι (ν)D-ι-σι (ν)

V

---

-ες

V

---

-α

M/F

Neuter

Set 9

Set 10

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

---

-ες

N

---

-α

G

-ος

-ων

G

-ος

-ων

D

-ι

-σι (ν)D-ι-σι (ν)A-α or -ν

-ας

A

---

-α

V

---

-ες

V

---

-α

1. For Set 9 the nominative singular varies, hence the blank, ---.

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Ancient Greek I

2. The feminine and masculine accusative plural ending is -ας. Contrast it
with the ending -ᾱς of the first declension, which you will learn soon.
3. In Set 10 the blank, ---, indicates that the singulars of the nominative,
accusative, and vocative vary. For all neuter nouns, the singulars ofthese three cases are identical to one another. The plurals of thesethree cases are also identical to one another and the ending is an alpha,-α. Use context to determine what case each is in.
Consider the following third declension nouns and note how each declines.
φύλαξ, φύλακος ὁ guard*σῶμα, σώματος τό bodyαἴξ, αἰγός ὁ or ἡ goatχάρις, χάριτος ἡ graceἐλπίς, ἐλπίδος ἡ hope
For each noun, above the first form is the nominative singular, the second is thegenitive singular, and the third is the article.
Singular
N

αἴξ

ἄρχων

ἐλπίς

σῶμα

φύλαξ

χάρις

A

αἶγα

ἄρχονταἐλπίδασῶμα

φύλακα

χάριν

G

αἰγός

ἄρχοντος

ἐλπίδος

σώματος

φύλακος

χάριτος

Dαἰγίἄρχοντιἐλπίδι

σώματι

φύλακι

χάριτι

V

αἴξ

ἄρχον

ἐλπί

σῶμα

φύλαξ

χάρι

N

αἶγες

ἄρχοντες

ἐλπίδεςσώματαφύλακεςχάριτεςAαἶγαςἄρχοντας

ἐλπίδαςσώματαφύλακαςχάριταςGαἰγῶνἀρχόντωνἐλπίδωνσωμάτωνφυλάκωνχαρίτωνDαἰξί (ν)ἄρχουσι (ν)ἐλπίσι (ν)σώμασι (ν)φύλαξι (ν)χάρισι (ν)

V

αἶγες

ἄρχοντες

ἐλπίδεςσώματαφύλακεςχάριτες

N

αἴξ

ἄρχων

ἐλπίς

σῶμα

φύλαξ

χάρις

G

αἰγός

ἄρχοντος

ἐλπίδος

σώματος

φύλακος

χάριτος

Dαἰγίἄρχοντιἐλπίδι

σώματι

φύλακι

χάριτι

Aαἶγαἄρχονταἐλπίδασῶμα

φύλακα

χάριν

V

αἴξ

ἄρχον

ἐλπί

σῶμα

φύλαξ

χάρι

PluralSingularModule 13 | Third Declension Nouns

151

PluralNαἶγεςἄρχοντες

ἐλπίδεςσώματαφύλακεςχάριτεςGαἰγῶνἀρχόντωνἐλπίδωνσωμάτωνφυλάκωνχαρίτωνDαἰξί (ν)ἄρχουσι (ν)ἐλπίσι (ν)σώμασι (ν)φύλαξι (ν)χάρισι (ν)

A

αἶγας

ἄρχοντας

ἐλπίδαςσώματαφύλακαςχάριταςVαἶγεςἄρχοντες

ἐλπίδεςσώματαφύλακεςχάριτες

1. Accent is persistent except that nouns with monosyllabic stems accent
the ultima in the genitive and dative, singular and plural. The genitive
plural has a circumflex, such as αἰγῶν. The others have an acute.
2. All 3rd declension nouns end in alpha in the accusative singular unlesstheir stem ends in -ιτ, -ιδ, or, -ιθ and the iota is not accented. In this casethe final consonant is dropped and the ending, -ν, is added. Contrast
ἐλπίς, ἐλπίδα with χάρις, χάριν.
3. The vocative singular is the same as the nominative singular if thenominative singular ends in -ξ or -ψ or if it ends in -ν or -ρ and accentsthe ultima. Otherwise the vocative singular consists of the stem minus
the final tau, delta, or theta (τ, δ, θ), called dentals because the tongue
touches the teeth when making the sounds that these consonants
represent. Examples of the former are αἴξ and λιμήν and of the latterare ἐλπί. In all neuter nouns the vocative singular is the same as thenominative singular.
4. The dative plural ending –σι (ν) is combined with third declension
stems ending in consonants in accordance with the following:π, β, φ

+

-σι

=

-ψι

κ, γ, χ

+

-σι

=

-ξι

τ, δ, θ

+

-σι

=

-σι

ν

+

-σι

=

-σι

σ

+

-σι

=

-σι

-αντ-

+

-σι

=

-ᾱσι

-εντ-

+

-σι

=

-εισι

-οντ-

+

-σι

=

-ουσι

λ

+

-σι

=

-λσι (no change)

ρ

+

-σι

=

-ρσι (no change)

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Ancient Greek I

5. When -αντ-, -εντ-, and -οντ- are combined with the ending -σι, the nu
and tau, -ντ-, drop out and a long vowel or diphthong appears by aprocess called compensatory lengthening. A diphthong that resultsfrom compensatory lengthening is called a spurious diphthong. Lookcarefully at the following dative plural nouns:αἰγσί (ν)

becomesαἰξί (ν)ἄρχοντσι (ν)

becomesἄρχουσι (ν)ἐλπίδσι (ν)

becomesἐλπίσι (ν)σώματσι (ν)

becomesσώμασι (ν)φύλακσι (ν)

becomesφύλαξι (ν)χάριτσι (ν)

becomesχάρισι (ν),

noting how the letters combine and the form changes.

Four Subtypes of Third Declension Nouns
All third declension nouns use the same endings, but for some nouns the ending
has been disguised by ablaut, contraction, or quantitative metathesis. Do notplan on memorizing each of the four subtypes, though you may find memorizing
the contractions helpful. Do memorize the endings of sets 9 and 10. Use yourknowledge of the endings of sets 9 and 10 to recognize the subtypes and case ofeach noun.
1) Subtype 1 Nouns with Stem Ending in ρ- or ερ- (ablaut):
Feminine
S

Pl

N

μήτηρ

μητέρεςAμητέραG

Masculine
S

Pl

N

ἀvήρ

ἄvδρες

μητέραςAἄvδραἄvδρας

μητρός

μητέρωv

G

ἀvδρός

ἀvδρῶvDμητρίμητράσι (v)

D

ἀvδρί

ἀvδράσι (v)

V

μῆτερ

μητέρεςVἄvερἄvδρες

Module 13 | Third Declension Nouns

Feminine

153

Masculine

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

μήτηρ

μητέρεςNἀvήρἄvδρες

Gμητρός

μητέρωv

G

ἀvδρός

ἀvδρῶvDμητρίμητράσι (v)

D

ἀvδρί

ἀvδράσιAμητέραμητέραςAἄvδραἄvδρας

VμῆτερμητέρεςVἄvερἄvδρες

1. μήτηρ uses two stems: μητρ- and μητερ-. Ablaut (vowel variation) in astem is observed in these two forms: μήτηρ and μητερ-. Ablaut (vowel
variation) is a regular feature of languages. Note the vowel variation inthese forms: sing, sang, sung and ring, rang, rung.
2. In the genitive and dative singular of μήτηρ, the stem is monosyllabic
and so the accent shifts to the ultima: μητρός and μητρί.
3. In the genitive and dative singular of ἀvήρ, the stem is monosyllabic
and so the accent shifts to the ultima: ἀνδρός, ἀνδρί, and ἀνδρῶν.
4. In the dative plural the rho -ρ-, has expanded to -ρα-.
5. Nouns that end in -ηρ, like θυγάτηρ, πατήρ, and γαστήρ, decline likeμήτηρ not ἀvήρ, whose stem differs slightly.
6. Compare and contrast these Subtype 1 Nouns with the noun σωτήρsavior, noticing that it has one stem, σωτήρ.
N

σωτήρ

σωτῆρεςAσωτῆρασωτῆραςGσωτῆρος

σωτήρωνDσωτῆρι

σωτῆρσι (ν)

V

σωτήρ

σωτῆρεςNσωτήρσωτῆρεςGσωτῆρος

σωτήρωνDσωτῆρι

σωτῆρσι (ν)

AσωτῆρασωτῆραςVσωτήρσωτῆρες2) Subtype 2 Nouns with Stem Ending in σ- (ablaut, contraction, anddisappearance of intervocalic sigma, -σ-):154

Ancient Greek I

Neuter Nouns Ending in –ος: γένος race
S

Pl

N

γένος

γένεα, γένη (εσα)

A

γένος

γένεα, γένη (εσα)

Gγένεος, γένους (εσος)

γενέων, γενῶν (εσων)Dγένει (εσι)γένεσι (ν) (εσσι (ν))

V

γένος

γένεα, γένη (εσα)

S

Pl

N

γένος

γένεα, γένη (εσα)

Gγένεος, γένους (εσος)

γενέων, γενῶν (εσων)Dγένει (εσι)γένεσι (ν) (εσσι (ν))

A

γένος

γένεα, γένη (εσα)

V

γένος

γένεα, γένη (εσα)

1. The stems are γενοσ- and γενεσ-.
2. The letters in parentheses indicate where intervocalic sigma has
dropped out: εσσι > -εσι, etc.
3. In the Ionic dialect after sigma dropped out the vowels did not contract.
4. In the Attic dialect after sigma dropped out the vowels did contract: εα> η; εο > ου; εω > ω. For a list of contractions that occurred, see CGCG
1.63.
5. Similar nouns are ἄλγος pain; ἔπος word; ἔτος year; κράτος might;and τεῖχος wall.
Neuter Nouns Ending in –ας: γῆρας, old age
S

Pl

N

γῆρας

γήραα, γήρᾱ (ασα)

A

γῆρας

γήραα, γήρᾱ (ασα)

Gγήραος, γήρως (ασος)γηράων, γηρῶν (ασων)Dγήραϊ, γήρᾳ (ασι)γήρασι (ν) (ασσι (ν))

V

γῆρας

γήραα, γήρᾱ (ασα)

Module 13 | Third Declension Nouns

S

Pl

N

γῆρας

γήραα, γήρᾱ (ασα)

Gγήραος, γήρως (ασος)γηράων, γηρῶν (ασων)Dγήραϊ, γήρᾳ (ασι)γήρασι (ν) (ασσι (ν))

A

γῆρας

γήραα, γήρᾱ (ασα)

V

γῆρας

γήραα, γήρᾱ (ασα)

1. The stem is γηρασ-.
2. The letters in parentheses indicate where intervocalic sigma has
dropped out.
3. In the Ionic dialect after sigma dropped out the vowels did not contract.
4. In the Attic dialect after sigma dropped out the vowels did contract: αα> ᾱ; αϊ > ᾳ; αο > ω; αω > ω. For a list of contractions that occurred, see
CGCG 1.63.
5. The noun γέρας gift of honor declines like γῆρας.
Feminine and Masculine Nouns Ending in ης-: τριήρης trireme
S

Pl

N

τριήρης

τριήρεες, τριήρεις (εσες)Aτριήρεα, τριήρη (εσα)τριήρεας, τριήρεις (εσας)Gτριήρεος, τριήρους (εσος)τριηρέων, τριήρων (εσων)Dτριήρει (εσι)τριήρεσι (ν) (εσσιν)Vτριῆρεςτριήρεες, τριήρεις (εσες)

S

Pl

N

τριήρης

τριήρεες, τριήρεις (εσες)Gτριήρεος, τριήρους (εσος)τριηρέων, τριήρων (εσων)Dτριήρει (εσι)τριήρεσι (ν) (εσσιν)Aτριήρεα, τριήρη (εσα)τριήρεας, τριήρεις (εσας)Vτριῆρεςτριήρεες, τριήρεις (εσες)

1. The stem is τριηρεσ-.
2. The letters in parentheses indicate where intervocalic sigma has
dropped out.
3. In the Ionic dialect after sigma dropped out the vowels did not contract.

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Ancient Greek I

4. In the Attic dialect after sigma dropped out the vowels did contract: εα> η ; εε > ει; εο > ου; εω > ω.
Proper Nouns Ending in ης-: Σωκράτης Sokrates
S

Pl

N

Σωκράτης

Σωκράτεες, Σωκράτεις (εσες)AΣωκράτεα, Σωκράτη, ΣωκράτηνΣωκράτεας, Σωκράτεις (εσας)

(εσα)
G

Σωκράτεος, Σωκράτους (εσος)Σωκράτέων, Σωκράτων (εσων)DΣωκράτει (εσι)Σωκράτεσι (ν) (εσσιν)VΣωκράτες

Σωκράτεες, Σωκράτεις (εσες)

S

Pl

N

Σωκράτης

Σωκράτεες, Σωκράτεις (εσες)GΣωκράτεος, Σωκράτους (εσος)Σωκράτέων, Σωκράτων (εσων)DΣωκράτει (εσι)Σωκράτεσι (ν) (εσσιν)AΣωκράτεα, Σωκράτη, ΣωκράτηνΣωκράτεας, Σωκράτεις (εσας)

(εσα)
V

Σωκράτες

Σωκράτεες, Σωκράτεις (εσες)

1. The stem is Σωκρατεσ-.
2. The form Σωκράτην occurs by analogy with the accusative singular offirst declension nouns.
3. The letters in parentheses indicate where intervocalic sigma has
dropped out.
4. In the Ionic dialect after sigma dropped out the vowels did not contract.
5. In the Attic dialect after sigma dropped out the vowels did contract: εα> η; εε > ει; εο > ου; εω > ω. For a list of contractions that occurred, see
CGCG 1.63.
6. The nouns Διογένης Diogenes, Περικλῆς Perikles, and Σοφοκλῆς
Sophokles decline like Σωκράτης.
3) Subtype 3 Nouns with Stem Ending in ι- (ablaut, contraction, disappearance
of intervocalic digamma, -ϝ-, quantitative metathesis):

Module 13 | Third Declension Nouns

Feminine
S

Pl

N

πόλις

πόλιες, πόληες, πόλεις (εϝες)

A

πόλιv

πόλιας, πόληας, πόλῑς, πόλεις

Gπόλιος, πόληoς, πόλεωςπόλιωv, πόλεων (εϝων)Dπόλιι, πόλι, πόληι, πόλει (εϝι)πολίεσσι (v), πόλεσι (ν), πόλισι (ν)

V

πόλι

πόλιες, πόληες, πόλεις (εϝες)

S

Pl

N

πόλις

πόλιες, πόληες, πόλεις (εϝες)Gπόλιος, πόληoς, πόλεωςπόλιωv, πόλεων (εϝων)Dπόλιι, πόλι, πόληι, πόλει (εϝι)πολίεσσι (v), πόλεσι (ν), πόλισι (ν)

A

πόλιv

πόλιας, πόληας, πόλῑς, πόλεις

V

πόλι

πόλιες, πόληες, πόλεις (εϝες)1. The stems are πολεϝ-, πολι-, and πολη-. Note the ablaut (vowel
variation).
2. In the underlined vowels of the forms πόληoς and πόλεως, quantative
metathesis (an exchange of vowel quantity) occurred.
3. The letters in parentheses indicate where intervocalic digamma has
dropped out.
4. The accent of the form πόλεως reflects the accent of the earlier formπόληoς before quantitative metathesis occurred.
5. Contractions occur in πόλει (εϝι) and πόλεις (εϝες): εϊ > ει; εε > ει.
6. The accents of the forms πόλιωv and πόλεων are likely by analogy
with πόλεως.
7. The accusative plural πόλεις is either a later form modelled on theform of the nominative plural πόλεις or is built on the stem πολε.
8. In the Ionic dialect after digamma dropped out the vowels did notcontract.
9. In the Attic dialect after digamma dropped out the vowels did contract:εε > ει. For a list of contractions that occurred, see CGCG 1.63.
10. The nouns δύναμις power, ὕβρις brutality, ποίησις poetry, λύσις
release, πρᾶξις act, μάντις seer, and ὄφις serpent decline like πόλις.

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Ancient Greek I4) Subtype 4 Nouns with Stem Ending in ηυ- or ηϝ- (contraction, disappearance
of intervocalic digamma, -ϝ-, quantitative metathesis):
MasculineSPlN

βασιλεύς (ηυς)βασιλῆες, βασιλῆς, βασιλεῖς (ηϝες)Aβασιλῆα, βασιλέα (ηϝα)βασιλῆας, βασιλέᾱς later βασιλεῖς (ηϝας)Gβασιλῆος, βασιλέως (ηϝος)βασιλήων, βασιλέωv (ηϝων)Dβασιλῆι, βασιλεῖ (ηϝι)βασιλεῦσι (v) (ηυσι (ν))

V

βασιλεῦ (ηυ)βασιλῆες, βασιλῆς, βασιλεῖς

S

Pl

N

βασιλεύς (ηυς)βασιλῆες, βασιλῆς, βασιλεῖς (ηϝες)Gβασιλῆος, βασιλέως (ηϝος)βασιλήων, βασιλέωv (ηϝων)Dβασιλῆι, βασιλεῖ (ηϝι)βασιλεῦσι (v) (ηυσι (ν))

A

βασιλῆα, βασιλέα (ηϝα)βασιλῆας, βασιλέᾱς later βασιλεῖς (ηϝας)V

βασιλεῦ (ηυ)βασιλῆες, βασιλῆς, βασιλεῖς

1. The stems are βασιληυ- and βασιληϝ-.
2. In βασιλεύς and βασιλεῦσι (v), the stem is shortened from βασιληυto βασιλεύ-.
3. In the underlined vowels of the forms βασιλῆoς and βασιλέωςquantative metathesis (an exchange of vowel quantity) occurred.
4. Intervocalic digamma, -ϝ-, has dropped out.
5. In these instances where intervocalic digamma, -ϝ-, has dropped out,
quantitative metathesis occurs -ηο > -εω; -ηα > -εᾱ; -ηω > -εω; and -ηα> -εᾱ.
6. Contractions occur in βασιλεῖ (ηϝι), βασιλῆς (ηϝες), and βασιλεῖς(εϝες): ηι > ῃ > ει; ηες > ης; εες > εις.
7. The accusative plural βασιλεῖς is a later form modelled on the form of
the nominative plural βασιλεῖς, which developed after βασιλῆς.
8. In the Ionic dialect after digamma dropped out the vowels did notcontract.
9. In the Attic dialect after digamma dropped out the vowels did contract:ηι > ῃ > ει; ηες > ης; εες > εις. For a list of contractions that occurred,
see CGCG 1.63.

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10. Similar nouns are ἱππεύς horserider, χαλκεύς metal-worker, ΠρωτεύςProteus, Ἀχαρνεύς, Akharnian.
Practice Identifying Third Declension Nouns. For the nouns below, tellwhether the noun takes set 9 endings, set 10 endings, or declines like one of
the four subtypes of third declension nouns. Το succeed, you need to identify
correctly the gender and the nominative and genitive singular, matching eachwith the correct set or subtype.
Noun

Set or Subtypeγυνή, γυναικός ἡ woman, wifeset 9δύναμις, δυνάμιος (δυνάμηος, δυνάμεως) ἡ powerπόλις

Ἕλλην, Ἕλληνος ἡ ὁ Greek

set 9ἔτος, ἔτεος (ἔτους) τό yearγένοςἱππεύς, ἱππῆος (ἱππέως) ὁ knight, cavalryman

βασιλεύςμέρος, μέρεος (μέρους) τό share, portion, part; limbγένοςὄνομα, ὀνόματος τό nameset 10πάθος, πάθεος (πάθους) τό suffering; experience; emotionγένοςπαῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ childset 9πατήρ, πατρός ὁ fatherμήτηρπλῆθος, πλήθεος (πλήθους) τό great numberγένοςπρᾶγμα, πράγματος τό matter, thing, affair; problem

set 10πρᾶξις, πράξιος (πράξηος, πράξεως) ἡ actionπόλις

σῶμα, σώματος τό bodyset 10τεῖχος, τείχεος (τείχους) τό wall; (pl.) strongholdγένοςτέλος, τέλεος (τέλους) τό end, boundaryγένοςφύσις, φύσιος (φύσηος, φύσεως) ἡ natureπόλιςχάρις, χάριτος ἡ charm, grace, favor

set 9χρῆμα, χρήματος τό thing; (pl.) wealthset 10Practice Understanding Adjective and Noun Agreement. Pick the article thatagrees in gender, case, and number with the nouns below. Note that to perform
this exercise correctly you must know both the gender and the case of eachnoun. To determine a noun’s gender you may cut and paste the noun into thesearch bar of the PDF, you may look the noun up in the glossary in this text,
you may use the online resource, Logeion Lexicon, or Wiktionary1 or you may
1	
https://logeion.uchicago.edu/lexidium
https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%86%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%AF

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Ancient Greek I

use any resource that gives you the correct gender of nouns. To determine thecorrect case, use your knowledge of stems and endings. Check your answers
with those in the Answer Key.
Article that Agrees

Noun

Article that Agrees

Noun

ἀνήρ

πάθει

βασιλέα

παῖς

γένος

πατήρ

γυνή

πλῆθοςΔίαπόλεως

δυνάμεωςπολίτης

Ἕλληνος

πρᾶγμαἔτει

σώμασι (ν)ἱππῆςτείχους

μέρη

φύσιν

μητρός

χάριτεςναυσίχειρῶν

ὀνόμασι (ν)χρήματαHelen
Born to Leda and to Zeus, Helen has three siblings: Klytaimnestra, Kastor, andPolydeukes. Helen and Polydeukes (aka Pollux) are said to be the children of
Zeus and Leda, the wife of Tyndareus, whom Zeus seduced after taking the formof a swan. Kastor and Klytaimnestra are the children of the mortals, Tyndareus
and Leda. Helen is cited as the reason why the Greeks fought the the Trojan
War, whose cause dates back to a time when the gods and goddesses werecelebrating the wedding of the mortal Peleus to the goddess Thetis. All divinities
were invited to the wedding except for Eris, the goddess of discord and strife.
She attended anyway and threw a golden apple amidst the guests, announcingthat it belonged to the most beautiful. Zeus’ wife Hera claimed the apple as did
Athene, goddess of war and crafts, and Aphrodite, goddess of love. Each goddess
thought she was the most beautiful and should be given the golden apple. Zeus
turned the matter over to the Trojan prince, Paris (aka Alexandros) who presided
over a beauty contest, referred to as the Judgment of Paris. Each goddess offered
Paris a bribe. Hera offered him world dominion; Athene offered him martial
excellence; and Aphrodite offered him Helen, the most beautiful woman in theworld, though she was already married to the Greek king Menelaos. Paris chose

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Aphrodite and Helen. He sailed to Greece and took Helen from her home. She
either went willingly, went against her will, or was sent to Egypt with a phantom
Helen taking her place in Troy and in Paris’ arms. Menelaos and his brother
Agamemnon assembled an army of Greeks, charged with going to Troy to take
Helen back. In Euripides’ play, Helen (Ἑλένη), Helen has been in Egypt for theten years of the Trojan War when her husband Menelaos arrives, shipwreckedon his journey home from Troy.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, which are adapted fromthe prologue of Euripides’ Helen (Ἑλένη). Remember the meanings and functionsof the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded;
genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative
endings are underlined. Note that the third declension increases the number ofpossible endings for the nominative singular. Check your understanding withthe translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or
three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understandingof the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Case

Ending

Function

Nominative-α, -αι, -ευς, -η, -ης,subject of the verb

-ις, -ο, -οςGenitive
Dative-εως, -ης, -ου, -ος,possession, dependence, object-ους, -ωνof a preposition-ῃ, -ι, -οι, -οις, -ῳ

indirect object of the verb;
possession

Accusative-α, -ας, -ε, -εα, -η, -ην,

object of verb or preposition and-ν, -ον, -ος

motion towardἙλένη: λόγος ὅτι Ζεὺς κύκνου μορφώματα λαμβάνει καὶ Λήδαν
πέτεται εἰς ἐμὴν μητέρα. ὄνομά δʼ ἐστι ἐμοὶ Ἑλένη καὶ ἃ δὲ πάσχωκακά, λέγω τοῖς Ἑλλήνοις. ἔρχονται αἱ θεαὶ κάλλους πέρι εἰς Ἰδαῖον,Ἥρα, Κύπρις τε παρθένος τε. αἱ θεαὶ μορφῆς ἐθέλουσι διαπεραίνεινκρίσιν. Κύπρις νικάει καἰ ἐμὸν κάλλος Ἀλέξανδρι δίδωσιν. ἐκ δὲἸδαίου λείπει Πάρις καὶ εἰς Σπάρτην ἥκει καὶ βούλεται ἐμὸν λέχοςἔχειν. Ἥρα δὲ μέμφεται ὅτ’ οὐ νικάει τὰς θεὰς καὶ ἐξανεμόει ἐμὰἈλεξάνδρῳ λέχη. Ἥρα δὲ δίδωσι οὐχ ἐμὲ ἀλλʼ ὁμοιόει ἐμοὶ εἴδωλονκαὶ οὐρανοῦ συντίθησιν ἄπο. τὰ δὲ Διὸς βουλεύματα πόλεμονεἰσφέρει Ἑλλήνων χθονί καἰ Φρυξί. ὁ δὲ Ζεὺς βούλεται ὄχλου βροτῶνπλήθεος τε κουφίζειν μητέρα χθόνα καὶ γνωτὸν τιθέναι Ἀχιλλέα.
λαμβάνει δέ ἐμὲ Ἑρμῆς καὶ νεφέλῃ καλύπτει καὶ εἰς οἶκον Πρωτέωςἱδρύει.

162

Ancient Greek IVerbs*βούλομαι want, prefer; wish, be κουφίζω be light; lighten, make light
willing‘x’ in acc. of ‘y’ in gen.; lift up, raiseδιαπεραίνω bring to a conclusion, *λαμβάνω take, receive, capture
discuss*δίδωμι give; δίκην δίδωμι I pay the *λέγω say, tell, speak
penalty; δίδωμι χάριν I give thanks*εἰμί be, be possible

λείπω leaveεἰσφέρω bring, bring uponμέμφομαι blame, criticize, find fault,
complain*ἐθέλω (θέλω) wish, be willingνικάω win, conquerἐξανεμόω fill with air, inflateὁμοιόω make ‘x’ in acc. like ‘y’ in thedat.

*ἔρχομαι come, go*πάσχω suffer*ἔχω have, hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς πέτομαι flyἔχειν to be well*ἥκω have come, be presentσυντίθημι put togetherἱδρύω place*τιθέναι to makeκαλύπτω hide*τίθημι put, place

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

EnglishEquivalent

ἅ

ὧν

οἷς

ἅ

what

Ἀλέξανδρος

ἈλεξάνδρουἈλέξανδριἈλέξανδρον

Alexandros, ParisἈχιλλεύςἈχιλλέωςἈχιλλεῖἈχιλλέαAkhilleus

*αὐτή

αὐτῆς

αὐτῇ

αὐτήν

she, her, hers*αὐτός

αὐτοῦ

αὐτῷ

αὐτόν

he, him, hisβουλεύματαβουλευμάτωνβουλεύμασι

βουλεύματαwillβροτοί

βροτῶν

βροτοῖςβροτούς

mortalsγνωτός

γνωτοῦ

γνωτῷγνωτόν

known, famousεἴδωλονεἰδώλουεἰδώλῳ

εἴδωλον

image, idol

ἙλένηἙλένηςἙλένῃἙλένην

Helen

Module 13 | Third Declension Nouns

Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

163

EnglishEquivalent*ἝλληνοιἙλλήνωνἙλλήνοις

Ἑλλήνους

Greeks

*ἐμά

ἐμῶν

ἐμοῖς

ἐμά

my

*ἐμόν

ἐμοῦ

ἐμῷ

ἐμόν

my

Ἑρμῆς

Ἑρμοῦ

Ἑρμῇ

Ἑρμῆν

Hermes

*Ζεύς

Διός

Διί

Δία

Zeus

Ἥρα

Ἥρας

Ἥρᾳ

Ἥραν

Hera

*θεαί

θεῶν

θεαῖς

θεάς

goddessesἸδαῖον

ἸδαίουἸδαίῳἸδαῖον

Mt. Ida

*κακά

κακῶν

κακοῖς

κακά

evils

κάλλος

κάλλεος

κάλλει

κάλλος

beautyκρίσις

κρίσεως

κρίσει

κρίσιν

judgment, trialκύκνος

κύκνουκύκνῳκύκνον

swanΚύπρις

Κύπριδος

ΚύπριδιΚύπριν

Aphrodite

Λήδα

Λήδας

Λήδᾳ

Λήδαν

Leda

λέχος

λέχεος (-ους)

λέχει

λέχος

bed, marriage-bed

λέχη

λέχων

λέχεσι (ν)λέχη

bed, marriage-bed*λόγος

λόγου

λόγῳ

λόγον

word, story*μήτηρ

μητρόςμητρίμητέραmotherμορφή

μορφῆς

μορφῇ

μορφήν

form, shape, beautyμορφώματαμορφωμάτωνμορφώμασιμορφώματα

form, shapeνεφέλη

νεφέλης

νεφέλῃ

νεφέλην

cloud

οἶκος

οἴκου

οἴκῳ

οἶκον

house, palace*ὄνομαὀνόματος

ὀνόματι

ὄνομα

name

οὐρανόςοὐρανοῦοὐρανῷ

οὐρανόν

heaven, sky

ὄχλος

ὄχλου

ὄχλῳ

ὄχλον

crowd, throngπαρθένος

παρθένουπαρθένῳπαρθένονAthena, maidenΠάριςΠάριδος

Πάριδι

Πάριν

Paris, Alexandros*πλῆθος

πλήθεος (-ους)πλήθει

πλῆθος

great number*πόλεμοςπολέμουπολέμῳ

πόλεμονwarΠρωτεύςΠρωτέως

Πρωτεῖ

ΠρωτέαProteusΣπάρτη

Σπάρτης

Σπάρτῃ

Σπάρτην

Sparta164

Ancient Greek IΝοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

EnglishEquivalentΦρύγες

Φρυγῶν

Φρυξί (ν)Φρύγας

Phrygiansχθώνχθονός

χθονί

χθόνα

earth, ground

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentence foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person,
number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them.
For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For
adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.
τὰ δὲ Διὸς βουλεύματα πόλεμον εἰσφέρει Ἑλλήνων χθονί καἰ Φρυξί.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
Module 13 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words
the greater mastery of the language you will have.
Nounsἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ man, husband
βασιλεύς, βασιλῆος (βασιλέως) ὁ king, chiefγυνή, γυναικός ἡ woman, wifeδύναμις, δυνάμιος (δυνάμηος, δυνάμεως) ἡ might, strength, power; force,armyἝλλην, Ἕλληνος ἡ ὁ Greekνηῦς (ναῦς), νεός (νεώς) ἡ ship
παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ childπατήρ, πατρός ὁ fatherπόλις, πόλιος (πόληος, πόλεως) ἡ cityVerbμέλλω be about to, be going to; be likely to + inf. (fut. inf. in Attic)
1. The noun ναῦς is similar to the third declension noun βασιλεύς.

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165

N

νηῦς, ναῦςAνέα, ναῦν(νᾱῦν)

νῆας, νέας, ναῦςGνεός, νεώς(νηϝός < νᾱϝός)νεῶν(νηϝῶν < νᾱϝῶν)Dνηΐ(νηϝί < νᾱϝί)νηυσί, ναυσί (ν)(νᾱυσί (ν))

Vναῦνέες, νῆες(νῆϝες < νᾶϝες)Nνηῦς, ναῦςνέες, νῆες(νῆϝες < νᾶϝες)G

νεός, νεώς(νηϝός < νᾱϝός)νεῶν(νηϝῶν < νᾱϝῶν)Dνηΐ(νηϝί < νᾱϝί)νηυσί, ναυσί (ν)(νᾱυσί (ν))

Aνέα, ναῦν(νᾱῦν)

νῆας, νέας, ναῦςVναῦνέες, νῆεςνέες, νῆες(νῆϝες < νᾶϝες)(νῆϝες < νᾶϝες)

Etymology Corner XIII by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 9, Parts of Speech
Subordinating Conjunctions, Module 5. The word subordinate is built from the Latin
prefix sub- below, under and noun ordo row, order, rank. A subordinating conjunction
ranks one clause below the other clause, linking a dependent to an independent clause(similarly a submarine (E marine < L mare sea) goes under the sea. So, what does
independent (in not, de down from, and pendere to hang down) mean? Pendere tohang down conveys the meaning of hanging in the way a pendulum hangs and swings
or a pendent is a piece of jewelry that hangs from a chain. The prefix de- means
down from. The prefix in- not negates dependent and functions just as the Germanic
prefix un- does for Anglo-Saxon words, like uncool (cool < OE cōl < a Germanic root).
Your kids, while they still rely on you for sustenance, are metaphorically hanging offyou. I always think of sloth babies1 (follow the link to see a picture). Once your kids
come of age and can (or at least should be able to) take care of themselves, they are
independent, or literally, not hanging off of you anymore. A clause, a combination ofa verb with a subject, is a contained entity, or something that is complete and closed(claudere, the root of both English words clause and closed). A clause has the senseof distinct, closed off from the other parts of the sentence. Clauses are like kids. If they
can stand on their own, they are independent clauses. If they rely on another clause
to complete their meaning, they are dependent clauses.
1	
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Ancient Greek I

What to Study and Do 13. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you
have memorized ending sets 9 and 10 for third declension nouns and that you can
decline third declension nouns. Your main focus should be on committing ending sets
9 and 10 to memory. In order to remember these endings for the long term, review
them a few times each week. When reviewing, make sure that you can write themout from memory without looking at the answers. Plan on reading this module two or
three times. On each read your understanding will improve.
Learning Tip 13: Stress is Normal. Continuous learning requires analysis, logic, andmemorization. Discontinuous learning involves ambiguity, creativity, and reframing.
As you are presented with a novel concept, such as a completely different system ofcommunication, you experience ambiguity and discomfort because you are required toassimilate new factual information (endings and vocabulary) and to think differently
about this information from how you have done before. This process can be stressful.
Remember that this stress is normal. Accept the difficulty and continue to work at
understanding the new information. Using memory techniques can help to ease yourstress. Of all the memory strategies used by expert memorizers, the memory palaceis the one they employ most frequently. This textbook offers several variations on thememory-palace technique. The first variation is based upon your car. Let’s say you
want to memorize the preposition and adverb ἀνά (prep.) on, upon, onto + gen. or dat.;
up to, throughout + acc.; (adv.) thereon, thereupon, throughout. We start at the car’s
grille. I picture Anna Karenina standing on or upon the car’s grille. Anna reminds
me of ἀνά. Anna’s standing on or upon the grille reminds me of the meanings on or
upon. Anna steps from the grille onto the hood. On the windshield is a case of Genesee
beer and a bowl filled with dates. The Genesee beer and the bowl of dates remindme that when ἀνά means on, upon, onto, it takes the genitive or dative case. Next
Anna Karenina drives the car up to a river in the park. She takes a picture and thendrives throughout the park. As she drives throughout the park, she sees a policeman
pointing an accusing finger at her. The policeman’s accusing finger reminds methat ἀνά takes the accusative case when it means up to or throughout. Picture theevents happening in real time, and feel the heat of the policeman’s accusing finger
directed at Anna. Anna adds a verb of declaration to the scene. She declares thereonor thereupon that throughout she has been innocent. She quickly departs the parkand drives up to the garage and away from the accusing finger of the policeman.
When she arrives she sits on or upon the grille of the car and then steps onto the hood
where she drinks a Genesee beer and eats a date from the bowl. The car can be one ofmany different memory palaces you use in order to remember information you want
to recall precisely. The memory technique still requires repetition and review. As you
improve at using this technique, you will find your ability to remember accurately
also improvesSelf-Assessment Modules 1–13

Rate yourself on a scale of 1 to 10, where 10 represents mastery and 1 its opposite.
Answer each of the below thoughtfully. For any score less than a 7, review thematerial.

MEMORY
1. Do I have the alphabet (upper- and lower-case letters, names of letters)
and the sounds (long vowels, short vowels, diphthongs) memorized?
2. Can I accent almost any noun or verb?
3. Can I define adjectives, adverbs, articles, conjunctions, nouns, prefixes,
prepositions, and substantive adjectives?
4. Do I have a strategy for translating, especially when I get stuck?
5. Do I know how to get the stem for adjectives, nouns, and verbs and can
I conjugate and decline them?
6. Have I memorized the Case and Function Chart ?
7. Have I memorized the verb and noun endings and do I know how to
put them on the correct stem?
8. Have I memorized the article?
9. Have I memorized the essential vocabulary?

APPLICATION AND CONCEPTS
1. Do I have a strategy for memorization and do I use it?
2. Can I pronounce basic and complex words correctly? If not, do I havea strategy for improving?
3. Do I understand how endings create meaning?
4. Do I understand the functions of adverbs, adjectives, conjunctions,nouns, prefixes, prepositions, and verbs?
© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

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Ancient Greek I

5. Can I apply my knowledge of the functions of adverbs, adjectives,
conjunctions, nouns, prefixes, prepositions, and verbs to parsesentences in English?
6. Do I understand how to apply the Case and Function Chart? Could I
teach another how to use it?
7. Do I understand how the article can be used to create a noun? Can I
provide three specific and different examples in Greek?
8. Do I understand the key differences between how English creates
meaning and how Greek does? Hint: English creates meaning in two
distinct ways and Greek does the same in two.

Guest Feature 2

Tom Holland on the Art ofTranslating Herodotos

Tom Holland, an award-winning historian, author and broadcaster, tells us
about his lifelong fascination with Herodotos. For more information, visit his
website:Tom Holland.1
Herodotus is my favourite historian. I first read him when I was
twelve, and since then I have repeatedly returned to him. Everytime I do so I find new things to notice, to admire, to enjoy. Only
when I sat down to translate him, however, did I feel that I was truly
coming to know him. The chance to live with Herodotus from the
beginning of what he had written to the very end felt like entering akind of marriage. It took me time to become easy with his ways. He
was full of complexities that caused me trouble and difficulty. Only
with familiarity did I come to appreciate just how various his moods
might be. Never once, though, did I regret it. Translation can makeor break a relationship. Translating Herodotus, I was confirmed forgood in my love.
His great work is many things—the first example of non-fiction, thebeginning point of history, the most important source of information
we have for a stirring episode in human affairs—but it is above alla treasure-trove of wonders. There is very little that Herodotus does
not find fascinating. He is forever moving from theme to theme.
The Greek word, ἱστορία, at the time when he used it to describe
what he was attempting, meant not a study of the past, but simply‘enquiry’—and though there is certainly no lack of history in his great
work, there is also plenty of geography, ethnography and zoology.
There are laugh-out-loud anecdotes and chilling tales of revenge,1	https://www.tom-holland.org/.
© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.16

170

Ancient Greek I

accounts of mummification and disquisitions on giant ants, stirringnarratives of battles and tales of bedroom duplicity. This means that
there is never one single style. The fun of translating Herodotus lies
not just in tracking the range and variety of his Greek, but in finding
ways of conveying some sense of it in English. The many different
accents and tones with which Herodotus speaks are the surest key
to Herodotus himself.
Centuries after his death, a critic in the Roman Empire describedhim as being “very like Homer”. By this he meant that Herodotus
was to prose what the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey was toepic: the supreme, the original fountainhead. To read his ‘enquiry’is to engage with something both primal and heroic: an attempt topush back the frontiers of knowledge on almost every conceivable
front. The premium that Herodotus set on providing sources forhis material is so taken for granted now by historians that it ispossible not to recognize just how revolutionary it originally was.
In his account of the build-up to the battle of Plataea, for instance,
he describes what he has been told by a man called Thersander
of Orchomenus, who in turn is reporting what he was told at abanquet by a Persian fellow-guest. It is a moment to send a shiver
down the spine. Men dead for two-and-a-half-thousand years arebeing given voice. We are witness to the birth-pangs of historicalmethod. History is doubly being made. Thrilling though it is to readsuch a passage in English, it is even more so to read it in Greek. Few
experiences in literature can rival it.
Herodotus’ ambition, he declares in the opening sentence of thefirst work of history ever written, was to ensure that “humanachievement may be spared the ravages of time”. Literally, he spokeof not allowing them to become ἐξίτηλα, a word that could be used
in a technical sense to signify the fading of paint from inscriptions
or works of art. Today, the colours applied by Herodotus to his
portrait of the long-gone world in which he lived remain as freshand exuberant as ever. The surest and most moving way to inspectthem, however, is by mastering the language in which he wrote.
Herodotus is a joy in any language; but to read him in Greek is a rare
and precious privilege. I rank the chance I was given to translate
him as one of the great experiences of my life.
To watch an interview with Tom by Viral History, follow this link:
Viral History’s Interview with Tom Holland.22	
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cyQUu_1XlhA.

Module 14

First Declension Nouns in –η and -ᾱand τίς, τί; τις, τι; ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅτι

Nouns
Nouns in Greek are defined just like nouns are in English; but the way theycreate meaning is different. As in English, Greek nouns (ὀνόματα) refer topeople, places, things, and ideas. Greek nouns have endings. English nouns
can change form when they show possession, as in Jada’s book, where the ’s isadded as a suffix and indicates that the book belongs to Jada. English nouns alsochange form when expressing the plural: two suns, three oxen, four mice. The
endings on Greek nouns, as we have seen previously, create the same meanings
that English does through form change, word order, and the use of prepositional
phrases.

First Declension Nouns in -η and -ᾱ
All first declension nouns ending in -η or -ᾱ are feminine in gender. Memorizeboth sets of endings, know how to obtain a noun’s stem, and know how todecline the nouns.

Dialect Note
Historically in the Ionic dialect there was a vowel shift where eta replaced longalpha. In the Attic dialect this shift occurred in the noun endings except after -ε,-ι, or -ρ: Attic χώρᾱ and Ionic χώρη.

Declining First Declension Nouns in -η and -ᾱ
To decline first declension nouns ending in -η or -ᾱ, first get the stem by removing
the genitive singular ending -ης or -ᾱς. What remains is the stem, the base of
the word to which the ending is joined. To the stem add the following endings:© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.17

172

Ancient Greek I

Feminine

Feminine

Set 1

Set 2 (stem ends in -ε, -ι, -ρ)

S

Pl

S

Pl

Nominative

-η

-αι

Nominative

-ᾱ

-αι

Accusative

-ην

-ᾱς

Accusative

-ᾱν

-ᾱς

Genitive-ης-ῶν

Genitive-ᾱς-ῶν

Dative-ῃ-αις

Dative-ᾱͅ-αις

Vocative-η-αιVocative-ᾱ-αιFeminine

Feminine

Set 1

Set 2 (stem ends in -ε, -ι, -ρ)

S

Pl

S

Pl

Nominative

-η

-αι

Nominative

-ᾱ

-αι

Genitive-ης-ῶν

Genitive-ᾱς-ῶν

Dative-ῃ-αις

Dative-ᾱͅ-αις

Accusative

-ην

-ᾱς

Accusative

-ᾱν

-ᾱς

Vocative-η-αιVocative-ᾱ-αιτέχνη, τέχνηςTo decline τέχνη, τέχνης ἡ skill, take the genitive singular τέχνης and remove
the genitive singular ending -ης to get the stem, τέχν-. Then add the endings
from Set 1 above.
Singular

PluralNτέχνητέχναι

A

τέχνην

τέχνᾱς

G

τέχνης

τεχνῶν

Dτέχνῃτέχναις

VτέχνητέχναιSingular

PluralNτέχνητέχναι

G

τέχνης

τεχνῶν

Dτέχνῃτέχναις

Module 14 | First Declension Nouns in –η and -ᾱ and τίς, τί; τις, τι; ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅτιSingular

PluralAτέχνην

τέχνᾱς

Vτέχνητέχναι

173

χώρᾱ, χώρᾱς
To decline χώρᾱ, χώρᾱς ἡ land, country, take the genitive singular χώρᾱς, andremove the genitive singular ending -ᾱς to get the stem, χώρ-. Then add theendings from Set 2 above.
Singular

Plural

N

χώρᾱ

χῶραι

A

χώρᾱν

χώρᾱς

G

χώρᾱς

χωρῶν

D

χώρᾱͅ

χώραις

V

χώρᾱ

χῶραι

Singular

Plural

N

χώρᾱ

χῶραι

G

χώρᾱς

χωρῶν

D

χώρᾱͅ

χώραις

A

χώρᾱν

χώρᾱς

V

χώρᾱ

χῶραι

ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς
To decline ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς ἡ rule, command; beginning; province, take the genitive
singular ἀρχῆς and remove the genitive singular ending -ης to get the stem,ἀρχ-. Then add the endings from Set 1 above.
Singular

Plural

N

ἀρχή

ἀρχαί

A

ἀρχήν

ἀρχάς (ᾱ)

G

ἀρχῆς

ἀρχῶν

D

ἀρχῇ

ἀρχαῖς

V

ἀρχή

ἀρχαί

174

Ancient Greek I

Singular

Plural

N

ἀρχή

ἀρχαί

G

ἀρχῆς

ἀρχῶν

D

ἀρχῇ

ἀρχαῖς

Aἀρχήνἀρχάς (ᾱ)

V

ἀρχή

ἀρχαί

1. The accent of nouns as a rule is persistent and is given by the nominative
singular. The genitive plural is an exception to this rule. The genitive
plural of all first declension nouns is -ῶν with a circumflex accent on
the ultima.
2. The vocative is the same as the nominative in the plural of all nouns
and the same in the singular for nouns of this declension
3. Note that χώρᾱς can be either genitive singular or accusative plural.
χώρᾱς is a look-alike form. Use context to determine which case andnumber it is.
4. First declension nouns differ only in the singular. All first declension
nouns follow the same pattern in the plural.
5. The diphthongs -αι and -οι when final (the last two letters at the endof a word) count as a short for purposes of accentuation except in the
optative, a mood that you’ll learn in Part II of the 21st-Century series.
Hence in χῶραι the accent (PLUS) is a circumflex.
6. When a first declension noun has an acute accent on the ultima in thenominative, the accent is changed to a circumflex in the genitive anddative, singular and plural. Note a similar change occurs in the sameforms of the article.
Practice Declining Nouns. Decline the two nouns below. When declining, list
the five cases in the singular and in the plural. Include the article. Check youranswers with those in the Answer Key.
ψυχή, ψυχῆς ἡ soulἀγορά, ἀγορᾶς ἡ marketplace
Writing out nouns with their endings assists in your memorization of endings.

Pronouns and Adjectives
Remember that pronouns take the place of nouns and function just as other
Greek nouns do. Adjectives agree in gender, case, and number with the nouns
they modify. If no noun is present, supply the appropriate noun based upon
the adjective’s gender and number or upon context. Adjectives that function as
nouns are substantive.

Module 14 | First Declension Nouns in –η and -ᾱ and τίς, τί; τις, τι; ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅτιThe Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective, τίς, τίAs a pronoun the interrogative τίς, τί means who? or what?; as an adjective theinterrogative τίς, τί means which? or what?
Singular
M/F

N

N

τίς

τί

A

τίνα

τί

G

τίνος, τοῦτίνος, τοῦDτίνι, τῷτίνι, τῷ

Plural
M/F

N

N

τίνες

τίνα

A

τίνας

τίνα

G

τίνων

τίνων

D

τίσι (ν)τίσι (ν)

Singular
M/F

N

N

τίς

τί

G

τίνος, τοῦτίνος, τοῦDτίνι, τῷτίνι, τῷ

A

τίνα

τί

Plural
M/F

N

N

τίνες

τίνα

G

τίνων

τίνων

D

τίσι (ν)τίσι (ν)

A

τίνας

τίνα

1. When followed by another word, the acute accent on τίς, τί neverchanges to a grave.

175

176

Ancient Greek I

The Indefinite Pronoun and Adjective τις, τιAs a pronoun τις, τι means someone, something, anyone, anything; certain one,certain thing; as an adjective τις, τι means some, any; certain; a. Use certain
when an author is making reference to something particular without making
the identification precise.
Singular
M/F

N

N

τις

τι

A

τινα

τι

G

τινός, τουτινός, τουDτινί, τῳτινί, τῳ

Plural
M/F

N

N

τινές

τινά

A

τινάς

τινά

G

τινῶν

τινῶν

D

τισί (ν)τισί (ν)

Singular
M/F

N

N

τις

τι

G

τινός, τουτινός, τουDτινί, τῳτινί, τῳ

A

τινα

τι

Plural
M/F

N

N

τινές

τινά

G

τινῶν

τινῶν

D

τισί (ν)τισί (ν)

A

τινάς

τινά

Module 14 | First Declension Nouns in –η and -ᾱ and τίς, τί; τις, τι; ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅτι177

1. The indefinite pronoun and adjective differ from the interrogative
pronoun and adjective in accent only and are enclitics. Enclitics arepronounced closely with the word that precedes them. Some common
ones are the adverbs γε, ποθέν, ποι, ποτέ, που, πως, and τοι; theconjunction τε; the pronouns με, μοι, μου, σε, σοι σου, τι, and τις;and the verbs εἰμί, φημί. Enclitics sometimes have an accent andsometimes do not. They can also affect the accent of the word thatprecedes them. How they do is covered in Part II of the 21st-Century
series.

The Indefinite ὅστις, ἥτι, ὅτιὅτι. ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅτι as an indefinite relative pronoun means whoever, whatever.
As an indefinite interrogative pronoun and adjective it means who, what. It is
formed by combining the relative pronoun, ὅς, ἥ, ὅ with τις, τι.
Singular
M

F

N

N

ὅστις

ἥτις

ὅτι

A

ὅντιναἥντιναὅτιGοὗτινος, ὅτουἧστινος

οὗτινος, ὅτουDᾧτινι, ὅτῳᾗτινιὧτινι, ὅτῳPluralM

F

NNοἵτινεςαἵτινεςἅτιναAοὕστινας

ἅστιναςἅτιναGὧντινων, ὅτωνὧντινωνὧντινων, ὅτωνDοἷστισι (ν), ὅτοιςαἷστισι (ν)οἷστισι (ν), ὅτοις

Singular
M

F

N

N

ὅστις

ἥτις

ὅτι

G

οὗτινος, ὅτουἧστινος

οὗτινος, ὅτουDᾧτινι, ὅτῳᾗτινιὧτινι, ὅτῳAὅντιναἥντιναὅτι

178

Ancient Greek I

PluralM

F

NNοἵτινεςαἵτινεςἅτιναGὧντινων, ὅτωνὧντινωνὧντινων, ὅτωνDοἷστισι (ν), ὅτοιςαἷστισι (ν)οἷστισι (ν), ὅτοιςAοὕστινας

ἅστιναςἅτιναPractice Translating the Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective. Check yourunderstanding with the translations in the Answer Key.
1. τίς ἄρχει στρατιᾶς;
2. τί δεῖ αὐτὴν πράττειν;
3. τίνι πέμπετε τὰ δῶρα;4. τίνος βιβλίον ἔχομεν;
5. τίνας δεῖ ἐλθεῖν;
6. τίς βασιλεὺς ἄρχει χώρας;
7. τί ἔργον δεῖ αὐτοὺς πράττειν;
8. τίνος ποιητοῦ βιβλίον ἔχουσιν;
9. τίνας στρατιώτας δεῖ ἐλθεῖν;10. εἰς τίνας στρατιώτας δεῖ ἐλθεῖν;
Practice Translating the Indefinite Pronoun and Adjective. Check yourunderstanding with the translations in the Answer Key.
1. ἄρχει τις στρατιᾶς.
2. δεῖ τι αὐτὴν πράττειν.
3. πέμπετέ τινι τὰ δῶρα;4. βιβλίον τινὸς ἔχομεν;5. δεῖ τινας ἐλθεῖν;
6. βασιλεύς τις ἄρχει χώρας;
7. ἔργον τι δεῖ αὐτοὺς πράττειν;
8. ποιητοῦ τινος βιβλίον ἔχουσιν;
9. στρατιώτας τινὰς δεῖ ἐλθεῖν;10. εἰς τινας στρατιώτας δεῖ ἐλθεῖν;Module 14 | First Declension Nouns in –η and -ᾱ and τίς, τί; τις, τι; ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅτι179

Practice Translating the Indefinite Relative Pronoun and Indefinite
Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective. Check your understanding with thetranslations in the Answer Key.
1. ὅστις ἄρχει τῆς στρατιᾶς καλὰ πράττει.
2. ὅτι δεῖ αὐτὴν πράττειν εὖ πράττει.
3. κακὰ πέμπω ᾧτινι πέμπετε τὰ δῶρα.
4. βασιλεὺς ὅστις ἄρχει χώρας κακὰ πάσχει.
Vocabulary*ἄρχω rule, command; begin + gen.

*κακός, κακή, κακόν bad, evil,
cowardly*βασιλεύς, βασιλῆος (βασιλέως) ὁ *πάσχω suffer
king, chiefβιβλίον, βιβλίον τό book*πέμπω send*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or dat. ποιητής, ποιητοῦ ὁ poetor acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary
to comeδῶρον, δώρου τό gift*πράσσω (πράττω) do, make; fare; +κακῶς suffer*ἐλθεῖν to come, to goστρατιά, στρατιᾶς ἡ army*ἔργον, ἔργου τό deed, task, work; στρατιώτης, στρατιώτου ὁ soldierἔργον in truth, in deed*ἔχω have, hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς *χώρᾱ, χώρᾱς ἡ land, countryἔχειν to be well
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, adapted from Euripides’
Herakles or Herakles Mainomenos (Ἡρακλῆς μαινόμενος). Remember themeanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative
case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings arehighlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Note that the third
declension increases the number of possible endings for the nominative
singular. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key
and then go back and reread the sentences a couple of times more, trying toread rather than translate.

180

Ancient Greek I

Case

Ending

Function

Nominative-α, -η, -ηρ, -ης, -ξ, -ο, -οι,

subject of the verb

-ος, -ς, -υς, -ω, -ων
Genitive
Dative-ας, -εως -ης, -ος, -ου, -ους,possession; dependence; object of-ων

preposition or verb; separation-αις, -ῃ, -ι, -οις, -σιν, -ῳ

indirect object of the verb; means
or instrument; object of preposition;possession

Accusative-α, -αν, -ας, -η, -ην, -ν, -ο,

object of the verb or preposition-ον, -ος, -ους, -ςὄνομα ἐμοὶ Ἀμφιτρύων, ὁ Διὸς σύλλεκτρος καὶ ὁ πατὴρ Ἡρακλέους.
ἐγὼ τὰς Θήβας ἔχω ἔνθα ὁ γηγενὴς στάχυς Σπαρτῶν βλάστει.
τοὺς μὲν αὐτῶν Ἄρης σῴζει, ἀριθμὸν ὀλίγον· οἱ δὲ θνῄσκουσιν. οἱΣπαρτοὶ Κάδμου πόλιν τεκνόουσι παίδων παισί. ἔνθεν ἐκ αὐτῶνγίγνεται Κρέων Μενοικέως παῖς, ἄναξ τῆς χθονός. Κρέων δὲ τῆςΜεγάρας γίγνεται πατήρ· αὐτὴν ὑμεναίοις Καδμεῖοί ποτε λωτῷσυναλαλάζουσιν. τότε εἰς τοὺς δόμους, Θήβας, οὗ κατοικίζω ἐγώ,ὁ κλεινὸς Ἡρακλῆς αὐτὴν ἄγει. ὁ δὲ λείπει Θήβας Μεγάραν τεπενθερούς τε. ὁ παῖς Κυκλωπίαν πόλιν ὀρέγεται οἰκέειν, Τίρυνθα.
Ἀργεῖα τείχη φεύγω ἐπεὶ κτείνω Ἠλεκτρύωνα. τὰς δὲ συμφορὰςἐξευμαρίζει. καὶ πάτραν οἰκέειν θέλει ὥστε καθόδου δίδωσι μισθὸνΕὐρυσθεῖ μέγαν—ἐξημερόειν γαῖαν. εἴτε Ἥρα αὐτὸν δαμάζεικέντροις εἴτε αὐτὸν ἡ μοῖρα ἀναγκάζει παθεῖν. καὶ τοὺς μὲν ἄλλους
ἐκμοχθέει πόνους καὶ τὸ δὲ λοίσθιον μετὰ ταῦτα ἔρχεται ἐς Ἅιδουτὸν τρισώματον κύνα ἀνάγειν.
Adverbs and Verbs*ἄγω do, drive, lead*θνῄσκω die, perishἀναγκάζω compel, force ‘x’ in acc. + κατοικίζω settle; establish; colonizeinf.
ἀνάγω lead or bring up; (mid.) set sailκτείνω killβλάστω bud, sprout, growλείπω leave*γίγνομαι be, be born*παθεῖν to sufferδαμάζω overpower, tame, conquerοἰκέω inhabit, settle; manage, dwell,liveModule 14 | First Declension Nouns in –η and -ᾱ and τίς, τί; τις, τι; ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅτι*δίδωμι give; δίκην δίδωμι I pay the ὀρέγομαι yearn, desire
penalty; δίδωμι χάριν I give thanksἐκμοχθέω work, toil, struggle; achieve οὗ whereἔνθα whereπαθεῖν to sufferἔνθεν whence, thence; thenσυναλαλάζω cry aloud together; greet
loudlyἐξευμαρίζω make light, lightenσῴζω saveἐξημερόω tame, reclaim, freeτεκνόω furnish with children,
populate, procreate*ἔρχομαι come, go*τυγχάνω obtain, meet + gen.

*ἔχω have, hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς *φεύγω fleeἔχειν to be well*θέλω wish, be willing
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

EnglishEquivalent*ἄλλοιἄλλων

ἄλλοις

ἄλλους

othersἈμφιτρύων

Ἀμφιτρύωνος

Ἀμφιτρύωνι

Ἀμφιτρύωνα

Amphitryonἄναξἄνακτος

ἄνακτι

ἄνακταprince, lord, kingἈργεῖαἈργείωνἈργείοις

ἈργεῖαArgive

Ἄρης

Ἄρεως

Ἄρει

Ἄρεα (Ἄρη)

Ares*ἀριθμόςἀριθμοῦἀριθμῷ

ἀριθμόν

number

*αὐτή

αὐτῆς

αὐτῇ

αὐτήν

she, her, hers*αὐτός

αὐτοῦ

αὐτῷ

αὐτόν

he, him, his

γαῖα

γαίας

γαίᾳ

γαῖαν

earth, landγηγενήςγηγενέος (-οῦς)γηγενεῖγηγενέα (-ῆ)

earth-born

δόμοι

δόμων

δόμοις

δόμους

house, houses

*ἐγώ

ἐμοῦ

ἐμοί

ἐμέ

I, me, mineΕὐρυσθεύςΕὐρυσθέωςΕὐρυσθεῖΕὐρυσθέαEurystheus

*Ζεύς

Διός

Διί

Δία

Zeus

Ἠλεκτρύων

Ἠλεκτρύωνος

Ἠλεκτρύωνι

Ἠλεκτρύωνα

Εlektryon

Ἥρα

Ἥρας

Ἥρᾳ

Ἥραν

Hera

ἩρακλῆςἩρακλέους

ἩρακλεῖἩρακλέα

Herakles

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Ancient Greek IΝοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

EnglishEquivalent

Θῆβαι

Θηβῶν

ΘήβαιςΘήβαςThebesΚαδμεῖοιΚαδμείωνΚαδμείοιςΚαδμείους

KadmeanΚάδμος

Κάδμου

ΚάδμῳΚάδμον

Kadmosκαθόδος

καθόδουκαθόδῳ

καθόδον

returnκέντρακέντρωνκέντροις

κέντραgoad, stingκλεινόςκλεινοῦκλεινῷ

κλεινόνfamousΚρέωνΚρέοντος

ΚρέοντιΚρέονταKreonΚυκλωπία

Κυκλωπίας

ΚυκλωπίᾳΚυκλωπίαν

Kyklopean

κύων

κυνός

κυνί

κύνα

dog

λοίσθιονλοισθίουλοισθίῳ

λοίσθιον

last

λωτός

λωτοῦ

λωτῷ

λωτόν

pipe

ΜεγάραΜεγάραςΜεγάρᾳ

ΜεγάρανMegara*μέγας

μεγάλουμεγάλῳμέγανbigΜενοικεύςΜενοικέως

ΜενοικεῖΜενοικέα

Menoikeusμισθός

μισθοῦ

μισθῷμισθόν

hire; pay, wages

μοῖρα

μοίρας

μοίρᾳμοῖραν

fate*ὀλίγος

ὀλίγου

ὀλίγῳὀλίγον

little, few, small*ὄνομαὀνόματος

ὀνόματι

ὄνομα

name

*παῖς

παιδός

παιδί

παῖδα

child

*πατήρ

πατρός

πατρί

πατέραfatherπάτραπάτρας

πάτρᾳπάτραν

fatherlandπενθεροίπενθερῶνπενθεροῖςπενθερούς

marriageconnexion*πόλις

πόλεως

πόλει

πόλιν

city

πόνοι

πόνων

πόνοις

πόνους

work, toil,
suffering

σπαρτοίσπαρτῶνσπαρτοῖς

σπαρτούς

sown-menστάχυς

στάχυος

στάχυι

στάχυν

ear of corn or
grainσύλλεκτρος

συλλέκτρου

συλλέκτρῳσύλλεκτρον

partner of the bed

συμφοραίσυμφορῶνσυμφοραῖςσυμφοράς

misfortunes*ταῦτατούτων

τούτοις

ταῦταthese thingsModule 14 | First Declension Nouns in –η and -ᾱ and τίς, τί; τις, τι; ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅτιΝοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

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EnglishEquivalent*τείχη

τείχων

τείχεσι (ν)

τείχη

walls

Τίρυνς

Τίρυνθος

ΤίρυνθιΤίρυνθαTirynsτρισώματοςτρισωμάτουτρισωμάτῳτρισώματονthree-bodiedὑμέναιοιὑμεναίων

ὑμεναίοις

ὑμεναίους

wedding-songsφάος (φῶς)φάεος (φωτός)φάει (φωτί)φάος (φῶς)

light, daylightχθώνχθονός

χθονί

χθόνα

earth, ground

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
2. For φάος the contracted forms in parentheses are of the Attic dialect.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentence foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs give person,
number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them.
For prepositional phrases give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For
adjectives tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.
εἴθʼ (εἴτε) Ἥρα αὐτὸν δαμάζει κέντροις εἴτε αὐτὸν ἡ μοῖρα ἀναγκάζει
παθεῖν.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Classics and Our Modern World: The Warrior Chorus
The Warrior Chorus trains veterans to offer public programming based onclassical literature and its connections to the experiences of people who have
served in the military. It uses classical texts to inspire people to reflect on theconnections between the works of the ancient Greeks and the issues they reflectin their own lives, bringing members of the public together with the American
veteran community to experience live stagings, readings, workshops, lectures,and discussions. The Warrior Chorus provides a rich contextual frame forancient literature to inspire in-depth public discussions about war, conflict,
comradeship, country, home, family, injuries, work, politics—themes every
American should have the opportunity to reflect upon as informed citizens ina vibrant democracy. For more information on The Warrior Chorus, follow thislink:
The Warrior Chorus.1

1	
http://www.warriorchorus.org/.

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Ancient Greek I

Module 14 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring words, the greater
mastery of the language you will have.
Adjectives, Nouns, and Pronouns
Ζεύς, Διός ὁ Zeusμήτηρ, μητέρος (μητρός) ἡ motherμέρος, μέρεος (μέρους) τό share, portion, part; limb; one’s turnὄνομα, ὀνόματος τό nameπρᾶγμα, πράγματος τό matter, thing, affair; problem
πλῆθος, πλήθεος (πλήθους) τό great number, multitude; sumτις, τι (pronoun) anyone, anything; someone, something; (adjective) some, any,a, a certainτίς, τί (adjective or pronoun) who, what, which, whyχρῆμα, χρήματος τό thing; (pl.) goods, money, property
1. The noun Ζεύς is similar to the third declension noun βασιλεύς.
NΖεύς(Δεύς < Δηύς)A

Δία, ζῆνα(Δίϝα)GΔιός(Διϝός)DΔιΐ(Διϝί)

V

Ζεῦ

N

Ζεύς

(Δεύς < Δηύς)

G

Διός

(Διϝός)DΔιΐ(Διϝί)AΔία, ζῆνα(Δίϝα)VΖεῦModule 14 | First Declension Nouns in –η and -ᾱ and τίς, τί; τις, τι; ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅτι185

Etymology Corner XIV by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 10, Parts of Speech
Nouns, Pronouns, and Cases, Modules 7, 13, 14, 16, 18, 21, 22. One of the strangest
etymologies we’ll come across comes from the terminology around what you do withnouns and pronouns to indicate their case or role in a sentence. Strap in.
It starts simply with the Latin noun nomen name, since when you use a noun, you
are naming a person, place, thing or idea—Larry, floor, grammar, love are all things
identified through a specific name. In Greek the word for noun (and adjective) is also
name: ὄνομα. If you want to use a small word in place of (pro-) that name, you use apronoun, or in Greek ἀντωνυμία, the word ἀντι- in place of the noun, ὄνομα.
What to Study and Do 14. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you
have memorized ending sets 1 and 2 for first declension nouns ending in –η and -ᾱ
and that you can decline these nouns from memory. Review the Case and Function
Chart from Module 7. Notice how your understanding of endings and how they create
meaning improves as you work your way through the text.
Learning Tip 14: Balance Inside and Outside Views. Strike the right balance between
inside views and outside views. An outside view is a baseline. How often do things ofthis sort happen in situations of this sort? For example, how likely is it for a genitive
to show possession? The outside view takes into consideration the overall percentage
of genitives that show possession, and comes to realize that this percentage is thehighest of all the gentive functions. The inside view considers the factors specific to
the particular sentence you are reading. Many times the genitive will show possession
but often it will not. The inside view represents the times when it serves a function
different from its most common one of possession. For example, in the sentence, they
freed them from chains, the noun chains will be in the genitive without a Greek
preposition that is equivalent to the English preposition from. We see how the inside
view can work differently when we witness an automobile accident when travelling.
Due to what Daniel Kahneman calls the heuristic of representativeness, upon seeing
an accident we will think that car accidents are much more likely than they actuallyare. Here, the inside view incorrectly influences our understanding of the outside
view. Note the various ways you can apply the idea of balancing outside and inside
views to your other courses and to life itself.

Module 15

Attributive and Predicate Position

Word Order
Greek creates meaning through prepositional phrases and through endings.
Word order also matters. Attributive position creates meaning by placing thearticle and the attribute in a specific sequence. As you read, pay attention to thearrangement of words, noticing why word order matters in Greek.

Attributive Position
Attributive position tells us that a noun is to be translated with other words.
Consider the phrase the woman in the road. Since the woman referred to is
the person standing in the road, Greek may place the words in the road into
attributive position with the noun woman.
Consider another phrase, the white stripes. In this example, the noun
stripes is described by the adjective white and so Greek can place the adjective,
white, into attributive position with the noun, stripes.
In the examples below the attributes ὑπὸ λίθῳ under a rock and καλόςgood are in bold; underlined are the articles and nouns, σκορπίος, σκορπίου ὁ
scorpion and ὄνειρος, ὀνείρου ὁ dream. The general rule for attributive positionis that the article will directly precede the attribute. Three possibilities exist.
1. article attribute noun:a. ὁ ὑπὸ λίθῳ σκορπίος
the scorpion under a rockb. ὁ καλὸς ὄνειρος
the good dream
2. article noun article attribute:a. ὁ σκορπίος ὁ ὑπὸ λίθῳthe scorpion under a rock© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.18

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Ancient Greek I

b. ὁ ὄνειρος ὁ καλός
the good dream
3. noun article attribute:a. σκορπίος ὁ ὑπὸ λίθῳthe scorpion under a rockb. ὄνειρος ὁ καλός
the good dream

Note that in all of the above examples, the article directly precedes theattribute.

Other Possibilities
Greek uses attributive position to tell you what words are to be translated
together to create a phrase. When no article is present, consider these four
examples,Example 1: ὑπ’ ἐλάταις γυναῖκες
option 1:

women under pine trees

option 2:

women are under pinetrees.

Example 2: ἓν μόνον ἀγαθόν
option 1:

only one good

option 2:

there is only one good.

Example 3: βίος βραχύςoption 1:

a short life

option 2:

life is short.

Example 4: οὐδὲν κακόνoption 1:

nothing evil

option 2:

there is nothing evil.

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189

Predicate Position
If the words are not in attributive position and an article is present, consider
these two examples,
Example 1:ὁ βίος βραχύς.
option 1:

Example 2:life is short.

ἐν τῷ κινδύνῳ ὁ ἄνθρωπος
option 1:

the man is in danger.

This arrangement of words with the article present is called predicate position.
Practice with Attributive Position. Write out the following in all forms of
attributive position. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
1. the harsh road (ἡ ὁδός; χαλεπή)2. the wise word (ὁ λόγος; σοφός)
3. the noble soul (ἡ ψυχή; ἀγαθή)
Practice with Predicate Position. Write out the following in all forms ofpredicate position. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
1. the road is harsh (ἡ ὁδός; χαλεπή)2. the word is wise (ὁ λόγος; σοφός)
3. the soul is noble (ἡ ψυχή; ἀγαθή)

Ancient Greek Thought and Living Well
During the Archaic Age (799–480 BCE) and after, Greeks in the various citystates of Hellas were becoming increasingly aware of their rationale for doing
things. They recognized custom, usage, and tradition as the reasons behindmuch of what they did and many of the beliefs and values they held. Thus
they began to look for a better way to live well and a better authority for theirbeliefs, conventions, institutions, and values. One place they looked was natureand soon saw that, in nature, birth and wealth were irrelevant. Another place
they looked was to logic and reason. Intellectuals, including philosophers andsophists, engaged in these inquiries.
Philosophical inquiry predates sophism, the discipline of the sophists.
Philosophers asked if the universe had a beginning, how it began, and what
its elements were. They saw the world as something ordered and rational and190

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sought to explain as much as possible in terms as little as possible, i.e., via
theories. These intellectuals were often highly skilled mathematicians.
Sophism can be traced at least back to the early 6th century when
philosophers—from the Greek adjective φιλόσοφος lover of wisdom—were
intent on explaining the universe and all its contents by means of science rather
than religion. The loan word sophism comes from the Greek adjective, σοφός,σοφή, σοφόν, clever, skilled, wise. Sophists were mainly itinerant teachers,
travelling from city to city, teaching for a fee various subjects, including physics,
astronomy, mathematics, and the art of rhetoric. They promised their pupils
material success through bettering themselves by education. Sophists wereviewed by some as having a corrupting influence on the young by teaching thematheism, scientific inquiry, rhetoric (making the lesser argument the stronger),and a new relativistic morality.
In the below there is a list of some prominent Greek intellectuals. In the
Practice Translating that follows, you will read fragments written by Thales,
Herakleitos, Aiskhylos, Euripides, Antiphon, Sokrates, and Aristoteles.
Thales of Miletos, Θαλῆς ὁ Μιλήσιος, c. 624 BCE. Thales was a pre-Socratic
philosopher who predicted an eclipse of the sun in 585 BCE and argued that theuniverse’s prime element was water. Two of Thales’ writings are found below
in the Practice Translating.
Anaximandros of Miletos, Ἀναξίμανδρος ὁ Μιλήσιος, c. 610–546 BCE.
Anaximandros was a pre-Socratic philosopher who put forth the theory that theinfinite was the universe’s origin.
Anaximenes of Miletos, Ἀναξιμένης ὁ Μιλήσιος, c. 586–526 BCE. Anaximenes
was a pre-Socratic philosopher who proposed air as the universe’s prime
substance.
Pythagoras of Samos, Πῡθαγόρᾱς ὁ Σάμιος, c. 570–495 BCE. Pythagoras wasa pre-Socratic philosopher who argued that the soul was immortal and after its
death was reborn into another body, either man, animal, or plant, through aprocess called metempsychosis, μετεμψύχωσις. The only end to this cycle was
to attain purity of intellect and soul.
Xenophanes of Kolophon, Ξενοφάνης ὁ Κολοφώνιος, c. 570–478 BCΕ.
Xenophanes was a pre-Socratic philosopher who criticized Hesiod and Homer,
arguing that their explanation of divine and human affairs was incorrect. He
also criticized the adulation of athletes because wise men were much more
important to society than some champion boxer. Finally, he asserted that thegods were not anthropomorphic but that there was one god who was moral andmotionless, all-knowing and all-powerful.
Herakleitos (Heraclitus) of Ephesos, Ἡράκλειτος ὁ Ἐφέσιος, c. 535–475 BCE.
Herakleitos was a pre-Socratic philosopher who argued that the universe’s primeModule 15 | Attributive and Predicate Position

191

substance was fire, which all things contained within them, that the universe
had always existed, and that all is in flux for one can never step into the same
river twice. Three quotes by him are found below in the Practice Translating.
Aiskhylos (Aeschylus) of Athens, Αἰσχύλος ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 525–456 BCE.
Aiskhylos wrote satyr plays and tragedies. He composed about ninety plays, ofwhich seven survive. Many fragments from his other plays are found quoted
by other later authors or on Egyptian papyrus scraps. Aristoteles writes that
Aiskhylos expanded the number of characters in the theatre and allowed themto interact with each other instead of only with the chorus. One of his plays,
Prometheus Bound, may have been written by his son, Euphorion. Another of his
plays, The Persians, is the only extant tragedy concerning contemporary events
that survives. One quote by him is found below in the Practice Translating.
Parmenides of Elea, Παρμενίδης ὁ Ἐλεάτης, c. 500 BCE. Parmenides was a
pre-Socratic philosopher who reasoned that the earth was a sphere and thatsense perception was illusory. Thus the only way to truth was through logic.
Anaxagoras of Klazomenai, Ἀναξαγόρας, Κλαζομεναί, c. 500–428 BCE.
Anaxagoras was a pre-Socratic philosopher and a good friend of the Athenianstatesman Perikles. Anaxagoras spent much of his time in the cultural centerof his day, Athens. He declared that the sun was a stone and not a god. The
Athenians may have brought him to court and had him exiled on charges of
impiety and pro-Persian sympathies. It is uncertain if the charges were real,political, or fabricated by later biographers.
Sophokles (Sophocles) of Athens, Σοφοκλῆς ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 497–406 BCE.
Sophokles wrote satyr plays and tragedies. He composed over 120 plays andseven have survived, the most famous being Oidipous Tyrannos (Oidipous Rex)
and Antigone. He is said to have won twenty-four of the thirty competitions heentered. Of him it is said that he portrayed people as better than they are in
reality.
Empedokles of Akragas, Ἐμπεδοκλῆς, Ἀκράγας, Σικελία, c. 494–434 BCE.
Empedokles was a pre-Socratic philosopher, who contended that the senses
were routes to knowledge and that the universe was made up of the following
four substances: earth, air, fire, and water.
Protagoras of Abdera, Thrace, Πρωταγόρας, Ἄβδηρα, Θρᾴκη, c. 490–420 BCE.
Protagoras was a pre-Socratic philosopher. In his dialogue Protagoras, Plato
writes that Protagoras invented the professional sophist. Protagoras argued thatit did not matter whether the gods existed—he was an agnostic—that there were
two sides to every question, each opposed to the other; that the soul was nothing
apart from the senses; that everything is true; that all values were relative; andthat man is the “measure of all things, of things that are that they are, and ofthings that are not that they are not.” For these views it is said that the Athenians

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expelled him from their city and burnt his works in the marketplace (Diogenes
Laertius 9. 51–52).
Gorgias of Leontini, Γοργίας, Λεοντῖνοι, c. 483–376 BCE. Gorgias was a sophist,
who specialized in teaching the art of rhetoric.
Antiphon of Rhamnos, Ἀντιφῶν ὁ Ῥαμνούσιος, c. 480–411 BCE. Antiphon wasan orator, engaged in 5th-century Athenian political and intellectual life. One
quote by him is found below in the Practice Translating.
Euripides of Athens, Εὐριπίδης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 480–406 BCE. An innovator
who did not gain wide acceptance until after his death, Euripides wrote satyr
plays and tragedies. He introduced comedy into tragedy and presented theheroes and heroines of his plays as everyday people. He was a proponent of the
new music, which broke with tradition and is a feature of his work that shockedsome of his contemporaries. In several plays (Helen, Ion, Iphigeneia in Tauris),he created tragicomic plots that foreshadowed the so-called New Comedy. Fourquotes by him are found below in the Practice Translating.
Sokrates (Socrates) of Athens, Σωκρᾰ ́της ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 469–399 BCE.
Sokrates was an Athenian stonemason and carver and very poor. He was
accused of being a sophist and was loved by some and hated by many of theAthenian people. Early in life Sokrates was intrigued by scientific speculation.
He soon grew skeptical of it and turned his attention to inquiring into the rightconduct of life. Two quotes by him are found below in the Practice Translating.
Demokritos (Democritus) of Abdera, Thrace, Δημόκριτος, Ἄβδηρα, Θρᾴκη,c. 460–370 BCE. Demokritos was a pre-Socratic philosopher, who proposedthat all things were composed of atoms and void. Atoms were the smallest
building blocks of the universe and void allowed motion to occur. His theory
was later popularized by Epikouros and then expounded by the Roman poetand philosopher Lucretius. Six quotes by him are found below in the PracticeTranslating.
Hippokrates (Hippocrates) of Kos, Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος, c. 460–370 BC.
Hippokrates was a physician, who made outstanding contributions to the fieldof medicine. Founder of the Hippocratic School of Medicine, he establishedmedicine as a discipline and profession. He is credited with writing the
Hippocratic Oath, a code of ethics still in use today.
Thrasymakhos of Khalkedon, Θρασύμαχος, Χαλκηδών, c. 459–400 BCE.
Thrasymakhos was a sophist, who taught that justice is the interest of thestronger, i.e., that “might makes right.” He is best known as a character in Plato’s
Republic.

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193

Aristophanes of Athens, Ἀριστοφάνης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 446–c. 386 BCE.
Aristophanes wrote comic plays. Of forty or so plays, eleven have survived andrepresent a genre of comic drama referred to as Old Comedy.
Platon (Plato) of Athens, Πλάτων ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 428–424 BCE. Plato was astudent of Sokrates and a philosopher. Best known for his theory of forms andhighly influential in his own day, Plato’s works continue to be read and studied.
Diogenes the Cynic of Sinope, Διογένης ὁ Κυνικός, Σινώπη, c. 412–323 BCE.
Diogenes was a philosopher and founder of the Cynic school of philosophy. He
believed in moral action rather than in theory. He lived simply and frugally,
looking to nature as a guide to living well and authentically, declaring himself acitizen of the world.
Aristoteles (Aristotle) of Stageira, Ἀριστοτέλης, Στάγειρα, c. 384–322 BCE.
Aristoteles was a student of Plato and a philosopher. He founded the peripatetic
school of philosophy and wrote on many subjects, including aesthetics, biology,
economics, ethics, government, linguistics, logic, metaphysics, music, physics,
poetry, politics, psychology, rhetoric, theater, and zoology. Aristotle’s works
continue to be read and studied. One of his quotes is found below in the PracticeTranslating.
Menandros (Menander) of Athens, Μένανδρος ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 342–290 BCE.
Menandros was a comic playwright who wrote 108 comedies. Popular in his
own day, Menandros took first prize at the dramatic games of the Lenaia festival
eight times. Many fragments and one play, almost complete, the Dyskolos, havesurvived the ravages of time. One quote by him is found below in the PracticeTranslating.
Aristarkhos of Samos, Ἀρίσταρχος ὁ Σάμιος, c. 310–c. 230 BCE. Aristarkhos
was an astronomer and a mathematician who placed the sun at the center of theuniverse in the first known heliocentric view of the universe.
Eukleides (Euclid) of Alexandria, Εὐκλείδης c. 300 BCE. Born in Alexandria,
Eukleides developed a conceptual system of geometry from a small set of
axioms. His book, Elements, has been used to teach geometry up until 150 or so
years ago.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, taken from proverbs anda variety of ancient Greek authors. Remember the meanings and functions of
the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitiveendings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings
are underlined. Note that the third declension increases the number of possible
endings for the nominative singular. Check your understanding with thetranslations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or194

Ancient Greek I

three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understandingof the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Case

Ending

Function

Nominative-α, -εις, -εν, -ες, -η,predicate adjective; predicate-ις, -ο, -οι, -ον, -ος,nominative; subject of the verb

-υ, -υς
Genitive-ος, -ου

dependence; object of adjective; objectof a preposition; partitive; possession

Dative-ῃ, -οις, -ῳ

indirect object; means or instrument

Accusative-α, -ο, -ος

object of a preposition or verb

1. ὁ κόσμος ἀλλοίωσις· ὁ βίος ὑπόληψις (Demokritos, philosopher).
2. ἓν μόνον ἀγαθόν ἐστι· ἡ ἐπιστήμη. καὶ ἓν μόνον κακόν· ἡ ἀμαθία(Sokrates, philosopher).
3. οὐδὲν κακὸν ἀμιγὲς καλοῦ (Proverb).
4. μέγιστον τόπος· πάντα γὰρ χωρέει (Demokritos, philosopher).
5. ἀγαθὸν καὶ κακὸν τὸ αὐτό (Herakleitos, philosopher).
6. ὁ βίος βραχύς· ἡ δὲ τέχνη μακρά· ὁ δὲ καιρὸς ὀξύς· ἡ δὲ πεῖρα σφαλερή·ἡ δὲ κρίσις χαλεπή (Hippokrates, physician).
7. ὁ δὲ ἀνεξέταστος βίος οὐ βιωτὸς ἀνθρώπῳ (Sokrates, philosopher).
8. ἐτεῇ δὲ οὐδὲν ἴδμεν. ἐν βυθῷ γὰρ ἡ ἀλήθεια (Demokritos, philosopher)
9. τὰ πάντα ῥέει καὶ οὐδὲν μένει (Herakleitos, philosopher).
10. θνητῶν ὄλβιος εἰς τὸ τέλος οὐδείς (Euripides, tragic playwright).
11. πάντων τῶν ἀναγκαίων κακὼν ἰατρὸς χρόνος ἐστίν (Menandros, comic
playwright).
12. σοφώτατον χρόνος· ἀνευρίσκει γὰρ πάντα (Thales, philosopher).
13. νόημα ἢ μέτρον ὁ χρόνος, οὐκ ὑπόστασις (Antiphon of Rhamnus, Attic
orator).
14. τὸ μέλλον ἄδηλον ἀνθρώποις καὶ μικροὶ καιροὶ μεγάλων πραγμάτωναἴτιοι γίγνονται (Demosthenes, Attic orator).
15. τάχιστον νόος· διὰ παντὸς γὰρ τρέχει (Thales, philosopher).
16. τὸ τοῦ ποδὸς μὲν βραδύ· τὸ τοῦ δὲ νοῦ ταχύ (Euripides, tragic
playwright).

Module 15 | Attributive and Predicate Position

Adverbs and Verbs
ἀνευρίσκω find out, make out, discover μένω remain, stay*γίγνομαι be, be born*μόνον only*εἰμί be, be possibleῥέω flow*ζάω liveτρέχω run*ἴδμεν = ἴσμεν we knowχωρέω make room for; retire; advance

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalent*ἀγαθόνἀγαθοῦ

ἀγαθῷ

ἀγαθόν

good, nobleἄδηλον

ἀδήλουἀδήλῳἄδηλον

unclear, unseenαἴτιοι

αἰτίων

αἰτίοις

αἰτίους

responsible, guiltyἀλήθειαἀληθείας

ἀληθείᾳ

ἀλήθειανtruth

ἀλλοίωσις

ἀλλοιώσεως

ἀλλοιώσειἀλλοίωσινchange, differenceἀμαθίαἀμαθίαςἀμαθίᾳ

ἀμαθίανignoranceἀμιγές

ἀμιγέος (-ους)ἀμιγεῖ

ἀμιγές

unmixed + gen.

ἀναγκαῖαἀναγκαίωνἀναγκαίοιςἀναγκαῖαnecessary, inevitableἀνεξέταστοςἀνεξετάστουἀνεξετάστῳἀνεξέταστονunexamined*ἄνθρωπος

ἀνθρώπουἀνθρώπῳἄνθρωπον

human, person*αὐτόν see τὸ αὐτόν the same
*βίος

βίου

βίῳ

βίον

life

βιωτός

βιωτοῦβιωτῷβιωτόν

livable, worth livingβραδύ

βραδέος

βραδεῖ

βραδύslow, dullβραχύς

βραχέος

βραχεῖ

βραχύν

short, small; brief

βυθός

βυθοῦ

βυθῷ

βυθόν

depth, abyss

*ἕν

ἑνός

ἑνί

ἕν

one

ἐπιστήμηἐπιστήμης

ἐπιστήμῃἐπιστήμην

knowledge; skill

ἐτεή

ἐτεῆς

ἐτεῇ

ἐτεήν

realityθνητοί

θνητῶν

θνητοῖςθνητούς

mortalsἰατρός

ἰατροῦἰατρῷἰατρόν

doctor*καιρόςκαιροῦκαιρῷκαιρόν

right moment,*κακόν

κακοῦ

κακῷ

κακόν

bad, evil, cowardly

195

196

Ancient Greek I

*κακά

κακῶν

κακοῖς

κακάbad, evil, cowardly*καλόν

καλοῦ

καλῷ

καλόν

beautiful, goodκόσμος

κόσμου

κόσμῳ

κόσμον

ornament, dressκρίσις

κρίσεως

κρίσει

κρίσιν

judgment; decisionμακράμακρῶν

μακροῖςμακράlong, tall*μέγαλαμεγάλωνμεγάλοις

μέγαλαbig, great, largeμέγιστονμεγίστουμεγίστῷμέγιστον

greatest*μέλλον see τό μέλλον the futureμέτρον

μέτρουμέτρῳμέτρον

measure, size*μικροίμικρῶν

μικροῖςμικρούς

small, little, shortνόημανοήματος

νοήματινόημαperception, thoughtνόος (νοῦς)νόου (νοῦ)νόῳ (νῷ)νόον (νοῦν)mind, intellectὄλβιος

ὀλβίου

ὀλβίῳ

ὄλβιον

happy, blessed

ὀξύς

ὀξέος

ὀξεῖ

ὀξύν

sharp, keen, swift*οὐδείςοὐδένος

οὐδένι

οὐδέναnoone*οὐδέν

οὐδένος

οὐδένι

οὐδένnothing*πάνταπάντων

πᾶσι (ν)πάντα

all, each, wholeπεῖραπείραςπείρᾳπεῖραν

experience

πούς

ποδός

ποδί

πόδα

foot

*πράγματαπραγμάτωνπράγμασι (ν)πράγματαmatter; affairσοφώτατονσοφωτάτουσοφωτάτῳσοφώτατονwisestσφαλερήσφαλερῆς

σφαλερῇσφαλερήνslippery, perilousτάχιστονταχίστουταχίστῳτάχιστον

swiftest*ταχύταχέος

ταχεῖ

ταχύ

swift

*τέλος

τέλεος (-ους)

τέλει

τέλος

end, power, officeτέχνητέχνηςτέχνῃτέχνην

skill, art*τὸ αὐτότοῦ αὐτοῦτῷ αὐτῷτὸ αὐτόthe same*τὸ μέλλοντοῦτῷ μέλλοντιτὸ μέλλονthe futureμέλλοντος
*τόπος

τόπου

τόπῳ

τόπον

place, spotὑπόληψις

ὑπολήψεως

ὑπολήψειὑπόληψινtaking-up, continuation;
reply; suspicionὑπόστασις

ὑποστάσεως

ὑποστάσειὑπόστασιν

support; sediment;
duration; substanceModule 15 | Attributive and Predicate Position

197

χαλεπή

χαλεπῆςχαλεπῇ

χαλεπήνdifficult, harsh*χρόνος

χρόνουχρόνῳχρόνον

time

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Case

Ending

Function

Nominative-α, αι, -ες, -εις, -η,predicate adjective; predicate nominative;-ις, -ν, -ο, -οι, -ον,

subject of the verb

-ος, -ς, -ων
Genitive-εος -ης, -ου, -ων

dependence; possession object of
preposition

Dative-ι, -ῳ

indirect object; means or instrument; objectof the preposition or verb

Accusative-ι, -ο, -ον, -ρ

object of the verb

17. κάτοπτρον εἴδεος χαλκός ἐστί, οἶνος δὲ νοῦ (Aiskhylos, tragic
playwright).
18. ἀνθρώπῳ σοφῷ πᾶσα γῆ βατή· ψυχῆς γὰρ ἀγαθῆς πατρὶς ὁ ξύμπας
κόσμος (Demokritos, philosopher).
19. κακῆς ἀπ’ ἀρχῆς γίγνεται τέλος κακόν (Euripides, tragic playwright).
20. διάφοροι δὲ φύσεις βροτῶν, διάφοροι δὲ τρόποι (Euripides, tragic
playwright).
21. ὁ κόσμος σκηνή, ὁ βίος πάροδος. ἔρχῃ, ὁράεις, ἀπέρχῃ (Demokritos,
philosopher).
22. τὸ πεπρωμένον φυγεῖν ἀδύνατον (Proverb).
23. χαλεπὰ τὰ καλά (Proverb).
24. μία χελιδὼν ἔαρ οὐ ποιέει· μία μέλισσα μέλι οὐ ποιέει (Proverb).
25. τῷ ξένῳ δεῖ ἀκολουθέειν τοῖς ἐπιχωρίοις νόμοις (Proverb).
26. ὁ φίλος τὸν φίλον ἐν κινδύνοις γιγνώσκει (Proverb).
27. μακραὶ τυράννων χεῖρες (Proverb).
28. εἰ πεινάεις, πᾶν ἐστι χρῆμα ἐδώδιμον (Proverb).
29. πολυμαθίη νόον οὐ διδάσκει (Herakleitos, philosopher).
30. ὁ ἄνθρωπος φύσει πολιτικόν ζῶον (Aristoteles, philosopher).
31. βίος ἀνεόρταστος
philosopher).

μακρὰ

ὁδὸς

ἀπανδόκευτος

(Demokritos,

198

Ancient Greek I

32. κρεῖσσον ἄρχεσθαι τοῖς ἀνοήτοις ἢ ἄρχειν (Proverb).
Adverbs and Verbs
ἀκολουθέω follow, accompany + dat.

*εἰμί beἀπέρχομαι depart*ἔρχομαι come, go*ἄρχω rule, command; begin + gen.

*ὁράω see*γίγνομαι be, be bornπεινάω be hungry*γιγνώσκω know*ποιέω do,considermake,cause;(mid.)*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or dat. *φυγεῖν to fleeor acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary
to comeδιδάσκω teach, instruct
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalentἀπανδόκευτος

-δοκεύτου-δοκεύτῳ-δόκευτον

without an inn*ἀγαθή

ἀγαθῆς

ἀγαθῇ

ἀγαθήν

good, nobleἀδύνατονἀδυνάτουἀδυνάτῳἀδύνατον

impossibleἀνεόρταστοςἀνεορτάστουἀνεορτάστῳἀνεόρταστονno feasting*ἄνθρωπος

ἀνθρώπουἀνθρώπῳἄνθρωπον

human, personἀνόητοιἀνοήτωνἀνοήτοις

ἀνοήτους

foolish, stupid

*ἀρχή

ἀρχῆς

ἀρχῇ

ἀρχήν

rule; beginning

βατή

βατῆς

βατῇ

βατήν

accessible, passable

*βίος

βίου

βίῳ

βίον

life

βροτοί

βροτῶν

βροτοῖςβροτούς

mortals

*γῆ

γῆς

γῇ

γῆν

land, earthδιάφοροιδιαφόρωνδιαφόροις

διαφόρους

unlike; differing

ἔαρ

ἔαρος

ἔαρι

ἔαρ

springἐδώδιμονἐδωδίμουἐδωδίμῳἐδώδιμον

edibleεἶδοςεἴδεος (-ους)

εἴδει

εἶδος

form, shape; beautyἐπιχώριοιἐπιχωρίωνἐπιχωρίοιςἐπιχωρίους

of the country, local

ζῶον

ζώου

ζώῳ

ζῶον

animalModule 15 | Attributive and Predicate Position

199Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalent

*κακή

κακῆς

κακῇ

κακήν

bad, evil, cowardly*κακόν

κακοῦ

κακῷ

κακόν

bad, evil, cowardly

*καλά

καλῶν

καλοῖς

καλάbeautiful, goodκάτοπτρονκατόπτρουκατόπτρῳκάτοπτρον

mirrorκίνδυνοικινδύνωνκινδύνοις

κινδύνους

dangersκόσμος

κόσμου

κόσμῳ

κόσμον

ornament, dressκρεῖσσονκρείσσονοςκρείσσονικρεῖσσονbetterμακρά (-αί)μακρᾶς (-ῶν)μακρᾷ (-αῖς)

μακράν (-άς)

long, tallμέλι

μέλιτος

μέλιτι

μέλι

honey

μέλισσαμελίσσης

μελίσσῃμέλισσαν

bee

*μία

μιᾶς

μιᾷ

μίαν

one

νόμοι

νόμων

νόμοις

νόμους

laws, customsνόος (νοῦς)νόου (νοῦ)νόῳ (νῷ)νόον (νοῦν)mind, intellectξένος (ξεῖνος)

ξένου

ξένῳ

ξένον

stranger, guest-friendξύμπας

ξύμπαντος

ξύμπαντιξύμπανταall, every, entire

ὁδός

ὁδοῦ

ὁδῷ

ὁδόν

road, path; journey

οἶνος

οἴνου

οἴνῳ

οἶνον

wine

πᾶν

παντός

παντίπᾶνall, every, entire

πᾶσα

πάσης

πάσῃ

πᾶσαν

all, every, entireπάροδος

παρόδουπαρόδῳ

πάροδον

entranceway

πατρίς

πατρίδος

πατρίδιπατρίδαfatherland, countryπεπρωμένον see τὸ πεπρωμένον fateπολιτικόνπολιτικοῦπολιτικῷπολιτικόν

of a city-stateπολυμαθίηπολυμαθίηςπολυμαθίῃπολυμαθίηνgreat knowledgeσκηνήσκηνῆςσκηνῇσκηνήν

tent; booth; stage

σοφός

σοφοῦ

σοφῷ

σοφόν

wise

*τέλος

τέλεος (-ους)

τέλει

τέλος

end, power, officeτὸ πεπρωμένοντοῦ -μένουτῷ -μένῳτὸ -μένονfate*τρόποιτρόπων

τρόποις

τρόπους

ways; charactersτύραννοιτυράννωντυράννοις

τυράννους

tyrants*φίλος

φίλου

φίλῳ

φίλον

friend*φύσις (-εις)

φύσεως (-εων)φύσει (-εσι)φύσιν (-εις)

nature200

Ancient Greek IΝοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalentχαλεπά

χαλεπῶνχαλεποῖςχαλεπά

difficult, harshχαλκός

χαλκοῦχαλκῷ

χαλκόν

copper, bronze*χεῖρεςχειρῶν

χερσί (ν)χεῖρας

hand; force, armyχελιδώνχελιδόνοςχελιδόνιχελιδόναswallow*χρῆμαχρήματος

χρήματιχρῆμαthing; (pl.) money

*ψυχή

ψυχῆς

ψυχῇ

ψυχήν

soul

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentences foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs give person,
number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them.
For prepositional phrases give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For
adjectives tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.
τῷ ξένῷ δεῖ ἀκολουθέειν τοῖς ἐπιχωρίοις νόμοις.
τὸ τοῦ ποδὸς μὲν βραδύ· τὸ τοῦ δὲ νοῦ ταχύ.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
Module 15 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring words, the greater
mastery of the language you will have.
Pronoun and Nouns------, ἀλλήλων one another, each otherἀρχή, ἀρχῆς ἡ rule, command; beginning; provinceγῆ, γῆς ἡ land, earthγένος, γένεος (γένους) τό race, kind, sort; birth, originμήν, μηνός ὁ month; (adv.) truly, surelyσῶμα, σώματος τό bodyχώρᾱ, χώρᾱς ἡ land, countryVerbἡγέομαι lead; believe; lead, command + dat.

Module 15 | Attributive and Predicate Position

201

Etymology Corner XV by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 11, Parts of Speech
Nouns, Pronouns, and Cases, cont. As noted throughout Module 6, it’s the endingsthat tell us what role a word takes in a sentence, endings tell us who acts and who or
what receives the action. Why are these ending patterns called cases? I want you to
picture an old analogue clock. On the big hand is the part of the noun or adjectivethat doesn’t change, the stem or base. Instead of numbers you have each of the caseendings, Nominative singular, Genitive singular, Dative singular, Accusative singular,
Vocative singular, Nominative plural, etc. As the stem clicks from one to the next, you
might describe the motion as falling around the wheel. The Latin for fall is casus (likea casualty is someone who has fallen in battle), hence case. Likewise the Greek for
fall is πτῶσις, the word the Greeks used for case. Pretty dumb, right? It’s dumb but
internally consistent. In fact, when you describe the process of linking the stem with
its ending, you call it declining a noun or adjective. This makes sense because thenoun is leaning clinare (κλίνειν like we saw with enclitic and proclitic) away fromde as it goes through the cases. The specific pattern a noun or adjective uses is called adeclension because it contains all the endings, or all the leanings away (de + clinare).
What to Study and Do 15. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you
have learned how to place words in attributive and predicate position.
Learning Tip 15: Be Flexible, Letting Go of Dogma and Rigidity. Deep learning
involves letting go of the dogma and rigidity of the old conceptual system to makeway for the new. Don’t be dogmatic. Rules are not binding. Two cases will never be
the same. Guidelines are the best we can do in a world where nothing is certain orexactly repeatable. Stay in the moment. With continued work you will let go of yourold habitual ways of thinking and allow for new insights and knowledge that will inturn prepare you for ever new and exhilarating possibilities. Consider each of thewords below, noting the Greek word, its English equivalent, the conventional spelling,
and the exact transliterations of the Greek word.
Greek Word

English Equivalent

ConventionalExactἄγγελος

messengerangel

aggelosἐγκώμιον

composition of praiseencomiumegkomionκόγχηmolluskconchkogkheλάρυγξ

upper windpipe

larynxlarugx

μοῦσα

muse

muse

mousa

202

Ancient Greek I

Greek Word

English Equivalent

Conventional

Exact

χορός

dance, chorus

choruskhorosThough change, choice, and diversity are crucial to this textbook’s moral compass
and inevitable in life, tradition is strong and not without value. The probability of theexact transliterations from Greek to English—aggelos, egkomion, kogkhe, larugx,
mousa, khoros—gaining traction so that they are used by English speakers are slim.
Choose, nevertheless, to buck the norms, using the exact transliterations if you dare.

Module 16

Second Declension Nouns

Nouns
Nouns in Greek are defined just like nouns are in English; but the way theycreate meaning is different. As in English, Greek nouns (ὀνόματα) refer topeople, places, things, and ideas. Greek nouns have endings. English nouns
can change form when they show possession, as in Jada’s book, where the ’s isadded as a suffix and indicates that the book belongs to Jada. English nouns alsochange form when expressing the plural: two suns, three oxen, four mice. The
endings on Greek nouns, as we have seen previously, create the same meanings
that English does through form change, word order, and the use of prepositional
phrases.

Second Declension Nouns
The nominative singular of nouns of the second declension ends in -ος or –ον.
Most second declension nouns whose nominative ends in -ος are masculine ingender and a few are feminine. Second declension nouns whose nominative
ending is –ον are neuter in gender. Memorize these endings, know how to
obtain the noun’s stem, and know how to decline the nouns.

Declining Second Declension Nouns in -ος or -ον
To decline second declension noun endings in -ος or –ον, first get the stem byremoving the genitive singular ending. For sets 7 and 8, the genitive singularending is -ου. For sets 9 and 10, the genitive singular ending is -ος. For sets 1 and
2, the genitive singular is -ης or -ᾱς. What remains is the stem. To the stem add
the following endings:© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.19

204

Ancient Greek I

Masculine/Feminine

Neuter

Set 7

Set 8

S

Pl

S

Pl

Nominative

-ος

-οι

Nominative

-ον

-α

Accusative

-ον

-ους

Accusative

-ον

-α

Genitive-ου-ων

Genitive-ου-ων

Dative-ῳ-οις

Dative-ῳ-οις

Vocative-ε-οιVocative-ον-αMasculine/Feminine

Neuter

Set 7

Set 8

S

Pl

S

Pl

Nominative

-ος

-οι

Nominative

-ον

-α

Genitive-ου-ων

Genitive-ου-ων

Dative-ῳ-οις

Dative-ῳ-οιςAccusative

-ον

-ους

Accusative

-ον

-α

Vocative-ε-οιVocative-ον-αἥλιος, ἡλίου, ἀδελφός, ἀδελφοῦ, ἔργον, ἔργουTo decline the noun ἥλιος, ἡλίου ὁ sun, take the genitive singular ἡλίου, remove
the genitive singular ending -ου to get the stem: ἡλί-, and add the masculine/
feminine endings from above.
To decline ἀδελφός, ἀδελφοῦ ὁ brother, take the genitive singular ἀδελφοῦ,remove the genitive singular ending -ου to get the stem: ἀδελφ-, and add themasculine/feminine endings from above.
To decline ἔργον, ἔργου τό work, take the genitive singular ἔργου, remove
the genitive singular ending -ου to get the stem: ἔργ-, and add the neuter endings
from above.
SingularN

ἥλιος

ἀδελφός

ἔργον

A

ἥλιον

ἀδελφόν

ἔργον

G

ἡλίου

ἀδελφοῦ

ἔργου

D

ἡλίῳ

ἀδελφῷ

ἔργῳ

V

ἥλιε

ἄδελφεἔργονModule 16 | Second Declension Nouns

PluralN

ἥλιοιἀδελφοίἔργαA

ἡλίους

ἀδελφούς

ἔργα

G

ἡλίων

ἀδελφῶνἔργωνDἡλίοις

ἀδελφοῖςἔργοις

V

ἥλιοι

ἀδελφοίἔργαSingularN

ἥλιος

ἀδελφός

ἔργον

G

ἡλίου

ἀδελφοῦ

ἔργου

D

ἡλίῳ

ἀδελφῷ

ἔργῳ

A

ἥλιον

ἀδελφόν

ἔργον

V

ἥλιε

ἄδελφεἔργονPluralN

ἥλιοιἀδελφοί

ἔργα

G

ἡλίων

ἀδελφῶνἔργωνDἡλίοις

ἀδελφοῖςἔργοιςAἡλίους

ἀδελφούς

ἔργα

V

ἥλιοι

ἀδελφοίἔργα

ἥλιος:
1. Note that the vocative singular is different from the nominative
singular. As in all nouns, the vocative plural is the same as thenominative plural.
2. The accent does not shift to the ultima in the genitive plural as it doesin the first declension.
3. Final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except
in the optative, a mood that you’ll learn in Part II of the 21st-Century
series. Thus the accent remains on the antepenult in ἥλιοι.
ἀδελφός:
1. When first and second declension nouns have an acute accent on theultima in the nominative singular, the accent changes to a circumflex
in the genitive and dative, singular and plural.
2. ἄδελφε is an exception for the rules of accent.

205

206

Ancient Greek Iἔργον:
1. In all neuter nouns, the accusative and vocative are the same as thenominative, both in the singular and in the plural.
2. The nominative and vocative plural ending of all neuter nouns is -α.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below adapted from the prologueof Euripides’ Bakkhai (Βάκχαι). Remember the meanings and functions of thecases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitiveendings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings
are underlined. Note that the third declension increases the number of possible
endings for the nominative singular. Check your understanding with thetranslations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or
three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understandingof the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Case

Ending

Function

Nominative-α, -η, -ης, ις, -ξ, -ο,subject of the verb

-ον, -ος, -ρ, -ς, -ων
Genitive-ας, -ης, -ος, -ου, -ων

dependence; object of preposition;possession

Dative-οις, -σιdative with adjective

Accusative-α, -αν, -ας, -ε, -εις, -η,

motion toward; object of verb or-ην, -ν, -ο, -ον, -οςprepositionἥκω Διὸς παῖς τὴν Θηβαίων χθόνα, Διόνυσος. ἐμὲ μὲν τίκτει ποθ’ ἡΚάδμου κόρη, Σεμέλη· ἐμὲ δὲ ἀστραπηφόρον λοχεύει πῦρ. μορφὴν δʼἀμείβω ἐκ θεοῦ βροτείαν· ὁράω δὲ μητρὸς μνῆμα καὶ δόμων ἐρείπια.
τὰ δὲ ἔτι τύφεται, Δίου πυρὸς φλόξ, ἀθάνατος Ἥρας μητέρα εἰς ἐμὴν
ὕβρις. αἰνέω δὲ Κάδμον. ὁ δὲ γὰρ ἄβατον τὸ πέδον τίθησι, θυγατρὸςσηκόν. λείπω δὲ ἐγὼ Λυδῶν γύας Φρυγῶν τε, Περσῶν τε πλάκαςΒάκτριά τε τείχη τήν τε χθόνα Μήδων. καὶ δὲ ἐπέρχομαι Ἀραβίαντ’ Ἀσίαν τε. ἡ δὲ Ἀσία παρ’ ἅλα κεῖται καὶ ἔχει μιγάδας Ἕλλησιβαρβάροις θʼ ὁμοῦ πόλεις. ἐκεῖ μὲν ἤδη χορεύω καὶ καθίστημι τὰςτελετάς. ἐγὼ δὲ νῦν ἔρχομαι εἰς Ἑλλήνων πόλιν ὅτι εἰμὶ ἐμφανὴςδαίμων βροτοῖς. πρώτας δὲ θήβας τῆς γῆς Ἑλληνίδος ἀνολολύζω, καὶνεβρίδα ἐξάπτω χροὸς θύρσον τε δίδωμι ἐς χεῖρα, κίσσινον βέλος.

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Adverbs and Verbsαἰνέω praise, approve, promise*καθίστημι appoint, establish, putinto a state; (intrans.) be established,
be appointed

ἀμείβω answer; change, exchange*κεῖμαι lieἀνολολύζω cry aloud, shout; excite

λείπω leave*δίδωμι give; δίκην δίδωμι I pay the λοχεύω bring forth, bear; deliver
penalty; δίδωμι χάριν I give thanks*εἰμί be*ὁράω seeἐκεῖ there*τίθημι put, placeἐξάπτω fasten to or fromτίκτω bear, give birthἐπέρχομαι come upon; approach; τύφω raise a smoke, smoke; (pass.)
attacksmolder*ἔρχομαι come, goχορεύω dance*ἥκω have come, be present
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalentἄβατον

ἀβάτου

ἀβάτῳἄβατον

untrodden, impassableἀθάνατος

ἀθανάτουἀθανάτῳἀθάνατον

immortal, deathless

ἅλς

ἁλός

ἁλί

ἅλα

sea

ἈραβίαἈραβίαςἈραβίᾳ

ἈραβίανArabia

Ἀσία

Ἀσίας

Ἀσίᾳ

Ἀσίαν

Asia

ἀστραπηφόρον-φόρου-φόρῳ-φόρον

lightning-bearingΒάκτριαΒακτρίωνΒακτρίοιςΒάκτριαBaktriaβάρβαροιβαρβάρωνβαρβάροις

βαρβάρους

barbarians

βέλος

βέλεος (-ους)

βέλει

βέλος

missile, arrow, dartβροτείαβροτείαςβροτείᾳ

βροτείανmortalβροτοί

βροτῶν

βροτοῖςβροτούς

mortals

*γῆ

γῆς

γῇ

γῆν

land, earth

γύαι

γυῶν

γύαις

γύας

lands

δαίμων

δαίμονος

δαίμονιδαίμοναgod, deityΔιόνυσοςΔιονύσουΔιονύσῳΔιόνυσον

Dionysos

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Ancient Greek IΝοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalent

δόμοι

δόμων

δόμοις

δόμους

house, houses

*ἐγώ

ἐμοῦ

ἐμοί

ἐμέ

I, me, mine*Ἕλληνες

ἙλλήνωνἝλλησι (ν)Ἕλληνας

GreeksἙλληνίςἙλληνίδοςἙλληνίδιἙλληνίδα

Greek

*ἐμή

ἐμῆς

ἐμῇ

ἐμήν

my

ἐμφανήςἐμφανέοςἐμφανεῖἐμφανέα (-ῆ)

clear, manifest(-οῦς)
ἐρείπιονἐρειπίουἐρειπίῳ

ἐρείπιονruin, wreck*ΖεύςΔιός (Ζηνός)Διί (Ζηνί)Δία (Ζῆνα)

Zeus

Ἥρα

Ἥρας

Ἥρᾳ

Ἥραν

Hera

*θεός

θεοῦ

θεῷ

θεόν

god, goddess

θῆβαι

θηβῶν

θήβαιςθήβαςThebesΘηβαῖοιΘηβαίωνΘηβαίοις

Θηβαίους

Thebanθυγάτηρθυγατρόςθυγατρίθυγατέραdaughterθύρσος

θύρσουθύρσῳθύρσον

thyrsosΚάδμος

Κάδμου

ΚάδμῳΚάδμον

Kadmosκίσσινος

κισσίνουκισσίνῳκίσσινον

of ivy

κόρη

κόρης

κόρῃ

κόρην

girl; daughter

Λυδοί

Λυδῶν

Λυδοῖς

Λυδούς

Lydian

Μῆδοι

Μήδων

Μήδοις

Μήδους

Mede, Persian*μήτηρ

μητρόςμητρίμητέραmotherμιγάδεςμιγάδωνμιγάσι (ν)μιγάδας

mixed

μνῆμα

μνήματος

μνήματιμνῆμαmemorial, record, tombμορφή

μορφῆς

μορφῇ

μορφήν

form, appearanceνεβρίς

νεβρίδος

νεβρίδινεβρίδαfawnskin*παῖςπαιδός

παιδί

παῖδα

child

πέδον

πέδου

πέδῳ

πέδον

earth, groundΠέρσαι

Περσέων (-ῶν)Πέρσαις

Πέρσας

Persiansπλάκες

πλακῶν

πλαξί (ν)πλάκας

plains, fields*πόλις

πόλεως

πόλει

πόλιν

city

πρῶται

πρώτων

πρώταις

πρώτας

first

πῦρ

πυρός

πυρί

πῦρ

fire

Module 16 | Second Declension Nouns

209Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English EquivalentΣεμέλη

Σεμέλης

Σεμέλῃ

ΣεμέληνSemele

σηκός

σηκοῦ

σηκῷ

σηκόν

pen, fold, precinctτά δέτῶν δέ

τοῖς δέτά δέ

they, them, theirsτείχητειχῶν

τείχεσι (ν)

τείχη

walls

τελεταίτελετῶντελεταῖςτελετάς

rites, mysteries

ὕβρις

ὕβρεως

ὕβρει

ὕβριν

hybris, brutality

φλόξ

φλογός

φλογί

φλόγα

flame, fire, blazeΦρύγες

Φρυγῶν

Φρυξί (ν)Φρύγας

Phrygian*χείρχειρός

χειρί

χεῖρα

hand; force, armyχθώνχθονός

χθονί

χθόνα

earth, groundχρώςχρωτός (χροός)χρωτί (χροΐ)

χρῶτα

skin

(χρόα)

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentence foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person,
number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them.
For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For
adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.
καὶ νεβρίδα ἐξάπτω χροὸς θύρσον τε δίδωμι ἐς χεῖρα, κίσσινονβέλος.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Classics and Our Modern World: Tom Palaima
In his article “Songs of the ‘Hard Traveler’ from Odysseus to the Never-Ending
Tourist,” Classicist and professor Tom Palaima studies themes connected withtraveling and existing away from home from the Iliad and Odyssey of Homerthrough the modern folk song tradition as performed and transformed by Bob
Dylan, including songs by the Stanley Brothers, Charley Patton, Skip James,
Muddy Waters, Stephen F. Foster, Martin Carthy and Dionysis Savvopoulos.
Ancient Greek serves as the first recorded examples of songs exploring theseexperiences.
To read the article, follow this link:

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Ancient Greek I
Songs of the Hard Traveler.1

Module 16 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring words, the greater
mastery of the language you will have.
Nounsἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ human, personἔργον, ἔργου τό deed, task, work; building; ἔργον in truth, in deedθεός, θεοῦ ἡ ὁ god, goddess, deityλόγος, λόγου ὁ word, speech, story; reason, accountνόμος, νόμου ὁ law, customπόλεμος, πολέμου ὁ warχρόνος, χρόνου ὁ timeVerbνομίζω believe, think, have the custom of, hold as custom

Etymology Corner XVI by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 12, Parts of Speech
Nouns, Pronouns, and Cases, cont. We met the root of nominative in the previous
section on nouns, because a nomen is a name (ὄνομα). The nominative case names
the subject of the sentence. One specific type of nominative that we meet frequently
when translating is the predicate nominative, or the naming of the thing that you
are talking about, from the Latin prefix prae before and verb dicere to say (likedictation the taking down of what someone says or dictator whose statements arelaw). In addition to the frequently occurring predicate nominative, we will often meet
predicate adjectives, which also name the thing you are talking about. In Greek
grammar ὄνομα was used to refer to the parts of speech of both nouns and adjectives
because both name what you are talking about. Greek for the nominative case wascalled ὀρθὴ πτῶσις the upright, standing or not falling case. Remember the hands ofthe clock.

1	
h ttp://sites.utexas.edu/tpalaima/files/2017/11/SONGS_OF_THE_HARD_TRAVELER_FROM_ODYSSEUS.pdf.

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What to Study and Do 16. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you
have memorized ending sets 7 and 8 for second declension nouns and that you can
decline these nouns from memory.
Learning Tip 16: Learn How to Follow and to Break Rules. During the past 500
years our world has seen rapid technological changes. These changes require us toadapt constantly. Constant change is our new normal. Luckily one of our strengths is
our ability to learn and to adapt. Learning new information requires basic rule-based
thinking (continuous or algorithmic) and deep thinking (discontinuous or creative) thatallows us to understand in novel ways. As you learn ancient Greek, think about what
you are learning from both perspectives, allowing for an analytical understandingof language and for a conceptual understanding that requires going beyond linking
a verb to its subject. Reflect on your learning of accents and the factual information
required for you to learn so as to be able to accent correctly and with confidence. As
you apply this knowledge and come to understand it at a deeper level, note how theconceptual application of knowledge becomes factual. To facilitate your assimilationof new information, try using your body as a memory palace. In this variation yourbody serves as the long-term storage facility for remembering new information. Let’s
imagine that we wish to remember the eight parts of speech and their definitions,nouns, pronouns, adjectives, conjunctions, verbs, prepositions, adverbs, interjections.
We will begin at our feet and move up to our head. Our feet stand on a house,
which represents nouns. Our house is filled with people, with maps of many different
places, and the people in it are discussing many things and ideas. The house ourfeet are standing upon represents the definition person, place, thing, idea. On ourknees a wide variety of people—he, she, they—are jostling each other, trying to taketheir place in line. The hes and shes of the people represent pronouns and the trying
to take their place in line represents the definition of pronouns taking the placeof nouns. On our thighs are oodles of crayons. The crayons speak colorfully andare describing the people on our knees, giving us information on the wide variety
of different complexions and eye and hair colors among the people taking theirplace in line on our knees—beige, black, brown, green, pale, red, white, yellow. The
crayons remind us that adjectives describe nouns. On our hips is a belt made out ofsafety pins. Each safety pin connects to the next, reminding us that conjunctions join
one item to another. The pins make a belt that keeps our pants secure to our hips.
Conjunctions join our thoughts, keeping them connected. Next is our stomach. Our
stomach is our core. Our core is the foundation of movement and existence, enabling
us to rise, jump, turn, and twist. Our stomach represents the qualities of action andexistence that define verbs. In our right hand we hold an open umbrella. We standunder the umbrella. Our position of standing under the umbrella reminds us that
prepositions are small words that require an object to complete their meaning. We
are positioned under the object umbrella. Under is the preposition. The umbrella

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Ancient Greek I

completes the meaning of a prepositional phrase by serving as the object of the
preposition under. Our mouth exclaims delight at our ability to move outside into
the rain without getting wet. Our mouth expresses satisfaction, by exclaiming, “ah,”as we dance in the rain and are kept dry by standing under our amazingly effective
umbrella. The word ah is what we interject to express our delight. Ah is called aninterjection. As we interject “ah,” our eyes look over our body parts, noticing thepeople standing in line on our knees. Some are standing quietly. Some are standing
really quietly. Others are very loud. Our eyes take note that adverbs give additional
information about verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. This body palace is just one
more technique that you can apply the SEE principle to so as to place items quickly
into your medium term memory. Remember that you will still have to review thisinformation so as to remember it for the long term. Also remember to have fun using
your imagination to create memorable information that you wish to make a part ofyour identity.

Module 17

The Future Indicative and Infinitive
Active of ἔχω, ἐλαύνω, ἔρχομαι
and the Dynamic Infinitive

The Verb
In Greek and in English, verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs
are words that represent actions (throw) and states of being (be or exist). They
differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English
counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English doesnot. The Greek verb (ῥῆμα) in its finite form has an ending that indicates what
person and number the subject is. The Greek infinitive has an ending thatindicates that it is unmarked for person and number.

The Future Indicative Active
The future tense refers to actions that will occur in the future. The future tense
stems have a temporal value but no aspect, showing no distinction between
the imperfective (incomplete) and perfective (completed) aspect (CGCG 33.4–6).
To review what is meant by the aspect of verbs, reread Verb Tense-Aspect inModule 9.

Future Tense Stems
To obtain the future tense stem remove the ending from the second principal
part. What remains is the future active and middle tense stem. To this stem, add
the future tense endings.

© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.20

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Ancient Greek I

Future Tense Endings
Add to the correct tense stem.
Primary Active (use for the present and future active tenses)
S

Pl

st

-ω

-ομεν

2nd

-εις

-ετε

3rd

-ει

-ουσι (ν)

1Infinitive Active (use for the present and future active tenses)-ειν

1. Almost all verb forms have recessive accent.
2. The letter nu in the third person plural, present indicative active is anu-movable. It may be added to the ending when the following word
begins with a vowel or at the end of clauses or verses. Otherwise it isleft off.
Primary Middle and Passive (use to form the active voice of deponent verbs)
S

Pl

1st

-ομαι

-ομεθα2nd-ει or -ῃ (-εσαι)

-εσθε

3

-εται

-ονται

rdInfinitive Active (use to form the active voice of deponent verbs)-εσθαι

1. Almost all verb forms have recessive accent. Remember that final-αι and -οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the
optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.
2. In the second person singular intervocalic sigma dropped out (-εσαι),
resulting in the two endings -ει and -ῃ.
3. Deponent verbs are active in meaning and middle and passive in form.

Module 17 | The Future Indicative and Infinitive Active of ἔχω, ἐλαύνω, ἔρχομαι

215

The Conjugation of ἔχωAll ω-verbs combine their stems and endings just as ἔχω does. In the readingsthat follow, use your knowledge of ἔχω to recognize and translate the forms ofother ω-verbs.

Future Indicative Active of ἔχωTo the future active and middle tense stems ἕξ- or σχήσ-, add the correct endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberἕξω

I will have

1st person singularἕξεις

you will have

2nd person singularἕξειhe, she, it will have

3rd person singularἕξομεν

we will have

1st person pluralἕξετε

you will have

2nd person pluralἕξουσι (ν)

they will have

3rd person plural

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberσχήσω

I will have

1st person singularσχήσεις

you will have

2nd person singularσχήσει

he, she, it will have

3rd person singularσχήσομεν

we will have

1st person pluralσχήσετεyou will have

2nd person pluralσχήσουσι (ν)

they will have

3rd person plural

Future Infinitive Active of ἔχωTo the future active and middle tense stems ἕξ- or σχήσ-, add ειν.
ἕξειν or σχήσειν

to be about to haveunmarked

1. Only the tense stem distinguishes the future indicative active from thepresent indicative active. Contrast the present stem of ἔχω with the
future stem of ἕξω and σχήσω.

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Ancient Greek I

The Conjugation ἐλαύνω, ἐλάωἐλάω is referred to as a contract ω-verb because its stem ends in alpha in thefirst person singular, future indicative active of the second principal part. Whenthe stem of principal part I or II ends in alpha, the alpha may contract with theendings in accordance with the chart below. In the readings that follow, use
your knowledge of ἐλάω to recognize and translate the forms of other alphacontract ω-verbs.
α+ε

>

ᾱ

α+ο

>

ω

α + ει>ᾱͅ­α + οι

>

ῳ

α+η

>

ᾱ

α + ου

>

ω

α+ῃ

>

ᾳ
̄
­

α+ω

>

ω

Future Indicative Active of ἐλαύνω, ἐλάωTo the future active and middle tense stem ἐλα-, add the correct endings.
Verb Form

EnglishPerson and Number

Equivalentἐλῶ (ἐλάω)I will march

1st person singularἐλᾷς (ἐλάεις)

you will march

2nd person singularἐλᾷ (ἐλάει)he, she, it will

3rd person singularmarch

ἐλῶμεν (ἐλάομεν)

we will march

1st person pluralἐλᾶτε (ἐλάετε)

you will march

2nd person pluralἐλῶσι (ν) (ἐλάουσι (ν)

they will march

3rd person plural

Future Infinitive Active of ἐλαύνω, ἐλάωTo the future active and middle tense stem ἐλα-, add ειν.
ἐλᾶν (ἐλάειν < ἐλάεεν)

to be about tomarch

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The Conjugation of ἔρχομαι
Deponent ω-verbs are similar to ω-verbs except that they have middle andpassive forms but active meanings. All deponent ω-verbs form their present
and future indicative actives just as ἔρχομαι does. In the readings that follow,
use your knowledge of ἔρχομαι to recognize and translate the forms of otherdeponent ω-verbs.

Future Indicative of ἔρχομαι
To the future tense stem ἐλεύσ-, add the correct endings.
Verb Form

EnglishPerson and Number

EquivalentἐλεύσομαιI will go

1st person singularἐλεύσει, ἐλεύσῃ

you will go

2nd person singularἐλεύσεταιhe, she, it will go

3rd person singularἐλευσόμεθα

we will go

1st person pluralἐλεύσεσθε

you will go

2nd person pluralἐλεύσονται

they will go

3rd person plural

Future Infinitive of ἔρχομαι
To the future tense stem ἐλεύσ-, add -εσθαι.
ἐλεύσεσθαι

to be about to go

unmarked

The Infinitive
Remember that in English and in Greek the infinitive is unmarked for person
and for number. Ιt is classified as a verbal noun and is best understood bythinking of its function as completing or enhancing the meaning of adjectives,
clauses, nouns, and verbs. This is why the infinitive is referred to as complement.
Sometimes classified as a mood, the infinitive is potential in meaning, ἐνδυνάμει, because its action may or may not be realized. There are two typesof infinitives, the declarative and the dynamic. Both the declarative and the
dynamic infinitives refer to actions that exist potentially or ἐν δυνάμει.

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Ancient Greek I

The Dynamic Infinitive
The dynamic infinitive refers to actions that exist potentially, ἐν δυνάμει. It
is negated by the abverb μή not and not οὐ not. For more on the dynamic
infinitive, see CGCG 51. Consider its use as a complement in these examples.
1. As a complement to modal verbs:
δεῖ it is necessaryδεῖ ποιέειν

It is necessary to create.

δύναμαι be ableδύναμαι αἱρέεσθαιI am able to choose.

ἔξεστι it is possibleἔξεστι πειράειν

It is possible to try.

ἔχω be ableἔχω μιμνήσκεινI am able to remember.

κινδυνεύω riskκινδυεύω θανεῖνI run the risk of dying.

προσήκει it is fittingπροσήκει μανθάνειν

It is fitting to learn.

χρή it is necessaryχρὴ αἰσθάνεσθαι

It is necessary to perceive.

2. As a complement to verbs of wishing and desiring:αἱρέομαι chooseαἱρέομαι ὀρχέεσθαιI choose to dance.

βουλεύω resolveβουλεύω βαδίζεινI resolve to go.

βούλομαι want, preferβούλομαι ἐσθίειν

I want to eat.

διανοέομαι decide, intendδιανοέομαι διδόναιI intend to give.

δοκέει it seems bestδοκέει πλέεινIt seems best to sail.

ἐθέλω be willing, wishἐθέλω λείπειν

I wish to leave.

σπουδάζω strive, be eagerσπουδάζω φέρειν

I strive to endure.

3. As a complement to knowledge verbs:
διδάσκω teach, teach howδιδάσκω ἑλληνίζεινI teach how to speak Greek.

ἐπίσταμαι know, know howἐπίσταμαι ἀείδεινI know how to sing.

μανθάνω learn, learn howμανθάνω πείθειν

I learn how to persuade.

4. As a complement to verbs of command, compulsion, and persuasion:αἰτέω ask, requireαἰτέω σὲ νομίζεινI ask you to believe.

ἀναγκάζω force, compelἀναγκάζω σὲ λύειν

I compel you to free.

δέομαι ask, requireδέομαι σοῦ γράφειν

I ask you to write.

κελεύω command, bidκελεύω σὲ πέμπειν

I bid you to send.

πείθω persuadeπείθω σὲ διδόναιI persuade you to give.

ποιέω causeποιέω σὲ ἔρχεσθαι

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219

5. As a complement to verbs of starting and stopping:ἄρχομαι beginἄρχομαι εἰδέναι

I begin to know.

μέλλω be aboutμέλλω πείσεσθαιI am about to suffer.

παύω stopπαύω σὲ μάχεσθαιI stop you from fighting.

6. Epexegetically as a complement to adjectives and nouns:
ἀγαθόν goodἀγαθὸν οἴεσθαι

It is good to think.

ἄξιον worthyἄξιον λέγειν

It is worthy to say.

δεινόν fearsome, awesomeδεινόν ὁράειν

It is awesome to see.

καλόν goodκαλὸν πράττειν

It is good to act.

καιρός opportunityκαιρὸς συμβαίνειν

There is an opportunity tocome to terms.

νομός custom, lawνομὸς εὑρίσκειν

It is custom to discover.

σχολή leisureσχολὴ ἀκούειν

There is time to listen.

ὥρα timeὥρα ἄρχειν

It is time to begin.

7. As a complement of purpose often with verbs of giving, motion, receiving, andtaking:ἔρχομαι go, comeσῖτον ἐσθίειν ἐρχόμεθα

we go to eat food.

δίδωμι giveχώραν δίδωμι αὐτοῖςI give them the country toδιαρπάσαι

plunder.

Practice Translating the Infinitive. Translate each of the below, which havebeen adapted from folk songs and a variety of ancient Greek writers. Remember
the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative
case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings arehighlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Check your understanding
with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence
two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better yourunderstanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve
quickly.
Praxilla of Sikyon, Πράξιλλα Σικυών c. 451 BCE. Praxilla was a Greek lyric
poet of high renown. Only a few fragments of her work have survived. Antipaterof Thessalonike (c. 15 BCE) lists her as one of the nine immortal-tongued female
poets. Aristophanes parodies her in two of his comedies. The famous sculptor
Lysippos (c. 350 BCE) sculpted her in bronze.

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Ancient Greek I

Athenaios of Naukratis, Ἀθήναιος ὁ Nαυκρατίτης, c. 190 CE. Athenaios wasa Greek rhetorician and grammarian. His fifteen-volume Scholars at Dinner,Δειπνοσοφισταί, on the art of dining, mostly survives. Among other things,
the work provides information about Greek literature, quoting from the works
of about 700 Greek authors and 2,500 different works. Topics discussed in thevolumes include, art, food, music, philology, sex, and wine.
Julian, Flavius Claudius Julianus, c. 331 CE. Julian was Roman emperor from
361 to 363 CE. He was also a philosopher and author of many works written in
Greek. About fifteen have survived. Julian rejected Christianity and promoted
Neoplatonic Hellenism. For this the Christian Church named him Julian the
Apostate. His work, The Caesars, quoted below, was a satire that describes
Roman emperors vying for the title of best emperor.
Case

Ending

Function

Nominative-α, -ις, -ο, -ον, -ος, -ω, -ων

subject of the verb

Genitive-ου

dependence, possession; object of a
preposition

Dative-ᾳ, -ι, -ῳ

indirect object; object of a prefix,
preposition

Accusative-α, -αν, -ας, -ην, -ον, -ος,object of a verb-ους

1. ἀγαθὸν ὑπὸ παντὶ λίθῳ σκορπίον φυλάσσειν (Praxilla).
2. οὐ βούλομαι κάλλιστον μὲν ἐγὼ λείπειν φάος ἡλίου (Praxilla).
3. ὁ θάνατός μοι κελεύει ἄστρα φαεινὰ λείπειν (Praxilla).
4. ἄρχομαι καὶ ὡραίους σικύους καὶ μῆλα καὶ ὄγχνας λείπειν (Praxilla).
5. ἔρχεται χελιδὼν καλὰς ὥρας ἄγειν (Folk Song).
6. νόμος ἀνοιγνύναι τὴν θύραν χελιδόνι (Folk Song).
7. Ἠριφανὶς ἐπίσταται τοὺς ἀνημερωτάτους συνδακρῦσαι τῷ πάθει(Athenaios, Scholars at Dinner, quoting Klearkhos speaking about
Eriphanis).
8. θέλει γὰρ ὁ θεὸς ὀρθὸς διὰ μέσου βαδίζειν (Athenaios, Scholars at
Dinner, quoting Semos of Delos, speaking about the Ithyphalloi).
9. καιρὸς δὲ καλέει μηκέτι μέλλειν (Julian, The Caesars).
10. Ῥέα ἐν Φρυγίᾳ μὲν τοὺς Κορύβαντας ὀρχέεσθαι πείθει (Lucian, The
Dance).
Adverbs and Verbs*ἄγω, ἄξω do, drive, leadλείπω, λείψω leaveἀνοίγνυμι open*μέλλω, μελλήσω be about to, be goingto; be likely to + inf. (fut. inf. in Attic)

Module 17 | The Future Indicative and Infinitive Active of ἔχω, ἐλαύνω, ἔρχομαι

*ἄρχομαι, ἄρξομαι beginμηκέτι no longerβαδίζω, βαδιέω or βαδίσω goὀρχέομαι, ὀρχήσομαι dance*βούλομαι, βουλήσομαι want, prefer; *πείθω, πείσω persuadewish, be willing*ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι come, go

σπουδάζω, σπουδάσομαι strive, beeager*θέλω, θελήσω be willing, wishσυνδακρύω, -δακρύσω cry, cry with*καλέω, καλέω callφυλάττω, φυλάξω keep watch, keepguard

*κελεύω, κελεύσω bid, order,
command
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalent*ἀγαθόνἀγαθοῦ

ἀγαθῷ

ἀγαθόν

good, nobleἀνημερώτατοι-τάτων

-τάτοις

-τάτους

most savage

ἄστραἄστρων

ἄστροις

ἄστρα

stars

ἥλιος

ἡλίου

ἡλίῳ

ἥλιον

sun

ἨριφανίςἨριφανίδοςἨριφανίδιἨριφανίδαEriphanisθάνατος

θανάτουθανάτῳ

θάνατον

death

*θεός

θεοῦ

θεῷ

θεόν

god, goddess, deity

θύρα

θύρας

θύρᾳ

θύραν

door, gate*καιρόςκαιροῦκαιρῷκαιρόν

right moment, criticaltime, opportunityκάλλιστονκαλλίστουκαλλίστῳκάλλιστονmost beautiful*καλαί

καλῶν

καλαῖς

καλάςbeautiful, good*καλόν

καλοῦ

καλῷ

καλόν

beautiful, goodΚορύ-βαντες-βάντων-βάντοις

-βάντους

Korybants

λίθος

λίθου

λίθῳ

λίθον

stone

μέσου see τὸ μέσον the middle
μῆλα

μήλων

μήλοις

μῆλαapples*νόμος

νόμου

νόμῳ

νόμον

law, custom

ὄγχναι

ὄγχνῶν

ὄγχναις

ὄγχνας

pears

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Ancient Greek IΝοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalent*ὀρθός

ὀρθοῦ

ὀρθῷ

ὀρθόν

upright, correct; erect*πάθος

πάθεος (πάθους)

πάθει

πάθος

suffering; experience;passion; emotion*πᾶςπαντός

παντί

πάντα

all, each, every, whole

Ῥέα

Ῥέας

Ῥέᾳ

Ῥέαν

Rhea

σίκυοι

σικύων

σικύοις

σικύους

cucumbersσκορπίοςσκορπίουσκορπίῳσκορπίον

scorpionτὸ μέσοντοῦ μέσουτῷ μέσῳτὸ μέσον

middle, midst

φαεινά

φαεινῶνφαεινοῖς

φαεινά

shining, brilliantφάος (φῶς)φάεος (φωτός)φάει (φωτί)φάος (φῶς)

light, daylightΦρυγίαΦρυγίαςΦρυγίᾳ

ΦρυγίανPhrygiaχελιδώνχελιδόνοςχελιδόνιχελιδόναswallow

ὥρα

ὥρας

ὥρᾳ

ὥραν

season, period, timeὡραῖοι

ὡραίων

ὡραίοις

ὡραίους

seasonable; proper,
appropriate; ripe, ready1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below adapted from Euripides’
Bakkhai (Βάκχαι). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented
in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized;
dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Notethat the third declension increases the number of possible endings for thenominative singular. Check your understanding with the translations in theAnswer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing
with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence
becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Case

Ending

Function

Nominative-αι, -ες, -η, -οι, -οςsubject of the verb

Genitive-ος, -ου, -ους, -ων

dependence, possession; object of a
preposition, adjective

Dative-αις, -ι, -οις, -σιν, -ῳ

means or instrument; object of an
adverb or adjective; place where

Accusative-α, -αν, -ας, -ε, -η, -ην, -ν,

object of a verb, preposition, prefix,-ο, -ον, -ος, -υ

adjectiveModule 17 | The Future Indicative and Infinitive Active of ἔχω, ἐλαύνω, ἔρχομαι

Διόνυσος: ἀδελφαὶ μητρὸς φάσκουσιν ὅτι Διόνυσος οὐκ ἐκφύειΔιός ἀλλὰ ἐκ θνητοῦ καὶ ὅτι ἡ Σεμέλη ἐς Ζῆν’ ἀναφέρει τὴνἁμαρτίαν λέχους. αὐτὴν αἱ ἀδελφαὶ ἐκκαυχάονται ὅτι κτείνει Ζεὺςἀστραπηφόρῳ πυρὶ ὅτι γάμους ψεύδει. τοιγὰρ αὐτὰς ἐκ δόμωνοἰστράω ἐγὼ μανίαις. ὄρος δ’ οἰκέουσι παράκοποι φρενῶν. σκευήντ’ ἔχειν αὐτὰς ἀναγκάζω ὀργίων ἐμῶν. τὸ θῆλυ σπέρμα Καδμείων,ὅσαι γυναῖκές εἰσι, ἐκμαίνω δωμάτων. ὁμοῦ δὲ Κάδμου παισὶνἀναμείγνυνται καὶ χλωραῖς ὑπ’ ἐλάταις ἀνορόφοις ἧνται πέτραις.
δεῖ γὰρ τὴν ἀτέλεστον τῶν πόλιν βακχευμάτων ἐκμανθάνειν, καὶ εἰμὴ θέλει, ὅτι ἡ Σεμέλη ἐμὲ τίκτει Διί, ἐμφανῆ θνητοῖς δαίμονα.
Adverbs and Verbs
ἀναγκάζω, ἀναγκάσω compel, force ἧμαι sit‘x’ in acc. + inf.
ἀναμείγνυμι, -μείξω mix up, mix *θέλω, θελήσω wish, be willing
togetherἀναφέρω, -οίσω bring up or back; κτείνω, κτενέω killplace upon; refer*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or dat. οἰκέω, οἰκήσω inhabit, settle; manage,or acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary dwell, live
to come*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possibleοἰστράω, οἰστρήσω sting, goad; gomad, rageἐκκαυχάομαι, -καυχήσομαι boastὁμοῦ at the same place, together + dat.

ἐκμαίνω drive madτίκτω, τέξω bear, give birthἐκμανθάνω, -μαθήσομαι learn, know, τοιγάρ therefore, accordingly
examineἐκφύω, -φύσω be born from; beget, φάσκω claim, allege, assert
produce; grow*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω have, hold; be ψεύδω, ψεύσω cheat, beguile; falsify,
able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be welllie about
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalentἀδελφαίἀδελφῶνἀδελφαῖςἀδελφάς

sistersἁμαρτίαἁμαρτίαςἁμαρτίᾳ

ἁμαρτίαν

mistake, sin

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Ancient Greek IΝοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalentἀνόροφοιἀνορόφωνἀνορόφοιςἀνορόφους

rooflessἀστραπηφόρον-φόρου-φόρῳ-φόρον

lightning-bearingἀτέλεστοςἀτελέστουἀτελέστῳἀτέλεστον

without end;
uninitiated*αὐταίαὐτῶναὐταῖς

αὐτάςthey, them, theirs

*αὐτή

αὐτῆς

αὐτῇ

αὐτήν

she, her, hersβακχεύματαβακχευμάτων

βακχεύμασι

βακχεύματα

rites, mysteries

γάμοι

γάμων

γάμοις

γάμους

wedding, marriageγυναῖκες

γυναικῶνγυναιξί (ν)γυναῖκας

womenδαίμων

δαίμονος

δαίμονιδαίμοναgod, deityΔιόνυσοςΔιονύσουΔιονύσῳΔιόνυσον

Dionysos

δόμοι

δόμων

δόμοις

δόμους

house, housesδώματαδωμάτωνδώμασι (ν)δώματαhouses

*ἐγώ

ἐμοῦ

ἐμοί

ἐμέ

I, me, mineἐλάτηἐλάτηςἐλάτῃἐλάτην

pine-tree

ἐμοί

ἐμῶν

ἐμοῖς

ἐμούς

my

ἐμφανήςἐμφανέοςἐμφανεῖἐμφανέα (-ῆ)

clear, manifest(-οῦς)*ΖεύςΔιός (Ζηνός)Διί (Ζηνί)Δία (Ζῆνα)

Zeus

θῆλυ

θήλεος

θήλει

θῆλυ

femaleθνητός

θνητοῦθνητῷθνητόν

mortalΚαδμεῖοιΚαδμείωνΚαδμείοιςΚαδμείους

KadmeianΚάδμος

Κάδμου

ΚάδμῳΚάδμον

Kadmosλέχοςλέχεος (-ους)

λέχει

λέχος

bed, marriage-bed

μανίαι

μανιῶν

μανίαις

μανίᾱς

madness, frenzy*μήτηρ

μητρόςμητρίμητέραmotherὄργιαὀργίων

ὀργίοις

ὄργια

rites, mysteriesὄροςὄρεος (-ους)

ὄρει

ὄρος

mountain

*ὅσαι

ὅσων

ὅσαις

ὅσᾱς

so many, as many*παῖςπαιδός

παιδί

παῖδα

child

παράκοποι

παρακόπων

παρακόποις

παρακόπους

frenzied + gen.

πέτραι

πετρῶν

πέτραις

πέτρᾱς

rocks*πόλις

πόλεως

πόλει

πόλιν

city

Module 17 | The Future Indicative and Infinitive Active of ἔχω, ἐλαύνω, ἔρχομαι

Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalent

πῦρ

πυρός

πυρί

πῦρ

fire

Σεμέλη

Σεμέλης

Σεμέλῃ

ΣεμέληνSemeleσκευήσκευῆςσκευῇσκευήν

garb, dressσπέρμασπέρματος

σπέρματισπέρμαseedφρένες

φρενῶν

φρεσί (ν)φρένας

mind

χλωραί

χλωρῶν

χλωραῖςχλωράς

greenish-yellow

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1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentences foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give the case and function. For verbs, give theperson, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify
them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s
object. For adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, andcase.
Ῥέα ἐν Φρυγίᾳ μὲν τοὺς Κορύβαντας ὀρχέεσθαι πείθει.
αὐτὴν αἱ ἀδελφαὶ ἐκκαυχάονται ὅτι κτείνει Ζεὺς ἀστραπηφόρῳ πυρὶ ὅτιγάμους ψεύδει.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Papyrology
Papyrus, πάπυρος, is paper made from the papyrus plant. Ancient Egyptians
used this plant to make reed boats, mats, rope, sandals, and baskets. They usedpapyrus paper to write down many things, including lists, records, and literaryworks. They also used it to wrap mummies. In hot and dry climates, papyrus
survives, offering us a window into the past. Papyrologists study the writingsthese papyri record. Module 30 offers a recently discovered poem by Sappho,
preserved on papyrus.
Module 17 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words,
the greater mastery of the language you will have.
Nounsἀριθμός, ἀριθμοῦ ὁ numberβίος, βίου ὁ life

226

Ancient Greek Iδίκη, δίκης ἡ custom, usage; judgment; order, right; penalty, sentence; lawsuit
Verbsἀδικέω, ἀδικήσω be unjust, do wrongαἱρέω, αἱρήσω take, seize, grab, capture; (mid.) chooseγιγνώσκω, γνώσομαι know, recognize; decide + inf.
ἐλαύνω, ἐλάω drive, marchκελεύω, κελεύσω bid, order, command

Etymology Corner XVII by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 13, Parts of Speech
Nouns, Pronouns, and Cases, cont. In Greek the genitive is called γενική πτῶσις acase that indicates a belonging to the γένος kind, type, origin, source. The etymologyof the genitive is a bit screwed up because the Latin grammarians didn’t fully
understand Greek grammar. Nonetheless, if we think of genus in genus and species,
meaning a kind or class or clan, it will get us most of the way there. Genitives tell us
about possession or source or type, so, Jayden’s gloves, or a piece of pie, or a loaf ofbread specify whose glove or what kind of piece or loaf it is.
What to Study and Do 17. Before moving on to the next module, make sure thatyou have learned the endings for the future indicative and infinitive active of ἔχωand ἔρχομαι and that you can conjugate these verb forms. Make sure that you canidentify a verb by person, number, tense, mood, and voice. Finally, make sure that you
understand the function of the dynamic infinitive.
Learning Tip 17: Memorize Word for Word. You can use the memory palacetechnique to memorize poems, short stories, novels, and even complete dictionaries.
Want to memorize the Oxford English Dictionary or Liddell and Scott’s Greek Lexicon?
Try using this learning tip for memorizing a poem by Robert Frost. You can use thissame technique for memorizing works of any length. Conversely you can use repetition
to fix this poem in your memory. Repetition is time-consuming and its results do notnecessarily last long, unless you continue to repeat the poem for an extended period.
As an alternative to repetition, try using the memory palace and SEE strategies. Bothmethods require repetition and review. The memory place and SEE strategies are
longer-lasting and easier to recall. Note the highlighted words:
Whose woods these are I think I know.
His house is in the village though;He will not see me stopping hereModule 17 | The Future Indicative and Infinitive Active of ἔχω, ἐλαύνω, ἔρχομαι

227

To watch his woods fill up with snow.
My little horse must think it queer
To stop without a farmhouse near
Between the woods and frozen lake
The darkest evening of the year.
He gives his harness bells a shake
To ask if there is some mistake.
The only other sound’s the sweep
Of easy wind and downy flake.
The woods are lovely, dark and deep,
But I have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.
On the grille of our car, we place woods with an owl perched on a tree, crying who,
who. On the hood we place a house located in a small village. At the electric car
charging port we place a big round eye which sees me and has red knotted veins
popping out. In the driver’s seat is a big paper trashbag with woods drawn on it andfilling up with snow. The trash bag is wearing a giant watch around its waist. On thedash is a little horse, prancing about and wearing a lightbulb for a hat. The horsecalls out in a hoarse voice, queer, queer, queer. In the passenger’s seat is an empty
field of snow with a big red zero melting into the snow. In the middle of the zero is
the roof of a collapsed farmhouse. Attached to the rooftop is a stop sign. Between theseats is a console, made out of sweet-smelling cherry wood and filled with frozen ice.
On the floor of the backseat is a flashlight peering up at the dark roof from which an
evenly balanced scale hangs. The trunk is filled with liberty bells, held together withharnesses, and shaking so much that their cracks are widening. At the back bumper
is a car jack with a stake for a lever. The jack is misplaced and unable to lift the car.
Up the tailpipe climbs a chimney sweep making a sweeping sound as he cleans theoutside of the pipe. Out of the tailpipe are blowing an easy wind and downy feathers
and flakes of cereal. On one bumper sticker are the words love trumps hate and on
another dark lives matter and on a third Deep Purple. The license plate has the word
promises with a picture of two entwined rings. On the rubber of one of the wheels
is written in red the words lifetime warranty and unlimited miles. Pay attention to
how long it takes you to commit the poem to memory. Also note how easy it is to recall
the poem verbatim. Try recalling the poem the next day to see how much you haveremembered. Try again in a week and then again in a month. Enjoy knowing that you
can memorize anything and carry it with you for as long as you wish.

Module 18

The Personal Pronouns; εἷς,οὐδείς, and μηδείς; the Dativeand Accusative of Respect; Time
Expressions

Pronouns
In both languages, pronouns have the same definition: they take the place ofnouns. The function of the Greek pronoun (ἀντωνυμία) differs from the English
because it creates meaning through case endings much more extensively thanthe English pronoun does. In both languages the personal pronouns refer to thefirst person I and we, the second person you, and the third person he, she, it,and they.

The English Personal Pronoun
In English the forms of the first person personal pronoun are the following:Singular

PluralSubjectiveI

we

Objectivemeus

Possessive

mine

ours

Possessive Adj.

my

our

© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.21

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Ancient Greek I

I and we are the subjective forms. Me and us are the objective forms. Mine andours are the possessive forms. Note that they are different from the possessive
adjectives my and our. Contrast the possessive pronoun mine in the sentence‘the book is mine’ with the possessive adjectve my in the phrase ‘my book’.
The forms of the second person are the following:Singular

PluralSubjective

you

you

Objective

you

you

Possessive

yours

yours

Possessive Adj.

your

your

Note that the subjective and objective forms are identical in the singular andplural forms. Note also that the possessive pronoun yours is different fromthe possessive adjective your. Contrast the possessive pronoun yours in thesentence ‘the dog is yours’ with the possessive adjective your in the phrase‘your dog’.
The forms for the third person plural are the following:Singular

PluralSubjective

he, she, it

they

Objective

him, her, it

them

Possessive

his, hers, its

theirs

Possessive Adj.

his, her, its

theirHe, she, it and they are subjective; him, her, it and them are objective; and his,hers, its and theirs are possessive. Note that the possessive pronoun hers andtheirs differ from the possessive adjectives her and their. Contrast the possessive
pronoun theirs in the sentence ‘the choice is theirs’ with the possessive
adjective their in the phrase ‘their choice’. The possessive pronouns his and its
are look-a-like forms and identical to their adjectival forms his and its. Contrast
the use of the possessive pronoun his in the sentence ‘the opportunity is his’with the possessive adjective his in the phrase ‘his opportunity’. In the case of
his and its, function allows you to determine which part of speech occurs.

Module 18 | The Personal Pronouns; εἷς, οὐδείς, and μηδείς;

Practice Identifying the Personal Pronoun and Adjectives in English. Pickout the personal pronouns and the personal possesssive adjectives. The excerpts
are from Billie Holiday’s autobiography, Lady Sings the Blues (1956). Check youranswers with those in the Answer Key.
1. You can be up to your boobies in white satin, with gardenias in yourhair and no sugar cane for miles, but you can still be working on aplantation.
2. Imagine if the government chased sick people with diabetes, put a tax
on insulin and drove it into the black market, told doctors they couldn’t
treat them, and then caught them, prosecuted them for not paying theirtaxes, and then sent them to jail. If we did that, everyone would know
we were crazy. Yet we do practically the same thing every day in theweek to sick people hooked on drugs. The jails are full and the problem
is getting worse every day.
3. You’ve got to have something to eat and a little love in your life before
you can hold still for any damn body’s sermon on how to behave.
Everything I am and everything I want out of life goes smack back tothat.
4. If you think you need stuff to play your music or sing, you’re crazy. It
can fix you so you can’t play nothing or sing nothing.
5. I hate straight singing. I have to change a tune to my own way of doing
it. That’s all I know. I don’t think I ever sing the same way twice. The
blues is sort of a mixed-up thing. You just have to feel it. Anything I dosing is part of my life.

The Greek Personal Pronoun
Memorize these forms of the personal pronoun.
ἐγώ I, ἡμεῖς we

σύ you, ὑμεῖς you

1 Person (I, me, mine; we, us, ours)

2nd Person (you, you, yours)

st

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

ἐγώ

ἡμεῖς

N

σύ

ὑμεῖς

A

ἐμέ, μεἡμᾶςAσέ, σεὑμᾶςGἐμοῦ, μουἡμῶνGσοῦ, σουὑμῶνDἐμοί, μοιἡμῖνDσοί, σοι

ὑμῖν

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1st Person (I, me, mine; we, us, ours)
S

Pl

N

ἐγώ

ἡμεῖς

G

ἐμοῦ, μου

DA

2nd Person (you, you, yours)
S

Pl

N

σύ

ὑμεῖς

ἡμῶν

G

σοῦ, σουὑμῶνἐμοί, μοιἡμῖνDσοί, σοιὑμῖνἐμέ, μεἡμᾶςAσέ, σεὑμᾶςPossessive Adjectives:
ἐμός, ἐμή, ἐμόν: myσός, σή, σόν: your (singular)ἡμέτερος, ἡμετέρᾱ, ἡμέτερον: ourὑμέτερος, ὑμετέρᾱ, ὑμέτερον: your (plural)αὐτός he, αὐτή she, αὐτό it
3rd Person (he, him, his; she, her, hers; it, it, its; they, them, theirs)
Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

αὐτός

αὐτή

αὐτό

N

αὐτοί

αὐταί

αὐτά

A

αὐτόν

αὐτήν

αὐτό

A

αὐτούς

αὐτάς

αὐτά

G

αὐτοῦ

αὐτῆς

αὐτοῦ

G

αὐτῶν

αὐτῶν

αὐτῶν

D

αὐτῷ

αὐτῇ

αὐτῷ

D

αὐτοῖς

αὐταῖς

αὐτοῖςSingular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

αὐτός

αὐτή

αὐτό

N

αὐτοί

αὐταί

αὐτά

G

αὐτοῦ

αὐτῆς

αὐτοῦ

G

αὐτῶν

αὐτῶν

αὐτῶν

D

αὐτῷ

αὐτῇ

αὐτῷ

D

αὐτοῖς

αὐταῖς

αὐτοῖς

A

αὐτόν

αὐτήν

αὐτό

A

αὐτούς

αὐτάς

αὐτά

1. For more meanings of αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό, see Module 20.
2. In the predicate position or when standing alone in the nominative, itmeans –self: ὁ ἄνθρωπος αὐτός ὁράει, the man himself sees and αὐτὴὁράει, she herself sees.
3. In all cases except for the nominative and vocative, it functions as thethird person pronoun, just as the pronouns he, she, it, they, do in
English: αὐτοὺς εἶδον, I saw them.

Module 18 | The Personal Pronouns; εἷς, οὐδείς, and μηδείς;

σφεῖς they, σφέα they
3rd Person Plural (they, them, theirs)
M/F

N

N

σφεῖς

σφέα, σφεαA

σφέας, σφεας

σφέα, σφεαG

σφέων, σφεων

σφέων, σφεωνD

σφίσι (ν), σφισι (ν)σφίσι (ν), σφισι (ν)

3rd Person Plural Contracted Forms (they, them, theirs)
M/F

N

N

σφεῖς

σφέα, σφεαA

σφᾶς, σφας

σφέα, σφεαG

σφῶν, σφων

σφῶν, σφωνD

σφίσι (ν), σφισι (ν)σφίσι (ν), σφισι (ν)

3rd Person Plural (they, them, theirs)
M/F

N

N

σφεῖς

σφέα, σφεαG

σφέων, σφεων

σφέων, σφεωνD

σφίσι (ν), σφισι (ν)σφίσι (ν), σφισι (ν)

A

σφέας, σφεας

σφέα, σφεα

3rd Person Plural Contracted Forms (they, them, theirs)
M/F

N

N

σφεῖς

σφέα, σφεαG

σφῶν, σφων

σφῶν, σφωνD

σφίσι (ν), σφισι (ν)σφίσι (ν), σφισι (ν)

A

σφᾶς, σφας

σφέα, σφεα

1. The unaccented forms are enclitic. Enclitics are pronounced closelywith the word that precedes them. Some common ones are the adverbs
γε, ποθέν, ποι, ποτέ, που, πως, and τοι; the conjunction τε; thepronouns με, μοι, μου, σε, σοι σου, τι, and τις; and the verbs εἰμί,

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φημί. Enclitics sometimes have an accent and sometimes do not. They
can also affect the accent of the word that precedes them. How they dois covered in Part II of the 21st-Century series.
2. For the third person plural pronoun Herodotos and writers of the Ionic
dialect regularly use σφεῖς. In the Attic dialect, for the third person
writers use the pronouns αὐτός, ὅδε, and οὗτος, presented in Module
20.
Possessive Adjectives:
σφέτερος, σφετέρᾱ, σφέτερον: their

Adjectives and Pronouns
Remember that adjectives agree in gender, case, and number with the nouns
they modify. If no noun is present, supply the appropriate noun based upon
the adjective’s gender and number or upon context. Adjectives that function
as nouns are referred to as substantive adjectives. Pronouns take the place ofnouns. Otherwise they function just as other Greek nouns do.

εἷς; οὐδείς; and μηδείςThese forms can be adjectives, modifying nouns, or they can be pronouns taking
the place of nouns. Their function in a sentence determines their identity.
εἷς, μία, ἕν one
Singular
M

F

N

N

εἷς

μία

ἕν

A

ἕνα

μίαν

ἕνα

G

ἑνός

μιᾶς

ἑνός

D

ἑνί

μιᾷ

ἑνί

οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν no one, nothingμηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν no one, nothing

SingularSingular

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

οὐδείς

οὐδεμίαοὐδένNμηδείς

μηδεμίαμηδένAοὐδέναοὐδεμίανοὐδένAμηδέναμηδεμίανμηδένGοὐδενόςοὐδεμιᾶςοὐδενόςGμηδενόςμηδεμιᾶςμηδενόςDοὐδενί

οὐδεμιᾷοὐδενί

Dμηδενί

μηδεμιᾷμηδενί

Module 18 | The Personal Pronouns; εἷς, οὐδείς, and μηδείς;235

εἷς, μία, ἕν one
Singular
M

F

N

N

εἷς

μία

ἕν

G

ἑνός

μιᾶς

ἑνός

D

ἑνί

μιᾷ

ἑνί

A

ἕνα

μίαν

ἕνα

οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν no one, nothingμηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν no one, nothing

SingularSingular

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

οὐδείς

οὐδεμίαοὐδένNμηδείς

μηδεμίαμηδένGοὐδενόςοὐδεμιᾶςοὐδενόςGμηδενόςμηδεμιᾶςμηδενόςDοὐδενί

οὐδεμιᾷοὐδενί

Dμηδενί

μηδεμιᾷμηδενί

A

οὐδέναοὐδεμίανοὐδένAμηδέναμηδεμίανμηδέν1. Like μή and οὐ, οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν and μηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδένmean the same thing: no one, nothing. It is generally the case thatοὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν is found in factual situations and μηδείς,μηδεμία, μηδέν in hypothetical ones.
Practice Translating Personal Pronouns and Adjectives. Practice translating
this slightly adapted poem of Sappho. Note that in the below the noun, pronoun,
and adjective endings are not marked and will not be in subsequent modules.
Use your memory to identify endings and their meanings. If you forget, consult
the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and theCase and Function Chart in Appendix I. Check your understanding with thetranslations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why eachword translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or threetimes, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of thesentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.
1. ἐγὼ λέγω πρὸς σέ. (ἐγὼ λέγω σοί.)
2. ὦ Αφροδίτη, παῖ Δίος, λίσσομαί σε.
3. οὐ σὲ δεῖ ἄσαις μοὶ δαμνάειν θυμόν.
4. σὺ τὰς ἔμας αὔδας κλύεις;
5. πάτρος δὲ δόμον λείπεις καὶ εἰς μὲ ἔρχῃ;

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6. σὲ κάλοι δέ ἄγουσιν στροῦθοι.
7. σὺ δ᾿, ὦ Αφροδίτη, μειδιάεις ἀθανάτῳ προσώπῳ;
8. ἔρῃ τί δηὖτε κάλημμί σε;
9. ἔρῃ ὅτι μοι μάλιστα θέλω γένεσθαι θυμῷ;
10. ἔρῃ τίνα δηὖτε πείθω ἄψ σε ἄγειν ἐς φιλότητα;11. τίς σε, ὦ Ψάπφ᾿, ἀδικέει;
12. καὶ γὰρ εἰ φεύγει, κελεύω αὐτὴν ταχέως διώκειν.
13. εἰ δὲ δῶρα μὴ δέχεται ἐκ σοῦ, ἀλλὰ ἐγὼ κελεύω αὐτῇ διδόναι σοί.
14. εἰ δὲ μὴ φιλέει, ἐγὼ κελεύω αὐτὴν ταχέως φιλέειν καὶ εἰ μὴ ἐθέλει.
15. ἐμὲ δεῖ χαλεπῶν λύειν ἐκ μερίμνων.
16. ὅτι δέ μοι τελέειν θυμὸς ἱμείρει, βούλομαί σε τελέειν.
17. σὺ δὲ σύμμαχος ἐμὸς εἶ.
Vocabulary*ἄγω, ἄξω do, drive, leadἱμείρω long for, yearn for, desire*ἀδικέω, ἀδικήσω be unjust, dowrong

κάλημμι callἀθάνατος, ἀθάνατον immortal,
undying*καλός, καλή, καλόν beautiful, good,noble

ἄση, ἄσης ἡ distress, nausea; longing, *κελεύω, κελεύσω bid, order,
desirecommandαὐδή, αὐδῆς ἡ voice, speech; songκλύω hear, give ear to, attend toαὐτή, αὐτῆς ἡ she, her, hers

*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω say, tell, speakἈφροδίτη, Ἀφροδίτης ἡ Aphrodite,goddess of loveλείπω, λείψω leaveἄψ backλίσσομαι beg*βούλομαι, βουλήσομαι want,prefer; wish, be willingλύω, λύσω loose, free, destroy*γίγνομαι, γενήσομαι be, be bornμειδιάω smileδαμνάω tame, conquer, subdue

μέριμνα, μερίμνης ἡ care, thought*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or
dat. or acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it isnecessary to comeὅτι, ὅτινος τό what, whateverModule 18 | The Personal Pronouns; εἷς, οὐδείς, and μηδείς;δέχομαι, δέξομαι receive; meet;
accept*παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ childδηὖτε = δὴ αὖτε again*πατήρ, πατρός ὁ father*δίδωμι, δώσω give*πείθω, πείσω persuade + inf.; (mid.
or pass.) listen to, obey + dat. or gen.

διώκω, διώξω chaseπρόσωπον, προσώπου τό face, mask,
personδόμος, δόμου ὁ houseστρουθός, στρουθοῦ ὁ ἡ sparrowδῶρον, δώρου τό giftσύμμαχος, συμμάχου ὁ ally*ἐθέλω (θέλω), ἐθελήσω (θελήσω)wish, be willingταχέως quickly, soon*ἔμαι, ἔμων my

τελέω, τελέσω fulfill, accomplish*ἐμός, ἐμοῦ my*φεύγω, φεύξομαι flee*ἔρομαι, ἐρήσομαι ask

φιλέω, φιλήσω love*ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι come, goφιλότης, φιλότητος ἡ friendship,
love, affection*Ζεύς, Διός ὁ Zeusχαλεπός, χαλεπή, χαλεπόν difficult,harsh*θέλω, θελήσω wish, be willingΨάπφω, Ψάπφους ἡ Sappho, afamous poet from Lesbos c. 630 B.C.E.

θυμός, θυμοῦ ὁ soul, spirit; passion,
heart, will, desire
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.

The Dative and Accusative of Respect
To state the respect in which a statement is true, you use the dative or accusative
case without a preposition. Consider these two examples:
1. πόδας ὠκὺς Ἀχιλλεύς,
Achilleus, swift in respect to his feet;orswift-footed Achilleus;
2. νοῦν ὠκὺς Ὅμηρος,Homer, swift in respect to his mind;

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orHomer of the swift mind.
Note that both πόδας foot and νοῦν mind are in the accusative case. This functionof the accusative we call an accusative of respect. These nouns can also be in thedative case:
1. πόσιν ὠκὺς Ἀχιλλεύς,
Achilleus, swift in respect to his feet;orswift-footed Achilleus;
2. νόῳ ὠκὺς Ὅμηρος,Homer, swift in respect to his mind;orHomer of the swift mind.
Note that there is no difference in meaning.
Practice Translating the Dative and Accusative of Respect. Translate andcheck your understanding with the answers below.
1. ὁ βασιλεὺς ἀρετῇ καλός.
2. ἡ γραῦς ψυχὴν νέα.
3. ἡ γυνὴ νοῦν καὶ σῶμα ἰσχυρά.
4. τίς νῷ καὶ σώματι ἰσχυρός;
5. νοῦν καὶ σῶμά τις ἰσχυρός;Translations.
1. The king is good in virtue.
2. The old lady is young in spirit.
3. The woman is strong in mind and body.
4. Who is strong in mind and body?
5. Is anyone strong in mind and body?

Time Expressions
Duration of Time. We already have seen that duration of time and extent
of space in Greek are expressed by the accusative case typically without apreposition: for five days = πέντε ἡμέρας; for five stades = πέντε στάδια.
Time When. To express time when, use the dative case typically without apreposition: on the next day = τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ ἡμέρᾳ. Often the noun ἡμέρᾳ is

Module 18 | The Personal Pronouns; εἷς, οὐδείς, and μηδείς;239

omitted because it is implied. And so τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ by itself can mean on the nextday.
Time Within Which. To express time within which, use the genitive casetypically without a preposition: within five days = πέντε ἡμερῶν.
Practice Translating Time Phrases. Translate the below into ancient Greek
and check your understanding with the answers below.
1. for five days

2. within one day

3. on the fifth day

2. μιᾶς ἡμέρας

3. τῇ πέμπτῃ ἡμέρᾳ

Answers:
1. πέντε ἡμέραςBlack Humor and Euripides’ AlkestisBlack humor is the comic treatment of material that is serious—cruelty, death,genocide, murder, rape, torture—to create meaning. Like the Blues and life,
black humor is a mixed-up thing. In his modest proposal Jonathan Swift uses
black humor to fight against inequity, injustice, and prejudice. In The Things
They Carried, Tim O’Brien argues that the brutality of war necessitates a blackcomic response. Barack Obama argues that calamities require us to respondwith calm and optimism, a sense of humor, and sometimes gallows humor.
Flannery O’Connor writes that everything funny she has written is moreterrible than it is funny, or only funny because it is terrible, or only terrible
because it is funny. In doing so she is inextricably linking horror with humor,
just as pain and pleasure are linked. Euripides also links the two in his comic
tragedies and does so to a great extent in his play the Alkestis, Ἄλκηστις, which
was performed in the position of the satyr play, typically defined by its bawdy,
comic, and ribald features. Though Euripides’ Alkestis lacks the sexual humorof the satyr play, it maintains a steady black comic gaze on the tragedy of death,greed, and selfishness.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below adapted from Euripides’
Alkestis (Ἄλκηστις). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases
presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions.
Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making
sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back andread each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how muchbetter your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you
will improve quickly.

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Ancient Greek I

Note that in the below the noun, pronoun, and adjective endings are not marked
and will not be in subsequent modules. Use your memory to identify endings
and their meanings. If you forget, consult the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, andPronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and the Case and Function Chart in Appendix
I.
Θάνατος: ἡ δὲ ὑφίσταται πόσιν ἐκλύειν καὶ προθανεῖν, Πελίου παῖς.
καίτοι νῦν δὲ σὺ φρουρεῖς;Ἀπόλλων: δεῖ σοὶ θαρσεῖν· δίκην σοι καὶ λόγους κεδνοὺς ἔχω.
Θάνατος: τί δῆτα τόξων ἔργον, εἰ δίκην ἔχεις;Ἀπόλλων: σύνηθες αἰεὶ ταῦτα βαστάζειν ἐμοί.
5Θάνατος: καὶ σύνηθες αἰεὶ τοῖσδέ γ’ οἴκοις ἐκδίκως προσωφελεῖν σοί.
Ἀπόλλων: ἐμὲ φίλου γὰρ ἀνδρὸς συμφοραὶ βαρύνουσιν.
Θάνατος: καὶ νοσφιεῖς με δευτέρου νεκροῦ;Ἀπόλλων: ἀλλὰ τότε οὐδ’ ἐκεῖνον πρὸς βίαν ἀφαιρῶ σέ.
Θάνατος: πῶς οὖν ὑπὲρ γῆς ἐστι κοὐ* κάτω χθονός; (*καὶ οὐ)10Ἀπόλλων: ὁ δὲ δάμαρτ’ ἀμείβει· αὐτὴν σὺ νῦν ἥκεις μέτα.
Θάνατος: αὐτὴν ἀπάξομαί γε νερτέραν ὑπὸ χθόνα.
Ἀπόλλων: αὐτὴν δεῖ σοὶ λαβεῖν καὶ ἰέναι· οὐ γὰρ ἔχω πείθειν σέ.
Θάνατος: βούλῃ ἐμὲ μὴ κτείνειν αὐτοὺς δεῖ; καίτοι τοῦτο ἐμοὶ ἔργον.
Ἀπόλλων: οὔκ, ἀλλὰ πείθειν σὲ τοῖς μέλλουσι θάνατον ἀμβαλέειν.

15Θάνατος: ἔχω λόγον δὴ καὶ προθυμίαν σοῦ.

Adverbs, Conjunctions, and Verbs
ἀμβάλλω, ἀμβαλέω throw up, strike *ἥκω, ἥξω have come, be present
up, delayἀμείβω, ἀμείψω answer; change, θαρσέω (θαρρέω), θαρσήσω be bold,exchangetake courage; have courage against
ἀπάγω, ἀπάξω lead away; carry off*ἰέναι to go

ἀφαιρέω, ἀφαιρήσω take from; take καίτοι and indeed, and further, and yet‘x’ in acc. away from ‘y’ in acc.
βαρύνω, βαρυνέω weighoppress; depress; weary

down; κάτω below + gen.

βαστάζω, βαστάσω lift, raise; carryκτείνω, κτενέω killModule 18 | The Personal Pronouns; εἷς, οὐδείς, and μηδείς;*βούλομαι, βουλήσομαι want, prefer; *λαβεῖν to takewish, be willing*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or dat. νοσφίζω, νοσφιέω turn away, shrinkor acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary from; deprive ‘x’ in acc. of ‘y’ in gen.
to comeδῆτα certainly, of course*πείθω, πείσω persuade + inf.; (mid.
or pass.) listen to, obey + dat. or gen.

*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possibleπροθανεῖν to die, to die instead ofἐκδίκως unjustlyπροσωφελέω, -ωφελήσω help, assist+ dat. or acc.

ἐκλύω, ἐκλύσω loose, release, set free *τί why*ἔστι (ν) it is possible

ὑφίστημι, ὑποστήσω place under;(mid.) submit, promise*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω have, hold; be φρουρέω, φρουρήσω keep watch,able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be well
guard
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English EquivalentἌλκηστις

Ἀλκήστιδος

ἈλκήστιδιἌλκηστιν

Alkestis*ἀνήρἀνδρός

ἀνδρί

ἄνδρα

man, husband

*αὐτή

αὐτῆς

αὐτῇ

αὐτήν

she, her, hers*αὐτοίαὐτῶναὐτοῖς

αὐτούς

they, them, theirs

βία

βίας

βίᾳ

βίαν

strength, force, power,
might

*γῆ

γῆς

γῇ

γῆν

land, earthδάμαρδάμαρτος

δάμαρτιδάμαρταwife, spouse

δεύτερος

δευτέρουδευτέρῳδεύτερον

second, next, later

*δίκη

δίκης

δίκῃ

δίκην

justice, penalty*ἐκεῖνος

ἐκείνουἐκείνῳ

ἐκεῖνονhe, him, his*ἔργον

ἔργου

ἔργῳ

ἔργον

deed, taskθάνατος

θανάτουθανάτῳ

θάνατονdeathκεδνοί

κεδνῶν

κεδνοῖςκεδνούςcareful, diligent, sage,
trusty*λόγος

λόγου

λόγῳ

λόγον

word, story

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Ancient Greek Iνεκρός

νεκροῦνεκρῷνεκρόν

corpseνερτέρανερτέρας

νερτέρᾳνερτέρανlower, nether

οἴκοι

οἴκων

οἴκοις

οἴκους

housesοἱ μέλλοντες

τῶν -όντωντοῖς -ουσι (ν)τοὺς -οντας

those likely*παῖς

παιδός

παιδί

παῖδα

child

Πελίος

ΠελίουΠελίῳ

Πελίον

Peliosπόσιςπόσιος

πόσει

πόσιν

husband, spouseπροθυμία

προθυμίας

προθυμίᾳπροθυμίαν

readiness, willingness,eagerness, zealσυμφοραίσυμφορῶνσυμφοραῖςσυμφοράς

misfortunes

σύνηθεςσυνήθεοςσυνήθεισύνηθεςliving together;(-ους)

customary*ταῦτατούτων

τούτοις

ταῦταthese things*τοῦτο

τούτου

τούτῳ

τοῦτο

this thingτοῖς μέλλουσι see οἱ μέλλοντες those likely
τόξα

τόξων

τόξοις

τόξαbow, bow and arrows*φίλος

φίλου

φίλῳ

φίλον

friendχθώνχθονός

χθονί

χθόνα

earth, ground

*ψυχή

ψυχῆς

ψυχῇ

ψυχήν

soul

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentences foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give the case and function. For verbs, give theperson, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify
them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s
object. For adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, andcase.
πάτρος δὲ δόμον λείπεις καὶ εἰς μὲ ἔρχῃ;βούλῃ ἐμὲ μὴ κτείνειν αὐτοὺς δεῖ; καίτοι τοῦτο ἐμοὶ ἔργον.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
Module 18 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words,
the greater mastery of the language you will have.

Module 18 | The Personal Pronouns; εἷς, οὐδείς, and μηδείς;243

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
ἀδελφός, ἀδελφοῦ ὁ brotherἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῆς, ἑαυτοῦ himself, herself, itselfἐγώ, ἐμοῦ or μου I, me, mineεἷς, μία, ἕν; ἑνός, μιᾶς, ἑνός oneμηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν; μηδένος, μηδεμιᾶς, μηδένος (mostly found in
hypothetical contexts) no one, nothingοὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν; οὐδένος, οὐδεμιᾶς, οὐδένος (mostly found in factual
contexts) no one, nothingσύ, σοῦ or σου you, you, yours
σφεῖς, σφέα; σφέων (σφῶν), σφέων (σφῶν) they, them, theirs

Etymology Corner XVIII by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 14, Parts of Speech
Nouns, Pronouns, and Cases, cont. The dative is easier, as datum means a thing
given (the plural of this is data, or the things given back from the experiment), anddatives deal for a large part with indirect objects, the person to or for whom a thingis given or an action done. In Greek the case is called the δοτικὴ πτῶσις, a case thatindicates that something is given to or for someone.
The accusative looks for good reason like our word accuse, and means something
like the thing caused, here the direct object of a transitive verb. In Greek the case iscalled the αἰτιατικὴ πτῶσις, a case that indicates the thing caused by the verb
The vocative, used for addressing someone, comes from the Latin verb vocare tocall. So when you call out someone’s name, put it in the calling case. In Greek κλητικὴπτῶσις also means the calling case.
When looking at a noun’s gender, we see a Latin transliteration, genus, of a Greek
term γένος, which was used in ancient scientific texts to mark off different types andspecies, not just male and female. Our word genre comes from the same root and thesame impulse, though today that’s used mostly for distinguishing different types ofliterature and entertainment, as well as our word generic meaning something thatbelongs to a particular class or type.
We have discussed already the meaning of pronoun. In Modules 14 and 22, welearn two subtypes of pronoun, the interrogative and relative pronouns.
•

If you are a fan of police procedurals, or have a nosy parent, you already arefamiliar with the English word interrogation. Rogare in Latin means to ask,
so an interrogative pronoun sets up a question.

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Ancient Greek I•

A relative is a type of pronoun that carries back (-lat- is the perfect passive
stem of ferre, to carry, and refer is etymologically related to relate) to anantecedent.

What to Study and Do 18. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you
understand the definition and function of a personal pronoun and personal adjective.
Also memorize the pronouns this module introduces. In subsequent modules they
are not glossed. Finally make sure that you understand the temporal functions of thegenitive, dative, and accusative cases, and the dative and accusative of respect.
Learning Tip 18: Use Language as One Way to Understand Your World. Think
about grammar as a conceptual system that enables us to understand how language
works. Our current world has about 7000 languages. About half are in danger ofdisappearing and every two weeks one becomes extinct. We are moving toward lessdiversity in the languages we speak and toward a more global culture with fewer
nation states. Though ancient Greek is dead (no longer actively spoken by a culture),
we classicists keep it alive by using it as a means for exploring today’s world and ourplace in it. Intense study of any subject enables similar explorations. The study ofancient Greek language and culture are the classicist’s way of doing so. Non-wordbased languages also exist. Expressions, gestures, mathematics, memes, music, andpainting are other languages with different grammatical structures. We employ theseconceptual systems to think about what is real and meaningful and what is fake andsuperficial in the environments we inhabit.

Module 19οἶδα and the Present and Future
Indicative and Infinitive Middle andPassive of ἐλαύνω, καλέω, φέρω,δίδωμι, τίθημι

The Verb
In Greek and in English verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs
are words that represent actions (throw) and states of being (be or exist). They
differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English
counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English doesnot. The Greek verb (ῥῆμα) in its finite form has an ending that indicates what
person and number the subject is. The Greek infinitive has an ending thatindicates that it is unmarked for person and number.

The Conjugation of οἶδαοἶδα is a high frequency verb. It has perfect tense forms with present tense
meanings. In Part II of the 21st-Century series you will learn the perfect tense,
which has an aspect that is complete (stative) as of present time. oἶδα’s forms
are given below. Memorize them.
Perfect Indicative Active (with present meanings)
οἶδαI know

1st person singularοἶσθα, οἶδας

you know

2nd person singularοἶδε (ν)

he, she, it knows

3rd person singular© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.22

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Ancient Greek Iἴσμεν, οἴδαμεν

we know

1st person pluralἴστε, οἴδατεyou know

2nd person plural

ἴσᾱσι (ν)

they know

3rd person plural

Perfect Infinitive Active (with present meanings)εἰδέναιto know

not marked for
person or number

Active, Middle, and Passive Voice
Active and passive voice in English and Greek are defined and function in thesame way. Greek also has a middle voice. In practice it is generally a good idea
to translate the middle voice as if it were active.

Active and Passive VoiceIn the active voice the subject of the verb performs the action: I throw theball. The subject I is the one who throws the ball and so its voice is defined as
active. In the passive voice the action of the verb is performed upon the subject:
I am thrown. The I is not performing the action but rather the verb’s action is
performed upon the subject and so its voice is defined as passive.
Apuleius from Madauros c. 124–170 CE. A Numidian, Apuleius lived under therule of the Roman Empire and wrote in Latin. He studied Platonism in Athens,
travelled widely, was a rhetorician, and a follower of several mystery cults. At
some point he was accused of using magic to gain the wealth of a widow. He
declaimed and then distributed a witty defense speech, known as the Apologia,
asserting his innocence. He also wrote the Metamorphoses, a Latin novel andthe only one that has survived in its entirety. Like Lucian’s The Ass, ὁ Ὄνος,it relates the adventures of Lucius, whose curiosity about magic results in his
being turned into an ass. This book contains a small excerpt from Apuleius’novel and several from Lucian’s.
Practice Identifying Active and Passive Voice in English. Consider thefollowing examples. In each case, ask yourself whether the verb’s voice is activeor passive. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key. The selection
below is an adapted translation of an excerpt from Apuleius, The Golden Ass.
1. I went to the market to buy food for supper.
2. Fish was set out to be sold.

Module 19 | οἶδα and the Present and Future Indicative and Infinitive Middle

247

3. After haggling I bought some at a discount.
4. I paid the fishmonger and departed with my basket of fish.
5. By chance, an old acquaintance of mine, Pithias, was glimpsed out of
the corner of my eye.
6. He too spied me and remembered our friendship from long ago, giving
me a friendly kiss.
7. It was said by him to me that a long time had passed since last we weremet.
8. He said he had had no news of me since departing Athens and our old
Master Vestius.
9. He asked me why I had travelled to Thessaly.
10. An answer was promised by me to him but not until the morrow.
11. I asked him what his office was and why he had so many attendants.
12. It was said by him that he had been granted the office of Magistrate of
the Market.
13. He asked if I needed his assistance in obtaining my evening’s meal.
14. It was replied by me that sufficient sustenance had just been obtainedby me.
15. My basket of fish was espied by Pithias and I was asked by him the costand seller of my meal.
16. I told him and took him to the fishmonger’s stall.
17. He berated the old man, who sat in a corner, telling him that the priceof the fish was too dear and hardly worth any price.
18. It was said by him to the old man that Thessaly will be made forsakenby all if strangers are treated in this way.
19. I was turned to next and my basket of fish was cast on the ground by
Pithias and stomped to pieces by his attendants.
20. The fishmonger was told that he was chastised sufficiently and I wastold to depart.
21. Amazed and astonished, I was driven from the market without mysupper.

Middle Voice
Greek also has a middle voice. For most tenses the forms of the middle voice
are similar or exactly the same as the forms for the passive voice. Though its

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Ancient Greek I

forms are similar to the passive, the middle voice is typically translated by the
English active voice. The Greek middle voice often has one of these two special
meanings:(1) subjects perform the action of the verb on themselves
Example:αὐτὸν λούω I wash him; λούομαι I wash myself, i.e., I take a bath.
Example:αὐτοὺς πείθω I persuade them; πείθομαι I persuade myself, i.e., I listen orobey.
(2) subjects perform the action of the verb for their own benefit
Example:αὐτοὺς λύω I free them; αὐτοὺς λύομαι I free them for my own benefit,
i.e., I free them by paying ransom money.
Example:αὐτοὺς παιδεύω I educate them; τοὺς παῖδας παιδεύομαι I have mychildren educated for my own benefit.
Example:ταῦτα φέρω I carry these things; φέρομαι I carry for my own benefit, i.e.,
I win.
Example:πολιτεύω I am a citizen; πολιτεύομαι I am a citizen for my own benefit,
i.e., I am a politician.

Primary Middle and Passive Endings
The following primary middle and passive endings are used in forming many of
the tenses you will learn for the middle and passive voices.
Primary Middle and Passive
S

P

1st

-μαι

-μεθα

2

nd

-σαι

-σθε

3rd

-ται

-νται

Middle and Passive Infinitive-σθαι

It is a good idea to memorize them now.

Module 19 | οἶδα and the Present and Future Indicative and Infinitive Middle

249

The Present and Future Indicative and Infinitive Middle
and Passive of ω-verbs
In what follows you have no new endings to memorize since you already learned
them when you learned the deponent ω-verb ἔρχομαι.

How to Get the Correct Stem
A key to learning the verb is understanding how to combine endings with thecorrect stem.
Present Active, Middle, and Passive. From the first principal part remove theending to obtain the present active, middle, and passive tense stem. To this stem,
add the below endings.
Future Active and Middle. From the second principal part remove the ending
to obtain the future active and middle tense stem. To this stem, add the below
endings.
Future Passive. From the sixth principal part remove the past indicative
augment and the ending. In verbs whose stem begins with a consonant, thepast indicative augment is the initial epsilon, ἐ-. The past indicative augment is
explained in detail in Module 23. Το the stem that remains, add the future tense
marker –ησ- to obtain the future passive tense stem. To this stem, add the below
endings.

Primary Middle and Passive Endings
Add to the correct stem.
Primary Middle and Passive
S

P

1st

-ομαι

-ομεθα2nd-ει, -ῃ (-εσαι)

-εσθε

3

-εται

-ονται

rd

Middle and Passive Infinitive-εσθαι

S-ομαι-ει or-ῃ (-εσαι)
Ancient
Greek I
-εται

1st
2nd
3rd

250

P
-ομεθα-εσθε-ονται

1. In the second
personsingular,-εσαι, the -εσθαιsigma between two vowels
Middle andPassiveIn�initive:(intervocalic sigma) drops out and the remaining vowels contract to-ει and -ῃ.
1. In the second person singular, -εσαι, the sigma between two vowels
2. When you(intervocalic
learned thedeponent
you contract
learnedto thesesigma)
drops outverb,
and theἔρχομαι,
remaing vowels-ει and-ῃ.
endings. Rememberthat deponent verbs have middle and passive
forms and active meanings.
Note. When you learned the deponent verb, ἔρχομαι, you learned these endings.
Remember that deponent verbs have middle and passive forms and active meanings.

Endings in Summary

The chart below contains the same information as above. Look over the chart and make

The
chart
below
contains
thesurethat youunderstandhow
to sameread it.information as above. Look over the chartand make sure that you understand how to read it.
ActivePresent–I
Future–II/II/VI*
Present & Future

ω
εις
ει

MiddleIndicative
ομεν
ομαι
ομεθα
ετε
ει, ῃ
εσθε
ουσι (ν)εταιονται
In�initive
ειν
εσθαι

Passive
ομαι
ει, ῃ
εται

ομεθα
εσθε
ονται

εσθαι

1. 1.The
passivestem
is obtainedby removing
the past
indicative
Thefuture
future passivestem
is obtainedby removing
the past indicative
augment
and theendingfromprincipal
part
six
and
then
adding
–ησto
the
end
of
what
remains.
To
augment and the ending from principal part six and then adding –ησthe future
passiveTo
endings.
tothisthestemendaddof whatremains.
this stem add the future passive endings.
2. 2.I stands
forthe
the
tense
stem
of principal
II fortheoftensestem
I stands for
tense
stem
of principal
part one,part
II forone,
the tense
stem
principal
part
oftwo,
principal
part
two,
and
so
on:
ἐλαύνω
(I),
ἐλάω
(II),
ἤλασα
(III),and so on: ἐλαύνω (I), ἐλάω (II), ἤλασα (III), ἐλήλακα (IV), ἐλήλαμαι
(V),ἐλήλακα(IV),ἐλαθήσομαι
ἐλήλαμαι (V),ἠλάθην
(VI),(VI*).
Note thatἠλάθην (VI),(VI*).
Note thatonlyἐλαθήσομαιthe tense stem
distinguishes
thepresent
thefuturetenses.
only
the from
tense
stem
distinguishes
the present from the future tenses.

As mentioned already, a key to forming verbs correctly is learning how to attach the endings
to the correct tense stem. Examples for how to do so are found below.

The Conjugation of ἐλαυνωTo the present active, middle, and passive stem, ἐλαυν-, add the correct present
222
tense endings. To the future active and middle tense stem, ἐλα-, add the correct
future tense endings. To the future passive tense stem, ἐλαθησ-, add the correct
future tense endings.
Present Indicative Middleἐλαύνομαι

I carry away

1st person singularἐλαύνει, ἐλαύνῃ

you carry away

2nd person singularἐλαύνεταιhe, she, it carries away

3rd person singularἐλαυνόμεθαwe carry away

1st person pluralἐλαύνεσθε

you carry away

2nd person pluralἐλαύνονται

they carry away

3rd person plural

Module 19 | οἶδα and the Present and Future Indicative and Infinitive Middle

Present Infinitive Middleἐλαύνεσθαιto carry away

unmarked for person
and #Present Indicative Passiveἐλαύνομαι

I am driven

1st person singularἐλαύνει, ἐλαύνῃ

you are driven

2nd person singularἐλαύνεταιhe, she, it is driven

3rd person singularἐλαυνόμεθα

we are driven

1st person pluralἐλαύνεσθε

you are driven

2nd person pluralἐλαύνονται

they are driven

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Passiveἐλαύνεσθαι

to be driven

unmarked for personand #Future Indicative Middle
ἐλῶμαι (ἐλάομαι)I will carry away

1st person singularἐλᾷ (ἐλάει, ἐλαῃ)you will carry away

2nd person singularἐλᾶται (ἐλάεται)he, she, it will carry away

3rd person singularἐλώμεθα (ἐλαόμεθα)

we will carry away

1st person pluralἐλᾶσθε (ἐλάεσθε)

you will carry away

2nd person pluralἐλῶνται (ἐλάονται)they will carry away

3rd person plural

Future Infinitive Middleἐλᾶσθαι (ἐλάεσθαι)to be about to carry away

unmarked for personand #Future Indicative PassiveἐλαθήσομαιI will be driven

1st person singularἐλαθήσει, ἐλαθήσῃ

you will be driven

2nd person singularἐλαθήσεταιhe, she, it will be driven

3rd person singular

251

252

Ancient Greek Iἐλαθησόμεθα

we will be driven

1st person pluralἐλαθήσεσθε

you will be driven

2nd person pluralἐλαθήσονται

they will be driven

3rd person plural

Future Infinitive Passiveἐλαθήσεσθαι

to be about to be driven

unmarked for personand #The Conjugation of καλέωTo the present active, middle, and passive stem, καλε-, add the correct present
tense endings. To the future active and middle tense stem, καλε-, add the correct
future tense endings. Since the stems for the present and future are the same,the forms are identical. Use context to determine which tense each form has. To
the future passive tense stem, κληθησ-, add the correct future tense endings.
Present Indicative Middleκαλοῦμαι (καλέομαι)I sue

1st person singularκαλεῖ (καλέει), καλῇ (καλέῃ)

you sue

2nd person singularκαλεῖται (καλέεται)he, she, it sues

3rd person singularκαλούμεθα (καλεόμεθα)

we sue

1st person pluralκαλεῖσθε (καλέεσθε)

you sue

2nd person pluralκαλοῦνται (καλέονται)they sue

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Middleκαλεῖσθαι (καλέεσθαι)

to sueunmarked for person
and #Present Indicative Passiveκαλοῦμαι (καλέομαι)I am called

1st person singularκαλεῖ (καλέει), καλῇ (καλέῃ)

you are called

2nd person singularκαλεῖται (καλέεται)he, she, it is called

3rd person singularModule 19 | οἶδα and the Present and Future Indicative and Infinitive Middleκαλούμεθα (καλεόμεθα)

we are called

1st person pluralκαλεῖσθε (καλέεσθε)

you are called

2nd person pluralκαλοῦνται (καλέονται)they are called

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Passiveκαλεῖσθαι (καλέεσθαι)to be called

unmarked for personand #Future Indicative Middleκαλοῦμαι (καλέομαι)I will sue

1st person singularκαλεῖ (καλέει), καλῇ (καλέῃ)

you will sue

2nd person singularκαλεῖται (καλέεται)he, she, it will sue

3rd person singularκαλούμεθα (καλεόμεθα)

we will sue

1st person pluralκαλεῖσθε (καλέεσθε)

you will sue

2nd person pluralκαλοῦνται (καλέονται)they will sue

3rd person plural

Future Infinitive Middleκαλεῖσθαι (καλέεσθαι)to be about to sue

unmarked for personand #Future Indicative PassiveκληθήσομαιI will be called

1st person singularκληθήσει, κληθήσῃ

you will be called

2nd person singularκληθήσεταιhe, she, it will be

3rd person singularcalledκληθησόμεθα

we will be called

1st person pluralκληθήσεσθε

you will be called

2nd person pluralκληθήσονται

they will be called

3rd person plural

Future Infinitive Passiveκληθήσεσθαι

to be about to beunmarked for person

called

and #

253

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Ancient Greek I

The Conjugation of φέρωTo the present active, middle, and passive stem, φερ-, add the correct present
tense endings. To the future active and middle tense stem, οἰσ-, add the correct
future tense endings. To the future passive tense stem, ἐνεχθησ-, add the correct
future tense endings.
Present Indicative Middle
φέρομαιI win

1st person singularφέρει, φέρῃ

you win2nd person singularφέρεταιhe, she, it wins

3rd person singularφερόμεθαwe win

1st person pluralφέρεσθεyou win2nd person pluralφέρονταιthey win

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Middle
φέρεσθαιto winunmarked for person and #Present Indicative PassiveφέρομαιI am carried

1st person singularφέρει, φέρῃ

you are carried

2nd person singularφέρεταιhe, she, it is carried

3rd person singularφερόμεθαwe are carried

1st person pluralφέρεσθεyou are carried

2nd person pluralφέρονταιthey are carried

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Passiveφέρεσθαι

to be carried

unmarked for person and #Future Indicative MiddleοἴσομαιI will win

1st person singularοἴσει, οἴσῃ

you will win

2nd person singularοἴσεταιhe, she, it will win

3rd person singularModule 19 | οἶδα and the Present and Future Indicative and Infinitive Middleοἰσόμεθαwe will win

1st person pluralοἴσεσθεyou will win

2nd person pluralοἴσονταιthey will win

3rd person plural

255

Future Infinitive Middle
οἴσεσθαι

to be about to win

unmarked for person and #Future Indicative PassiveἐνεχθήσομαιI will be carried

1st person singularἐνεχθήσει, ἐνεχθήσῃ

you will be carried

2nd person singularἐνεχθήσεταιhe, she, it will be carried

3rd person singularἐνεχθησόμεθα

we will be carried

1st person pluralἐνεχθήσεσθε

you will be carried

2nd person pluralἐνεχθήσονται

they will be carried

3rd person plural

Future Infinitive Passiveἐνεχθήσεσθαι

to be about to be carried

unmarked for person and #The Conjugation of δίδωμι
Add the primary middle and passive endings to the short vowel grade of thestem, διδο-.
Primary Middle and Passive
S

Pl

1st

-μαι

-μεθα

2

nd

-σαι

-σθε

3rd

-ται

-νται

Present Infinitive Middle and Passive
-σθαι

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Ancient Greek I

Present Indicative MiddleδίδομαιI devote

1st person singularδίδοσαιyou devote

2nd person singularδίδοταιhe, she, it devotes

3rd person singularδιδόμεθαwe devote

1st person pluralδίδεσθεyou devote

2nd person pluralδίδονταιthey devote

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Middleδίδοσθαιto devoteunmarked for person
and #Present Indicative PassiveδίδομαιI am given

1st person singularδίδοσαιyou are given

2nd person singularδίδοταιhe, she, it is given

3rd person singularδιδόμεθαwe are given

1st person pluralδίδεσθεyou are given

2nd person pluralδίδονταιthey are given

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Passiveδίδοσθαι

to be given

unmarked for personand #Future Indicative MiddleδώσομαιI will devote

1st person singularδώσει, δώσῃ

you will devote

2nd person singularδώσεταιhe, she, it will devote

3rd person singularδωσόμεθαwe will devote

1st person pluralδώσεσθεyou will devote

2nd person pluralδώσονταιthey will devote

3rd person plural

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257

Future Infinitive Middle
δώσεσθαι

to be about to devote

unmarked for personand #Future Indicative PassiveδοθήσομαιI will be given

1st person singularδοθήσει, δοθήσῃ

you will be given

2nd person singularδοθήσεταιhe, she, it will be given

3rd person singularδοθησόμεθα

we will be given

1st person pluralδοθήσεσθε

you will be given

2nd person pluralδοθήσονται

they will be given

3rd person plural

Future Infinitive Passiveδοθήσεσθαι

to be about to be given

unmarked for personand #The Conjugation of τίθημι
Add the primary middle and passive endings to the short vowel grade of thestem, τιθε-.
Primary Middle and Passive
S

Pl

1st

-μαι

-μεθα

2nd

-σαι

-σθε

3rd

-ται

-νται

Infinitive Middle and Passive-σθαιPresent Indicative MiddleτίθεμαιI set

1st person singular258

Ancient Greek Iτίθεσαι

you set2nd person singularτίθεταιhe, she, it sets

3rd person singularτιθέμεθαwe set

1st person pluralτίθεσθεyou set2nd person pluralτίθενταιthey set

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Middleτίθεσθαιto setunmarked for person
and #Present Indicative PassiveτίθεμαιI am placed

1st person singularτίθεσαιyou are placed

2nd person singularτίθεταιhe, she, it is placed

3rd person singularτιθέμεθαwe are placed

1st person pluralτίθεσθεyou are placed

2nd person pluralτίθενταιthey are placed

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Passiveτίθεσθαι

to be placed

unmarked for personand #Future Indicative MiddleθήσομαιI will set

1st person singularθήσει, θήσῃ

you will set

2nd person singularθήσεταιhe, she, it will set

3rd person singularθησόμεθαwe will set

1st person pluralθήσεσθεyou will set

2nd person pluralθήσονταιthey will set

3rd person plural

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259

Future Infinitive Middle
θήσεσθαι

to be about to set

unmarked for personand #Future Indicative PassiveτεθήσομαιI will be placed

1st person singularτεθήσει, τεθήσῃ

you will be placed

2nd person singularτεθήσεταιhe, she, it will be placed

3rd person singularτεθησόμεθα

we will be placed

1st person pluralτεθήσεσθε

you will be placed

2nd person pluralτεθήσονται

they will be placed

3rd person plural

Future Infinitive Passiveτεθήσεσθαι

to be about to be placed

unmarked for personand #Practice Translating Active and Passive Voice. Translate the below. Pay
particular attention to what voice each verb has. Check your answers with thosein the Answer Key.
1. χάριν ἄγω.
2. σὲ εἰς τὴν ὁδὸν ἄγομεν.
3. σφέας ἀξιόετε.
4. ἰέναι ἀξιόεσθε.
5. ἀκούειν ἄρχεις.
6. ὑπὸ σφέων ἄρχονται.
7. εἰς τὴν θάλατταν ἐλαύνει.
8. εἰς τὴν θάλασσαν ἐλαυνόμεθα.
9. σὲ εἰς τὸ ἔργον λαμβάνω.
10. εἰς τὸ ἔργον λαμβάνομαι.
Vocabulary*ἄγω, ἄξω do, drive, lead*θάλασσα (θάλαττα), θαλάσσης ἡ sea*ἀκούω, ἀκούσομαι hear, listen*ἰέναι to go

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Ancient Greek I*ἀξιόω, ἀξιώσω deem worthy*λαμβάνω, λήψομαι take, receive,
capture*ἄρχω, ἄρξω rule, command; begin + ὁδός, ὁδοῦ ἡ roadgen.
*ἔργον, ἔργου τό deed, task, work; χάρις, χάριτος ἡ charm, grace, favor;
building; ἔργον in truth, in deed
graditude; χάριν εἰδέναι to feel
grateful; χάριν for the sake of + gen.
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below adapted from Euripides’
Alkestis (Ἄλκηστις). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases
presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions.
If you forget an ending or a function, consult the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, andPronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and the Case and Function Chart in Appendix
I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making
sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back andread each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how muchbetter your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you
will improve quickly.
Ἀπόλλων: ἔστ’ οὖν Ἀλκήστιδι ἐς γῆρας μολέεσθαι;Θάνατος: οὐκ ἔστι· τιμαῖς καὶ ἐμὲ τέρπεσθαι δεῖ.
Ἀπόλλων: οὔτοι πλέον γ’ ἢ μίαν ψυχὴν λήψει.
Θάνατος: ἐπεὶ νέοι φθίνoυσι, μεῖζον ἄρνυμαι γέρας.
5Ἀπόλλων: καὶ εἰ Ἄλκηστις γραῦς ὄλλυσι, πλουσίως ταφήσεται.
Θάνατος: πρὸς τῶν πλουσίων, Φοῖβε, τὸν νόμον τίθης.
Ἀπόλλων: πῶς λέγεις; ἀλλ’ ἦ καὶ οἶσθα ὅτι σοφὸς εἶ;Θάνατος: δυνήσονται, εἰ αὐτοῖς πάρεστι χρήματα, γηραιοὶ θανεῖν.
Ἀπόλλων: οὔκουν δοκεῖ σοὶ τὴν ἐμοὶ διδόναι χάριν.

10Θάνατος: οὐ δῆτ’· ἐπίστασαι δὲ τοὺς ἐμοὺς τρόπους.
Ἀπόλλων: ἐχθρούς γε θνητοῖς καὶ θεοῖς στυγητούς.
Θάνατος: οὐκ ἔστι σοὶ πάντ’ ἔχειν, μάλιστα ταῦτα μή σε δεῖ.

15Ἀπόλλων: καλὸς Φέρητος ἐλεύσεται πρὸς δόμους ἀνὴρ καὶ βίᾳ τὴνγυναῖκα σ’ ἐξαιρήσεται. ἡ οὐ παρ’ ἡμῶν σοι γενήσεται χάρις καὶδράσεις θ’ ὁμοίως ταῦτ’, ἀπεχθήσῃ τ’ ἐμοί.

Module 19 | οἶδα and the Present and Future Indicative and Infinitive MiddleΘάνατος: ἡ δ’ οὖν γυνὴ κατελεύσεται εἰς Ἅιδου δόμους. στείχω δὲ νῦνἐπ’ αὐτὴν καὶ κατάρξομαι ξίφει.
Adverbs and Verbs
ἀπεχθάνομαι, ἀπεχθήσομαι be hated, θάπτω, θάψω, ἔθαψα, τέταφα,
incur hatred, be roused to hatredτέθαμμαι, ἐτάφην buryἄρνυμαι, ἀρέομαι reap, win, gain, κατάρχω, κατάρξω make a beginningearn βλώσκω, μολέομαι goof; (mid.) begin sacrifices; (mid.)sacrifice, slay; consecrate by making asacrificial cut of hair*γίγνομαι, γενήσομαι be, be bornκατέρχομαι, κατελεύσεται go down;
return (from exile)*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or dat. *λαμβάνω, λήψομαι take, receive,or acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary capture
to comeδῆτα certainly, of course*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω say, tell, speak*δίδωμι, δώσω give; δίκην δίδωμι I *ὄλλυμι, ὀλέσω kill; lose; (mid. andpay the penalty; δίδωμι χάριν I give intrans. aor. and perf.) perish, die
thanks*δοκέω, δόξω seem, think; seem best, ὁμοίως similarly
think best + inf.
δράω, δράσω do, accomplish, actοὔκουν not therefore, so not*δύναμαι, δυνήσομαι be able, be οὔτοι indeed notstrong enough + inf.
*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possibleπάρεστι be by, be presentἐξαιρέω, ἐξαιρήσω take out ofπλουσίως richlyἐπίσταμαι knowστείχω go, come*ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι come, goταφήσεται see θάπτω*ἔστι it is possibleτέρπω, τέρψω delight, gladden, cheer;
enjoy + dat.

*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω have, hold; be *τίθημι, θήσω set, put, placeable + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be well*θανεῖν to dieφθίνω, φθίσομαι decay, wane, dwindle

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Ancient Greek I

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Νοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalent

Ἅιδης

Ἅιδου

Ἅιδῃ

Ἅιδην

Hades

Ἄλκηστις

Ἀλκήστιδος

ἈλκήστιδιἌλκηστιν

Alkestis*ἀνήρἀνδρός

ἀνδρί

ἄνδρα

man, husband

*αὐτή

αὐτῆς

αὐτῇ

αὐτήν

she, her, hers*αὐτοίαὐτῶναὐτοῖς

αὐτούς

they, them, theirs

βία

βίας

βίᾳ

βίαν

strength, force, power,
might

γέρας

γέραος

γέραϊ

γέρας

gift, prize, rewardγηραιοίγηραιῶνγηραιοῖςγηραιούςold, agedγῆραςγήραος

γήραϊ

γῆρας

old age

γραῦς

γραός

γραΐ

γραῦν

old woman*γυνήγυναικόςγυναικίγυναῖκαwoman, wife

δόμοι

δόμων

δόμοις

δόμους

house, houses

*ἐγώ

ἐμοῦ

ἐμοί

ἐμέ

I, me, mine

*ἐμοί

ἐμῶν

ἐμοῖς

ἐμούς

my

ἐχθροί

ἐχθρῶν

ἐχθροῖςἐχθρούς

hated, hostile; hateful*ἡμεῖς

ἡμῶν

ἡμῖν

ἡμᾶς

we, us, ours

*θεοί

θεῶν

θεοῖς

θεούς

gods

θνητοί

θνητῶν

θνητοῖςθνητούς

mortals*καλός

καλοῦ

καλῷ

καλόν

beautiful, goodμεῖζον

μείζονος

μείζονιμεῖζον

greater, stronger

*νέοι

νέων

νέοις

νέους

new, young*νόμος

νόμου

νόμῳ

νόμον

law, customξίφοςξίφεος (-ους)

ξίφει

ξίφος

sword

*πάνταπάντων

πᾶσι (ν)πάντα

all, each, wholeπλέον

πλέονος

πλέονι

πλέον

more

πλούσιοιπλουσίωνπλουσίοιςπλουσίους

wealthy, rich

*σύ

σοῦ

σοί

σέ

you, you, yours

σοφός

σοφοῦ

σοφῷ

σοφόν

wise

στυγητοίστυγητῶνστυγητοῖςστυγητούς

hated, hateful*ταῦτατούτων

τούτοις

ταῦταthese thingsModule 19 | οἶδα and the Present and Future Indicative and Infinitive MiddleΝοminative

Genitive

DativeAccusative

English Equivalent

τιμή

τιμῆς

τιμῇ

τιμήν

esteem, honorτρόποι

τρόπων

τρόποις

τρόπους

ways; charactersΦέρηςΦέρητος

Φέρητι

ΦέρηταPheresΦοῖβος

Φοίβου

ΦοίβῳΦοῖβον

Phoibos Apolloχάριςχάριτος

χάριτιχάριν

grace, favor, thanksχρήματαχρημάτωνχρήμασι (ν)χρήματαthing, matter; heap; money

*ψυχή

ψυχῆς

ψυχῇ

ψυχήν

soul

263

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentence foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person,
number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them.
For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For
adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.
οὐκ ἔστι σοὶ πάντ’ ἔχειν, μάλιστα ταῦτα μή σε δεῖ.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
Module 19 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words,
the greater mastery of the language you will have.
Nounsἀνάγκη, ἀνάγκης ἡ force, necessity, fateἀρετή, ἀρετῆς ἡ virtue, excellenceἔτος, ἔτεος (ἔτους) τό yearκαιρός, καιροῦ ὁ right moment, critical time, opportunityμάχη, μάχης ἡ battleτεῖχος, τείχεος (τείχους) τό wall; (pl.) strongholdχείρ, χειρός ἡ (dat pl. χερσίν) hand; force, armyVerbsοἶδα (inf. εἰδέναι), εἴσομαι, ------ know, think, know how to + inf.
πέμπω, πέμψω, ἔπεμψα, πέπομφα, πέπεμμαι, ἐπέμφθην send

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Ancient Greek I

Etymology Corner XIX by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 15, Parts of Speech
Prepositions (πρόθεσις) and Interjections, Modules 8 and 9. Preposition isanother word that is surprisingly literal. Our English term comes directly from theLatin because these are little words that are positioned before (pre) the words they
govern. The Greek is analogous, because θέσις means placed (your thesis statement
is a concise summary of your argument placed at the top (πρό) of your paper). Thesis
comes from everyone’s favorite verb, τίθημι.
•

We have to be a little cautious with this etymology since some prepositions
are postpositive, meaning they are placed after (post) the word they govern,
as happens commonly with ἕνεκα (εἵνεκα). This use is particularly clear
when anastrophe of the disyllabic preposition occurs. Anastrophe means
to turn (στροφή) back (ἀνά), like in catastrophe where everything turns
downward (κατά). Prepositions with two syllables turn the accent back fromthe ultima to the penult when they govern the word that precedes them.

•

Prepositions often undergo elision, which happens when the final shortvowel is chopped (laedere) off (ex like in exit, a going out of a building).
When in a few cases (especially in poetry) the vowel starting the next word
is elided, it’s called prodelision, or eliding forward (pro). Where did that din prodelision come from? It’s to keep the vowels from eliding! Without it wewould likely have something that sounds like proilision, and nobody would
like that.

Interjections. In the vocab for Module 9 we meet an interjection, a little wordthat is thrown in-between (Latin jacere, like javelin, a thrown weapon, or reject, tothrow something back; inter like an interstate goes between states) as happens withutterances like wow, golly, WTF, LOL, and holy bejeezus.
What to Study and Do 19. Before moving on to the next module, make sure thatyou have learned the verb forms of οἶδα and the endings for the present and futureindicative and infinitive middle and passive for ω-verbs, δίδωμι, and τίθημι so thatyou can conjugate these verb forms. From this point on, the forms of οἶδα will not be
glossed. Also make sure that you can identify these verb forms by person, number,tense, mood, and voice. Finally make sure that you understand the active, middle, andpassive voices.
Learning Tip 19: Consider the Subjectivity of Human Existence. We experience
culture and language as part of our environment just as we experience the wind
and the rain. We may be inclined to conceive of these interactive experiences asrepresentations of objective reality. The tree outside our window exists, as does

Module 19 | οἶδα and the Present and Future Indicative and Infinitive Middle

265

bluegrass music and the English language. As we interact with nature and listen tomusic and communicate with language these events can be taken to represent thefacts of our lived experiences. I encourage you to accept the trees, and music, andlanguage as objective realities only in the most superficial sense that they exist. Beyond
the superficiality of existence lie important intermediary constructs that we rely on.
The tree exists as part of the construct of our viewing it. This viewing constitutes apart of our subjective knowing of the world. Thus reality has no objectivity outsideof our subjective experience of it. As a result we can engage in a continuous processof creation as we strive to unlock the mysteries of our subjective experiences. As
Newton creatively discovered an authentic world different from his own day’s normal
understanding of it and as Einstein did also, so can we embark on our own creative
and authentic discoveries. Intense study of a subject is one way for all of us to begin
this journey. On the journey, try to maintain two focuses. Use the beam from yourflashlight to analyze and to understand language. Use the glow from your lantern tothink creatively about how language works and what it means.

Guest Feature 3

Joe Goodkin, Singer and Songwriter

Singer and songwriter Joe Goodkin tells his story in his own words.
I will never forget the first time I read Homer in Ancient Greek.
I was in my fourth semester as an undergrad at UW-Madison.
I intended to major in Psychology but my freshman year I took
Ancient Greek on a whim and fell in love with it. By my sophomore
year, I was a declared Classics major and that fourth semester in theAncient Greek sequence brought Homeric epic into my life. We read
selections from the Iliad and more than twenty years later I still
have the text with my hand-marked dactylic hexameter scansion. I
remember very clearly that the weight of the poetry, the meter, thelanguage, surrounded me as if it was a living organism and mademy head and heart simultaneously explode with joy. Ancient Greek
is a time machine to me, a thread back through human history tounderstand and connect with people who lived 3000 years prior,people who wrestled with many of the same questions with which
we wrestle today. And the more I learned of Homeric epic and how(many suppose) it was composed and performed in something
like a song form, the more I became interested in seeing if I could
combine one of my interests (Ancient Greek) with another (music
and songwriting) and honor the epic tradition with an updated takeon the same myths.
Though I read the Iliad in Greek first, I was more immediately takenwith the story of the Odyssey. I saw in it an accessible and modern(for lack of a better word) narrative with issues and relationships I
found more universal and more easily represented in the modern
folk and rock song idiom. Not long after I graduated with my BA
in Classics, I wrote a one-man “folk opera” song cycle consisting oftwenty-four songs, each sung from the perspective of a characterfrom the Odyssey. Odysseus got the most songs, but I also wrote© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.23

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Ancient Greek I

songs through the eyes of Penelope, Telemachus, Athena, Alcinous,
and Demodokos. The main thrust of my take of the story is that it’s an
exploration of identity and over the years performing my Odyssey
for high school and college audiences as a modern bard became abig piece of my identity. To wit, I became “a man who goes aroundtelling stories about a man who goes around telling stories” andthis elegant merging (and maybe even blurring) of performer into
subject furthered my insight into the complex relationship between
bard and hero we are often invited to consider by the text of theOdyssey. My work around the Odyssey is collected here:
http://www.joesodyssey.com.
Almost from the beginning of my time performing the Odyssey (nownearly twenty years and over 300 performances ago), audiences
wondered if I might create a similar adaptation of the Iliad andfor most of those years, I suggested I wouldn’t. My reason wasthat I wanted to keep my Odyssey as something sui generis but inreality I was afraid of the Iliad. It’s a brutal story in a way that theOdyssey isn’t, and because my approach to interpretation involves
getting inside characters of the story, mining them for emotional
resonance, and writing in the first person about their experiences,
the idea of taking on warriors at war and a whole community ofpeople impacted by war was, well, terrifying.
In his beautiful 2020 New York Times tribute to John Prine, Jason
Isbell (a brilliant songwriter in his own right) wrote that “songwriting
allows you to be anybody you want to be, so long as you get thedetails right” and when it came to the Iliad, I was worried that I
couldn’t get the details right. And I knew that for these characters
deep inside the machine of war, the details were a matter of life anddeath because “the details” were “truth”: their individual truths anda larger truth about war.
In 2014 I started spending time at my local VA hospital in conjunction
with a charity called Guitars for Veterans. I was a volunteer guitar
instructor, teaching guitar to veterans as part of recreational PTSD
therapy. My experiences there interacting with veterans started togive me the vocabulary, the details, to consider writing about war ina way I felt was real enough to honor the Iliad. By March of 2018, I
decided to go for it and started working in earnest on what became“The Blues of Achilles.”Guest Feature 3 | οἶδα and the Present and Future Indicative and Infinitive Middle

For almost a year, I didn’t write a single song but gathered source
material of both classical and other associations. This material
included the following items:•

Achilles in Vietnam (2010), Jonathan Shay•

Achilles Unbound: Multiformity and Tradition in the Homeric
Epics (2018), Casey Dué•

All Quiet on the Western Front (1929), Erich Maria Remarque•

An Iliad (2013), Lisa Peterson and Denis O’Hare•

The Best of the Achaeans (1979), Gregory Nagy•

Catch-22 (1961), Joseph Heller•

Dear America, Letters Home from Vietnam (2002), edited by
Bernard Edelman•

Devils and Dust (2005), Bruce Springsteen•

Dispatches (1977), Michael Herr•

For the Most Beautiful (2016), Emily Hauser•

If I Die in a Combat Zone (1973), Tim O’Brien•

Iliad, Homer and translations by Stanley Lombardo (1997) and
Caroline Alexander (2015)•

The Iliad or The Poem of Force (1939), Simone Weil•

Machine Gun (1970), Jimi Hendrix/Band of Gypsys•

Memorial (2011), Alice Oswald•

On the Iliad (1947), Rachel Bespaloff•

The Silence of the Girls (2018), Pat Barker•

The Singer of Tales (1960), Albert Lord•

Slaughterhouse Five (1969), Kurt Vonnegut•

Soldier’s Heart (2013), Jacob George•

The Song of Achilles (2011), Madeline Miller•

The Things They Carried (1990), Tim O’Brien•

Vietnam Blues (1995), J.B. Lenoir•

War is Starting Again (1969), Lightnin’ Hopkins•

The War That Killed Achilles (2009), Caroline Alexander•

What’s Going On (1971), Marvin Gaye

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Ancient Greek I

Every one of these pieces gave me something to consider in how
to work my way into the Iliad. But I still lacked a basic empathetic
window. This came when I was lucky enough to interview a Gold
Star father whose son was a US soldier killed in action in Iraq in
2006. His son’s body was unrecoverable so he went to Iraq several
years later, got as close to where his son was blown up as possible,and collected sand to bring home in place of a corpse. He was,in word, emotion, and action, no different from King Priam on adesperate journey to recover Hector’s body.
Here was my window. I wrote my first Iliad song called Handsof Grief, sung from Priam’s point of view as he begs Achilles for
Hector’s body. Here are the lyrics from the debut performance ofthe piece:
HANDS OF GRIEF(Priam’s song to Achilles)
I’m before you on my knees
Kissing the hands of my grief
My son was cut down in the fighting
And your hands took him from me
He was strong as a lion
With a full head of hair
Now it’s caked with dust and rottin’
But I still see him everywhere
If he had listened to my warnings
Maybe he’d still be at my side
He knew the risks but fought for glory
And when he fell part of me died
I don’t have much more to giveTo a world that’s bled me dry
I don’t have much life to live
Or many tears left to cry
So think of someone who you love
Who might someday be like me
Grant mercy to my son’s body
And put it in my hands of grief
Put it in my hands of griefOnce this window was open, most of the rest of the songs fell outof me very quickly. I realized that what I was attracted to most wasGuest Feature 3 | οἶδα and the Present and Future Indicative and Infinitive Middle(somewhat paradoxically) the love that permeates this story ofhorrendous violence and suffering: love between father and son,mother and son, soldier and soldier, brother and brother, husband
and wife.
As I have Achilles sing in his song, “Wrong from Right,” mourning
Patroklus’ death “I’ve got grief as deep as the love that we shared”
and indeed, “grief” is sitting right there in Achilles’ name (achos).
Homer’s Iliad is about the anger of Achilles, my Iliad is about thegrief, the blues of Achilles.
To watch Joe Goodkin perform “Hands of Grief,” follow this link:
Hands of Grief.1

To watch Joe Goodkin perform “Wrong from Right,” follow this link:
Wrong from Right.2

1	
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oY6cgxoKm-U.
2	https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sRBHd2dqWjU.

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Module 20

First and Second Declension
Adjectives and Common Adjectives
and Pronouns: αὐτός, οὗτος, ὅδε,ἐκεῖνος, and -ων, -ουσα, -ονAdjectives
Αdjectives describe nouns and pronouns. Consider this sentence:
Anyone lived in a pretty how town.
Pretty and how are adjectives describing the noun town.

Adjectives in Greek
Adjectives must agree with the noun they modify in gender, number, and case.
Consider this clause:
As I pondered weak and weary.
Weak and weary are adjectives modifying the pronoun I. In Greek theseadjectives will agree in gender, number, and case with the pronoun I.

First and Second Declension Adjectives
There are two types of first and second declension adjectives, adjectives of three
endings and adjectives of two endings. All first and second declension adjectives
use the same endings 1st and 2nd declension nouns use.

© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.24

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Ancient Greek I

Adjectives of Three Endings
Masculine

Feminine

Set 7

Neuter

Set 1 orSet 2 (-ε, -ι, -ρ)*

Set 8

S

Pl

S

Pl

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

-ος

-οι

N

-η

-αι

-ᾱ

-αι

N

-ον

-α

A

-ον

-ους

A

-ην

-ᾱς

-ᾱν

-ᾱς

A

-ον

-α

G

-ου

-ων

G

-ης

-ῶν

-ᾱς

-ῶν

G

-ου

-ων

D

-ῳ

-οις

D

-ῃ

-αις

-ᾱͅ

-αις

D

-ῳ

-οις

V

-ε

-οι

V

-η

-αι

-ᾱ

-αι

V

-ον

-α

Masculine

Feminine

Set 7

Neuter

Set 1 orSet 2 (-ε, -ι, -ρ)*

Set 8

S

Pl

S

Pl

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

-ος

-οι

N

-η

-αι

-ᾱ

-αι

N

-ον

-α

G

-ου

-ων

G

-ης

-ῶν

-ᾱς

-ῶν

G

-ου

-ων

D

-ῳ

-οις

D

-ῃ

-αις

-ᾱͅ

-αις

D

-ῳ

-οις

A

-ον

-ους

A

-ην

-ᾱς

-ᾱν

-ᾱς

A

-ον

-α

V

-ε

-οι

V

-η

-αι

-ᾱ

-αι

V

-ον

-α

1. *In the feminine singular use the -ᾱ-endings when the stem ends in -ε,-ι, -ρ.

χαλεπός, χαλεπή, χαλεπόν and ἄξιος, ἀξίᾱ, ἄξιονNote that you have already memorized the endings.
Singular
M

F

N

N

χαλεπόςχαλεπή

χαλεπόνA

χαλεπόνχαλεπήνχαλεπόνG

χαλεποῦχαλεπῆςχαλεποῦD

χαλεπῷ

χαλεπῇ

χαλεπῷ

V

χαλεπέ

χαλεπή

χαλεπόνModule 20 | First and Second Declension Adjectives and Common Adjectives and Pronouns

PluralMFNN

χαλεποίχαλεπαίχαλεπά

A

χαλεπούςχαλεπάςχαλεπά

G

χαλεπῶνχαλεπῶνχαλεπῶνD

χαλεποῖςχαλεπαῖςχαλεποῖςV

χαλεποίχαλεπαίχαλεπάSingular
M

F

N

N

ἄξιος

ἀξίᾱ

ἄξιον

A

ἄξιον

ἀξίᾱν

ἄξιον

G

ἀξίου

ἀξίᾱς

ἀξίου

D

ἀξίῳ

ἀξίᾱͅ

ἀξίῳ

V

ἄξιε

ἀξίᾱ

ἄξιον

Plural
M

F

N

N

ἄξιοι

ἄξιαι

ἄξια

A

ἀξίους

ἀξίᾱς

ἄξια

G

ἀξίων

ἀξίων

ἀξίων

D

ἀξίοις

ἀξίαις

ἀξίοις

V

ἄξιοι

ἄξιαι

ἄξια

Singular
M

F

N

N

χαλεπόςχαλεπή

χαλεπόνG

χαλεποῦχαλεπῆςχαλεποῦD

χαλεπῷ

χαλεπῇ

χαλεπῷ

A

χαλεπόνχαλεπήνχαλεπόνV

χαλεπέ

χαλεπή

χαλεπόν

275

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Ancient Greek I

PluralMFNN

χαλεποίχαλεπαίχαλεπά

G

χαλεπῶνχαλεπῶνχαλεπῶνD

χαλεποῖςχαλεπαῖςχαλεποῖςA

χαλεπούςχαλεπάςχαλεπά

V

χαλεποίχαλεπαίχαλεπάSingular
M

F

N

N

ἄξιος

ἀξίᾱ

ἄξιον

G

ἀξίου

ἀξίᾱς

ἀξίου

D

ἀξίῳ

ἀξίᾱͅ

ἀξίῳ

A

ἄξιον

ἀξίᾱν

ἄξιον

V

ἄξιε

ἀξίᾱ

ἄξιον

Plural
M

F

N

N

ἄξιοι

ἄξιαι

ἄξια

G

ἀξίων

ἀξίων

ἀξίων

D

ἀξίοις

ἀξίαις

ἀξίοις

A

ἀξίους

ἀξίᾱς

ἄξια

V

ἄξιοι

ἄξιαι

ἄξια

1. The accent is persistent and is given by the neuter nominative singular.
2. When accented on the ultima, the genitive and dative, both singularand plural, take a circumflex.
3. Final -οι and -αι count as short for purposes of accentuation except
in the optative, a mood that you’ll learn in Part II of the 21st-Century
series.
4. The accent in the feminine genitive plural, unlike the genitive pluralof first declension nouns, does NOT shift to a circumflex on the ultima.

Module 20 | First and Second Declension Adjectives and Common Adjectives and Pronouns

277

Adjectives of Two Endings1
Note that the adjective endings for the masculine and feminine genders are
identical.
Masculine/Feminine

Neuter

Set 7

Set 8

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

-ος

-οι

N

-ον

-α

A

-ον

-ους

A

-ον

-α

G

-ου

-ων

G

-ου

-ων

D

-ῳ

-οις

D

-ῳ

-οις

V

-ε

-οι

V

-ον

-α

Masculine/Feminine

Neuter

Set 7

Set 8

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

-ος

-οι

N

-ον

-α

G

-ου

-ων

G

-ου

-ων

D

-ῳ

-οις

D

-ῳ

-οις

A

-ον

-ους

A

-ον

-α

V

-ε

-οι

V

-ον

-α

ἄδικος, ἄδικον
Note that you have already memorized the endings.
Masculine/Feminine

Neuter Singular

SingularNἄδικος

ἄδικον

A

ἄδικον

ἄδικον

G

ἀδίκου

ἀδίκου

D

ἀδίκῳ

ἀδίκῳ

V

ἄδικε

ἄδικον

1	Many of these start with alpha privative, equivalent to the English prefixes -un and -in, when-in negates the adjectival stem: ἄδικος, ἄδικον unjust; ἀθάνατος, ἀθάνατον immortal; ἄθεος,ἄθεον atheist.

278

Ancient Greek I

Masculine/Feminine

Neuter Plural

PluralNἄδικοι

ἄδικαAἀδίκους

ἄδικαGἀδίκων

ἀδίκων

Dἀδίκοις

ἀδίκοις

Vἄδικοι

ἄδικαMasculine/Feminine

Neuter Singular

SingularNἄδικος

ἄδικον

G

ἀδίκου

ἀδίκου

D

ἀδίκῳ

ἀδίκῳ

A

ἄδικον

ἄδικον

Vἄδικεἄδικον

Masculine/Feminine

Neuter Plural

PluralNἄδικοι

ἄδικαGἀδίκων

ἀδίκων

Dἀδίκοις

ἀδίκοις

A

ἀδίκους

ἄδικαVἄδικοιἄδικαModule 20 | First and Second Declension Adjectives and Common Adjectives and Pronouns

279

Mixed-Declension Adjectives
The masculine and neuter genders decline like nouns of sets 9 and 10. The
feminine declines like short-alpha nouns of set 3, which you will learn in Module
21.
M

F

N

M

F

N

N

-ων

-ουσα

-ον

N

-οντες

-ουσαι

-οντα

A

-οντα

-ουσαν-ονA-οντας

-ουσᾱς

-ονταG-οντος

-ουσης

-οντος

G-οντων

-ουσῶν

-οντων

D

-οντι

-ουσῃ

-οντι

D

-ουσι (ν)-ουσαις

-ουσι (ν)

V

-ων

-ουσα

-ον

V

-οντες

-ουσαι

-οντα

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

-ων

-ουσα

-ον

N

-οντες

-ουσαι

-ονταG-οντος

-ουσης

-οντος

G-οντων

-ουσῶν

-οντων

D

-οντι

-ουσῃ

-οντι

D

-ουσι (ν)-ουσαις

-ουσι (ν)

A

-οντα

-ουσαν-ονA-οντας

-ουσᾱς

-οντα

V

-ων

-ουσα

-ον

V

-οντες

-ουσαι

-οντα1. Add these endings to the stems of the first and second principal parts ofω-verbs. When you add them to the stem of these principal parts, youhave created an adjective.
2. Note that technically these forms are participles, which are defined asverbal adjectives. For now treat these forms like any other adjective,
making sure that you know what noun the participle agrees within gender, case, and number; or supplying a noun based on theparticiple’s gender and number; or supplying a noun from context forthe participle to modify. In Part I of the 21st-Century series, participles
are glossed like so, ἄρχων, ἄρχοντος ὁ ruling; ἄρχουσα, ἀρχούσης ἡruling; ἄρχον, ἄρχοντος τό ruling.
3. The letter nu ν, in the masculine and neuter dative plural is anu-movable. It may be added to the ending when the following word
begins with a vowel or at the end of clauses or verses. Otherwise it isleft off.
4. Τhe forms of the participle of εἰμί, ὤν, οὖσα, ὄν being, are the same as
the above but with accents and breathings present.
5. The dative plural -ουσι (ν) is a contraction of -οντ- + -σι (ν), where thenu and the tau drop out and omicron lengthens to a spurious diphthong
ου.

280

Ancient Greek I

Practice with Adjective and Noun Agreement. Using the adjective καλός,-ή, -όν, pick the form that agrees in gender, case, and number with the nouns
below. In order to complete the exercise correctly, you need to identify the rightgender, number, and case of each noun. Check your answers with those in theAnswer Key.
1. γραῦς
2. πόλιν
3. ἀνδρί4. γυναικός
5. παῖς
6. χρήμασι (ν)
7. ὁδῷ
8. πράγματος
9. μητέρες
10. πατέρας
Vocabularyἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁπαῖς, παιδός ὁ ἡγραῦς, γραός ἡπατήρ, πατρός ὁγυνή, γυναικός ἡπόλις, πόλιος ἡμήτηρ, μητρός ἡπρᾶγμα, πράγματος τόὁδός, ὁδοῦ ἡχρῆμα, χρήματος τό

Substantive Adjectives
Sometimes the noun the adjective modifies is not present. If no noun is present,
then do one of these three things:
1.

2.

supply it based upon the gender and number of the adjective:a.

ὁ καλός the good (man)οἱ καλοί the good (men)b.

ἡ καλή the good (woman)αἱ καλαί the good (women)c.

τὸ καλόν the good (thing)τὰ καλά the good (things)

supply the appropriate noun from context:

Module 20 | First and Second Declension Adjectives and Common Adjectives and Pronouns

281

In a conversation between Jason and Medea, Jason tells her that she only
has herself to blame: αὐτὴ τάδʼ αἱρέῃ you yourself chose these things.
Medea responds with these words,τί δράουσα;
By doing what?
Context makes clear that we are to supply an ἐγώ, which refers to theperson speaking, Medea.
3.

leave the noun understood: οἱ καλοί the good; αἱ καλαί the good; τὰ καλά
the good.

Practice Translating Substantive Adjectives I. For each of the below, supply
the noun based upon the gender and number of the adjective. Check yourtranslations with the answers found below.
1. τὰ καλά
2. τὰ κακά
3. οἱ ἄριστοι
4. αἱ σοφαί
5. ὁ ξένος
6. ἡ πρώτη
7. τὸ χαλεπόν
8. ἡ θεραπευτική
9. τὰ κενά
10. οἱ χαλεποί
Vocabularyἄριστος, ἀρίστη, ἄριστον bestθεραπευτικός, θεραπευτική, θεραπευτικόν inclined to serve or take care of +gen.; courteous; therapeutic, healing*κακός, κακή, κακόν bad, evil, cowardly*καλός, καλή, καλόν beautiful, good, nobleκενός, κενή, κενόν empty, free of + gen.
ξένος, ξένη, ξένον foreign, strange*πρῶτος, πρώτη, πρῶτον first, for the present, just nowσοφός, σοφή, σοφόν wiseχαλεπός, χαλεπή, χαλεπόν difficult, harsh

282

Ancient Greek I

Answers.
1. The good things
2. The bad things
3. The best men
4. The wise women
5. The stranger
6. The first woman
7. The difficult thing
8. The healing woman
9. The empty things
10. The difficult men
Practice Translating Substantive Adjectives II. Translate each of the sentences
below. Make sure that you understand why each word is translated as it is.
Once you have finished, check your understanding with the translations in theAnswer Key. Read through the sentences at least two more times, solidifying
your understanding of the meaning of each.
1. ἀθάνατός ἐστι ἡ καλὴ ψυχήν.
2. καλά ἐστι τὰ χαλεπά.
3. τοῖς σοφοῖς οἱ φίλοι εἰσὶ ἄριστοι.
4. οὐ ξένα ἐστὶ τὰ τῶν φίλων.
5. λόγος γάρ ἐστι ἔργου κενόν.
6. τοῖς βροτοῖς ὁ χρόνος ἐστὶ θεραπευτικὸς τῶν πάντων.
Vocabularyἀθάνατος, -ον immortal, undying*καλός, καλή, καλόν beautiful, good,noble*ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ human, κενός, κενή, κενόν empty, free of +persongen.
ἄριστος, ἀρίστη, ἄριστον best*λόγος, λόγου ὁ word, speech, story;reason, accountβροτοί, βροτῶν οἱ mortalsξένος, ξένη, ξένον foreign, strange*ἔργον, ἔργου τό deed, task, work; *πάντα, πάντων τά everythingbuilding; ἔργον in truth, in deed*ἐστί (ν) he is; she is; it is; there is, it σοφός, σοφή, σοφόν wiseis possible

Module 20 | First and Second Declension Adjectives and Common Adjectives and Pronouns

θεραπευτικός, θεραπευτική,θεραπευτικόν inclined to serveor take care of + gen.; courteous;therapeutic, healing*φίλος, φίλου ὁ friend*χρόνος, χρόνου ὁ time

χαλεπός, χαλεπή, χαλεπόν difficult,
harsh

283

*ψυχή, ψυχῆς ἡ soulCommon Adjectives and Pronouns
Below are four common adjectives and pronouns. Each can be either an adjective
or a pronoun, depending upon its function in context. Though there are minor
differences you need to note, you have already memorized the endings that
occur on most forms below.

αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτόSingular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

αὐτός

αὐτή

αὐτό

N

αὐτοί

αὐταί

αὐτά

A

αὐτόν

αὐτήν

αὐτό

A

αὐτούς

αὐτάς

αὐτά

G

αὐτοῦ

αὐτῆς

αὐτοῦ

G

αὐτῶν

αὐτῶν

αὐτῶν

D

αὐτῷ

αὐτῇ

αὐτῷ

D

αὐτοῖς

αὐταῖς

αὐτοῖςSingular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

αὐτός

αὐτή

αὐτό

N

αὐτοί

αὐταί

αὐτά

G

αὐτοῦ

αὐτῆς

αὐτοῦ

G

αὐτῶν

αὐτῶν

αὐτῶν

D

αὐτῷ

αὐτῇ

αὐτῷ

D

αὐτοῖς

αὐταῖς

αὐτοῖς

A

αὐτόν

αὐτήν

αὐτό

A

αὐτούς

αὐτάς

αὐτά

1. As an adjective in the attributive position, it means same: ὁ αὐτὸςἄνθρωπος, the same man; ἡ αὐτή the same woman; τὸ αὐτό the samething.
2. In the predicate position or when standing alone in the nominative, itmeans –self: ὁ ἄνθρωπος αὐτός ὁράει, the man himself sees and αὐτὴὁράει, she herself sees.

284

Ancient Greek I

3. In all cases except for the nominative and vocative, it functions as
the third person pronoun, just as the pronouns he, she, it, they, do in
English: αὐτοὺς εἶδον, I saw them.
4. Except for αὐτό missing a nu, αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό declines like a regular
first and second declension three ending adjective.
5. The neuter nominative and accusative, both in the singular and in theplural, are the same.
6. τὰ αὐτά (ταὐτά) means the same things.

οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτοSingular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

οὗτος

αὕτη

τοῦτο

N

οὗτοι

αὗται

ταῦτα

A

τοῦτον

ταύτην

τοῦτοAτούτους

ταύτας

ταῦταGτούτου

ταύτης

τούτου

G

τούτων

τούτων

τούτων

D

τούτῳ

ταύτῃ

τούτῳ

D

τούτοις

ταύταις

τούτοιςSingular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

οὗτος

αὕτη

τοῦτο

N

οὗτοι

αὗται

ταῦτα

G

τούτου

ταύτης

τούτου

G

τούτων

τούτων

τούτων

D

τούτῳ

ταύτῃ

τούτῳ

D

τούτοις

ταύταις

τούτοις

A

τοῦτον

ταύτην

τοῦτοAτούτους

ταύτας

ταῦτα

1. When an adjective, it is placed in predicate position: οὗτος ὁ ἄνθρωπος
this man and αὗται αἱ κῶμαι these villages.
2. As a pronoun it means he, she, it, they: πέμπω ταύτην I send her.
3. Except for τοῦτο’s missing a nu, οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο declines like aregular first and second declension adjective.
4. The neuter nominative and accusative, both in the singular and in theplural, are the same.
5. The stem of the neuter nominative and accusative plural is ταυτ- notthe expected ταύτων.
6. The feminine genitive plural is τούτων, NOT the expected ταύτων.
7. οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο often looks back to what was just said: ταῦτα οὕτωἔλεξε she said the previous was so.

Module 20 | First and Second Declension Adjectives and Common Adjectives and Pronounsἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνοSingular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

ἐκεῖνος

ἐκείνη

ἐκεῖνο

NἐκεῖνοιἐκεῖναιἐκεῖναAἐκεῖνονἐκείνηνἐκεῖνοAἐκείνους

ἐκείναςἐκεῖναGἐκείνουἐκείνης

ἐκείνουGἐκείνωνἐκείνωνἐκείνωνDἐκείνῳ

ἐκείνῃ

ἐκείνῳ

Dἐκείνοις

ἐκείναιςἐκείνοιςSingular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

ἐκεῖνος

ἐκείνη

ἐκεῖνο

NἐκεῖνοιἐκεῖναιἐκεῖναGἐκείνουἐκείνης

ἐκείνουGἐκείνωνἐκείνωνἐκείνωνDἐκείνῳ

ἐκείνῃ

ἐκείνῳ

Dἐκείνοις

ἐκείναιςἐκείνοιςAἐκεῖνονἐκείνηνἐκεῖνοAἐκείνους

ἐκείναςἐκεῖνα1. When an adjective, it is placed in predicate position: ἐκεῖνος ὁἄνθρωπος that man and ἐκεῖναι αἱ κῶμαι those villages.
2. As a pronoun it means he, she, it, they: πέμπω ἐκείνην I send her.
3. Except for ἐκεῖνο’s missing a nu, ἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο declines likea regular first and second declension adjective.
4. The neuter nominative and accusative, both in the singular and in theplural, are the same.

ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδεSingular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

ὅδε

ἥδε

τόδε

N

οἵδε

αἵδε

τάδε

A

τόνδε

τήνδε

τόδε

A

τούσδε

τάσδε

τάδε

G

τοῦδε

τῆσδε

τοῦδε

G

τῶνδε

τῶνδε

τῶνδε

D

τῷδε

τῇδε

τῷδε

D

τοῖσδεταῖσδετοῖσδε

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Ancient Greek I

Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

ὅδε

ἥδε

τόδε

N

οἵδε

αἵδε

τάδε

G

τοῦδε

τῆσδε

τοῦδε

G

τῶνδε

τῶνδε

τῶνδε

D

τῷδε

τῇδε

τῷδε

D

τοῖσδεταῖσδετοῖσδε

A

τόνδε

τήνδε

τόδε

A

τούσδε

τάσδε

τάδε

1. ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε is the article, ὁ, ἡ, τό, with -δε added to it.
2. When functioning as an adjective, ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε is placed in predicate
position: ὅδε ὁ ἄνθρωπος this man, αἵδε αἱ κῶμαι, these villages.
3. As a pronoun it means he, she, it, they: πέμπω τούσδε, I send them.
4. The neuter nominative and accusative, both in the singular and in theplural, are the same.
5. ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε often times looks forward to what comes next: τάδελέξω I will say the following.
Practice Translating Pronouns and Adjectives. Translate the below. Check
your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure thatyou understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read eachsentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better
your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will
improve quickly.
1. πέμπομεν τάδε τὰ θηρία ἐκείνῃ.
2. οὗτος ὁ μὲν στρατηγὸς ἐθέλει χρήματα. ἐκεῖνος δὲ δύναμιν.
3. πέμπετε τάδε ἐκείνοις.
4. ἐκεῖνοι ἐθέλουσι τοῦτο τὸ ὕδωρ.
5. ἐκεῖναι φεύγουσι τὸν τύραννον.
6. ἐκεῖνος κρείττων ἐστὶ ἢ οὗτος.
7. ἥδε πέμπει τὰ ἅπαντα δῶρα ἐκείνῃ.
8. ἡ αὐτὴ γραῦς πέμπει τούτους.
9. ἡ γραῦς αὐτὴ πέμπει τούτους.
10. πέμπουσιν αὐτὸν αὐτῇ.
Vocabulary*ἅπας, ἅπασα, ἅπαν all, each, every,whole*πέμπω, πέμψω sendModule 20 | First and Second Declension Adjectives and Common Adjectives and Pronounsγραῦς, γραός ἡ old woman*στρατηγός, στρατηγοῦ ὁ general*δύναμις, δυνάμιος (δυνάμηος,δυνάμεως) ἡ might, strength, power;
force, armyτύραννος, τυράννου ὁ tyrantδῶρον, δώρου τό giftὕδωρ, ὕδατος τό water*ἐθέλω, ἐθελήσω wish, be willing*φεύγω, φεύξομαι fleeθηρίον, θηρίου τό wild animal*χρῆμα, χρήματος τό thing; (pl.)
goods, money, property

287κρείττων, κρεῖττον better, stronger,
greater

Medea
The character of Medea (Μήδεια) was a subject of great interest to the ancient
Greeks and their artists. She was not a Greek but was born in Kolkhis at theeastern extremity of the Black Sea. Her father Aietes, Αἰήτης, a sorcerer andson of Helios, was king of Kolkhis and the keeper of the golden fleece. To Medea
and Kolkhis came Jason with the Argonauts, in the Argo, the first ship, to get the
fleece so that he could take over as king of Iolkos. According to one version of thestory, upon his arrival Medea fell in love with him, betraying her family when
she helped him win the golden fleece and escape. In their flight, Medea killed
her brother, Apsyrtos, and spread the chopped-up pieces of him over the sea sothat her father’s ship would be delayed in collecting the body parts. Medea andJason settled in Iolkos—Jason’s hereditary land. Although Jason returned withthe fleece as demanded, Jason’s uncle Pelias, still cheated him of his right to
the kingship. In revenge Medea persuaded Pelias’ daughters to kill their father
by tricking them into thinking that they were rejuvenating—not killing—him.
Jason and Medea, along with their two to fourteen children, were exiled from
Iolkos and took up residence in Corinth where Jason would abandon his wife
Medea, to marry King Kreon’s daughter.
Many myths had variant accounts of Medea’s life. In other versions of theMedea myth, Aietes was warned by an oracle that a stranger would kill him andsteal the golden fleece. To protect himself, Aietes decreed that all foreigners were
to be sacrificed to Artemis and installed his daughter Medea as the priestess ofthe cult. Medea opposed the cruelty of human sacrifice and secretly used her
position to rescue as many Greeks as she could. Her father found her out and so
she sought asylum in the temple of Helios, her ancestor and family god. Here the
Argonauts found her. She joined them. The Argonauts fought the Kolkhians andin the battle Aietes was killed. In another version Medea willingly performed

288

Ancient Greek I

the killing of foreigners until Jason arrived. As she was about to kill him, Eros or
Aphrodite intervened to save him. In another version, Jason sailed to Kolkhis to
get the golden fleece. To assist him, Aphrodite gave him her iynx—a love charmwith which he could take away Medea’s respect for her parents and win her
love.
There are at least four different endings to the story of Medea. Euripides
may be the one who invented the version found in his play, Medea. In Euripides’
play, Medea kills her children so as to obtain revenge on her husband Jason’s
infidelity and to prevent anyone else from killing them. In another version
the play ends with Medea’s killing Kreon and his daughter, the princess andJason’s new bride. In a third, the play ends with Jason and Medea’s marriage.
And finally, a fourth ends with Jason’s abduction of Medea from Kolkhis. Whenconsidering myth, be aware that the writers were free to reinvent and retell thestories as suited their fancy and needs.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, which have been adaptedfrom Euripides’ Medea (Μήδεια). Remember the meanings and functions of thecases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and theirfunctions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the Adjective, Adverb,
Noun, and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and the Case and Function Chartin Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer
Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does.
Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with eachrereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make
this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Ἰάσων: καλῶς γε τῷ ὑπηρετήσεις λόγῳ, εἰ σοι γάμον καταλέγω;σὺ οὐδὲ νῦν τολμάεις μεθιέναι καρδίας μέγαν χόλον.
Μήδεια: οὐ σὲ τοῦτ’ ἔχει, ἀλλὰ βάρβαρον λέχος πρὸς γῆρας οὐκ εὔδοξονἐκβήσεταί σοι.
5Ἰάσων: εὖ νυν τόδʼ οἶσθα· μὴ γυναικὸς ἕνεκα ἐγὼ γαμέω κόρην βασιλέων.
αὐτὴν νῦν ἔχω, ὅτι, ὥσπερ πολλὰ σοὶ λέγω, σῴζειν θέλων σὲ καὶ τέκνοις
τοῖς ἐμοῖς ὁμοσπόρους φύειν τυράννους παῖδας, ἔρυμα δώμασιν.
Μήδεια: πολὺ οὐ βούλομαί μοι λυπρὸν εὐδαίμονα βίον ἔχειν μήδ’ ὄλβονεἰ αὐτὸς τὴν ἐμὴν κνίζει φρένα.

10Ἰάσων: οἶσθα μετεύχεσθαι καὶ σοφωτέρα φαίνεσθαι; δεῖ γὰρ τὰ χρηστὰμή σοι λυπρὰ φαίνεσθαί ποτε καὶ δεῖ σέ, εὐτυχέουσαν, μὴ δυστυχέα εἶναιδοκέειν.
Μήδεια: ἔστι σοί με ὑβρίζειν, ἐπειδὴ σοὶ μὲν ἔστʼ ἀποστροφή, ἐγὼ δ’ἔρημος τὴν φεύξομαι χθόνα.

Module 20 | First and Second Declension Adjectives and Common Adjectives and Pronouns

Ἰάσων: αὐτὴ τάδʼ αἱρέῃ· δεῖ μηδένʼ ἄλλον αἰτιόεσθαί σε.
15Μήδεια: τί δράουσα; ἄλλον γαμέω καὶ προδίδωμί σε;Ἰάσων: οὔτοι πότε ἀρὰς τυράννοις ἀνοσίους ἀράει;Μήδεια: καὶ σοῖς ἀραία γʼ εἶναι δοκέω δόμοις.

Adverbs and Verbs*αἱρέω, αἱρήσω take, seize, grab,
capture; (mid.) chooseμωραίνω, μωρανέω be silly, befoolishαἰτιάομαι, αἰτιάσομαι accuse,
censure, blame; allege as causeνυν nowἀράομαι, ἀράσομαι pray*οἶδα know, think; know how to + inf.

*βούλομαι, βουλήσομαι want,prefer; wish, be willingοὔτοι πότε never indeed

γαμέω, γαμέω or γαμήσω, marry;(mid.) give in marriage, marry (aman)πολύ very*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or
dat. or acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it isnecessary to comeπότε see οὔτοι πότε*δοκέω, δόξω seem, think; seem best,
think best + inf.

προδίδωμι, -δώσω betray, abandon,
give up (to an enemy)ἐκβαίνω, ἐκβήσομαι step out of; turn σῴζω, σώσω save, keep; keep safeout, come out*ἔστι it is possibleτολμάω (τολμέω), τολμήσω dare, bedaring, undertake + inf.

*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω have, hold; beable + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be wellὑβρίζω, ὑβριέω treat violently,
outrage, insult; act excessively

καταγορεύω, καταγορεύσω tell,announce; denounce, accuse

ὑπηρετέω, ὑπηρετήσω serve as arower; minister to, serve + dat.

κνίζω, κνίσω scrape, gash, scratch;pound; grate; tickle; tease; provoke*φαίνω, φανέω show, reveal; (pass.)
come to light, appear*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω say, tell, speak*φεύγω, φεύξομαι flee, take flight;
avoid, escape; be in exile, live inbanishment; be a defendant

289

290

Ancient Greek Iμεθιέναι to let go, to releaseφύω, φύσω bring forth; beget;
produce, put forth; growμετεύχομαι, μετεύξομαι change
one’s wish
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns*ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο another, otherbeing successful, prosperingἀνόσιος, ἀνόσιον unholy, profane*θέλων, θέλοντος ὁ wishing, willingἀποστροφή, ἀποστροφῆς ἡ turning
back or away; escape, refugeκαρδία, καρδίας ἡ heartἀρά, ἀρᾶς ἡ cursesκόρη, κόρης ἡ girl; daughterἀραῖα, ἀραία, ἀραῖον prayed to;accursedλέκτρον, λέκτρου τό couch, bed,
marriage-bedβάρβαρος, βαρβάρου ὁ barbarianλέχος, λέχεος (-ους) τό bed,
marriage-bed*βασιλεύς, βασιλῆος (βασιλέως) ὁking, chief*λόγος, λόγου ὁ word, speech, story;reason, account*βίος, βίου ὁ lifeλυπρός, λυπρά, λυπρόν wretched,poor, sorryγάμος, γάμου ὁ wedding, marriage*μέγας, μεγάλου ὁ bigγῆρας, γήραος τό old age

ὄλβος, ὄλβου ὁ happiness, bliss;
wealth*γυνή, γυναικός ἡ woman, wifeὁμόσπορος, ὁμόσπορον relatedδράουσα, δραούσης ἡ doing,
accomplishing, acting*παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ childδυστυχής, δυστυχέος (-οῦς) unlucky, σοφωτέρα, σοφωτέρας ἡ wiser
unfortunateδῶμα, δώματος τό houseτέκνον, τέκνου τό child*ἐμός, ἐμή, ἐμόν myτύραννος, τυράννου ὁ tyrantἔρημος, ἐρήμη, ἔρημον (-ος, -ον)
empty; deserted; devoid of + gen.

φρήν, φρενός ἡ midriff, heart; mindἔρυμα, ἐρύματος τό fence, guard,
safeguardχθών, χθονός ἡ earth, groundModule 20 | First and Second Declension Adjectives and Common Adjectives and Pronounsεὐδαίμων, εὐδαίμονος fortunate,
wealthy, happyχόλος,χόλου ὁ gall, bile, anger, wrathεὔδοξος, εὔδοξον of good repute,honored, famous, gloriousχρηστά, χρηστῶν τά useful, good,honest, worthy291εὐτυχέουσα, εὐτυχεούσης ἡ
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentence foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person,
number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them.
For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For
adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.
αὐτὴ τάδʼ αἱρέῃ· δεῖ μηδένʼ ἄλλον αἰτιόεσθαί σε.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
Module 20 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words,
the greater mastery of the language you will have.
Adjectives and Pronouns
ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο another, otherαὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό he, she, it; -self (pred.); same (att.) often + dativeἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο (κεῖνος, κείνη, κεῖνο) that, those; he, she, it, theyἐμός, ἐμή, ἐμόν myἕτερος, ἑτέρᾱ, ἕτερον other, anotherὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε he, she, it; this, theseὅσος, ὅση, ὅσον so many, as many asοὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο he, she, it; this, theseτοιοῦτος, τοιαύτη, τοιοῦτο of such a kind or sort292Ancient Greek I

Etymology Corner XX by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 16, Parts of Speech
Verbs, Modules 9, 10, 17, 19, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30. We’ve already discussed why averb (ῥῆμα) is called a verb. In Module 9 we drill down into some specifics on verb
terminology. We are first introduced to transitive and intransitive verbs. The coreof these two words is trans, across, like transporting something carries it across fromone place to another, and it meaning go in Latin. A transitive verb has its action go
across into an object. The in prefix in intransitive means not (analogous to alphaprivative α- in Greek, think atheist) in the way you can’t eat something that’s inedible,
so an intransitive verb denotes a state of being. A pizza sitting on the counter isintransitive, it’s just there, it’s not going anywhere. When I eat the pizza and thepizza satisfies me, the eating and satisfying carry over onto objects, pizza, and me
respectively. For practice with transitive and intransitive verbs, see Module 30.
What to Study and Do 20. Before moving on to the next module, make sure thatyou understand noun and adjective agreement and how adjectives can function as
substantives. Also memorize the common adjectives and pronouns presented in thismodule. From this point on, their forms will not be glossed.
Learning Tip 20: The Memory Palace. Of all the strategies used by super-memorizers,
the memory palace technique, perhaps invented by Simonides of Kos, Σιμωνίδης ὁΚεῖος (c. 556–468 BCE), a Greek lyric poet, is the one they employ most frequently. As
you have seen previously, the memory palace works on the principle of associating
new information with old information. Take any route that you know well. This routecan be a walk through your house, a trip to work, or a walk through a park or forest you
are familiar with. The key is to make sure that your journey includes landmarks thatyou know well. Link the new information to the old information by using establishedlandmarks, so as to complete the formula LTM + STH = MTM. Let’s imagine that you
want to create a memory palace list of authors mentioned in this text. We’ll start withthe first few people in the below list of ten but you can make the list and the journey
as long as you wish,
Homer, Herakleitos, Anakreon, Mimnermos,
Thoukydides, Aiskhylos, Sophokles, Euripides.

Sappho,Herodotos,

Since this memory palace is on ancient Greek writers, before the entrance into mymemory palace of ancient Greek writers I imagine walking through the columns of
the Parthenon, the temple dedicated to the Greek goddess of wisdom, Athena. Uponwalking through the columns, I stand first on a welcome home mat, located at thepalace’s entrance. Home reminds me of Homer. The welcome home mats sits before aModule 20 | First and Second Declension Adjectives and Common Adjectives and Pronouns

293

door. The door is pasted with a bunch of ads from magazines. Homer is reading an adposted on the door that advertises the healing of ill people. Ill and ad remind me that
Homer wrote the Iliad. I open the door and proceed over the welcome home mat to theworkbench. The bench has two odd-shaped dice on it, one with the number seven andthe other with the number five. The odd-shaped dice are floating on a sea of oil, spilledon the workbench. The workbench with the odd-shaped dice, the odd-numbers, andthe sea of oil remind me that Homer wrote the Odyssey. The odd numbers seven andfive help me to remember Odyssey and also assist me in remembering that Homerdates to about 750 BCE. There is another memory technique that involves turning
numbers into words in order to remember dates. In this technique, the date 750 canbe represented by the word keels. I add the keels of 1000 ships to the sea of oil on
the workbench. Keels represents the date 750 and the thousand ships are the Greek
ships that sailed to Troy to win back Helen for Menelaos. I’ll describe the number
technique for remembering dates in a later learning tip. As I stand at the door thatenters into the mudroom, I hear a cry. The hear a cry reminds me of Herakleitos.
I open the door into the mudroom and step into a river, first with my right foot andthen again with my left foot. I remember that Herakleitos is the Greek philosopher
who said that we can never step in the same river twice, since a river is always influx and ever-changing. The approximate date of Herakleitos’ birth is 535. 535 can be
represented by the word lamely. As I stem one foot into the river and then a second
foot into the river, I think that with each foot I limp lamely into Herakleitos’ everchanging river. I need to use the restroom and so I leave the mudroom and enter thebathroom. On the john sits Anne of Green Gables. Anne of Green Gables’ sitting on
the toilet reminds me of Anakreon of Teios. On the toilet, Anne of Green Gables ismaking bread, pouring leaven into flour and drinking tea. Leaven represents thenumber 582, the approximate date of Anakreon’s birth. As she pours the leaven into abowl of flour, Anne of Green Gables drinks her tea to remind me of Teios and readsa bread recipe found on a papyrus scroll found at Oxyrhynchus, filled with the lost
poems of Anakreon’s corpus.
As you proceed through each person on the list, link each to an image and to aplace in your memory palace so that you join new information to old. Remember thatimagination always beats will, though with both methods you will still need to review.
Also remember to have fun using your imagination to remember whatever sparks
your curiosity.

Module 21

First Declension Short Alpha Nouns

Nouns
Nouns in Greek are defined just like nouns are in English; but the way theycreate meaning is different. As in English, Greek nouns (ὀνόματα) refer topeople, places, things, and ideas. Greek nouns have endings. English nouns
can change form when they show possession as in Jada’s book, where the ’s isadded as a suffix and indicates that the book belongs to Jada. English nouns alsochange form when expressing the plural: two suns, three oxen, four mice. The
endings on Greek nouns, as we have seen previously, create the same meanings
that English does through form change, word order, and the use of prepositional
phrases.

First Declension Short Alpha Nouns in –α, –ης and –α,–ᾱςThese nouns are feminine in gender. In the Attic dialect, nouns whose stem ends
in -ε, -ι, or -ρ take the short alpha -α, -ᾱς endings. Memorize these endings, know
how to obtain the stem, and know how to decline the nouns. As you learn new
ending sets, look at the similarities and differences each has when compared tothose endings you have already memorized.

Declining First Declension Short Alpha Nouns –α, –ης
and –α, –ᾱς
To decline first declension nouns ending in -α, -ης and -α, -ᾱς, first get the stemby removing the genitive singular ending -ης or -ᾱς. What remains is the stem.
To the stem add the following endings:© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.25

296

Ancient Greek I

Feminine

Feminine

Set 3

Set 4 (*stem ends in -ε, -ι, -ρ)

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

-α

-αι

N

-α*

-αι

A

-αν

-ᾱς

A

-αν

-ᾱς

G

-ης

-ῶν

G

-ᾱς

-ῶν

D

-ῃ

-αις

D

-ᾱͅ

-αις

V

-α

-αι

V

-α

-αι

Feminine

Feminine

Set 3

Set 4 (*stem ends in -ε, -ι, -ρ)

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

-α

-αι

N

-α*

-αι

G

-ης

-ῶν

G

-ᾱς

-ῶν

D

-ῃ

-αις

D

-ᾱͅ

-αις

A

-αν

-ᾱς

A

-αν

-ᾱς

V

-α

-αι

V

-α

-αι

θάλαττα, θαλάττης and πεῖρα, πείρᾱς
S

Pl

S

Pl

N

θάλατταθάλατταιNπεῖραπεῖραιAθάλαττανθαλάττᾱςAπεῖραν

πείρᾱς

Gθαλάττης

θαλαττῶνGπείρᾱς

πειρῶν

Dθαλάττῃθαλάτταις

Dπείρᾱͅ

πείραις

VθάλατταθάλατταιVπεῖραπεῖραι

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

θάλατταθάλατταιNπεῖραπεῖραι

Gθαλάττης

θαλαττῶνGπείρᾱς

πειρῶν

Dθαλάττῃθαλάτταις

Dπείρᾱͅ

πείραιςAθάλαττανθαλάττᾱςAπεῖραν

πείρᾱς

VθάλατταθάλατταιVπεῖραπεῖραι

1. The alpha of the nominative singular, accusative singular, and vocative
singular is short.

Module 21 | First Declension Short Alpha Nouns

297

2. The accent shifts to the ultima in the genitive plural.
3. Use the -α, -ᾱς endings when the stem ends in -ε, -ι, -ρ.
4. Remember that final -αι and -οι are short for purposes of accentuation
except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century
series.
5. If the nominative has an acute accent on the ultima, it changes to acircumflex in the genitive and dative, singular and plural.

First Declension Nouns in –ης, –ου and –ᾱς, –ου
These nouns are masculine in gender. In the Attic dialect, endings from the -ᾱς,-ου declension are found only in nouns whose stem ends in -ε, -ι, or -ρ. Memorize
these endings, know how to obtain the stem, and know how to decline the nouns.
As you learn new ending sets, look at the similarities and differences each has
when compared to those endings you have already memorized.

Declining First Declension Masculine Nouns in –ης, –ου and –ᾱς, –ου
To decline first declension nouns ending in -ης, -ου and -ᾱς, -ου, first remove
the genitive singular ending -ου. What remains is the stem. To the stem add thefollowing endings:
Masculine

Masculine

Set 5

Set 6 (use when stem ends in -ε, -ι, -ρ)

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

-ης

-αι

N

-ᾱς

-αι

A

-ην

-ᾱς

A

-ᾱν

-ᾱς

G

-ου

-ῶν

G

-ου

-ῶν

D

-ῃ

-αις

D

-ᾱͅ

-αις

V

-α, -η*

-αι

V

-ᾱ

-αι

*For the vocative singular, use -α unless otherwise noted.

298

Ancient Greek I

Masculine

Masculine

Set 5

Set 6 (use when stem ends in -ε, -ι, -ρ)

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

-ης

-αι

N

-ᾱς

-αι

G

-ου

-ῶν

G

-ου

-ῶν

D

-ῃ

-αις

D

-ᾱͅ

-αις

A

-ην

-ᾱς

A

-ᾱν

-ᾱς

V

-α, -η*

-αι

V

-ᾱ

-αι

*For the vocative singular, use -α unless otherwise noted.

στρατιώτης, στρατιώτου and νεανίᾱς, νεανίου
S

Pl

S

Pl

N

στρατιώτηςστρατιῶταιN

νεανίᾱςνεανίαιAστρατιώτηνστρατιώτᾱςAνεανίᾱννεανίᾱςGστρατιώτουστρατιωτῶνGνεανίουνεανιῶνDστρατιώτῃστρατιώταιςDνεανίᾱͅ

νεανίαιςVστρατιῶταστρατιῶταιV

νεανίᾱ

νεανίαι

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

στρατιώτηςστρατιῶταιN

νεανίᾱςνεανίαιGστρατιώτουστρατιωτῶνGνεανίουνεανιῶνDστρατιώτῃστρατιώταιςDνεανίᾱͅ

νεανίαιςAστρατιώτηνστρατιώτᾱςAνεανίᾱννεανίᾱςVστρατιῶταστρατιῶταιV

νεανίᾱ

νεανίαι1. Some nouns with nominatives ending with -ης, have the vocative
singular ending -η instead of -α.
2. The accent shifts to the ultima in the genitive plural.
3. Use the -ᾱς -ου endings when the stem ends in -ε, -ι, -ρ.
4. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes ofaccentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the
21st-Century series.

Module 21 | First Declension Short Alpha Nouns

299

5. If the nominative singular has an acute accent on the ultima, it changes
to a circumflex in the genitive and dative, singular and plural.

Noun IdentificationYou
nowknow ten setsYou
ofnow
endings
forsets
nouns:
Noun
Identification.
know tenof endings for nouns:

First, Second, and Third Declension Noun Sets

N
A
G
D
V

Set 1
F

η
ην
ης
ῃ
η

αι
ᾱς
ῶν
αις
αι

Set 2
F ε, ι, ρ

ᾱ
ᾱν
ᾱς
ᾱͅ
ᾱ

αι
ᾱς
ῶν
αις
αι

1st Declension
Set 3
Set 4
F
F ε, ι, ρ

α
αν
ης
ῃ
α

αι
ᾱς
ῶν
αις
αι

α
αν
ᾱς
ᾱͅ
α

αι
ᾱς
ῶν
αις
αι

Set 5
M

ης
ην
ου
ῃ
α, η

αι
ᾱς
ῶν
αις
αι

Set 6
M ε, ι, ρ

ᾱς
ᾱν
ου
ᾱͅ
ᾱ

αι
ᾱς
ῶν
αις
αι

2nd Declension
Set 7
Set 8
M/F
Neuter

ος
ον
ου
ῳ
ε

οι
ους
ων
οις
οι

ον
ον
ου
ῳ
ον

α
α
ων
οις
α

3rd Declension
Set 9
Set 10
M/F
Neuter

-α,ν
ος
ι
--

First, Second, and Third Declension Noun Sets

N
G
D
A
V

Set 1
F

η
ης
ῃ
ην
η

αι
ῶν
αις
ᾱς
αι

Set 2
F ε, ι, ρ

ᾱ
ᾱς
ᾱͅ
ᾱν
ᾱ

αι
ῶν
αις
ᾱς
αι

1st Declension
Set 3
Set 4
F
F ε, ι, ρ

α
ης
ῃ
αν
α

αι
ῶν
αις
ᾱς
αι

α
ᾱς
ᾱͅ
αν
α

αι
ῶν
αις
ᾱς
αι

Set 5
M

ης
ου
ῃ
ην
α, η

αι
ῶν
αις
ᾱς
αι

Set 6
M ε, ι, ρ

ᾱς
ου
ᾱͅ
ᾱν
ᾱ

αι
ῶν
αις
ᾱς
αι

2nd Declension
Set 7
Set 8
M/F
Neuter

ος
ου
ῳ
ον
ε

οι
ων
οις
ους
οι

ον
ου
ῳ
ον
ον

α
ων
οις
α
α

ες
ας
ων
σι(ν)
ες

ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς ἡ rule, command; beginningστρατιώτης, στρατιώτου ὁ soldierset 10
set 5
set 2
set 3
set 9
set 2
set 7
set 4
set 8
set 10
set 6
set 1
set 5
set 8
set 3
set 7

-ος
ι
α,ν
--

ες
ων
σι(ν)
ας
ες

set 10
set 5
set 2
set 3
set 9
set 2
set 7
set 4
set 8
set 10
set 6
set 1
set 5

α
α
ων
σι(ν)
α

3rd Declension
Set 9
Set 10
M/F
Neuter

For thebelow,
take takenote ofnote
whatofsetwhatof endings
noun takes.
Forthenouns
nouns
below,
set ofeach
endings
each noun takes.
χρῆμα, χρήματος τό thing , matter, affair; (pl.) moneyχρῆμα, χρήματος τό thing, matter, affair ; (pl.) moneyπολίτης (πολιήτης), πολίτου ὁ citizen, freemanἡμέρᾱ,
ἡμέρᾱςἡ dayπολίτης
(πολιήτης),πολίτου ὁ citizen, freemanθάλαττα, θαλάττης ἡ seaἡμέρᾱ, ἡμέρᾱς ἡ dayπαῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ childχώρᾱ,χώρᾱςθαλάττηςἡ land, countryθάλαττα,ἡ seaθεός, θεοῦ ἡ ὁ god, goddess
παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ childπεῖρα, πείρᾱς ἡ trial, attemptἔργον,
ἔργουτό work,deed,task; building
χώρᾱ,
χώρᾱς
ἡ land,countryπρᾶγμα, πράγματος τό matter, thing, affair; problem
θεός, θεοῦ ἡ ὁ god, goddess
νεανίᾱς, νεανίου ὁ youth, young man
ἀρχή,
ἀρχῆς
ἡ rule,ἡcommand;
beginningπεῖρα,πείρᾱς
trial, attemptστρατιώτης, στρατιώτου ὁ soldierἔργον, ἔργου τό work, deed, task; buildingὅπλον, ὅπλου τό weaponδόξα,δόξης πράγματοςἡ expectation,τό
notion,opinion;πρᾶγμα,matter,thing,reputationaffair; problem
λόγος, λόγου ὁ word, speech, story; reason, accountνεανίᾱς, νεανίου ὁ youth, young man

--ος
ι
--

260

-ος
ι
---

α
ων
σι(ν)
α
α

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set 8δόξα, δόξης ἡ expectation, notion, opinion; reputation

set 3

λόγος, λόγου ὁ word, speech, story; reason, accountset 7γραῦς, γραός ἡ old woman

set 9

Practice Declining Nouns. Decline these nouns with the article (answers are in
the Answer Key): μοῦσα, μούσης ἡ muse and ποιητής, ποιητοῦ ὁ poet.
As you write out the forms, note the similarities and differences with theendings you have already memorized. Writing out the forms helps you toprocess this new information.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, which have been adaptedfrom Euripides’ Medea (Μήδεια). Remember the meanings and functions of thecases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and theirfunctions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the Adjective, Adverb,
Noun, and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and the Case and Function Chartin Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer
Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does.
Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with eachrereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make
this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Ἰάσων: οὐ κρινοῦμαι τῶνδέ σοι τὰ πλείονα. ἀλλ’, εἴ τι βούλῃ παισὶν ἢσαυτῇ, φυγῆς προσωφέλημα, χρημάτων ἐμῶν λαβεῖν πλείονα, ταῦτασχήσεις. ἕτοιμος ἀφθόνῳ διδόναι χειρὶ ξένοις τε πέμπειν σύμβολα. οἱδὲ δράσουσί σ’ εὖ. καὶ ταῦτα μὴ θέλουσα, μωρανεῖς. λήγουσα δ’ ὀργῆς,κερδανεῖς ἀμείνονα.
5Μήδεια: οὐ βούλομαι ξένοις τοῖς σοῖς χρᾶσθαι οὔτε τι δέχεσθαι. κελεύωμὴ ἡμῖν διδόναι. κακοῦ γὰρ ἀνδρὸς δῶρ’ ὄνησιν οὐκ ἔχει.
Ἰάσων: ἀλλʼ οὖν ἐγὼ μὲν δαίμονας μαρτύρομαι ὡς πάνθ’ ὑπουργεῖν σοίτε καὶ τέκνοις θέλω. σοὶ δ’ οὐκ ἀρέσκει τὰ ἀγαθά. ἀλλ’ αὐθαδίᾳ φίλουςἀπωθῇ· τοιγὰρ ἀλγυνῇ πλέον.

10Μήδεια: ὥρα σοὶ χωρεῖν· πόθῳ γὰρ τῆς νεοδμήτου κόρης σπουδάζειςχρονίζειν δωμάτων ἐξώπιος; δοκεῖ σοὶ νυμφεύειν· ἴσως γάρ τοιοῦτονθρηνήσῃ γάμον.

Module 21 | First Declension Short Alpha Nouns

Adverbs and Verbs
ἀλγύνω, ἀλγυνέω pain, grieve,
distress; (fut. mid. and pass.) suffer
pain, be distressedκερδαίνω, κερδανέω gain, derive
profitἀπωθέω, ἀπεώσω thrust away, pushbackκρίνω, κρινέω judge, decide, pick out,choose, separateἀρέσκω, ἀρέσω please + dat.; makegood, make amends

λαβεῖν to take*βούλομαι, βουλήσομαι want,prefer; wish, be willingμαρτύρομαι, μαρτυρέομαι invoke,call to witness

γαμέω, γαμέω or γαμήσω, marry;(mid.) give in marriage, marry (aman)μωραίνω, μωρανέω be silly, befoolishδέχομαι, δέξομαι receive; meet;
encounter; accept; undertake + inf.

νυμφεύω, νυμφεύσω betroth, marry;
give in marriage*δίδωμι give; δίκην δίδωμι I pay thepenalty; δίδωμι χάριν I give thanks*πέμπω, πέμψω send*δοκέω, δόξω seem, think; seem best,
think best + inf.

πλέον moreδράω, δράσω do, accomplish, act

σπουδάζω, σπουδάσω be serious, beearnest; be eager + inf.

*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω have, hold; beable + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be wellτοιγάρ therefore, accordingly*θέλω, θελήσω wish, be willingὑπουργέω, ὑπουργήσω renderservice, help, assist + dat.

θρηνέω, θρηνήσω sing a dirge, wail;bewail*χράομαι, χρήσομαι use, employ,experience + dat.

ἴσως perhapsχρονίζω spend time; tarry, linger*κελεύω, κελεύσω bid, order,
commandχωρέω, χωρήσω make room for;retire; advance

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns*ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν good, nobleὄνησις, ὀνήσεως ἡ use, profit,
advantage; good luckἀμείνονα, ἀμεινόνων τά betterὀργή, ὀργῆς ἡ mood; anger, wrath

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Ancient Greek I*ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ man, husband*παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ childαὐθαδία, αὐθαδίας ἡ willfulness,
stubbornness*πάντα, πάντων τά all, each, wholeἄφθονος, ἄφθονον without envy;
plentifulπλείονα, πλειόνων τά moreγάμος, γάμου ὁ wedding, marriageπόθος, πόθου ὁ yearning for + gen.

δαίμων, δαίμονος ὁ deity; fortune;
destinyπροσωφέλημα, προσωφελήματοςτό help, aidδῶμα, δώματος τό houses

σαυτή, σαυτῆς ἡ yourselfδῶρον, δώρου τό gift*σός, σή, σόν yourἐξώπιος, ἐξώπιον out of sight ofσύμβολον, συμβόλου τό signs,
tokens, codesἕτοιμος, ἑτοίμη, ἕτοιμον ready, at
hand; able + inf.

τέκνον, τέκνου τό child*θέλουσα, θελούσης ἡ wishing, being *τοιοῦτος, τοιαύτη, τοιοῦτο of such
willinga kind or sort*κακός, κακή, κακόν bad, evil,
cowardly*φίλος, φίλου ὁ friendκόρη, κόρης ἡ girl; daughterφυγή, φυγῆς ἡ flight, escape, exile

λήγουσα, ληγούσης ἡ staying,abating; stopping, ceasing from + gen.

*χείρ, χειρός ἡ (dat pl. χερσίν)hand; force, armyνεόδμητος, νεόδμητον newly tamed;
new-wedded*χρῆμα, χρήματος τό thing; (pl.)
goods, money, propertyξένος (ξεῖνος), ξένου (ξείνου) ὁstranger; guest-friendὥρα, ὥρας ἡ season, period, time

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentence foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person,
number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them.
For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For
adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.
πόθῳ γὰρ τῆς νεοδμήτου κόρης σπουδάζεις χρονίζειν δωμάτων ἐξώπιος;
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Module 21 | First Declension Short Alpha Nouns

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History
History begins with Herodotos. Though influenced by epic, travelogues, medical
treatises, and other intellectual writings, Herodotos and his Histories are
discontinuous. They represent a distinct break with the past in their creationof a new genre intent on explaining what happened in the fighting between
the Greeks and the barbarians and on preserving other items of interest,
including customs, fauna, flora, great works, sexual mores, and religious beliefs.
Thoukydides continued Herodotos’ novel approach, writing a contemporary
history of the Peloponnesian Wars, which he called an objective presentationof what really happened and a κτῆμα ἐς αἰεί, possession for all time. Xenophon
then picked up where Thoukydides left off, starting his Hellenika in 411 BCE andending in 362 BCE. Our fascination with histories, myths, and stories of all sorts
continues today as we seek to understand the present and predict the future
through our study of the past.
Module 21 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words,
the greater mastery of the language you will have.
Nouns and Adjectivesἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν good, noble
δόξα, δόξης ἡ expectation, notion, opinion; reputationθάλασσα (θάλαττα), θαλάσσης ἡ seaμόνος, μόνη, μόνον only, sole, alone, solitary; oneπολέμιος, πολεμίᾱ, πολέμιον hostileπρότερος, προτέρᾱ, πρότερον prior, before, soonerπρῶτος, πρώτη, πρῶτον first, for the present, just nowσός, σή, σόν yourφίλος, φίλη, φίλον friendly, kind, well-disposed + dat.; (n.) friend

Etymology Corner XXI by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 17, Parts of Speech
Verbs, cont. The word finis in Latin means end, so finite verbs are doubly appropriate
in English. On a small level, the verb has an ending on it (a finis). On a broader level,

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Ancient Greek I

the endings limit the action of a verb to a person and number doing it and making theaction finite. When a verb has no limitations of person and number, i.e., no endings, it
is an infinitive. Infinitives are translated in English with to, and you can rememberthat from the famous saying of Buzz Lightyear who became a grammarian after the
Toy Story series: “To = infinitive! And beyond!”
What to Study and Do 21. Before moving on to the next module, make sure thatyou have memorized the short-alpha noun endings and can decline these nouns frommemory. Also make sure that you understand that each noun takes one ending set.
Finally make sure that you understand how to read the chart on noun endings.
Learning Tip 21: Learn from Mistakes and Successes. Look for the errors behind
your mistakes but beware of rearview-mirror hindsight biases. Own your failures
and your mistakes. The most common error is to learn too little from your mistakes,
though the opposite is also possible. Also evaluate your successes—were you justlucky or did you reason things out correctly? Consider this culinary example. You
cook a dish that does not taste as good as you wish. Consider the ingredients you used,
how you cooked it, and how you spiced it. Find your error and look to correct it. If
your spicing is off, try using more or less salt and balancing your flavors with acid.
Learning to do anything consistently well requires an understanding of what works
and what does notModule 22

The Relative Pronoun

The Relative Pronoun
The relative pronoun in Greek is defined in the same way as the relative pronoun
is in English. The function of the Greek pronoun (ἀντωνυμία) differs from theEnglish because it creates meaning through case endings much more extensively
than the English pronoun does. Relative pronouns in both languages take theplace of nouns. These pronouns are called relative because they are related
to another word in the sentence. This related word is called the antecedent.
Relative pronouns always introduce a clause. A clause has a subject and a verb.
Relative clauses have a subject, a verb, and a relative pronoun.

The Relative Pronoun and Word Order
In English and in Greek the relative pronoun comes first in its relative clause
unless it is the object of a preposition, in which case it comes second: whom I
see and by whom I sit.

The Relative Pronoun in English
The Relative Pronoun in English is who, whom, whose; which; that andsometimes what. The English relative pronoun has the following case forms:
Subjective who

which

that

what

Objective

whom

which

that

what

Possessive whose

whose

whose

------

Relative clauses form part of a dependent clause because these clauses do notform a complete thought and therefore cannot stand on their own as complete© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.26

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sentences. Rather, relative clauses serve to describe some detail about theirantecedent.
Consider the following passage from Moby Dick (1851). The relative pronouns
are in bold and their antecedents are underlined. Parentheses are included toindicate the beginning and end of the relative clause.
It was a queer sort of place—a gable-ended old house, one sidepalsied as it were, and leaning over sadly. It stood on a sharp bleakcorner, where that tempestuous wind Euroclydon kept up a worse
howling than ever it did about poor Paul’s tossed craft. Euroclydon,
nevertheless, is a mighty pleasant zephyr to any one in-doors, withhis feet on the hob quietly toasting for bed. “In judging of thattempestuous wind called Euroclydon,” says an old writer—(of whose
works I possess the only copy extant)—”it maketh a marvellous
difference, whether thou lookest out at it from a glass window where
the frost is all on the outside, or whether thou observest it from thatsashless window, where the frost is on both sides, and (of which
the wight Death is the only glazier).” True enough, thought I, as thispassage occurred to my mind—old black-letter, thou reasonest well.
Yes, these eyes are windows, and this body of mine is the house.
What a pity they didn’t stop up the chinks and the crannies though,and thrust in a little lint here and there. But it’s too late to makeany improvements now. The universe is finished; the copestone ison, and the chips were carted off a million years ago. Poor Lazarus
there, chattering his teeth against the curbstone for his pillow, andshaking off his tatters with his shiverings, he might plug up both ears
with rags, and put a corn-cob into his mouth, and yet (that would not
keep out the tempestuous Euroclydon). Euroclydon! says old Dives,in his red silken wrapper—he had a redder one afterwards—pooh,
pooh! What a fine frosty night; how Orion glitters; what northernlights! Let them talk of their oriental summer climes of everlasting
conservatories; give me the privilege of making my own summer
with my own coals.
In learning relative pronouns, you must memorize the definition of a relative
pronoun and a relative clause. You must also memorize the forms of the relative
pronoun. If you can pick out relative pronouns and relative clauses in English,
you can transfer this knowledge to your understanding of the relative pronoun
in Greek.
Practice Identifying the Relative Pronoun in English. Pick out the antecedents
and the relative pronouns from this slightly adapted excerpt from Robin Kelley’s
Thelonious Monk: The Life and Times of an American Original (2009). Check youranswers with those in the Answer Key.

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Coltrane had been playing Monk’s tunes as part of Miles Davis’
band but he wanted to learn more, in particular “Monk’s Mood.” So,
one night at the Algonquin on 63rd, Nica’s house, a place at which
they often practiced, Thelonious sat down with ‘Trane and taught
him “Monk’s Mood.” Hungry to know more Coltrane made a trip
which became an almost daily pilgrimage to West 63rd Street. He
recounted these visits to critic August Blume with whom he met ayear later: “I’d go by Monk’s house, you know. By his apartment,
and get him out of bed, maybe. And he’d wake up and go over to the
piano, which was in his bedroom, and start playing, you know. He’dplay anything, like one of his tunes or whatever. He starts playing
it, and he’d look at me. I’d get my horn and start trying to find thething that he’s playing. And he tended to play over, and over, andover, and over, and I’d get this far. Next time we’d go over it, I’d
get another part. He would stop when we came to parts that werepretty difficult. And if I had a lot of trouble, he’d get out his portfolio,
which he always had with him, and I’d see the music, the music
which he had written out. And I’d read it and learn. He believed a
guy learned best without music. That way you feel it better. You feelit quicker when you memorize it and you learn it by heart, by ear.
When I almost had the tune which he was teaching me down, thenhe would leave, leave me with it to fight with it alone. And he’d goout somewhere, maybe go to the store, or go to bed or something.
And I’d just stay there and run over it until I had it pretty well andI’d call him and we’d put it down together. Sometimes we’d just get
one tune a day.”

The Forms of the Relative Pronoun ὅς, ἥ, ὅ
Below are the forms for the relative pronoun in Greek. Note that like Greek
nouns, pronouns have gender, number, and case, and so when you encounter
them, you will often need to supply the appropriate preposition. Note also thatthe relative pronoun forms are nearly identical to the noun endings you havealready memorized.

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Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

ὅς

ἥ

ὅ

N

οἵ

αἵ

ἅ

A

ὅν

ἥν

ὅ

A

οὕς

ἅς (ᾱ)

ἅ

G

οὗ

ἧς

οὗ

G

ὧν

ὧν

ὧν

D

ᾧ

ᾗ

ᾧ

D

οἷς

αἷς

οἷς

Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

ὅς

ἥ

ὅ

N

οἵ

αἵ

ἅ

G

οὗ

ἧς

οὗ

G

ὧν

ὧν

ὧν

D

ᾧ

ᾗ

ᾧ

D

οἷς

αἷς

οἷς

A

ὅν

ἥν

ὅ

A

οὕς

ἅς (ᾱ)

ἅConsider the following sentences and note the relative pronouns (in bold) andtheir antecedents (underlined):
1. ἀνέθηκε δὲ κρητῆρά τε ἀργύρεον μέγαν καὶ ὑποκρητηρίδιον σιδήρεονκολλητόν, θέης ἄξιον διὰ πάντων τῶν ἐν Δελφοῖσι ἀναθημάτων,Γλαύκου τοῦ Χίου ποίημα, ὃς μοῦνος δὴ πάντων ἀνθρώπων σιδήρουκόλλησιν ἐξεῦρε (Herodotos).
He dedicated a large silver mixing bowl and a wrought iron stand. Of all
the offerings in Delphi it is worth seeing the work of Glaukos from Khios,the person among all of humankind who invented the welding of iron.
2. περὶ δὲ τῶν τοῦ Νείλου πηγέων οὐδεὶς ἔχει λέγειν· ἀοίκητός τε γὰρ καὶἔρημος ἐστὶ ἡ Λιβύη δι᾽ ἧς ῥέει (Herodotos).
About the source of the Nile no one can say since Libya, through which it
flows, is uninhabited and a desert.
3. σὺ καὶ ἐμοὶ τολμᾷς συμβουλεύειν, ὃς χρηστῶς μὲν τὴν σεωυτοῦ πατρίδαἐπετρόπευσας (Herodotos).
You dare give me advice? You who so expertly governed your own
country?
4. ἐτύγχανον παιδὸς Φέρητος, ὃν θανεῖν ἐρρυσάμην Μοίρας δολώσας
(Euripides).
I met the child of Pheres, whom I saved from dying by tricking the Fates.
5. ἀλλ’ ἣν ἔθαπτον, εἰσορῶ δάμαρτ’ ἐμήν (Euripides);Module 22 | The Relative Pronoun

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But do I look upon my wife, whom I buried?
In each, the relative pronoun has a noun or pronoun in the sentence to which
it is related. The noun or pronoun to which it is related is called the relative
pronoun’s antecedent. The antecedent typically precedes the relative pronoun,as occurs in each example except the last. The relative pronoun agrees with
its antecedent in gender and number but takes its case from its use in its own
clause.
Practice Parsing in English. Consider these English sentences (the antecedentis underlined and the relative pronoun is in bold). For each sentence parse thewords by specifying which case each word would be in if you translated it into
Greek and by specifying what function the case has. It may be helpful to use theCase and Function Chart in Appendix I. Then check the Answer Key, making
sure that you understand why each word is parsed as it is.
1. He dedicated a silver bowl and an iron stand, the work of Glaukos, who
discovered the welding of iron.
2. Noone knows about the Nile’s source. Libya, through which it flows, isuninhabited and desolate.
3. Discover the item which you deem of most value and about which, iflost, you will be most upset.
4. You, who governed your own country so expertly, dare to give me
advice?
5. He goes to ask the oracle if he will capture the land against which hemarches.
6. Noone’s country has everything; the land that has the most is best.
7. I share in any misfortune for which you suspect me responsible.
8. Am I looking at the woman whom I married?
9. He allowed me to stay for one day during which I will make threecorpses of my enemies.
10. I met Pheres’ son whom I saved from dying by tricking the fates.
Practice Parsing the Relative Pronoun. Translate the sentences. For eachsentence, parse the words by specifying the case and function each noun,
pronoun, and adjective has. For verbs and adverbs identify them as such. It
may be helpful to use the Case and Function Chart in Appendix I. Check youranswers with those in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand whyeach word is parsed as it is.
1. ὁ ἀνὴρ σοφός.
2. ὁ ἀνήρ, οὗ ὁ υἱὸς φεύγει, κακός.

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3. ὁ ἀνήρ, ᾧ δῶρον δίδωμι, φίλος.
4. ὁ ἀνήρ, ὃν ὁ φίλος παιδεύει, χαλεπός.
5. ὦ ἄνερ, ὃς φεύγεις, μὴ φεῦγε.
6. ἡ γυνὴ καλή.
7. ἡ γυνή, ἧς δῶρα ὁράω, χαλεπή.
8. ἡ γυνή, ᾗ δῶρα πέμπω, φίλη.
9. ἡ γυνή, ἣν ὁ υἱὸς φεύγει, κακή.
10. ὦ γύναι, ἣ καλὰ ἔχεις, μὴ φεῦγε.
Vocabulary*ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ human, *υἱός, υἱοῦ ὁ son, childperson*γυνή, γυναικός ἡ woman, wife*φεύγω, φεύξομαι flees; μὴ φεῦγεdon’t flee*δίδωμι give; δίκην δίδωμι I pay the *φίλος, φίλου ὁ friend
penalty; δίδωμι χάριν I give thanks*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω have, hold; be δῶρον, δώρου τό giftable + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be well*κακός, κακή,cowardly

κακόν

bad,

evil, παιδεύω, παιδεύσω to educate, teach*καλός, καλή, καλόν goodσοφός, σοφή, σοφόν wise*ὁραω, ὄψομαι seeφιλέω, φιλήσω love*πέμπω, πέμψω send

χαλεπός, χαλεπή, χαλεπόν difficult

The Relative Pronoun in Summary
In sum the relative pronoun takes the place of a noun and functions just asother Greek nouns and pronouns do. It has the special quality of being related
to another noun in the sentence, called the antecedent. The relative pronoun
agrees with its antecedent in gender and number but takes its case and function
from its use in the relative clause.
Sophokles of Athens, Σοφοκλῆς ὁ Ἀθηναῖος c. 497–406 BCE. Sophokles wrote
satyr plays and tragedies. He composed over 120 plays and seven have survived,
the most famous being Oidipous Tyrannos (Oedipus Rex) Οἰδίπους Τύραννος,and Antigone Ἀντιγόνη. He is said to have won twenty-four of the thirty
competitions he entered. In other contests he was placed second, but never third.

Module 22 | The Relative Pronoun311

His extant plays are seven: Oidipous Tyrannos, Oidipous at Kolonos, Antigone,
Ajax, Philoktetes, Elektra, and Trakhiniae. Sophokles is said to have portrayedpeople as better than they are in reality. He was the son of Sophilos, a wealthy
industrialist. In 443 he was imperial treasurer. He was elected general at least
twice, once in 440 when he was a colleague of Perikles in the suppression of theSamian revolt, and again with Nikias. After the Sikilian disaster, he was one of
the ten elected to deal with the crisis. He was priest of the healing deity Amynos
and made his house a place of worship for Asklepios until the temple being built
for the deity was completed. In recognition of this, Sophokles was worshipped
as a hero after his death.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, which have been adaptedfrom Sophokles’ Philoktetes (Φιλοκτήτης). Remember the meanings andfunctions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify
endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult
the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and theCase and Function Chart in Appendix I. Check your understanding with thetranslations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why eachword translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or threetimes, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of thesentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Νεοπτόλεμος: ἐγὼ μέν, τοὺς λόγους κλύων, ἀλγῶ φρένα, Λαερτίου
παῖ· ταῦτα γὰρ πράσσειν στυγῶ καὶ φύω οὐδὲν ἐκ τέχνης πράσσεινκακῆς, καὶ αὐτὸς καὶ ὁ πατήρ. ἀλλ’ εἴμ’ ἑτοῖμος πρὸς βίαν τὸν ἄνδρʼἄγειν καὶ μὴ δόλοις. οὐ γὰρ ἐξ ἑνὸς ποδὸς ἡμᾶς τοσούσδε πρὸς βίανχειρώσεται. σοὶ ξυνεργάτης ὀκνῶ προδότης καλεῖσθαι. βούλομαι δ’,ἄναξ, καλῶς δράων, καὶ ἐξαμαρτάνειν μᾶλλον ἢ νικάειν κακῶς.
Ὀδυσσεύς: ἐσθλοῦ πατρὸς παῖ, καὶ ὢν νέος ποτὲ γλῶσσαν μὲν ἀργόν,χεῖρα δ’ ἔχω ἐργάτιν. νῦν δ’ ὡς εἰς ἔλεγχον ἐξέρχομαι, καὶ ὁρῶ ὅτιβροτοῖς ἡ γλῶσσα, οὐ τὰ ἔργα, πάνθ’ ἡγέεται.
Νεοπτόλεμος: τί οὐ με κελεύεις ἄλλο πλὴν ψευδὲς λέγειν;Ὀδυσσεύς: κελεύω σ’ ἐγὼ δόλῳ Φιλoκτήτην λαβεῖν.
Νεοπτόλεμος: τί δ’ ἐν δόλῳ δεῖ λαβεῖν μᾶλλον ἢ πεῖσαι;Ὀδυσσεύς: οὐ πείσεται καὶ πρὸς βίαν οὐκ ἔστιν ἄγειν αὐτόν.
Νεοπτόλεμος: ὁ δ’ οὕτως ἔχει δεινὸν ἰσχύος θράσος;Ὀδυσσεύς: ἰούς γʼ ἀφύκτους ἔχει, οἳ προπέμπουσι φόνον.
Νεοπτόλεμος: οὐκ ἆρ’ ἐκείνῳ γ’ οὐδὲ προσμῖξαι ἡμῖν θρασύ;Ὀδυσσεύς: ἔστιν εἰ δόλῳ αὐτὸν λαμβάνομεν, ὡς ἐγὼ λέγω.

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Adverbs, Prepositions, and Verbs*ἄγω, ἄξω do, drive, lead

*λαμβάνω, λήψομαι take, receive;
captureἀλγέω, ἀλγήσω feel pain, suffer*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω say, tell, speakἆρα indicates a question, often
expects the answer no; ἆρα οὐ
expects a yesνικάω, νικήσω win, conquer, prevail*βούλομαι, βουλήσομαι want,prefer; wish, be willingὀκνέω, ὀκνήσω scruple, hesitate + inf.

*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possible*ὁράω, ὀψομαι seeἐξαμαρτάνω, ἐξαμαρτήσομαι err,
miss the mark, fail*πείθω, πείσω persuade; (mid. or
pass.) listen to, obey + dat. or gen.

ἐξέρχομαι, ἐξελεύσομαι go out,
come outπλήν except for + gen.

*ἔστι (ν) it is possible*πράσσω (πράττω), πράξω do, make;fare; + κακῶς suffer*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω have, hold; beable + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be wellπροπέμπω, -πεμψω send first, send on*ἡγέομαι, ἡγήσομαι lead; believe;
lead, command + dat.

προσμῖξαι to approach + dat.

*καλέω, καλέω callστυγέω, στυγήσω hate, abhor*κελεύω, κελεύσω bid, order,
commandφύω, φύσω be born; beget, produce;
grow; by nature be born + inf.

*λαβεῖν to take, to captureχειρόω, χειρώσω master, subdue

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns*ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο another, otherβία, βίας ἡ strength, forceἄναξ, ἄνακτος ὁ prince, lord, kingβροτός, βροτοῦ ὁ mortal*ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ man, husband

γλῶσσα (γλῶττα), γλώσσης ἡtongue, languageἀργός, ἀργή, ἀργόν (-ος, -ον) idle,
lazy; not done*δεινός, δεινή, δεινόν awesome,fearsome, terribleἄφυκτος, ἄφυκτον inescapable;unerring, inevitableδόλος, δόλου ὁ bait, trap; cunning

Module 22 | The Relative Pronounδράων, δράοντος ὁ doing,
accomplishing, actingξυνεργάτης, ξυνεργάτου ὁ
accomplice, assistantἔλεγχος, ἐλέγχου ὁ testing, scrutiny*παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ childἐργάτις, ἐργάτιδος ἡ laboring,industrious*πάντα, πάντων τά all, each, whole*ἔργον, ἔργου τό deed, task, work;building; ἔργον in truth, in deed*πατήρ, πατρός ὁ fatherἐσθλός, ἐσθλή, ἐσθλόν noble, fine,goodπούς, ποδός ὁ footἕτοιμος, ἑτοίμη, ἕτοιμον ready, at
hand; able + inf.

προδότης, προδότεος (-ους) ὁ
traitor, betrayerθράσος, θράσεος (-ους) τό courage;
rashnessτέχνη, τέχνης ἡ skill, artθρασύ, θρασέος (-ους) τό bold; rashτόξον, τόξου τό bowἰός, ἰοῦ ὁ arrowτοσοίδε, τοσῶνδε οἱ so much, so
many

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ἰσχύς, ἰσχύος ἡ strength, force, might Φιλoκτήτης, Φιλoκτήτου ὁ
Philoktetes*κακός, κακή, κακόν bad, evil,
cowardlyφόνος, φόνου ὁ murderκλύων, κλύοντος ὁ hearing, giving
ear to, attending to; hearing ‘x’ in acc.
from ‘y’ in gen.

φρήν, φρενός ἡ midriff, heart; mindΛαέρτιος, Λαερτίου ὁ Laertes*χείρ, χειρός ἡ (dat pl. χερσίν) hand;force, army*λόγος, λόγου ὁ word, speech, story;reason, accountψευδέα (-ῆ), ψευδέων τά false*νέος, νέᾱ, νέον new, fresh, young;strange, unexpected*ὤν, ὄντος ὁ being

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentence foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person,
number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them.
For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For
adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

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Ancient Greek Iἔστιν εἰ δόλῳ αὐτὸν λαμβάνομεν, ὡς ἐγὼ λέγω.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
Module 22 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words,
the greater mastery of the language you will have.
Adjectives and PronounsἈθηναῖος, Ἀθηναίᾱ, Ἀθηναῖον Athenian, of or from Athensἄξιος, ἀξίᾱ, ἄξιον worthy, deserving + gen.
ἀμφότερος, ἀμφοτέρᾱ, ἀμφότερον bothἴδιος, ἰδίᾱ, ἴδιον one’s own; one’s selfἱερός, ἱερά, ἱερόν holy; (n. in sg.) temple; (n. in pl.) sacrificesκακός, κακή, κακόν bad, evil, cowardlyὅς, ἥ, ὅ who, whose, whom; which, that; ᾗ by which way, just as; ἐν ᾧ while; ἐς ὅ
until
ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅ τι whoever, whateverVerbsἀξιόω, ἀξιώσω, ἠξίωσα, ἠξίωκα, ἠξίωμαι, ἠξιώθην deem worthy, think fit + ‘x’
in acc. + inf.; expect + ‘x’ in acc. + inf; deem ‘x’ in acc. worthy of ‘y’ in gen.
ἀποθνῄσκω (θνῄσκω), ἀποθανέομαι, ἀπέθανον, τέθνηκα, ------, ------ die, perish

Etymology Corner XXII by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 18, Parts of Speech
Verbs, cont. Verbs also have tense and aspect or tense-aspect, which is unrelated to
how you may feel learning all this new vocabulary. Tense meaning stressed is froman entirely different root than tense meaning the time a verb happened, even though
the words are spelled the same. Words like these are homonyms. Here’s yet anotherexample of how English is confusing, and Greek wouldn’t put up with that nonsense.
A verb tense comes from the Latin tempus, time, like in temporary (something for alimited time) and the cliché tempus fugit, time flies.
Aspect has an easy etymology but took a winding road before grammarians picked
it up. Aspect comes from to look towards (from Latin spectare, like spectacles which
you look through or an inspector who looks into stuff + the prefix ad like adhereModule 22 | The Relative Pronoun

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meaning to cling to something). It seems to have its origin in astronomy, describing
the relative positions of two objects, i.e., how they look at each other. If you extend thatconcept of relative motion and position and squint a little, you can see how one could
use that to describe if an action is complete (perfective), incomplete (imperfective),or in a state (stative). When an action has been entirely full/fulfilled, it’s completed.
Use the prefix in not and you have an action that is not entirely full/fulfilled and is inprogress or is repeated. Progress derives from stepping forward (gradior/gressus,
which gives us aggressive—someone stepping up on us—and grade—what step you
are at in school, what level your work was); repeated comes from asking for something
again (petere like in petition, a form people sign asking for change). The progressive/
repeatedness of the incomplete aspect has the sense of the action going along or
going back to it. Action in a state (στάσις) results from a previously completed action
or from a completed action whose effects are still relevant.
What to Study and Do 22. Before moving on to the next module, make sure thatyou have memorized the forms of the relative pronoun and that you can write themout from memory. Remember that the relative pronoun takes its gender and number
from its antecendent and its case from its use in its own clause. Also be sure you canparse relative pronouns and their antecedents.
Learning Tip 22: Seek to Access the Creative. The creative minds of artists, composers,
poets, scientists, and songwriters speak of their most creative moments as the mysteryof a muse or some outside force speaking through them. This creativity exists for allof us to tap into. Meditation, novelty, and travel are supposed to help. Learn how
to access creativity through concentrated effort, open-mindedness, and a letting goof control. Employing memory strategies enables you to combine the processing of
new information with your ability to let your mind create memorable images andassociations. Rhymed pegging is a way to use numbers in order to remember items ina specific order. In this strategy, you rhyme an item with each number, like so:
One BunTwo Shoe
Three Tree
Four Door
Five Hive
Six Sticks
Seven Heaven
Eight Gate
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Ancient Greek I

Ten HenNext you associate items in a list with each rhymed peg. Let’s revisit our list of ten
Greek writers,
Homer, Herakleitos, Anakreon, Mimnermos,
Thoukydides, Aiskhylos, Sophokles, Euripides,

Sappho,Herodotos,

picking up with the author Mimnermos. For Mimnermos I think of the words I’m
Nervous. Next I link Mimnermos and I’m Nervous to One Bun. I think of a bun filledwith snake eyes covered in an onion and mustard sauce. Mimnermos dates to about
630 BCE. 630 can be represented by the word James. I picture Jesse James making funof me because I’m nervous to eat the bun filled with snake eyes, covered in an onion
mustard sauce. For Sappho I think of a hoe covered with tree sap. I’ve just stepped on
the hoe and got sap all over my shoe. When I stepped on the hoe, the handle hit mynose, making it turn big and blue. Sappho dates to about 630. The words shims canrepresent the number 630. I take one of the many shims, scattered on the ground anduse it to try to remove the sap from my shoe. Herodotos makes me think of heroes
and dots. I picture the Greek heroes Jason and Herakles wearing polka dotted dresses
as they try to climb a huge tree where the golden fleece is stuck high in the branches
and wrapped around the club of the hero Herakles. Herodotos dates to about 484. The
number 484 can be represented by the word river. The hero Herakles suggests to thehero Jason that they divert the nearby river so as to knock down the tree and recover
the golden fleece and club.
For the remaining authors, try making up your own associations. Kevin Horsley
explains a second pegging system that you can use. This strategy asks you to relate
a number to an object. In this pegging system, zero is a soccer ball. One is a pencil.
Two is a duck. Three is a camel. Four is a sailboat. Five is a snake. Six is an elephant.
Seven is a fishing rod and line. Eight is a snowman. Nine is a balloon and string. Each
item represents the shape of its number. And so the fishing rod and line form thenumber 7. In using this pegging system, you apply a similar strategy, linking the item
you want to remember to the object that the number represents instead of to theobject the number rhymes with. Remember to use your creativity to remember new
information.

Self-Assessment Modules 14–22

Rate yourself on a scale of 1 to 10, where 10 represents mastery and 1 its opposite.
Answer each of the below thoughtfully. For any score less than a 7, review thematerial.

MEMORY
1. Have I memorized all of the high frequency vocabulary?
2. Have I memorized all of the endings for noun ending sets 1–10?
3. Have I memorized the verb endings for μι-verbs and for ω-verbs?
4. Have I memorized the verb forms for εἰμί and οἶδα?
5. Have I memorized the personal pronouns?
6. Have I memorized the common adjectives and pronouns?

APPLICATION AND CONCEPTS
1. Can I define the eight parts of speech and pick out the function of eachin sentences in English and in Greek?
2. Can I define a prepositional phrase and pick them out in sentences inEnglish and in Greek?
3. Do I understand how endings create meaning?
4. Can I apply the Case and Function Chart when reading and translating?
5. Can I define and explain the following verb qualities: person, number,tense-aspect, mood, and voice?
6. Can I define and explain transitive and intransitive verbs?
7. Can I define an infinitive and explain how it functions as a dynamic
complement?
8. Can I define and explain noun and adjective agreement?

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9. Do I understand how word order creates meaning in attributive andpredicate position?
10. Do I understand how word order is important but not decisive in theway that noun, pronoun, and verb endings are decisive?

READING AND TRANSLATING
1. Do I read the sentences in Greek one or more times before I start totranslate?
2. As I translate, am I able to identify endings and vocabulary with ease?
3. Do I have a sense for how a sentence develops meaning from beginningto end?
4. Do I check my translations with the answers?
5. Do I read through the Greek sentences two or more times after I havean accurate understanding of each sentence’s meaning?
6. Can I parse each word in a sentence?

Module 23

The Imperfect and Aorist Indicativeof λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι,τίθημι

The Verb
In Greek and in English verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs
are words that represent actions (throw) and states of being (be or exist). They
differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English
counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English doesnot. The Greek verb (ῥῆμα) in its finite form has an ending that indicates what
person and number the subject is. The Greek infinitive has an ending thatindicates that it is unmarked for person and number.

μι-Verbs Contrasted with ω-Verbs
μι-Verbs conjugate in the same way that ω-verbs do but employ different
stems and endings in some tenses. With regard to the concepts of aspect andtime, ω-verbs and μι-verbs are the same. They are also the same in how they
form their augments. As is the case with ω-verbs, to conjugate μι-verbs withaccuracy, you must add the correct ending to the correct tense stem.

The Past Indicative Augment
Past time is indicated in verbs that begin with a consonant by adding the prefix,
ἐ-, called the past indicative augment. In verbs that begin with a vowel ordiphthong the past indicative augment is created as outlined in the chart foundbelow.

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Unaugmented Stem Vowel

Augmented Stem Vowel

α

η

ᾱ

η

η

η

ε

η

ι

ῑ

ῑ

ῑ

ο

ω

υ

ῡ

ῡ

ῡ

αι

ῃ

αυ

ηυ

ει

ῃ

ευ

ηυ

οι

ῳ

ου

ου

ω

ω

The imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect indicative tenses have a past indicative
augment. Consider the different ways that the English verb creates past tenses
and compare and contrast them with how the Greek verb does. Also take notethat when a verb has a prefix, the accent never moves beyond the past indicative
augment,προεῖδον Ι or they forsaw.

Tense-Aspect
Time (tense) refers to the past, present, and future. Aspect refers to whether anaction is incomplete (imperfective), complete (perfective), or in a state (stative).
The present tense stem, which is used to form the present and imperfect tenses,
communicates an incomplete action. The beginnings and ends of the action are
undefined. Thus the tense-aspect for the present is present ongoing or repeated
and the tense-aspect for the imperfect is past ongoing or repeated (imperfective).
The aorist tense stem communicates a completed action as a single whole. The
boundaries of the action’s beginning and end define the action as complete(perfective). The future tense stems have a temporal value but no aspect,Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι

321

showing no distinction between the imperfective (incomplete) and perfective(complete) aspect (CGCG 33.4–6).

The Gnomic Aorist
When it refers to actions that state a general truth or commonality, the aorist
tense stresses the universality of the verb’s action or state of being. Read thefollowing sentences,τέχνη τύχην ἔστερξε καὶ τύχη τέχνην (Agathon, fragment 6 TrGF 39F6),
Skill loves fortune and fortune loves skill;andῥώμη δὲ μετὰ μὲν φρονήσεως ὠφέλησεν (Isokrates, To Demonikos 5–8),
Strength combined with intelligence creates;andπαθόντες ἐμάθομεν (Greek proverb),
From suffering we learn.
In each sentence the aorist tense—ἔστερξε (loves), ὠφέλησεν (creates),ἐμάθομεν (learn)—is used to express a timeless truth. For more examples, see
CGCG 33.31.

The Aorist Contrasted with the Imperfect Tense
Both tenses typically refer to actions that have occurred in past time. The aorist
and the imperfect differ in aspect in accordance with what you have just read.

The First Aorist and the Second Aorist
If the third principal part ends in –α or –αμην, it is called a first aorist and if it
ends in –ον or –ομην, it is referred to as a second aorist. There is no difference inmeaning. Consider the following verbs. Look at the third principal part and note
whether it ends in –α, –αμην or –ον, –ομην. First aorist endings are highlighted.
Second aorist endings are underlined.
ἄγω, ἄξω, ἤγαγον do, drive, leadsecond aoristαἰσθάνομαι, αἰσθήσομαι, ᾐσθόμην perceive

second aoristβουλεύω, βουλεύσω, ἐβούλευσα plan

first aoristγράφω, γράψω, ἔγραψα write

first aorist

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Ancient Greek Iἐργάζομαι, ἐργάσομαι, ἠργασάμην be busy, first aorist
work at; do------, ἐρέω, εἶπον say

second aoristἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον have, holdsecond aoristἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι, ἦλθον come, go

second aoristθύω, θύσω, ἔθυσα sacrificefirst aorist

λέγω, λέξω, ἔλεξα say, tell, speak

first aorist

1. In the top 250 vocabulary, this textbook combines the principal partsof λέγω and ------, ἐρέω.

The Aorist of μι-Verbs
The type of aorist a μι-verb has is often ambiguous. Consider these μι-verbs,δίδωμιδώσωἔδωκα*

δέδωκαδέδομαιἐδόθην

δείκνῡμιδείξωἔδειξαδέδειχαδέδειγμαιἐδείχθην

ἵημι

ἥσω

-ἧκα*

-εἷκα

-εἷμαι

-εἷθην

ἵστημιστήσω

ἔστησαἕστηκαἕσταμαιἐστάθηνἔστην**
τίθημιθήσωἔθηκα*

τέθηκατέθειμαιἐτέθην

φημί

φήσω

ἔφησα

------------------

noting that the forms marked by a single asterisk, ἔδωκα, ἔθηκα, and -ἧκα, arereferred to as mixed aorists because they use a combination of endings fromω-verbs and μι-verbs. These third principal parts are indistinguishable fromfirst aorist forms. For this reason, you must memorize which μι-verbs have amixed aorist. The form marked by two asterisks, ἔστην, is called a root aorist
because it uses a long-vowel grade in forming the singular and plural of theaorist active and middle. Unmarked forms ἔδειξα, ἔστησα, ἔφησα are firstaorists and are conjugated just like first aorists of ω-verbs.

The Infinitive
Remember that in English and in Greek the infinitive is unmarked for person andfor number. Ιt is classified as a verbal noun and is best understood by thinking

Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι

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of its function as completing or enhancing the meaning of adjectives, clauses,
nouns, and verbs. This is why the infinitive is referred to as a complement.
Sometimes classified as a mood, the infinitive is potential in meaning, ἐνδυνάμει, because its action may or may not be realized. There are two typesof infinitives, the declarative and the dynamic. Both the declarative and the
dynamic infinitives refer to actions which exist potentially or ἐν δυνάμει.
The dynamic infinitive is negated by the abverb μή not and not οὐ not. οὐ nottypically negates the declarative infinitive with some exceptions.

The Aorist Infinitive Contrasted with the Present
Infinitive
Except in indirect statements, covered in detail in Module 25, where the infinitive
stands for an original finite verb, the only difference in meaning between theaorist and present infinitives is aspectual: the aorist infinitive communicatesa completed aspect as a single whole; the present infinitive has an incomplete
action, whose beginnings and ends are undefined.
Compare and contrast the forms and aspects of the two infinitives:λέγειν to say (incomplete aspect)λέξαι to say (completed aspect)εἰπεῖν to say (completed aspect)ἔχειν to have (incomplete aspect)σχεῖν to have (completed aspect)ἐργάζεσθαι to do (incomplete aspect)ἐργάσασθαι to do (completed aspect)διδόναι to give (incomplete aspect)δοῦναι to give (completed aspect)

Stems for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of ω-Verbs
Imperfect Active, Middle, and Passive Tense Stem. To obtain the imperfecttense stem of ω-verbs, remove the ending from the first principal part. Whatremains is the present and imperfect active, middle, and passive tense stem.
If the stem begins with a consonant, add the past indicative augment, ἐ-, to thestem’s beginning. If the stem begins with a vowel or diphthong, augment it inaccordance with the past indicative augment chart found above.

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Ancient Greek I

The Aorist Active, Middle, and Passive Tense Stem of ω-verbs. The aorist
tense stems are formed from principal part III (active and middle) and principal
part VI (passive). To obtain the aorist tense stem of ω-verbs, remove the ending
from the third or sixth principal part. What remains is the aorist tense stem. In
the lexical entries, these forms are already augmented. Consider the principal
parts of λύω,
λύω, λύσω, ἔλυσα (active and middle), λέλυκα, λέλυμαι, ἐλύθην (passive),noting that the third and sixth principal parts are already augmented and thatthe augmented aorist stems are ἔλυσ- and ἐλύθ-.

Endings for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of ω-Verbs
Secondary Active

Secondary Active(imperfect and second aorist)(first aorist)

S

Pl

S

Pl

1st

-ον

-ομεν

1st

-α

-αμεν

2

-ες

-ετε

2

-ας

-ατε

-ε (ν)-ον3rd-ε (ν)

-αν

nd

3rd

Secondary Μiddle and Passive

Secondary Middle(imperfect and second aorist)(first aorist)

S

Pl

-ομην

-ομεθα12nd-ου (-εσο)

-εσθε

3

-ετο

-οντο

1

st

rd

nd

S

Pl

-αμην

-αμεθα2nd-ω (-ασο)

-ασθε

3

-ατο

-αντο

st

rd

1. In the second person singular of secondary middle and passive andsecondary middle endings, intervocalic sigma drops out and the vowels
contract: epsilon and omicron, ε + ο, becomes the diphthong ου andalpha and omicron, α + ο, becomes omega, ω.

Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι325

Secondary Passive(Aorist)
S

Pl

st

-ην

-ημεν

2nd

-ης

-ητε

3

-η

-ησαν

1

rd

First Aorist Infinitive Active-αι (accent fixed on the penult)
Second Aorist Infinitive Active-εῖν (accent fixed on the ultima)
First Aorist Infinitive Middle-ασθαι
Second Aorist Infinitive Middle-έσθαι (accent fixed on the penult)
Aorist Infinitive Passive-ῆναι(accent fixed on the penult)

In what follows you learn how to combine stems and endings and how totranslate each form into its English equivalent.

Secondary Middle and Passive Endings
The following secondary middle and passive endings are used in forming manyof the tenses you learn for the middle and passive voices.
Secondary Middle and Passive
S

P

1st

-μην

-μεθα

2

nd

-σο

-σθε

3rd

-το

-ντο

It is a good idea to memorize them now.

Secondary
Secondary Middle
Middle andand Passive
Passive
SS
P
P
st
-μην
1
-μην -μεθα
-μεθα
1st
Ancient
Greek I
nd
-σο
-σθε
2
nd
-σο
-σθε
2
rd
3
-το
-ντο
-το
-ντο
3rd

326

It
memorizeEndings
in totoSummary
It is
is aa good
good idea
idea
memorize them
them now.
now.

The chart below restates the same information as is found above, but in a

The chart
below
restates
same
information as
as is
is foundfound above,a a
The charts
below
restatethe thesame
information
above,butbutin incondensed
form.
Look
over
the
chart
and
make
sure
that
you
understand
how
to
read
it.
condensed
form.
Look
over
the
chart
and
make
sure
that
you
understand
how
to
read
it.
condensed form. Look over the chart and make sure that you understand how
to read it.
Imperfect–I
Imperfect–I ++ p.i.ap.i.a

1
1 Aorist–III/III/VI
Aorist–III/III/VI ++p.i.a.
p.i.a.
2
2 Aorist–III/III/VI
Aorist–III/III/VI ++p.i.a.
p.i.a.

ον
ον
ες
εες
ε (ν)
(ν)
α
α
ας
εας
ε (ν)
(ν)
ον
ον
ες
ες
εε (ν)(ν)

ActiveActive

oμεν
oμεν
ετε
ετε
ον
ον
αμεν
αμεν
ατε
ατε
αν
αν
oμεν
oμεν
ετε
ετε
ον
ον

MiddleMiddleIndicative
Indicative
ομην
ομεθα
ομην
ομεθα
ου
(εσο)
εσθε
ου
(εσο)
εσθε
ετο
οντο
ετο
οντο
αμην
αμεθα
αμην
αμεθα
ω
(ασο)
ασθε
ω (ασο)
ασθε
ατο
αντο
ατο
αντο
ομην
ομεθα
ομην
ομεθα
ου
εσθε
ου
εσθε
ετο
οντο
ετο
οντο

oμην
oμην
ου
ου
ετο
ετο
ην
ην
ης
ηης
η
ην
ην
ης
ηης
η

Passive
Passive
oμεθα
oμεθα
εσθε
εσθε
οντο
οντο
ημεν
ημεν
ητε
ητε
ησαν
ησαν
ημεν
ημεν
ητε
ητε
ησαν
ησαν

These ending sets form two past tenses, the imperfect and the aorist, each differing from

These ending
ending setsform
two twopast tenses,
the imperfectand the aorist,
each
differing
These
sets
form
past tenses,
the imperfectandtheaorist,from
each
the
other
in
terms
of
aspect
not
time.
the
other
in
terms
of
aspectnottime.
differing from the other in terms of aspect not time.
st1
1st Aorist
Aorist remove
removep.i.a.
p.i.a.
nd
2
Aoristnd
2 Aorist remove
removep.i.a.
p.i.a.

´αι
´αι
εῖν
εῖν

Infinitive
Infinitive

ασθαι
ασθαι
έσθαι
έσθαι

ῆναι
ῆναι
ῆναι
ῆναι

Use
these
endings
theaoristinfinitive.
Memorizing
the
now
Use
form
aoristinfinitive.
Memorizing
the endings
now
Usethese
these endings
endings tototoform
form
thetheaoristinfinitive.
Memorizing
the endings
endings
now before
beforereadingonisrecommended.
beforereading
on is recommended.
reading
on is recommended.
Conjugation of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, and τίθημι. The principal

Conjugation of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, and τίθημι. The principal
Conjugationof λέγω, ἔχω, and ἐργάζομαι
parts
parts areare these:
these:The principal parts are these:

284

284
λέγω, λέξω, ἔλεξα, ------, λέλεγμαι, ἐλέχθηνἔχω (imp. εἶχον), ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον, ἔσχηκα, -ἔσχημαι, -----ἐργάζομαι (augments to εἰ and ἠ), ἐργάσομαι, ἠργασάμην (εἰργασάμην),------, εἴργασμαι, ἠργάσθην

1. In the top 250 vocabulary, this texbook combines the principal partsof λέγω and ------, ἐρέω: λέγω, ἐρέω or λέξω, εἶπον or ἔλεξα, εἴρηκα,εἴρημαι or λέλεγμαι, ἐλέχθην or ἐρρήθην say, tell, speak;
Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stemwith the correct endings.

Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι327

Imperfect Indicative Active of λέγωTo obtain the imperfect tense stem of λέγω, remove the ending -ω from the firstprincipal part. What remains is the present and imperfect active, middle, andpassive tense stem, λεγ-. To this stem, λεγ-, add the past indicative augment, ἐ-,and the imperfect and second aorist active endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἔλεγον

I said, was saying, used to say

1st person singularἔλεγες

you said, were saying, used to say

2nd person singularἔλεγε (ν)

he, she, it said, was saying, used to say

3rd person singularἐλέγομεν

we said, were saying, used to say

1st person pluralἐλέγετεyou said, were saying, used to say

2nd person pluralἔλεγον

they said, were saying, used to say

3rd person plural

Imperfect Indicative Middle of λέγωUse the same augmented stem as you did for the active voice, ἐλεγ-. To this stem,
add the imperfect and second aorist middle and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐλεγόμην

I chose, was choosing, used to choose

1st person singularἐλέγου (εσο)

you chose, were choosing, used to

2nd person singularchooseἐλέγετοhe, she, it chose, was choosing, used to

3rd person singularchooseἐλεγόμεθα

we chose, were choosing, used to choose

1st person pluralἐλέγεσθε

you chose, were choosing, used to

2nd person pluralchooseἐλέγοντο

they chose, were choosing, used tochoose

3rd person plural

328

Ancient Greek I

Imperfect Indicative Passive of λέγωUse the same augmented stem as you did for the active and middle voices, ἐλεγ-.
To this stem, add the imperfect and second aorist middle and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐλεγόμηνI was said, used to be said

1st person singularἐλέγου (εσο)

you were said, used to be said

2nd person singularἐλέγετοhe, she, it was said, used to be said

3rd person singularἐλεγόμεθα

we were said, used to be said

1st person pluralἐλέγεσθεyou were said, used to be said

2nd person pluralἐλέγοντο

they were said, used to be said

3rd person pluralFirst Aorist Indicative Active of λέγωTo obtain the aorist tense stem of λέγω, remove the ending -α from the thirdprincipal part. What remains is the augmented aorist active and middle tense
stem, ἐλεξ-. To this stem, ἐλεξ-, add the first aorist active endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and NumberἔλεξαI said

1st person singularἔλεξας

you said

2nd person singularἔλεξε (ν)

he, she, it said

3rd person singularἐλέξαμεν

we said

1st person pluralἐλέξατεyou said

2nd person pluralἔλεξαν

they said

3rd person pluralFirst Aorist Infinitive Active of λέγωTo obtain the stem, remove the past indicative augment from ἐλεξ-. Whatremains, λεξ-, is the unaugmented stem. To this stem, add the first aorist active
infinitive ending, -αι.

Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberλέξαι

to sayunmarked329

1. Note that the first aorist infinitive active is ALWAYS accented on the
penult. Thus its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι
count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, amood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

First Aorist Indicative Middle of λέγωUse the same stem as you did for the active voice, ἐλεξ-. To this augmented stem
add the first aorist middle endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberἐλεξάμην

I chose1st person singularἐλέξω (ασο)

you chose

2nd person singularἐλέξατοhe, she, it chose

3rd person singularἐλεξάμεθα

we chose

1st person pluralἐλέξασθε

you chose

2nd person pluralἐλέξαντο

they chose

3rd person plural

1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and thevowels contract: alpha and omicron, α + ο, to ω.

First Aorist Infinitive Middle of λέγωTo obtain the stem remove the past indicative augment from ἐλεξ-. Whatremains is the unaugmented stem, λεξ-. To this stem add the first aorist middle
infinitive ending, -ασθαι.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberλέξασθαιto choose

unmarked

1. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes ofaccentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the
21st-Century series.

330

Ancient Greek I

Aorist Indicative Passive of λέγωTo obtain the aorist tense stem of λέγω, remove the ending -ην from the sixth
principal part. What remains is the augmented aorist passive tense stem, ἐλέχθ-.
To this stem, ἐλέχθ-, add the aorist passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and NumberἐλέχθηνI was said

1st person singularἐλέχθης

you were said

2nd person singularἐλέχθη

he, she, it was said

3rd person singularἐλέχθημεν

we were said

1st person pluralἐλέχθητεyou were said

2nd person pluralἐλέχθησαν

they were said

3rd person plural

Aorist Infinitive Passive of λέγωTo obtain the stem remove the past indicative augment from ἐλέχθ-. Whatremains is the unaugmented stem, λέχθ-. To this stem, add the aorist passive
infinitive ending, -ῆναι.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberλεχθῆναι

to be said

unmarked

1. Remember that the aorist infinitive passive is ALWAYS accented on the
penult. Thus its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι
count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, amood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Imperfect Indicative Active of ἔχω
To obtain the imperfect tense stem of ἔχω, remove the ending -ω from thefirst principal part to obtain the stem ἔχ-. Augment the stem, noting that theaugmented stem is not the expected eta η-, but rather the diphthong ει-. To thisaugmented stem, εἰχ-, add the imperfect active endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #εἶχον

I have, was having, used

1st person singular

to have

Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #εἶχεςyou have, were having,

2nd person singular

331

used to haveεἶχε (ν)

he, she, it has, was having,

3rd person singularused to haveεἴχομενwe have, were having,

1st person plural

used to haveεἴχετεyou have, were having,

2nd person plural

used to haveεἶχονthey have, were having,

3rd person plural

used to have

1. Note that according to the chart the expected past indicative augmentfor ἔχω is η-. ἔχω is an exception to the general rule for augmenting
verbs that begin with vowels.

Imperfect Indicative Middle of ἔχω
Use the same augmented stem as you used for the active voice, εἰχ-. To this stem,
add the imperfect middle and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #εἰχόμηνI clung, was clinging, used to cling

1st person singularεἴχου (εσο)

you clung, were clinging, used to cling

2nd person singularεἴχετο

he, she, it clung, was clinging, used to

3rd person singularclingεἰχόμεθαwe clung, were clinging, used to cling

1st person pluralεἴχεσθεyou clung, were clinging, used to cling

2nd person pluralεἴχοντο

they clung, were clinging, used to cling

3rd person plural

1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and thevowels contract: epsilon and omicron, ε + ο, to ου.

Imperfect Indicative Passive of ἔχω
Use the same stem as you used for the active and middle voices, εἰχ-. To thisstem, add the imperfect middle and passive endings.

332

Ancient Greek I

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #εἰχόμηνI was held, used to be held

1st person singularεἴχου (εσο)

you were held, used to be

2nd person singularheld
εἴχετο

he, she, it was held, used to

3rd person singular

be heldεἰχόμεθαwe were held, used to be held

1st person pluralεἴχεσθεyou were held, used to be

2nd person pluralheldεἴχοντο

they were held, used to be

3rd person plural

held

1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and thevowels contract: epsilon and omicron, ε + ο, to ου.

Second Aorist Indicative Active of ἔχω
To obtain the aorist tense stem of ἔχω, remove the ending -ον from the thirdprincipal part. What remains is the augmented aorist active and middle tense
stem, ἐσχ-. To this stem, ἐσχ-, add the second aorist active endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number

ἔσχον

I had

1st person singularἔσχες

you had2nd person singularἔσχε (ν)

he, she, it had

3rd person singularἔσχομενwe had

1st person pluralἔσχετεyou had2nd person pluralἔσχον

they had

3rd person plural

Second Aorist Infinitive Active of ἔχω
To obtain the stem, remove the past indicative augment from ἐσχ-. To thisunaugmented stem, σχ-, add the second aorist active infinitive ending, -εῖν.

Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberσχεῖνto have

unmarked

333

1. Note that the second aorist infinitive active is ALWAYS accented on theultima. Thus its accent is persistent.

Second Aorist Indicative Middle of ἔχω
Use the same stem, ἐσχ-, as you used for the active voice. To this augmented
stem, ἐσχ-, add the second aorist middle endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number

ἐσχόμηνI clung

1st person singularἔσχου (εσο)

you clung2nd person singularἔσχετο

he, she, it clung

3rd person singularἐσχόμεθαwe clung

1st person plural

ἔσχεσθεyou clung2nd person pluralἔσχοντο

they clung

3rd person plural

1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and thevowels contract: epsilon and omicron, ε + ο, to ου.

Second Aorist Infinitive Middle of ἔχω
To obtain the stem, remove the past indicative augment from ἐσχ-. To thisunaugmented stem, σχ-, add the second aorist middle infinitive ending, -έσθαι.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberσχέσθαιto cling

unmarked

1. Note that the second aorist infinitive middle is ALWAYS accented on
the penult. Thus its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and-οι count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative,
a mood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

334

Ancient Greek I

Imperfect Indicative of ἐργάζομαι
To obtain the imperfect tense stem of ἐργάζομαι, remove the ending -ομαι fromthe first principal part to obtain the stem ἐργαζ-. Augment the stem to an eta, η-.
To this augmented stem, ἠργαζ-, add the imperfect middle and passive endings.
Remember that deponent verbs are similar to ω-verbs, except that they havemiddle and passive forms but active meanings. Deponent ω-verbs conjugate
just as ἐργάζομαι does. In the readings use your knowledge of ἐργάζομαι torecognize and translate the forms of other deponent ω-verbs.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἠργαζόμην

I did, was doing, used to do

1st person singularἠργάζου (εσο)

you did, were doing, used to do

2nd person singularἠργάζετο

he, she, it did, was doing, used

3rd person singularto doἠργαζόμεθα

we did, were doing, used to do

1st person pluralἠργάζεσθε

you did, were doing, used to do

2nd person pluralἠργάζοντο

they did, were doing, used to do

3rd person plural

1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and thevowels contract: epsilon and omicron, ε + ο, to ου.

Aorist Indicative of ἐργάζομαι
To obtain the aorist tense stem of ἐργάζομαι, remove the ending -αμην from thethird principal part to obtain the augmented stem ἠργασ-. To this stem, ἠργασ-,
add the aorist middle endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberἠργασάμην

I did

1st person singularἠργάσω (ασο)

you did

2nd person singularἠργάσατο

he, she, it did

3rd person singularἠργασάμεθα

we did

1st person pluralἠργάσασθε

you did

2nd person pluralἠργάσαντοthey did

3rd person plural

Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι

335

1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and thevowels contract: alpha and omicron, α + ο, to ω.

Aorist Infinitive of ἐργάζομαι
To obtain the stem of ἐργάζομαι, remove the augment from ἠργασ-. To thisunaugmented stem, ἐργασ-, add the first aorist middle infinitive ending, -ασθαι.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberἐργάσασθαι

to dounmarked

1. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes ofaccentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the
21st-Century series.

Stems for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of δίδωμι
Imperfect Tense Stems for the Active Voice of δίδωμι:
long vowel grade

short vowel grade(use for the singular)(use for the plural)διδου-

διδο-Imperfect Tense Stem for the Middle and Passive Voice of δίδωμι:
short vowel grade(use for the singular and plural)διδο-

Aorist Tense Stems for the Active Voice of δίδωμι:
ω-verb consonant stem

short vowel grade(use for the singular)(use for the plural)

δωκ-

δο-

336

Ancient Greek I

Aorist Tense Stem for the Middle Voice of δίδωμι:
short vowel grade(use for the singular and plural)δο-

Aorist Tense Stem for the Passive Voice of δίδωμι:
ω-verb consonant stem
(use for the singular and plural)δοθ-Endings for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of δίδωμι
Add these endings and the past indicative augment to the correct tense stem.
Secondary Active(use for the imperfect active)(use for the aorist active)

S

PL

S

PL

-ν

-μεν

-α

-μεν

-ς

-τε

-ας

-τε

---

-σαν

-ε (ν)-σανSecondary Middle and Passive(use for the imperfect middle andpassive and the aorist middle)
S

Pl

-μην

-μεθα

-σο

-σθε

-το

-ντο

Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι337Secondary Passive(use for the aorist passive)
S

Pl

-ην

-ημεν

-ης

-ητε

-η

-ησαν

Conjugation of δίδωμι
The principal parts are these:δίδωμι, δώσω, ἔδωκα, δέδωκα, δέδομαι, ἐδόθην
Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stemwith the correct endings.

Imperfect Indicative Active of δίδωμι
Singular: long vowel grade, διδου- + past indicative augment and secondary
active endings. Plural: short vowel grade, διδο-, + past indicative augment andsecondary active endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐδίδουνI was giving, used to give

1st person singularἐδίδους

you were giving, used to give

2nd person singularἐδίδου

he, she, it was giving, used to give

3rd person singularἐδίδομεν

we were giving, used to give

1st person pluralἐδίδοτεyou were giving, used to give

2nd person pluralἐδίδοσαν

they were giving, used to give

3rd person plural

Imperfect Indicative Middle of δίδωμι
Short vowel grade stem, διδο-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle
and passive endings.

338

Ancient Greek I

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐδιδόμηνI was devoting, used to devote

1st person singularἐδίδοσοyou were devoting, used to devote

2nd person singularἐδίδοτοhe, she, it was devoting, used to

3rd person singulardevoteἐδιδόμεθα

we were devoting, used to devote

1st person pluralἐδίδοσθεyou were devoting, used to devote

2nd person pluralἐδίδοντο

they were devoting, used to

3rd person plural

devoteImperfect Indicative Passive of δίδωμι
Short vowel grade stem, διδο-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle
and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐδιδόμηνI was being given, used to be

1st person singulargivenἐδίδοσοyou were being given, used to be

2nd person singulargivenἐδίδοτοhe, she, it was being given, used

3rd person singular

to be givenἐδιδόμεθα

we were being given, used to be

1st person pluralgivenἐδίδοσθεyou were being given, used to be

2nd person pluralgivenἐδίδοντο

they were being given, used to be

3rd person plural

given

Aorist Indicative Active of δίδωμι
Singular: ω-verb augmented stem, ἐδωκ-, + first aorist endings. Plural: shortvowel grade stem, δο-, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings.

Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἔδωκαI gave

1st person singularἔδωκας

you gave

2nd person singularἔδωκε (ν)

he, she, it gave

3rd person singularἔδομεν

we gave

1st person pluralἔδοτεyou gave

2nd person pluralἔδοσαν

they gave

3rd person plural

339

Aorist Infinitive Active of δίδωμιLong vowel grade, δου-, + active infinitive ending, -ναι.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberδοῦναι

to give

unmarked

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the
penult. Thus their accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι
count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, amood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Aorist Indicative Middle of δίδωμι
Short vowel grade, δο-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐδόμην

I devoted

1st person singularἔδου (ἔδοσο)you devoted

2nd person singularἔδοτοhe, she, it devoted

3rd person singularἐδόμεθα

we devoted

1st person pluralἔδοσθεyou devoted

2nd person pluralἔδοντο

they devoted

3rd person plural

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Ancient Greek I

1. Note that in the second person singular intervocalic sigma drops out
and the two omicrons, ο + ο, contract to the diphthong ου.

Aorist Infinitive Middle of δίδωμι
Short vowel grade, δο-, + middle infinitive ending, -σθαι.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberδόσθαι

to devoteunmarked

Aorist Indicative Passive of δίδωμι
ω-verb augmented consonant stem, ἐδοθ-, + ω-verb aorist passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐδόθην

I was given

1st person singularἐδόθης

you were given

2nd person singularἐδόθηhe, she, it was given

3rd person singularἐδόθημεν

we were given

1st person pluralἐδόθητεyou were given

2nd person pluralἐδόθησαν

they were given

3rd person plural

Aorist Infinitive Passive of δίδωμι
ω-verb consonant stem, δοθ-, + aorist passive infinitive ending, -ηναι.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberδοθῆναιto be given

unmarked

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the
penult. Thus their accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and –οι
count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, amood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι

Stems for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of τίθημι
Imperfect Tense Stems for the Active Voice of τίθημι:
long vowel grade

short vowel grade(use for the singular)(use for the plural)τιθη- or τιθει-τιθε-Imperfect Tense Stem for the Middle and Passive Voice of τίθημι:
short vowel grade(use for the singular and plural)τιθε-Aorist Tense Stems for the Active Voice of τίθημι:
ω-verb consonant stem

short vowel grade(use for the singular)(use for the plural)

θηκ-

θε-

Aorist Tense Stem for the Middle Voice of τίθημι:
short vowel grade(use for the singular and plural)
θε-Aorist Tense Stem for the Passive Voice of τίθημι:
ω-verb consonant stem
(use for the singular and plural)τεθ-Endings for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of τίθημι
Add these endings to the correct tense stem.

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Ancient Greek I

Secondary Active(use for the imperfect active)(use for the aorist active)

S

PL

S

PL

-ν

-μεν

-α

-μεν

-ς

-τε

-ας

-τε

---

-σαν

-ε (ν)-σανSecondary Middle and Passive(use for the imperfect middle andpassive and the aorist middle)

S

Pl

-μην

-μεθα

-σο

-σθε

-το

-ντο

Secondary Passive(use for the aorist passive)
S

Pl

-ην

-ημεν

-ης

-ητε

-η

-ησαν

Conjugation of τίθημι
The principal parts are these:τίθημι, θήσω, ἔθηκα, τέθηκα, τέθειμαι, ἐτέθην
Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stemwith the correct endings.

Imperfect Indicative Active of τίθημι
Singular: long vowel grades, τιθη- and τιθει-, + past indicative augment andsecondary active endings; plural: short vowel grade, τιθε-, + past indicative
augment and secondary active endings.

Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐτίθην

I was placing, used to place

1st person singularἐτίθεις

you were placing, used to place

2nd person singularἐτίθει

he, she, it was placing, used to

3rd person singular

343

place

ἐτίθεμεν

we were placing, used to place

1st person pluralἐτίθετεyou were placing, used to place

2nd person pluralἐτίθεσαν

they were placing, used to place

3rd person plural

Imperfect Indicative Middle of τίθημι
Short vowel grade stem, τιθε-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle
and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐτιθέμηνI was setting, used to set

1st person singularἐτίθεσοyou were setting, used to set

2nd person singularἐτίθετοhe, she, it was setting, used to set

3rd person singularἐτιθέμεθα

we were setting, used to set

1st person pluralἐτίθεσθεyou were setting, used to set

2nd person pluralἐτίθεντο

they were setting, used to set

3rd person plural

Imperfect Indicative Passive of τίθημι
Short vowel grade stem, τιθε-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle
and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐτιθέμηνI was being placed, used to be placed

1st person singularἐτίθεσοyou were being placed, used to be placed

2nd person singularἐτίθετοhe, she, it was being placed, used to be

3rd person singularplaced344

Ancient Greek I

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐτιθέμεθα

we were being placed, used to be placed

1st person pluralἐτίθεσθεyou were being placed, used to be placed

2nd person pluralἐτίθεντο

they were being placed, used to be placed

3rd person plural

Aorist Indicative Active of τίθημι
Singular: augmented ω-verb stem, ἐθηκ-, + first aorist active endings. Plural:
short vowel grade stem, θε-, + past indicative augment + secondary active
endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἔθηκαI placed

1st person singularἔθηκας

you placed

2nd person singularἔθηκε (ν)

he, she, it placed

3rd person singularἔθεμεν

we placed

1st person pluralἔθετε

you placed

2nd person pluralἔθεσαν

they placed

3rd person plural

Aorist Infinitive Active of τίθημιLong vowel grade, θει-, + active infinitive ending, -ναι.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberθεῖναι

to place

unmarked

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the
penult. Thus their accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι
count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, amood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Aorist Indicative Middle of τίθημι
Short vowel grade, θε-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle endings.

Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐθέμην

I set

1st person singularἔθου (ἔθεσο)you set2nd person singularἔθετοhe, she, it set

3rd person singularἐθέμεθα

we set

1st person pluralἔθεσθεyou set2nd person pluralἔθεντο

they set

3rd person plural

1. Note that in the second person singular intervocalic sigma drops out
and the epsilon and omicron, ε + ο, contract to the diphthong ου.

Aorist Infinitive Middle of τίθημι
Short vowel grade, θε-, + aorist middle infinitive ending, -σθαι.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberθέσθαι

to setunmarked

Aorist Indicative Passive of τίθημι
ω-verb augmented consonant stem, ἐτεθ-, + ω-verb aorist passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐτέθην

I was placed

1st person singularἐτέθης

you were placed

2nd person singularἐτέθηhe, she, it was placed

3rd person singularἐτέθημεν

we were placed

1st person pluralἐτέθητεyou were placed

2nd person pluralἐτέθησαν

they were placed

3rd person plural

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Ancient Greek I

Aorist Infinitive Passive of τίθημι
ω-verb unaugmented consonant stem, τεθ-, + aorist infinitive passive ending,-ηναι.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberτεθῆναιto be placed

unmarked

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the
penult. Thus their accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι
count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, amood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.
Practice Translating the Imperfect and Aorist Indicative Active. Check yourunderstanding with the translations in the Answer Key.
1. ἡμᾶς κακὰ ἐποίουν.
2. αὐτοὺς ἔρχεσθαι ἔπειθον.
3. αὐτοὺς ἐλαύνειν ἔπεισα.
4. τί ἔφυγον ἔρομαι.
5. ταῦτα σφίσιν ἔγραψας;6. αὐτοὺς ἐν τῇ γῇ ηὗρον.
7. πολλὰ ὑπὸ ἐκείνων ἐπάθομεν.
8. ζάειν εἰς αἰεὶ ἠθέλησαν.
9. αὐτοὺς παρασχεῖν τὰ χρήματα ἐκέλευσε.
10. ταῦτα αἱρήσειν ἐμέλλομεν.
Vocabulary*αἱρέω, αἱρήσω, εἷλον take, seize, grab, capture; (mid.) choose*γράφω, γράψω, ἔγραψα write*ἐθέλω, ἐθελήσω, ἠθέλησα wish, be willing*ἔρομαι (εἴρομαι), ἐρήσομαι (εἰρήσομαι), ἠρόμην ask*εὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, ηὗρον find*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον have, hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be well*ζάω live*κελεύω, κελεύσω, ἐκέλευσα bid, order, command*μέλλω, μελλήσω, ἐμέλλησα be about to, be going to; be likely to + inf. (fut. inf.
in Attic)

Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι347*πάσχω, πείσομαι, ἔπαθον suffer, have done to one*πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα persuade; (mid. or pass.) listen to, obey + dat. or gen.
*ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα do, make, cause; (mid.) consider*φεύγω, φεύξομαι, ἔφυγον flee
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Philoktetes, Φιλοκτήτης. Philoktetes was born in Thessaly to Poias andDemonassa, king and queen of Meliboia, a Thessalian city. A Greek hero,
Philoktetes was a famous archer, a suitor to Helen, and a participant in the
Trojan War. At least four different tragic plays told his story. Sophokles’ version
is the only one to survive. In Iliad Book 2, Homer mentions his exile on theisland of Lemnos, his snake-bite, and his recall from Lemnos back to Troy.
Philoktetes enters the story of Herakles when Herakles, in pain from wearing ashirt poisoned by the blood of Nessos, asks him to end his agony by lighting his
funeral pyre. Previously, Herakles had asked several people for assistance but
they all refused. Philoktetes agrees to help him and lights the pyre. In gratitude
Herakles gives him his bow and poisoned arrows. Philoktetes was also a suitor toHelen. All suitors swore an oath to Helen’s mortal father, Tyndareus, promisingthat they would defend Helen and the suitor chosen to be her spouse. Menelaos
was chosen and married her. When Paris abducted Helen, Philoktetes honored
his oath and participated in the quest to reclaim Menelaos’ bride. En route toTroy with many other Greeks, Philoktetes suffered a wound to his foot. The
wound festered. The smell was so foul and Philoktetes’ suffering so loud that
the Greeks left him stranded on the island of Lemnos. Ten years later because
there was a prophecy that they would not conquer Troy without his help andhis bow, the Greeks returned to Lemnos to ask Philoktetes to help them win the
war and Helen back. Sophokles’ play, Philoktetes, concerns convincing, forcing,or tricking Philoktetes into returning to Troy. Odysseus counsels using trickery.
Neoptolemos, Akhilleus’ son, counsels force and transparency.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, which have been adaptedfrom Sophokles’ Philoktetes (Φιλοκτήτης). Remember the meanings andfunctions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify
endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult
the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and theCase and Function Chart in Appendix I. Check your understanding with thetranslations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why eachword translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or threetimes, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of thesentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

348

Ancient Greek IΝεοπτόλεμος: οὐκ αἰσχρὸν ἡμῖν δῆτα τὸ ψευδὲς λέγειν;Ὀδυσσεύς: οὐκ εἰ τὸ σωτήριον γε τὸ ψεῦδος φέρει.
Νεοπτόλεμος: πῶς οὖν ἔχει τις βλέπων ταῦτα τολμᾷ λακεῖν;Ὀδυσσεύς: εἴ τι δρᾷς εἰς κέρδος, οὐκ ὀκνεῖν πρέπει.
5Νεοπτόλεμος: κέρδος δ’ ἐμοὶ τί εἰ οὗτος ἐς Τροίαν μολεῖ;Ὀδυσσεύς: αἱρεῖ τὰ τόξα τὴν Τροίαν μόνα.
Νεοπτόλεμος: οὐκ ἆρα πέρσω, ὡς ἐμοὶ ἐφάσκετʼ, ἐγώ;Ὀδυσσεύς: οὔτε πέρσεις σὺ κείνων χωρὶς οὔτ’ ἐκεῖνα σοῦ.
Νεοπτόλεμος: ταῦτα οὖν δεῖ λαβεῖν, εἴπερ ὧδ’ ἔχει.

10Ὀδυσσεύς: τοῦτό γ’ ἔρδων, δύο οἴσεις δωρήματα.
Νεοπτόλεμος: ποῖα; ἐκ σοῦ ταῦτα μανθάνων, οὐκ ἀρνήσομαι δρᾶν.
Ὀδυσσεύς: σὲ σοφόν τε καὶ ἀγαθὸν σὲ καλοῦσιν ἅμα.
Νεοπτόλεμος: οἴμοι. ταῦτα ποιήσω καὶ πᾶσαν αἰσχύνην ἀφήσω.
Ὀδυσσεύς: ἦ μνημονεύσεις οὖν ἃ σοὶ παρῄνεσα;15

Νεοπτόλεμος: σάφ’ οἶσθα, ἐπείπερ εἰσάπαξ συνῄνεσα.

Adverbs and Verbs*αἱρέω, αἱρήσω, εἷλον take, seize,
grab, capture; (mid.) chooseμνημονεύω, μνημονεύσω,ἐμνημόνευσα remember; mention,sayἆρα indicates a question, often
expects the answer no; ἆρα οὐ
expects a yesοἴμοι alasἀρνέομαι, ἀρνήσομαι, ἠρνησάμην
deny, disown; decline, refuse + inf.

ὀκνέω, ὀκνήσω, ὤκνησα shrink,scruple, hesitate + inf.

ἀφίημι, ἀφήσω, ἀφῆκα send forth,discharge, let go, call off; suffer,permitπαραινέω, -αινέσω, -ῄνεσα exhort,advise + inf.

βλώσκω, μολέομαι, ἔμολον come, go πέρθω, πέρσω, ἔπερσα waste,
ravage, sack, destroy*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or
dat. or acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it isnecessary to come*ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα do, make,cause; (mid.) consider

Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημιδῆτα certainly, of courseπρέπει (impers.) it is fitting + inf.

δράω, δράσω, ἔδρᾱσα do,
accomplish, act

σάφα clearly, evidently*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possibleσυναινέω, -αινέσω, -ῄνεσα praise;
concede, give; agree, consent + inf.

εἰσάπαξ at once, once, alreadyτολμάω (τολμέω Ionic), τολμήσω,ἐτόλμησα dare, be daring, undertake+ inf.

*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον have,
hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to bewellφάσκω say, affirm, assert*καλέω, καλέω, ἐκάλεσα call*φέρω, οἴσω, ἤνεγκα or ἤνεγκονbring, bear, carry; endureλακέω scream, shout; utterχωρίς apart from, seperately + gen.

*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω, ἔλεξα or εἶπονsay, tell, speakὧδε in this wise, thus

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns*ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν good, noble*μόνος, μόνη, μόνον only, sole, alone,solitary; oneαἰσχρός, αἰσχρά, αἰσχρόν shameful,disgrasceful, ugly, base*πᾶσα, πάσης ἡ all, each, wholeαἰσχύνη, αἰσχύνης ἡ shame,dishonorποῖος, ποία, ποῖον of what sortβλέπων, βλέποντος ὁ looking at,seeingσοφός, σοφή, σοφόν wise*δύο twoσωτήριον, σωτηρίου τό safety,
securityδώρημα, δωρήματος τό gift, presentτόξον, τόξου τό bowἔρδων, ἔρδοντος ὁ doingΤροία, Τροίας ἡ Troy*κεῖνος = ἐκεῖνοςψευδής, ψευδές falseκέρδος, κέρδεος (-ους) τό gain,
profitψεῦδος, ψεύδεος (-ους) τό falsehood,lie*μανθάνων, μανθάνοντος ὁ learning,learning how to; understanding

349

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Ancient Greek I

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentence foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person,
number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them.
For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For
adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.
σὲ σοφόν τε καὶ ἀγαθὸν σὲ καλέουσιν ἅμα.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
Module 23 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words,
the greater mastery of the language you will have.
Nounsδῆμος, δήμου ὁ peopleστρατηγός, στρατηγοῦ ὁ generalτρόπος, τρόπου ὁ way, manner, turn; (pl.) characterυἱός, υἱοῦ ὁ son, childψυχή, ψυχῆς ἡ life, soul, spirit
Verbsἀπόλλυμι, ἀπολέω, ἀπώλεσα (trans.) or ἀπωλόμην (intrans.), ἀπολώλεκα
(trans.) or ἀπόλωλα (intrans.), ------, ------ kill, lose; (mid. and intrans.) die, cease
to existγράφω, γράψω, ἔγραψα, γέγραφα, γέγραμμαι, ἐγράφην writeδείκνῡμι, δείξω (δέξω), ἔδειξα (ἔδεξα), δέδειχα, δέδειγμαι, ἐδείχθην show,
displayχρή (inf. χρῆναι < χρὴ + εἶναι; imp. ἐχρῆν or χρῆν < χρὴ + ἦν; fut. χρήσει),χρῆσται (χρὴ + ἔσται) it is necessary + inf.

Etymology Corner XXIII by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 19, Parts of Speech
Verbs, cont. As with tense and tense being unrelated homonyms, grammatical moodcomes from a different root than that of your emotional mood. Grammatical moods

Module 23 | The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι, τίθημι

351

are not about how a verb is feeling, but which mode of expression it is in. In fact,
mode shifted to mood in Middle English and is attested in grammatical texts around1450 CE. Though identifying indicatives, optatives, and subjunctives may make you
cranky some days, that’s your problem, not Greek’s. Those poor verbs are just trying
to signify a quality of the verb. Each of the moods is aptly named as well.
•

We already discussed infinitives a little bit earlier. Imperatives come fromthe Latin command (imperare) and are used for ordering people to do things.
The Greek for imperative is προστακτικός, and you can see what gives us
the English tactic at the root of it. Think of the English adjective imperative
meaning something that you have to do as if you were commanded to do it.

•

Indicative statements indicate something about reality, that is, they speak
towards something (Latin in + dicare). Your pointer finger is also called yourindex finger, and comes from the same root. It makes sense because when
you are pointing something out, speaking towards an object, you are probably
pointing at it with your index finger. Indicatives point at what happens or
happened for real (at least as the speaker asserts it is).

•Optatives and subjunctives feel similar in their ways of describing
hypothetical or supposed situations, though be careful because sometimes it’sfor primarily grammatical reasons as you will see. The opt part of optative
you recognize as meaning to choose, or desire, or wish for, hence its use in
Greek grammar, the term deriving from Latin. Subjunctive is a little trickier.
It comes from joined underneath (jungere, like in junction or conjunction
which we met before + sub, like a submarine which goes under the water).
Even though there are a few independent uses of the subjunctive, they aremostly found in subordinate clauses, so they are in a way attached underthe main idea.

What to Study and Do 23. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you
have memorized the verb endings for the imperfect and the aorist and that you can
decline these tenses from memory. Also make sure you know how to put augments
on and take them off when forming the imperfect and aorist tenses. Finally, have agood understanding of the aspectual differences between the aorist and the imperfecttenses.
Learning Tip 23: Use Word Numbers. Remembering dates and long strings of
numbers is challenging. Consider the phrase,
American presidential candidates
and this number
347 294 012 157 211 10352

Ancient Greek I

Which is easier to remember, the number or the phrase? The phrase, of course. In thislearning tip, you learn how to use word numbers in order to remember dates. Each
number from 0–9 represents specific sounds.
0 = soft c (dice), s, and z
1 = d and t
2=n
3=m
4=r
5=l
6 = soft ch (Chigago), sh, soft g (gym), and j
7 = hard c (coat), hard g, k
8 = f and v
9 = b and p
The vowel sounds, a, e, i, o, u and the letters w, h, y are not represented by a number.
They are blanks. The word cave represents the number 78. The word lamely fromstepping into Herakleitos’ river represents the number 535. The words leaven fromAnne of Green Gables’ making bread as she reads Anakreon’s lost corpus represents
the number 582. For Mimnermos the word James of Jesse James’ making fun of me
because I’m nervous to eat a bun filled with snake eyes represents the number 630.
Shims that I use to remove sap from my shoe for Sappho also represents the number
630. The television was invented in 1926. Punch represents the number 926. You
can imagine yourself punching the TV to make it come to life. For the number 1926,
we only represent the last three numbers. In 1942 the first computer was invented.
Imagine a computer the shape and size of a barn being assembled in an even bigger
barn by barn yard animals. The one is again omitted. Remember this number,
347 294 012 157 211 10?
The phrase American presidential candidates represents it:
Am (3) er (4) ic (7) an (2) p (9) r (4) es (0) id (1) en (2) t (1) ial (5)c (7) an (2) d (1) id (1) at (1) es (0).
For additional strategies in using numbers as a way to remember essential information,
read Kevin Horsley’s book Unlimited Memory (2014) and Tony Buzan’s Use Your Perfect
Memory (1990).

Module 24

Contract Verbs

The Verb
In Greek and in English verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs
are words that represent actions (throw) and states of being (be or exist). They
differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English
counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English doesnot. The Greek verb (ῥῆμα) in its finite form has an ending that indicates what
person and number the subject is. The Greek infinitive has an ending thatindicates that it is unmarked for person and number.

Contract Verbs
As you have seen in Modules 10, 17, and 19, contractions occur when the stemof the first or second principal part ends in an alpha or epsilon. Contractions
also occur when the stem ends in an omicron. These vowels contract with theinitial vowel or diphthong of the ending in specific ways.

Accenting Contract Verbs
When creating the form of a contract verb, you must accent before you contract:ποιοῦμεν < ποιέομεν, not ποίουμεν.

Contract Verbs in Alpha
If the stem of principal part I or II ends in alpha, the alpha contracts with theendings in accordance with the following chart:
α+ε

>

ᾱ

α+ο

>

ω

α + ει>ᾱͅ­α + οι

>

ῳ

α+η

>

ᾱ

α + ου

>

ω

α+ῃ

>

ᾳ
̄
­

α+ω

>

ω

© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.29

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Ancient Greek I

Present Indicative Active of ὁράωTo the present active, middle, and passive tense stem ὁρα-, add the correct endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberὁρῶ (ὁράω)I see

1st person singularὁρᾷς (ὁράεις)

you see

2nd person singularὁρᾷ (ὁράει)

he, she, it sees

3rd person singularὁρῶμεν (ὁράομεν)

we see

1st person pluralὁρᾶτε (ὁράετε)

you see

2nd person pluralὁρῶσι (ν) (ὁράουσι (ν))

they see

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Active of ὁράωTo the tense stem ὁρα-, add the active infinitive ending.
ὁρᾶν (ὁράειν < ὁράεεν)

1. Note the absence of the iota subscript.

Imperfect Indicative Active of ὁράωTo the augmented tense stem ἑωρα-, add the correct endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἑώρων (ἑώραον)I was seeing, used to see,

1st person singularsawἑώρᾱς (ἑώραες)you were seeing, used to

2nd person singularsee, sawἑώρᾱ (ἑώραε)he, she, it was seeing, used

3rd person singular

to see, sawἑωρῶμεν (ἑωράομεν)

we were seeing, used to

1st person pluralsee, sawἑωρᾶτε (ἑωράετε)

you were seeing, used to

2nd person pluralsee, sawἑώρων (ἑώραον)they were seeing, used tosee, saw

3rd person plural

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1. nu-movable is NEVER added to the third person singular of the imperfectindicative active of contracted verbs. Thus ἑώρᾱ but ἐβάδιζε (ν).
2. The accent on a contracted ultima is a circumflex. Accents elsewhereare determined by the rules for possibilities of accent.

Contract Verbs in Epsilon
If the stem of principal part I or II ends in epsilon, the epsilon contracts with theendings in accordance with the following chart:
ε+ε

>

ει

ε+ο

>

ου

ε + ει

>ειε + οι

>

οι

ε+η

>

η

ε + ου

>

ου

ε+ῃ

>

ῃ

ε+ω

>

ω

Present Indicative Active of δοκέω
To the present active, middle, and passive tense stem δοκε-, add the correct
endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberδοκῶ (δοκέω)I think

1st person singularδοκεῖς (δοκέεις)

you think

2nd person singularδοκεῖ (δοκέει)

he, she, it thinks

3rd person singularδοκοῦμεν (δοκέομεν)

we think

1st person pluralδοκεῖτε (δοκέετε)

you think

2nd person pluralδοκοῦσι (ν) (δοκέουσι (ν))

they think

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Active of δοκέω
To the present active, middle, and passive tense stem δοκε-, add the active
infinitive ending.
δοκεῖν (δοκέειν)

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Ancient Greek I

Imperfect Indicative Active of δοκέω
To the augmented tense stem ἐδοκ-, add the correct endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐδόκουν (ἐδόκεον)

I was thinking, used to think,

1st person singularthoughtἐδόκεις (ἐδόκεες)you were thinking, used to think,

2nd person singularthoughtἐδόκει (ἐδόκεε)he, she, it was thinking, used to

3rd person singular

think, thoughtἐδοκοῦμεν (ἐδοκέομεν)

we were thinking, used to think,

1st person plural

thoughtἐδοκεῖτε (ἐδοκέετε)

you were thinking, used to think,

2nd person plural

thoughtἐδόκουν (ἐδόκεον)

they were thinking, used to think,

3rd person plural

thought

1. nu-movable is NEVER added to the third person singular of the imperfectindicative active of contracted verbs. Thus ἐδόκει but ἐβάδιζε (ν).
2. The accent on a contracted ultima is a circumflex. Accents elsewhereare determined by the rules for possibilities of accent.

Contract Verbs in Omicron
If the stem of principal part I or II ends in omicron, the omicron contracts withthe endings in accordance with the following chart:
ο+ε

>

ου

ο+ο

>

ου

ο + ει>οιο + οι

>

οι

ο+η

>

ω

ο + ου

>

ου

ο+ῃ

>

οι

ο+ω

>

ω

Present Indicative Active of ἀξιόω
To the present active, middle, and passive tense stem ἀξιο-, add the correct
endings.

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Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberἀξιῶ (ἀξιόω)I esteem

1st person singularἀξιοῖς (ἀξιόεις)

you esteem

2nd person singularἀξιοῖ (ἀξιόει)

he, she, it esteems

3rd person singularἀξιοῦμεν (ἀξιόομεν)

we esteem

1st person pluralἀξιοῦτε (ἀξιόετε)

you esteem

2nd person pluralἀξιοῦσι (ν) (ἀξιόουσι (ν))

they esteem

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Active of ἀξιόω
To the present active, middle, and passive tense stem ἀξιο-, add the active
infinitive ending.
ἀξιοῦν (ἀξιόειν < ἀξιόεεν)

1. Note the absence of the iota.

Imperfect Indicative Active of ἀξιόω
To the augmented tense stem ἠξιο-, add the correct endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἠξίουν (ἠξίοον)I was esteeming, used to

1st person singularesteem, esteemedἠξίους (ἠξίοες)you were esteeming, used

2nd person singular

to esteem, esteemedἠξίου (ἠξίοε)he, she, it was esteeming,

3rd person singularused to esteem, esteemedἠξιοῦμεν (ἠξιόομεν)

we were esteeming, used

1st person pluralto esteem, esteemedἠξιοῦτε (ἠξιόετε)

you were esteeming, used

2nd person pluralto esteem, esteemedἠξίουν (ἠξίοον)

they were esteeming, used
to esteem, esteemed

3rd person plural

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1. nu-movable is NEVER added to the third person singular of the imperfectindicative active of contracted verbs. Thus ἠξίου but ἐβάδιζε (ν).
2. The accent on a contracted ultima is a circumflex. Accents elsewhereare determined by the rules for possibilities of accent.
Practice Translating Contract Verbs. Translate the below sentences, adaptedfrom a variety of ancient Greek writers. To come to an accurate understandingof the sentences, use your knowledge of endings and their functions. If you
forget an ending or function, remember to use the Case and Function Chartin Appendix I and the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart inAppendix VIII to assist you. After you finish translating each sentence, checkyour understanding with the answer in the Answer Key. After you have readthrough all of the sentences once, read them again at least two more times. In
each subsequent reading, your understanding improves.
1. ταύτην μὲν οὖν χρὴ νομίζειν οὐ τὴν αἰτίαν τῶν πάντων κακῶν εἶναι(Lysias).
2. μετὰ δὲ ταύτην ἡ Δράκοντος πολιτεία ἦν, ἐν ᾗ καὶ τῶν νόμων ἀριθμὸνἔγραψε πρῶτον. ἐν ἐκείνοις τοῖς νόμοις μία ζημία, θάνατος. οἱ θεσμοὶἐκαλοῦντο χαλεποί.
3. ὁ μὲν τὰ ἔπη ἐν ἐλαφρῷ ποιεῖ καὶ ἄπαρνός ἐστι μὴ νοσέειν· οἱ δὲ αὐτῷπιστεύουσιν ὥστε αὐτὸν κτείνουσι καὶ ἐσθίουσι (Herodotos).
4. αἱ γυναῖκες δοκοῦσιν ἐμοὶ ταὐτὰ* τοῖς ἀνδράσι ποιεῖν. *ταὐτά = τὰ αὐτά5. τὴν αὐτὴν ζημίαν καὶ ἐπὶ ταῖς παλλακαῖς τε καὶ γυναιξὶν ἠξίου γίγνεσθαι(Lysias).
6. πίστεις οὐ γὰρ ἔχω εἰπεῖν ἀλλ’ ἢ ταύτας ὅτι οὐδὲν εἰς τοῦτον πρότερονποιήσω ἢ πρὸς αὐτοὺς λέγω. αἱροῦμαι λέγειν πρῶτον μᾶλλον ἢ ποιεῖν.
7. οὐ γὰρ ἀξιῶ οὔτ’ ἐγὼ φεύγειν τὴν ἐμαυτοῦ πατρίδα οὔτε ἀξιῶ τοῦτοντοσαύτην δίκην παρ’ ἐμοῦ λαβεῖν.
8. μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα, ἐπειδὴ ἔκτεινεν οὓς αὐτὸς περὶ πλείστου ποιεῖται, δρόμῳ
ἔφυγε.
9. ἐπεὶ ταῦτα πρὸς ἐμαυτὸν ἐνόουν, ἔγνων ὡς γραῦς ἐμὲ διδράσκεινἕτοιμον οὐ βλέψει (Lucian).
10. οἶδα ὅτι αὐτὸς φέρω εὐγενῶς τὰ ἐν ποσὶ καὶ προθύμως βαδίζω καὶ μὴνοῶ τὰ κακὰ ἃ οἴσω. ἐδόκει ἐμοὶ φεύγειν τάχιστα (Lucian).
Adverbs, Conjunctions, and Verbs*αἱρέω, αἱρήσω, εἷλον (ἑλεῖν) take, *καλέω, καλέω, ἐκάλεσα callseize, grab, capture; (mid.) choose

Module 24 | Contract Verbs*ἀξιόω, ἀξιώσω, ἠξίωσα deem κτείνω, κτενέω, ἔκτεινα or ἔκτανονworthy, think fit + ‘x’ in acc. + inf.; kill, slay, slaughter
expect + ‘x’ in acc. + inf; to deem ‘x’ inacc. worthy of ‘y’ in gen.
βαδίζω, βαδιέω or βαδίσω, ἐβάδισα *λαμβάνω, λήψομαι, ἔλαβον take,go, walkreceive; captureβλέπω, βλέψω, ἔβλεψα see, have the *λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω, ἔλεξα or εἶπονpower of sightsay, tell, speak*γίγνομαι, γενήσομαι, ἐγενόμην be, νοέω, νοήσω, ἐνόησα or ἔνωσα
be born, happen, become
perceive by the eyes, observe, notice;intend*γιγνώσκω, γνώσομαι, ἔγνων know, *νομίζω, νομιέω, ἐνόμισα believe,
recognize; decide + inf.
think, have the custom of, hold ascustom*γράφω, γράψω, ἔγραψα writeνοσέω, νοσήσω, ἐνόσησα be sick, ailδιδράσκω, δράσομαι, ἔδρην run *ὁράω (ἑώραον), ὄψομαι, εἶδον
away, escape(ἰδεῖν) see*δοκέω, δόξω, ἔδοξα seem, think; πιστεύω, πιστεύσω, ἐπίστευσα trust,seem best, think best + inf.
believe, confide in, rely on + dat.
*ἔγνων (γιγνώσκω) I thought*ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα do, make,cause; (mid.) consider*εἰπεῖν > λέγωπροθύμως eagerly, earnestlyἐπειδή when, since*φέρω, οἴσω, ἤνεγκα or ἤνεγκονbring, bear, carry; endureἐσθίω, ἔδομαι, ἔφαγον or ἤδεσα eat*φεύγω, φεύξομαι, ἔφυγον flee; bebanished, be in exile; be a defendantεὐγενῶς well, nobly*χρή (inf. χρῆναι; imp. ἐχρῆν orχρῆν; fut. χρήσει), χρῆσται it isnecessary + inf.

*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον have,
hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be
well
Adjectives, Nouns, and Pronounsαἴτιος, αἰτίᾱ, αἴτιον responsible for, ἑτοῖμος, ἑτοίμη, ἑτοῖμον at hand,the cause of, guilty of + gen.
ready, prepared, able + inf.

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Ancient Greek I*ἀληθής, ἀληθές trueζημία, ζημίας ἡ loss, damage, penalty*ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ man, husbandθάνατος, θανάτου ὁ death*ἄξιος, ἀξίᾱ, ἄξιον worthy, deserving θεσμός, θεσμοῦ ὁ law+ gen.
ἄπαρνος, ἄπαρνον denying + inf. or *κακός, κακή, κακόν bad, evil,gen.
cowardly*ἀριθμός, ἀριθμοῦ ὁ number*νόμος, νόμου ὁ law, customγραῦς, γραός ἡ old woman

παλλακή, παλλακῆς ἡ concubine*γυνή, γυναικός ἡ woman, wifeπίστις, πίστεως (-ιος) ἡ faith, honesty,
trust, promise*δίκη, δίκης ἡ custom, usage;
judgment; order, right; penalty,
sentence; lawsuitπολιτεία, πολιτείας ἡ government,
commonwealth, constitutionΔράκων, Δράκοντος ὁ Drako, an πούς, ποδός ὁ foot; κατὰ πόδας onAthenian lawgiver, living about the the heels
7th century B.C.E.
δράκων, δράκοντος ὁ a snake*πρότερος, προτέρᾱ, πρότερον
prior, before, soonerδρόμος, δρόμου ὁ course, race,
running; flight, escape; race-course*πρῶτος, πρώτη, πρῶτον first, forthe present, just now*ἐμαυτοῦ, ἐμαυτῆς, ἐμαυτοῦ myself*τοσοῦτος, τοσαύτη, τοσοῦτο somuch, so many

ἔπος, ἔπεος (ἔπους) τό word, speech;song; saying; verse
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, which have been adaptedfrom Euripides’ Helen (Ἑλένη). Remember the meanings and functions of thecases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and theirfunctions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the Adjective, Adverb,
Noun, and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and the Case and Function Chartin Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer
Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does.
Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with eachrereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make
this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Module 24 | Contract Verbs

Γραῦς: τίς πρὸς πύλαις; οὐκ ἀπαλλάξῃ δόμων; πρὸς αὐλείοις στήσεις
πύλαις ὄχλον παρέχων δεσπόταις; εἰ σὺ εἶ Ἕλλην, καταθανῇ· αὐτοῖς γὰροὐκ ἐπιστροφαί.
Μενέλαος: ὦ γραῖα, σοὶ τὰ αὐτὰ ταῦτ’ ἔπη καὶ ἄλλως λέγειν ἔξεστι·πείσομαι γὰρ ἀλλὰ δεῖ ἀνιέναι λόγον.
5Γραῦς: χρὴ δ’ ἀπέρχεσθαι. ἐμοὶ γὰρ τοῦτο πρόσκειται, ξένε· ἔξεστιμηδένα πελάζειν τοῖς Ἑλλήνων δόμοις.
Μενέλαος: τί προσειλέεις χεῖρα καί με ὠθῇ βίᾳ;Γραῦς: πείθῃ οὐδὲν τούτων ἃ λέγω. σὺ δ’ αἴτιος.
Μενέλαος: κελεύω σοι ἀγγέλλειν δεσπόταις τοῖς σοῖς . . .

10Γραῦς: πικρῶς ἄρ’ οἶμαι γ’ εἰ ἀγγέλλω τοὺς σοὺς λόγους.
Μενέλαος: . . . ναυαγὸς ἥκω ξένος, ἀσύλητον γένος.
Γραῦς: ὥρα οἶκον πρὸς ἄλλον νῦν ἀντὶ τοῦδ’ ἔρχεσθαι.
Μενέλαος: οὔκ, ἀλλ’ ἔσω παρελεύσομαι καὶ σύ μοι πείσῃ.
Γραῦς: ὀχληρῶς ἔχεις καὶ τάχ’ ὠθήσομαι βίᾳ.

15Μενέλαος: τὰ κλεινὰ ποῦ ἐστί μοι στρατεύματα;Γραῦς: χῶρός τις ἵνα που σεμνὸς εἶ ἀλλ’ οὐκ ἐνθάδε.
Μενέλαος: ὦ δαῖμον, ὡς ἀνάξι’ ἀτιμούμεθα.

Adverbs and Verbs
ἀγγέλλω, ἀγγελέω, ἤγγειλαannounce, report, tellκαταθνῄσκω, καταθανέομαι,
κατέθανον die, perishἄλλως otherwise, differently*κελεύω, κελεύσω, ἐκέλευσα bid,order, commandἀνίημι, ἀνήσω, ἀνῆκα send up orforth; let go; abate; loose; allow + inf.;
dissolve*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω, ἔλεξα or εἶπονsay, tell, speak

ἀπαλλάττω, ἀπαλλάξω, ἀπήλλαξα
set free, release, deliver from; escape;departοἶμαι I thinkἀπέρχομαι, ἀπελεύσομαι, ἀπῆλθονdepart, leaveὀχληρῶς bothersome, irksomeἀτιμόω, ἀτιμώσω, ἠτίμωσαdishonor, punish

παρέρχομαι, παρελεύσομαι,παρῆλθον come forward, pass by, go
by

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Ancient Greek I*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or
dat. or acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it isnecessary to come*πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα persuade +inf.; (mid. or pass.) listen to, obey +dat. or gen.

*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possible

πελάζω, πελάσω, ἐπέλᾰσα approach,come near + dat.

ἐνθάδε hereπικρῶς bitterlyἔξεστι it is possibleποῦ where, in what place*ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι, ἦλθον come,goπροσειλέω, προσειλήσω press, force

ἔσω within, insideπρόσκειμαι be placed at; lie by, lie
upon*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον have,
hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to bewellτάχα quickly, presently; perhaps*ἥκω, ἥξω have come, be present*χρή (inf. χρῆναι; imp. ἐχρῆν orχρῆν; fut. χρήσει), χρῆσται it isnecessary + inf.

*ἵστημι, στήσω, ἔστηκα stand, makestand, placeὠθέω, ὠθήσω, ὤθησα push, shove,
thrust; (mid.) press forward

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronounsαἴτιος, αἰτίᾱ, αἴτιον responsible,
guiltyκλεινός, κλεινή, κλεινόν famous*ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο another, other*λόγος, λόγου ὁ word, speech, story;reason, accountἀνάξιος, ἀναξίᾱ, ἀνάξιον (-ος, -ον)
unworthy + gen.

ναυαγός, ναυαγόν shipwreckedἀσύλητος, ἀσύλητον inviolateξένος (ξεῖνος), ξένου (ξείνου) ὁstranger; guest-friendαὔλειος, αὐλεία, αὔλειον (-ος, -ον)of the courtyardοἶκος, οἴκου ὁ house, palaceβία, βίας ἡ strength, forceὄχλος, ὄχλου ὁ throng, mob; trouble*γένος, γένεος (-ους) τό race, kind,sort; birth, origin*παρέχων, παρέχοντος ὁ furnishing;causing; allowingγραῖα, γραίᾱς ἡ old ladyπύλη, πύλης ἡ gates

Module 24 | Contract Verbs

δαίμων, δαίμονος ὁ god, deity

σεμνός, σεμνή, σεμνόν revered, holyδεσπότης, δεσπότου ὁ master*σός, σή, σόν yourδόμος, δόμου ὁ house, housesστράτευμα, στρατεύματος τό
campaign; army*Ἕλλην, Ἕλληνος ἡ ὁ Greek*χείρ, χειρός ἡ (dat pl. χερσίν)hand; force, army

ἔπος, ἔπεος (ἔπους) τό word, speech;song; saying; verseχῶρος, χώρου ὁ ground, placeἐπιστροφή, ἐπιστροφῆς ἡ turning;businessὥρα, ὥρας ἡ season, period, time363

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentence foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person,
number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them.
For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For
adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.
ὀχληρῶς ἔχεις καὶ τάχ’ ὠθήσομαι βίᾳ.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Prophecy and Seers
Many Greeks believed in the existence of a multitude of divine beings andbelieved that the deities took such an interest in mortal affairs that theyintervened, caused events to happen, and predicted the future. Seers or prophets
served as intermediaries between the divine and mortal spheres. The Greeks
consulted seers for a variety of different reasons including decisions like should
they marry, should they go to war, and who their parents were. Called a bastard
while dining at a banquet, Oidipous consulted the oracle at Delphi to find out
who his parents were. Uncertain about whether he should wage war against
the Persians, Kroisos (Croesus), king of the Lydians, consulted many oracles todetermine which ones were genuine. Kroisos’ test affirmed the validity of theoracle of Apollo at Delphi. Kroisos offered the oracle abundant gifts and asked
if he should wage war against the Persians. To both Oidipous and Kroisos theoracle gave ambiguous answers. To Oidipous it replied that he would kill his
dad and marry his mom. To Kroisos it replied that if he went to war, he would
destroy a great empire. Oidipous tried to keep the oracle’s prediction fromcoming true by avoiding his parents. In fleeing from the prophecy and whom364

Ancient Greek I

he thought were his parents, Oidipous fulfilled it, killing his biological dad Laiosand marrying his birth mother Jocasta. Kroisos waged war against the Persians
and destroyed a great empire, his own. To the common question of marrying,
the Delphic oracle gave straightforward yes or no answers. Consulting the oracle
about possibly doing something that was considered wrong—like handing
over to an enemy someone to whom you have granted asylum—could resultin divine vengeance and your death (Herodotos, Book I.159). When the Greeks,
intent on sailing to Troy to recover Helen, were at Aulis stranded by contrary
winds, they consulted a seer who replied that favorable winds would be granted
if Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter Iphigeneia to the goddess Artemis. It
may be that Artemis’ demand for a sacrifice was her divine punishment ofAgamemnon for wanting to wage the Trojan war, causing much needless deathand suffering. Dreams and portents also serve as intermediaries, giving mortals
an indication of what may or may not happen. Today prediction, prophecy,and portents remain an integral part of our culture and play a significant rolein literature, in science, and in people’s belief systems. Einstein’s theory of
relativity predicts that the past, present, and future all exist concurrently. Timehas been proven to be relative, slowing down the faster we approach the speedof light. If the future is already here, does this mean that prediction is merely
the statement of what already is?
Module 24 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words,
the greater mastery of the language you will have.
Adjective and Nounsἡμέρᾱ, ἡμέρᾱς ἡ dayἱππεύς, ἱππῆος (ἱππέως) ὁ knight, cavalryman; horseman, riderἵππος, ἵππου ἡ ὁ horse; (fem.) cavalryνέος, νέᾱ, νέον new, fresh, young; strange, unexpectedποταμός, ποταμοῦ ὁ riverτέλος, τέλεος (τέλους) τό end, boundary; power; office; (acc.) finallyτόπος, τόπου ὁ place, spotVerbsπάσχω, πείσομαι, ἔπαθον, πέπονθα, ------, ------ suffer, have done to oneφεύγω, φεύξομαι, ἔφυγον, πέφευγα, ------, ------ flee; be banished; be in exile; bea defendantModule 24 | Contract Verbs

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Etymology Corner XXIV by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 20, Parts of Speech
Verbs, cont. The three voices (from Latin vox voice) in Greek sit pretty close to theLatin roots.
•

Active voice is where the subject is doing the action, and is so called from theLatin verb agere meaning to do. An actor is a person who acts, as is an agent,both coming from different principal parts of the same verb.

•

Passive voice occurs when the subject is enduring the verb, and comes fromthe Latin patior meaning to suffer. A patient, a person who is suffering in a
hospital, comes from the same root as does passion, which is an emotion you
don’t control but you have to endure. By the way, the person who is doing theaction in a passive sentence is called the agent.

•

Middle voice is a good old fashioned English translation of the Greek μέσηδιάθεσις, or placed in the middle between active and passive.

•

Deponent verbs, verbs that look passive but are active like ἔρχομαι, have
simply been placed aside (de, aside, like deposit or derail, and ponere, like
postpone, to put something off until later) their active endings.

What to Study and Do 24. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you
are able to accent and to contract stem vowels with endings. Also make sure that you
understand how to translate and identify each form.
Learning Tip 24: Continuous and Discontinuous Learning. We can programmachines to memorize and to analyze, both left brain functions. We use the creative
right side of the brain differently. When we first encounter new things, the right halfof the brain processes them. This learning is discontinuous because it does not process
information through analysis and logic. Rather, it engages in lantern-type processing,taking in a lot of information without applying rules. We can program a machine toaccent Greek words accurately. We cannot program a machine to create new ways ofthinking about culture, language, and living well. Discontinuity enables new insights,
different ways of thinking, and the reframing of information in unexpected ways.

Module 25

The Infinitive in Indirect Statementand πρίν- and ὥστε-Clauses

The Infinitive
Remember that in English and in Greek the infinitive is unmarked for person
and for number. Ιt is classified as a verbal noun and is best understood bythinking of its function as completing or enhancing the meaning of adjectives,
clauses, nouns, and verbs. This is why the infinitive is referred to as complement.
Sometimes classified as a mood, the infinitive is potential in meaning, ἐνδυνάμει, because its action may or may not be realized.

The Declarative and Dynamic Infinitives
There are two types of infinitives, the declarative and the dynamic. You learned
about the dynamic infinitive in Module 17. Both the declarative and the dynamic
infinitives refer to actions which exist potentially or ἐν δυνάμει. The dynamic
infinitive is negated by the abverb μή not, and not οὐ not. οὐ not typicallynegates the declarative infinitive, though there are some exceptions. For moreon the declarative and dynamic infinitives, see CGCG 51.

The Declarative Infinitive
The declarative infinitive is referred to as a complement because it completes
the meaning of verbs of belief, opinion, and speech, introducing what is referred
to as indirect statement. The declarative infinitive expresses the content of
someone’s speech or belief. Note that this content, as is true of the content of the
dynamic infinitive, may or may not be true. In the sentences,© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.30

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Ancient Greek Iποιεῖν φημὶ αὐτοὺς ἃ βούλονται,I say that they are doing what they want,andαὐτοὶ μέντοι ἐκ Κρήτης φασὶ εἶναι,they say they are from Κrete,
the subject I of φημί I say and the subject they of φασί they say represent what
the speakers believe to be true. Others may disagree. And so the actions of
the infinitives ποιέειν to do and εἶναι to be are said to exist potentially. The
introductory verbs φημί and φασί are called head verbs because the action
takes place in the head. For more information on the declarative infinitive, see
CGCG 51.19–27.
Examples of verbs of belief and opinion:γίγνωσκω judgeδοκέω thinkἡγέομαι believe
λογίζομαι reckonνομίζω believeοἴομαι (οἶμαι) thinkπιστεύω trustὑπολαμβάνω understandὑποπτεύω suspectφαινομαι appear
Examples of verbs of speaking:ἀγγέλλω announceἀκούω hear, am told thatδηλόω make clear
λέγω sayφημί sayPractice Translating Direct Statement. Translate these direct statements.
Check yourself with the answers that follow.
1. μετὰ ταῦτα οἱ Καλλατίαι τοὺς γονέας κατεσθίουσιν (Herodotos).
2. οἱ δ’ Ἕλληνες τοὺς πατέρας κατακαύσουσι πυρί (Herodotos).
3. νόμος ἐστί πάντων βασιλεύς (Herodotos quoting Pindar).
4. δεῖ σὲ μὲν οὐδ᾽ ἀντιτείνειν νῦν νήπι᾽ ἀντὶ νηπίων (Euripides).
5. ἐγὼ μὲν οὐκ ἔπεισα αὐτούς, πειράεσθαι δὲ ἔδει (Euripides).
6. πείθει δῶρα καὶ θεούς· χρυσὸς δὲ κρείσσων πολλῶν λόγων βροτοῖς(Euripides).

Module 25 | The Infinitive in Indirect Statement and πρίν- and ὥστε-Clauses

Vocabularyἀντιτείνω repayκρείσσων, κρείσσονος ὁ better,stronger, greater*βασιλεύς, βασιλῆος (βασιλέως) ὁ *λόγος, λόγου ὁ word, speech, story;
king, chiefreason, accountβροτός, βροτοῦ ὁ mortalνήπια, νηπίων τά folly, foolishnessγονεύς, γονέως (-εος) ὁ begetter, *νόμος, νόμου ὁ law, custom
father, parent*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or dat. *πάντα, πάντων τά all, each, wholeor acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary
to comeδῶρον, δώρου τό gift*πατήρ, πατρός ὁ father*Ἕλλην, Ἕλληνος ἡ ὁ Greek*πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα persuade;(mid. or pass.) listen to, obey + dat. orgen.

*θεός, θεοῦ ἡ ὁ god, goddess, deityπειράω attempt, undertake

Καλλατίαι, Καλλατιῶν οἱ Kallatians, *πολλοί, πολλῶν οἱ manya tribe from Indiaκατακαίω, κατακαύσω, κατέκαυσα πῦρ, πυρός τό fireburnκατεσθίω, -ἔδομαι, -ἔφαγον eatχρυσός, χρυσοῦ ὁ gold

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Translations
1. Next the Kallatians eat their parents.
2. The Greeks will burn their fathers with fire.
3. Custom is king of everything.
4. It is not necessary for you now to repay folly with folly.
5. I did not persuade them but it was necessary to try.
6. Gifts persuade even gods; and to mortals gold is greater than a lot oftalk.
Practice Translating Indirect Statement. Νοw translate these same sentences
which have been placed in indirect statement. Check yourself with the answers
that follow.

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Ancient Greek I

1. Δαρεῖος δὲ ἔφη μετὰ ταῦτα τοὺς Καλλατίαs τοὺς γονέας κατεσθίειν.
2. ὁ δὲ ἔφη τοὺς Ἕλληνας τοὺς πατέρας κατακαύσειν πυρί.
3. ὀρθῶς ἔφη Πίνδαρος νόμον πάντων βασιλέα εἶναι.
4. λέγω δεῖν σὲ μὲν οὐδ᾽ ἀντιτείνειν νῦν νήπι᾽ ἀντὶ νηπίων.
5. λέγει ἐμὲ μὲν οὐκ πεῖσαι αὐτούς, πειρᾶσθαι δὲ δεῖν.
6. λέγουσιν πείθειν δῶρα καὶ θεούς· χρυσὸν δὲ κρείσσονα πολλῶν λόγων
βροτοῖς.
VocabularyΔαρεῖος, Δαρείου ὁ Dareios (Darius), I the Great, third king of the Akhaimenids,
defeated the Magi to come to power; it is estimated that Dareios ruled over 50
million people, about 44% of the world’s population c. 550–486*ἔφη he, she, it said*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω, ἔλεξα or εἶπον say, tell, speakὀρθῶς correctlyΠίνδαρος, Πινδάρου ὁ Pindaros (Pindar), a Theban and one of the nine Greek
lyric poets, best known for his Odes, c. 522–443
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.

Translations
1. And Dareios said that next the Kallatians eat their parents.
2. And he said that the Greeks will burn their fathers with fire.
3. Pindar correctly said that custom is king of everything.
4. I say that it is not necessary for you now to repay folly with folly.
5. She says that I did not persuade them but it was necessary to try.
6. They say that gifts persuade even gods and to mortals, gold is greaterthan a lot of talk.
Compare and contrast the two sets of sentences, taking careful note of thesepoints:•

The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative case unless the subjectof the head verb and the subject of the infinitive are the same.

•

The tense of the infinitive stands for the same tense of the finite verb.
The present infinitive can stand for an original present indicative or
imperfect indicative.

•

Each sentence begins with a head verb, ἔφη, λέγω, λέγουσιν.

Module 25 | The Infinitive in Indirect Statement and πρίν- and ὥστε-Clauses

•

371

When you parse, refer to the subject of the infinitive as a subject
accusative and to the infinitive as the main verb in indirect statement.

Practice Translating Subject of Head Verb and Infinitive the Same I.
Sometimes the subject of the head verb and the subject of the infinitive are thesame. In the sentence, you say you can relax on both sides of the tracks, thesubject you of you say and the subject you of you can relax are the same. For
practice, translate these same sentences which have been changed so that the
subject of the head verb and the subject of at least one of the infinitives are thesame and indicated by underlining. Check yourself with the answers that follow.
1. οἱ δὲ Καλλατίαι ἔφασαν μετὰ ταῦτα τοὺς γονέας κατεσθίειν.
2. οἱ δὲ Ἕλληνες ἔφασαν τοὺς πατέρας κατακαύσειν πυρί.
3. ὀρθῶς ἔφη Πίνδαρος νομίζειν νόμον πάντων βασιλέα εἶναι.
4. λέγεις νομίζειν δεῖν σὲ μὲν οὐδ᾽ ἀντιτείνειν νῦν νήπι᾽ ἀντὶ νηπίων.
5. λέγω μὲν οὐκ πεῖσαι αὐτούς, πειρᾶσθαι δὲ δεῖν.
6. λέγουσιν νομίζειν πείθειν δῶρα καὶ θεούς· χρυσὸν δὲ κρείσσοναπολλῶν λόγων βροτοῖς.
Vocabulary*ἔφασαν they said*νομίζω believe, think, have the custom of, hold as custom
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.

Translations
1. The Kallatians said that next they ate their parents.
2. The Greeks said that they will burn their fathers with fire.
3. Pindar correctly said that he thinks custom is the king of everything.
4. You say that you think it is not necessary for you now to repay follywith folly.
5. I say that I did not persuade them, but it was necessary to try.
6. They say that they think gifts persuade even the gods and to mortals,
gold is greater than a lot of talk.
Practice Translating Subject of Head Verb and Infinitive the Same II. As
noted above, when the subject of the head verb and the subject of the infinitive
are the same, there is no separate subject accusative and all subject modifiersremain nominative. For further practice consider these examples. Checkyourself with the answers that follow.

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Ancient Greek I

1. νομίζουσιν ἀγαθοὶ εἶναι.
2. νομίζουσιν ἀγαθαὶ εἶναι.
3. νομίζετε ἀγαθοὶ εἶναι.
4. νομίζετε ἀγαθαὶ εἶναι.
5. νομίζομεν ἀγαθοὶ εἶναι.
6. νομίζομεν ἀγαθαὶ εἶναι.
7. νομίζω ἀγαθὴ εἶναι.
8. νομίζω ἀγαθὸς εἶναι.
9. νομίζεις ἀγαθὴ εἶναι.
10. νομίζεις ἀγαθὸς εἶναι.
Answers
1. They think that they are good (they is male).
2. They think that they are good (they is female).
3. You think that you are good (you is male).
4. You think that you are good (you is female).
5. We think that we are good (we is male).
6. We think that we are good (we is female).
7. I think that I am good (I is female).
8. I think that I am good (I is male).
9. You think that you are good (you is female).
10. You think that you are good (you is male).
Practice Parsing Indirect Statement in English. Consider these English
sentences that are based on a story in Herodotos concerning Kroisos andAdrastos. For each sentence parse the words by specifying which case eachword would be in if you translated them into Greek and by explaining what
function the case has. It may be helpful to use the Case and Function Chart.
1. He said that you will be short-lived and will be killed by an iron spear.
2. You tell me that the dream says I will die by an iron spear.
3. The dream did not say that I will die by a fang.
4. The oracle said that he would destroy a large empire.
5. He said that a mule will never rule.
Check the answers in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand whyeach word is parsed as it is.

Module 25 | The Infinitive in Indirect Statement and πρίν- and ὥστε-Clauses

373πρίν-Clausesπρίν before, until or πρὶν ἤ before, until may be followed by a finite verb or by an
infinitive. When the main verb is negated, πρίν is typically followed by a finite
verb of the aorist tense. Otherwise πρίν is followed by an infinitive and shouldbe translated by its English equivalent before. As with the declarative infinitivein indirect statement, the subject of the infinitive is placed in the accusative caseunless the subject of the main verb and the infinitive are the same. When they
are the same, there is no separate subject accusative and all subject modifiersremain nominative.
Practice Translating πρίν-Clauses I. Translate these sentences, excerpted
from Herodotos, which have their subjects changed to the nominative and theirinfinitives changed to finite verbs. Check yourself with the answers that follow.
1. μέγαλοι γίγνονται οἱ Πέρσαι.
2. οἱ Πέρσαι Λυδοὺς κατεστρέψαντο.
3. σφεῖς ἀνέπλωσαν ἐς τὰς Σάρδις.
4. Ψαμμήτιχος σφέων ἐβασίλευσεν.
5. οὐκ ἐς Φωκαίην ἥξουσιν καὶ ὁ μύδρος οὗτος ἀνέφανη.
Vocabularyἀναπλώω (ἀναπλέω), ἀναπλώσω, ἀνέπλωσα sail upἀναφαίνω (-φαίνω, -φανέω, -ἔφηνα, -πέφαγκα or -πέφηνα, -πέφασμαι,-ἐφάνθην or -ἐφάνην) make to give light; (pass.) be shown forth, appear
βασιλεύω, βασιλεύσω, ἐβασίλευσα rule + gen.
*γίγνομαι, γενήσομαι, ἐγενόμην be, be born*ἥκω, ἥξω have come, be present
καταστρέφω, -στρέψω, -ἔστρεψα turn down, trample; (mid.) subdueΛυδοί, Λυδῶν οἱ the Lydians*μέγαλοι, μεγάλων οἱ big, great, largeμύδρος, μύδρου ὁ lump of ironΠέρσης, Πέρσου (-εω) ὁ a PersianΣάρδεις, -εων (-ιων) αἱ (Σάρδις (acc.)) Sardis, capital of Lydia, and principal
city of Persia, located near the coast of Asia MinorΦωκαίη, Φωκαίης ἡ Phokaia, a Greek city on the western coast of Turkey
Ψαμμήτιχος, Ψαμμητίχου ὁ Psammetikhos, king of Egypt, c. 664 BCE

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Ancient Greek I

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.

Translations
1. The Persians become great.
2. The Persians conquered the Lydians.
3. They sailed to Sardis.
4. Psammetikhos ruled them.
5. They will not return to Phokaia and this lump of iron reappeared.
Practice Translating πρίν-Clauses II. Now translate these same sentences,paying particular attention to the changes that have occurred in the πρίνclauses. Check yourself with the answers that follow.
1. εἴ πως δύναμαι, πρὶν μεγάλους γενέσθαι τοὺς Πέρσας, καταλήψομαιαὐτῶν τὴν δύναμιν.
2. Πέρσῃσι γάρ, πρὶν Λυδοὺς καταστρέψασθαι, ἦν οὔτε ἁβρὸν οὔτεἀγαθὸν οὐδέν.
3. πρὶν γὰρ ἢ ὀπίσω σφέας ἀναπλῶσαι ἐς τὰς Σάρδις ᾑρέθη ὁ Κροῖσος.
4. οἱ δὲ Αἰγύπτιοι, πρὶν μὲν ἢ Ψαμμήτιχον σφέων βασιλεῦσαι, ἐνόμιζονἑωυτοὺς πρώτους γενέσθαι πάντων ἀνθρώπων.
5. μύδρον σιδήρεον κατεπόντωσαν καὶ ὤμοσαν μὴ πρὶν ἐς Φωκαίην ἥξεινπρὶν ἢ τὸν μύδρον τοῦτον ἀναφανῆναι.
Vocabularyἁβρός, -όν delicate, graceful, pretty

καταποντόω throw into the sea,drown

*ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν good, nobleΚροῖσος, Κροίσου ὁ Kroisos, kingof Lydia renown for his great wealthand great downfall, defeated in his
campaign against the Persians andKyros the Great, c. 595–547

Αἰγύπτιοι, Αἰγυπτίων οἱ Egyptians*νομίζω believe, think, have thecustom of, hold as custom*αἱρέω, αἱρήσω, εἷλον (ἑλεῖν),ᾕρηκα, ᾕρημαι, ᾑρέθην take, seize,
grab, capture; (mid.) chooseὀπίσω back, behind*ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ human,personὄμνυμι, ὀμέομαι, ὤμοσα swear,
swear to or by, swear + inf.

Module 25 | The Infinitive in Indirect Statement and πρίν- and ὥστε-Clauses*δύναμαι I am able*πάντες, πάντων οἱ all, each, whole*δύναμις, δυνάμιος (δυνάμηος,δυνάμεως) ἡ might, strength, power;
force, army*πρῶτος, πρώτη, πρῶτον first, forthe present, just now*ἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῆς, ἑαυτοῦ himself,
herself, itself

πως somehow, someway

καταλαμβάνω, καταλήψομαι,κατέλαβον come across; seize, layhold of; checkσιδήρεος, σιδηρέα, σιδήρεον of iron375

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.

Translations
1. If I am at all able, before the Persians become great, I will sieze theirmight.
2. Before they conquered the Lydians the Persians had nothing luxurious
or valuable.
3. Before they sailed back to Sardis Kroisos was captured.
4. Before Psammetikhos ruled them, the Egyptians thought themselves
the best of all peoples.
5. They sunk the iron lump and swore not to return to Phokaia before it
appeared again.
Compare and contrast the two sets of sentences, taking careful note of these
items:•

In each sentence consider who the subjects of each infinitive are.

•

In sentence 2, the subject of the infinitive καταστρέψασθαι is not
expressed and must be supplied from context.

•

In sentence 4, the subject of γενέσθαι is the accusative reflexive
pronoun, ἑωυτούς, and not the expected nominative: ἐνόμιζον αὐτοὶπρῶτοι γενέσθαι πάντων ἀνθρώπων.

ὥστε-Clauses or Result Clauses
ὥστε when followed by a finite verb in the indicative creates a clause that isreferred to as actual result. ὥστε when followed by an infinitive creates aclause that is referred to as natural result. In actual result the emphasis ison the factual occurrence of the action. Natural result emphasizes the natural376

Ancient Greek I

or inevitable occurrence of the action, which may or may not have actuallyoccurred. As with the declarative infinitive in indirect statement, the subject of
the infinitive is placed in the accusative case unless the subject of the main verb
and the infinitive are the same. When they are the same, there is no separate
subject accusative and all subject modifiers remain nominative.
Practice Translating Actual Result. Translate these sentences adapted fromtheir originals. They have finite verbs in their ὥστε-clauses. Check yourunderstanding with the translations that follow.
1. ἀλλ᾽ ἐς τοσοῦτον ἥκεθ᾽ ὥστε πάντ’ ἔχειν νομίζετε (Euripides).
2. ὁ δ᾽ ἐς τοσοῦτον μωρίας ἀφίκετο, ὥστε τήνδ’ ἀφῆκεν ἡμέραν μεῖναί με(Euripides).
3. παῖς δ’ εἰμι ἐγώ σοι, ὥστ’ οὐκ ἄλλοις δόμον λείψειν ἔμελλες ὀρφανὸνδιαρπάσαι (Euripides).
4. τὸ πρόσωπον αὐτοῦ οἶσθα, ὥστε οὐδὲν ἔτι δεήσει τὴν θυγατέρα ἰδεῖν(Lucian).
5. αἱ μὲν τῶν Περσέων κεφαλαί εἰσι ἀσθενέες οὕτω ὥστε, εἰ θέλεις ψήφῳμόνῃ βαλεῖν, διατετρανέεις (Herodotos).
Vocabulary*ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο another, otherκεφαλή, κεφαλῆς ἡ headἀσθενής, ἀσθενές weakλείπω, λείψω, ἔλιπον leaveἀφίημι, -ἥσω, -ἧκα send forth, μένω, μενέω, ἔμεινα stay, remain,discharge, let go, call off; suffer, permit wait, await*ἀφικνέομαι, ἀφίξομαι, ἀφικόμην, *μέλλω, μελλήσω, ἐμέλλησα be------, ἀφῖγμαι, ------ arrive, reach, come about to, be going to; be likely to + inf.
to(fut. inf. in Attic)
βάλλω, βαλέω, ἔβαλον throw, hit*μόνος, μόνη, μόνον only, sole, alone,solitary; one*δεῖ, δεήσει it is necessary + dat. or μωρία, μωρίας ἡ follyacc. + inf.
διαρπάζω, διαρπάσομαι, διήρπασα *νομίζω, νομιέω, ἐνόμισα believe,tear into pieces; spoil, plunderthink, have the custom of, hold ascustomδιατετρανέω bore through, make a *ὁράω, ὄψομαι, εἶδον (ἰδεῖν) see
hole inδόμος, δόμου ὁ houseὀρφανός, ὀρφανή, ὀρφανόν orphan

Module 25 | The Infinitive in Indirect Statement and πρίν- and ὥστε-Clauses*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possible

377*παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ child*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον have, *πάντα, πάντων τά all, each, whole
hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to bewell*ἥκω, ἥξω have come, be presentΠέρσαι, Περσέων (-ῶν) οἱ Persians*ἡμέρα, ἡμέρας ἡ dayπρόσωπον, προσώπου τό face*θέλω, θελήσω wish, be willing*τοσοῦτος, τοσαύτη, τοσοῦτο somuch, so manyθυγάτηρ, θυγατέρος or θυγατρός ἡ ψῆφος, ψήφου ἡ pebble, stonedaughter
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Translations
1. You reached such a point that you think you have everything.
2. He reached such an excess of folly that he permitted me to remain thisone day.
3. I am your child, successor to this house, and so you were not likely toleave the house an orphan for others to plunder.
4. You know his face and so it will not be necessary for you to see hisdaughter.
5. The skulls of the Persians are so weak that if you wish to strike one
with a pebble you will pierce it.
Practice Translating Natural Result I. Translate these sentences adapted fromtheir originals. They have been removed from their ὥστε-clause with theirinfinitives changed to finite verbs. Check yourself with the translations that
follow.
1. οὐ θανέῃ ποτε (Euripides).
2. αὐτὴν χερσὶν ἐνθήσω ξένου (Euripides).
3. ὕμνοις αὐτὴν ἐξ Ἅιδου λήψομαι (Euripides).
4. οὐκέθ’ ἀνὴρ ὅδε ἥδεται βίῳ (Euripides).
5. βοτήρ ὄψεται ἐμέ (Sophokles).
VocabularyἍιδης, Ἅιδου ὁ Hades*ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ man, husband

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Ancient Greek I*βίος, βίου ὁ lifeβοτήρ, βοτῆρος ὁ herdsmanἐντίθημι, ἐνθήσω, ἐνέθηκα place, putἥδομαι delight in; take pleasure, rejoice; be delighted with + dat.
*θνῄσκω, θανέομαι, ἔθανον die, perish*λαμβάνω, λήψομαι, ἔλαβον take, receive, captureξένος (ξεῖνος), ξένου (ξείνου) ὁ stranger; guest-friend*ὁράω, ὄψομαι, εἶδον (ἰδεῖν) seeοὐκέθ’ = οὐκέτι no more, no longer, no furtherὕμνος, ὕμνου ὁ hymn, song*χείρ, χειρός ἡ (dat pl. χερσίν) hand; force, army
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.

Translations
1. You will never die.
2. I will place her in the hands of my guest-friend.
3. Through song I will take her from Hades.
4. This man no longer enjoys life.
5. A herdsman will see me.
Practice Translating Natural Result II. Translate these sentences that now
have their verbs in the ὥστε-clause changed into infinitives. Note how theinfinitive functions in each ὥστε-clause.
1. σοφῶς δ’ ἐφηῦρες, ὥστε μὴ θανεῖν ποτε.
2. ἄξω ἄνω Ἄλκηστιν, ὥστε χερσὶν ἐνθεῖναι ξένου.
3. οὐκ Ὀρφέως μοι γλῶσσα καὶ μέλος ἐστίν, ὥστε ὕμνοις αὐτὴν ἐξ Ἅιδου
λαβεῖν.
4. γυναικὸς ἐσθλῆς ἤμπλακον, ὥστ’ ἄνδρα τόνδε μηκέθ’ ἥδεσθαι βίῳ.
5. βοτὴρ ἔτι ζάει οὗτος, ὥστ᾽ ἰδεῖν ἐμέ;
Vocabulary*ἄγω, ἄξω, ἤγαγον do, drive, lead; χάριν ἄγω I give thanksἌλκηστις, Ἀλκήστιδος ἡ Alkestis
ἤμπλακον (aorist) miss, fail, come short of + gen.; lose, be bereft of + gen.

Module 25 | The Infinitive in Indirect Statement and πρίν- and ὥστε-Clauses

379ἄνω up, above
γλῶσσα γλώσσης ἡ tongue, language*γυνή, γυναικός ἡ woman, wife
ἐσθλός, ἐσθλή, ἐσθλόν noble, fine, goodἐφευρίσκω, ἐφευρήσω, ἐφηῦρον discoverμέλος, μέλεος (-ους) τό limb, songὈρφεύς, Ὀρφέως ὁ Orpheus, Argonaut and divine singer, able to charm animals
with songσοφῶς wisely
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Translations
1. You have discovered wisely so as not to die ever.
2. I will lead Alkestis up so as to place her in the hands of my guest-friend.
3. I do not have Orpheus’ tongue or music so as to bring her by singing
from Hades.
4. I lost a noble wife and so this man no longer enjoys life.
5. Does this herdsman still live so as to look upon me?
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, which have been adaptedfrom Euripides’ Helen (Ἑλένη). Do not write down your translation. Doing so
slows the learning process. Remember the meanings and functions of the cases
presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions.
If you forget an ending or a function, consult the Adjective, Adverb, Noun,and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII at the back of the book and the Case andFunction Chart in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the answers in
the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as
it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing witheach rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes.
Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Γραῦς: τί βλέφαρα τέγγεις δάκρυσι; πρὸς τίν’ οἰκτρὸς εἶ;Μενέλαος: πρὸς τὰς πάροιθεν συμφορὰς εὐδαίμονας.
Γραῦς: οὔκουν ἀπελθὼν δάκρυα σοῖς δώσεις φίλοις;Μενέλαος: τίς δ’ ἥδε χώρα; τίνος δὲ βασίλειοι δόμοι;5Γραῦς: Πρωτεὺς τάδ’ οἰκεῖ δώματ’, Αἴγυπτος δὲ γῆ.

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Ancient Greek IΜενέλαος: Αἴγυπτος; πρὸς ποίαν δύστηνον ἔπλευσα χώραν ἄρα;Γραῦς: τί δὴ τὸ Νείλου μέμφῃ γάνος;Μενέλαος: οὐ τοῦτ’ ἐμέμφθην· τὰς ἐμὰς στένω τύχας.
Γραῦς: πολλοὶ κακῶς πράσσουσι, οὐ σὺ δὴ μόνος.
10Μενέλαος: οὗτος ἔστʼ οὖν ἐν οἴκοις, ὅν ὀνομάζεις «ἄναξ Πρωτεύς»;Γραῦς: τόδ’ ἐστὶν αὐτοῦ μνῆμα, παῖς δ’ ἄρχει χθονός.
Μενέλαος: ποῦ δῆτα; πότερον ἐκτὸς ἢ ἐν δόμοις;Γραῦς: οὐκ ἔνδον· Ἕλλησιν δὲ πολεμιώτατος.
Μενέλαος: τίνʼ αἰτίαν σχών, ἧς ἐπηυρόμην ἐγώ.

15Γραῦς: Ἑλένη κατ’ οἴκους ἐστὶ τούσδ’ ἡ τοῦ Διός.
Μενέλαος: πῶς φῄς; τίν’ εἶπες μῦθον; αὖθίς μοι φράσεις;Γραῦς: ἡ Τυνδαρὶς παῖς, ἣ κατὰ Σπάρτην ποτ’ ἦν.
Μενέλαος: πόθεν ἔμολεν; τίνα τὸ πρᾶγμ’ ἔχει λόγον;Γραῦς: Λακεδαίμονος γῆς δεῦρο ἐνόστησ’ ἄπο.

20Μενέλαος: πότε; οὔ τί που ληΐζομαι ἐξ ἄντρων λέχος;Adverbs and Verbs
αὖθις againνοστέω, νοστήσω, ἐνόστησα gohome, return; go, come*ἄρχω, ἄρξω, ἦρξα rule, command;
begin + gen.

οἰκέω, οἰκήσω, ᾤκησα inhabit,
settle; manage, dwell, liveβλώσκω, μολέομαι, ἔμολον come, go ὀνομάζω, ὀνομάσω, ὠνόμασα name,callδεῦρο hither, hereοὔκουν not*δίδωμι, δωσω, ἔδωκα give; δίκηνδίδωμι I pay the penalty; δίδωμιχάριν I give thanksπάροιθεν in front; previouslyδῆτα certainly, of course; thenπλέω (πλώω), πλεύσομαι or
πλευσέομαι, ἔπλευσα sail*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possibleπόθεν from whereἐκτός without, outsideπότε whenἔνδον withinπότερον introduces an alternative
question

Module 25 | The Infinitive in Indirect Statement and πρίν- and ὥστε-Clausesἐπαυρέω, ἐπαυρήσω, ἐπηῦρον
partake of, share + gen.; (mid.) enjoy,
experience + gen.

ποῦ where, in what place*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον have,
hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to bewell*πράσσω (πράττω), πράξω, ἔπραξα
do, make; fare; + κακῶς sufferἦν he was, she was, it wasστένω moan, groan; bewail, lament*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω, ἔλεξα or εἶπονsay, tell, speakτέγγω, τέγξω, ἔτεγξα wet, moistenληΐζομαι seize, plunder, despoil; berobbed of*φημί, φήσω, ἔφησα say, affirm,
assertμέμφομαι, μέμψομαι, ἐμεμψάμην,------, ------, ἐμέμφθην blame, criticize,
find fault, complainφράζω, φράσω, ἔφρασα tell, show;
advise; (mid. and pass.) suppose,
believe

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
Αἴγυπτος, Αἰγύπτου ἡ Egyptμνῆμα, μνήματος τό memorial,
record, tombαἰτία, αἰτίας ἡ reason, cause; guilt;
blame*μόνος, μόνη, μόνον only, sole, alone,solitary; oneἄναξ, ἄνακτος ὁ prince, lord, kingμῦθος, μύθου ὁ word, speech; tale,storyἄντρον, ἄντρου τό caveΝεῖλος, Νείλου ὁ Nile Riverἀπελθών, ἀπελθόντος ὁ departing,leaving; having departed, having leftοἶκος, οἴκου ὁ house, palace

βασίλειος, βασιλεία, βασίλειονroyalοἰκτρός, οἰκτρά, οἰκτρόν pitiable;
miserable

βλέφαρα, βλεφάρων τά eyelids, eyes*παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ childγάνος, γάνεος (-ους) τό brightness,joyποῖος, ποία, ποῖον of what sort*γῆ, γῆς ἡ land, earthπολεμιώτατος, -τάτη, -τατον mosthostileδάκρυον, δακρύου τό tears*πρᾶγμα, πράγματος τό matter,
thing, affair; problemδόμος, δόμου ὁ house, housesΠρωτεύς, Πρωτέως ὁ Proteus

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Ancient Greek Iδύστηνος, δύστηνον wretched,unhappy, unfortunate, disastrousΣπάρτη, Σπάρτης ἡ Spartaδῶμα, δώματος τό house*σός, σή, σόν yourἙλένη, Ἑλένης ἡ Helenσυμφορά, συμφορᾶς ἡ misfortune*Ἕλλην, Ἕλληνος ἡ ὁ Greekσχών, σχόντος ὁ having, holding,having held*ἐμός, ἐμή, ἐμόν myΤυνδαρίς, Τυνδαρίδος ἡ daughter of
Tyndareusεὐδαίμων, εὐδαῖμον blessed with aτύχη, τύχης ἡ fate, necessity; fortune,
good genius, fortunate, wealthy, happy chance*Ζεύς, Διός ὁ Zeus*φίλος, φίλη, φίλον friendly, kind,well-disposed + dat.; (n.) friendΛακεδαίμων, Λακεδαίμονος ἡ
Lakedaimon, Spartaχθών, χθονός ἡ earth, groundλέχος, λέχεος (-ους) τό bed,
marriage-bed*χώρα, χώρας ἡ land, country*λόγος, λόγου ὁ word, speech, story;reason, account
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentences foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person,
number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them.
For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s object. For
adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.
γέλως ἄκαιρος πᾶσι βροτοῖς φέρει δεινὸν κακόν.
Λακεδαίμονος γῆς δεῦρο ἐνόστησ’ ἄπο.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
Module 25 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is an essential building block to acquiring
language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring
vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.
Adjectives
ἀληθής, ἀληθές true
ἅπας, ἅπασα, ἅπαν all, each, every, wholeModule 25 | The Infinitive in Indirect Statement and πρίν- and ὥστε-Clauses

383δεινός, δεινή, δεινόν awesome, fearsome, terrible; δεινὸς λέγειν clever at
speakingεὐθύς, εὐθεῖα, εὐθύ straight, directμέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα big, greatπᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν all, each, every, wholeπολύς, πολλή, πολύ much, manyταχύς, ταχεῖα, ταχύ swiftVerbἀφικνέομαι, ἀφίξομαι, ἀφικόμην, ------, ἀφῖγμαι, ------ arrive, reach, come to

Religion and Death
Today there are approximately 10,000 religions, though 84% of people follow
these six: Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, folk religion, Judaism. The
first records of polytheistic religions date to about 5,000 years ago. Animism,
the belief that everything possesses a divine element, appears to predate polyand mono-theism. Though the Greek religion was polytheistic, it has animistic
qualities to it.
From the literature that has survived, we can generalize about Greek belief
in the divine, with the caveat that not all Greeks believed the same things.
Some Greeks were atheists. Others agnostic. Some believed in one god. Others
believed in gods different from the ones depicted in the Iliad, Odyssey, andTheogony, though it is guessed that most Greeks believed in them. As is true
when discussing events far removed from our own time, we often come toconclusions based on incomplete evidence and as additional evidence comes tolight we adjust our thinking accordingly. More evidence tends to complicate ourviews. Complication that admits of greater difference and diversity is generally
desirable.
Greek religion involves a complicated relationship between mortals andimmortals. Some big picture items are these three. First, Greeks honor the gods
in exchange for something material on earth in a quid pro quo exchange. A
Greek would pray to a deity asking her to accomplish something. In return the
petitioner would offer devotion and sacrifice. For example, Sappho petitions
Aphrodite to win over for her the woman she loves. In return Sappho offers
Aphrodite her devotion (Fragment 1, West). Second, should something be amiss,Greeks would consult a seer or oracle to determine which god had been offended
and how to appease the deity. Once they determined which god was angry andwhy, they would offer the required appeasement, typically a sacrifice. In the
Iliad, Agamemnon offers a sacrifice to the priest Khryses and to the god Apollo

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in appeasement for his mistreating Khryses and for his threatening to abusehis daughter Khryseis. Third, gods punished wrongdoing. Should you act oreven think about acting in a way that violated Greek customary behavior, a god
could punish you, your family members, those around you, or even take out
their punishment against a relative many years later, even after you have died
(Solon, Fragment 13, West). In Herodotos’ Histories, Kroisos suffers because of
his relative Gyges’ wrongs, committed four generations before Kroisos was born.
In Aiskhylos’ Agamemnon, Artemis may be asking Agamemnon to sacrifice hisdaughter Iphigeneia in order to punish him proleptically for fighting a costly
war.
Greek attitudes toward death are also complicated. Great deeds and works ofart were a way for a Greek to achieve a quasi-immorality. In the Iliad, Akhilleus
has two fates, a long life of anonymity or a short life with lots of honor. Though
he agonizes over the choice, Akhilleus dies young on the battlefield and isimmortalized by Homer. A couple of hundred years later, Herodotos writes
his Histories to preserve for eternity the reasons why the Greeks fought thebarbarians and the great deeds that the two accomplished. By writing it heachieves his own immortality, and is kept alive by those who continue to readhis work. Building on Herodotos’ accomplishment, Thoukydides writes his
history as a possession for all time, κτῆμα ἐς αἰεί, reasoning that as long as
human nature remains similar we will find meaning and relevance in what
he writes. Another strain of Greek thought argues that best was never to havebeen born at all and second best was to die as soon as possible. In the Moralia,“Letter to Apollonius, 115 a-c”, Plutarch ascribes the quote to Aristoteles’ lost
dialogue Περὶ ψυχῆς On the Soul wherein the character Silenos quotes Eternity,μὴ γενέσθαι μὲν ἄριστον πάντων, τὸ δὲ τεθνάναι τοῦ ζῆν ἐστι κρεῖττον, bestof all is not to have been born and death is better than life. Other sources offer
the opposite viewpoint. In Book 11 of Homer’s Odyssey, Akhilleus’ shade tells
Odysseus that he would prefer being a poor servant to being king of the dead.
Numerous other examples from the Greek records reject death as a horrible
existence and exalt human beings’ brief time on earth as precious. You haveread one of these examples when you practiced reading Mimnermos’ poem on
the brevity of life and importance of love. Plato’s Sokrates remains uncommital,arguing in the Apology that since we do not know what death is or what it holds
in store for us, we need to reject our fear of death and the unknown, living alife directed toward the good. Many Greeks sought refuge from life’s brevity inthe religious cults of Demeter and Dionysos, which promised initiates a blessed,
heaven-like afterlife. A nuanced understanding of ancient Greek belief on
religion and death would require more evidence than we currently possess.

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385

Etymology Corner XXV by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 21, Parts of Speech
Verbs, cont. Principal parts are so named because they are main parts of a verb
(princeps gives us prince, and ultimately derives from the guy who gets to take(capere) first (prin) at a sacrifice, i.e., the most important person; and Latin parsmeans part). So in Greek, once you have memorized the six principal parts of a verb
you can make all 240 forms of that verb from those essential elements. Indeed, you
can use each principal part to find the stem, which, like the stem of a tree or bush,
is unchanging despite the growth and decay of the foliage at the end of its branches.
What to Study and Do 25. Before moving on to the next module, make sure thatyou have learned how the infinitive functions in indirect statement, πρίν-clauses, andὥστε-clauses. Finally, compare and contrast the dynamic infinitive as a complement
and the declarative infinitive as a complement, remembering that both give actions
or states of being which exist potentially or ἐν δυνάμει.
Learning Tip 25: Creativity and Paradigm Shifts. Creativity involves coming tosee a situation in a substantially different way. It is a paradigm shift. The tree has
not changed but how we see the tree has. A geocentric view of the universe differs
completely from the heliocentric view whereby the planets revolve around a sun thatis part of a solar system, which is part of a universe that forms part of a multi-verse.
We live best when the creativity that we are born with expresses itself. The world everchanges with a dynamism that includes chaos and incoherence. We bring coherence
to our ever-changing world through the various conceptual systems we create. Chaos,conflict, and incoherence beget dissonance, which allows for creative breakthroughsthat bring with them unity and coherence. The cycle is endless.

Guest Feature 4

Amy R. Cohen on Performing andTranslating Ancient Greek Drama

Amy R. Cohen, Professor of Classics at Randolph-Macon Woman’s College andDirector of the Whiteside Greek Theatre, discusses ancient Greek Drama.
I have two great professional passions: ancient Greek language andGreek drama.
My love affair with Greek itself goes back to switching public school
systems in the Shenandoah Valley so that I could take Latin because
my wise parents understood how valuable the language might beto anything I wanted to do. I had a great high school Latin teacher(Kristin Vines), and I was good at Latin: I loved the puzzle of it andthe way it made me think more clearly about English. When I got
to college, I signed up for Greek as soon as I could, which turned
out to be a double-credit intensive class taught by the great Richard
Garner, and I fell in love with Greek. And it really did feel like a loveaffair—that I had broken up with Latin because I had found mytrue love in Greek. This was bad news for my Latin but has led to anincredibly fulfilling couple of decades as a Greek professor.
Greek is physically beautiful: it curves and swoops and catches withthe kind of give that lets words land gently. A page of Greek text
invites you in, even as it presents you with mysteries to solve.
Those mysteries are solved by looking closely at the smallest detailsof the language—an ending that tells you what a word wants todo, an accent that reveals a different definition—and if you trust
those clues and what they tell you, the page opens up to you andbrings you treasures. Directing ancient drama works the same way:
pay attention to the smallest details of the script, and you reveal© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.31

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Ancient Greek I

the riches in store for us from Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, andAristophanes.
My path into theatre ran parallel to my path into Greek: I’m thedaughter of a Shakespeare professor who also spearheaded a
study abroad program. Starting when I was still in elementary
school, I got to see many, many plays, most of them in London,
even though I was growing up in rural Virginia. After every show
we went to, Shakespeare or not, we would talk about its successes
and failures. Was the language obscure because a character was
being deceptive? When was it simple? When was it flowery? Did
the sets and costumes and lighting reveal more about the play to
us? Were the actors disappearing into their roles? These discussions
were even more wide-ranging when they were with a group of myfather’s students, which always included us no matter how late theevening had become.
I learned so much from those years of theatre: first, that talking
about a play is necessary. Even before I realized that thoseconversations were my training as a director, they formed part ofthe communal involvement of seeing a play: our shared reactions
and disagreements were as much a part of the experience as the timein our seats. I also started seeing what could have been better abouta production. I have since learned, of course, that many things—
especially time and money—are out of the control of a director,
but sometimes the best shows to talk about were the worst shows
to attend. Bad plays often teach more clearly what a good play is
because it can be easier to articulate the elements that contribute to“badness” than to define the aspects that make a show good.
For me, bad plays were those where the work of the playwrightand the actors took a backseat to the “concept” of the director,
particularly when that concept found expression mostly in thedesign elements of the show, the parts that Aristotle would call
spectacle (ὄψις).1 It seemed to me that directors were often replacing
the play’s ideas with their own, either to solve a perceived audienceproblem (“Shakespeare is hard!”) or because they saw a play merely
as a blank canvas for their own artistic statements. I developed ataste for a restrained directing style and spare productions, in which
the focus was on the words of the script and the interactions of theactors among themselves and with the audience.
1	Of course, Aristotle thinks the power of tragedy doesn’t require performance or actors, and heis wrong.

Guest Feature 4 | The Infinitive in Indirect Statement and πρίν- and ὥστε-Clauses

To return to the parallel paths: in the same year that I began taking
Latin, my father co-directed his first production, having becomeconvinced that it makes no sense to teach play texts without working
on and thinking about them as plays, as texts for perfomance.2
Meanwhile, I was falling in love with the details of Latin morphology
and hanging out backstage at the university theatre after school.
Doing drama was extracurricular, though, during my college andgraduate school years: Classics degrees did not include putting on
plays. But my first “real” Greek was Euripides’ Medea, and by thetime I got to graduate school I knew that I would specialize in Greek
drama. There I worked on how paying attention to which roles anactor plays can change how we understand the tragedies.
Then I had the great good fortune to be seeking a Greek professor
job just when Randolph-Macon Woman’s College needed someone.
R-MWC had a Greek Play tradition that had started in 1909 with aprofessor named Mabel Kate Whiteside. Miss Mabel (as she was
known) and her students put on forty plays in Greek over the courseof forty-five years, culminating with the entire Oresteia in 1954. In
1999, the college’s president thought that restarting that tradition
in its Greek theatre would be a good idea, and the hiring committee
thought that I was the person to do it.
Since then, the Whiteside Greek Theatre has been a laboratory anda studio as well as a drama venue: we put on plays (in English) theway we think the Greeks did in Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries
BCE, including researching and constructing linen masks. We findout how that performance practice changes our understandingof the plays, all the while (we hope) moving and entertaining
audiences who perhaps expect only a dusty museum experience
when they attend. With every production, attention to the details oftext and staging brings clarity to us in the company and thus to ouraudiences. Sometimes our work reveals new solutions for perceived
problems in the plays, sometimes new aspects entirely emerge, andsometimes the work favors one interpretation over another.
For instance, in Euripides’ Iphigeneia at Aulis, scholars and audiences
have long been uncomfortable with the title character’s seemingly
sudden change of heart (from pleading for her life to volunteering
to be sacrificed for the cause of the Greeks). One line our Iphigeneia
was having difficulty with helped us explain her actions by leading2	He ended up co-founding the American Shakespeare Center.

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Ancient Greek I

us to conclude that Iphigeneia is a young girl doing her best tounderstand her father’s desires and meet them. That decision, basedon in-depth work on the line,3 changed the way we understood theplay: Iphigeneia not only changes her mind, she grows up. She hasn’t
just made a rash decision; she has put away childish things. Findingthat out by working on how to say one particular line contributed toserious work on Euripides, and it made our show better by making
the character’s actions make sense.
In Sophocles’ Elektra, too, attention to the details of the metershows that Elektra is singing but that Orestes is speaking for her
whole song after he reveals his identity (ll. 1232–1288). Elektra’s
exuberant song is ruining the plan that Orestes and his Tutor have
set up to avenge Agamemnon’s death by killing Klytemnestra—and
it’s hilarious! Productions seldom allow Greek tragedy to be funny,but our Elektra danced and sang around the whole stage while
Orestes chased and shooshed her. Allowing the details of the meterand the words (σιγᾶν ἄμεινον, μή τις ἔνδοθεν κλύῃ!) along with theperformance choices that flowed naturally from them revealed analmost slapstick moment in Sophocles, which then complicated ourreactions to the rest of the play.
In both of these examples, details of the text and an openness to what
the human interactions on stage were telling us led to productions
rich with implications lost to those who come to rehearsals with afixed idea of what the play is and must be. My advice as a professorof Greek and a director of Greek drama: approach the world witha delighted attention to detail and the world will delight you withriches.
To watch a video of Amy R. Cohen discussing her approach to directing ancient
Greek plays in English, follow this link:
Amy R. Cohen, Details Matter.4

3	Line 674: ἀλλὰ ξὺν ἱεροῖς χρὴ τό γ᾽ εὐσεβὲς σκοπεῖν. The translation had “Sacrifices are to findout how we may please the gods,” and once our actor found that she could say it as a lesson
learned to please her father Agamemnon, it made much more sense in the context and for thecharacter. (W. S. Merwin and George E. Dimock, Jr., 1992. Iphigeneia at Aulis (Oxford, England:
Oxford University Press) p. 53.)4	https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6EtYy0LVBOo.

Module 26

Additional Common Adjectives: πᾶς,μέγας, πολύς, ἡδύς, ἀληθής, and-ᾱς, -ᾱσα, -ανAdjectives
Remember that Greek and English adjectives have the same function, though
the Greek adjective has endings and the English adjective does not. Adjectives
in both languages are words that describe nouns. In the phrase the happy andsad blues, the, happy, and sad describe the noun blues. The Greek adjective
has endings because the endings enable it to agree in gender, case, and number
with the noun it modifies.

Additional Common Adjectives
Review the below paradigms carefully and note that you have already memorized
the majority of the endings. Remember that the letter nu in parentheses is anu-movable. It may be added to the ending when the following word begins
with a vowel or at the end of clauses or verses. Otherwise, it is left off.
πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν all, each, every, whole
Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

πᾶς

πᾶσα

πᾶν

N

πάντες

πᾶσαι

πάντα

A

πάντα

πᾶσαν

πᾶν

G

πάντας

πάσᾱς

πάντα

G

παντόςπάσηςπαντός

Dπάντων

πασῶνπάντων

D

παντί

πάσῃ

παντί

A

πᾶσι (ν)πάσαις

πᾶσι (ν)

V

πᾶς

πᾶσα

πᾶν

V

πάντες

πᾶσαι

πάντα

© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.32

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Ancient Greek I

Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

πᾶς

πᾶσα

πᾶν

N

πάντες

πᾶσαι

πάντα

G

παντόςπάσηςπαντός

Gπάντων

πασῶνπάντων

D

παντί

πάσῃ

παντί

D

πᾶσι (ν)πάσαις

πᾶσι (ν)

A

πάντα

πᾶσαν

πᾶν

A

πάντας

πάσᾱς

πάντα

V

πᾶς

πᾶσα

πᾶν

V

πάντες

πᾶσαι

πάντα

1. Τhe adjectives ἅπᾱς, ἅπᾱσα, ἅπᾱν all, each, every, whole and σύμπᾱς,σύμπᾱσα, σύμπᾱν all, whole, entire decline like πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν.
2. The stem for the masculine and neuter, παντ-, differs from the stem,
πασ-, for the feminine.
3. The letter nu in the masculine and neuter dative plural is a nu-movable.
It may be added to the ending when the following word begins with avowel or at the end of clauses or verses. Otherwise, it is left off.
μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα big, greatSingular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

μέγας

μεγάλη

μέγα

NμεγάλοιμεγάλαιμεγάλαAμέγανμεγάληνμέγαAμεγάλους

μεγάλᾱςμεγάλαGμεγάλουμεγάλης

μεγάλουGμεγάλωνμεγάλωνμεγάλωνDμεγάλῳ

μεγάλῃ

μεγάλῳ

Dμεγάλοις

μεγάλαιςμεγάλοις

Vμεγάλεμεγάλη

μέγα

VμεγάλοιμεγάλαιμεγάλαSingular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

μέγας

μεγάλη

μέγα

NμεγάλοιμεγάλαιμεγάλαGμεγάλουμεγάλης

μεγάλουGμεγάλωνμεγάλωνμεγάλωνDμεγάλῳ

μεγάλῃ

μεγάλῳ

Dμεγάλοις

μεγάλαιςμεγάλοις

Aμέγαν

μεγάληνμέγαAμεγάλους

μεγάλᾱςμεγάλαVμεγάλεμεγάλη

μέγα

VμεγάλοιμεγάλαιμεγάλαModule 26 | Additional Common Adjectives

393

πολύς, πολλή, πολύ much, many
SingularSingular

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

πολύς

πολλή

πολύ

N

πολλοί

πολλαί

πολλά

A

πολύν

πολλήν

πολύAπολλούςπολλάς

πολλάGπολλοῦ

πολλῆς

πολλοῦ

Gπολλῶν

πολλῶν

πολλῶν

D

πολλῷ

πολλῇ

πολλῷ

D

πολλοῖςπολλαῖςπολλοῖς

Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

πολύς

πολλή

πολύ

N

πολλοί

πολλαί

πολλάGπολλοῦ

πολλῆς

πολλοῦ

Gπολλῶν

πολλῶν

πολλῶν

D

πολλῷ

πολλῇ

πολλῷ

D

πολλοῖςπολλαῖςπολλοῖςAπολύν

πολλήν

πολύAπολλούςπολλάςπολλά

1. πολύ is often found in the accusative as an accusative of respect. It
translates well into English as the adverb very.
ἡδύς, ἡδεῖα, ἡδύ sweet
Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

ἡδύς

ἡδεῖα

ἡδύ

N

ἡδεῖς

ἡδεῖαι

ἡδέα

A

ἡδύν

ἡδεῖαν

ἡδύ

A

ἡδεῖς

ἡδείᾱς

ἡδέα

G

ἡδέος

ἡδείᾱς

ἡδέος

G

ἡδέων

ἡδειῶν

ἡδέων

D

ἡδεῖ

ἡδείᾱͅ

ἡδεῖDἡδέσι (ν)ἡδείαις

ἡδέσι (ν)

V

ἡδύ

ἡδεῖα

ἡδύ

V

ἡδεῖς

ἡδεῖαιἡδέαSingular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

ἡδύς

ἡδεῖα

ἡδύ

N

ἡδεῖς

ἡδεῖαι

ἡδέα

G

ἡδέος

ἡδείᾱς

ἡδέος

G

ἡδέων

ἡδειῶν

ἡδέων

D

ἡδεῖ

ἡδείᾱͅ

ἡδεῖDἡδέσι (ν)ἡδείαις

ἡδέσι (ν)

Aἡδύνἡδεῖαν

ἡδύ

A

ἡδεῖς

ἡδείᾱς

ἡδέα

V

ἡδύ

ἡδεῖα

ἡδύ

V

ἡδεῖς

ἡδεῖαι

ἡδέα

394

Ancient Greek I

1. The Adjective εὐθύς, εὐθεῖα, εὐθύ straight, direct declines like ἡδύς,ἡδεῖα, ἡδύ sweet.
2. The letter nu in the masculine and neuter dative plural is a nu-movable.
It may be added to the ending when the following word begins with avowel or at the end of clauses or verses. Otherwise, it is left off.
ἀληθής, ἀληθές true
SingularM/FNNἀληθής

ἀληθέςAἀληθέα, ἀληθῆἀληθές

G

ἀληθέος, ἀληθοῦςἀληθέος, ἀληθοῦςDἀληθεῖ

ἀληθεῖ

V

ἀληθές

ἀληθέςPluralM/FNN

ἀληθέες, ἀληθεῖςἀληθέα, ἀληθῆA

ἀληθεῖςἀληθέα, ἀληθῆGἀληθέων, ἀληθῶνἀληθέων, ἀληθῶνDἀληθέσι (ν)ἀληθέσι (ν)

Vἀληθέες, ἀληθεῖςἀληθέα, ἀληθῆSingularM/FNNἀληθής

ἀληθές

G

ἀληθέος, ἀληθοῦςἀληθέος, ἀληθοῦςDἀληθεῖ

ἀληθεῖAἀληθέα, ἀληθῆἀληθές

V

ἀληθές

ἀληθές

Module 26 | Additional Common Adjectives

395

PluralM/FNN

ἀληθέες, ἀληθεῖςἀληθέα, ἀληθῆGἀληθέων, ἀληθῶνἀληθέων, ἀληθῶνDἀληθέσι (ν)ἀληθέσι (ν)

Aἀληθεῖςἀληθέα, ἀληθῆVἀληθέες, ἀληθεῖςἀληθέα, ἀληθῆ

1. The adjectives ψευδής, ψευδές false and ἀκριβής, ἀκριβές exact,
accurate, precise decline like ἀληθής, ἀληθές.
2. In the dative singular the intervocalic sigma dropped out (εσι) and thevowels contracted to form -εῖ.
3. The letter nu in the masculine/feminine and neuter dative plural is anu-movable. It may be added to the ending when the following word
begins with a vowel or at the end of clauses or verses. Otherwise, it isleft off.

Mixed Declension Adjectives
As is the case with -ων, -ουσα, -ον (Module 20), the masculine and neuter genders
decline like nouns of sets 9 and 10. The feminine declines like short-alpha nounsof set 3.
M

F

N

M

F

N

N/V

-ᾱς

-ᾱσα

-αν

N/V

-αντες

-ᾱσαι

-αντα

A

-αντα

-ᾱσαν

-αν

A

-αντας

-ᾱσᾱς

-αντα

G

-αντος-ᾱσης-αντος

G-αντων-ᾱσῶν-αντων

D

-αντι

-ᾱσῃ

-αντι

D

-ᾱσι (ν)-ᾱσαις

-ᾱσι (ν)

M

F

N

M

F

N

N/V

-ᾱς

-ᾱσα

-αν

N/V

-αντες

-ᾱσαι

-αντα

G

-αντος-ᾱσης-αντος

G-αντων-ᾱσῶν-αντων

D

-αντι

-ᾱσῃ

-αντι

D

-ᾱσι (ν)-ᾱσαις

-ᾱσι (ν)

A

-αντα

-ᾱσαν

-αν

A

-αντας

-ᾱσᾱς

-αντα

1. After removing the past indicative augment, add these endings to thethird principal parts of first aorist ω-verbs.

396

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2. Note that technically these forms are participles, which are defined asverbal adjectives. For now, treat these forms like any other adjective,
making sure that you know what noun the participle agrees within gender, case, and number; or supplying a noun based on theparticiple’s gender and number; or supplying a noun from context
for the participle to modify. In part I of the 21st-Century series, aorist
participles are glossed like so, ἄρξᾱς, ἄρξαντος ὁ ruling, having ruled.
3. The letter nu in the masculine and neuter dative plural is a nu-movable.
It may be added to the ending when the following word begins with avowel or at the end of clauses or verses. Otherwise, it is left off.
4. Τhe endings for the second aorist participle are the same as those forthe present and future participles. To refresh your memory, see Module
20. These endings are also similar to the participle of εἰμί, ὤν, οὖσα,ὄν without the breathings: λιπών, λιποῦσα, λιπόν leaving, having left.
Note the fixed accent. Participles will be explained fully in Part II of the
21st-Century series.
Practice Translating Additional Adjectives. Check your understanding withthe translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why eachword translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or threetimes, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of thesentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.
1. πάντα ῥύει; οὐδὲν ἀσφαλές.
2. ἡδὺ φαγέειν, πίνειν, γελάειν.
3. πολλὰ λέγειν ἀλλὰ οὐ πολὺς χρόνος.
4. μέγα βιβλίον τὸ ἴσον τῷ μεγάλῳ κακῷ.
5. ὁ ποταμὸς εἰς θάλατταν ῥύει εὐθύ.
6. ἔφη πολλοὺς μισήσειν τοῦτον, ὃς κακὰ ἀεὶ λαλέειν ἐθέλει.
7. τοῖς ἀχρημάτοις κλέπτειν ἀναγκαίως ἔχει πολύ.
8. ἐπεὶ τῆς ἡμέρᾱς ὀψὲ ἦν, οἶνος ἡμῖν καὶ λόγος πολύς.
9. ὥστε χρόνος τὰ κρυπτὰ πάντα πρὸς τὸ φῶς ἄγει.
10. γέλως ἄκαιρος πᾶσι βροτοῖς φέρει δεινὸν κακόν.
Vocabulary*ἄγω, ἄξω, ἤγαγον do, drive, lead;χάριν ἄγω I give thanks*ἵσος, ἴση, ἴσον equal, similar +dativeἄκαιρος, ἄκαιρον inopportune,
untimely*κακός, κακή, κακόν bad, evil,
cowardlyἀναγκαίως necessarily, with necessity κρυπτός, κρυπτή, κρυπτόν hidden,
secretModule 26 | Additional Common Adjectivesἀχρήματος, ἀχρήματον without
money, poorλαλέω talk, chat, prattle, babble,
speak nonsenseβιβλίον, βιβλίου τό book*λόγος, λόγου ὁ word, speech, reasonβροτός, βροτοῦ ὁ mortalμισέω, μισήσω, ἐμίσησα hateγελάω, γελάσομαι, ἐγέλασα laughοἶνος, οἴνου ὁ wineγέλως, γέλωτος ὁ laughterὀψέ late + gen.

*δεινός, δεινή, δεινόν awesome,fearsome, terribleπίνω drink*ἐθέλω (θέλω), ἐθελήσω, ἐθέλησαwish, be willing*ποταμός, ποτάμου ὁ river*ἔφη he, she, it saidῥύω flow*ἡμέρᾱ, ἡμέρᾱς ἡ day

φαγέω eat*ἦν he, she, it was*φέρω, οἴσω, ἤνεγκα or ἤνεγκονbring, bear, carry; endure*θάλασσα (θάλαττα), θαλάσσης ἡseaφῶς, φωτός τό light397*χρόνος, χρόνου ὁ time
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.

Homer
Homer, Ὅμηρος, lived about 750 BCE. He is conventionally credited with thecomposition of the epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Iliad centers on
the character of Akhilleus and the Trojan War, both dating to about 1100 BCE.
The Odyssey concerns Odysseus and his attempt to return home at the end of
the ten-year Trojan War. In the poems Homer speaks of his own modern day(c. 750 BCE) and refers to it regularly. When telling the stories of Akhilleus andOdysseus, he refers to these events as existing in ancient times. Of the manyaccounts of Homer’s life, the most common is that he was a blind bard from
Ionia—blindness being associated with excellence in the poetic craft.
The Homeric Question asks who authored the epics. One view holds that
Homer did and exalts him and the genius of his work. At the other extreme,
scholars question Homer’s existence, do not believe that one person authoredboth epics, and believe the poems are the result of layers of different poems
combined through the years into a single faulty and incomplete whole. Somescholars, who conclude that Homer authored both epics, accept the argument

398

Ancient Greek I

that the epics are the result of layering but argue that they form a beautifullycomplete whole. In his own day and for many centuries later, scholars and lay
people considered Homer’s poetic ability so good that many poets shied awayfrom writing epic poetry.
This textbook offers a small selection from the Odyssey where Penelope andher husband in disguise, Odysseus, interrogate each other, verbally sparring as
the reader wonders if Penelope has seen through her husband’s disguise andwho is testing whom.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, which have been adaptedfrom Homer’s Odyssey (Ὀδύσσεια). Remember the meanings and functions of
the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and theirfunctions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the Adjective, Adverb,
Noun, and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and the Case and Function Chartin Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer
Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does.
Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with eachrereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make
this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Πηνελόπεια: ἀλλὰ δεῖ σοι τὸν ὄνειρον ὑποκρίνασθαι καὶ ἀκοῦσαι. χῆνέςμοι κατὰ οἶκον εἴκοσι πυρὸν ἔδουσιν ἐξ ὕδατος, καί τούτοις ἰαίνομαι
εἰσορόουσα. ἦλθε δʼ ἐξ ὄρεος μέγας αἰετὸς ἀγκυλοχείλης καὶ πᾶσιαὐχένας κατἦξε καὶ ἔκτανεν. οἱ μὲν χέονται ἀθρόοι ἐν μεγάροις· ὁ δʼ ἐςαἰθέρα δῖαν ἀέρθη. αὐτὰρ ἐγὼ ἔκλαιον καὶ ἐκώκυον ἔν περ ὀνείρῳ. ἀμφὶδʼ ἔμʼ ἠγερέθοντο εὐπλοκαμῖδες Ἀχαιαί, οἴκτρα τε ὀλοφύρομαι ὅτι μοιαἰετὸς ἔκτανε χῆνας. ὁ δ’ ἂψ ἐλθὼν ἄρʼ ἕζεται ἐπὶ μελάθρῳ· φωνῇ δὲβροτείᾳ κατερητύει φώνησέν τε·αἰετός: δεῖ σοὶ θαρσέειν, Ἰκαρίου κούρη τηλεκλειτοῦ· οὐκ ὄναρ, ἀλλʼὕπαρ ἐσθλόν, ὅ τοι τετελεσμένον ἔσται. χῆνες μὲν μνηστῆρες· ἐγὼ δέ τοιαἰετὸς ὄρνις ἦν πάρος, νῦν αὖτε τεὸς πόσις ἥκω, ὃς πᾶσι μνηστήρεσσινἀεικέα πότμον ἐφήσω.
Πηνελόπεια: αὐτὰρ ἐμὲ μελιηδὴς ὕπνος ἀνῆκε. ἐγὼ δὲ χῆνας ἐν μεγάροιςἐπάπτηνα καὶ νόησα. οἱ δὲ πυρὸν ἐρέπτονται παρὰ πύελον, ἧχι πάροςπερ.
Ὀδυσσεύς ξεῖνος: οὔ πως ἔστιν ὑποκρίνασθαι ὄνειρον ἄλλῃ, ἐπεὶ ἦ ῥὰαὐτὸς Ὀδυσσεὺς εἶπε ὅπως τελέει. μνηστήρεσσιν δὲ φαίνεται ὄλεθρος
πᾶσι μάλ’, οὐδέ τις θάνατον καὶ κῆρας ἀλύξει.
Πηνελόπεια: ξεῖνʼ, ἦ τοι μὲν ὄνειροι ἀμήχανοι ἀκριτόμυθοι γίγνοντ’,οὐδέ τι πάντα τελέεται ἀνθρώποις.

Module 26 | Additional Common Adjectives

Adverbs and Verbs
ἀείρω, ἀρέω, ἤειρα, ἧρκα, ἧρμαι, ἧχι whereἀέρθην lift, heave, raise up; (pass.) besuspended, hang*ἀκούω, ἀκούσομαι, ἤκουσα hear, θαρσέω, θαρσήσω, ἐθάρσησα takehear of or about, listen, heed + gen. or courage, dareacc. of thing or gen. of personἀλύσκω, ἀλύξω, ἤλυξα flee from, ἰαίνω heat, relax; warm, cheer
shun, avoid, forsakeἀμφί about, for the sake of + gen; κατάγνυμι, -ἄξω, -ἤξα break, shatter
about, around + dat.; about, around(motion often implied) + acc.
ἀνίημι, ἀνήσω, ἀνῆκα send up or κατερητύω hold back, detain; check
forth; let go; abate; loose; allow + inf.;
dissolveαὐτάρ but, besides, moreoverκλαίω, κλαιήσω or κλᾱήσω, ἔκλαυσαweep, lament, wailαὖτε furthermore, againκτείνω, κτενέω, ἔκτεινα or ἔκτανονkill, slay, slaughterἄψ backκωκύω, κωκύσω, ἐκώκυσα cry, wail*γίγνομαι, γενήσομαι, ἐγενόμην be, *λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω, ἔλεξα or εἶπον
be bornsay, tell, speak*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or dat. μάλα veryor acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary
to comeἔδω eatνοέω, νοήσω, ἐνόησα or ἔνωσα
perceive by the eyes, observe, notice;
think, deem; intend + inf.

ἕζομαι seat, sit

παπταίνω, ------, ἐπάπτηνα watch,gaze*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possibleπάρος before, formerlyἐρέπτομαι feed on

πως somehow, someway*ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι, ἦλθον come, τελέω, τελέω or τελέσω, ἐτέλεσαgofulfill, accomplish, bring to an end; pay(taxes);

399

400

Ancient Greek Iἐφίημι, -ἥσω, -ἧκα send on or against; τοι you know, mark you, surely, in
let go, yield; (mid.) command; (mid.) truth
aim at, long for + gen.; (mid.) allow +inf.
ἦ in truth, verilyὑποκρίνομαι reply, answer; interpretἠγερέθομαι gather, assemble*φαίνω, φανέω, ἔφηνα show, reveal;(pass.) come to light, appear*ἥκω, ἥξω have come, be presentφωνέω speak, utterἦν he, she, it wasχέω, χέω, ἔχεα, κέχυκα, κέχυμαι,ἐχύθην pour; (pass.) be heaped up

Adjectives, Nouns, and Pronouns
ἀγκυλοχείλης, ἀγκυλοχείλεος ὁwith hooked beakμέλαθρον, μελάθρου τό roof beam,roofἀεικής, ἀεικές pitiful, mean; strangeμελιηδής, μελιηδές honey-sweetἀθρόος, ἀθρόα, ἀθρόον in crowds,
heaps

μνηστήρ, μνηστῆρος ὁ (epic dat. pl.
μνηστήρεσσιν) suitorαἰετός, αἰετοῦ ὁ eagleξεῖνος (ξένος), ξείνου (ξένου) ὁstranger; guest-friendαἰθήρ, αἰθέρος ὁ ἡ ether, sky, air,heavenοἶκος, οἴκου ὁ house, palaceἀκριτόμυθος, ἀκριτόμυθον babbling οἶκτρος, οἴκτρα, οἶκτρον pitiable,incoherently, difficult to interpret;lamentable; wailingreckless*ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο another, otherὄλεθρος, ὀλέθρου ὁ ruin, deathἀμήχανος, ἀμήχανον without
resource, helpless, impossible;
inexplicableὄναρ, ὀνείρου τό dream*ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ human,personὄνειρος, ὀνείρου ὁ dreamἈχαιός, Ἀχαιά, Ἀχαιόν Greek,
Akhaianὄρνις, ὄρνιθος ὁ ἡ bird, bird of omenαὐχήν, αὐχένος ὁ throat, neckὄρος, ὄρεος (-ους) τό mountainβρότειος, βρότειον (-ος, -α, -ον)
mortalπόσις, πόσεως ὁ husband

Module 26 | Additional Common Adjectives

δῖος, δῖα, δῖον divine, nobleπότμος, πότμου ὁ fate, destiny, lotεἴκοσι (ν) twentyπύελος, πυέλου ἡ feeding-trough;bathing-tubεἰσορόουσα, εἰσοροούσης ἡ lookinguponπυρός, πυροῦ ὁ wheatἐλθών, ἐλθόντος ὁ coming, going;
having come, having goneτεός, τεή, τεόν yourἐσθλός, ἐσθλή, ἐσθλόν noble, fine,good

τετελεσμένος, τετελεσμένη,τετελεσμένον accomplished,completedεὐπλοκαμίς, εὐπλοκαμῖδος fairtressed, with comely hairτηλεκλειτός, τηλεκλειτόν far-famedθάνατος, θανάτου ὁ deathὕδωρ, ὕδατος τό water; pondἸκάρίος, Ἰκαρίου ὁ Ikariosὕπαρ, ὕπαρος τό waking visionκήρ, κῆρος ἡ doom, death, fate

ὕπνος, ὕπνου ὁ sleepκούρη (κόρη), κούρης ἡ daughter,girl

φωνή, φωνῆς ἡ sound; voice; toneμέγαρον, μεγάρου τό great hallχήν, χηνός ὁ ἡ goose

401

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentences foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give their case and function. For verbs, give theirperson, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify
them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s
object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, andcase.
τί νομίζεις τὴν δημοκρατίαν πoλλῷ ἡδίονα τυραννίδος;ὁ δ’ ἂψ ἐλθὼν ἄρʼ ἕζεται ἐπὶ μελάθρῳ· φωνῇ δὲ βροτείᾳ κατερητύειφώνησέν τε·Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
Module 26 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words
the greater mastery of the language you will have.

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Ancient Greek I

Adjectives and Nounsδίκαιος, δικαίᾱ, δίκαιον justὀλίγος, ὀλίγη, ὀλίγον few, little, smallπάθος, πάθεος (πάθους) τό suffering; experience; passion; emotionπλεῖστος, πλείστη, πλεῖστον most, greatest, largestφύσις, φύσιος (φύσηος, φύσεως) ἡ nature
Verbs
δέω, δεήσω, ἐδέησα, δεδέηκα, δεδέημαι, ἐδεήθην want, lack, miss, stand inneed of, want + gen.; long or wish for + gen.; ask for ‘x’ in gen. or acc. from ‘y’ ingen., τοῦτο (or τούτου) ὑμῶν δέομαι I ask you for thisἵστημι, στήσω, ἔστησα (trans.) or ἔστην (intrans.), ἕστηκα (intrans.), ἕσταμαι,ἐστάθην stand, make stand, placeκαθίστημι (trans.) appoint, establish, put into a state; (intrans.) be established, beappointed, enter into a stateκεῖμαι, κείσομαι, ------, ------, ------, ------ lie1.

κεῖμαι conjugates like so,
S

Pl

st

κεῖμαι

κείμεθα2nd

κεῖσαι

κεῖσθε3rdκεῖται

κεῖνται1Infinitive: κεῖσθαι

Etymology Corner XXVI by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 22, Parts of Speech
Verbs cont. We touched on the difference between tense and aspect above. This is
an important distinction, and one that frequently causes difficulty because of how
English handles tenses. Here is yet another situation where Greek is perfectly clear but
English is not. Two of the signs to help you distinguish the tenses are reduplication
and augments.

Module 26 | Additional Common Adjectives

403

•

Some verbs show their tense by reduplication, that is, repeating the sound of
the base, or doubling it again (re, again, like in redo or repeat, and duplicare,
to weave twice, or more simply, duplicate). For example, the perfect of λύω
is λέλυκα (λέ- repeats the lambda sound) and the perfect of πέμπω isπέπεμμαι (with the pi sound repeated). You can hear how the λ or the π isdoubled again.

•

Some tenses need an augment, like how the imperfect tense gets an epsilon,
ἐ-, added as a prefix. You could say that the stem has grown or increased bythat prefix, the meaning of the Latin verb underpinning the word, augere.

Luckily, the etymologies for the various tenses can also help you out in distinguishingand translating them.
•Present comes from the Latin praesens which in turn comes from theroots to be in front of/ to be at hand (pre, in front of, and esse, to be). A verb
happening in the present tense is happening right now, before your eyes.

•

The Future Tense comes from the future of esse in the previous definition,
futurus, will be/going to be. Future tenses haven’t happened yet, they aregoing to be happening.

•

Perfect tense verbs either signify a completed action in a state (stative,στάσις), or a present impact of a completed action. Think about οἶδα. It
means I know, and has present meaning but perfect tense endings. This has
a logic to it because knowing something means you came to know it in thepast and continue to know it now. This is a present impact of a past action.
The etymology for perfect comes from two Latin roots meaning thoroughly
completed (per, thoroughly/through and through, like a perforation pokes
through and object, or someone who has perished has thoroughly gone
+ facere/feci, to make/do, as in a factory is where people make things).
Therefore, a verb in the perfect tense has been thoroughly completed.

•

This leads naturally to a discussion of the imperfect tense, which has all
the same etymology but adding that in- prefix we’ve seen that means not.
An imperfect verb is not completely done, indicating a continuous action in
the past, or a habitual one. Imperfects are often paired with a perfect oran aorist to indicate what went on until something stopped it. For example,“Nikos was walking and checking Insta until he hit a lamp-post” has two
incomplete action verbs interrupted by a completed action verb.

•

Let’s say you want to talk about something more in the past than anotherpast action, such as, “He had eaten a whole pizza then felt sick.” You use thePluperfect Tense. I’m pretty sure your math teacher didn’t explain that thesymbol + which signifies plus is the Latin for more. Therefore the pluperfect404

Ancient Greek I

tense is the tense that talks about actions more thoroughly completed.
•

The most common past tense is the aorist. As you will discover the more
Greek you read, the aorist is a flexible tense, which reflects its origin
ἀόριστος, not limited (ἀ-, without, like in asymptomatic meaning without
showing symptoms + ὁρίζειν, to limit, where we get horizon meaning thelimit of where we can see on the earth). It can mean a simple completed
action like he ate the snow but also in general sayings of wisdom like don’t
eat yellow snow.

What to Study and Do 26. Before moving on to the next module, make sure thatyou refresh your memory on noun and adjective agreement and how adjectives canfunction as substantives. Also memorize the five additional common adjectives andpronouns presented in this module. From this point on their forms will not be glossed.
Learning Tip 26: Cultivating Creativity. It is not certain how we come to see things infundamentally new ways. Deep learning and thinking remain mysterious. Achieving
them involves a letting go of control. You cannot will creativity to produce what you
seek. You can encourage it to occur. Meditation, novelty, and travel are supposed tohelp. At some point in the letting go, you move from viewing the situation from thenormal point of view to a resolution to the problem that is fundamentally different
and at the same time obvious and inevitable. The meaning of τῶν καλῶν in a sentence
may make little sense to you at first, but as you work with it the meaning becomes
as fundamentally obvious as 1 + 1 = 10 is to the mathematician. Awareness, open
mindedness, contemplating conflict, tension, and incoherence require our sustained
effort. Through sustained effort the difficult is rendered easy and familiar.

Module 27

Comparative and Superlative
Adjectives and Adverbs; Dative ofDegree of Difference

Adjectives
Remember that Greek and English adjectives have the same function, though
the Greek adjective has endings and the English adjective does not. Adjectives
in both languages are words that describe nouns. In the phrase the happy andsad blues, the, happy, and sad describe the noun blues. The Greek adjective
has endings because the endings enable it to agree in gender, case, and number
with the noun it modifies.

Adjectives and Degree
English and Greek adjectives have three degrees: positive, comparative, andsuperlative. English creates the three degrees of the adjective through suffixes
or with the adverbs more and most:
Positive:

happy

Comparative:

happier, more happy

Superlative:

happiest, most happy

Greek does the same.

Adjectives of the Comparative and Superlative Degree
Adjectives show degrees by using one of two sets of suffixes or by using theadverb μᾶλλον more for the comparative degree and the adverb μάλιστα mostfor the superlative degree.
© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.33

406

Ancient Greek I

The comparative degree suffixes -τερος, -τέρᾱ, -τερον decline likefirst and second declension adjectives.
The superlative degree suffixes -τατος, -τάτη, -τατον decline likefirst and second declension adjectives.
The comparative degree suffixes -ιων, -ιον decline like third
declension nouns with some alternate forms.
The superlative degree suffixes -ιστος, -ίστη, -ιστον decline likefirst and second declension adjectives.
An additional way to form the comparative and superlative is to use the adverbs
μᾶλλον or μάλιστα, along with the positive degree of the adjective.
μᾶλλον

+the positive degree of the adjective.

μάλιστα+the positive degree of the adjective.

Declining Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
To form the comparative and superlative degrees of 1st and 2nd declension
adjectives, obtain the stem by dropping -ος from the masculine nominative
singular.
If the stem ends in a long syllable (a long vowel or diphthong or a shortvowel followed by two consonants or by the double consonants -ζ, -ξ, or -ψ), add
to it -ότερος, -οτέρᾱ, -ότερον for the comparative and -ότατος, -οτάτη, -ότατονfor the superlative.
If the stem ends in a short syllable, add to it -ώτερος, -ωτέρᾱ, -ώτερον forthe comparative, and -ώτατος, -ωτάτη, -ώτατον for the superlative.
Consider the following examples.

Comparative degreeMFNδηλότεροςδηλοτέρᾱδηλότερον

clearer, more clearσοφώτεροςσοφωτέρᾱσοφώτερον

wiser, more wiseModule 27 | Comparative and Superlative Adjectives and Adverbs; Dative of Degree of Difference407Superlative degreeMFNδηλότατοςδηλοτάτηδηλότατον

clearest, mostclear

σοφώτατος

σοφωτάτησοφώτατονwisest, most wise

Declining Comparative and Superlative Adjectives in-ης, -ες and in -ύς, -εῖα, -ύTo form the comparative and superlative degrees of 3rd declension adjectives
ending in -ης, -ες and of adjectives ending in -ύς, -εῖα, -ύ, add the suffixes
directly to the stem without any intervening vowel. The stem of these adjectives
is taken from the neuter singular nominative.

Comparative degreeMFNἀκριβέσ-τερος

ἀκριβεστέρᾱἀκριβέστερον

preciser, more preciseἀληθέσ-τερος

ἀληθέστέρᾱἀληθέστερον

truer, more trueεὐθύ-τερος

εὐθυτέρᾱεὐθύτερον

straighter, more straight

Superlative degreeMFNἀκριβέσ-τατος

ἀκριβεστάτηἀκριβέστατονprecisest, most preciseἀληθέσ-τατος

ἀληθεστάτηἀληθέστατονtruest, most trueεὐθύ-τατος

εὐθυτάτηεὐθύτατονstraightest, most straight

Declining Comparative and Superlative Adjectives-ίων, -ιον and -ιστος, -ίστη, -ιστονAdjectives that take -ίων, -ιον in the comparative degree take -ιστος, -ίστη,-ιστον in the superlative degree. The comparative degree declines like a third408

Ancient Greek I

declension noun with a few alternate forms. The superlative degree declines
like 1st and 2nd declension adjectives.

Comparative degree
Singular
M/F

N

N

ἡδίων

ἥδιον

A

ἡδίονα, ἡδίωG

PluralM/FNNἡδίονες, ἡδίουςἡδίονα, ἡδίω

ἥδιον

A

ἡδίονας, ἡδίουςἡδίονα, ἡδίωἡδίονος

ἡδίονος

G

ἡδιόνωνἡδιόνωνDἡδίονι

ἡδίονι

Dἡδίοσι (ν)ἡδίοσι (ν)

V

ἥδιον

ἥδιον

V

ἡδίονες, ἡδίουςἡδίονα, ἡδίωSingular
M/F

N

N

ἡδίων

ἥδιον

G

ἡδίονος

D

PluralM/FNNἡδίονες, ἡδίουςἡδίονα, ἡδίωἡδίονος

G

ἡδιόνωνἡδιόνωνἡδίονι

ἡδίονι

Dἡδίοσι (ν)ἡδίοσι (ν)

Aἡδίονα, ἡδίω

ἥδιον

A

ἡδίονας, ἡδίουςἡδίονα, ἡδίω

V

ἥδιον

ἥδιον

V

ἡδίονες, ἡδίουςἡδίονα, ἡδίωSuperlative degree

Ν

M

F

N

ἥδιστος

ἡδίστη

ἥδιστονAdverbs
Unlike nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, adverbs do not have gender, number,or case. Adverbs modify adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs. Like adjectives,
adverbs have three degrees: positive, comparative, and superlative.
For the positive degree English typically adds the suffix -ly. English uses thesuffixes -er and -est or more and most to create the comparative and superlative
degrees of the adverb:

Module 27 | Comparative and Superlative Adjectives and Adverbs; Dative of Degree of Difference

Positive:

loudlyComparative:

loudlier, more loudlySuperlative:

loudliest, most loudly409

Greek creates the three degrees by adding a suffix.

Adverbs of the Positive Degree
Most adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding -ως to the stem, found by
dropping the ending from the masculine genitive singular of the adjective.
ἄξιος, ἀξίᾱ, ἄξιονworthyἀξίωςworthilyκακός, κακή, κακόν

bad

κακῶς

badly

εὐδαίμων, εὔδαιμονhappyεὐδαιμόνως

happilyεὐγενής, εὐγενέςnobleεὐγενῶςnobly

1. Adverbs in -ως accented on the ultima always have a circumflex:κακῶς.

Adverbs of the Comparative Degree
Adverbs formed from adjectives use as their comparative degree the neuteraccusative singular of the comparative degree of the adjective.
δικαίως

justlyδικαιότερονmore or rather justlyσοφῶς

wiselyσοφώτερονmore or rather wiselyἀληθῶς

truly

ἀληθέστερονmore or rather trulyἡδέωςsweetlyἥδιονmore or rather sweetly

Adverbs of the Superlative Degree
Adverbs formed from adjectives use as their superlative degree the neuteraccusative plural of the superlative degree of the adjective.

410

Ancient Greek Iδικαίως

justlyδικαιόταταmost justlyσοφῶς

wiselyσοφώταταmost wiselyἀληθῶς

truly

ἀληθέσταταmost trulyἡδέωςsweetlyἥδισταmost sweetly

Comparison with ἤ and the Genitive Case
When you compare two things as in these sentences,laughter is stronger than tears,
andthe whole is greater than the part,using the comparative degree, you may do so by using the word ἤ than or byusing the genitive case without ἤ, called a genitive of comparison.
Consider these examples. The underline marks the second item in thecomparison.
1. ὁ γέλως κρείττων ἢ οἰμωγή.
Laughter is stronger than tears.
2. ὁ γέλως κρείττων οἰμωγῆς.
Laughter is stronger than tears.
3. καὶ τὸ ὅλον μεῖζον τοῦ μέρους ἐστί.
The whole is greater than the part.
4. καὶ τὸ ὅλον μεῖζον ἢ τὸ μέρος ἐστί.
The whole is greater than the part.
Note that when you use ἤ, the two things being compared are always in thesame case.

Dative of Degree of Difference
If you want to state the degree by which one thing is more than another, use thedative case. In this sentence,πoλλῷ ἥδε σoφωτέρα τῆς μητρός ἐστι,
she is much wiser than her mother,the πoλλῷ by much is the dative of degree of difference.

Module 27 | Comparative and Superlative Adjectives and Adverbs; Dative of Degree of Difference

411

Adjectives and Adverbs in Summary
Τhe chart below contains all the information found above, and information on
adjectives from other modules, but in a condensed form. Look it over, making
sure that you understand how to read it.

Third Declension Adjectives

M/F
N
M/F
N
ἄφρων
ἄφρονεςἄφρονἄφροναἀληθής
ἀληθέες/εῖςἀληθές
ἀληθέα/ῆἄφροναἄφροναςἄφρονἄφροναἀληθέα/ῆἀληθέας/εῖςἀληθές
ἀληθέα/ῆἄφρονος
ἀφρόνωνἄφρονος
ἀφρόνωνἀληθέος/οῦςἀληθέων/ῶνἀληθέος/οῦςἀληθέων/ῶνἄφρονι
ἄφροσι (ν) ἄφρονιἄφροσι (ν) ἀληθεῖἀληθέσι (ν)ἀληθεῖ
ἀληθέσι (ν)ἄφρονἄφρονεςἄφρονἄφροναἀληθές
ἀληθέες/εῖςἀληθές
ἀληθέα/ῆ
M/F
Ν
Μ
F
N
ἡδίων
ἡδίονες/ἡδίουςἥδιονἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδύςἡδεῖςἡδεῖα ἡδεῖαιἡδύἡδέαἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδίονας/ἡδίους ἥδιονἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδύνἡδεῖςἡδεῖαν ἡδείαςἡδύἡδέαἡδίονος
ἡδιόνωνἡδίονος ἡδιόνων
ἡδέος ἡδέωνἡδείας ἡδειῶνἡδέος ἡδέωνἡδίονι
ἡδίοσι (ν)ἡδίονι
ἡδίοσι (ν)ἡδεῖἡδέσι (ν) ἡδείᾳ ἡδείαιςἡδεῖἡδέσι (ν)ἥδιονἡδίονες/ἡδίουςἥδιονἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδύἡδεῖςἡδεῖα ἡδεῖαι
ἡδύ
ἡδέα

N
A
G
D
V
N
A
G
D
V

First and Second Declension Adjectives of the
Positive Degree
M

Three-EndingF ε, ι, ρ = ᾱN

Two-Ending
M/F
N

-ος

-η or -ᾱ

-ον

-ος

-ον

Comparative and Superlative
Adjectives

Comparative: -τερος, -α, -ον; -ίων, -ιονSuperlative: -τατος, -η, -ον; -ιστος, -η, -ον

Third Declension Adjectives

M/F
N
M/F
ἄφρων
ἄφρονεςἄφρονἄφροναἀληθής
ἀληθέες/εῖςἄφρονος
ἀφρόνωνἄφρονος
ἀφρόνωνἀληθέος/οῦςἀληθέων/ῶνἄφρονι
ἄφροσι (ν) ἄφρονιἄφροσι (ν) ἀληθεῖἀληθέσι (ν)ἄφροναἄφροναςἄφρονἄφροναἀληθέα/ῆἀληθέας/εῖςἄφρονἄφρονεςἄφρονἄφροναἀληθές
ἀληθέες/εῖς
M/F
Ν
Μ
ἡδίων
ἡδίονες/ἡδίουςἥδιονἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδύς ἡδεῖςἡδεῖαἡδίονος
ἡδιόνωνἡδίονος ἡδιόνων
ἡδέος ἡδέωνἡδείας
ἡδίονι
ἡδίοσι (ν)ἡδίονι
ἡδίοσι (ν)ἡδεῖἡδέσι (ν) ἡδείᾳἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδίονας/ἡδίους ἥδιονἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδύν ἡδεῖςἡδεῖανἥδιονἡδίονες/ἡδίουςἥδιονἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδύ
ἡδεῖς
ἡδεῖα

N
G
D
A
V
N
G
D
A
V

First and Second Declension Adjectives of the
Positive Degree
M

Three-EndingF ε, ι, ρ = ᾱN

Two-Ending
M/F
N

-ος

-η or -ᾱ

-ον

-ος

-ον

Adverbs-ως, -ως-τερον; -ιον-τατα; -ισταNἀληθές
ἀληθέα/ῆἀληθέος/οῦςἀληθέων/ῶνἀληθεῖ
ἀληθέσι (ν)ἀληθές
ἀληθέα/ῆἀληθές
ἀληθέα/ῆFNἡδεῖαιἡδύἡδέαἡδειῶν
ἡδέος ἡδέωνἡδείαιςἡδεῖἡδέσι (ν)ἡδείαςἡδύἡδέαἡδεῖαι
ἡδύἡδέαComparative and Superlative
Adjectives

Comparative: -τερος, -α, -ον; -ίων, -ιονSuperlative: -τατος, -η, -ον; -ιστος, -η, -ον

Adverbs-ως, -ως-τερον; -ιον-τατα; -ιστα412

Ancient Greek I

Practice Translating Comparative and Superlative Adjectives. Translate
the sentences below, which have been adapted from a variety of ancient Greek
authors. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key,making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now goback and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading
how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this ahabit and you will improve quickly.
Satyros of Kallatis, Σάτυρος Κάλλατις c. 150 BCE. Satyros was a philosopher,historian, and biographer whose subjects included kings, philosophers, poets,orators, and statesmen. Fragments of his biography on Euripides were found on
a papyrus scroll at Oxyrhynchus, Egypt in the early 1900s.
1. τί νομίζεις τὴν δημοκρατίαν πoλλῷ ἡδίονα τυραννίδος;2. μικροὶ γέροντι παῖδες ἡδίους πατρὶ καὶ μητρί τινου (Satyros).
3. ὁ δὲ στρατηγὸς ἔφη αὐτὸς κρείττων ὕδατος.
4. θάνατος ἡμᾶς ταῦτα ἀναμιμνήσκει ὅτι ὁ πλοῦτος χείρων ἢ ὑγίεια.
5. τίνι τρόπῳ εἶ τρόπου ἡσυχίου ἐπεὶ τάχιστα εἰς ὀργὴν σπεύδεις;6. ἔφη μέγιστον γὰρ ἕλκος πόλεως κακὸν ῥήτορα δημαγωγόν· ὃς γὰρδῆμον πείθει κακὰ ποιέειν (Satyros).
7. ταῦτα γάρ ἐστι δήπου ἃ συνέχει τὴν νεωτέραν κωμωιδίαν καὶ ἃ πρὸςἄκρον ἤγαγεν Εὐριπίδης (Satyros).
8. ἐν δὲ τούτῳ τῷ καιρῷ κινδυνεύσεις ἐγεῖραί τινα ᾧ τὰ χρήματα πλεῖστακαὶ κρατίστη ἡ ἀνδραγαθία;9. σκοπέειν δ’ ἄξιον. τί γὰρ εὐλογώτερον ἐπεὶ τάς γε κακίας καὶ τὰς ἀρετάς,καθάπερ ἔλεγεν ὁ Σωκράτης̣, τὰς αὐτὰς̣ ἐν καὶ ἀνδρὶ καὶ γυναικὶ ἔστινεὑρεῖν (Satyros);
10. ἡ δὲ μεταπέμπει τὴν ἄνθρωπον καὶ ἰδοῦσα τὸ κάλλος, “χαῖρε,” φησίν,“γύναι· ψευδεῖς ἄρ’ αἱ διαβολαί· σὺ γὰρ ἐν τῷ προσώπῳ τῷ σῷ καὶ τοῖςὀφθαλμοῖς ἔχεις φάρμακα κάλλιστα (Satyros).
Vocabulary*ἄγω, ἄξω, ἤγαγον do, drive, lead;χάριν ἄγω I give thanks*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω, ἔλεξα or εἶπονsay, tell, speakἄκρον ἄκρου τό top, furthest point;
mountain topμέγιστος, μεγίστη, μέγιστον
greatestἀναμιμνήσκω call to mind, remindμεταπέμπω send for, send afterἀνδραγαθία, ἀνδραγαθίας ἡcourage, bravery*μήτηρ, μητέρος (μητρός) ἡ motherModule 27 | Comparative and Superlative Adjectives and Adverbs; Dative of Degree of Difference*ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ man, husband*μικρός, μικρά, μικρόν small*ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ human,personνεώτερος, νεωτέρα, νεώτερονnewer*ἄξιος, ἀξίᾱ, ἄξιον worthy, deserving+ gen.

*νομίζω, νομιέω, ἐνόμισα believe,
think, have the custom of, hold ascustom*ἀρετή, ἀρετῆς ἡ virtue; excellenceὀργή, ὀργῆς ἡ mood; anger, wrathγέρων, γέροντος ὁ old man*ὁράω, ὄψομαι, εἶδον (ἰδεῖν) see*γυνή, γυναικός ἡ woman, wife

ὀφθαλμός, ὀφθαλμοῦ ὁ eyeδημαγωγός, δημαγωγοῦ ὁdemagogueπαίζω play, sport, danceδημοκρατία, δημοκρατίας ἡdemocracy*παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ child*δῆμος, δήμου ὁ people*πατήρ, πατρός ὁ fatherδήπου surely*πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα persuade +inf.; (mid. or pass.) listen to, obey +dat. or gen.

διαβολή διαβολῆς ἡ slander*πλεῖστος, πλείστη, πλεῖστον most,greatest, largestἐγείρω, ἐγερέω, ἤγειρα awaken,rouse

πλοῦτος, πλούτου ὁ wealthἕλκος, ἕλκεος (-ους) τό wound*ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα do, make,cause; (mid.) considerεὐλογώτερος, εὐλογώτερον morereasonable*πόλις, πόλιος (πόληος, πόλεως) ἡcityΕὐριπίδης, Εὐριπίδου ὁ Euripides,
tragic playwright from Athens, c. 450
BCEπρόσωπον, προσώπου τό face*εὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, ηὗρον findῥήτωρ, ῥήτορος ὁ rhetor, speaker*ἔφη he, she, it said*σκοπέω, σκοπήσω, ἐσκόπησα, lookat; examine; consider*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον have,
hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to bewell*σός, σή, σόν your

413

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Ancient Greek Iἡδίων, ἥδιον sweeter, pleasanterσπεύδω, σπεύσω, ἔσπευσα urge on,press on; hasten, be eager

ἡσύχιος, ἡσύχιον quietσυνέχω make up, containθάνατος, θανάτου ὁ deathΣωκράτης̣, Σωκράτους ὁ Sokrates,
Plato’s teacher and famous oral
philosopher c. 450 BCEἰδοῦσα, ἰδούσης ἡ seeing, havingseenτάχιστα most quicklyκαθάπερ just as*τρόπος, τρόπου ὁ way, manner,
turn; (pl.) character*καιρός, καιροῦ ὁ right moment,
critical time, opportunityτυραννίς, τυραννίδος ἡ tyrannyκακία, κακίας ἡ wickedness; faultὑγίεια, ὑγιείᾱς ἡ health, soundness*κακός, κακή, κακόν bad, evil,
cowardlyὕδωρ, ὕδατος τό water; pondκάλλιστος, καλλίστη, κάλλιστον
most beautifulφάρμακον, φαρμάκου τό drugs,
medicineκάλλος, κάλλεος (κάλλους) τόbeauty*φημί say, affirm, assertκινδυνεύω, κινδυνεύσω,ἐκινδύνευσα run a risk, hazard; dare
+ inf.; be likely + inf.

χαίρω be well; rejoice at, takepleasure in + dat.

κράτιστος, κρατίστη, κράτιστονstrongestχείρων, χεῖρον worse, inferiorκρείττων, κρεῖττον better, stronger,
greater*χρῆμα, χρήματος τό thing; (pl.)
goods, money, propertyκωμωιδία, κωμωιδίας ἡ comedyψευδής, ψευδές false

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, which have been adaptedfrom Homer’s Odyssey (Ὀδύσσεια). Remember the meanings and functions of
the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and theirfunctions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the Adjective, Adverb,
Noun, and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and the Case and Function Chartin Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer
Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does.

Module 27 | Comparative and Superlative Adjectives and Adverbs; Dative of Degree of Difference

415

Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with eachrereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make
this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Πηνελόπεια: δοιαὶ γάρ τε πύλαι ἀμενηνῶν εἰσὶν ὀνείρων· αἱ μὲν γὰρκεράεσι τεύχονται, αἱ δ’ ἐλέφαντι. αὐτῶν οἱ μὲν ἔρχονται διὰ πριστοῦἐλέφαντος. οὗτοι ῥ’ ἐλεφαίρονται καὶ ἔπε’ ἀκράαντα φέρουσιν. οἱ δὲδιὰ ξεστῶν κεράων ἔρχονται θύραζε. οὗτοι ῥ’ ἔτυμα κραίνουσι, βροτῶνεἴ τις ὁράει. ἀλλʼ ἐμοὶ οὐκ ἐντεῦθεν οἴομαι αἰνὸν ὄνειρον ἐλθεῖν. εἰοὕτως, ἦ ἀσπαστὸν ἐμοὶ καὶ παιδὶ γενήσεται. ἄλλο δέ σοι ἐρέω· ἥδεδὲ ἠὼς ἐλεύσεται δυσώνυμος, ἣ μ’ Ὀδυσσέως οἴκου ἀποσχήσει. νῦνγὰρ καταθήσω ἄεθλον, τοὺς πελέκεας, οὓς κεῖνος ἐν μεγάροις ἵστησινἑξείης, δρυόχους ὥς, δώδεκα πάντας. ἵστησιν δ’ ὅ γε πολὺ ἄνευθε καὶδιαρριπτάσκει οἰστόν. νῦν δὲ μνηστήρεσιν ἄεθλον τοῦτον ἐφήσω· ὃς δὲῥηΐτατʼ ἐντανύει βιὸν ἐν παλάμαις καὶ διοϊστεύει πελέκεων δυοκαίδεκαπάντων, τούτῳ αὐτὴ ἅμ’ ἕψομαι. καὶ νοφίσομαι τόδε δῶμα κουρίδιον,μάλα καλόν, ἐνίπλειον βιότου, οὗ ποτὲ μνήσεσθαι οἴομαι ἔν περ ὀνείρῳ.
Ὀδυσσεύς ξεῖνος: ὦ γύναι αἰδοίη Λαερτιάδου Ὀδυσσέως, δεῖ μηκέτι νῦνἀναβάλλειν δόμοις ἔνι τοῦτον ἄεθλον. πρὶν γὰρ πολύμητις ἐλεύσεταιἐνθάδ’ Ὀδυσσεύς, πρὶν τούτους τόδε τόξον ἐΰξοον ἀμφαφάειν τε νευρήντ’ ἐντανύσαι διοϊστεῦσαί τε σιδήρου.
Πηνελόπεια: εἰ ἐθέλεις παρά μοι, ξεῖνε, ἧσθαι ἐν μεγάροις καὶ τέρπειν,οὐκ οἴομαί μοι ὕπνον ἐπὶ βλεφάροις χυθήσεσθαι.
Adverbs and Verbs
ἀμφαφάω touch, feel, handle

ἦ in truth, verilyἀναβάλλω, -βαλέω, -έβαλον strike ἧμαι (ἧσαι, ἧσται, ἥμεθα, ἧστε,up; throw up; delayἧνται; ἧσθαι) sitἄνευθε far away, distantθύραζε to the doors, out of doorsἀπέχω keep off or away from*ἵστημι, στήσω, ἔστησα or ἔστηνstand, make stand, place*γίγνομαι, γενήσομαι, ἐγενόμην be, κατατίθημι place, put, lay down
be born*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or dat. κραίνω, κρανέω, ἔκρανα accomplish,
or acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary fulfil, bring to pass
to comeδιαρριπτάσκω shoot through, cast*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω, ἔλεξα or εἶπονsay, tell, speak

416

Ancient Greek Iδιοϊστεύω shoot an arrow through + μάλα verygen.
*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possibleμηκέτι no longer*ἐθέλω, ἐθελήσω, ἠθέλησα wish, be μιμνήσκω, μνήσω, ἔμνησα remember
willing+ gen.
ἐλεφαίρομαι cheat with empty hopesνοφίζω, νοφιέω νοφίσομαι, ἐνόφισαturn away, shrink back; forsake,abandonἐνθάδε here, there; hither, thither*οἴομαι (οἶμαι), οἰήσομαι, ᾠσάμηνthink, suppose, believeἐνί = ἐν*ὁράω, ὄψομαι, εἶδον (ἰδεῖν) seeἐντανύω stretch, bend, stringῥηΐτατα most easilyἐντεῦθεν (ἐνθεῦτεν) thence, henceτέρπω, τέρψω, ἐτερψα delight, cheer;
enjoy + dat.

ἑξείης in order, in a row

τεύχω, τεύξω, ἔτευξα make ready,make, produce; cause, bring to pass*ἕπομαι (imp. εἱπόμην), ἕψομαι, *φέρω, οἴσω, ἤνεγκα or ἤνεγκονἑσπόμην follow + dat.
bring, bear, carry; endure*ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι, ἦλθον (ἐλθεῖν) χέω, χέω, ἔχεα, κέχυκα, κέχυμαι,
come, goἐχύθην pour; (pass.) be heaped upἐφίημι, -ήσω, -ῆκα send on, against;
let go, yield; (mid.) command, giveorders; (mid.) aim at, long for + gen.;(mid.) allow, permit + ‘x’ in dat. + inf.
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
ἄεθλον, ἀέθλου τό prize, contestἠώς, ἠούς ἡ dawnαἰδοῖος, αἰδοία, αἰδοῖον: deservingof awe, respect; valuable, excellent;
bashful, modest; τὰ αἰδοῖα privateparts*καλός, καλή, καλόν beautiful, good,noble

αἰνός, αἰνή, αἰνόν dread, dire, grimκεῖνος, κείνου ὁ he, that oneἀκράαντος, ἀκράαντον unfulfilled,
fruitlessκέρας, κέραος τό horn of an animal

Module 27 | Comparative and Superlative Adjectives and Adverbs; Dative of Degree of Difference*ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο another, otherκουρίδιος, κουριδία, κουρίδιονwedded, nuptial, bridal

ἀμενηνός, ἀμενηνόν powerless,fleeting, feebleΛαερτιάδης, Λαερτιάδου ὁ son of
Laertes

ἀσπαστός, ἀσπαστή, ἀσπαστόνwelcomeμέγαρον, μεγάρου τό megaron, greathallβιός, βιοῦ ὁ bowμνηστήρ, μνηστῆρος ὁ (epic dat. pl.
μνηστήρεσσιν) suitorβίοτος, βιότου ὁ lifeνευρή, νευρῆς ἡ sinew, bow-string;cord

βλέφαρα, βλεφάρων τά eyelids, eyesξεῖνος (ξένος), ξείνου (ξένου) ὁstranger; guest-friendβροτός, βροτοῦ ὁ mortalξεστός, ξεστή, ξεστόν smooth,polished, wrought*γυνή, γυναικός ἡ woman, wifeὈδυσσεύς, Ὀδυσσέως ὁ Odysseusδοιός, δοιά, δοιόν twoοἶκος, οἴκου ὁ house, palaceδόμος, δόμου ὁ houseοἰστός, οἰστοῦ ὁ arrowδρύοχοι, δρυόχων οἱ props, stays,
shores (on which the frame of a ship
is propped)ὄνειρος, ὀνείρου ὁ dreamδυοκαίδεκα twelve*παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ childδυσώνυμος, δυσώνυμον bearing an
ill name, ill-omened

παλάμη, παλάμης ἡ palm, handδώδεκα twelveπέλεκυς, πελέκεως ὁ axeδῶμα, δώματος τό houseπολύμητις, πολυμήτιος of many
counselsἐλέφας, ἐλέφαντος ὁ elephant;elephant’s tusk; ivoryπριστός, πριστή, πριστόν sawnἐνίπλειος, ἐνίπλειον full of + gen.

πύλη, πύλης ἡ gate

ἔπος, ἔπεος (ἔπους) τό word, speech;song; saying; verseσίδηρος, σιδήρου ὁ ironἔτυμος, ἔτυμον true, real, actualτόξον, τόξου τό bowἐΰξοος, ἐΰξοον polishedὕπνος, ὕπνου ὁ sleep

417

418

Ancient Greek I

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentences foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give their case and function. For verbs, their give
person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify
them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s
object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, andcase.
οὖν τι βούλῃ περὶ τῶν ἐκεῖ φράζειν ἐμοί ἢ ἄπειμι;εἴ ἐθέλεις παρά μοι, ξεῖνε, ἧσθαι ἐν μεγάροις καὶ τέρπειν, οὐκ οἴομαί μοιὕπνον ἐπὶ βλεφάροις χυθήσεσθαι.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Boustrophedon
Boustrophedon is a way of writing that starts in the way that we are used to but
upon reaching the end of the line the writing turns back on itself with the lettersfacing in the new direction, much as a farmer, plowing a field, turns his cow at
row’s end.

Fig. 2 Schematic of reverse boustrophedon text, in the fashion of rongorongo, but using the Latinalphabet. Created by Kwamikagami, 2008, Wikimedia, public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Reverse_boustrophedon.png

Module 27 | Comparative and Superlative Adjectives and Adverbs; Dative of Degree of Difference

419

Fig. 3 Fragmentary boustrophedon inscription in the agora of Gortyn (Crete)—code of law.
Photograph by PRA, 2009, Wikimedia, CC BY, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crete_-_law_of_Gortyn_-_boustrophedon.JPG

In cultures where books are expensive and difficult to acquire, one book serves
many readers and people learn how to read words from many different angles,
including upside down. For them, reading upside down is as rightside up as
reading rightside up is to us. As you consider the many ways that people differ
from each other, also consider how culture determines much of what weassume, believe, desire, think about, and value. These differences represent thevast range of human potential and possibility.
Module 27 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words
the greater mastery of the language you will have.
Adjectivesλοιπός, λοιπή, λοιπόν left, remainingμέσος, μέση, μέσον middle, middle of + gen.
μικρός, μικρά, μικρόν small, little, shortVerbs
εἶμι come, go420Ancient Greek Iἔρομαι (εἴρομαι), ἐρήσομαι (εἰρήσομαι), ἠρόμην, -----, -----, ----- ask, ask ‘x’ inacc. about ‘y’ in acc.
εὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, ηὗρον, ηὕρηκα, ηὕρημαι, ηὑρέθην find out, discoverἥκω, ἥξω, ------, ------, ------, ------ have come, be presentπάρειμι go in, enter; pass by

Etymology Corner XXVII by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 23, Parts of Speech
Verbs, cont. As we learned in Module 17, infinitives can be dynamic, or potential
in their meaning, which is a good translation of the Greek ἐν δυνάμει. Think of the
English dynamic meaning powerful or having capacity/potential to act, or a dynamo,a type of generator for electricity (i.e. power). Some infinitives we see in Module 24 are
declarative, in that they make clear (from Latin clarare, which gives us the English
clarify) what is introduced by the verb of saying, thinking or perceiving. Declarative
infinitives are used in some types of indirect statement, that is, statements(utterances that stand firmly, Latin stare) that come not from a straight path (in, not¸dis, apart from, regere, to keep in a straight line, which gives us regular, rule, andruler). A direct statement is a quotation, a straight-forward repeating of an utterance.
An indirect statement requires someone to report what someone said, adding one
layer of complexity, which makes it not a straight quotation. What someone said is
made clear with their declarative infinitive.
What to Study and Do 27. Before moving on to the next module, make sure thatyou refresh your memory on noun and adjective agreement and how adjectives
can function as substantives. Memorize the definition of the positive, comparative,
and superlative adjectives and adverbs. Memorize the function of the genitiveof comparison and the dative of degree of difference. Finally make sure that you
understand how to read the chart on adjectives and adverbs.
Learning Tip 27: Learn to Engage in Debate and Disagreement. When considering
life’s essential problems that admit of no one right solution, seek to understand
before being understood. Understand the arguments of the other so well that you canreproduce them to the other’s satisfaction. Help others clarify their arguments so thatthey are not misunderstood. Debate so as to bring out the best in others and let others
bring out the best in you. Learn how to disagree without being disagreeable. Debate
and disagreement help us to learn deeply and well.

Module 28εἰμί and εἶμι

The Verb
In Greek and in English verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs
are words that represent actions (throw) and states of being (be or exist). They
differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English
counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English doesnot. The Greek verb (ῥῆμα) in its finite form has an ending that indicates what
person and number the subject is. The Greek infinitive has an ending thatindicates that it is unmarked for person and number.

The Verbs εἰμί and εἶμι
The verbs εἰμί and εἶμι are μι-verbs, occur frequently, and are irregular in
all languages. Memorize the forms below. As you memorize them, note thesimilarities and differences between them.

Present Indicative Active of εἰμί
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number

εἰμί

I am

1st person singularεἶ, εἶςyou are2nd person singularἐστί (ν)

he, she, it is; there is

3rd person singularἐσμέν

we are

1st person pluralἐστέ

you are2nd person pluralεἰσί (ν)

they are; there are

3rd person plural© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.34

422

Ancient Greek I

Imperfect Indicative Active of εἰμί
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number

ἦν, ἦ

I was

1st person singularἦσθα

you were

2nd person singularἦνhe, she, it was; there was

3rd person singularἦμεν

we were1st person pluralἦτε

you were

2nd person pluralἦσανthey were; there were

3rd person plural

1. All forms of the present indicative active are enclitic except for εἶ you
are and the infinitive, εἶναι to be.
2. ἔστι (ν) with its accent on the penult is not enclitic; it often means it ispossible, it is allowed with its meaning completed by a complementary
infinitive; if it means is the accent on the penult stresses the existenceof the subject.

Present Infinitive Active of εἰμί
εἶναι

to be

unmarked

Present Indicative Active of εἶμι
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number

εἶμι

I go

1st person singularεἶ

you go2nd person singularεἶσι (ν)

he, she, it goes

3rd person singular

ἴμεν

we go

1st person pluralἴτεyou go2nd person pluralἴᾱσι (ν)

they go

3rd person plural

Module 28 | εἰμί and εἶμι

423Imperfect Indicative Active of εἶμι
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number

ᾖα, ᾔεινI was going

1st person singularᾔεις, ᾔεισθα

you were going

2nd person singularᾔει, ᾔειν

he, she, it was going

3rd person singularᾖμεν

we were going

1st person pluralᾖτε

you were going

2nd person pluralᾖσαν, ᾔεσανthey were going

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Active of εἶμι
ἰέναι

to be

unmarked

Present Participles of εἰμί and εἶμιὤν, οὖσα, ὄν being
M

F

N

M

F

N

N

ὤν

οὖσα

ὄν

N

ὄντες

οὖσαι

ὄντα

A

ὄντα

οὖσαν

ὄν

A

ὄντας

οὔσᾱς

ὄντα

G

ὄντος

οὔσης

ὄντος

G

ὄντων

οὐσῶν

ὄντων

D

ὄντι

οὔσῃ

ὄντι

D

οὖσι (ν)οὔσαις

οὖσι (ν)

V

ὤν

οὖσα

ὄν

V

ὄντες

οὖσαι

ὄντα

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

ὤν

οὖσα

ὄν

N

ὄντες

οὖσαι

ὄντα

G

ὄντος

οὔσης

ὄντος

G

ὄντων

οὐσῶν

ὄντων

D

ὄντι

οὔσῃ

ὄντι

D

οὖσι (ν)οὔσαις

οὖσι (ν)

A

ὄντα

οὖσαν

ὄν

A

ὄντας

οὔσᾱς

ὄντα

V

ὤν

οὖσα

ὄν

V

ὄντες

οὖσαι

ὄντα

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Ancient Greek I

1. Remember that the participle is an adjective and must agree with thenoun it modifies in gender, case, and number. If no noun is present,
supply one from the gender and number of the participle or fromcontext.
2. The participle is presented in full in part II of this 21st-Century series.
ἰών, ἰοῦσα, ἰόν coming, going
M

F

N

M

F

N

N

ἰών

ἰοῦσα

ἰόν

N

ἰόντες

ἰοῦσαι

ἰόντα

A

ἰόντα

ἰοῦσαν

ἰόνAἰόντας

ἰούσᾱς

ἰόνταGἰόντος

ἰούσης

ἰόντος

G

ἰόντων

ἰουσῶν

ἰόντων

D

ἰόντι

ἰούσῃ

ἰόντι

D

ἰοῦσι (ν)ἰούσαις

ἰοῦσι (ν)

V

ἰών

ἰοῦσα

ἰόν

V

ἰόντες

ἰοῦσαι

ἰόντα

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

ἰών

ἰοῦσα

ἰόν

N

ἰόντες

ἰοῦσαι

ἰόνταGἰόντος

ἰούσης

ἰόντος

G

ἰόντων

ἰουσῶν

ἰόντων

D

ἰόντι

ἰούσῃ

ἰόντι

D

ἰοῦσι (ν)ἰούσαις

ἰοῦσι (ν)

A

ἰόντα

ἰοῦσαν

ἰόνAἰόντας

ἰούσᾱς

ἰόντα

V

ἰών

ἰοῦσα

ἰόν

V

ἰόντες

ἰοῦσαιἰόντα

1. Remember that the participle is an adjective and must agree with thenoun it modifies in gender, case, and number. If no noun is present,
supply one from the gender and number of the participle or fromcontext.
2. The participle is presented in full in Part II of the 21st-Century series.
Practice Translating εἰμί and εἶμι. Translate the sentences below, which havebeen adapted from a variety of ancient Greek writers. Remember the meanings
and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Check your understanding
with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand whyeach word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or
three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understandingof the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.
1. ἔξεστι σῶσαί σε χρήμαθ’ οἷς συνεξῇεις καὶ ἅ σοι ἔδωκα (Euripides,
Hekabe);2. οὖν τι βούλῃ περὶ τῶν ἐκεῖ φράζειν ἐμοὶ ἢ ἄπειμι (Euripides, Hekabe);
3. ἡ δὲ λέγει· Γιγνώσκεις οὖν Ἀθήνης ἵνα στέγαι εἰσίν (Euripides, Hekabe);Module 28 | εἰμί and εἶμι

4. ὁ δὲ λέγει· Μέλαινα πέτρα γῆς ἥ σοι σημανεῖ ἵνα στέγαι εἰσίν (Euripides,
Hekabe).
5. ὅτε ἦν ὁ καιρὸς τῷ στρατηγῷ, ἠθέλησε εἰρήνην ἄγειν καὶ μὴ λῦσαι.
6. κατ’ ἐμὲ μὲν̣ γὰρ τοῦτο τὸ νίκημα ταῖς γυναιξὶν ἦν. οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἄνδρες
ἡττάοντο.
7. τότε δὲ Καμβύσης, ἐπεὶ ἦν οὐχ ὕδωρ αὐτῷ ἕτοιμον, ἀγγέλους παρὰ τὸνἈράβιον ἐπέμψε (Herodotos).
8. πρόσεισι καὶ κηρύσσει Κρέων τούτῳ, ὃς τὸ τῆς Σφιγγὸς αἴνιγμα λύσει,καὶ τὴν βασιλείαν καὶ τὴν Λαΐου δώσειν γυναῖκα (Bibliotheca).
9. τῆς σοφίας τοσαύτης ἐσμὲν ὥστε τρόποισιν οὐ τυραννικοῖς ἀλλὰ τρόπῳφρενὸς αὐτοὺς ποιεῖν τὰ καλὰ πείθειν.
10. ὁ γεωργὸς πρὸς τὴν παῖδα ἔφη τῇ Σφιγγὶ πρόσωπον μὲν γυναικός,στῆθος δὲ καὶ πόδας καὶ οὐρὰν λέοντος καὶ πτέρυγας ὄρνιθος εἶναι.
Vocabulary
ἄγγελος, ἄγγελου ὁ messengerλύω (ῡ), λύσω, ἔλῡσα loose, free,
destroy; solve; (mid.) ransom*ἄγω, ἄξω, ἤγαγον do, drive, lead; μέλας, μέλαινα, μέλαν black, darkχάριν ἄγω I give thanksἈθήνη, Ἀθήνης ἡ Athene, goddess of νίκημα, νικήματος τό victory
crafts and wisdomαἴνιγμα, αἰνίγματος τό riddleὄρνις, ὄρνιθος ἡ, ὁ bird, bird of omen*ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ man, husbandοὐρά, οὐρᾶς ἡ the hinder parts, afterpart; tail; κατ’ οὐράν in rear, behindἄπειμι go away, depart*παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ childἈράβιος, Ἀραβία, Ἀράβιον Arabian*πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα persuade +inf.; (mid. or pass.) listen to, obey + dat.
or gen.

βασιλεία, βασιλείας ἡ kingdom,kingship, reignπέτρα, πέτρας ἡ rock*βούλομαι, βουλήσομαι want, prefer; *ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα do, make,wish, be willing want, wish, be willing cause; (mid.) considerγεωργός, γεωργοῦ ὁ farmer (George) πούς, ποδός ὁ foot; κατὰ πόδας on theheels*γῆ, γῆς ἡ land, earthπρόσειμι go in, enter, approach

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Ancient Greek I*γιγνώσκω, γνώσομαι, ἔγνων, know, πρόσωπον, προσώπου τό facerecognize; decide + inf.
*γυνή, γυναικός ἡ woman, wifeπτέρυξ, πτέρυγος ἡ wing*δίδωμι, δώσω, ἔδωκα give; allow σημαίνω, σημανέω, ἐσήμηνα point‘x’ in dat. or acc. + inf., ἐμὲ (έμοί) out, showεὐτυχέειν δίδως you allow me toprosper*ἐθέλω (θέλω), ἐθελήσω (θελήσω), σοφία, σοφίας ἡ wisdomἠθέλησα wish, be willingεἰρήνη, εἰρήνης ἡ peaceστέγη, στέγης ἡ roofἐκεῖ thereστῆθος, στήθους (-εος) τό chest,
breastἑτοῖμος, ἑτοίμη, ἑτοῖμον at hand, *στρατηγός, στρατηγοῦ ὁ general
ready, prepared, able + inf.
*ἔφη he, she, it saidσυνέξειμι go out with, depart withἡττάομαι be less or inferior; be Σφίγξ, Σφιγγός ἡ Sphinx
defeated*καιρός, καιροῦ ὁ right moment, σῴζω, σώσω, ἔσωσα save, keep
critical time, opportunity*καλός, καλή, καλόν beautiful, noble, *τοσοῦτος, τοσαύτη, τοσοῦτο sogoodmuch, so manyΚαμβύσης, Καμβύσου (-εω)
Kambyses, son of Kyros the Greatὁ *τρόπος, τρόπου ὁ way, manner, turn;(pl.) characterκηρύττω beproclamationa τυραννικός, τυραννική, τυραννικόν
of a tyrant, despotic, imperiousaherald;κράτιστος, κρατίστη,
strongest, bestmakeκράτιστον ὕδωρ, ὕδατος τό waterΚρέων, Κρέοντος ὁ Kreon, king of φράζω, φράσω, ἔφρασα tell, show;
Thebesadvise; suppose, believeΛάϊος, Λαΐου ὁ Laïos, king of Thebesφρήν, φρενός ἡ midriff, heart, mind;
intellect, understanding, reason*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω, ἔλεξα or εἶπον *χρῆμα, χρήματος τό thing; (pl.)
say, tell, speak
goods, money, propertyλέων, λέοντος ὁ lion

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1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Translating. Translate the below, adapted from Lucian’s The Loverof Lies (Φιλοψευδής). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases
presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions.
If you forget an ending or a function, consult the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, andPronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and the Case and Function Chart in Appendix
I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making
sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back andread each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how muchbetter your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you
will improve quickly.
Εὐκράτης: ἐπεὶ γὰρ ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ διῆγον ἔτι νέος ὤν—ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἐπὶπαιδείας προφάσει ἀπεστελλόμην—τὸν Νεῖλον εἰς Κοπτὸν ἀναπλεύσας,ἐκεῖθεν ἐπὶ τὸν Μέμνονα ἦλθον. ἐπεθύμησα ἀκοῦσαι τὸ θαυμαστὸναὐτοῦ ἐκεῖνο ἠχέον πρὸς ἀνέχοντα τὸν ἥλιον. ἐκείνου μὲν οὖν ἤκουσαοὐ κατὰ ἄσημον φωνήν, τὸ κοινὸν τοῖς πολλοῖς. ἀλλά μοι καὶ ἔχρησενὁ Μέμνων αὐτὸς ἀνοίξας γε τὸ στόμα ἐν ἔπεσιν ἑπτά. καὶ δύναμαι, εἴ
γε βούλομαι, ἐκβολὴν τοῦ λόγου ποιεῖσθαι καὶ εἰπεῖν αὐτὰ ὑμῖν τὰ ἔπη.
ἀλλὰ οὐκ ἐθέλω. κατὰ δὲ τὸν ἀνάπλουν ἡμῖν συνέπλεε Μεμφίτης ἀνὴρτῶν ἱερεῶν γραμματέων. ὁ δὲ θαυμάσιος τὴν σοφίαν καὶ τὴν παιδείαν,πᾶσαν εἰδὼς τὴν Αἰγύπτιον. ἐλέγετο δὲ τρία καὶ εἴκοσιν ἔτη ἐν τοῖςἀδύτοις ὑπόγειος οἰκέειν, μαγεύειν παιδευόμενος ὑπὸ τῆς Ἴσιδος.
Ἀρίγνωτος: Παγκράτην λέγεις, ἐμὸν διδάσκαλον, ἄνδρα ἱερόν,ἐξυρημένον, ἐν ὀθονίοις, ἀεὶ νοήμονα, ἐπιμήκη, σιμόν, πρόχειλον,ὑπόλεπτον τὰ σκέλη ἀλλὰ ὁ δὲ οὐ καθαρῶς ἑλληνίζει.
Εὐκράτης: αὐτόν, ἐκεῖνον τὸν Παγκράτην. καὶ τοῦτον τὰ μὲν πρῶταἠγνόεον ἀλλὰ ἐπεὶ ὁρμίζομεν τὸ πλοῖον, ἑώραον αὐτὸν πολλὰ τεράστιαἐργαζόμενον· καὶ δὴ καὶ ἐπὶ κροκοδείλων ὀχέεται καὶ συννέει τοῖςθηρίοις. τὰ δὲ θηρία ὑποπτήσσει καὶ σαίνει ταῖς οὐραῖς. γιγνώσκω αὐτόν·ὁ δὲ γὰρ ἱερός τις ἄνθρωπος.
Adverbs and Verbs
ἀγνοέω not perceive, not recognize*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω, ἔλεξα or εἶπονsay, tell, speak*ἀκούω, ἀκούσομαι, ἤκουσα hear, μαγεύω be a Magus; bewitch
hear of or about, listen, heed + gen. or
acc. of thing or gen. of person

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Ancient Greek Iἀποστέλλω, ἀποστελέω, ἀπέστειλα οἰκέω, οἰκήσω, ᾤκησα inhabit, settle;
send off, dispatch; putt off, doff; manage, dwell, live
(intrans.) retire, withdraw*βούλομαι, βουλήσομαι want, prefer; *ὁράω (ἑώραον), ὄψομαι, εἶδον see
wish, be willing*γιγνώσκω, γνώσομαι, ἔγνων know, ὁρμίζω moor, anchor
recognize; decide + inf.
διάγω, -άξω, -ήγαγον carry over; ὀχέω uphold, endure; carry; drive, ride
(intrans.) cross over; pass; (intrans.)
live*δύναμαι, δυνήσομαι be able, be *ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα do, make,strong enough + inf.
cause; (mid.) consider*ἐθέλω (θέλω), ἐθελήσω (θελήσω), σαίνω wag, fawnἠθέλησα wish, be willing*εἰπεῖν > λέγωσυμπλέω sail withἐκεῖθεν from that place, thence; on his συννέω swim together, swim withpart
ἑλληνίζω speak Greekὑποπτήσσω crouch, cowerἐπιθυμέω set one’s heart upon, be χράω, χρήσω, ἔχρησα
eager for, desire + gen.
announce; furnish, lend

proclaim,*ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι, ἦλθον come,go
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronounsἄδυτος ἄδυτον not to be entered;never setting; (subst.) sanctuary,shrineκαθαρῶς clearly, purelyΑἰγύπτιος, Αἰγυπτία, Αἰγύπτιον
Egyptian*κοινός, κοινή, κοινόν shared,commonΑἴγυπτος, Αἰγύπτου ἡ EgyptΚοπτός, Κοπτοῦ ἡ Koptos, a city on
the Nile 43 kilometers north of Luxorἀναπλεύσας, ἀναπλεύσαντος ὁ
sailingκροκόδειλος, κροκοδείλου ὁcrocodile, lizardἀνάπλοος (ἀνάπλους), ἀναπλόου(ἀναπλοῦ) ὁ sailing up*λόγος, λόγου ὁ word, speech, story;reason, accountModule 28 | εἰμί and εἶμιἀνέχων, ἀνέχοντος ὁ holding up;
rising upΜέμνων, Μέμνονος ὁ Memnon, oneof two colossi of Memnon, depicting
Pharaoh Amenhotep III and locatedwest of Luxor*ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ man, husband

Μεμφίτης, Μεμφίτου ὁ from
Memphis*ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ human,personΝεῖλος, Νείλου ὁ Nileἀνοίξᾱς, ἀνοίξαντος ὁ opening*νέος, νέᾱ, νέον new, fresh, young;strange, unexpectedἄσημος, ἄσημον without mark;unintelligibleνοήμων, νοήμον thoughtful, sensible

βλέπω, βλέψομαι look at, seeὀθόνιον, ὀθονίου τό linen cloth,
sail-clothγραμματεύς, γραμματέως ὁ
secretary, clerk; recorder; scholarοὐρά, οὐρᾶς ἡ the hinder parts, afterpart; tail; κατ’ οὐράν in rear, behindδιδάσκαλος, διδασκάλου ὁ teacher,master, trainerΠαγκράτης, Παγκράτου ὁ Pankratesεἰδώς, εἰδότος ὁ knowing

παιδεία, παιδείας ἡ education,
training, cultureεἴκοσιν twentyπαιδευόμενος, παιδευομένου ὁ
being taughtἐκβολή, ἐκβολῆς ἡ thowing out;
expulsion; by-way; digression*πατήρ, πατρός ὁ father*ἐμός, ἐμή, ἐμόν my

πλοῖον, πλοίου τό shipἐξυρημένος, ἐξυρημένη,ἐξυρημένον shavedπρόφασις, προφάσεως (-ιος) ἡ
pretext, excuse, cause, reason

ἐπιμήκες, ἐπιμήκης long, oblongπρόχειλος, πρόχειλον withprominent lips

ἔπος, ἔπεος (-ους) τό word, speech;song; saying; verse*πρῶτος, πρώτη, πρῶτον first, forthe present, just nowἑπτά sevenσιμός, σιμή, σιμόν snub-nosed,
flat-nosedἐργαζόμενος, ἐργαζομένου ὁ doing,
accomplishingσκέλος, -ους (-εος) τό the leg

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Ancient Greek I*ἔτος, ἔτεος (ἔτους) τό yearσοφία, σοφίας ἡ wisdom, skill;cleverness

ἥλιος, ἡλίου ὁ sunστόμα, στόματος τό mouthἠχέον, ἠχέοντος τό sounding, ringing τεράστιος, τεράστιον monstrous,
prodigiousθαυμάσιος, θαυμασίᾱ, θαυμάσιονwonderful, marvelous, admirable*τρεῖς, οἱ or αἱ; τρία τά threeθαυμαστός, θαυμαστή, θαυμαστόν
wonderful, marvelous, admirable

ὑπόγειος, ὑπόγειον under the earth,underground, subterraneousθηρίον, θηρίου τό wild animal, beastὑπόλεπτος, ὑπόλεπτον thinnish

ἱερεύς, ἱερέως ὁ priest, sacrifice,divinerφωνή, φωνῆς ἡ sound; voice; tone*ἱερός, ἱερά, ἱερόν holy; (n. in sg.)
temple; (n. in pl.) sacrifices*ὤν, ὄντος ὁ beingἾσις, Ἴσιδος or Ἴσιος ἡ Egyptian
deity similar in function to Demeter
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentences foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give their case and function. For verbs, give theirperson, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify
them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s
object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, andcase.
ὁ πόλεμος καὶ δυστυχία τὰς ὀργὰς τῶν βροτῶν τὰς αὐτὰς ταῖς συντυχίαις
καθιστᾶσιν.
τὸν Νεῖλον εἰς Κοπτὸν ἀναπλεύσας ἐκεῖθεν ἐπὶ τὸν Μέμνονα ἦλθον.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
Diogenes the Cynic of Sinope (Διογένης ὁ Κυνικός, Σινώπη c. 412–323 BCE).
Diogenes was born in Sinope, an Ionian Greek colony on the shores of theBlack Sea. The adjective κυνικός means dog-like. Greek philosophers tended
to separate the world into nature (φύσις) and custom (νόμος). Customs varyfrom society to society. Α look to nature is done as a means for determining
primordial absolutes which can serve as a guide to understanding humankind,the universe, and the proper way to live. This quest for the primordial continues
today as we look to DNA and quantum physics to understand who we are andhow to live. Diogenes looked at the dog. He saw humans in pursuit of the artificial

Module 28 | εἰμί and εἶμι431

in their quest for empire, glory, honor, status, and wealth. Rather he thought weshould study the dog who defecates and fornicates openly and without shame.
Dogs live in the moment and are able to detect friend from foe. When Alexander
the Great approached Diogenes and asked him if there was a request he could
fulfill for him, Diogenes asked if he could please move because he was blocking
the sun’s light and warmth from him. In his quest for the primordial Diogenes
is one of a long list of thinkers who have pursued a life dedicated to the art ofliving well.
Module 28 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words
the greater mastery of the language you will have.
Adjectives
ἐναντίος, ἐναντίᾱ, ἐναντίον opposite + gen. or dat.
ὀρθός, ὀρθή, ὀρθόν straight, correct, properτοσοῦτος, τοσαύτη, τοσοῦτο so much, so manyὕστερος, ὑστέρᾱ, ὕστερον after, laterVerbs
παρέχω (ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον, ἔσχηκα, -ἔσχημαι, ------) furnish, handover; supply; cause; allow, grant; be allowed, παρέχει it is allowedσκοπέω, σκοπήσω, ἐσκόπησα, ------, ἐσκόπημαι or ἔσκεμμαι, ------ look at;
examine; consider, contemplateσυμβαίνω (βαίνω, βήσομαι, ἔβην, βέβηκα, βέβαμαι, ἐβάθην) stand withfeet together; come together; come to an agreement, come to terms; meet + dat.;(impers.) come to pass, happenτίθημι, θήσω, ἔθηκα, τέθηκα, τέθειμαι, ἐτέθην put, place; make, causeὑπάρχω (ἄρχω, ἄρξω, ἦρξα, ἦρχα, ἦργμαι, ἤρχθην) be; be sufficient; begin +gen.; (impers.) be allowed, be possible

Etymology Corner XXVIII by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 24, Parts of Speech
Adjectives, Modules 11, 12, 14, 18, 20, 26, 27. The term adjective (ὄνομα) is wellknown, but Greek will help give you greater nuance in your understanding of thembeyond knowing them as words that describe nouns and pronouns. Earlier we met
adverbs, little words that go towards the verb. Adjectives go towards (ad) nouns

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and pronouns, but the motion is more violent. They are thrown (iacere) against theirnouns!
•

Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. This
harmonious arrangement is pleasing (gratus). By the way, what is it called
when the endings on the noun and the endings on the adjective are identical?
Coincidence! Pay attention to the forms, not how alike they look.

•

Think about your joints, especially around your knuckles. These little pointsof articulation are the root of your dexterity, allowing you to grasp, hold andmanipulate objects. Articles like a, an or the let you do that same work towords in your sentence, which is why they take their name from the Latin
little (-culus) joint/knuckle (artus—compare with the Greek ἄρθρον like inarthritis, a malady of the joints). Αrticles are an important subcategory of
adjectives, and like adjectives, articles will agree in gender, number, andcase with the word they are modifying.

•

The etymologies for the type of articles, definite and indefinite, you canprobably figure out already from other terms we’ve done so far. If you recall
finite and infinitive verbs, you will also recall that finis in Latin is a limit,
and that in can mean not. In this way, the definite article the limits a noun,
whereas the indefinite article a or an does not.

•You can be fast, you can be furious, but without an article you can’t be that
subset of people The Fast and the Furious. Movies may be insubstantial but
it doesn’t mean they lack substantive adjectives, that is, a definite article+ adjective combination. Substantive adjectives (Module 12) are so called
because they aren’t just abstract qualities, but have some concrete substance,
coming from two Latin roots that we should be familiar with by now, sub,under, and stare, to stand. Substantives can stand on their own without anoun.

What to Study and Do 28. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you
have memorized the forms of εἰμί and εἶμι and that you understand how to translate
and identify each form. From this point on their forms will not be glossed.
Learning Tip 28: Deep Learning and Thinking. Deep (creative) learning of aconceptual system is not easily forgotten. Our education system tends to teachinformation but not deep (creative) thinking. Teaching deep thinking is difficult. It
involves a level of difficulty similar to that involved in producing a master work of
art or a new scientific theory. Though difficult, orienting the way we teach and learn
towards a deep thinking approach is a qualitatively superior method. As we learn thefundamentals of a subject (the old known information), we do so from the standpointof learning how to produce new ways of knowing. As you master the information
required to learn this ancient language, do so with an eye on developing a conceptual
understanding of language. This conceptual awareness will assist you in developing a
deep thinking approach to learning any subject.

Module 29δείκνυμι and φημί

The Verb
In Greek and in English verbs have the same definitions and functions. Verbs
are words that represent actions (throw) and states of being (be or exist). They
differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English
counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English doesnot. The Greek verb (ῥῆμα) in its finite form has an ending that indicates what
person and number the subject is. The Greek infinitive has an ending thatindicates that it is unmarked for person and number.

The μι-Verbs δείκνυμι and φημί
Though not as numerous as ω-verbs, μι-verbs occur frequently. μι-verbs
conjugate differently from ω-verbs in some tenses, typically the present,
imperfect, aorist, and sometimes the perfect. In conjugating these verb forms,
learn which stem to combine with which ending. The stem is the base of theword to which the ending is joined. Once you have the correct stem and ending,combine them to create the correct form. You may memorize the stems andendings or you may learn how to combine stems and endings so that you canrecognize the forms as you encounter them.

Present and Imperfect Tense Stems
Use the long vowel grade stem for the singular (I, you, he, she, it) and the shortvowel grade for the plural (we, you, they). Note that the stems differ even within
the same tense, mood, and voice.

© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.35

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Ancient Greek I

long vowel grade stem

short vowel grade stem

(use for the singular)(use for the plural)δεικνῡ-δεικνυ-φη-

φα-Present and Imperfect Tense Endings
Add to the correct tense stem.
Primary Active

Secondary Active(use for the present)(use for the imperfect)

S

Pl

st

-μι

2nd
3

1

rd

S

PL

-μεν

1

st

-ν

-μεν

-ς

-τε

2nd

-ς

-τε

-σι (ν)-ᾱσι (ν)

3

---

-σαν

rd

Infinitive Active-ναιPrimary Middle and Passive

Secondary Middle and Passive(use for the present)(use for the imperfect)

S

Pl

S

Pl

1st

-μαι

-μεθα

1st

-μην

-μεθα

2

nd

-σαι

-σθε

2

nd

-σο

-σθε

3rd

-ται

-νται

3rd

-το

-ντο

Infinitive Middle and Passive-σθαιThe Conjugation of δείκνυμι
The principal parts are these:δείκνῡμι δείξω ἔδειξα δέδειχα δέδειγμαι ἐδείχθηνModule 29 | δείκνυμι and φημί

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Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stemwith the correct endings.

Present Indicative Active of δείκνῡμι
Singular: long vowel grade, δεικνῡ-, + primary active endings. Plural: shortvowel grade, δεικνυ-, + primary active endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberδείκνῡμι

I show

1st person singularδείκνῡςyou show

2nd person singularδείκνῡσι (ν)

he, she, it shows

3rd person singularδείκνυμεν

we show

1st person pluralδείκνυτεyou show

2nd person pluralδεικνύᾱσι (ν)

they show

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Active of δείκνῡμι
Short vowel grade of the stem, δεικνυ-, + -ναι.
δεικνύναι

to show

unmarked

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the
penult. Thus, its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι
count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, amood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Present Indicative Middle of δείκνῡμι
Short vowel grade of the stem, δεικνυ-, + primary middle and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberδείκνυμαι

I set

1st person singularδείκνυσαιyou set2nd person singularδείκνυταιhe, she, it sets

3rd person singularδεικνύμεθαwe set

1st person pluralδείκνυσθε

you set2nd person pluralδείκνυνται

they set

3rd person plural

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Present Infinitive Middle of δείκνῡμι
Short vowel grade of the stem, δεικνυ-, + -σθαι.
δείκνυσθαι

to setunmarked for person & #1. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes ofaccentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the
21st-Century series.

Present Indicative Passive of δείκνῡμι
Short vowel grade of the stem, δεικνυ-, + primary middle and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberδείκνυμαι

I am shown

1st person singularδείκνυσαιyou are shown

2nd person singularδείκνυταιhe, she, it is shown

3rd person singularδεικνύμεθα

we are shown

1st person pluralδείκνυσθε

you are shown

2nd person pluralδείκνυνται

they are shown

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Passive of δείκνῡμι
Short vowel grade of the stem, δεικνυ-, + -σθαι.
δείκνυσθαιto be shown

unmarked for
person & #1. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes ofaccentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the
21st-Century series.

Imperfect Indicative Active of δείκνῡμι
Singular: long vowel grade, δεικνῡ-, + past indicative augment and secondary
active endings. Plural: short vowel grade, δεικνυ-, + past indicative augment
and secondary active endings.

Module 29 | δείκνυμι and φημί

437

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐδείκνῡν

I was showing, used to show

1st singularἐδείκνῡς

you were showing, used to show

2nd singularἐδείκνῡhe, she, it was showing, used to

3rd singularshowἐδείκνυμεν

we were showing, used to show

1st pluralἐδείκνυτεyou were showing, used to show

2nd pluralἐδείκνυσαν

they were showing, used to show

3rd plural

Imperfect Indicative Middle of δείκνῡμι
Short vowel grade stem, δεικνυ-, + past indicative augment and secondary
middle and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐδεικνύμην

I was setting, used to set

1st singularἐδείκνυσο

you were setting, used to set

2nd singularἐδείκνυτο

he, she, it was setting, used to set

3rd singularἐδεικνύμεθαwe were setting, used to set

1st pluralἐδείκνυσθε

you were setting, used to set

2nd pluralἐδείκνυντο

they were setting, used to set

3rd plural

Imperfect Indicative Passive of δείκνῡμι
Short vowel grade stem, δεικνυ-, + past indicative augment and secondary
middle and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐδεικνύμην

I was being shown, used

1st singular

to be shownἐδείκνυσο

you were being shown,

2nd singularused to be shownἐδείκνυτο

he, she, it was being
shown, used to be shown

3rd singular438

Ancient Greek I

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἐδεικνύμεθαwe were being shown,

1st plural

used to be shownἐδείκνυσθε

you were being shown,

2nd plural

used to be shownἐδείκνυντο

they were being shown,

3rd plural

used to be shown

The Conjugation of φημί
The principal parts are these:φημί φήσω ἔφησα ------ ------ -----φημί does not have a middle or a passive voice. It has active forms in thepresent, imperfect, future, and aorist. It uses μι-verb endings for the present
and imperfect and ω-verb endings for the future and first aorist.
Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stemwith the correct endings.

Present Indicative Active of φημί
Singular: long vowel grade, φη-, + primary active endings. Plural: short vowel
grade, φα-, + primary active endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number

φημί

I say

1st person singularφής, φῄς, φῇσθα

you say

2nd person singularφησί (ν)

he, she, it says

3rd person singularφαμέν

we say

1st person pluralφατέ

you say

2nd person pluralφᾱσί (ν)

they say

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Active of φημί
Short vowel grade, φα-, + -ναι.
φάναι

to sayunmarkedModule 29 | δείκνυμι and φημί439

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the
penult. Thus its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι
count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, amood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Imperfect Indicative Active of φημί
Singular: long vowel grade, φη-, + past indicative augment and secondary
active endings. Plural: short vowel grade, φα-, + past indicative augment andsecondary active endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and NumberἔφηνI was saying, used to say

1st person singularἔφης, ἔφησθα

you were saying, used to

2nd person singular

say
ἔφη

he, she, it was saying,

3rd person singularused to say

ἔφαμεν

we were saying, used to

1st person plural

say
ἔφατε

you were saying, used to

2nd person pluralsay
ἔφασαν

they were saying, used to

3rd person pluralsay

Practice Translating μι-Verbs. Translate the below sentences, adapted from avariety of ancient Greek writers. To come to an accurate understanding of thesentences, use your knowledge of endings and their functions. If you forget an
ending or function, remember to use the Case and Function Chart in Appendix
I and the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII toassist you. After you finish translating each sentence, check your understanding
with the answer in the Answer Key. After you have read through all of thesentences once, read them again at least two more times. In each subsequentreading your understanding improves.
1. ὁ πόλεμος καὶ δυστυχία τὰς ὀργὰς τῶν βροτῶν τὰς αὐτὰς ταῖς συντυχίαις
καθιστᾶσιν.
2. ἡ γῆ μέλαινα πίνει· πίνει δένδρεα δ’ αὖ γῆν· ὁ δ’ ἥλιος θάλατταν; τὸνδ’ ἥλιον σελήνη. ἡ φύσις καὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων καὶ τῶν πάντων πίνειν. τί,ὦ ἑταῖροι, οὐ καλὸν καί μοι πίνειν (Anakreontic, anonymous poems
written in the Anakreontic meter);

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Ancient Greek I

3. ὅσῳ πέλας τὰ Μοίρας, μᾶλλον πρέπει τοῖς ἀνθρώποις τερπνὰ παίζειν·καὶ γὰρ ἡ Μοίρα ὡς τάχιστα τὰς τέρψεις τοῦ βίου δίδωσι καὶ λαμβάνει.
4. Μοίρα δεσπότῃ ἔδωκε τὸ σῶμα Ζωσίμης, ψύχην ἀγαθῆς, καὶ νῦν θανάτῳ,ἣ πρὶν ἦν μόνῳ τῷ σώματι δούλη, καὶ τῷ σώματι εὗρεν ἐλευθερίην
(Damaskios).
5. παρ’ αὐτῷ Ζηνὶ πίμπλημι ἀμβροσίης ὅταν τὰ ὄμματα βλέπω ἧς ἐράω.
6. ἐπεὶ ἀστέρας ἀναβλέπεις, Ἀστήρ, οὐρανός εἰμι καὶ πολλοῖς ὄμμασιν εἰςσὲ καταβλέπω.
7. οὔτε γὰρ ἐλπίδ’ ἔχομεν γηράσαι οὔτε θανεῖν ὅτε ἐσμὲν ὑγιείας καλῆς·ἀλλὰ χρόνος βιότου θνητοῖς ὀλίγος.
8. πῶς δ’ ὑγιείαν ἔδοτε αὐτοῖς, ὡς πάντες ὧν ψαύετε θνῄσκουσιν;9. αἰνίζειν μὲν ἄριστον· ὁ δὲ ψόγος ἔχθους ἀρχή· ἀλλὰ κακῶς εἰπεῖνἈττικὴν δίδωσί μοι τέρψιν.
10. πάντα θεοῖς ἀνέθεσαν Ὅμηρός θ’ Ἡσίοδός τε· κλέπτειν, μοιχεύειν τε καὶἀλλήλους ἀπατεύειν.
Adverbs and Verbsαἰνίζω praise, approveκαταβλέπω look, look downἀναβλέπω look, look backκλέπτω stealἀνατίθημι set up, establish, dedicate, *λαμβάνω, λήψομαι, ἔλαβον take,offer
receive; captureἀπατεύω deceive*λέγω, λέξω or ἐρέω, ἔλεξα or εἶπονsay, tell, speakαὖ (adverb, postpositive) in turn, λύω (ῡ), λύσω, ἔλῡσα loose, free,
again
destroy; (mid.) ransom*ἄρχω, ἄρξω, ἦρξα rule, command; μοιχεύω commit adultery; debauch
begin + gen.
βλέπω, βλέψω, ἔβλεψα see, have the νεύω, νεύσω, ἔνευσα nod
power of sightγηράσκω, γηράσομαι, ἐγήρᾱσα
grow old, become oldπαίζω, παίξομαι or παιξέομαι,ἔπαισα, play, sport, dance*δίδωμι, δώσω, ἔδωκα give; allow πειράω, πειράσω, ἐπείρασα, attempt,‘x’ in dat. or acc. + inf., ἐμὲ (έμοί) undertake; (mid. and pass) try, makeεὐτυχέειν δίδως you allow me to an attempt; make trial of, test + gen.
prosper*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possibleπέλας nearby

Module 29 | δείκνυμι and φημίἐράω love; long for, desire + gen.

πίμπλημι fill, fill up; fill ‘x’ (a personor thing) in acc. with ‘y’ a thing in gen.;be full of + gen.

*εὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, ηὗρον find out, πίνω, πίομαι or πιέομαι, ἔπιον drink;
discoverdrink of + gen.
*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον have, πρέπω, πρέψω, ἔπρεψα be clearly
hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be seen, resemble, seem; be fitting; liken
well*θνῄσκω, θανέομαι, ἔθανον die,perishτάχιστα most quickly*καθίστημι appoint, establish, put ψαύω, ψαύσω, ἔψαυσα touch + gen.
into a state; (intrans.) be established,
be appointed
Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns*------, ἀλλήλων one another*θεός, θεοῦ ἡ ὁ god, goddess, deity*ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν good, nobleθνητός, θνητή, θνητόν mortalἀμβροσία, ἀμβροσίας ἡ nectar of the *καλός, καλή, καλόν beautiful, noble,
gods
good
*ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ human, μέλας, μέλαινα, μέλαν black, dark
personἄριστος, ἀρίστη, ἄριστον best,
noblestμοῖρα, μοίρας ἡ lot; portion; fate*ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς ἡ rule, command; *μόνος, μόνη, μόνον only, sole, alone,
beginning; empire
solitary; oneἀστήρ, ἀστέρος ὁ starἈττικός,AthenianἈττική,Ἀττικόν

Ὅμηρος, Ὁμήρου ὁ Homer
Attic, *ὀλίγος, ὀλίγα, ὀλίγον few*βίος, βίου ὁ lifeὄμμα, ὄμματος τό eyeβίοτος, βιότου ὁ lifeὀργή, ὀργῆς ἡ impulse; passion, angerβροτός, βροτοῦ ὁ mortal man; (adj.) *ὅσος, ὅση, ὅσον so many, as many asmortal*γῆ, γῆς ἡ land, earthοὐρανός, οὐρανοῦ ὁ sky, heavenδένδρεον = δένδρον, -ου τό (-ος, -ους πέτρος, πέτρου ὁ rock(-εος) τό) tree

441

442

Ancient Greek Iδεσπότης, δεσπότου ὁ master*πόλεμος, πολέμου ὁ warδούλη, δούλης ἡ slaveσελήνη, σελήνης ἡ moonδυστυχία, δυστυχίας ἡ ill-luck,
ill-fortuneστρατόπεδον, στρατοπέδου τό campἐλευθερία, ἐλευθερίας ἡ freedom, συντυχία,liberty
fortuneσυντυχίαςἡincident;ἐλπίς, ἐλπίδος ἡ hope, expectation*σῶμα, σώματος τό bodyἑταῖρος, ἑταίρου ὁ comrade,
companionτερπνός, τερπνή, τερπνόν delightful,pleasant, agreeable, gladἔχθος, ἔχθους (-εος) τό hate, hatredτέρψις, τέρψεως ἡ pleasure,enjoyment τιμή, τιμῆς ἡ esteem,
honor

Ζήν, Ζηνός ὁ Zeusτιμή, τιμῆς ἡ esteem, honorΖωσίμη, Ζωσίμης ἡ Zosime

ὑγίεια, ὑγιείᾱς ἡ health, soundness

ἥλιος, ἡλίου ὁ sun*φύσις, φύσιος (φύσηος, φύσεως) ἡ
natureἩσίοδος, Ἡσιόδου ὁ Hesiod, Greek
poet c. 700 BCE*χρόνος, χρόνου ὁ time*θάλασσα (θάλαττα), θαλάσσης ἡseaψόγος, ψόγου ὁ blame, flaw, censureθάνατος, θανάτου ὁ death*ψυχή, ψυχῆς ἡ life, soul, spirit

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, which have been adaptedfrom Lucian’s The Lover of Lies (Φιλοψευδής). Remember the meanings andfunctions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify
endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult
the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and theCase and Function Chart in Appendix I. Check your understanding with thetranslations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why eachword translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or threetimes, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of thesentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Εὐκράτης: κατὰ μικρὸν δὲ φιλοφρονούμενος οὐ πολὺ ἑταῖρος αὐτῷ καὶ συνήθηςἐγενόμην ὥστε πάντων ἐκοίνωσε μοι τῶν ἀπορρήτων. καὶ τέλος ἔπεισε με τοὺςμὲν οἰκέτας πάντας ἐν τῇ Μέμφιδι καταλιπεῖν, αὐτὸν δὲ μόνον ἀκολουθεῖν μετ’Module 29 | δείκνυμι and φημί443αὐτοῦ· μὴ γὰρ ἀπορήσειν ἡμᾶς ὅτι οἱ πολλοὶ ἡμῖν διακονήσονται. καὶ τὸ μετὰτοῦτο οὕτω διήγομεν. ἐπεὶ ἤλθομεν εἴς τι καταγώγιον, ἔλαβεν ὁ ἀνὴρ ἢ τὸνμοχλὸν τῆς θύρας ἢ τὸ κόρηθρον ἢ καὶ τὸ ὕπερον καὶ τοῦτο περέβαλεν ἱματίοις.
ἔπειτα ἐπιλέγει τινα ἐπῳδὴν καὶ τοῦτο ἐποίει βαδίζειν. δοκέει τοῖς ἄλλοις ἅπασινἄνθρωπος εἶναι. τὸ δὲ ἀπέρχεται ὕδωρ τε ἐμπίπλησι καὶ ἐσκεύαζε καὶ πάνταδεξιῶς ὑπηρέτεε καὶ διηκονέετο ἡμῖν. καὶ εἶτα ἐπεὶ ἅλις ἔχει τῆς διακονίας, ὁ δὲΠαγκράτης ἄλλην ἐπῳδὴν ἐπιλέγων αὖθις κόρηθρον τὸ κόρηθρον ἢ ὕπερον τὸὕπερον ἐποίεε. τοῦτο ἐγὼ πάνυ ἐσπούδαζον ἐκμανθάνειν παρ’ αὐτοῦ ἀλλὰ οὐκεἶχον. ἐβάσκαινε γάρ, καίτοι πρὸς τὰ ἄλλα προχειρότατος ὤν. μιᾷ δέ ποτε ἡμέρᾳλαθών—ἐν σκοτεινῷ ὑφίστημι—ἐπήκουσα τῆς ἐπῳδῆς· ἦν δὲ τρισύλλαβος
σχεδόν. καὶ ὁ μὲν ἐντέλλει τῷ ὑπέρῳ ταῦτα ἃ δεῖ ποιεῖν καὶ ᾤχετο εἰς τὴν ἀγοράν.
Adverbs and Verbs
ἀκολουθέω follow, accompany + dat.

ἐπακούω listen, hear, overhearἅλις sufficiently, enoughἐπιλέγω say, utter, pronounce; pickout, choose; (mid.) think over, consider;readἀπέρχομαι, ἀπελεύσομαι, ἀπῆλθον *ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι, ἦλθον come,depart, leavegoἀπορέω, ἀπορήσομεν, ἠπόρησα be *ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον have,
without means or resources; be at a hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to beloss, be in doubt; lack + gen.
wellαὖθις again, in turn, hereafter, in the καίτοι and indeed, and yet; though
futureβαδίζω, βαδιέω or βαδίσω, ἐβάδισα, καταλείπω, -λείψω, -έλιπον leave
walk, gobehindβασκαίνω slander, malign, bewitch; κοινόω, κοινώσω, ἐκοίνωσαenvy, grudge, keep to oneself
communicate, impart; make common,share; (mid.) be partner, be sharer, bepartaker + gen.
*γίγνομαι, γενήσομαι, ἐγενόμην be, *λαμβάνω, λήψομαι, ἔλαβον take,be born
receive; capture*δεῖ, δεήσει it is necessary + dat. or οἴχομαι, οἰχήσομαι, ------ go, be gone,acc. + inf.
have goneδιάγω carry over; (intrans.) cross *πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα persuade,over; pass, spend; (intrans.) live
persuade ‘x’ in acc. + inf.; (mid. or
pass.) listen to, obey + dat. or gen.

444Ancient Greek Iδιακονέω, διακονήσω minister,serve, do service + dat.

περιβάλλω throw around*δοκέω, δόξω, ἔδοξα seem, think; *ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα do, make,seem best, think best + inf.
cause; (mid.) consider*εἰμί, ἔσομαι be, be possibleσκευάζω,σκευάσω,prepare, make readyἐσκεύασαεἶτα then, next, accordinglyσπουδάζω, σπουδάσω be serious, beearnest; be eager + inf.

ἐκμανθάνω learn, know, examineσχεδόν near, roughly speaking, about,almostἐμπίμπλημι fill, fill up; fill ‘x’ (a person ὑπηρετέω, ὑπηρετήσω serve as aor thing) in acc. with ‘y’ a thing in gen. rower; minister to, serve + dat.
ἐντέλλω order, enjoin, commandὑφίστημι place under; put secretly inambush; lie concealed

Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns
ἀγορά, ἀγορᾶς ἡ: agora, marketplace Μέμφις, Μέμφιδος ἡ Memphis,an Egyptian city on the Nile riversouth of Cairo, the capital of Egypt c.
2700–2200*ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο another, other*μικρός, μικρά, μικρόν small, little,
short*ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ man, husbandμοχλός, μοχλοῦ ὁ bar, lever, crowbar*ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ human, οἰκέτης, οἰκέτου ὁ household slave
personἀπόρρητος, ἀπόρρητον forbidden,
secretΠαγκράτης, Παγκράτου ὁ Pankratesδιακονία, διακονίας ἡ serviceπροχειρότατος, προχειροτάτη,προχειρότατον most at hand, readyἐπιλέγων, ἐπιλέγοντος ὁ speakingσκοτεινός, σκοτεινή, σκοτεινόνdarkἐπῳδή, ἐπῳδῆς ἡ enchantment, spell, συνήθης, συνήθες living together;charmwell-acquainted, intimate; accustomed,
customaryModule 29 | δείκνυμι and φημίἑταῖρος, ἑταίρου ὁ comrade,
companion*τέλος, τέλους (-εος) τό: end,
boundary; power; office; (acc.) finallyἡμέρα, ἡμέρας ἡ dayτρισύλλαβος, τρισύλλαβονtrisyllabicθύρα, θύρας ἡ doorὕδωρ, ὕδατος τό water445ἱμάτιον, ἱματίου τό cloak; piece of ὕπερον, ὑπέρου τό pestle
dress or cloth; (pl.) clothesκαταγώγιον, καταγωγίου τό lodging, φιλοφρονεόμενος,
inn, resting-placeφιλοφρονεομένου ὁ treating or
dealing with kindly + dat.
κόρηθρον, κορήθρου τό besom,broomὤν, ὄντος ὁ being

λαθών, λαθόντος ὁ secretly, by stealth
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentences foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give their case and function. For verbs, give theirperson, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify
them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s
object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, andcase.
ἓν δὲ βέλτιστον, ὃς κακὰ ἐμὲ ἐποίησε, τοῦτον δέννοις ἀντιδοῦναι κακοῖς.
ἔπειτα ἐπιλέγει τινα ἐπῳδὴν καὶ τοῦτο ἐποίεε βαδίζειν.
Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
Eukleides (Euclid) of Alexandria (Εὐκλείδης c. 300 BCE). Born in Alexandria,
Eukleides developed a conceptual system of geometry from a small set of axioms.
His book, Elements, has been used to teach geometry up until 150 or so years ago.
In Elements, Euclid discusses number theory, the connection between perfectnumbers and Mersenne primes, the infinity of prime numbers, the uniquenessof prime factorization, and an algorithm for finding a common divisor of two
numbers. Until recently Euclid’s geometry was the only geometry possible. As of
the 19th century, mathematicans have discovered other geometries collectively
referred to as non-Euclidean. Euclid and the non-Euclidean geometrical systems
that followed are examples of discontinuities that created ways of knowing thatwere novel.

446

Ancient Greek I

Herms and Phalloi

Fig. 4 Herm of Hermes from Pergamon. Copy of a herm attributed to the sculptor Alkamenes.
Photograph by Kharmacher, 2020, Wikimedia, CC BY-SA, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:20.12_Herme_Alkamenes.png

Fig. 5 A Roman gold phallic pendant, found in Essex. Photographed by Laura Pooley, Colchester
Museums, 2006. The Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS) is a voluntary programme run by the United
Kingdom government to record the increasing numbers of small finds of archaeological interest
found by members of the public. The scheme started in 1997 and now covers most of Englandand Wales. Finds are published at https://finds.org.uk. Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_Roman_gold_phallic_pendant_(FindID_144640-334389).jpg

Considered apotropaic (having the ability to ward off evil), the phallus appears
on herms and as a pendant attached to chains and worn around the neck ofchildren.
Module 29 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The

Module 29 | δείκνυμι and φημί

447

better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words
the greater mastery of the language you will have.
Adjectivesἑκάτερος, ἑκατέρᾱ, ἑκάτερον eachκοινός, κοινή, κοινόν shared, common; ἐκ τοῦ κοινοῦ shared in common; (n.)τὸ κοινόν the stateοἷος, οἵᾱ, οἷον such, such a kind; οἷός τέ εἰμι I am able, I am of such a kind to +inf.; οἷον or οἷα how, like, as, becauseὅλος, ὅλη, ὅλον whole, entire
Verbsκρατέω, κρατήσω, ἐκράτησα, ------, ------, ἐκρατήθην be strong, powerful, rule+ gen.
μανθάνω, μαθήσομαι, ἔμαθον, μεμάθηκα, ------, ------ learn; learn to, learn how
to + inf.; understandὁμολογέω, ὁμολογήσω, ὡμολόγησα, ὡμολόγηκα, ὡμολόγημαι, ὡμολογήθην
speak together; agree; admit

Etymology Corner XXIX by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 25, Parts of Speech
Adjectives, cont. In Module 27, we meet the three degrees of adjectives andadverbs. We’ve already met the root of degree in progressive and grade, gradior/gress- means step. There are three steps we have with our adjectives.
•

Positive degree is the plain, average meaning of the adjective, the one thatis placed in the dictionary (from our frequently recurring root, ponere/
positus, put or placed).

•

When you make a comparison, you are judging two things next to each otherto tell which one is bigger, or smarter, or faster. The Latin means along withan equal from com, along with, and par, equal.
–•

The degree of difference is the size of the step/distance between
two items (dis-/dif-, away from, like in distract (to drag someone’s
attention away from something) and ferre which we’ve alreadymet as carry).

If you had Senior Superlatives in high school, they were used to mark the448Ancient Greek I

people most likely to succeed, or with the best smile, or the cutest couple.
In my yearbook I was “most likely to write an etymology corner for a Greek
textbook”. (At least that’s what it says now that I’ve spent a little time with alabel printer.) These people have been carried above all the rest. Super, like
where Superman flies, means above, and latus is the past participle of ferre
which we met in Comparatives. An adjective or adverb in the superlative
degree is the ultimate degree, the highest, best, sweetest, or most honorable,
the one that is beyond all the rest.
•

Adjectives can be in attributive and predicate position, one of the ways
paying close attention to word order is vital for correctly discerning meaning.
When something is in attributive position it is an attribute, that is, a quality
or characteristic. This comes from the Latin ad + tribuere, to grant or gift
to someone, easily seen in the English tribute, a gift given out of respect
or esteem. Words in the attributive position are granted to the noun they
modify like gifts. Words in the predicate position, on the other hand, aretalking about their noun. We met the etymons prae, before, and dicare, toassert or talk about earlier in the textbook. The distinction seems small, but
the precision of Greek allows it to say much with these subtle distinctions.

What to Study and Do 29. Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you
have memorized the endings for μι-verbs and that you understand how to translate
and identify each form.
Learning Tip 29: Creation and Destruction. Albert Low argues that the need to create
is a fundamental life force of the universe. Ordinary people with ordinary jobs havejust as much a need to create as does the expert musician, painter, poet, or scientist.
We cannot repress our drive to create. It must be expressed constructively throughallowing our imagination to realize its potential. Low argues that if our need to create
is repressed, it will be expressed destructively against others or one’s self. Denying
the potential that resides in oneself has far-reaching consequences. Accepting it takes
courage and involves work.

Guest Feature 5

Diane Rayor on Translating Sappho
and Euripides

Diane Rayor, Professor Emerita of Classics at Grand Valley Statue University,
discusses literary translation.
For the purposes of a Greek textbook, “translate” means“demonstrate your ability to read Greek.” You do this by renderinga Greek passage into accurate English that makes sense.
If your goal is to craft a literary translation, however, accuracy isjust the starting point. You must follow accuracy with introspection
because every translation has a skopos—a goal or purpose. Whatdo you want the translation to do? Who are your expected readers
or audience? How can you best put into English the ideas andemotions, the rhythms and imagery of the original text? One cannot
simply place tracing paper over the Greek and draw up an English
copy. How do you make the best choices?
As a junior in college, I first tried literary translation when a Greek
professor asked me to translate a Sappho poem (fragment 2) because
she didn’t like those available in English. My original skopos was
simple—please my professor with a translation both accurate andpoetic (something that sounded good in English and looked like apoem). The experience, however, turned out to be transformative
for me, “like wind crashing on mountain oaks” (Sappho fr. 47.2)
followed by the piercing radiance of the Colorado sun.
The request to translate one poem led to research on Sappho, hertime and place (late 7th century Lesbos), and the performance ofarchaic lyric poetry. Sappho’s songs survive as fragments pieced
together from papyrus, parchment, a potsherd, and later authors’© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.36

450

Ancient Greek I

quotations. Therefore, translating from the most up-to-date,authoritative text possible is essential.
The fragmentary state of Sappho’s songs also demonstrates that it
is impossible for a translation to recreate the original. My goal is
to draw the reader closer to Sappho, conveying the pleasures of
her Greek to a non Greek-reading audience. My driving theory isthat the experience of reading a translation should be as close as
possible to that of reading the text in its original language.
The final version should sound good when read aloud as well as
maintain meaning and imagery, neither adding to nor subtractingfrom the original. So many choices and challenges! Some strategies
include reading the Greek aloud and noting techniques to emulate,such as tempo, repetition, rhyme, alliteration, or stanza form. When
you translate, read your drafts aloud, too. As an example, read aloud
Sappho fr. 140 in Greek and English. See if you can hear, feel, andsee the sound, the beat:κατθνάσκει, Κυθέρη’, ἄβρος Ἄδωνις· τί κε θεῖμεν;καττύπτεσθε, κόραι, καὶ κατερείκεσθε χίτωνας.
Girls:
Delicate Adonis is dying, Aphrodite—what should we do?
Aphrodite:
Beat your breasts, daughters, and rend your dresses.1
Translations are inherently interpretations; the translator’s reading
becomes the new poem:γλύκηα μᾶτερ, οὔτοι δύναμαι κρέκην τὸν ἴστονπόθῳ δάμεισα παῖδος βραδίναν δι’ Ἀφροδίταν.
Sweet mother, I cannot weave—slender Aphrodite
has overcome me with longing for a girl.
Sappho fr. 102
At the time this was published (2014), all other translations rendered
the neuter παῖδος as “boy” rather than any of the other possibilities(girl, child, daughter, son, slave). For this particular fragment, “girl”
fits best with Sappho’s homoerotic work, rather than with her

1	Diane J. Rayor, 2014. Sappho: A New Translation of the Complete Works (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press) p. 44.

Guest Feature 5 | δείκνυμι and φημί451

marriage or family songs.2 This is only one quick example of why
you need to read Greek. Don’t trust translators!
Translating Greek tragedy calls for additional strategies. For
performance, the language must be clear and work in speech. Can
the actors say these lines and the audience understand them—in
a single hearing and at the tempo at which they should be spoken
or sung? By revising a draft in collaboration with actors and theirdirector during rehearsals, I fine-tune the translation into an actable
script. When actors stumble on lines, I adjust and revise until theyno longer do. In Euripides’ Hecuba, the actor had difficulty saying,“Those in power must not rule wrongly” (282). Try saying this aloud!
In returning to the Greek, which repeats κράτος, I changed it to themore precise (and powerful), “Those in power should not abuse thatpower.” We all need help—attentive listening and collaboration are
critical.
The first time hearing my draft scripts aloud always brings laughs
and surprises. In the first rehearsal of Euripides’ Helen, Menelaos
asks for “a bier, empty of a body, bearing covers.” Everyone heard
Menelaos ask for a “beer” not a “bier”! Definitely neither thetranslator’s nor Euripides’ intended meaning. Now the line reads:“an open coffin, filled with robes, no body.”
Plays provide many unique challenges. While my books include
introductions and notes, performance needs to work without thoseguides. With cultural concepts that are tricky to convey succinctly,
such as xenia (guest-host relationship) and supplication, I try toslip in extra guidance. In Euripides’ Medea, the title character
supplicates Kreon: “μή, πρός σε γονάτων τῆς τε νεογάμου κόρης.”My translation adds the italicized words for clarity: “No, I beg you
by your knees, by your newlywed daughter!” (324).3
Translation is an act of χάρις—gratitude and reciprocity that grants
the original new life. Τhe Greek is a gift to us, and our English
translation a gift to new readers in gratitude to the original, bringing
each closer to the other.
To watch a video of Diane Rayor reading and commenting on her translationsof Sappho, follow this link:2	https://sweetbitterpodcast.com/listen/3	Diane J. Rayor 2013. Euripides’ Medea: A New Translation (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press).

452

Ancient Greek I
Diane Rayor.4

For the Greek text of Sappho 31 and Diane Rayor’s translation, see Appendix
XIII.
To watch a video on performing Diane Rayor’s translation of Euripides’
Helen, follow this link:
Performing Euripides’ Helen.5

4	
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jGN_4VhBLrw.
5	
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AGwU0X34cQk.

Module 30ἵημι and ἵστημι

The Verb
In Greek and in English verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs
are words that represent actions (throw) and states of being (be or exist). They
differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English
counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English doesnot. The Greek verb (ῥῆμα) in its finite form has an ending that indicates what
person and number the subject is. The Greek infinitive has an ending thatindicates that it is unmarked for person and number.

The μι-Verbs ἵημι and ἵστημι
Though not as numerous as ω-verbs, μι-verbs occur frequently. μι-verbs
conjugate differently from ω-verbs in some tenses, typically the present,
imperfect, aorist, and sometimes the perfect. In conjugating these verb forms,
learn which stem to combine with which ending. The stem is the base of theword to which the ending is joined. Once you have the correct stem and ending,combine them to create the correct form. You may memorize the stems andendings or you may learn how to combine stems and endings so that you canrecognize the forms as you encounter them.

Present, Imperfect, and Aorist Tense Stems
Present and Imperfect Tense Stems
Use the long vowel grade stem for the singular and the short vowel grade for theplural. Note that the stems differ even within the same tense, mood, and voice.
long vowel grade stem

short vowel grade stem

(use for the singular)(use for the plural)ἱη- or ἱει-

ἱε-

ἱστη-

ἱστα-

© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.37

454

Ancient Greek I

Mixed Aorist Tense Stems
long vowel grade

short vowel grade(use for the singular)(use for the plural)ἡκ-ἑ- (εἱ-)Root Aorist Tense Stemlong vowel grade

long vowel grade(use for the singular)(use for the plural)

στη-

στη-

Present, Imperfect, and Aorist Tense Endings
Add to the correct tense stem.
Primary Active

Secondary Active(use for the present)(use for the imperfect and aorist)

S

Pl

S

PL

1st

-μι

-μεν

1st

-ν

-μεν

2nd

-ς

-τε

2nd

-ς

-τε

3rd

-σι (ν)-ᾱσι (ν)

3rd

---

-σαν

Present Infinitive Active

Aorist Infinitive Active

-ναι

-ναι

Primary Middle and Passive

Secondary Middle and Passive(use for the present)(use for the imperfect and aorist)

S

Pl

st

-μαι

2nd
3rd

1

S

Pl

-μεθα

1

st

-μην

-μεθα

-σαι

-σθε

2nd

-σο

-σθε

-ται

-νται

3rd

-το

-ντο

Module 30 | ἵημι and ἵστημι

Present Infinitive Middle andPassive455

Aorist Infinitive Middle
-σθαι

-σθαι

The Conjugation of ἵημι
The principal parts are these:ἵημι ἥσω -ἧκα* -εἷκα -εἷμαι -εἷθην
1. Note that one asterisk* indicates a mixed aorist.
2. The dashes on principal parts three through six indicate that in thewild the forms are found with prefixes.
Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stemwith the correct endings.

Present Indicative Active of ἵημι
Singular: long vowel grade, ἱη- or ἱει- + primary active endings. Plural: shortvowel grade, ἱε-, + primary active endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberἵημι

I hurl

1st person singularἵης, ἱεῖς

you hurl

2nd person singularἵησι (ν)

he, she, it hurls

3rd person singularἵεμεν

we hurl

1st person pluralἵετεyou hurl

2nd person pluralἱέᾱσι (ν), ἱᾶσι (ν)

they hurl

3rd person plural

1. In the third person plural, ἱᾶσι (ν), epsilon ε, and alpha α, contract.

Present Infinitive Active of ἵημι
Short vowel grade of the stem, ἱε-, + -ναι.
ἱέναιto hurl

unmarked456

Ancient Greek I

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the
penult. Thus, its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι
count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, amood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Present Indicative Middle of ἵημι
Short vowel grade of the stem, ἱε-, + primary middle and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberἵεμαι

I hasten

1st person singularἵεσαιyou hasten

2nd person singularἵεταιhe, she, it hastens

3rd person singularἱέμεθαwe hasten

1st person pluralἵεσθεyou hasten

2nd person pluralἵενται

they hasten

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Middle of ἵημι
Short vowel grade of the stem, ἱε-, + -σθαι.
ἵεσθαι

to hastenunmarked for person & #1. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes ofaccentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the
21st-Century series.

Present Indicative Passive of ἵημι
Short vowel grade of the stem, ἱε-, + primary middle and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberἵεμαι

I am hurled

1st person singularἵεσαι

you are hurled

2nd person singularἵεταιhe, she, it is hurled

3rd person singularἱέμεθαwe are hurled

1st person pluralἵεσθε

you are hurled

2nd person pluralἵενται

they are hurled

3rd person plural

Module 30 | ἵημι and ἵστημι457

Present Infinitive Passive of ἵημι
Short vowel grade of the stem, ἱε-, + -σθαι.
ἵεσθαι

to be hurled

unmarked for person & #1. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes ofaccentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the
21st-Century series.

Imperfect Indicative Active of ἵημι
Singular: long vowel grade, ἱη- or ἱει- + past indicative augment + secondary
active endings. Plural: short vowel grade, ἱε-, + past indicative augment +secondary active endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἵην (ῑ)I was hurling, used to hurl

1st singularἵεις

you were hurling, used to hurl

2nd singularἵειhe, she, it was hurling, used to

3rd singular

hurl

ἵεμεν

we were were hurling, used to

1st plural

hurl
ἵετε

you were hurling, used to hurl

2nd pluralἵεσανthey were hurling, used to hurl

3rd plural

Imperfect Indicative Middle of ἵημι
Short vowel grade stem, ἱε-, + past indicative augment + secondary middle andpassive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἱέμην (ῑ)

I was hastening, used to

1st singularhastenἵεσο

you were hastening, used

2nd singular

to hastenἵετοhe, she, it was hastening,used to hasten

3rd singular458

Ancient Greek I

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἱέμεθαwe were hastening, used

1st pluralto hastenἵεσθεyou were hastening, used

2nd pluralto hastenἵεντο

they were hastening, used

3rd pluralto hastenImperfect Indicative Passive of ἵημι
Short vowel grade stem, ἱε-, + past indicative augment + secondary middle andpassive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἱέμην (ῑ)

I was being hurled, used to be

1st singularhurledἵεσο

you were being hurled, used to be

2nd singularhurledἵετοhe, she, it was being hurled, used

3rd singular

to be hurledἱέμεθαwe were being hurled, used to be

1st plural

hurledἵεσθεyou were being hurled, used to be

2nd plural

hurledἵεντοthey were being hurled, used to

3rd plural

be hurled

Aorist Indicative Active of ἵημι
Singular: ω-verb augmented stem, ἡκ-, + first aorist endings. Plural: short vowel
grade stem, ἑ-, + past indicative augment, εἱ-, and secondary active endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number-ἧκαI hurled

1st singular-ἧκας

you hurled

2nd singular-ἧκε (ν)

he, she, it hurled

3rd singularModule 30 | ἵημι and ἵστημι

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number-εἷμεν

we hurled

1st plural-εἷτε

you hurled

2nd plural-εἷσαν

they hurled

3rd plural

459

Aorist Infinitive Active of ἵημιLong vowel grade, εἱ-, + -ναι.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number-εἷναι

to hurl

unmarked

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the
penult. Thus, its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι
count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, amood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.
2. Contrast εἷναι to hurl with εἶναι to be, noting that they differ only inbreathing.

Aorist Indicative Middle of ἵημι
Short vowel grade, ἑ-, + past indicative augment, εἱ-, and secondary middle
endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number-εἵμην

I hastened

1st singular-εἷσοyou hastened

2nd singular-εἷτοhe, she, it hastened

3rd singular-εἵμεθαwe hastened

1st plural-εἷσθεyou hastened

2nd plural-εἷντο

they hastened

3rd plural

Aorist Infinitive Middle of ἵημι
Short vowel grade, ἑ-, + -σθαι.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number-ἕσθαι

to hastenunmarked

460

Ancient Greek I

Aorist Indicative Passive of ἵημι
ω-verb augmented consonant stem, -εἱθ-, + ω-verb passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #-εἵθην

I was hurled

1st singular-εἵθης

you were hurled

2nd singular-εἵθηhe, she, it was hurled

3rd singular-εἵθημεν

we were hurled

1st plural-εἵθητεyou were hurled

2nd plural-εἵθησαν

they were hurled

3rd plural

Aorist Infinitive Passive of ἵημι
ω-verb unaugmented consonant stem, -ἑθ-, + -ηναι.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number-ἑθῆναιto be hurled

unmarked

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the
penult. Thus, its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι
count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, amood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

The Conjugation of ἵστημι
The principal parts are these:ἵστημι, στήσω, ἔστησα** and ἔστην***, ἕστηκα, ἕσταμαι, ἐστάθην

1. Note that two asterisks** indicate a first aorist and three*** indicate aroot aorist.

Present Indicative Active of ἵστημιSingular: long vowel grade, ἱστη-, + primary active endings. Plural: short vowel
grade, ἱστα-, + primary active endings.

Module 30 | ἵημι and ἵστημι

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number

ἵστημι

I make stand

1st person singularἵστης

you make stand2nd person singularἵστησι (ν)

he, she, it makes stand

3rd person singularἵσταμενwe make stand

1st person pluralἵστατεyou make stand2nd person pluralἱστάᾱσι (ν),

they make stand

3rd person plural

ἱστᾶσι (ν)

1. In the third person plural ἱστᾶσι (ν), the alphas, α + α, have contracted.

Present Infinitive Active of ἵστημι
Short vowel grade of the stem, ἱστα-, + -ναι.
ἱστάναιto make standunmarked

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the
penult. Thus, its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι
count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, amood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Present Indicative Middle of ἵστημι
Short vowel grade of the stem, ἱστα-, + primary middle and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number

ἵσταμαιI stand

1st person singularἵστασαι

you stand2nd person singularἵσταταιhe, she, it stands

3rd person singularἱστάμεθαwe stand1st person plural

ἵστασθεyou stand2nd person pluralἵστανταιthey stand

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Middle of ἵστημι
Short vowel grade of the stem, ἱστα- + -σθαι.

461

462

Ancient Greek I

ἵστασθαιto stand

unmarked for person & #1. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes ofaccentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the
21st-Century series.

Present Indicative Passive of ἵστημι
Short vowel grade of the stem, ἵστα-, + primary middle and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Number

ἵσταμαιI am made to stand

1st person singularἵστασαιyou are made to stand2nd person singularἵσταταιhe, she, it is made to stand

3rd person singularἱστάμεθαwe are made to stand

1st person plural

ἵστασθεyou are made to stand2nd person pluralἵστανταιthey are made to stand

3rd person plural

Present Infinitive Passive of ἵστημι
Short vowel grade of the stem, ἱστα-, + -σθαι.
ἵστασθαι

to be made to standunmarked for person & #1. Remember that final -αι and -οι count as short for purposes ofaccentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the
21st-Century series.

Imperfect Indicative Active of ἵστημιSingular: long vowel grade, ἱστη-, + past indicative augment and secondary
active endings. Plural: short vowel grade, ἱστα-, + past indicative augment andsecondary active endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἵστην (ῑ)

I was making to stand, used to

1st singularmake to standἵστης

you were making to stand, used

2nd singular

to make to standἵστηhe, she, it was making to stand,used to make to stand3rd singularModule 30 | ἵημι and ἵστημι463

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἵσταμενwe were making to stand, used to

1st plural

make to standἵστατεyou were making to stand, used

2nd plural

to make to standἵστασανthey were making to stand, used

3rd plural

to make to standImperfect Indicative Middle of ἵστημι
Short vowel grade stem, ἵστα-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle
and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἱστάμην (ῑ)

I was standing, used to stand

1st singularἵστασο

you were standing, used to stand2nd singularἵστατο

he, she, it was standing, used to

3rd singularstand

ἱστάμεθαwe were standing, used to stand

1st plural

ἵστασθεyou were standing, used to stand2nd pluralἵσταντο

they were standing, used to stand

3rd plural

Imperfect Indicative Passive of ἵστημι
Short vowel grade stem, ἵστα-, + past indicative augment and secondary middle
and passive endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἱστάμην (ῑ)

I was being made to stand, used

1st singular

to be made to standἵστασο

you were being made to stand,2nd singularused to be made to standἵστατο

he, she, it was being made tostand, used to be made to stand3rd singular464

Ancient Greek I

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and #ἱστάμεθαwe were being made to stand,

1st plural

used to be made to standἵστασθεyou were being made to stand,2nd plural

used to be made to standἵσταντο

they were being made to stand,3rd plural

used to be made to standAorist Indicative Active of ἵστημι
Short vowel grade stem, στη-, + past indicative augment and secondary active
endings.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and NumberἔστηνI stood

1st singularἔστης

you stood

2nd singularἔστηhe, she, it stood

3rd singularἔστημενwe stood

1st pluralἔστητεyou stood

2nd plural

ἔστησανthey stood

3rd plural

Aorist Infinitive Active of ἵστημιLong vowel grade, στη-, + -ναι.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberστῆναι

to stand

unmarked

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the
penult. Thus, its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι
count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, amood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.

Aorist Indicative Passive of ἵστημιω-verb augmented consonant stem, ἐσταθ-, + ω-verb passive endings.

Module 30 | ἵημι and ἵστημι

Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and NumberἐστάθηνI was made to stand

1st singularἐστάθης

you were made to stand2nd singularἐστάθη

he, she, it was made to

3rd singular

465

stand

ἐστάθημεν

we were made to stand

1st pluralἐστάθητεyou were made to stand2nd pluralἐστάθησαν

they were made to stand

3rd plural

Aorist Infinitive Passive of ἵστημιω-verb unaugmented consonant stem, σταθ-, + -ηναι.
Verb Form

English Equivalent

Person and Numberσταθῆναι

to be made to standunmarked

1. Note that infinitives with the ending -ναι are ALWAYS accented on the
penult. Thus, its accent is persistent. Remember that final -αι and -οι
count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, amood learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series.
Practice Translating Intransitive and Transitive Uses of ἵστημι. Rememberthat transitive verbs take an accusative direct object and intransitive verbs do nottake a direct object. A common intransitive verb in Greek is ἔρχομαι. Translate
the below sentences, adapted from a variety of ancient Greek writers. To cometo an accurate understanding of the sentences, use your knowledge of endings
and their functions. If you forget an ending or function, remember to use theCase and Function Chart in Appendix I and the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, andPronoun Chart in Appendix VIII to assist you. After you finish translating thesesentences, check your understanding with the answers in the Answer Key. Afteryou have read though all of the sentences, read them again at least two moretimes. In each subsequent reading your understanding improves.
1. Ἀλκμήνης τόκος ἔστη σιωπῇ (Euripides, Herakles).
2. τροπαῖον ἔστησαν ἐν τῇ ἠπείρῳ (Thoukydides).
3. ἔστη ʼπὶ βωμοῦ γοργὸς ὁπλίτης ἰδεῖν (Euripides, Andromakhe).
4. ἔστη φαεννοῖς δεσπότης στίλβων ὅπλοις (Euripides, Andromakhe).
5. ἔστησαν ἀνδριάντα πρὸ τῶν πυλῶν (Demosthenes).
6. χαλκῆν εἰκόνα ἔστησαν (Demosthenes).

466

Ancient Greek I

7. παρελθὼν πρέσβυς ἐς μέσον πέδον ἔστη (Euripides, Ion).
8. τὴν στήλην ἔστησαν εἰς τὸ βουλευτήριον (Lykourgos).
9. τὸ μὲν ἥμισυ τῶν νεῶν ἔστησαν ἐν μέσῃ τῇ θαλάσσῃ (Appian).
10. πᾶς στρατός τʼ ἔστη βλέπων (Euripides, Iphigeneia in Aulis).
VocabularyἈλκμήνη, Ἀλκμήνης
mother of Herakles

ἡ

Alkmene, ὁράω, ὄψομαι, εἶδον seeἀνδριάς, ἀνδριάντος ὁ statueβλέπων,watching

βλέποντοςὁπαρελθών, παρελθόντος ὁ entering

looking, πέδον, πέδου τό ground, earthβουλευτήριον, βουλευτηρίου τόsenate-houseπρέσβῠς, -εος (-εως) ὁ old man, elder,ambassadorβωμός, βωμοῦ ὁ altarπύλη, πύλης ἡ gatesγοργός, γοργή, γοργόν grim, fierce, σῐωπή, σῐωπῆς ἡ silence
terribleδεσπότης, δεσπότου ὁ master, lordστήλη, στήλης ἡ block, stone, slab,
monumentεἰκών, εἰκόνος ἡ likeness, image, στίλβων, στίλβοντος ὁ glistening,
portrait, statue
glittering, gleamingἥμῐσυς, ἡμίσεια, ἥμισυ halfστρατός, στρατοῦ ὁ army, hostἤπειρος, ἠπείρου ἡ landτόκος, τόκου ὁ childbirth; offspring*θάλασσα (θάλαττα), θαλάσσης ἡ τροπαῖον, τροπαίου τό trophy,
sea
victory monument*μέσος, μέση, μέσον middle, middle φαεννός, -ή, -όν shining, beaming,of + gen.; ἐς μέσον in common, radiantaltogether*νηῦς (ναῦς), νεός (νεώς) ἡ ship

χαλκῆ, χαλκῆς ἡ (sc. εἰκών) bronze
statueὅπλον, ὅπλου τό weapon
Practice Translating μι-verbs. Translate the below sentences and narrative,
adapted from a variety of ancient Greek writers. To come to an accurate
understanding of the sentences, use your knowledge of endings and of theirfunctions. If you forget an ending or function, remember to use the Case andFunction Chart in Appendix I and the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun

Module 30 | ἵημι and ἵστημι467

Chart in Appendix VIII to assist you. After you finish translating the sentences,check your understanding with the answers in the Answer Key. After you haveread though all of the sentences and all of the narrative, read them again at least
two more times. In each subsequent reading your understanding improves.
1. ἀλλὰ θεοὶ γὰρ κακοῖς, ὦ φίλ᾽, ἐπὶ κρατερὴν τλημοσύνην ἔθεσαν
φάρμακον· ἄλλοτε τ’ ἄλλος ἔχει τάδε (Arkhilokhos).
2. πάντα Τύχη καὶ Μοῖρα ἀνδρὶ διδόασιν ἀλλὰ καὶ δῆλον πάντα τεύχεινπόνον θνητοῖς μελέτην τε βροτείαν (Arkhilokhos).
3. oὔ μοι τὰ Γύγου τοῦ πολυχρύσου μέλει, μεγάλης δ᾽ οὐκ ἐράω τυραννίδος·ταῦτα ἀπόπροθεν γάρ ἐστι ὀφθαλμῶν ἐμῶν. δεῖ ἐμοὶ οἶνον παλαιὸν καὶλόγον καλὸν καὶ σῖτον καὶ ἑταίραν ἔχειν (Arkhilokhos).
4. ἓν δὲ βέλτιστον, ὃς κακὰ ἐμὲ ἐποίησε, τοῦτον δέννοις ἀντιδοῦναικακοῖς (Arkhilokhos).
5. τῶν θεῶν Ζεὺς μάντις ἀψευδέστατος καὶ τέλος τῶν πάντων αὐτὸς ἔχεικαὶ πάντα θνητοῖς καὶ καλὰ καὶ κακὰ δίδωσιν.
6. βέλτιστα μηκέτ᾽ εἶναι νὴ Δία μήτε Πελοποννησίους μήτε Βοιωτίους
πάντας πλὴν τῶν ἐγχέλεων (Aristophanes).
7. οὐ γὰρ τούτοις ἡδονὴ οἳ προτιθέασι βίαν ἀντὶ μήτιδος.
8. πολὺ κάλλιον τοὺς μὲν νόμους τοὺς ἄδικούς τε καὶ παλαιοὺς λῦσαι,ἑτέρους δὲ θεῖναι, οἵ τοὺς τῆς πόλεως φυλάξουσιν (Lysias).
9. οἳ καλῶς ἔχουσι τῇ πολιτείᾳ, τούτους μὲν τοὺς νόμους δεῖ θεῖναι, τοὺςδὲ οἳ αὐτῶν ὀλιγωροῦσι κολάζειν.
10. ἀγαθὸν ἱστάναι πρὸς ἀργύριον φιλίαν καὶ προτιθέναι τοὺς φίλους ἀντὶτῶν χρημάτων.
Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Verbs
ἄλλοτε at another timeμέλω, μελήσω, ἐμέλησα be an objectof care to + dat. πᾶσι μέλω I am a care
to all; care for, attend to + gen.

ἀντιδίδωμι give in return, payμηκέτι no more, no longer, no furtherἀπόπροθεν from afarνή by + acc.

*δεῖ it is necessary + ‘x’ in gen. or dat. ὀλιγωρέω esteem little, make smallor acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary account of, belittle, despise + gen.
to come468

Ancient Greek I*δίδωμι, δώσω, ἔδωκα give; allow πλήν except, save + gen.; (adv.) and yet‘x’ in dat. or acc. + inf., ἐμὲ (έμοί)εὐτυχέειν δίδως you allow me toprosperἐράω love; long for, desire + gen.

*ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα do, make,cause; (mid.) consider*ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον have, προτίθημι place before; set before;
hold; be able + inf.; καλῶς ἔχειν to be display; offerwell*ἵστημι, στήσω, ἔστησα or ἔστην ῥάπτω stitch, sew
stand, make stand, placeκαλῶς wellτεύχω, τεύξω, ἔτευξα make ready,make, produce; cause, bring to passκολάζω, κολάσω, ἐκόλασα punish, *τίθημι, θήσω, ἔθηκα put, place;check, correct; dock, prune
make, causeλύω (ῡ), λύσω, ἔλῡσα loose, free, φυλάττω, φυλάξω, ἐφύλαξα keep
destroy; (mid.) ransom
watch and ward, keep guard; watchfully
await; φυλάττειν μὴ ποιεῖν to takecare not to do, to guard against doing;φυλάττειν τοῦτο μὴ γενέσθαι toguard that this not happen
Adjectives and Nouns*ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν good, noble*λόγος, λόγου ὁ word, speech, story;reason, accountἀδικός, ἀδικόν unjustμάντις, μάντεως ὁ seer, prophet*ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο another, otherμελέτη, μελέτης ἡ care, practice*ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ man, husband

μῆτις, μήτιος ἡ wisdom, cunningἀργύριον, ἀργυρίου τό silverμοῖρα, μοίρας ἡ lot; portion; fateἀψευδέστατος, ἀψευδεστάτη,ἀψευδέστατον most unfalse*νόμος, νόμου ὁ law, customβέλτιστος, βελτίστη, βέλτιστον bestοἶνος, οἴνου ὁ wineβία, βίας ἡ bodily force, strengthὀφθαλμός, ὀφθαλμοῦ ὁ eyeΒοιώτιος, Βοιωτίᾱ, Βοιώτιον of or παλαιός, παλαιά, παλαιόν old,from Boiotia, a region of Greece
ancient

Module 30 | ἵημι and ἵστημι469

βρότειος, βρότειον (-ος, -ᾱ, -ον) *πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν all, each, every, wholemortalΓύγης, -ου (-εω) ὁ Gyges, king of Lydia Πελοποννήσιος, Πελοποννησίᾱ,Πελοποννήσιον Peloponnesianδέννος, δέννου ὁ reproach, disgrace*πόλις, πόλιος (πόληος, πόλεως) ἡcityδῆλος, δήλη, δῆλον visible, clearπολιτείᾱ, πολιτείᾱς ἡ governmentἔγχελυς, ἔγχέλεως ἡ eelπολύχρυσος, πολύχρυσον rich ingold*ἐμός, ἐμή, ἐμόν myπόνος, πόνου ὁ hard work, sufferingἑταίρα, ἑταίρας ἡ a companionσῖτος, σίτου ὁ (pl. σῖτα τά) grain,
food, bread*ἕτερος, ἑτέρᾱ, ἕτερον other, another *τέλος, τέλεος (τέλους) τό end,
boundary; power; office; (acc.) finally*Ζεύς, Διός ὁ Zeusτλημοσύνη, τλημοσύνης ἡ misery;
enduranceἡδονή, ἡδονῆς ἡ pleasureτυραννίς, τυραννίδος ἡ tyranny*θεός, θεοῦ ἡ ὁ god, goddess, deityτύχη, τύχης ἡ fortune, luck, fateθνητός, θνητή, θνητόν mortalφάρμακον, φαρμάκου τό drug, cure*κακός, κακή,cowardly

κακόν

bad,

evil, φιλία, φιλίας ἡ friendshipκαλλίων, κάλλιον lovelier, better*φίλος, φίλη, φίλον friendly, kind,well-disposed + dat.; (n.) friend*κάλος, κάλου ὁ cable, rope*χρῆμα, χρήματος τό thing; (pl.)
goods, money, propertκρατερός, κρατερά, κρατερόν
strong, stout, mighty
1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Translating. Translate the sentences below, which have been adaptedfrom Lucian’s The Lover of Lies (Φιλοψευδής). Remember the meanings andfunctions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify
endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult
the Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart in Appendix VIII and theCase and Function Chart in Appendix I. Check your understanding with thetranslations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each

470Ancient Greek I

word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or threetimes, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of thesentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.
Εὐκράτης: ἐγὼ δὲ εἰς τὴν ὑστεραίαν ὡς ἐκεῖνός τι κατὰ τὴν ἀγορὰνπραγματεύεται ἔλαβον τὸ ὕπερον καὶ ἐσχημάτισα ὁμοίως. ἔπειτα ἐπειπὼντὰς συλλαβὰς ἐκέλευσα ὑδροφορέειν. τὸ δὲ ἐνέπλησε τὸν ἀμφορέα καὶἐκόμισε. ἐκέλευσα τούτῳ παῦσαι καὶ μηκέτι ὑδροφορέειν καὶ αὖθιςὕπερον ποιεῖσθαι. τὸ δὲ οὐκέτι μοι πείθεσθαι ἐθέλει, ἀλλ’ ὑδροφορεῖἀεί. ἄχρι δὴ ἐμπίπλησι ἡμῖν ὕδατος τὴν οἰκίαν καὶ ἡ δὲ ἐπαντλεῖται.
ἐγὼ δὲ ἀμηχανάω τῷ πράγματι καὶ δείδω. εἰ ὁ Παγκράτης ἐπανέρχεται,ἀγανακτήσει. τοῦτο ὅπερ καὶ ἐγένετο. ἀξίνην ἔλαβον καὶ διακόπτω τὸὕπερον εἰς δύο μέρη. τὰ δέ, ἑκάτερον τὸ μέρος, ἀμφορέας ἔλαβε καὶὑδροφόρει καὶ ἀνθ’ ἑνὸς δύο μοι ἐγένοντο οἱ διάκονοι. ἐν τούτῳ καὶ ὁ
Παγκράτης ἦλθε καὶ συνίησι τὸ γενόμενον. ἐκεῖνα μὲν αὖθις ἐποίησεξύλα, ὥσπερ ἦν πρὸ τῆς ἐπῳδῆς. αὐτὸς δὲ ἀπέλιπέ με λαθών. καὶ οὐκ οἶδ’ὅποι ἀφανὴς ᾤχετο.
Δεινόμαχος: δύνασαι ἄνθρωπον ποιεῖν ἐκ τοῦ ὑπέρου;Εὐκράτης: νὴ Δί’ ἐξ ἡμισείας γε· οὐκέτι γὰρ εἰς τὸ ἀρχαῖον οἷος τέεἰμι ἀπάγειν αὐτό, εἰ ἅπαξ γίγνεται ὑδροφόρος. ἀλλὰ δεήσει ἡμῖνἐπικλυσθῆναι τὴν οἰκίαν.
Adverbs, Prepositions, and Verbs
ἀγανακτέω feel irritationἅπαξ onceἀμηχανάω be at a lossἀπέρχομαι, -ελεύσομαι, -ῆλθονdepart, leaveἀπάγω, -άξω, -ήγαγον lead away; ἀπολείπω, -λείψω, -έλιπον leave
carry offαὖθις (αὖτις) again, in turn, hereafter, κομίζω, κομιέω, ἐκόμισα take carein the futureof; carry, convey; (mid.) acquireἄχρι to the uttermost*λαμβάνω, λήψομαι, ἔλαβον take,receive; capture*γίγνομαι, γενήσομαι, ἐγενόμην be, μηκέτι no more, no longer, no further
be born, happen, become*δεῖ, δεήσει it is necessary + dat. or νή by + acc.
acc. + inf.

Module 30 | ἵημι and ἵστημι471

δείδω, δείσω, ἔδεισα fear, be afraid, οἴχομαι, οἰχήσομαι, ------ go, be gone,dread
have goneδιακόπτω cut in two, cut throughὅποι to where, wither*δύναμαι I am ableοὐκέτι no more, no longer, no further*ἐθέλω, ἐθελήσω, ἠθέλησα wish, be ὀψωνέω buy fish and dainties
willingἐμπίμπλημι, -πλήσω, -ἔπλησα, fill, παύω, παύσω, ἔπαυσα make to end,
fill up; fill ‘x’ (a person or thing) in acc. stop; stop ‘x’ in acc. from ‘y’ in gen.
with ‘y’ a thing in gen.
ἐπανέρχομαι return*πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα persuade +inf.; (mid. or pass.) listen to, obey + dat.
or gen.

ἐπαντλέω pump over, pour over, *ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα do, make,cause to overflow
cause; (mid.) considerἐπικλύζω overflow, floodπραγματεύομαι busy oneself, taketroubleἐπιλέγω say, utter, pronounce; συνίημι send together; perceive;
pick out, choose; (mid.) think over, understandconsider; read*ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι, ἦλθον come, σχηματίζω assume a certain form,gofigure, posture; shape, fashion; dress up*ἦν he, she, it wasὑδροφορέω carry water*κελεύω, κελεύσω, ἐκέλευσα bid,order, command
Adjectives, Nouns, and Pronouns
ἀγορά, ἀγορᾶς ἡ agora, marketplaceἡμισεία, ἡμισείας ἡ halfἀμφορεύς, ἀμφορέως ὁ amphora, λαθών, λαθόντος ὁ secretly, by stealthjar, urn*ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ human, *μέρος, μέρεος (-ους) τόpersonportion, part; limb; one’s turnἀξίνη, ἀξίνης ἡ axe-head, axeshare,

ξύλον, ξύλου τό: stick, clubἀρχαῖος, -α, -ον ancient, from the οἰκία, οἰκίας ἡ house
beginningἀφανής, ἀφανές unseen, invisible; *οἷος, οἵᾱ, οἷον such, such a kind; οἷόςhidden, secretτέ εἰμι I am able, I am of such a kind to+ inf.; οἷον or οἷα how, like, as, because

472

Ancient Greek Iγενόμενον, γενομένου τό having Παγκράτης, Παγκράτου ὁ Pankrates
happenedδιάκονος, διακόνου ὁ servant*πρᾶγμα, πράγματος τό matter, thing,affair; problem*δύο twoσυλλαβή, συλλαβῆς ἡ that whichholds together; syllable*ἑκάτερος, ἑκατέρᾱ, ἑκάτερον eachὑδροφόρος, ὑδροφόρου ὁ
water-carrierἐπειπών, ἐπειπόντος ὁ speaking,having spokenὕδωρ, ὕδατος τό waterἐπῳδή, ἐπῳδῆς ἡ enchantment, spell, ὕπερον, ὑπέρου τό pestlecharm*Ζεύς, Διός ὁ Zeusὑστεραῖος, ὑστεραίᾱ, ὑστεραῖονnext, following; ὑστεραίᾳ on the nextday

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary,which you are to memorize.
Practice Parsing Greek Sentences. Parse each word of the sentences foundbelow. For nouns and pronouns, give their case and function. For verbs, give theirperson, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify
them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition’s
object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, andcase.
ὁρῶ ὅτι ταύτην μὲν οὖν χρὴ νομίζειν οὐ τὴν αἰτίαν τῶν πάντων κακῶνεἶναι.
δύνασαι ἄνθρωπον ποιεῖν ἐκ τοῦ ὑπέρου;Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.
Sappho of Lesbos, Σαπφώ Λέσβου, c. 630–570 BCE. Regarded in antiquity
as the tenth Muse, Sappho and her poetry are widely praised for their lyrical
excellence. Time has taken from us most of what Sappho wrote and left to us
even less information about her life. She is said to have had three brothers,
two of whom, Kharaxos and Larikhos, she mentions in the poem below. This
poem, preserved in writing on papyrus and referred to as the Brother’s Poem,
was recently discovered. It was dug up by tomb raiders. From it, the classicist
and papyrologist, Dirk Obbink reconstructed the Greek text. For a view of thefragment un-punctuated and not corrected, follow this link:Module 30 | ἵημι and ἵστημι473

Sappho Poem.1

To Dirk Obbink’s text, I have added vocabulary, notes, and a translation.
Meter (__ = a long vowel; u = a short vowel; x = anceps, a long or short vowel):__ u __ x __ u u __ u __ ____ u __ x __ u u __ u __ ____ u __ x __ u u __ u __ ____ u u __ u
ἀλλ’ ἄϊ θρύλησθα Χάραξον ἔλθην*ἄϊ = αἰεί ever, alwaysνᾶϊ σὺν πλήαι. τὰ μέν, οἴομαι, Ζεῦςθρύλησθα you babbleοἶδε σύμπαντές τε θέοι· σὲ δ᾽οὐ χρῆΧάραξος, ου ὁ Kharaxos, Sappho’s brotherταῦτα νόησθαι,*ἔλθην = ἐλθεῖν to come*νᾶϊ = νηί: ναῦς, νεώς ἡ shipπλήαι = πλέᾳ: πλέος, -α, -ον fullτὰ μέν these thingsοἴομαι thinkΖεῦς = Ζεύςνοέω think on, considerχρῆ = χρή it is necessaryἀλλὰ καὶ πέμπην ἔμε καὶ κέλεσθαιπέμπην = πέμπειν to sendπόλλα λίσσεσθαι βασίληαν Ἤρανκέλομαι order, command; callἐξίκεσθαι τυίδε σάαν ἄγονταλίσσομαι prayνᾶα Χάραξονβασίληαν = βασιλείαν royal, kinglyἬρα, Ἤρας ἡ Heraἐξικνέομαι arriveτυίδε hereσάος, -α, -ον safeἄγων, ἄγοντος ὁ drivingνᾶα = ναῦν: ναῦς, νεώς ἡ ship1	
h ttp://web.archive.org/web/20140130212614/http:/www.papyrology.ox.ac.uk/Fragments/
Obbink.Sappho7.draft.pdf.

474

Ancient Greek Iκἄμμ’ ἐπεύρην ἀρτέμεας. τὰ δ’ ἄλλα

κἄμμ’ = καὶ ἄμμε = καὶ ἡμᾶςπάντα δαιμόνεσσιν ἐπιτρόπωμεν·ἐπεύρην = ἐπευρεῖν to findεὐδίαι γὰρ ἐκ μεγάλαν ἀήτανἀρτεμής, ές safeαἶψα πέλονται.

δαίμων, -ονος ὁ or ἡ god, goddessἐπιτρόπωμεν = ἐπιτρέπωμεν let us entrustεὐδία, -ας ἡ fair weatherμεγάλαν = μεγάλωνἀήταν = ἀητῶν: ἀήτης, -ου ὁ gale, windαἶψα quicklyπέλομαι beτῶν κε βόλληται βασίλευς Ὀλύμπω

τῶν κε = ὧν ἄν whosoever’s*δαίμον’ ἐκ πόνων ἐπάρωγον ἤδηβόλληται = βούληται wishesπερτρόπην, κῆνοι μάκαρες πέλονται

Ὀλύμπω = Ὀλύμπου: Ὄλυμπος, -ου ὁ Olympos

καὶ πολύολβοι·δαίμων, -ονος ὁ or ἡ god, goddessπόνος, -ου ὁ pain, toilἐπάρωγος, -οῦ ὁ helper, aiderπερτρόπην = περιτροπέειν turnκῆνοι = κεῖνοιμακάρ, -άρος blessedπολύολβος, -ον rich, wealthy**κἄμμες, αἴ κε τὰν κεφάλαν ἀέρρηκἄμμες = καὶ ἡμεῖςΛάριχος καὶ δή ποτ᾽ ἄνηρ γένηται,αἴ κε = εἰ ἄνκαὶ μάλ’ ἐκ πόλλαν βαρυθυμίαν κενκεφάλαν = κεφάλην: κεφάλη, κεφάλης ἡ headαἶψα λύθειμεν.

ἀέρρη = ἀείρῃ raisesΛάριχος, Λαρίχου ὁ Larikhos, Sappho’s
brotherἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ man, husbandγένηται becomesπόλλαν = πόλλωνβαρυθυμίαν = βαρυθυμίων: βαρυθυμία,βαρυθυμίας heavy heartλύθειμεν we would be freedModule 30 | ἵημι and ἵστημι475

Variant Readings:*δαίμον’ ἐκ πόνων ἐπ’ ἀρηγον’ ἤδη περτρόπην: turn their daimon awayfrom toils toward a helper.
**αἴ κε τὰν κεφάλαν ἀέργης/ Λάριχος καὶ δή ποτ᾽ ἄνηρ γένηται: if lazyheaded Larikhos every really becomes a man.
Prose Translation
You constantly go on about Kharaxos coming home with a full ship. Things
which, I think, Zeus and all the other gods know and which you need not think
on. Rather send and order me to offer many a prayer to our royal Hera that
Kharaxos return at the helm of a safe ship and find us sound. All the rest we
entrust to the gods. For calm from great storms quickly ensues. Whosoever’s fate
Olympian Zeus wishes now to turn from trouble to triumph, presently becomes
fortunate and blessed. But for us, should Larikhos lift his head and ever really
become a man, then surely right away we would be freed from great despair.
Module 30 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized. Like learning the alphabet
and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The
better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words
the greater mastery of the language you will have.
Adjectives and Adverbἄν (adverb or particle) indicates something hypothetical, non-factual, or with
the indicative something repeated over timeδύο twoἕκαστος, ἑκάστη, ἕκαστον eachἴσος, ἴση, ἴσον equal, as many as; similar to + dat.
καλός, καλή, καλόν beautiful, noble, goodὅμοιος, ὁμοίᾱ, ὅμοιον like, resembling + dat.
τρεῖς, οἱ, αἱ; τρία τά threeVerbζάω (ζῇς, ζῇ), ζήσω, ἔζησα, ἔζηκα, ------, ------ live, breathe, be full of life

476Ancient Greek I

Etymology Corner XXX by Dr. E. Del Chrol
Technical Terms 26
Satura Lanx. Module 13 has given us some technical terms you may never have heard
before to describe the changes some vowels go through, here in relation to nouns indeclension. Ablaut, contraction, the loss of the intervocalic sigma or digamma,or quantitative metathesis seem less scary when you match their process to their
etymologies.
•

Ablaut comes from the German off-sound and indicates a vowel variation,
the vowel sounds different, or is off from the primary sound like the shift
from the long to the short sounds in μητηρ- and μητερ-.

•Contraction is when two vowels are dragged together (trahere, like how a
tractor drags a plow, or when you click the back of a pen the point retracts,that is, is dragged back into the body of the ballpoint + con, which we’ve met
a bunch of times before).

•

Intervocalic means a letter in between (inter) two vowels (voces/voice).
Look at the genitive of Σωκράτης, it’s either Σωκράτεος or Σωκράτους. The
second one is because the sigma at the end of Σωκράτης once upon a timestuck around on the stem in the declension and endings were added to it.
The sigma in between those two vowels went away over time, and when
you contract an ε with an ο you get the diphthong ου. Hence Σωκράτε(σ)ος
became Σωκράτους.

•Quantitative metathesis is kind of like a centaur, half Latin and half Greek.
I’ll leave it to you to figure out which half is the human and which the horse.
You can see the English quantity (amount) in quantitative, which derives
from quantus, a Latin question word meaning how much?. Metathesis isfrom two super popular Greek words. Θέσις, from τίθημι, to place or put,
we’ve already met both in the chapters and in our discussion of prepositions.
Μετά has a couple different meanings, but its primary sense is after. For
example, Aristotle’s work The Metaphysics was so named because it cameafter his work The Physics. No, seriously, that’s why it got that name. Μετάover time accretes some complex meanings like change or transcending,but in all senses originates with the idea that the μετά thing comes after.
A metamorphosis is the shape (μορφή) that comes after a change, like abutterfly after the cocoon phase. Thus in grammar a metathesis is thetransposition of vowel length (quantity). The genitive of πόλις can be πόληος(ending with a long-short) or it can get transposed into πόλεως (ending witha short and long vowel).

Module 30 | ἵημι and ἵστημι477

What to Study and Do 30. Before moving on to Ancient Greek II: A 21st-Century
Approach, make sure that you have memorized the endings for μι-verbs and that you
understand how to translate and identify each form.
Learning Tip 30: What is Mind? Einstein wrote that the mind is revealed in the world.
His imagining of a world with a unified coherence led to his overcoming the normal
point of view of his own time and to a completely new and radical conceptual systemthat predicted among other things the relativity of time, one consequence of which isthat the past, present, and future all currently exist. At some future point Einstein’s
conceptual system will lead to another’s. And so it will go. Today’s fundamental
questions will give way to other fundamental questions of tomorrow. For thousandsof years what is mind has captured the imagination of many of the world’s thinkers.
Is the mind a complex and recreatable arrangement of neurons that results inconsciousness? Will artificial intelligence have the ability to think deeply and create
new and radical conceptual systems? Is the mind something fundamentally different
and impossible for us to create artificially? Is there a superconsciousness that exists
in the universe, that creativity forms a part of and that we can experience? As time
passes, we continue to work on creating conceptual systems to answer these questions.

Self-Assessment Modules 23–30

Rate yourself on a scale of 1 to 10, where 10 represents mastery and 1 its opposite.
Answer each of the below thoughtfully. For any score less than a 7, review thematerial.

MEMORY
1. Have I memorized all of the high-frequency vocabulary?
2. Have I memorized all of the endings for noun ending sets 1–10?
3. Have I memorized the verb endings for μι-verbs and for ω-verbs ?
4. Have I memorized the verb forms for εἰμί, εἶμι, and οἶδα?
5. Have I memorized how the vowels combine in contract verbs?
6. Have I memorized the personal pronouns?
7. Have I memorized τίς, τί; τις, τι; and the common adjectives andpronouns?

APPLICATION AND CONCEPTS
1. Can I define the 8 parts of speech and pick out the function of each insentences in English and in Greek?
2. Do I understand how endings create meaning?
3. Can I apply the Case and Function Chart when reading and translating?
4. Can I define and explain the following verb qualities: person, number,tense, aspect, mood, and voice?
5. Can I define and explain deponent verbs?
6. Can I define and explain transitive and intransitive verbs?
7. Can I define an infinitive and explain how it functions in indirectstatements and in result clauses?

© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.38

480

Ancient Greek I

8. Can I define an infinitive and explain its function as a complementary
infinitive, epexegetical infinitive, and objective infinitive or infinitiveof dependence?
9. Can I define and explain noun and adjective agreement?
10. Can I define and explain substantive adjectives?
11. Do I understand how word order creates meaning in attributive andpredicate position?
12. Do I understand how word order is important but not decisive in theway that noun and pronoun endings are decisive?

READING AND TRANSLATING
1. Do I read the sentences in Greek one or more times before I start totranslate?
2. As I translate, am I able to identify endings and vocabulary with ease?
3. Do I have a sense for how a sentence develops meaning from beginningto end?
4. Do I check my translations with the answers?
5. Do I read through the Greek sentences two or more times after I havean accurate understanding of each sentence’s meaning?
6. Can I parse each word in a sentence?

Appendices

Appendix I: Case and Function Chart
In making this chart, a primary consideration has been to simplify the complicatednoun and pronoun case system so as to represent as many different functions
as possible in the fewest number of categories. The Genitive of Dependence,for example, is a catchall category including almost any genitive noun thatmust be translated with another noun. Likewise the Dative Indirect Object
covers a number of incidences typically found under the Dative of Referenceor Dative of Interest categories. The underlying philosophy is to explain muchwith less. I recommend you keep this chart at your elbow when you translate.
I also recommend that you consult Smyth’s Greek Grammar or The Cambridge
Grammar of Classical Greek for fuller differentiated categories and examples.
Because a few functions often account for the majority of occurrences, thischart presents the functions in order of frequency. Frequency was determinedby parsing one complete book of Herodotos and two plays of Euripides. An
exception is the genitive, dative, or accusative case as an object of a preposition,
which is placed last, though it occurs with great frequency. This chart covers
information learned in both Part I and Part II of the 21st-Century series.
None indicates that there is no preposition to supply when translating fromGreek into English. None (ἐκ, ἀπό) indicates that there is no preposition to
supply when translating from Greek into English and gives the preposition thatis commonly present in ancient Greek.
CASE

FUNCTIONPREPOSITION TO
SUPPLY

Nominative Case

1. Subject: Καμβύσης ἐστρατεύετο,

none

Kambyses marched
2. Predicate Nominative: ὄνομα αὐτῇ ἦνnoneΝίτητις, her name was Nitetis© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.39

482

Ancient Greek I

CASE

FUNCTIONPREPOSITION TO
SUPPLY

Accusative

1. Direct Object: ταῦτα αὐτῇ λέγω I say thesenone

things to her
2. Accusative Subject of Infinitive orParticiple
Indirect Statement: ἔφη αὐτὴν βλάπτεινnoneαὐτόν: he said she hurt him; οἰκὸς ἦν τῆςθυγατρὸς ὄντας παῖδας it was likely thatthey were the children of his daughterὥστε (result): ὥστε τὴν ἡμέρην νύκταnone

γενέσθαι and so day became night; ὥστε
πεσεῖν πολλούς and so many fellπρίν: πρὶν Κύρον σφέων βασιλεῦσαι before

none

Kyros ruled them
Other Instances: δεῖ αὐτὸν ἰέναι it isfor or varies basednecessary for him to go; συνήνεικε ὑμᾶςon contextεἰδέναι it happened that you knew
3. Acc. of Respect: ἀνὴρ ἡλικίαν νέος a maninyoung in ageπολύ τε ἐκράτησαν αὐτούς they conquered

none

them completely
4. Duration of Time and Extent of Space:for or noneὀκτωκαίδεκα ἔτη for eighteen years; ὁδὸνμακράν a long journey
5. Accusative Absolute: οὕτως ἔχον: thisnonebeing so
6. Object of Preposition (often shows motion

none or varies based

toward; preposition can be omitted in poetry):on contextπρὸς Ὅμηρον to Homer; εἰς τὴν θάλασσαν tothe sea πέτεται Λήδαν he flies to Leda
Genitive

1. Possession: νεκρὸς ἀνθρώπου, the corpseofof a man
2. Partitive: ἓξ τῶν ἀνδρῶν, six of the menof

3. Dependence: χρυσοῦ δῶρα gifts of goldof

4. Object of a Verb or Verb’s Prefix:

none or varies byχρημάτων ἐδέοντο, they were in need ofprefix’s meaning

money; ἐκείνων ταῦτα προτίθησι, he places
these things before those.

483

Appendices

CASE

FUNCTIONPREPOSITION TO
SUPPLY

5. Absolute: ἐπιφανοῦς τούτου γενομένου

nonethis being clear
6. Comparison: ἵππου ὠκύτερος swifter than

than

a horse
7. With Certain Adjectives or Adverbs: σοῦofἄξιος worthy of you; ἀξίως λόγου worthy ofrecord8. Value: αὐτὸν πολλοῦ τιμᾷ she honors him anone or for, of

lot; μισθοῦ τὴν θύραν ἤνοιγεν he opened thedoor for a fee
9. Separation: τὰ πηδάλια παρέλυσε νεῶν hefrom, away fromfreed the rudders from the ships
10. Time: δέκα ἡμερῶν within ten days

within11. Object of Preposition (often showsnone

motion away from): ὑπὸ Κύρου by Kyros; ἐκτῆς οἰκίᾱς from the house
Dative1. Indirect Object: δίκην αὐτῇ δίδωμι, I giveto, forjustice to her; ὑμῖν ὁρτὴν ποιέω, I hold afestival for you
2. Object of Verb or Verb’s Prefix: ἐπὶnone or varies withκρήνην αὐτοῖς ἡγήσασθαι, to lead them to thethe prefix’s meaning

spring; τὴν ἐλευθερίην ὑμῖν περιτίθημι I place
freedom around you
3. Means or Instrument: ἔχουσιν αὐτὸ δόλῳ,by, with

they hold it by trickery; ἔρχεται νηί, she goesby ship
4. Possession (often with verb ‘to be’): ὄνομαto, ofαὐτῇ ἦν Νίτητις, her name was Nitetis; τῷΚύρῳ ὁ υἱός, a son to Kyros
5. Dative with an Adjective, Adverb, orfor, toNoun: αὐτῷ ἀσφαλές εἶναι to be safe for himπρὸς ἡδονὴν αὐτῇ for pleasure to her
6. Dative with a Verb and Infinitive: δεῖforαὐτῇ ἰέναι it is necessary for her to go
7. Dative of Respect: ἀνὴρ ἡλικίᾳ νέος a maninyoung in age
8. Time When: πέμπτῃ ἡμέρᾳ on the fifth day

on

484

Ancient Greek I

CASE

FUNCTIONPREPOSITION TO
SUPPLY9. Dative of Degree of Difference: πoλλῷ by

by

much
10. Dative of Accompaniment: αὐτὸνwith or none (σύν)ἠφάνισε ἵππῳ he hid him with his horse; ἔβησὺν τῷ στρατῷ he went with his army
11. Dative of Agent with Perf. and Plup.

byPass.: λέλειμμαι αὐτῷ I have been left by him
12. Place Where: ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ in Egypt ornone (ἐν) or in, on,Μαραθῶνι at Marathon

at13. Object of Preposition (often shows place

none

where): σὺν Ὁμήρῳ with Homer; ἐν τῷ νηῷ
in the temple
Vocative

1. Direct Address: ὦ βασιλεῦ, oh king

none

CASE

FUNCTIONPREPOSITION TO
SUPPLY

Nominative Case

1. Subject: Καμβύσης ἐστρατεύετο,

none

Kambyses marched
2. Predicate Nominative: ὄνομα αὐτῇ ἦνnoneΝίτητις, her name was Nitetis
Genitive

1. Possession: νεκρὸς ἀνθρώπου, the corpseofof a man
2. Partitive: ἓξ τῶν ἀνδρῶν, six of the menof

3. Dependence: χρυσοῦ δῶρα gifts of goldof

4. Object of a Verb or Verb’s Prefix:

none or varies byχρημάτων ἐδέοντο, they were in need ofprefix’s meaning

money; ἐκείνων ταῦτα προτίθησι, he places
these things before those.
5. Absolute: ἐπιφανοῦς τούτου γενομένου

nonethis being clear
6. Comparison: ἵππου ὠκύτερος swifter than

than

a horse
7. With Certain Adjectives or Adverbs: σοῦἄξιος worthy of you; ἀξίως λόγου worthy ofrecordof485

Appendices

CASE

FUNCTIONPREPOSITION TO
SUPPLY

8. Value: αὐτὸν πολλοῦ τιμᾷ she honors him anone or for, of

lot; μισθοῦ τὴν θύραν ἤνοιγεν he opened thedoor for a fee
9. Separation: τὰ πηδάλια παρέλυσε νεῶν hefrom, away fromfreed the rudders from the ships
10. Time: δέκα ἡμερῶν within ten days

within11. Object of Preposition (often showsnone

motion away from): ὑπὸ Κύρου by Kyros; ἐκτῆς οἰκίᾱς from the house
Dative1. Indirect Object: δίκην αὐτῇ δίδωμι, I giveto, forjustice to her; ὑμῖν ὁρτὴν ποιέω, I hold afestival for you
2. Object of Verb or Verb’s Prefix: ἐπὶnone or varies withκρήνην αὐτοῖς ἡγήσασθαι, to lead them tothe prefix’s meaning

the spring; τὴν ἐλευθερίην ὑμῖν περιτίθημι I
place freedom around you
3. Means or Instrument: ἔχουσιν αὐτὸ δόλῳ,by, with

they hold it by trickery; ἔρχεται νηί, she goesby ship
4. Possession (often with verb ‘to be’): ὄνομαto, ofαὐτῇ ἦν Νίτητις, her name was Nitetis; τῷΚύρῳ ὁ υἱός, a son to Kyros
5. Dative with an Adjective, Adverb, orfor, toNoun: αὐτῷ ἀσφαλές εἶναι to be safe for himπρὸς ἡδονὴν αὐτῇ for pleasure to her
6. Dative with a Verb and Infinitive: δεῖforαὐτῇ ἰέναι it is necessary for her to go
7. Dative of Respect: ἀνὴρ ἡλικίᾳ νέος a maninyoung in age
8. Time When: πέμπτῃ ἡμέρᾳ on the fifth dayon

9. Dative of Degree of Difference: πoλλῷ by

by

much
10. Dative of Accompaniment: αὐτὸνwith or none (σύν)ἠφάνισε ἵππῳ he hid him with his horse; ἔβησὺν τῷ στρατῷ he went with his army
11. Dative of Agent with Perf. and Plup.
Pass.: λέλειμμαι αὐτῷ I have been left by him

by

486

Ancient Greek I

CASE

FUNCTIONPREPOSITION TO
SUPPLY12. Place Where: ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ in Egypt ornone (ἐν) or in, on,Μαραθῶνι at Marathon

at13. Object of Preposition (often shows place

none

where): σὺν Ὁμήρῳ with Homer; ἐν τῷ νηῷ
in the temple
Accusative

1. Direct Object: ταῦτα αὐτῇ λέγω I say thesenone

things to her
2. Accusative Subject of Infinitive or

none

Participle Indirect Statement: ἔφη αὐτὴν
βλάπτειν αὐτόν: he said she hurt him; οἰκὸςἦν τῆς θυγατρὸς ὄντας παῖδας it was likelythat they were the children of his daughterὥστε (result): ὥστε τὴν ἡμέρην νύκταnone

γενέσθαι and so day became night; ὥστε
πεσεῖν πολλούς and so many fellπρίν: πρὶν Κύρον σφέων βασιλεῦσαι

none

before Kyros ruled them
Other Instances: δεῖ αὐτὸν ἰέναι it isfor or varies basednecessary for him to go; συνήνεικε ὑμᾶςon contextεἰδέναι it happened that you knew
3. Acc. of Respect: ἀνὴρ ἡλικίαν νέος a maninyoung in ageπολύ τε ἐκράτησαν αὐτούς they conquered

none

them completely
4. Duration of Time and Extent of Space:for or noneὀκτωκαίδεκα ἔτη for eighteen years; ὁδὸνμακράν a long journey
5. Accusative Absolute: οὕτως ἔχον: thisnonebeing so
6. Object of Preposition (often shows motion

none or varies based

toward; preposition can be omitted in poetry):on contextπρὸς Ὅμηρον to Homer; εἰς τὴν θάλασσαν tothe sea πέτεται Λήδαν he flies to Leda
Vocative

1. Direct Address: ὦ βασιλεῦ, oh kingnone

The above are all case functions for nouns and pronouns. Remember that
adjectives, which include participles, always agree with the nouns or pronouns
they modify in gender, number, and case. If no noun or pronoun is present,Appendices487

supply one from the gender and number of the adjective unless it is clear that anoun or pronoun must be supplied from context.

Appendix II: Infinitives
Remember that in English and in Greek the infinitive is unmarked for person
and for number. Ιt is classified as a verbal noun and is best understood bythinking of its function as completing or enhancing the meaning of adjectives,
clauses, nouns, and verbs. This is why the infinitive is referred to as complement.
Sometimes classified as a mood, the infinitive is potential in meaning, ἐνδυνάμει, because its action may or may not be realized. There are two typesof infinitives, the declarative and the dynamic. Both the declarative and the
dynamic infinitives refer to actions which exist potentially or ἐν δυνάμει.
The dynamic infinitive is negated by the abverb μή not and not οὐ not. οὐ nottypically negates the declarative infinitive with some exceptions. For more on
the declarative and dynamic infinitives, see CGCG 51.
The Infinitive as a Complement(1)

As a complement to modal verbs, δεῖ, δύναμαι, ἔξεστι, ἔχω, κιδυνεύω,προσήκει, χρή:δεῖ ποιέειν(2)As a complement to verbs of wishing and desiring αἱρέομαι, βουλεύω,βούλομαι, διανοέομαι, δοκέει, ἐθέλω, σπουδάζω:αἱρέομαι ὀρχέεσθαι(3)I teach how to speak Greek.

As a complement to verbs of command, compulsion, persuasion,
prevention, αἰτέω, ἀναγκάζω, ἀπέχω, δέομαι, εἴργω, κελεύω, πείθω:αἰτέω σὲ νομίζειν(5)I choose to dance.

As a complement to knowledge verbs διδάσκω, ἐπίσταμαι, μανθάνω:διδάσκω ἑλληνίζειν(4)it is necessary to create.

I ask you to believe.

As a complement to verbs of starting and stopping, ἄρχομαι, μέλλω,παύω:ἄρχομαι εἰδέναι

I begin to know.

488

Ancient Greek I(6)Epexegetically as a complement to adjectives and nouns, ἀγαθόν, ἄξιον,δεινόν, καλόν, καιρός, νομός, σχολή, ὥρα:δεινόν ὁράειν(7)

It is awesome to see.

Purpose often with verbs of giving, motion, receiving, taking:σῖτον ἐσθίειν ἐρχόμεθα

we go to eat food.

τἠν χώραν δίδωμι αὐτοῖςδιαρπάσαιI give them the country to plunder.

The Infinitive as a Noun
(8)

Articular:τὸ μάχεσθαι κάλλιστονfighting is best.

περὶ τοῦ φεύγειν νομίζομεν

we consider fleeing.

The Infinitive as a Finite Verb
(9)

(10)

(11)

Indirect Statement:ἔφη αὐτοὺς ἐλεύσεσθαι

he said that they would come.

ἔφη εἶναι μακαρίᾱ

she said that she is blessed.

After πρίν and ὥστε:πολλὰ ἔμαθον πρὶν θανεῖνI learned much before I died.

λέγει ὥστε ἡμᾶς ἀκοῦσαι

she speaks and so we listen.

As an imperative:ἔφη· Φεύγειν

he said, flee!

ἔφη· Σπεύδειν

she said, hurry up!

Appendix III: Apposition of Nouns and Pronouns
A common grammatical occurrence that happens in all cases of nouns andpronouns is apposition. Consider the following examples. In each the main
noun is bolded and the noun in apposition is underlined.

489

AppendicesNominative					ἐγὼ ταῦτα τῷ Ὁμήρῳ, ποιητής, δίδωμι.			
I, a poet, give these things to Homer.			
Genitiveτὸ βιβλίον τοῦ Ὁμήρου, ποιητοῦ, σοὶ δίδωμι.
I give to you the book of Homer, a poet.
Dativeἐγὼ ταῦτα τῷ Ὁμήρῳ, ποιητῇ, δίδωμι.		
I give these things to Homer, a poet.
Αccusativeὁράει τὸν Ὅμηρον ποιητήν.		
She sees Homer, the poet.
Vocativeὦ βασιλεῦ, Κῦρε, ἔλθε.			
King Kyros, come.				
The important items to note are that the two nouns refer to the same person orthing and that each has the same case.

Appendix IV: Adjectives, Nouns, and Pronouns
First and Second Declension Noun Endings
F Set 1

F Set 2

F Set 3

F Set 4

M Set 5

M Set 6

M/F Set 7

N Set 8

N

η

αι

ᾱ

αι

α

αι

α

αι

ης

αι

ᾱς

αι

ος

οι

ον

α

A

ην

ᾱς

ᾱν

ᾱς

αν

ᾱς

αν

ᾱς

ην

ᾱς

ᾱν

ᾱς

ον

ους

ον

α

G

ης

ῶν

ᾱς

ῶν

ης

ῶν

ᾱς

ῶν

ου

ῶν

ου

ῶν

ου

ων

ου

ων

D

ῃ

αις

ᾱͅ

αις

ῃ

αις

ᾱͅ

αις

ῃ

αις

ᾱͅ

αις

ῳ

οις

ῳ

οις

V

η

αι

ᾱ

αι

α

αι

α

αι

α,η

αι

ᾱ

αι

ε

οι

ον

α

Third Declension Noun Endings
M/F Set 9

N Set 10

N

---

ες

---

α

A

α, ν

ας

---

α

G

ος

ων

ος

ων

D

ι

σι (ν)ισι (ν)

V

---

ες

---

α

490

Ancient Greek I

First Declension Nouns
N

τέχνη

χώρᾱ

θάλατταπεῖραστρατιώτηςνεανίᾱςA

τέχνηνχώρᾱνθάλαττανπεῖραν

στρατιώτηννεανίᾱνGτέχνηςχώρᾱςθαλάττης

πείρᾱς

στρατιώτουνεανιου

D

τέχνῃ

χώρᾱͅ

θαλάττῃπείρᾱͅ

στρατιώτῃνεανίᾱͅ

V

τέχνη

χώρᾱ

θάλατταπεῖραστρατιῶτανεανίᾱNτέχναιχῶραιθάλατταιπεῖραι

στρατιῶταινεανίαιAτέχνᾱςχώρᾱςθαλάττᾱςπείρᾱς

στρατιώτᾱςνεανίᾱςGτεχνῶνχωρῶν

θαλαττῶνπειρῶν

στρατιωτῶννεανιῶνDτέχναις

χώραις

θαλάτταις

πείραις

στρατιώταιςνεανίαιςVτέχναιχῶραιθάλατταιπεῖραι

στρατιῶταινεανίαι2nd Declension Nouns

Third Declension Nouns

N

λόγος

δῶρον

φύλαξ

αἴξ

ἐλπίς

χάρις

σῶμα

A

λόγον

δῶρον

φύλακααἶγαἐλπίδα

χάριν

σῶμα

G

λόγου

δώρου

φύλακος

αἰγόςἐλπίδος

χάριτος

σώματος

D

λόγῳ

δώρῳ

φύλακιαἰγίἐλπίδι

χάριτι

σώματι

V

λόγε

δῶρον

φύλαξ

αἴξ

ἐλπί

χάρι

σῶμα

N

λόγοι

δῶρα

φύλακεςαἶγες

ἐλπίδεςχάριτεςσώματαAλόγουςδῶραφύλακαςαἶγας

ἐλπίδαςχάριταςσώματα

G

λόγων

δώρων

φυλάκωναἰγῶνἐλπίδωνχαρίτωνσωμάτωνDλόγοις

δώροις

φύλαξι(ν)αἰξί(ν)ἐλπίσι(ν)χάρισι(ν)σώμασι(ν)

V

λόγοι

δῶρα

φύλακεςαἶγες

ἐλπίδεςχάριτεςσώματα491

Appendices

1) Subtype 1 Nouns with Stem Ending in ρ- or ερ-:Feminine

Masculine

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

μήτηρ

μητέρεςNἀvήρἄvδρεςAμητέραμητέραςAἄvδραἄvδρας

Gμητρός

μητέρωv

G

ἀvδρός

ἀvδρῶvDμητρίμητράσι (v)

D

ἀvδρί

ἀvδράσι (v)

V

μῆτερ

μητέρεςVἄvερἄvδρες

2) Subtype 2 Nouns with Stem Ending in σ- (ablaut, contraction, anddisappearance of intervocalic sigma, -σ-):Neuter Nouns Ending in –ος: γένος race
S

Pl

N

γένος

γένεα or γένη (εσα)

A

γένος

γένεα or γένη (εσα)

Gγένεος or γένους (εσος)

γενέων or γενῶν (εσων)Dγένει (εσι)γένεσι (ν) (εσσι (ν))

V

γένος

γένεα or γένη (εσα)

Neuter Nouns Ending in –ας: γῆρας, old age
S

Pl

N

γῆρας

γήραα or γήρᾱ (ασα)

A

γῆρας

γήραα or γήρᾱ (ασα)

Gγήραος or γήρως (ασος)γηράων or γηρῶν (ασων)Dγήραϊ or γήρᾳ (ασι)γήρασι (ν) (ασσι (ν))

V

γῆρας

γήραα or γήρᾱ (ασα)

492Ancient Greek I

Feminine and Masculine Nouns Ending in ης-: τριήρης trireme
S

Pl

N

τριήρης

τριήρεες or τριήρεις (εσες)Aτριήρεα or τριήρη (εσα)τριήρεας or τριήρεις (εσας)Gτριήρεος or τριήρους (εσος)τριηρέων or τριήρων (εσων)Dτριήρει (εσι)τριήρεσι (ν) (εσσιν)Vτριῆρεςτριήρεες or τριήρεις (εσες)

Proper Nouns Ending in ης-: Σωκράτης Sokrates
S

Pl

N

Σωκράτης

Σωκράτεες or Σωκράτεις (εσες)AΣωκράτεα, Σωκράτη, or Σωκράτην (εσα)Σωκράτεας or Σωκράτεις (εσας)GΣωκράτεος or Σωκράτους (εσος)Σωκράτέων or Σωκράτων (εσων)DΣωκράτει (εσι)Σωκράτεσι (ν) (εσσιν)VΣωκράτες

Σωκράτεες or Σωκράτεις (εσες)

Subtype 3 Nouns with Stem Ending in ι-:
Feminine
S

Pl

N

πόλις

πόλιες, πόληες, or πόλεις (εϝες)

A

πόλιv

πόλιας, πόληας, πόλῑς, or πόλεις

Gπόλιος, πόληoς, or πόλεωςπόλιωv or πόλεων (εϝων)Dπόλιι, πόλι, πόληι or πόλει (εϝι)πολίεσσι (v), πόλεσι (ν), πόλισι (ν)

V

πόλι

πόλιες, πόληες, or πόλεις (εϝες)Subtype 4 Nouns with Stem Ending in ηυ- or ηϝ-:MasculineSPlN

βασιλεύς (ηυς)βασιλῆες or βασιλῆς or βασιλεῖς (ηϝες)Aβασιλῆα or βασιλέα (ηϝα)βασιλῆας or βασιλέᾱς later βασιλεῖς (ηϝας)Gβασιλῆος or βασιλέως (ηϝος)βασιλήων or βασιλέωv (ηϝων)493

Appendices

S

Pl

D

βασιλῆι or βασιλεῖ (ηϝι)βασιλεῦσι (v) (ηυσι (ν))

V

βασιλεῦ (ηυ)βασιλῆες or βασιλῆς or βασιλεῖς

Relative Pronoun
S

Pl

N

ὅς

ἥ

ὅ

N

οἵ

αἵ

ἅ

A

ὅ

ἥν

ὅ

A

οὕς

ἅς

ἅ

G

οὗ

ἧς

οὗ

G

ὧν

ὧν

ὧν

D

ᾧ

ᾗ

ᾧ

D

οἷς

αἷς

οἷς

1st Person Pronoun

2nd Person Pronoun

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

ἐγώ

ἡμεῖς

N

σύ

ὑμεῖς

A

ἐμέ με

ἡμᾶς

A

σέ σε

ὑμᾶς

G

ἐμοῦ, μουἡμῶνGσοῦ, σουὑμῶνDἐμοί, μοιἡμῖνDσοί, σοιὑμῖν

3rd Person Pronoun
S

M/F Pl

N Pl

Ν

---

σφεῖς

σφέα or σφεα

A

ἕ, ἑ

σφέας or σφεας

σφέα or σφεαGοὗ, οὑ

σφέων or σφεων

σφέων or σφεωνDοἷ, οἱ

σφίσιν or σφισιν

σφίσιν or σφισιν

Adjectives and Pronouns, Mixed Declension
Ν

εἷς

μία

ἕν

οὐδείς

οὐδεμίαοὐδένμηδείς

μηδεμία

μηδέν

A

ἕνα

μίαν

ἕνα

οὐδέναοὐδεμίανοὐδένμηδέναμηδεμίαν

μηδέν

G

ἑνός

μιᾶς

ἑνός

οὐδενόςοὐδεμιᾶςοὐδενόςμηδενόςμηδεμιᾶςμηδενός

D

ἑνί

μιᾷ

ἑνί

οὐδενί

οὐδεμιᾷοὐδενί

μηδενί

μηδεμιᾷμηδενί

494

Ancient Greek I

Adjectives and Pronouns
N

αὐτός

αὐτή

αὐτό

οὗτος

αὕτη

τοῦτο

ὅδε

ἥδε

τόδε

A

αὐτόν

αὐτήν

αὐτό

τοῦτον

ταύτην

τοῦτο

τόνδε

τήνδε

τόδε

G

αὐτοῦ

αὐτῆς

αὐτοῦ

τούτου

ταύτης

τούτου

τοῦδε

τῆσδε

τοῦδε

D

αὐτῷ

αὐτῇ

αὐτῷ

τούτῳ

ταύτῃ

τούτῳ

τῷδε

τῇδε

τῷδε

N

αὐτοί

αὐταί

αὐτά

οὗτοι

αὗται

ταῦτα

οἵδε

αἵδε

τάδε

A

αὐτούς

αὐτάς

αὐτά

τούτους

ταύταςταῦτατούσδε

τάσδε

τάδε

G

αὐτῶν

αὐτῶν

αὐτῶν

τούτων

τούτων

τούτων

τῶνδε

τῶνδε

τῶνδε

D

αὐτοῖς

αὐταῖς

αὐτοῖς

τούτοις

ταύταις

τούτοις

τοῖσδεταῖσδετοῖσδεNἐκεῖνος

ἐκείνη

ἐκεῖνο

τίς

τί

τις

τι

A

ἐκεῖνονἐκείνηνἐκεῖνο

τίνα

τί

τινά

τι

G

ἐκείνουἐκείνης

ἐκείνουτίνος, τοῦτίνος, τοῦτινός, τουτινός, τουDἐκείνῳ

ἐκείνῃ

ἐκείνῳ

τίνι, τῷτίνι, τῷτινί, τῳτινί, τῳNἐκεῖνοιἐκεῖναιἐκεῖνα

τίνες

τίνα

τινές

τινά

A

ἐκείνους

ἐκείναςἐκεῖνα

τίνας

τίνα

τινάς

τινά

G

ἐκείνωνἐκείνωνἐκείνων

τίνων

τίνων

τινῶν

τινῶν

D

ἐκείνοις

ἐκείναιςἐκείνοις

τίσι(ν)τίσι(ν)τισί(ν)τισί(ν)The Indefinite Adjective and Pronoun

The Definitive Article

N

ὅστις

ἥτι

ὅτι

N

ὁ

ἡ

τό

A

ὅντιναἥντινα

ὅτι

A

τόν

τήν

τό

G

οὗτινος, ὅτουἧστινος

οὗτινος, ὅτου

G

τοῦ

τῆς

τοῦ

D

ᾧτινι, ὅτῳᾗτινιὧτινι, ὅτῳ

D

τῷ

τῇ

τῷ

N

οἵτινεςαἵτινες

ἅτινα

N

οἱ

αἱ

τά

A

οὕστινας

ἅστινας

ἅτινα

A

τούς

τάς

τά

G

ὧντινων, ὅτωνὧντινωνὧντινων, ὅτων

G

τῶν

τῶν

τῶν

D

οἷστισι (ν), ὅτοιςαἷστισι (ν)οἷστισι(ν), ὅτοις

D

τοῖς

ταῖς

τοῖς

495

AppendicesThree Termination AdjectivesNχαλεπόςχαλεπή

χαλεπόν

N

ἄξιος

ἀξίᾱ

ἄξιον

A

χαλεπόνχαλεπήνχαλεπόν

A

ἄξιον

ἀξίᾱν

ἄξιον

G

χαλεποῦχαλεπῆςχαλεποῦ

G

ἀξίου

ἀξίᾱς

ἀξίου

D

χαλεπῷ

χαλεπῇ

χαλεπῷ

D

ἀξίῳ

ἀξίᾱͅ

ἀξίῳ

V

χαλεπέ

χαλεπή

χαλεπόν

V

ἄξιε

ἀξίᾱ

ἄξιον

N

χαλεποίχαλεπαίχαλεπά

N

ἄξιοι

ἄξιαι

ἄξια

A

χαλεπούςχαλεπάςχαλεπά

A

ἀξίους

ἀξίᾱς

ἄξια

G

χαλεπῶνχαλεπῶνχαλεπῶν

G

ἀξίων

ἀξίων

ἀξίων

D

χαλεποῖςχαλεπαῖςχαλεποῖςDἀξίοις

ἀξίαις

ἀξίοις

V

χαλεποίχαλεπαίχαλεπά

V

ἄξιοι

ἄξιαι

ἄξια

Two Termination AdjectivesNἄδικος

ἄδικον

A

ἄδικον

ἄδικον

G

ἀδίκου

ἀδίκου

D

ἀδίκῳ

ἀδίκῳ

V

ἄδικε

ἄδικον

Nἄδικοι

ἄδικαAἀδίκους

ἄδικαGἀδίκων

ἀδίκων

Dἀδίκοις

ἀδίκοις

Vἄδικοι

ἄδικαMixed Declension Adjectives
N

πᾶς

πᾶσα

πᾶν

μέγας

μεγάλη

μέγα

A

πάντα

πᾶσαν

πᾶν

μέγαν

μεγάληνμέγαGπαντόςπάσηςπαντός

μεγάλουμεγάλης

μεγάλου

D

παντί

πάσῃ

παντί

μεγάλῳ

μεγάλῃ

μεγάλῳ

496

Ancient Greek INπάντες

πᾶσαι

πάντα

μεγάλοιμεγάλαιμεγάλαAπάντας

πάσᾱς

πάντα

μεγάλους

μεγάλᾱςμεγάλαGπάντων

πασῶνπάντων

μεγάλωνμεγάλωνμεγάλωνDπᾶσι (ν)πάσαις

πᾶσι (ν)μεγάλοις

μεγάλοις

μεγάλοις

N

πολύς

πολλή

πολύ

A

πολύν

πολλήν

πολύGπολλοῦ

πολλῆς

πολλοῦ

D

πολλῷ

πολλῇ

πολλῷ

N

πολλοί

πολλαί

πολλά

Aπολλούςπολλάς

πολλάGπολλῶν

πολλῶν

πολλῶνDπολλοῖςπολλαῖςπολλοῖς

Mixed Declension Adjective

Third Declension Adjective

Μ

F

N

M/F

N

N

ἡδύς

ἡδεῖα

ἡδύ

N

ἀληθής

ἀληθές

AἡδύνἡδεῖανἡδύAἀληθέα, ἀληθῆἀληθές

Gἡδέοςἡδείᾱς

ἡδέοςG

ἀληθέος, ἀληθοῦςἀληθέος, ἀληθοῦς

D

ἡδεῖ

ἡδείᾱͅ

ἡδεῖDἀληθεῖ

ἀληθεῖ

V

ἡδύ

ἡδεῖα

ἡδύ

V

ἀληθές

ἀληθές

Nἡδεῖςἡδεῖαι

ἡδέαN

ἀληθέες, ἀληθεῖςἀληθέα, ἀληθῆ

A

ἡδεῖς

ἡδείᾱςἡδέαAἀληθεῖςἀληθέα, ἀληθῆ

G

ἡδέων

ἡδειῶν

ἡδέωνG

ἀληθέων, ἀληθῶνἀληθέων, ἀληθῶνDἡδέσι (ν)ἡδείαις

ἡδέσι (ν)

Dἀληθέσι (ν)ἀληθέσι (ν)

V

ἡδεῖς

ἡδεῖαι

ἡδέαV

ἀληθέες, ἀληθεῖςἀληθέα, ἀληθῆFirst and Second Declension Noun Endings

N

F Set 1

F Set 2

F Set 3

F Set 4

M Set 5

M Set 6

M/F Set 7

N Set 8

η

ᾱ

α

α

ης

ᾱς

ος

ον

αι

αι

αι

αι

αι

αι

οι

α

497

Appendices

F Set 1

F Set 2

F Set 3

F Set 4

M Set 5

M Set 6

M/F Set 7

N Set 8

G

ης

ῶν

ᾱς

ῶν

ης

ῶν

ᾱς

ῶν

ου

ῶν

ου

ῶν

ου

ων

ου

ων

D

ῃ

αις

ᾱͅ

αις

ῃ

αις

ᾱͅ

αις

ῃ

αις

ᾱͅ

αις

ῳ

οις

ῳ

οις

A

ην

ᾱς

ᾱν

ᾱς

αν

ᾱς

αν

ᾱς

ην

ᾱς

ᾱν

ᾱς

ον

ους

ον

α

V

η

αι

ᾱ

αι

α

αι

α

αι

α,η

αι

ᾱ

αι

ε

οι

ον

α

Third Declension Noun Endings
M/F Set 9

N Set 10

N

---

ες

---

α

G

ος

ων

ος

ων

D

ι

σι (ν)ισι (ν)

A

α, ν

ας

---

α

V

---

ες

---

α

First Declension Nouns
N

τέχνη

χώρᾱ

θάλατταπεῖραστρατιώτηςνεανίᾱςGτέχνηςχώρᾱςθαλάττης

πείρᾱς

στρατιώτουνεανιου

D

τέχνῃ

χώρᾱͅ

θαλάττῃπείρᾱͅ

στρατιώτῃνεανίᾱͅ

A

τέχνηνχώρᾱνθάλαττανπεῖραν

στρατιώτηννεανίᾱν

V

τέχνη

χώρᾱ

θάλατταπεῖραστρατιῶτανεανίᾱNτέχναιχῶραιθάλατταιπεῖραι

στρατιῶταινεανίαιGτεχνῶνχωρῶν

θαλαττῶνπειρῶν

στρατιωτῶννεανιῶνDτέχναις

χώραις

θαλάτταις

πείραις

στρατιώταιςνεανίαιςAτέχνᾱςχώρᾱςθαλάττᾱςπείρᾱς

στρατιώτᾱςνεανίᾱςVτέχναιχῶραιθάλατταιπεῖραι

στρατιῶταινεανίαι2nd Declension Nouns

Third Declension Nouns

N

λόγος

δῶρον

φύλαξ

αἴξ

ἐλπίς

χάρις

σῶμα

G

λόγου

δώρου

φύλακος

αἰγόςἐλπίδος

χάριτος

σώματος

D

λόγῳ

δώρῳ

φύλακιαἰγίἐλπίδι

χάριτι

σώματι

A

λόγον

δῶρον

φύλακααἶγαἐλπίδα

χάριν

σῶμα

V

λόγε

δῶρον

φύλαξ

αἴξ

ἐλπί

χάρι

σῶμα

498

Ancient Greek I

N

λόγοι

δῶρα

φύλακεςαἶγες

ἐλπίδεςχάριτεςσώματα

G

λόγων

δώρων

φυλάκωναἰγῶνἐλπίδωνχαρίτωνσωμάτωνDλόγοις

δώροις

φύλαξι(ν)αἰξί(ν)ἐλπίσι(ν)χάρισι(ν)σώμασι(ν)

Aλόγουςδῶραφύλακαςαἶγας

ἐλπίδαςχάριταςσώματα

V

λόγοι

δῶρα

φύλακεςαἶγες

ἐλπίδεςχάριτεςσώματα1) Subtype 1 Nouns with Stem Ending in ρ- or ερ-:Feminine

Masculine

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

μήτηρ

μητέρεςNἀvήρἄvδρες

Gμητρός

μητέρωv

G

ἀvδρός

ἀvδρῶvDμητρίμητράσι (v)

D

ἀvδρί

ἀvδράσι (v)AμητέραμητέραςAἄvδραἄvδρας

VμῆτερμητέρεςVἄvερἄvδρες

2) Subtype 2 Nouns with Stem Ending in σ- (ablaut, contraction, anddisappearance of intervocalic sigma, -σ-):Neuter Nouns Ending in –ος: γένος race
S

Pl

N

γένος

γένεα, γένη (εσα)

Gγένεος, γένους (εσος)

γενέων, γενῶν (εσων)Dγένει (εσι)γένεσι (ν) (εσσι (ν))

A

γένος

γένεα, γένη (εσα)

V

γένος

γένεα, γένη (εσα)

Neuter Nouns Ending in –ας: γῆρας, old age
S

Pl

N

γῆρας

γήραα, γήρᾱ (ασα)

Gγήραος, γήρως (ασος)γηράων, γηρῶν (ασων)Dγήραϊ, γήρᾳ (ασι)γήρασι (ν) (ασσι (ν))

A

γῆρας

γήραα, γήρᾱ (ασα)

V

γῆρας

γήραα, γήρᾱ (ασα)

AppendicesFeminine and Masculine Nouns Ending in ης-: τριήρης trireme
S

Pl

N

τριήρης

τριήρεες, τριήρεις (εσες)Gτριήρεος, τριήρους (εσος)τριηρέων, τριήρων (εσων)Dτριήρει (εσι)τριήρεσι (ν) (εσσιν)Aτριήρεα, τριήρη (εσα)τριήρεας, τριήρεις (εσας)Vτριῆρεςτριήρεες, τριήρεις (εσες)

Proper Nouns Ending in ης-: Σωκράτης Sokrates
S

Pl

N

Σωκράτης

Σωκράτεες, Σωκράτεις (εσες)GΣωκράτεος, Σωκράτους (εσος)Σωκράτέων, Σωκράτων (εσων)DΣωκράτει (εσι)Σωκράτεσι (ν) (εσσιν)AΣωκράτεα, Σωκράτη,, Σωκράτην (εσα)Σωκράτεας, Σωκράτεις (εσας)VΣωκράτες

Σωκράτεες, Σωκράτεις (εσες)

Subtype 3 Nouns with Stem Ending in ι-:
Feminine
S

Pl

N

πόλις

πόλιες, πόληες,, πόλεις (εϝες)Gπόλιος, πόληoς,, πόλεωςπόλιωv, πόλεων (εϝων)Dπόλιι, πόλι, πόληι, πόλει (εϝι)πολίεσσι (v), πόλεσι (ν), πόλισι (ν)

A

πόλιv

πόλιας, πόληας, πόλῑς,, πόλεις

V

πόλι

πόλιες, πόληες,, πόλεις (εϝες)Subtype 4 Nouns with Stem Ending in ηυ- or ηϝ-:MasculineSPlN

βασιλεύς (ηυς)βασιλῆες, βασιλῆς, βασιλεῖς (ηϝες)Gβασιλῆος, βασιλέως (ηϝος)βασιλήων, βασιλέωv (ηϝων)Dβασιλῆι, βασιλεῖ (ηϝι)βασιλεῦσι (v) (ηυσι (ν))

A

βασιλῆα, βασιλέα (ηϝα)βασιλῆας, βασιλέᾱς later βασιλεῖς (ηϝας)V

βασιλεῦ (ηυ)βασιλῆες, βασιλῆς or βασιλεῖς

499

500

Ancient Greek I

Relative Pronoun
S

Pl

N

ὅς

ἥ

ὅ

N

οἵ

αἵ

ἅ

G

οὗ

ἧς

οὗ

G

ὧν

ὧν

ὧν

D

ᾧ

ᾗ

ᾧ

D

οἷς

αἷς

οἷς

A

ὅ

ἥν

ὅ

A

οὕς

ἅς

ἅ

1st Person Pronoun

2nd Person Pronoun

S

Pl

S

Pl

N

ἐγώ

ἡμεῖς

N

σύ

ὑμεῖς

G

ἐμοῦ, μουἡμῶνGσοῦ, σουὑμῶνDἐμοί, μοιἡμῖνDσοί, σοιὑμῖνAἐμέ, μεἡμᾶςAσέ, σεὑμᾶς

3rd Person Pronoun
S

M/F Pl

N Pl

Ν

---

σφεῖς

σφέα, σφεαGοὗ, οὑ

σφέων, σφεων

σφέων, σφεωνDοἷ, οἱ

σφίσιν, σφισιν

σφίσιν, σφισιν

A

ἕ, ἑ

σφέας, σφεας

σφέα, σφεα

Adjectives and Pronouns, Mixed Declension
Ν

εἷς

μία

ἕν

οὐδείς

οὐδεμίαοὐδένμηδείς

μηδεμία

μηδέν

G

ἑνός

μιᾶς

ἑνός

οὐδενόςοὐδεμιᾶςοὐδενόςμηδενόςμηδεμιᾶςμηδενός

D

ἑνί

μιᾷ

ἑνί

οὐδενί

οὐδεμιᾷοὐδενί

μηδενί

μηδεμιᾷμηδενί

A

ἕνα

μίαν

ἕνα

οὐδέναοὐδεμίανοὐδένμηδέναμηδεμίανμηδένAdjectives and Pronouns
N

αὐτός

αὐτή

αὐτό

οὗτος

αὕτη

τοῦτο

ὅδε

ἥδε

τόδε

G

αὐτοῦ

αὐτῆς

αὐτοῦ

τούτου

ταύτης

τούτου

τοῦδε

τῆσδε

τοῦδε

D

αὐτῷ

αὐτῇ

αὐτῷ

τούτῳ

ταύτῃ

τούτῳ

τῷδε

τῇδε

τῷδε

A

αὐτόν

αὐτήν

αὐτό

τοῦτον

ταύτην

τοῦτο

τόνδε

τήνδε

τόδε

501

Appendices

N

αὐτοί

αὐταί

αὐτά

οὗτοι

αὗται

ταῦτα

οἵδε

αἵδε

τάδε

G

αὐτῶν

αὐτῶν

αὐτῶν

τούτων

τούτων

τούτων

τῶνδε

τῶνδε

τῶνδε

D

αὐτοῖς

αὐταῖς

αὐτοῖς

τούτοις

ταύταις

τούτοις

τοῖσδεταῖσδετοῖσδεAαὐτούς

αὐτάς

αὐτά

τούτους

ταύταςταῦτατούσδε

τάσδε

τάδε

N

ἐκεῖνος

ἐκείνη

ἐκεῖνο

τίς

τί

τις

τι

G

ἐκείνουἐκείνης

ἐκείνουτίνος, τοῦτίνος, τοῦτινός, τουτινός, τουDἐκείνῳ

ἐκείνῃ

ἐκείνῳ

τίνι, τῷτίνι, τῷτινί, τῳτινί, τῳAἐκεῖνονἐκείνηνἐκεῖνο

τίνα

τί

τινά

τι

N

ἐκεῖνοιἐκεῖναιἐκεῖνα

τίνες

τίνα

τινές

τινά

G

ἐκείνωνἐκείνωνἐκείνων

τίνων

τίνων

τινῶν

τινῶν

D

ἐκείνοις

ἐκείναιςἐκείνοις

τίσι(ν)τίσι(ν)τισί(ν)τισί(ν)Aἐκείνους

ἐκείναςἐκεῖνα

τίνας

τίνα

τινάς

τινά

The Indefinite Adjective and Pronoun

The Definitive Article

N

ὅστις

ἥτι

ὅτι

ὁ

ἡ

τό

G

οὗτινος, ὅτουἧστινος

οὗτινος, ὅτου

τοῦ

τῆς

τοῦ

D

ᾧτινι, ὅτῳᾗτινιὧτινι, ὅτῳ

τῷ

τῇ

τῷ

A

ὅντιναἥντινα

ὅτι

τόν

τήν

τό

N

οἵτινεςαἵτινες

ἅτινα

οἱ

αἱ

τά

G

ὧντινων, ὅτωνὧντινωνὧντινων, ὅτων

τῶν

τῶν

τῶν

D

οἷστισι (ν), ὅτοιςαἷστισι (ν)οἷστισι(ν), ὅτοις

τοῖς

ταῖς

τοῖς

A

οὕστινας

ἅστινας

ἅτινα

τούς

τάς

τά

Three Termination AdjectivesNχαλεπόςχαλεπή

χαλεπόν

ἄξιος

ἀξίᾱ

ἄξιον

G

χαλεποῦχαλεπῆςχαλεποῦ

ἀξίου

ἀξίᾱς

ἀξίου

D

χαλεπῷ

χαλεπῇ

χαλεπῷ

ἀξίῳ

ἀξίᾱͅ

ἀξίῳ

A

χαλεπόνχαλεπήνχαλεπόν

ἄξιον

ἀξίᾱν

ἄξιον

V

χαλεπέ

χαλεπή

χαλεπόν

ἄξιε

ἀξίᾱ

ἄξιον

502

Ancient Greek INχαλεποίχαλεπαίχαλεπά

ἄξιοι

ἄξιαι

ἄξια

G

χαλεπῶνχαλεπῶνχαλεπῶν

ἀξίων

ἀξίων

ἀξίων

D

χαλεποῖςχαλεπαῖςχαλεποῖςἀξίοις

ἀξίαις

ἀξίοις

A

χαλεπούςχαλεπάςχαλεπά

ἀξίους

ἀξίᾱς

ἄξια

V

χαλεποίχαλεπαίχαλεπά

ἄξιοι

ἄξιαι

ἄξια

Two Termination AdjectivesNἄδικος

ἄδικον

G

ἀδίκου

ἀδίκου

D

ἀδίκῳ

ἀδίκῳ

A

ἄδικον

ἄδικον

Vἄδικεἄδικον

Nἄδικοι

ἄδικαGἀδίκων

ἀδίκων

Dἀδίκοις

ἀδίκοις

A

ἀδίκους

ἄδικαVἄδικοι

ἄδικαMixed Declension Adjectives
N

πᾶς

πᾶσα

πᾶν

μέγας

μεγάλη

μέγαGπαντόςπάσηςπαντός

μεγάλουμεγάλης

μεγάλου

D

παντί

πάσῃ

παντί

μεγάλῳ

μεγάλῃ

μεγάλῳ

A

πάντα

πᾶσαν

πᾶν

μέγαν

μεγάληνμέγαNπάντες

πᾶσαι

πάντα

μεγάλοιμεγάλαιμεγάλαGπάντων

πασῶνπάντων

μεγάλωνμεγάλωνμεγάλωνDπᾶσι (ν)πάσαις

πᾶσι (ν)μεγάλοις

μεγάλοις

μεγάλοιςAπάντας

πάσᾱς

πάντα

μεγάλους

μεγάλᾱςμεγάλα

N

πολύς

πολλή

πολύ

G

πολλοῦ

πολλῆς

πολλοῦ

D

πολλῷ

πολλῇ

πολλῷ

A

πολύν

πολλήν

πολύ

503

AppendicesNπολλοί

πολλαί

πολλάGπολλῶν

πολλῶν

πολλῶνDπολλοῖςπολλαῖςπολλοῖςAπολλούςπολλάς

πολλάMixed Declension Adjective
Μ

F

N

N

ἡδύς

ἡδεῖα

ἡδύ

G

ἡδέος

ἡδείᾱςDἡδεῖA

Third Declension Adjective
M/F

N

N

ἀληθής

ἀληθές

ἡδέοςG

ἀληθέος, ἀληθοῦςἀληθέος, ἀληθοῦςἡδείᾱͅ

ἡδεῖDἀληθεῖ

ἀληθεῖἡδύνἡδεῖανἡδύAἀληθέα, ἀληθῆἀληθές

V

ἡδύ

ἡδεῖα

ἡδύ

V

ἀληθές

ἀσφαλέςN

ἡδεῖςἡδεῖαι

ἡδέαN

ἀληθέες, ἀληθεῖςἀληθέα, ἀληθῆ

G

ἡδέων

ἡδειῶν

ἡδέωνG

ἀληθέων, ἀληθῶνἀληθέων, ἀληθῶνDἡδέσι (ν)ἡδείαις

ἡδέσι (ν)

Dἀληθέσι (ν)ἀληθέσι (ν)

A

ἡδεῖς

ἡδείᾱςἡδέαAἀληθεῖςἀληθέα, ἀληθῆ

V

ἡδεῖς

ἡδεῖαι

ἡδέαV

ἀληθέες, ἀληθεῖςἀληθέα, ἀληθῆAppendix V: The ω-Verb
Indicative Αctive
Present

Imperfect

Future

1st Aorist

2nd Aorist

1st

ω

ον

ω

α

ον

2nd

εις

ες

εις

ας

ες

3

ει

ε (ν)

ει

ε (ν)

ε (ν)

1st

ομεν

ομεν

ομεν

αμεν

ομεν

2

ετε

ετε

ετε

ατε

ετε

ουσι (ν)ονουσι (ν)

αν

ον

rd

nd

3rd

504

Ancient Greek I

Indicative Middle and Passive
Present

Future

st

ομαι

ομαι

2nd

ει, ῃ

ει, ῃ

3rd

εται

εται

1st

ομεθα

ομεθα

2

nd

εσθε

εσθε

3rd

ονται

ονται

1

Infinitive Αctive
Present

Imperfect

Future

1st Aorist

2nd Aoristειν------

ειν

αι

εῖν

Infinitive Middle
Present

Imperfect

Future

1st Aorist

2nd Aoristεσθαι------

εσθαι

ασθαι

έσθαι

Infinitive Passive
Present

Imperfect

Future

1st Aorist

2nd Aoristεσθαι------

εσθαι

ῆναι

ῆναι

Appendix VI: εἰμί, εἶμι, and οἶδαεἰμίPresent Indicative Active

Imperfect Indicative Active

1st

εἰμί

ἦν, ἦ

2nd

εἶ, εἶς

ἦσθα

3

rd

ἐστί (ν)

ἦν

1st

ἐσμέν

ἦμεν

2nd

ἐστέ

ἦτε

3rd

εἰσί (ν)

ἦσαν

505

AppendicesΙnfinitive: εἶναιεἶμιPresent Indicative Active

Imperfect Indicative Active

1st

εἶμι

ᾖα, ᾔειν2ndεἶ

ᾔεις, ᾔεισθα3εἶσι (ν)ᾔει, ᾔειν

1st

ἴμεν

ᾖμεν

2nd

ἴτε

ᾖτε

3rd

ἴᾱσι (ν)ᾖσαν, ᾖεσανrdPresent Infinitive Active: ἰέναιPresent Participles of εἰμί and εἶμι:
εἰμί being
M

F

N

M

F

N

N/V

ὤν

οὖσα

ὄν

ὄντες

οὖσαι

ὄντα

A

ὄντα

οὖσαν

ὄν

ὄντας

οὔσᾱς

ὄντα

G

ὄντος

οὔσης

ὄντος

ὄντων

οὐσῶν

ὄντων

D

ὄντι

οὔσῃ

ὄντι

οὖσι (ν)οὔσαις

οὖσι (ν)

M

F

N

M

F

N

N/V

ἰών

ἰοῦσα

ἰόν

ἰόντες

ἰοῦσαι

ἰόντα

A

ἰόντα

ἰοῦσανἰόνἰόντας

ἰούσᾱς

ἰόνταGἰόντος

ἰούσης

ἰόντος

ἰόντων

ἰουσῶν

ἰόντων

D

ἰόντι

ἰούσῃ

ἰόντι

ἰοῦσι (ν)ἰούσαις

ἰοῦσι (ν)

M

F

N

M

F

N

N/V

ὤν

οὖσα

ὄν

ὄντες

οὖσαι

ὄντα

G

ὄντος

οὔσης

ὄντος

ὄντων

οὐσῶν

ὄντων

D

ὄντι

οὔσῃ

ὄντι

οὖσι (ν)οὔσαις

οὖσι (ν)

A

ὄντα

οὖσαν

ὄν

ὄντας

οὔσᾱς

ὄντα

εἶμι coming, goingεἰμί being

506

Ancient Greek Iεἶμι coming, going
M

F

N

M

F

N

N/V

ἰών

ἰοῦσα

ἰόν

ἰόντες

ἰοῦσαι

ἰόνταGἰόντος

ἰούσης

ἰόντος

ἰόντων

ἰουσῶν

ἰόντων

D

ἰόντι

ἰούσῃ

ἰόντι

ἰοῦσι (ν)ἰούσαις

ἰοῦσι (ν)

A

ἰόντα

ἰοῦσανἰόνἰόντας

ἰούσᾱς

ἰόνταοἶδαPerfect Indicative Active (with present meanings)

1st

οἶδα

2nd

οἶσθα, οἶδας3οἶδε (ν)

rd

1stἴσμεν or οἴδαμεν

2nd

ἴστε, οἴδατε3rd

ἴσᾱσι (ν)

Perfect Infinitive Active (with present meanings)εἰδέναιAppendix VII: Additional μι-Verbs ἀπόλλῡμι,δείκνῡμι, δίδωμι, δύναμαι, ἵημι, ἵστημι, κεῖμαι,τίθημι, φημίἀπόλλῡμι
Present Indicative ActiveΙmperfect Indicative Activestἀπόλλῡμιἀπώλλῡν2nd

ἀπόλλῡςἀπώλλῡς3rd

ἀπόλλῡ (ν)ἀπώλλῡ

1

Appendices1stἀπόλλυμεν

ἀπώλλυμεν

2nd

ἀπόλλυτε

ἀπώλλυτε3rd

ἀπολλύᾱσι (ν)ἀπώλλυσαν

Present Infinitive Activeἀπολλύναι

Pres. Indicative Middle and PassiveΙmperfect Ind. Middle and Passive

1stἀπόλλυμαιἀπωλλύμην2nd

ἀπόλλυσαιἀπώλλυσο3rd

ἀπόλλυταιἀπώλλυτο

1stἀπολλύμεθαἀπωλλύμεθα2nd

ἀπόλλυσθε

ἀπώλλυσθε3ἀπόλλυνταιἀπώλλυντο

rdFuture Indicative Active, Middle, and Passive
Same as ω-verbs

Aorist Indicative Active, Middle, and Passive
Same as ω-verbs

δείκνῡμι
Present Indicative ActiveΙmperfect Indicative Activestδείκνῡμιἐδείκνῡν

2nd

δείκνῡςἐδείκνῡς

3rd

δείκνῡ (ν)ἐδείκνῡ1stδείκνυμενἐδείκνυμεν

2δείκνυτεἐδείκνυτεδεικνύᾱσι (ν)ἐδείκνυσαν

1

nd

3rd

507

508

Ancient Greek I

Present Infinitive Activeδεικνύναι

Pres. Indicative Middle and PassiveΙmperfect Ind. Middle and Passive

1stδείκνυμαιἐδεικνύμην

2ndδείκνυσαιἐδείκνυσο

3rd

δείκνυταιἐδείκνυτο

1stδεικνύμεθαἐδεικνύμεθα2nd

δείκνυσθεἐδείκνυσθε

3rd

δείκνυνταιἐδείκνυντο

Future Indicative Active, Middle, and Passive
Same as ω-verbs

Aorist Indicative Active, Middle and Passive
Same as ω-verbsδίδωμι
Present IndicativeΙmperfect Indicative

ActiveActivestδίδωμι

ἐδίδουν

2nd

δίδως

ἐδίδους

3rdδίδωσι (ν)ἐδίδου

1stδίδομενἐδίδομεν2δίδοτεἐδίδοτεδιδόᾱσι (ν)ἐδίδοσαν

1

nd

3rd

Present Infinitive ActiveδιδόναιAppendicesPres. Indicative Middle

Ιmperf. Ind. Middle andand Passive

Passive1stδίδομαιἐδιδόμην2ndδίδοσαιἐδίδοσο3rdδίδοταιἐδίδοτο1stδιδόμεθαἐδιδόμεθα2ndδίδοσθεἐδίδοσθε3δίδονταιἐδίδοντοrdPresent Infinitive Middle and Passive of δίδωμιδίδοσθαιFuture Indicative Active, Middle, and Passive
Same as ω-verbs
Aorist Indicative Active

Aorist Indicative Middle

st

ἔδωκα

ἐδόμην2ndἔδωκας

ἔδου (οσο)

3rdἔδωκε (ν)

ἔδοτο

1st

ἔδομεν

ἐδόμεθα

2

nd

ἔδοτε

ἔδοσθε3rdἔδοσαν

ἔδοντο

1

Aorist Indicative Passive
Same as ω-verbs
Aorist Infinitive Activeδοῦναι
Aorist Infinitive Middleδόσθαι
Aorist Infinitive Passive
Same as ω-verbs

509

510

Ancient Greek IδύναμαιPres. Indicative Middle andΙmperf. Ind. Middle andPassive

Passivestδύναμαιἐδυνάμην2ndδύνασαιἐδύνω (ασο)

3δύναταιἐδύνατο1stδυνάμεθαἐδυνάμεθα2ndδύνασθεἐδύνασθε3rdδύνανταιἐδύναντο1rdPresent Infinitive Middle and PassiveδύνασθαιFuture Indicative Middle
Same as ω-verbs
Aorist Indicative Passive
Same as ω-verbs

ἵημι
Present Indicative ActiveΙmperfect Indicative Active

1st

ἵημι

ἵην (ῑ)2ndἵης, ἱεῖς

ἵεις

3rd

ἵησι (ν)

ἵει

1st

ἵεμεν

ἵεμεν

2nd

ἵετε

ἵετε

3

ἱέᾱσι (ν), ἱᾶσι (ν)

ἵεσαν

rd

Present Infinitive ActiveἱέναιAppendicesPres. Indicative Middle andΙmperf. Ind. Middle andPassive

Passive

1st

ἵεμαι

ἱέμην (ῑ)

2

nd

ἵεσαι

ἵεσο

3rd

ἵεται

ἵετο

1st

ἱέμεθαἱέμεθα

2nd

ἵεσθε

ἵεσθε

3

ἵενται

ἵεντο

rdPresent Infinitive Middle and Passiveἵεσθαι
Future Indicative Active, Middle, and Passive
Same as ω-verbs
Aorist Indicative Active

Aorist Indicative Middle

st

-ἧκα

-εἵμην

2nd

-ἧκας

-εἷσο

3rd

-ἧκε (ν)

-εἷτο

1st

-εἷμεν

-εἵμεθα

2

nd

-εἷτε

-εἷσθε3rd-εἷσαν

-εἷντο

1

Aorist Indicative Passive
Same as ω-verbs
Aorist Infinitive Active-εἷναι
Aorist Infinitive Middle-ἕσθαι
Aorist Infinitive Passive
Same as ω-verbs

511

512

Ancient Greek Iἵστημι
Present Indicative ActiveΙmperfect Indicative Activestἵστημι

ἵστην (ῑ)

2nd

ἵστης

ἵστης

3rd

ἵστησι (ν)

ἵστη

1st

ἵσταμενἵσταμεν2

ἵστατεἵστατεἱστάᾱσι (ν) or ἱστᾶσι (ν)ἵστασαν

1

nd

3rd

Present Infinitive ActiveἱστάναιPres. Indicative Middle andΙmperf. Ind. Middle andPassive

Passive1stἵσταμαιἱστάμην (ῑ)

2ndἵστασαιἵστασο

3rd

ἵσταταιἵστατο

1stἱστάμεθαἱστάμεθα2nd

ἵστασθεἵστασθε3ἵστανταιἵσταντοrdPresent Infinitive Middle and Passive
ἵστασθαιFuture Indicative Active, Middle, and Passive
Same as ω-verbs
Aorist Indicative Active

Aorist Indicative Middle

st

ἔστην

None

2nd

ἔστης

3rd

ἔστη

1

Appendices1stἔστημεν2ndἔστητε3rd

ἔστησανAorist Indicative Passive
None
Aorist Infinitive Activeστῆναι
Aorist Infinitive Middle
None
Aorist Infinitive PassiveNoneκεῖμαι
Present Indicative Middle andΙmp. Ind. Middle and Passive

Passive1stκεῖμαι

ἐκείμην2nd

κεῖσαι

ἔκεισο3rd

κεῖται

ἔκειτο

1st

κείμεθαἐκείμεθα2ndκεῖσθεἔκεισθε3rd

κεῖνταιἔκειντο

Present Infinitive Middle and PassiveκεῖσθαιFuture Indicative Middle
Same as ω-verbs

513

514

Ancient Greek Iτίθημι
Present Indicative ActiveΙmperfect Indicative Activestτίθημι

ἐτίθην

2ndτίθηςἐτίθεις

3rdτίθησι (ν)ἐτίθει

1stτίθεμενἐτίθεμεν2τίθετεἐτίθετετιθέᾱσι (ν)ἐτίθεσαν

1

nd

3rd

Present Infinitive ActiveτιθέναιPres. Indicative Middle andΙmperf. Ind. Middle andPassive

Passive1stτίθεμαιἐτιθέμην2ndτίθεσαιἐτίθεσο3rdτίθεταιἐτίθετο1stτιθέμεθαἐτιθέμεθα2ndτίθεσθεἐτίθεσθε3τίθενταιἐτίθεντοrdPresent Infinitive Middle and PassiveτίθεσθαιFuture Indicative Active, Middle, and Passive
Same as ω-verbs
Aorist Indicative Active

Aorist Indicative Middle

1st

ἔθηκα

ἐθέμην2ndἔθηκας

ἔθου (εσο)

3rdἔθηκε (ν)ἔθετο

Appendices1stἔθεμεν

ἐθέμεθα

2nd

ἔθετε

ἔθεσθε3rd

ἔθεσαν

ἔθεντο

Aorist Indicative Passive
Same as ω-verbs
Aorist Infinitive Activeθεῖναι
Aorist Infinitive Middleθέσθαι
Aorist Infinitive Passive
Same as ω-verbs

φημί
Present Indicative ActiveΙmperfect Indicative Active

1st

φημί

ἔφην

2

φής, φῄς, φῇσθαἔφης, ἔφησθα

3rd

φησί (ν)

ἔφη

1st

φαμέν

ἔφαμεν

2nd

φατέ

ἔφατε

3

φᾱσί (ν)ἔφασαν

ndrdPresent Infinitive Active
φάναι

515

516

Ancient Greek I

Appendix VIII: Adjective, Adverb, Noun, Pronoun Chart
First, Second, and Third Declension Noun Sets
Set 1
F

η
ην
ης
ῃ
η

N
A
G
D
V

αι
ᾱς
ῶν
αις
αι

Set 2
F ε, ι, ρ

ᾱ
ᾱν
ᾱς
ᾱͅ
ᾱ

αι
ᾱς
ῶν
αις
αι

Set 3
F

α
αν
ης
ῃ
α

1st Declension
Set 4F ε, ι, ρ

αι
ᾱς
ῶν
αις
αι

α
αν
ᾱς
ᾱͅ
α

αι
ᾱς
ῶν
αις
αι

Set 5
M

ης
ην
ου
ῃ
α, η

Set 6
M ε, ι, ρ

αι
ᾱς
ῶν
αις
αι

ᾱς
ᾱν
ου
ᾱͅ
ᾱ

αι
ᾱς
ῶν
αις
αι

2nd Declension
Set 7
Set 8
M/F
Neuter

ος
ον
ου
ῳ
ε

οι
ους
ων
οις
οι

ον
ον
ου
ῳ
ον

α
α
ων
οις
α

3rd Declension
Set 9
Set 10
M/F
Neuter

-α,ν
ος
ι
--

ες
ας
ων
σι(ν)
ες

--ος
ι
--

α
α
ων
σι(ν)
α

Third Declension Subtype Nouns (contractions: εα= η; εε = ει; εο = ου; εω = ω; ηε = η)Subtype 1 M/Fμήτηρ μητέρες
μητέρα μητέρας
μητρός μητέρων
μητρί μητράσι (ν)μῆτερ μητέρες

N
A
G
D
V

Neuterγένοςγένεα/ηγένοςγένεα/ηγἐνεος/ους γενέων/ῶνγένειγένεσι (ν)γένοςγένεα/η

Third Declension Subtype 4

N βασιλεύς
A βασιλῆα/έᾱ
G βασιλῆος/έωςD βασιλῆι/εῖV βασιλεῦ

βασιλῆες/ῆς/εῖς
βασιλῆας/έᾱς/εῖς
βασιλήων/έωνβασιλεῦσι (ν)βασιλῆες/ῆς/εῖς

F
N
ἡ
τό
τήν τό
τῆς τοῦτῇ τῷ

M/F

1st and 2nd Personal Pronounsσύσέ/σεσοῦ/σουσοί/σοι

ὑμεῖς
ὑμᾶς
ὑμῶν
ὑμῖν

Relative Pronoun

M
F
N
οἱ
αἱ
τά
τούς τάς (ᾱ) τάτῶν τῶντῶντοῖς ταῖςτοῖςSubtype 3τριήρης
τριήρεες/ειςτριήρεα/ητριήρεας/ειςτριήρεος/ους τριηρέων/ωντριήρειτριήρεσι (ν)τριῆρεςτριήρεες/εις

ἐγώ
ἡμεῖς
ἐμέ/μεἡμᾶςἐμοῦ/μου ἡμῶνἐμοί/μοι ἡμῖν

Article
M
Nὁ
A τόν
G τοῦ
D τῷ

Subtype 2

M
ὅς
ὅν
οὗ
ᾧ

F N
M
ἥ
ὅ
οἵ
ἥν ὅ
οὕς
ἧς οὗ ὧν
ᾗ
ᾧ οἷς

F
N
αἵ
ἅ
ἅς (ᾱ) ἅ
ὧν
ὧν
αἷς
οἷς

πόλις
πόλιες/ηες/ειςπόλινπόλιας/ηας/ῑς/ειςπόλιος/ηος/εως πόλιων/εωνπόλιι/ι/ηι/ειπόλιεσσι/εσι/ισι(ν)πόλιπόλιες/ηες/εις

3rd Personal Pronoun

M/FN
N σφεῖςσφέα or σφεα
A σφέας or σφεας
σφέα or σφεα
G σφέων or σφεων
σφέων or σφεων
D σφίσι(ν) or σφισι(ν) σφίσι(ν) or σφισι(ν)

Interrogative Pronoun/Adjective;
Indefinite Pr/Adj. is τις, τι (enclitic)

M/F
N
τίς
τί
τίνα
τί
τίνος/τοῦ τίνος/τοῦτίνι/τῷτίνι/τῷ

M/F
τίνες
τίνας
τίνων
τίσι (ν)

N
τίνα
τίνα
τίνων
τίσι (ν)

Third Declension Adjectives

M/F
N
M/F
N
ἄφρων
ἄφρονεςἄφρονἄφροναἀληθής
ἀληθέες/εῖςἀληθές
ἀληθέα/ῆἄφροναἄφροναςἄφρονἄφροναἀληθέα/ῆἀληθέας/εῖςἀληθές
ἀληθέα/ῆἄφρονος
ἀφρόνωνἄφρονος
ἀφρόνωνἀληθέος/οῦςἀληθέων/ῶνἀληθέος/οῦςἀληθέων/ῶνἄφρονι
ἄφροσι (ν) ἄφρονιἄφροσι (ν) ἀληθεῖἀληθέσι (ν)ἀληθεῖ
ἀληθέσι (ν)ἄφρονἄφρονεςἄφρονἄφροναἀληθές
ἀληθέες/εῖςἀληθές
ἀληθέα/ῆ
M/F
Ν
Μ
F
N
ἡδίων
ἡδίονες/ἡδίουςἥδιονἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδύς ἡδεῖςἡδεῖα ἡδεῖαιἡδύ ἡδέαἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδίονας/ἡδίους ἥδιονἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδύν ἡδεῖςἡδεῖαν ἡδείαςἡδύ ἡδέαἡδίονος
ἡδιόνωνἡδίονος ἡδιόνων
ἡδέος ἡδέωνἡδείας ἡδειῶνἡδέος ἡδέωνἡδίονι
ἡδίοσι(ν)ἡδίονι
ἡδίοσι(ν)ἡδεῖ ἡδέσι (ν)ἡδείᾳ ἡδείαιςἡδεῖ ἡδέσι (ν)ἥδιονἡδίονες/ἡδίουςἥδιονἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδύ ἡδεῖςἡδεῖα ἡδεῖαιἡδύ ἡδέα

N
A
G
D
V
N
A
G
D
V

First and Second Declension Adjectives of the
Positive Degree
M

Three-EndingF ε, ι, ρ = ᾱ

N

Set 7

Set 1 or Set 2

Set 8

Two-Ending
M/F
N

Set 7

Set 8

Comparative and Superlative
Adjectives

Comparative: -τερος, -α, -ον; -ίων, -ιονSuperlative: -τατος, -η, -ον; -ιστος, -η, -ον

Adverbs-ως, -ως-τερον; -ιον-τατα; -ιστα

1

517

AppendicesFirst, Second, and Third Declension Noun Sets
Set 1
F

η
ης
ῃ
ην
η

N
G
D
A
V

αι
ῶν
αις
ᾱς
αι

Set 2
F ε, ι, ρ

ᾱ
ᾱς
ᾱͅ
ᾱν
ᾱ

αι
ῶν
αις
ᾱς
αι

Set 3
F

α
ης
ῃ
αν
α

1st Declension
Set 4F ε, ι, ρ

αι
ῶν
αις
ᾱς
αι

α
ᾱς
ᾱͅ
αν
α

αι
ῶν
αις
ᾱς
αι

Set 5
M

ης
ου
ῃ
ην
α, η

αι
ῶν
αις
ᾱς
αι

Set 6
M ε, ι, ρ

ᾱς
ου
ᾱͅ
ᾱν
ᾱ

αι
ῶν
αις
ᾱς
αι

2nd Declension
Set 7
Set 8
M/F
Neuter

ος
ου
ῳ
ον
ε

οι
ων
οις
ους
οι

ον
ου
ῳ
ον
ον

α
ων
οις
α
α

3rd Declension
Set 9
Set 10
M/F
Neuter

-ος
ι
α,ν
--

ες
ων
σι(ν)
ας
ες

-ος
ι
---

α
ων
σι(ν)
α
α

Third Declension Subtype Nouns (contractions: εα= η; εε = ει; εο = ου; εω = ω; ηε = η)Subtype 1 M/Fμήτηρμητρός
μητρίμητέρα
μῆτερ

N
G
D
A
V
N
G
D
A
V

μητέρεςμητέρωνμητράσι (ν)μητέραςμητέρες

Neuterγένοςγἐνεος/ους
γένει
γένος
γένος

Third Declension Subtype 4βασιλεύς
βασιλῆες/ῆς/εῖς
βασιλῆος/έως βασιλήων/έωνβασιλῆι/εῖβασιλεῦσι (ν)βασιλῆα/έᾱβασιλῆας/έᾱς/εῖς
βασιλεῦβασιλῆες/ῆς/εῖς

M F
N
ὁ
ἡ
τό
τοῦ τῆς τοῦτῷ τῇτῷτόν τήν τό

M/F

ἡμεῖς
ἡμῶν
ἡμῖν
ἡμᾶς

σύ
σοῦ/σουσοί/σοι
σέ/σε

ὑμεῖς
ὑμῶν
ὑμῖν
ὑμᾶς

Relative Pronoun

M
F
N
οἱ
αἱ
τά
τῶν τῶντῶντοῖς ταῖςτοῖςτούς τάς (ᾱ) τάSubtype 3τριήρης
τριήρεες/ειςτριήρεος/ους τριηρέων/ωντριήρειτριήρεσι (ν)τριήρεα/ητριήρεας/ειςτριῆρεςτριήρεες/εις

1st and 2nd Personal Pronouns

ἐγώἐμοῦ/μουἐμοί/μοιἐμέ/μεArticleN
G
D
A

Subtype 2γένεα/ηγενέων/ῶνγένεσι (ν)γένεα/ηγένεα/η

M F N
ὅς ἥ ὅοὗ ἧς οὗᾧ ᾗᾧὅν ἥν ὅ

M
οἵ
ὧν
οἷς
οὕς

F
N
αἵ
ἅ
ὧν
ὧν
αἷς
οἷς
ἅς (ᾱ) ἅπόλιςπόλιες/ηες/ειςπόλιος/ηος/εως πόλιων/εωνπόλιι/ι/ηι/ειπόλιεσσι/εσι/ισι(ν)πόλινπόλιας/ηας/ῑς/ειςπόλιπόλιες/ηες/εις

3rd Personal Pronoun

M/FN
N σφεῖςσφέα or σφεα
G σφέων or σφεων
σφέων or σφεων
D σφίσι(ν) or σφισι(ν) σφίσι(ν) or σφισι(ν)
A σφέας or σφεας
σφέα or σφεαInterrogative Pronoun/Adjective;
Indefinite Pr/Adj. is τις, τι (enclitic)

M/Fτίςτίνος/τοῦτίνι/τῷτίνα

Third Declension Adjectives

M/F
N
M/F
ἄφρων
ἄφρονεςἄφρονἄφροναἀληθής
ἀληθέες/εῖςἄφρονος
ἀφρόνωνἄφρονος
ἀφρόνωνἀληθέος/οῦςἀληθέων/ῶνἄφρονι
ἄφροσι (ν) ἄφρονιἄφροσι (ν) ἀληθεῖἀληθέσι (ν)ἄφροναἄφροναςἄφρονἄφροναἀληθέα/ῆἀληθέας/εῖςἄφρονἄφρονεςἄφρονἄφροναἀληθές
ἀληθέες/εῖς
M/F
Ν
Μ
ἡδίων
ἡδίονες/ἡδίουςἥδιονἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδύς ἡδεῖςἡδεῖαἡδίονος
ἡδιόνωνἡδίονος ἡδιόνων
ἡδέος ἡδέωνἡδείας
ἡδίονι
ἡδίοσι(ν)ἡδίονι
ἡδίοσι(ν)ἡδεῖἡδέσι (ν) ἡδείᾳἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδίονας/ἡδίους ἥδιονἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδύν ἡδεῖςἡδεῖανἥδιονἡδίονες/ἡδίουςἥδιονἡδίονα/ἡδίω ἡδύ
ἡδεῖς
ἡδεῖα

N
G
D
A
V
N
G
D
A
V

First and Second Declension Adjectives of the
Positive Degree
M

Three-EndingF ε, ι, ρ = ᾱ

N

Set 7

Set 1 or Set 2

Set 8

Two-Ending
M/F
N

Set 7

Set 8

N
τί
τίνος/τοῦτίνι/τῷ
τί

M/F
τίνες
τίνων
τίσι (ν)
τίνας

N
τίνα
τίνων
τίσι (ν)τίνα

Nἀληθές
ἀληθέα/ῆἀληθέος/οῦςἀληθέων/ῶνἀληθεῖ
ἀληθέσι (ν)ἀληθές
ἀληθέα/ῆἀληθές
ἀληθέα/ῆFNἡδεῖαιἡδύἡδέαἡδειῶν
ἡδέος ἡδέωνἡδείαιςἡδεῖἡδέσι (ν)ἡδείαςἡδύἡδέαἡδεῖαι
ἡδύἡδέαComparative and Superlative
Adjectives

Comparative: -τερος, -α, -ον; -ίων, -ιονSuperlative: -τατος, -η, -ον; -ιστος, -η, -ον

Adverbs-ως, -ως-τερον; -ιον-τατα; -ιστα518

Ancient Greek I

Appendix IX: Verb Chart
Present–I
Future–II/II/VI*

Imperfect–I + p.i.a.

1st Aorist–III/III/VI +p.i.a.

2nd Aorist–III/III/VI +p.i.a.

Perfect–IV/V/V

Pluperfect–IV/V/V +p.i.a.

Present
AoristPresent & Future
1 Aorist
2 Aorist

Present & Future
1st-Aorist no p.i.a.
2nd-Aorist no p.i.a.
Perfect
Present
1 Aorist
2 Aorist

ω
εις
ει
ον
ες
ε (ν)
α
ας
ε (ν)
oν
ες
ε (ν)
α
ας
ε (ν)
η
ης
ει (ν)

Activeομεν
ετεουσι (ν)
ομεν
ετε
ον
αμεν
ατε
αν
ομεν
ετε
ον
αμεν
ατε
ᾱσι (ν)
εμεν
ετε
εσαν

ω
ῃς
ῃ
ω
ῃς
ῃ

οιμι
οις
οι
αιμι
αις, ειαςαι, ειε(ν)
οιμι
οις
οι

ε
ετω
ον
ατω
ε
ετω

ωμεν
ητε
ωσι(ν)
ωμενητε
ωσι(ν)

ετε
οντων
ατε
αντων
ετε
οντων

ομαι
ει, ῃ
εται
ομην
ου
ετο
αμην
ω
ατο
ομην
ου
ετο
μαι
σαι
ται
μην
σο
το

Subjunctive

οιμεν
οιτε
οιεν
αιμεν
αιτε
αιεν, ειαν
οιμεν
οιτε
οιεν

ειν
´αι
εῖν
έναι

* – VI, minus ending, minus p.i.a., plus -ησ-Indicative

ωμαι
ῃ
ηται
ωμαι
ῃ
ηται

Optative
οιμην
οιο
οιτο
αιμην
αιο
αιτο
οιμην
οιο
οιτο

Infinitive

Imperative
ου
εσθω
αι
ασθω
οῦ
εσθω

Middle

ομεθα
εσθε
ονται
ομεθα
εσθε
οντο
αμεθα
ασθε
αντο
ομεθα
εσθε
οντο
μεθα
σθε
νται
μεθα
σθε
ντο

ομαι
ει, ῃ
εται
ομην
ου
ετο
ην
ης
η
ην
ης
η
μαι
σαι
ται
μην
σο
το

οιμεθαοισθεοιντοαιμεθααισθεαιντοοιμεθα
οισθε
οιντο

οιμην
οιο
οιτο
είην
είης
είη
είην
είης
είη

ωμεθα
ησθε
ωνται
ωμεθα
ησθε
ωνται

εσθαι
ασθαι
έσθαι
´σθαι

εσθε
εσθων
ασθε
ασθων
εσθε
εσθων

ωμαι
ῃ
ηται
ῶ
ῇς
ῇ

ου
εσθω
ηθι, ητιητωηθι, ητιητω

Passive
ομεθα
εσθε
ονται
ομεθα
εσθε
οντο
ημεν
ητε
ησαν
ημεν
ητε
ησαν
μεθα
σθε
νται
μεθα
σθε
ντο

ωμεθα
ησθε
ωνται
ῶμεν
ῆτε
ῶσι (ν)οιμεθαοισθεοιντοεῖμεν, είημεν
εῖτε, είητεεῖεν, είησανεῖμεν, είημεν
εῖτε, είητεεῖεν, είησαν

εσθαι
ῆναι
ῆναι
´σθαι

εσθε
εσθων
ητε
εντων
ητε
εντων

** – Fixed Accents on 2nd Aorist Active Participle

1

519

Appendices

Alternate Present and Future Optative Active, Contract Verbsαε→ ᾱαει→ ᾱͅαη→ ᾱ
αῃ→ ᾱͅ

οιην
οιης
οιη

οιημενοιητεοιησαν

Contract Verbs

αοι→ ῳαο→ ωαου→ ω
αω→ ωεε→ ει
εει→ ει
εη→ η
εῃ→ ῃ

εο→ ου
εοι→ οιεου→ ουεω→ ωοε→ ου
οει→ οιοη→ ω
οῃ→ οι

Present Infinitive Active and Middle/Passiveάειν (άεεν)→ᾶνάεσθαι→ᾶσθαι

π, β, φ +μαι → μμαισαι → ψαιται → πταιμεθα → μμεθα
σθε → φθε------------σθαι → φθαιSingular

N
A
G
D

Masculine

ων
οντα
οντος
οντι

Feminine

N
A
G
D

ᾱς
αντα
αντος
αντι

ᾱσα
ᾱσαν
ᾱσης
ᾱσῃ

έειν→εῖνέεσθαι→εῖσθαιConsonant Stems
κ, γ, χ +μαι → γμαισαι → ξαιται → κταιμεθα → γμεθα
σθε → χθε-----------σθαι → χθαιNeuterMasculineόειν (όεεν)→οῦν
όεσθαι→οῦσθαιτ, δ, θ, σ, +μαι → σμαι
σαι → σαιται → σταιμεθα → σμεθα
σθε → σθε----------σθαι → σθαιPlural

οντες
οντας
οντων
ουσι (ν)

Feminine

ουσαι
ουσᾱς
ουσῶν
ουσαις

Neuter

αντες
αντας
αντων
ᾱσι (ν)

ᾱσαι
ᾱσᾱς
ᾱσῶν
ᾱσαις

αντα
αντα
αντων
ᾱσι (ν)Present, Future, and 2 Aorist** Active Participle
ουσα
ουσαν
ουσης
ουσῃ

ον
ον
οντος
οντι

1 Aorist Active Participle
αν
αν
αντος
αντι

οο→ ου
οοι→ οιοου→ ου
οω→ ω

οντα
οντα
οντων
ουσι (ν)

Present and Future Middle/Passive and 2 Aorist Middle Participleόμενος, ομένη, όμενον

1 Aorist Middle Participle
N
A
G
D

είς
έντα
έντος
έντι

εῖσα
εῖσαν
είσης
είσῃ

N
A
G
D

ώς
ότα
ότος
ότι

υῖα
υῖαν
υίᾱς
υίᾱͅ

άμενος, αμένη, άμενον

Aorist Passive Participle
έν
έν
έντος
έντι

έντες
έντας
έντων
εῖσι (ν)

εῖσαι
είσᾱς
εισῶν
είσαις

έντα
έντα
έντων
εῖσι (ν)

ός
ός
ότος
ότι

ότες
ότας
ότων
όσι (ν)

υῖαι
υίᾱς
υιῶν
υίαις

ότα
ότα
ότων
όσι (ν)Perfect Active Participle

Perfect Middle/Passive Participle-μένος, -μένη, -μένον

4

520

Ancient Greek I

N
G
D
A
N
G
D
A

Singular

Masculine

Feminine

ᾱς
αντος
αντι
αντα

ᾱσα
ᾱσης
ᾱσῃ
ᾱσαν

ων
οντος
οντι
οντα

NeuterMasculine

PluralFeminine

Neuter

ᾱσαι
ᾱσῶν
ᾱσαις
ᾱσᾱς

αντα
αντων
ᾱσι (ν)ανταPresent, Future, and 2 Aorist** Active Participle
ουσα
ουσης
ουσῃ
ουσαν

ον
οντος
οντι
ον

οντες
οντων
ουσι (ν)οντας

1 Aorist Active Participle
αν
αντος
αντι
αν

αντες
αντων
ᾱσι (ν)
αντας

ουσαι
ουσῶν
ουσαις
ουσᾱς

οντα
οντων
ουσι (ν)οντα

Present and Future Middle/Passive and 2 Aorist Middle Participleόμενος, ομένη, όμενον

1 Aorist Middle Participle
N
G
D
A
N
G
D
A

είς
έντος
έντι
έντα
ώς
ότος
ότι
ότα

εῖσα
είσης
είσῃ
εῖσαν
υῖα
υίᾱς
υίᾱͅ
υῖαν

άμενος, αμένη, άμενον

Aorist Passive Participle
έν
έντος
έντι
έν

έντες
έντων
εῖσι (ν)έντας

Perfect Active Participle
ός
ότος
ότι
ός

ότες
ότων
όσι (ν)
ότας

εῖσαι
εισῶν
είσαις
είσᾱς
υῖαι
υιῶν
υίαις
υίᾱς

Perfect Middle/Passive Participle-μένος, -μένη, -μένον

έντα
έντων
εῖσι (ν)
έντα
ότα
ότων
όσι (ν)όταAppendix X: Accents
Possibilities for Accent. Carefully read the possibilities and restrictions foreach of the three accents. Note where in a Greek word the acute, grave, andcircumflex occur. These possibilities account for all accentuation options in allwords.
ACUTE ACCENT:
Possibilities: appears over the antepenult, penult, and ultima;
appears over short vowels or long vowels or diphthongs.
Restrictions: CAN appear over the ultima ONLY when a pause follows,i.e., at the end of a sentence or before a comma or semicolon.
CANNOT appear over the penult when it is accented and contains a longvowel or diphthong and the ultima contains a short vowel.
CAN appear over the antepenult ONLY when the ultima contains a shortvowel.
GRAVE ACCENT:
Possibilities: appears ONLY over the ultima;

5

521

Appendicesappears over short vowels or long vowels or diphthongs.
Restrictions: MUST replace an acute accent over the ultima when anotherword follows directly without a pause.
CANNOT appear otherwise.
CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT:
Possibilities: appears ONLY over the penult and ultima;
appears ONLY over long vowels or diphthongs.
Restrictions: MUST appear over the penult when the penult is accented
and contains a long vowel or diphthong AND the ultima contains a shortvowel.
CANNOT appear over the penult when the ultima contains a long vowel
or diphthong.
Since the circumflex accent (῀) only occurs over long vowels or diphthongs,
there is no need to include it when alpha, iota, or upsilon have circumflex
accents over them as in δρᾶμα.
Chart for Possibilities of Accent. The chart is a schematic of where all accents
may occur in all Greek words. Commit this chart to memory. Memorization
initiates the process of understanding. As your understanding increases, yourability to remember the chart and to accent correctly improves.
Key

Antepenulta=antepenultpe=penultu=ultima˘=

a short vowel¯=

a long vowel or diphthong

Unmarked=short vowel, long vowel, or diphthong

Acute

Grave

Circumflex

Possible if ultima is

Never

Never

Never

Possible if penult isshort: á-pe-ŭ
PenultUltimaPossible but not if
penult is long andlong and ultima isultima is short: a-pé-ushort: a-pê-ŭ

Possible if pause

Possible if no pause

follows: a-pe-ú +follows: a-pe-ù + nopause between words

pause between words

Possible: a-pe-ũ522

Ancient Greek I

Accent Possibilites Explained:1.

-a-pe-ú + pause(You may have an acute on the ultima when a pause (period,
comma) follows the word.)

2.

-a-pe-ù + word without pause(You may have a grave on the ultima when there is no pause.)

3.

-a-pé-u BUT NOT a-pé-ŭ, when the penult is long (pē) and theultima is short (ŭ)(You may have an acute on the penult EXCEPT with a long penultand a short ultima.)4.

-á-pe-ŭ
(You may have an acute on the antepenult IF the ultima is short.)

5.

-a-pe-ũ Note that the upsilon is long(You may have a circumflex over a long ultima.)

6.

-a-pê-ŭ MUST, if ē is accented BUT never a circumflex on the penult(pê) if the ultima is long (ū)(You may have a circumflex on the penult if it is accented and long
AND the ultima is short.)

Recessive and Persistent Accent. Almost all forms of the Greek verb haverecessive accent. Nouns and other parts of speech have persistent accent.

Recessive Accent
In recessive accent, the accent occurs as far from the ultima as the possibilitiesof accent allow. Most verb forms have recessive accent.
Practical Application of the Chart for Possibilities of Accent in Recessive Accent.
Read from top to bottom and apply the first line that meets the criteria:(1)

Verbs of three or more syllables:
If the ultima is short, put an acute on the antepenult. ἔπαυεStop!
If the ultima is long, put an acute on the penult. Stop!

(2)

Verbs of two syllables:

παυσάτω523

Appendices

If the penult is long AND the ultima is short, put a παῦεcircumflex on the penult. Stop! (A helpful acronym is
PLUS: Penult Long; Ultima Short.)

In all other cases (there are three) put an acute on the penult. Stop!
a. short penult, short ultima

βάλεb. short penult, long ultima

βάλω

c. long penult, long ultimaπαύειPractice with Recessive Accent. Check your answers below.
1. ἠρξαν, ἠρξατε, ἀρξῃς, ἀρξετε, ἀρξητε, ἀρξατω
2. ἐβαλον, ἐβαλομεν, βαλω, βαλε, ἐβαλε, ἐβαλετε
3. ἐδυνατο, ἐδυναμεθα, ἐδυνασθε, ἐδυνω
4. ἀγγελλεις, ἀγγελλετε, ἠγγειλα, ἠγγελθην, ἠγγειλατε5. ἐδεξετο, ἐδεχομεθα, ἐδεχου, ἐδεχεσθε
6. ἐκρῑνα, ἐκρῑνατε, κρῑνε, κρῑνατε, κρῑνον, κρῑνω
7. γιγνομεθα, ἐγιγνετο, γιγνεσθω, ἐγιγνοντο
8. ἑλωσιν, ἑλῃς, εἱλον, εἱλετε
9. ἐδοξα, ἐδοξατε, ἐδοξαμεν, δοξῃς, δοξητε
10. ἠκουσα, ἠκουσας, ἠκουσαμεν, ἠκουσατε

Persistent Accent
When presented with any noun in a lexicon, the nominative case of the noun isgiven first, the genitive case of the noun, second, and the article, third:
Nominative Singular

Genitive Singular

ArticleEnglish Equivalentαἷμα

αἵματος

τό

blood

Persistent accent remains the same accent (acute, grave, circumflex), over thevowel or diphthong it is on, as given by the nominative singular in all formsof the word, unless forced by the rules for possibilities of accent to change innature (acute, circumflex, grave) or position (antepenult, penult, ultima). If an524

Ancient Greek I

accent violates one of the possibilities (you cannot have a circumflex on theantepenult), the accent will change in nature (acute, grave, circumflex) before
position (antepenult, penult, ultima). The accent of most noun forms is persistentand is learned as part of the vocabulary.

Practical Application of the Chart for Possibilities ofAccent in Persistent Accent
Consider the following examples.
1.

ἄνθρωπος (nominative):ἀνθρώπου, ἀνθρώπῳ

2.

βιβλίον (nominative):βιβλίου, βιβλίῳ

3.

νῆσος (nominative):νήσου, νήσῳ, νῆσον4.

δρᾶμα (nominative):δράματος, δρᾱμάτων5.

ἀρετή (nominative):ἀρετήν, ἀρετάς

Explanations.
1. ἀνθρώπου, ἀνθρώπῳ: the ultima is long and so the acute accent mustchange in position from the antepenult to the penult, but not in nature.
2. βιβλίου, βιβλίῳ: no violation of the possibilities and so no change.
3. νήσου, νήσῳ: the penult and ultima are long and so the accent mustchange in nature from a circumflex to an acute, but need not change
position. νῆσον: the penult is long and the ultima is short and so theaccent remains a circumflex on the penult.
4. δράματος: the accent remains over the syllable δρᾱ but must change
in nature to an acute because the number of syllables changed fromtwo to three and it is not possible to have a circumflex on the antepenult.
δρᾱμάτων: the accent must change position because the ultima is long.
5. ἀρετήν, ἀρετάς: there is no violation of the possibilities and so nochange.
Use these examples and the Chart on Possibilities of Accent to help you
complete the persistent accent practice.
Practice with Persistent Accent. The first word in bold gives the persistentaccent. Accent the unbolded words. Answers follow.
1. δίκη: δικης, δικην, δικαι
2. ἡμέτερος: ἡμετερα, ἡμετερων
3. ἀθάνατος: ἀθανατου, ἀθανατοις, ἀθανατονAppendices525

4. ζωγράφος: ζωγραφου, ζωγραφοι, ζωγραφων
5. τράπεζα: τραπεζης, τραπεζῃ, τραπεζαν, τραπεζᾱς, τραπεζων, τραπεζαι
6. νῆσος: νησῳ, νησον, νησους
7. δοῦλος: δουλῳ, δουλον, δουλοις
8. πρᾶγμα: πρᾱγματος, πρᾱγματων, πρᾱγμασι
9. ἀγών: ἀγωνος, ἀγωνι, ἀγωνων, ἀγωσι
10. αἴξ: αἰγας, αἰγες, αἰγα11. σώφρων: σωφρον, σωφρονα, σωφρονων
Additional Practice with Recessive Accent. Check your answers below.
1. λῡω, λῡομεν, λῡετε, λῡετω, λῡσον2. παιδευω, ἐπαιδευον, παιδευσεις, παιδευσον, ἐπαιδευσαν3. διδασκει, διδασκε, διδαξον, διδαξω
4. ταττειν, ταττομεν, ταττοντων, ταττεις, ταττε
5. βλαψεις, βλαψομεν, ἐβλαβην
6. ἐπεισα, ἐπεισατε, πεισωμεν, ἐπεισθην
7. δουλευεις, ἐδουλευον, ἐδουλευετε
8. κλεπτω, κλεψεις, ἐκλεπτον, ἐκλεπτετε
9. ἀγγελλω, ἀγγελλον, ἀγγελλετε
10. ἠλθες, ἠλθον, ἠλθετε, ἠλθομεν, ἠλθε
Additional Practice with Persistent Accent. The first word in bold gives thepersistent accent. Accent the unbolded words. Answers follow.
1. Σωκράτης: Σωκρατους, Σωκρατει, Σωκρατη
2. ἄγγελος: ἀγγελου, ἀγγελῳ, ἀγγελον, ἀγγελους
3. φιλίᾱ: φιλιᾱν, φιλιᾱͅ, φιλιαις, φιλιᾱς, φιλιων
4. φίλος: φιλου, φιλῳ, φιλοις, φιλους
5. λῦμα: λῡματος, λῡματι, λῡματων, λῡματα6. πόλεμος: πολεμου, πολεμῳ, πολεμον, πολεμων, πολεμοις, πολεμοι
7. ξένος: ξενου, ξενῳ, ξενον, ξενοις, ξενους
8. ψεῦδος: ψευδους, ψευδει, ψευδεσι
9. δῆμος: δημου, δημῳ, δημον, δημους
10. βουλή: βουλης, βουλῃ, βουλην, βουλαι, βουλων, βουλαις, βουλᾱς

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Ancient Greek I

Answers to Recessive Accent Practice1. ἦρξαν, ἤρξατε, ἄρξῃς, ἄρξετε, ἄρξητε, ἀρξάτω
2. ἔβαλον, ἐβάλομεν, βάλω, βάλε, ἔβαλε, ἐβάλετε
3. ἐδύνατο, ἐδυνάμεθα, ἐδύνασθε, ἐδύνω
4. ἀγγέλλεις, ἀγγέλλετε, ἤγγειλα, ἠγγέλθην, ἠγγείλατε5. ἐδέξετο, ἐδεχόμεθα, ἐδέχου, ἐδέχεσθε
6. ἔκρῑνα, ἐκρίνατε, κρῖνε, κρίνατε, κρῖνον, κρίνω
7. γιγνόμεθα, ἐγίγνετο, γιγνέσθω, ἐγίγνοντο
8. ἕλωσιν, ἕλῃς, εἷλον, εἵλετε
9. ἔδοξα, ἐδόξατε, ἐδόξαμεν, δόξῃς, δόξητε10. ἤκουσα, ἤκουσας, ἠκούσαμεν, ἠκούσατεAnswers to Persistent Accent Practice1. δίκη: δίκης, δίκην, δίκαι
2. ἡμέτερος: ἡμέτερα, ἡμετέρων
3. ἀθάνατος: ἀθανάτου, ἀθανάτοις, ἀθάνατον
4. ζωγράφος: ζωγράφου, ζωγράφοι, ζωγράφων
5. τράπεζα: τραπέζης, τραπέζῃ, τράπεζαν, τραπέζᾱς, τραπεζῶν, τράπεζαι
6. νῆσος: νήσῳ, νῆσον, νήσους
7. δοῦλος: δούλῳ, δοῦλον, δούλοις
8. πρᾶγμα: πράγματος, πρᾱγμάτων, πράγμασι
9. ἀγών: ἀγῶνος, ἀγῶνι, ἀγώνων, ἀγῶσι
10. αἴξ: αἶγας, αἶγες, αἶγα11. σώφρων: σῶφρον, σώφρονα, σωφρόνων
Answers to Additional Recessive Accent Practice1. λύω, λύομεν, λύετε, λυέτω, λῦσον2. παιδεύω, ἐπαίδευον, παιδεύσεις, παίδευσον, ἐπαίδευσαν3. διδάσκει, δίδασκε, δίδαξον, διδάξω
4. τάττειν, τάττομεν, ταττόντων, τάττεις, τάττε
5. βλάψεις, βλάψομεν, ἐβλάβην
6. ἔπεισα, ἐπείσατε, πείσωμεν, ἐπείσθην
7. δουλεύεις, ἐδούλευον, ἐδουλεύετε
8. κλέπτω, κλέψεις, ἔκλεπτον, ἐκλέπτετεAppendices

527

9. ἀγγέλλω, ἄγγελλον, ἀγγέλλετε
10. ἦλθες, ἦλθον, ἤλθετε, ἤλθομεν, ἦλθεAnswers to Additional Persistent Accent Practice1. Σωκράτης: Σωκράτους, Σωκράτει, Σωκράτη
2. ἄγγελος: ἀγγέλου, ἀγγέλῳ, ἄγγελον, ἀγγέλους
3. φιλία: φιλίαν, φιλίᾳ, φιλίαις, φιλίᾱς, φιλιῶν
4. φίλος: φίλου, φίλῳ, φίλοις, φίλους5. λῦμα: λύματος, λύματι, λυμάτων, λύματα6. πόλεμος: πολέμου, πολέμῳ, πόλεμον, πολέμων, πολέμοις, πόλεμοι
7. ξένος: ξένου, ξένῳ, ξένον, ξένοις, ξένους
8. ψεῦδος: ψεύδους, ψεύδει, ψεύδεσι
9. δῆμος: δήμου, δήμῳ, δῆμον, δήμους10. βουλῆς: βουλῇ, βουλήν, βουλαί, βουλῶν, βουλαῖς, βουλάς

Appendix XI: Herodotos’ Mixed Dialect
The text of Herodotos is a mixture of Ionic, Attic, and sometimes Doric forms.
It is uncertain whether Herodotos’ text was originally purely Ionic and later
corrupted by scribes to include Attic and Doric forms, or whether it was
originally a mixture of the three. Whatever the case, the following indicatesdifferences between the dialect of Herodotos and the Attic dialect.
1. -η is found where Attic has -α, even after ε, ι, and ρ.
2. -ει and -ου for -ε and -ο before ν, ρ, λ: ξεῖνοι for ξένοι; εἵνεκα forἕνεκα; κούρη for κόρη; οὔνομα for ὄνομα.
3. -ω for -αυ or -ου: θῶμα for θαῦμα; ὦν for οὖν.
4. -σσ- is found where Attic has -ττ-.
5. Consonants are often unaspirated, π, τ, κ for φ, θ, χ: ἀπῆκε instead ofἀφῆκε.
6. κ- is found instead of π-: κοτε instead of ποτε and ὅκως instead ofὅπως.
7. The first declension genitive plural is -έων not -ῶν.
8. The first declension dative plural is -ῃσι not -αις.
9. The first declension genitive singular of masculine nouns is -εω not-ου.
10. The second declension dative plural is -οισι not -οις.

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Ancient Greek I

11. In the third declension, forms remain uncontracted: γένεος not γένους.
12. In the third declension, nouns that end in -ις decline like this:
N

πόλις

πόλιες

Aπόλιν

πόλιας or πόλῑςGπόλιος

πόλιων

Dπόλιπόλισι (ν)

V

πόλι

πόλιες

N

πόλις

πόλιες

Gπόλιος

πόλιων

Dπόλιπόλισι (ν)

A

πόλιν

πόλιας or πόλῑς

V

πόλι

πόλιες

13. Personal pronouns are not contracted; for example, σέο or σεῦ notσοῦ.
14. For the personal pronouns, τοι is found at times for σοι.
15. For the third-person pronoun, οἱ is used for αὐτῷ and αὐτῇ.
16. For the third-person regular and reflexive pronoun, μιν is found forαὐτόν, αὐτήν, αὐτό, and for ἑαυτόν and ἑαυτήν.
17. For the third-person plural, σφεῖς, σφέων, σφίσι or σφι, and σφέας isfound.
18. For τίς, τί and τις, τι: τέο or τεῦ for τοῦ or τίνος; τέῳ for τῷ or τίνι;τέων for τίνων; τέοισι for τίσι.
19. In cases other than the nominative, the article and the relative pronoun
are identical. In specific instances Herodotus uses the customary Attic
forms for the relative pronoun.
20. The past indicative augment is inconsistently used.
21. Instead of the third person plurals -νται and -ντο, Herodotus uses thethird-person plurals -αται and -ατο.
22. Many verb forms remain uncontracted: ποιέειν not ποιεῖν.
23. Verbs ending in -οω, -οο- and -οου- contract to -ευ-.
24. ἵημι conjugates like an -εω verb; ἵστημι like an -αω verb; and δίδωμι
like an -οω verb.

529

Appendices

25. Commonly occurring pronouns are the following:First Person

Second Person

Third Person

N

ἐγώ

σύ

—

A

ἐμέ, μεσέ, σεἑ, μιν (= αὐτόν, αὐτήν,
αὐτό)

G

ἐμέο, ἐμεῦ, μευσέο, σεῦ, σευεὑDἐμοί, μοισοί, τοιοἱ (= αὐτῷ and αὐτῇ)

N

ἡμεῖς

ὑμεῖς

σφεῖς

A

ἡμέας

ὑμέας

σφέας, σφεας, σφεα

G

ἡμέων

ὑμέων

σφέων, σφεων

D

ἡμῖν

ὑμῖν

σφίσι (ν) σφισι (ν), σφιFirst Person

Second Person

Third Person

N

ἐγώ

σύ

—

G

ἐμέο, ἐμεῦ, μευσέο, σεῦ, σευεὑDἐμοί, μοισοί, τοιοἱ (= αὐτῷ and αὐτῇ)Aἐμέ, μεσέ, σεἑ, μιν (= αὐτόν, αὐτήν,
αὐτό)

N

ἡμεῖς

ὑμεῖς

σφεῖς

G

ἡμέων

ὑμέων

σφέων, σφεων

D

ἡμῖν

ὑμῖν

σφίσι (ν) σφισι (ν), σφι

A

ἡμέας

ὑμέας

σφέας, σφεας, σφεα

Appendix XII: The Ionic-Attic Dialect
The Ionic and Attic dialects share the following features:•

Original long alpha, -ᾱ, becomes an eta, -η, in all positions, though in
Attic long alpha, -ᾱ, remains after an epsilon, ε, iota, ι, or rho, ρ.

•In certain sequences of long and short vowel endings, quantitative
metathesis has occurred, with long-short becoming short-long: -ηο
becomes -εω. In the genitive case πόλ-ηος of the noun, πόλις (city),long eta and short omicron become short epsilon and long omega:

530

Ancient Greek Iπόλ-εως.
•Digamma or nau ϝ, a w-sound, disappears in Ionic and in Attic with
one exception. In Ionic when digamma or nau ϝ, disappears after
lambda λ, nu ν, or rho ρ, a short vowel undergoes compensatory
lengthening to a spurious diphthong, but in Attic the short vowel
remains unchanged. For example, κόρϝος becomes κοῦρος (lad) in
Ionic and κόρος in Attic. In Ionic, the omicron ο lengthens to thespurious diphthong, ου.

•Ionic-Attic add an optional nu ν, called in this textbook nu-moveable,
to certain endings when the word following begins with a vowel. The
addition of the nu-moveable prevents hiatus between adjacent words,
the pronunciation of one vowel directly after a preceding vowel. The
Ionic-Attic phenomenon is identical to the English indefinite article, a.
In instances where the English indefinite article, a, is followed by aword beginning with a vowel, English adds an n—an elephant stands
upon a lookout’s tongue.

•

Ionic and Attic use the infinitive ending -ναι instead of -μεναι.

•

Ionic and Attic use the subordinating conjunction εἰ if not αἰ if.

•

Ionic and Attic use the adverb ἄν not κε. Note that ἄν is more typicallyreferred to as a modal particle.

The Ionic and Attic dialects differ in these features:•

Attic uses double tau, -ττ-, in instances where Ionic uses double sigma,-σσ-: Attic θάλαττα and Ionic θάλασσα sea.

•

Attic uses double rho, -ρρ-, in instances where Ionic uses rho followedby sigma, -ρσ-: Attic θαρρέω and Ionic θαρσέω I have no fear.

Appendix XIII: Sappho 31
φαίνεταί μοι κῆνος ἴσος θέοισινἔμμεν᾽ ὤνηρ, ὄττις ἐνάντιός τοιἰσδάνει καὶ πλάσιον ἆδυ φωνείσας ὐπακούεικαὶ γελαίσας ἰμέροεν, τό μ᾽ ἦ μὰνκαρδίαν ἐν στήθεσιν ἐπτόαισεν,ὠς γὰρ ἔς σ᾽ ἴδω βρόχε᾽ ὤς με φώναισ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ἒν ἔτ᾽ εἴκει,ἀλλὰ κὰμ μὲν γλῶσσα <μ’> ἔαγε, λέπτονδ᾽ αὔτικα χρῷ πῦρ ὐπαδεδρόμηκεν,Appendices531

ὀππάτεσσι δ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ἒν ὄρημμ᾽, ἐπιρρόμβεισι δ᾽ ἄκουαι,†έκαδε μ᾽ ἴδρως ψῦχρος κακχέεται† τρόμος δὲπαῖσαν ἄγρει, χλωροτέρα δὲ ποίαςἔμμι, τεθνάκην δ᾽ ὀλίγω ᾽πιδεύηςφαίνομ᾽ ἔμ᾽ αὔτᾳ·ἀλλὰ πὰν τόλματον ἐπεὶ †καὶ πένητα†David A. Campbell, Greek Lyric: Sappho, Alcaeus (Cambridge, Mass.: Loeb ClassicalLibrary, 1990, pp. 78–80).

Note: χλωροτέρα is green like new, fresh, moist wood. (Not green as in envy.)
To me it seems that man has the fortuneof gods, whoever sits beside you
and close, who listens to you
sweetly speaking
and laughing temptingly. My heart
flutters in my breast wheneverI even glance at you—
I can say nothing,
my tongue is broken. A delicate fireruns under my skin, my eyes
see nothing, my ears roar,cold sweat
rushes down me, trembling seizes me,
I am greener than grass.
To myself I seemneeding but little to die.
Yet all can be endured/dared, since . . .
Diane J. Rayor, Sappho: A New Translation of the Complete Works (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2014). Introduction by André Lardinois. Featured in Daniel
Mendelsohn’s article:
http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/03/16/girl-interrupted?
http://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/hearing-sappho

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Appendix XIV: Artists, Philosophers, Thinkers, Writers
Aiskhylos (Aeschylus) of Athens, Αἰσχύλος ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 525–456 BCE.
Aiskhylos wrote satyr plays and tragedies. He composed about ninety plays, ofwhich seven survive. Many fragments from his other plays are found quoted
by other later authors or on Egyptian papyrus scraps. Aristoteles writes that
Aiskhylos expanded the number of characters in the theatre and allowed themto interact with each other instead of only with the chorus. One of his plays,
Prometheus Bound, may have been written by his son, Euphorion. Another ofhis plays, The Persians, is the only extant tragedy concerning contemporary
events that survives.
Anakreon of Teos, Ἀνακρέων ὁ Τήϊος, c. 582–c. 485 BCE. Alive during thetumultuous Archaic Age (700–480 BCE), Anakreon was born in Teos, a Greek
city on the border of the Persian empire. In 545 the Persians attacked the Greek
city-states lying on and off the coast of Asia Minor and Anakreon fought against
the invaders, though, he says, he did nothing noteworthy in the battle.
Anaxagoras of Klazomenai, Ἀναξαγόρας, Κλαζομεναί, c. 500–428 BCE.
Anaxagoras was a pre-Socratic philosopher and a good friend of the Athenianstatesman Perikles. Anaxagoras spent much of his time in the cultural centerof his day, Athens. He declared that the sun was a stone and not a god. The
Athenians may have brought him to court and had him exiled on charges of
impiety and pro-Persian sympathies. It is uncertain if the charges were real,political, or fabricated by later biographers.
Anaximandros of Miletos, Ἀναξίμανδρος ὁ Μιλήσιος, c. 610–546 BCE.
Anaximandros was a pre-Socratic philosopher who put forth the theory that theinfinite was the universe’s origin.
Anaximenes of Miletos, Ἀναξιμένης ὁ Μιλήσιος, c. 586–526 BCE. Anaximenes
was a pre-Socratic philosopher who proposed air as the universe’s prime
substance.
Anna Komnene of Byzantium, Ἄννα Κομνηνή, c. 1083–1150 CE. Daughter ofthe Byzantine emperor, Alexios I Komnenos, Anna Komnene was educated in
Greek history and literature, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, and theology.
After her father’s death, she and her mother attempted a coup against her
brother John II Komnenos. It failed. In exile Anna wrote the Alexiad, a history ofher father, written in Attic Greek.
Antiphon of Rhamnos, Ἀντιφῶν ὁ Ῥαμνούσιος, c. 480–411 BCE. Antiphon wasan orator, engaged in fifth-century Athenian political and intellectual life.
Appian of Alexandria, Ἀππιανὸς ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς c. 95–165 CE. A Greek
historian with Roman citizenship, Appian was born in Alexandria. He wrote theAppendices

533

Roman History (Ρωμαϊκά) in twenty-four books, some complete and others infragments.
Aristarkhos of Samos, Ἀρίσταρχος ὁ Σάμιος, c. 310–c. 230 BCE. Aristarkhos
was an astronomer and a mathematician who placed the sun at the center of theuniverse in the first known heliocentric view of the universe.
Aristophanes of Athens, Ἀριστοφάνης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 446–c. 386 BCE.
Aristophanes wrote comic plays. Of forty or so plays, eleven have survived andrepresent a genre of comic drama referred to as Old Comedy.
Aristoteles (Aristotle) of Stageira, Ἀριστοτέλης, Στάγειρα, c. 384–322 BCE.
Aristoteles was a student of Plato and a philosopher. He founded the peripatetic
school of philosophy and wrote on many subjects, including aesthetics, biology,
economics, ethics, government, linguistics, logic, metaphysics, music, physics,
poetry, politics, psychology, rhetoric, theater, and zoology. Aristoteles’ works
continue to be read and studied.
Arkhilokhos of Paros, Ἀρχίλοχος Πάρου, c. 680–645 BCE. The son of Telesikles,
an aristocrat, and a slave woman, Arkhilokhos was a mercenary soldier andpoet from Paros, a chief center for the worship of Demeter. In association with
Demeter and Dionysos there was a tradition of iambic poetry, ἴαμβοι, a genreof poetry marked first by invective and scurrility, scatology, and sex, and secondby its iambic meter.
Athenaios of Naukratis, Ἀθήναιος ὁ Nαυκρατίτης, c. 190 CE. Athenaios wasa Greek rhetorician and grammarian. His fifteen-volume Scholars at Dinner,Δειπνοσοφισταί, on the art of dining, mostly survives. Among other things,
the work provides information about Greek literature, quoting from the works
of about 700 Greek authors and 2,500 different works. Topics discussed in thevolumes include, art, food, music, philology, sex, and wine.
Damaskios of Damascus, Syria, Δαμάσκιος, c. 458–538 CE. A Neoplatonist,
Damaskios was the last scholar of the School of Athens. He wrote many worksof which these survive: commentaries on Plato and Difficulties and Solutions ofFirst Principles.
Demokritos (Democritus) of Abdera, Thrace, Δημόκριτος, Ἄβδηρα, Θρᾴκη,c. 460–370 BCE. Demokritos was a pre-Socratic philosopher, who proposed that
all things were composed of atoms and void. Atoms were the smallest building
blocks of the universe and void allowed motion to occur. His theory waslater popularized by Epikouros and then expounded by the Roman poet andphilosopher Lucretius.
Demosthenes of Athens, Δημοσθένης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 384–312 BCE. Statesman
and orator, Demosthenes ranks as one of the ten greatest Attic orators. He
was also a logographer, writing speeches for others, and a lawyer. He devoted

534

Ancient Greek I

significant energy to opposing the expansion of Makedonia under the rule ofPhilip II, and then again when Philip’s son, Alexander the Great, succeeded to thethrone. To avoid capture by the crown of Makedonia, Demosthenes committed
suicide.
Diogenes the Cynic of Sinope, Διογένης ὁ Κυνικός, Σινώπη, c. 412–323 BCE.
Diogenes was a philosopher and founder of the Cynic school of philosophy. He
believed in moral action rather than in theory. He lived simply and frugally,
looking to nature as a guide to living well and authentically, declaring himself acitizen of the world.
Empedokles of Akragas, Ἐμπεδοκλῆς, Ἀκράγας, Σικελία, c. 494–434 BCE.
Empedokles was a pre-Socratic philosopher, who contended that the senses
were routes to knowledge and that the universe was made up of the following
four substances: earth, air, fire, and water.
Epiktetos of Hierapolis, Phrygia, Ἐπίκτητος, c. 50–135 CE. Born a slave inPhrygia, Epiktetos was a stoic philosopher, living in Rome until he was banishedto Nicopolis, Greece. About c. 68 CE, he gained his freedom and taught philosophy
in Rome and then in c. 93 CE he moved to Nicopolis when Rome’s Emperor
Domitian banished all philosophers from the city.
Eukleides (Euclid) of Alexandria, Εὐκλείδης c. 300 BCE. Born in Alexandria,
Eukleides developed a conceptual system of geometry from a small set of
axioms. His book, Elements, has been used to teach geometry up until 150 or so
years ago.
Euripides of Athens, Εὐριπίδης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 480–406 BCE. An innovator
who did not gain wide acceptance until after his death, Euripides wrote satyr
plays and tragedies. He introduced comedy into tragedy and presented theheroes and heroines of his plays as everyday people. He was a proponent of the
new music, which broke with tradition and is a feature of his work that shockedsome of his contemporaries. In several plays, (Helen, Ion, Iphigeneia in Tauris),he created tragicomic plots that foreshadowed the so-called New Comedy. He
wrote ninety-two plays and had four victories in the Athenian annual dramaticcompetition and festival in honor of Dionysos. Nineteen of his plays survive,
more than any other tragedian.
Gorgias of Leontini, Γοργίας, Λεοντῖνοι, c. 483–376 BCE. Gorgias was a sophist,
who specialized in teaching the art of rhetoric.
Herakleitos (Heraclitus) of Ephesos, Ἡράκλειτος ὁ Ἐφέσιος, c. 535–475 BCE.
Herakleitos was a pre-Socratic philosopher who argued that the universe’s
prime substance was fire, which all things contained within them, that theuniverse had always existed, and that all is in flux for one can never step into
the same river twice.

Appendices535

Herodotos of Halikarnessos (Halicarnassus), Ἡρόδοτος ὁ Ἁλικαρνησσέος,c. 484–425 BCE. Herodotos was an ancient Greek historian who hailed fromHalikarnessos, a Greek city founded by Dorians, ruled by a monarchy, and partof the Persian empire until conquered by Alexander the Great. Credited withinventing history, Herodotos wrote in a mixed Ionic dialect.
Hippokrates (Hippocrates) of Kos, Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος, c. 460–370 BC.
Hippokrates was a physician, who made outstanding contributions to the fieldof medicine. Founder of the Hippocratic School of Medicine, he establishedmedicine as a discipline and profession. He is credited with writing the
Hippocratic Oath, a code of ethics, still in use today.
Homer, Ὅμηρος, c. 750 BCE. Homer is conventionally credited with thecomposition of the epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, although today manyscholars believe that the poems were composed by the different people. Of themany accounts of Homer’s life, the most common is that he was a blind bard
from Ionia—blindness being associated with excellence in the poetic craft. Of
him not much else is known and less is certain.
Julian, Flavius Claudius Julianus, c. 331 CE. Julian was Roman emperor from
361 to 363 CE. He was also a philosopher and author of many works written in
Greek. About fifteen have survived. Julian rejected Christianity and promoted
Neoplatonic Hellenism. For this the Christian Church named him Julian the
Apostate. His work, The Caesars, was a satire that describes Roman emperors
vying for the title of best emperor.
Kallimakhos of Kyrene, Libya, (Callimachus of Cyrene) Καλλίμαχος,c. 310–240 BCE. A poet and scholar, Kallimakhos was also a librarian at the
famous library of Alexandria. He compiled the Pinakes, a catalogue of all Greek
literature. He wrote over 800 works of literature, most of which have been lost.
His main works are the Aitia, six religious hymns, sixty or so epigrams, satiricaliambic poems, and Hekale, a narrative poem. He is known for writing short,polished poetry. His style influenced many, including the Roman poets, Catullus,
Ovid, and Propertius.
Lucian of Samostoa, c. 125 CE. Born on the banks of the upper Euphrates River,
Lucian was an Assyrian who wrote in ancient Greek but whose native language
was probably Syriac, a dialect of Aramaic. What we know of Lucian comesfrom his own works. He was a satirist and rhetorician. He ridiculed hypocrisy,
pedantry, religion, and superstition. Educated in Ionia he lived in Athens forapproximately ten years during which time it is surmised that he wrote manyof his works. Of the over eighty writings attributed to him, this textbook offers
excerpts from A True Story, Ἀληθῆ διηγήματα; The Lover of Lies, Φιλοψευδής;and The Ass, ὁ Ὄνος, though it is not certain whether Lucian is the author of this536Ancient Greek I

last work. In his own day Lucian was very popular. Today his writings continue
to exert influence.
Lykourgos (Lycurgus) of Athens Λυκοῦργος ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 390–324 BCE.
Lykourgos was one of the ten greatest orators of Athens. Most of his works are
lost, though we have one speech in its entirety, Against Leokrates, and fragmentsof others.
Lysias of Syrakousios, Λυσίας ὁ Συρακούσιος, c. 445–380 BCE. Lysias was
an Attic orator and one of the ten greatest of the Attic orators. He was also a
logographer, writing speeches for others. His father, Kephalos, moved to Athensfrom the city of Syrakousios, Sikilia, at the invitation of the Athenian general,
Perikles. A resident alien living in Athens, Lysias was nearly killed in 404
when the thirty tyrants ruled Athens. In 403 Lysias wrote a speech attacking
Eratosthenes, one of the Thirty Tyrants.
Menandros (Menander) of Athens, Μένανδρος ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 342–290 BCE.
Menandros was a comic playwright who wrote 108 comedies. Popular in his
own day, Menandros took first prize at the dramatic games of the Lenaia festival
eight times. Many fragments and one play, almost complete, the Dyskolos, havesurvived the ravages of time.
Mimnermos of Kolophon or Smyrna, Μίμνερμος ἐκ Κολοφῶνος ἢ Σμύρνας, c.
630–600 BCE. A Greek elegiac poet, Mimnermos wrote short polished poetry on avariety of themes including age, death, and love. He influenced Kallimakhos andthe Alexandrian poets and Properitus and the later Roman poets. Alexandrian
scholars collected his poems into two books. Today only paltry scraps remain. As
is the case with most of the ancients, what little we know of Mimnermos comesfrom what we glean from the small bits of his writings that have survived.
Parmenides of Elea, Παρμενίδης ὁ Ἐλεάτης, c. 500 BCE. Parmenides was a
pre-Socratic philosopher who reasoned that the earth was a sphere and thatsense perception was illusory. Thus the only way to truth was through logic.
Platon (Plato) of Athens, Πλάτων ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 428–424 BCE. Platon was astudent of Sokrates and a philosopher. Best known for his theory of forms andhighly influential in his own day, Plato’s works continue to be read and studied.
Praxilla of Sikyon, Πράξιλλα Σικυών c. 451 BCE. Praxilla was a Greek lyric
poet of high renown. Only a few fragments of her work have survived. Antipaterof Thessalonike (c. 15 BCE) lists her as one of the nine immortal tongued female
poets. Aristophanes parodies her in two of his comedies. The famous sculptor
Lysippos (c. 350 BCE) sculpted her in bronze.
Protagoras of Abdera, Thrace, Πρωταγόρας, Ἄβδηρα, Θρᾴκη, c. 490–420 BCE.
Protagoras was a pre-Socratic philosopher. In his dialogue Protagoras, Plato
writes that Protagoras invented the professional sophist. Protagoras argued that

Appendices537

it did not matter whether the gods existed—he was an agnostic—that there were
two sides to every question, each opposed to the other; that the soul was nothing
apart from the senses; that everything is true; that all values were relative; andthat man is the “measure of all things, of things that are that they are, and ofthings that are not that they are not.” For these views it is said that the Athenians
expelled him from their city and burnt his works in the market-place (Diogenes
Laertius 9. 51–52).
Pythagoras of Samos, Πῡθαγόρᾱς ὁ Σάμιος, c. 570–495 BCE. Pythagoras wasa pre-Socratic philosopher who argued that the soul was immortal and after its
death was reborn into another body, either man, animal, or plant, through aprocess called metempsychosis, μετεμψύχωσις. The only end to this cycle was
to attain purity of intellect and soul.
Sappho of Lesbos, Σαπφώ Λέσβου, c. 630–570 BCE. Born on the island of Lesbos,
Sappho is one of the few women’s voices we have from antiquity. Regarded in
antiquity as the tenth Muse, Sappho and her poetry are widely praised for theirlyrical excellence. Time has taken from us most of what Sappho wrote and left
to us even less information about her life. She is said to have had three brothers.
She writes personal poetry, much of which reflects the love she has for other
women.
Satyros of Kallatis, Σάτυρος Κάλλατις, c. 150 BCE. Satyros was a philosopher,historian, and biographer whose subjects included kings, philosophers, poets,orators, and statesmen. Fragments of his biography of Euripides were found on
a papyrus scroll at Oxyrhynchus, Egypt in the early 1900s.
Sokrates (Socrates) of Athens, Σωκρᾰ́της ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 469–399 BCE. Sokrates
was an Athenian stonemason and carver and very poor. He was accused ofbeing a sophist and was loved by some and hated by many of the Athenian
people. Early in life Sokrates was intrigued by scientific speculation. He soongrew skeptical of it and turned his attention to inquiring into the right conductof life.
Sophokles (Sophocles) of Athens, Σοφοκλῆς ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 497–406 BCE.
Sophokles wrote satyr plays and tragedies. He composed over 120 plays andseven have survived, the most famous being Oidipous Tyrannos (Oidipous Rex)
and Antigone. He is said to have won twenty-four of the thirty competitions heentered. Of him it is said that he portrayed people as better than they are in
reality.
Thales of Miletos, Θαλῆς ὁ Μιλήσιος, c. 624 BCE. Thales was a pre-Socratic
philosopher who predicted an eclipse of the sun in 585 BCE and argued that theuniverse’s prime element was water.

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Ancient Greek I

Thrasymakhos of Khalkedon, Θρασύμαχος, Χαλκηδών, c. 459–400 BCE.
Thrasymakhos was a sophist, who taught that justice is the interest of thestronger, i.e., that “might makes right.” He is best known as a character in Plato’s
Republic.
Xenophanes of Kolophon, Ξενοφάνης ὁ Κολοφώνιος, c. 570–478 BCΕ.
Xenophanes was a pre-Socratic philosopher who criticized Hesiod and Homer,
arguing that their explanation of divine and human affairs was incorrect. He
also criticized the adulation of athletes because wise men were much more
important to society than a champion boxer. Finally he asserted that the gods
were not anthropomorphic but that there was one god who was moral andmotionless, all-knowing and all-powerful.
Xenophon of Athens, Ξενοφῶν ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 430–454 BCE. Xenophon was ahistorian, military leader, and philosopher. A commander of the ten thousand
who marched against the Persian king, Artaxerxes II, Xenophon recounts thefailed attempt to usurp the Persian throne for Kyros the Younger as well as theirsuccessful journey home in his Anabasis. Xenophon also wrote the Kyropaidia,
which focuses on Kyros the Great. Other works include several Socratic dialogues
and his history, the Hellenika, which picks up where Thoukydides’ history ends.

Appendix XV: Top 250 Most Common Words
ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν good, nobleἄγω, ἄξω, ἤγαγον, ἦχα, ἦγμαι ἤχθην do, drive, lead; χάριν ἄγω I give thanksἀδελφός, ἀδελφοῦ ὁ brotherἀδικέω, ἀδικήσω, ἠδίκησα, ἠδίκηκα, ἠδίκημαι, ἠδικήθην be unjust, do wrongἀεί (αἰεί) alwaysἈθηναῖος, Ἀθηναίᾱ, Ἀθηναῖον Athenian, of or from Athensαἱρέω, αἱρήσω, εἷλον (inf. ἑλεῖν), ᾕρηκα, ᾕρημαι, ᾑρέθην take, seize, grab,
capture; (mid.) choose; ὁ λόγος αἱρεῖ it makes sense, it is reasonableἀκούω, ἀκούσομαι, ἤκουσα, ἀκήκοα, ἤκουσμαι, ἠκούσθην hear, hear of or
about, listen, heed + gen. or acc. of thing and gen. of person; have a reputation;κακῶς ἀκούειν to be spoken ill ofἀληθής, ἀληθές trueἀλλά but, for------, ἀλλήλων one another, each other539

Appendicesἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο another, other; ἄλλος ἄλλο λέγει one man says one thing;another says another; τῇ ἄλλῃ elsewhereἅμα (prep.) at the same time as + dat.; (adv.) at the same time, at once
ἀμφότερος, ἀμφοτέρᾱ, ἀμφότερον bothἄν (adverb or particle) indicates something hypothetical, non-factual, or with
the indicative something repeated over timeἀνά (prep.) on, upon, onto + gen. or dat.; up to, throughout + acc.; (adv.) thereon,
thereupon, throughoutἀνάγκη, ἀνάγκης ἡ force, necessity, fateἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ man, husbandἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ human, personἄξιος, ἀξίᾱ, ἄξιον worthy, deserving + gen.
ἀξιόω, ἀξιώσω, ἠξίωσα, ἠξίωκα, ἠξίωμαι, ἠξιώθην deem worthy, think fit + ‘x’
in acc. + inf.; expect + ‘x’ in acc. + inf; deem ‘x’ in acc. worthy of ‘y’ in gen.
ἅπας, ἅπασα, ἅπαν all, each, every, wholeἀπό from, away from + gen.
ἀποθνῄσκω (θνῄσκω), ἀποθανέομαι, ἀπέθανον, τέθνηκα, ------, ------ die, perishἀπόλλυμι (ὄλλυμι), ἀπολέω, ἀπώλεσα (trans.) or ἀπωλόμην (intrans.),ἀπολώλεκα (trans.) or ἀπόλωλα (intrans.), ------, ------ kill, lose; (mid. and intrans.)die, cease to existἄρα (ῥά) and so, therefore, then, in that caseἀρετή, ἀρετῆς ἡ virtue, excellenceἀριθμός, ἀριθμοῦ ὁ numberἀρχή, ἀρχῆς ἡ rule, command; beginning; provinceἄρχω, ἄρξω, ἦρξα, ἦρχα, ἦργμαι, ἤρχθην rule, command; begin + gen.; ἄρχειν
ἀπὸ τῶν πατέρων to begin with the fathersαὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό he, she, it; -self (pred.) –self; (att.) same; (often + dative) τὰαὐτὰ σοὶ ποιέω I do the same as you do; (adv.) αὐτοῦ thereἀφικνέομαι, ἀφίξομαι, ἀφικόμην, ------, ἀφῖγμαι, ------ arrive, reach, come toβασιλεύς, βασιλῆος (βασιλέως) ὁ king, chiefβίος, βίου ὁ lifeβούλομαι, βουλήσομαι, ------, ------, βεβούλημαι, ἐβουλήθην want, prefer; wish,
be willing

540

Ancient Greek Iγάρ (postpositive) forγε (enclitic) indeed, in fact, merely, at leastγένος, γένεος (γένους) τό race, kind, sort; birth, origin
γῆ, γῆς ἡ land, earthγίγνομαι (γίνομαι), γενήσομαι, ἐγενόμην, γέγονα, γεγένημαι, ------ (ἐγενήθην,in late authors) be, be born, happen, become; γεγονός εὖ be well-born, be ofnoble-birthγιγνώσκω, γνώσομαι, ἔγνων, ἔγνωκα, ἔγνωσμαι, ἐγνώσθην know, recognize;
decide + inf.
γράφω, γράψω, ἔγραψα, γέγραφα, γέγραμμαι, ἐγράφην writeγυνή, γυναικός ἡ woman, wifeδέ (post-positive; sometimes indicates change of subject; often answers μέν)
(conj.) and, but; (adv.) on the other handδεῖ, δεήσει, ἐδέησε(ν), δεδέηκε(ν), ------, ------ it is necessary + inf.; + subj. ingen. or dat. or acc. + inf., δεῖ ἐλθεῖν it is necessary to come, δεῖ τῶν στρατιωτῶνἐλθεῖν or δεῖ τοῖς στρατιώταις ἐλθεῖν or δεῖ τοὺς στρατιώτας ἐλθεῖν it isnecessary for the soldiers to come; + gen. there is a need of, δεῖ τινος there is aneed of something; + gen. + inf δεῖ στρατηγοῦ εὑρεθῆναι there is a need of ageneral to be found; + gen. and dat. δεῖ μοί τινος there is a need to me of somethingδείκνῡμι, δείξω (δέξω), ἔδειξα (ἔδεξα), δέδειχα, δέδειγμαι, ἐδείχθην show,
displayδεινός, δεινή, δεινόν awesome, fearsome, terrible; δεινὸς λέγειν clever at
speakingδέω, δεήσω, ἐδέησα, δεδέηκα, δεδέημαι, ἐδεήθην want, lack, miss, stand inneed of, want + gen.; long or wish for + gen.; ask for ‘x’ in gen. or acc. from ‘y’ ingen., τοῦτο (or τούτου) ὑμῶν δέομαι I ask you for thisδή indeed, in fact, certainlyδῆμος, δήμου ὁ peopleδιά through, throughout + gen.; by + gen.; on account of + acc.
δίδωμι, δώσω, ἔδωκα, δέδωκα, δέδομαι, ἐδόθην give; allow ‘x’ in dat. or acc. +inf., ἐμὲ (έμοί) εὐτυχέειν δίδως you allow me to prosperδίκαιος, δικαίᾱ, δίκαιον justδίκη, δίκης ἡ custom, usage; judgment; order, right; penalty, sentence; lawsuit

Appendices541δοκέω, δόξω, ἔδοξα, ------, δέδογμαι, ἐδόχθην seem, think; seem best, think best+ inf.; δοκεῖ μόρσιμον τῇ πόλει ἁλίσκεσθαι it seems fated for the city to betaken; δοκεῖ ἐμοί and δοκεῖν ἐμοί it seems to meδόξα, δόξης ἡ expectation, notion, opinion; reputationδύναμαι, δυνήσομαι, ------, ------, δεδύνημαι, ἐδυνήθην be able, be strong enough+ inf.; be worthδύναμις, δυνάμιος (δυνάμηος, δυνάμεως) ἡ might, strength, power; force,armyδύο twoἐάν ifἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῆς, ἑαυτοῦ himself, herself, itselfἐγώ, ἐμοῦ or μου I, me, mineἐθέλω (θέλω), ἐθελήσω (θελήσω), ἠθέλησα, ἠθέληκα, ------, ------ wish, be willingεἰ (proclitic) ifεἰμί, ἔσομαι, ------, ------, ------, ------ be, be possibleεἶμι come, goεἷς, μία, ἕν; ἑνός, μιᾶς, ἑνός oneεἰς or ἐς (proclitic) to, into, against + acc.
ἐκ (proclitic) from, out of, by + gen.
ἕκαστος, ἑκάστη, ἕκαστον eachἑκάτερος, ἑκατέρᾱ, ἑκάτερον eachἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο (κεῖνος, κείνη, κεῖνο) that, those; he, she, it, theyἐλαύνω, ἐλάω, ἤλασα, ἐλήλακα, ἐλήλαμαι, ἠλάθην or ἠλάσθην drive, marchἝλλην, Ἕλληνος ἡ ὁ Greekἐμός, ἐμή, ἐμόν myἐν (proclitic) in, on, at, among + dat.
ἐναντίος, ἐναντίᾱ, ἐναντίον opposite + gen. or dat.
ἕνεκα (εἵνεκα) on account of, for the sake of + gen.
ἐπεί after, when, sinceἔπειτα thereupon, thereafter, thenἐπί on, upon + gen.; in the time of + gen.; towards + gen.; on, at, next to + dat.; on,to, against, for + acc.; ἐφ᾽ ᾧ on condition that

542Ancient Greek Iἔργον, ἔργου τό deed, task, work; building; ἔργον in truth, in deedἔρομαι (εἴρομαι), ἐρήσομαι (εἰρήσομαι), ἠρόμην, -----, -----, ----- ask, ask ‘x’ inacc. about ‘y’ in acc.
ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι, ἦλθον (ἐλθεῖν), ἐλήλυθα, ------, ------ come, goἕτερος, ἑτέρᾱ, ἕτερον other, anotherἔτι yet, stillἔτος, ἔτεος (ἔτους) τό yearεὖ wellεὐθύς, εὐθεῖα, εὐθύ straight, directεὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, ηὗρον, ηὕρηκα, ηὕρημαι, ηὑρέθην find out, discoverἔχω (imp. εἶχον), ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον, ἔσχηκα, -ἔσχημαι, ------ have, hold;(+ adv) be, καλῶς ἔχειν be well; ὧδε ἔχει it is like so; be able + inf. (often
impersonal); hinder, prevent, ἔχω αὐτὸν ταῦτα μὴ ποιεῖν I keep him fromdoing these things; (mid.) cleave, cling to + gen.; (mid.) be near or border + gen.;ἐχόμενόν ἐστι there belongs + gen.
ζάω (ζῇς, ζῇ), ζήσω, ἔζησα, ἔζηκα, ------, ------ live, breathe, be full of lifeΖεύς, Διός ὁ Zeus
ἤ or, thanἡγέομαι, ἡγήσομαι, ἡγησάμην, ------, ἥγημαι, ἡγήθην lead, believe; lead,command + dat.; lead ‘x’ in gen. for ‘y’ in dat., ἡγεῖται ἡμῖν χοροῦ she leads ourdance; rule, have dominion + gen.
ἤδη already, by this time, nowἥκω, ἥξω, ------, ------, ------, ------ have come, be presentἡμέρᾱ, ἡμέρᾱς ἡ day
θάλασσα (θάλαττα), θαλάσσης ἡ seaθεός, θεοῦ ἡ ὁ god, goddess, deityἴδιος, ἰδίᾱ, ἴδιον one’s own; one’s self; ἰδίῃ personally, privately, for one’s own
selfἱερός, ἱερά, ἱερόν holy; (n. in sg.) temple; (n. in pl.) sacrificesἵημι, -ἥσω, -ἧκα, -εἷκα, -εἷμαι, -εἵθην release, hurl, send; (mid.) hastenἵνα in order that, so that, whereἱππεύς, ἱππῆος (ἱππέως) ὁ knight, cavalryman; horseman, rider

Appendices

543

ἵππος, ἵππου ἡ ὁ horse; (fem.) cavalryἴσος, ἴση, ἴσον equal, as many as; similar to + dat.
ἵστημι, στήσω, ἔστησα (trans.) or ἔστην (intrans.), ἕστηκα (intrans.), ἕσταμαι,ἐστάθην stand; make stand, placeκαθίστημι (ἵστημι, στήσω, ἔστησα (trans.) or ἔστην (intrans.), ἕστηκα(intrans.), ἕσταμαι, ἐστάθην) (trans.) appoint, establish, put into a state;(intrans.) be established, be appointed, enter into a stateκαί (conj.) and; (adv.) even, also, merely, indeed; (after ὅμοιος, ἴσος, ὁ αὐτός) asκαιρός, καιροῦ ὁ right moment, critical time, opportunityκακός, κακή, κακόν bad, evil, cowardlyκαλέω, καλέω, ἐκάλεσα, κέκληκα, κέκλημαι, ἐκλήθην callκαλός, καλή, καλόν beautiful, noble, goodκατά (prep.) down from + gen.; down toward + gen.; under + gen.; against + gen.;during + acc.; throughout + acc.; by, according to + acc.; καθ’ ἅ according, just as;(adv.) as, just asκεῖμαι, κείσομαι, ------, ------, ------, ------ lieκελεύω, κελεύσω, ἔκελευσα, κεκέλευκα, κεκέλευσμαι, ἐκελεύσθην bid,order, command; ask; urge, encourage; order ‘x’ in dat. or in acc. + inf.; give theorder to, κελεύει σώζειν he gives the order to saveκοινός, κοινή, κοινόν shared, common; ἐκ τοῦ κοινοῦ shared in common; (n.)τὸ κοινόν the stateκρατέω, κρατήσω, ἐκράτησα, ------, ------, ἐκρατήθην be strong, powerful, rule+ gen.
λαμβάνω, λήψομαι, ἔλαβον, εἴληφα, εἴλημμαι, ἐλήφθην take, receive; captureλέγω, ἐρέω or λέξω, εἶπον or ἔλεξα, εἴρηκα, εἴρημαι or λέλεγμαι, ἐλέχθην orἐρρήθην say, tell, speak; (personal) νόσον λέγεται ἔχειν ὁ Καμβύσης Kambyses
is said to have an illness; (impers.) νόσον λέγεται ἔχειν Καμβύσην it is said that
Kambyses has an illnessλόγος, λόγου ὁ word, speech, story; reason, account; value, esteem, talk,conversation; τῷ λόγῳ for the sake of argument, in word, i.e., falsely; ἐν λόγῳ inthe rank of; κατὰ λόγον according to the value or esteemλοιπός, λοιπή, λοιπόν left, remainingμάλιστα especially, most; (with numbers) aboutμᾶλλον more, rather

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Ancient Greek Iμανθάνω, μαθήσομαι, ἔμαθον, μεμάθηκα, ------, ------ learn; learn to, learn how
to + inf.; understandμάχη, μάχης ἡ battleμέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα big, greatμέλλω, μελλήσω, ἐμέλλησα, ------, ------, ------ be about to, be going to; be likely to+ inf. (fut. inf. in Attic)μέν (post-positive; often looks forward to δέ to create contrast or parallelism) on
the one hand; ὁ μέν . . . ὁ δέ the one . . . the other; οἱ μέν . . . οἱ δέ some . . . othersμέντοι indeed, to be sure, howeverμέρος, μέρεος (μέρους) τό share, portion, part; limb; one’s turnμέσος, μέση, μέσον middle, middle of + gen.; ἐς μέσον in common, altogetherμετά with + gen; after + acc.; (adv.) after, nextμέχρι up to, until + gen.; μέχρι τούτου meanwhileμή (mostly found in hypothetical contexts) no, not, lestμηδέ (mostly found in hypothetical contexts) and . . . notμηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν; μηδένος, μηδεμιᾶς, μηδένος (mostly found in
hypothetical contexts) no one, nothingμήν, μηνός ὁ month; (adv.) truly, surelyμήτε (mostly found in hypothetical contexts) neither, μήτε . . . μήτε neither. . . norμήτηρ, μητέρος (μητρός) ἡ motherμικρός, μικρά, μικρόν small, little, shortμόνος, μόνη, μόνον only, sole, alone, solitary; oneνηῦς (ναῦς), νεός (νεώς) ἡ shipνέος, νέᾱ, νέον new, fresh, young; strange, unexpectedνομίζω, νομιέω, ἐνόμισα, νενόμικα, νενόμισμαι, ἐνομίσθην believe, think,have the custom of, hold as custom
νόμος, νόμου ὁ law, custom
νῦν nowὁ, ἡ, τό (proclitic, ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, αἱ) the; my, your, his, her; our, your, their; (used with
abstract nouns, with names of famous or important people, and to generalize),οἱ ἄνθρωποι, people

Appendices545ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε he, she, it; this, these; the following; τῇδε here, thus, in the followingwayοἶδα (inf. εἰδέναι), εἴσομαι, ------, ------, ------, ------ know, think; know how to + inf.
οἴομαι or οἶμαι, οἰήσομαι, ᾠσάμην, ------, ------, ᾠήθην think, suppose, believeοἷος, οἵᾱ, οἷον such, such a kind; οἷός τέ εἰμι I am able, I am of such a kind to +inf.; οἷον or οἷα how, like, as, becauseὀλίγος, ὀλίγη, ὀλίγον few, little, smallὅλος, ὅλη, ὅλον whole, entireὅμοιος, ὁμοίᾱ, ὅμοιον like, resembling + dat.
ὁμολογέω, ὁμολογήσω, ὡμολόγησα, ὡμολόγηκα, ὡμολόγημαι, ὡμολογήθην
speak together; agree; admitὄνομα, ὀνόματος τό name
ὅπως so that, in order that; how; wheneverὁράω (imp. ἑώραον), ὄψομαι, εἶδον (inf. ἰδεῖν), ἑόρακα or ἑώρακα, ἑώραμαιor ὦμμαι, ὤφθην seeὀρθός, ὀρθή, ὀρθόν straight, correct, properὅς, ἥ, ὅ who, whose, whom; which, that; ᾗ by which way, just as; ἐν ᾧ while; ἐς ὅuntilὅσος, ὅση, ὅσον so many, as many as; ὅσῳ in so far as; to the degree that; ὅσον
as far as; ἐπ᾽ ὅσον how far, to how great an extent
ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅ τι whoever, whateverὅταν (ὅτε + ἄν) wheneverὅτε whenὅτι that, becauseοὐ, οὐκ, οὐχ (proclitic; mostly found in factual contexts; use οὐκ if the wordthat comes after starts with a smooth breathing; use οὐχ if the word that comes
after starts with a rough breathing; if the word starts with a consonant, use οὐ)no, notοὐδέ (mostly found in factual contexts) and not, but not, not evenοὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν; οὐδένος, οὐδεμιᾶς, οὐδένος (mostly found in factual
contexts) no one, nothingοὖν then, therefore; really, certainly

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Ancient Greek Iοὔτε (mostly found in factual contexts) and not; neither; οὔτε . . . οὔτε neither. . . norοὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο he, she, it; this, these; ταύτῃ here, there, where, in this wayοὕτως (οὕτω) in this way, such, soπάθος, πάθεος (πάθους) τό suffering; experience; passion; emotion
παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ childπάλιν backπάνυ perfectly, verily, by all meansπαρά from + gen.; beside + dat.; to, toward + acc.; contrary to + acc.
πάρειμι be near, be present; (imper.) be possibleπάρειμι go in, enter; pass byπαρέχω (ἔχω, ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον, ἔσχηκα, -ἔσχημαι, ------) furnish, handover; supply; cause; allow, grant; be allowed, παρέχει it is allowedπᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν all, each, every, wholeπάσχω, πείσομαι, ἔπαθον, πέπονθα, ------, ------ suffer, have done to oneπατήρ, πατρός ὁ fatherπείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα, πέπεικα, πέπεισμαι, ἑπείσθην persuade; (mid. or pass.)
listen to, obey + dat. or gen.
πέμπω, πέμψω, ἔπεμψα, πέπομφα, πέπεμμαι, ἐπέμφθην sendπερί about, concerning + gen; around, concerning + dat.; around, concerning +acc.
πλεῖστος, πλείστη, πλεῖστον most, greatest, largestπλῆθος, πλήθεος (πλήθους) τό great number, multitude; sumποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα, πεποίηκα, πεποίημαι, ἐποιήθην do, make, cause;(mid.) consider, περὶ πολλοῦ ποιεῖσθαι to consider important; ἐν ἐλαφρῷποιεῖν to make light of; κακὰ ποιεῖν αὐτόν to do harm to him; οὐδένα λόγον
ποιεῖν to consider ‘x’ in gen. of no account; make a poem, composeπολέμιος, πολεμίᾱ, πολέμιον hostileπόλεμος, πολέμου ὁ warπόλις, πόλιος (πόληος, πόλεως) ἡ cityπολύς, πολλή, πολύ much, manyποταμός, ποταμοῦ ὁ river

Appendices547ποτε (enclitic) at some time, once, everπρᾶγμα, πράγματος τό matter, thing, affair; problemπράττω (πράσσω, πρήσσω), πράξω, ἔρπαξα, πέπρᾱχα or πέπρᾱγα,πέπρᾱγμαι, ἐπράχθην do, make, fare; pass through; exact payment of ‘x’ inacc. from ‘y’ in acc.; πολλὰ πράττειν to be a busybody, to make trouble; κακῶςπράττειν to fare badly, fail, suffer;πρίν (conj.) before, πρὶν (ἢ) αὐτοὺς πέμψαι ταῦτα before they sent these thingsπρό (prep.) before, in front of + gen; on behalf of + gen.		
πρός (prep.) facing + gen.; from + gen.; in the eyes of + gen.; by + gen.; at, near +dat.; in addition + dat.; towards + acc.; against + acc.; in regard to + acc.; (adv.)
additionally, in additionπρότερος, προτέρᾱ, πρότερον prior, before, soonerπρῶτος, πρώτη, πρῶτον first, for the present, just nowπῶς howσκοπέω, σκοπήσω, ἐσκόπησα, ------, ἐσκόπημαι or ἔσκεμμαι, ------ look at;
examine; consider, contemplateσός, σή, σόν yourστρατηγός, στρατηγοῦ ὁ generalσύ, σοῦ or σου you, you, yoursσυμβαίνω (βαίνω, βήσομαι, ἔβην, βέβηκα, βέβαμαι, ἐβάθην) stand withfeet together; come together; come to an agreement, come to terms; meet + dat.;(impers.) come to pass, happenσύν (ξύν) with, with help of + dat.
σφεῖς, σφέα; σφέων (σφῶν), σφέων (σφῶν) they, them, theirs
σῶμα, σώματος τό bodyταχύς, ταχεῖα, ταχύ swift
τε (enclitic and postpositive) and; τε . . . τε both . . . andτεῖχος, τείχεος (τείχους) τό wall; (pl.) strongholdτέλος, τέλεος (τέλους) τό end, boundary; power; office; (acc.) finallyτίθημι, θήσω, ἔθηκα, τέθηκα, τέθειμαι, ἐτέθην put, place; make, cause
τις, τι (pronoun) anyone, anything; someone, something; (adjective) some, any,a, a certainτίς, τί (adjective or pronoun) who, what, which, why548

Ancient Greek Iτοίνυν then, thereforeτοιοῦτος, τοιαύτη, τοιοῦτο of such a kind or sortτόπος, τόπου ὁ place, spotτοσοῦτος, τοσαύτη, τοσοῦτο so much, so manyτότε at that time, thenτρεῖς, οἱ, αἱ; τρία τά threeτρόπος, τρόπου ὁ way, manner, turn; (pl.) characterτυγχάνω, τεύξομαι, ἔτυχον, τετύχηκα, ------, ------ happen + suppl. participle,τυγχάνει βαλών he happens to strike; meet + gen.; obtain + gen.; hit the mark,strike + gen.; succeedυἱός, υἱοῦ ὁ son, childὑπάρχω (ἄρχω, ἄρξω, ἦρξα, ἦρχα, ἦργμαι, ἤρχθην) be; be sufficient; begin +gen.; (impers.) be allowed, be possibleὑπέρ above, over + gen.; on behalf of + gen.; over, above, beyond+ acc.

ὑπό by + gen.; under + gen., dat., or acc.; subject to + dat.; during + acc.
ὕστερος, ὑστέρᾱ, ὕστερον after, laterφαίνω, φανέω, ἔφηνα, πέφαγκα or πέφηνα, πέφασμαι, ἐφάνθην or ἐφάνηνshow, reveal; (pass.) come to light, appearφέρω, οἴσω, ἤνεγκα or ἤνεγκον, ἐνήνοχα, ἐνήνεγμαι, ἠνέχθην bring, bear,carry; endure; (mid.) win; τὸ δίκαιον φέρει as justice brings about, as is justφεύγω, φεύξομαι, ἔφυγον, πέφευγα, ------, ------ flee; be banished; be in exile; bea defendantφημί, φήσω, ἔφησα, ------, ------, ------ say, affirm, assertφίλος, φίλη, φίλον friendly, kind, well-disposed + dat.; (n.) friendφύσις, φύσιος (φύσηος, φύσεως) ἡ natureχείρ, χειρός ἡ (dat pl. χερσίν) hand; force, armyχράομαι, χρήσομαι, ἐχρησάμην, ------, κέχρημαι, ἐχρήσθην use, employ,experience + dat.
χρή (inf. χρῆναι < χρὴ + εἶναι; imp. ἐχρῆν or χρῆν < χρη + ἦν; fut. χρήσει),χρῆσται (χρὴ + ἔσται) it is necessary + inf.
χρῆμα, χρήματος τό thing; (pl.) goods, money, propertyχρόνος, χρόνου ὁ time

Appendices549

χώρᾱ, χώρᾱς ἡ land, country
ψυχή, ψυχῆς ἡ life, soul, spiritὦ (precedes a noun, marks for the vocative case, often not translated) ohὡς (proclitic) (conj.) as, how, when; (conj. + indicative) since, because; (conj. +optative or subjunctive) in order that; (conj. + indirect statement) that; (adv.) so,thus; (adv. + superlative) as “x” as possible; (adv. + numbers) about, nearly
ὥσπερ as, as ifὥστε and so, such that, with the result that

Answer Key

Module 3 Answers to Practice Accenting Verbs of Three
Syllables or More
1. δίδωμι, ἐδίδου, διδόμεθα, ἐδίδουν, δίδομεν, ἐδιδόμην, δίδοται, δίδοσαι
2. διδοίης, ἐδόμην, διδόᾱσιν, δίδοτε, ἐδίδους, ἐδίδοσο, δίδοσθαι, δίδονται3. διδοίην, διδόμεθα, δίδοσθε, διδοίημεν, διδοίμην, διδότω
4. τίθημι, ἐτίθην, ἐτίθεις, τίθησιν, τίθεμεν, ἐτίθει, τίθεσαι, τίθεται5. τιθέμεθα, ἐτιθέμην, τίθεσθε, τίθετε, τιθέᾱσιν, ἐθέμην, τίθενται, τίθεσθαι
6. πράττετε, ἔπραξα, ἐπράχθην, ἔπραττον, ἐπράχθητε, πέπρᾱχα, πράττεται,πράττεσθαι
7. γενησόμεθα, ἐγενόμην, ἐγίγνου, γέγονα, γεγένησθε, γίγνεται, γίγνεσθαι
8. ποιέει, ποιήσειν, ἐποίησα, ἐποίεον, ἐποιέου, ἐποιήθην, ποιέεται,ποιέονται9. δοκέεις, ἐδόκεες, δοκέειν, ἔδοξε, ἐδόχθη, ἐδοκεόμην, δοκέεσθαι,δοκέεται10. ὁράω, ὀψόμεθα, ὁράειν, ὄψεσθε, εἰδόμην, ἑώρακα, ὁράεται, ὁράονται

Module 4 Answers to Practice Identifying Adverbs
Adverbs are bolded and what each modifies is underlined.
“Open your eyes, Clevinger. It does not make a damned bit ofdifference who wins the war to someone who’s dead.”
Clevinger sat for a moment as though he’d been slapped.
“Congratulations!” he exclaimed bitterly, the thinnest milk-whiteline enclosing his lips tightly in a bloodless, squeezing grind. “I can© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264.40

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Ancient Greek I

not think of another attitude that could be depended upon to give
greater comfort to the enemy.”“The enemy,” retorted Yossarian with weighted precision, “isanybody who’s going to get you killed, no matter which side he’son, and that includes Colonel Cathcart. And do not you forget that,
because the longer you remember it, the longer you might live.”

Module 4 Answers to Practice Translating Adverbs“Every time another White Halfoat was born,” he continued, “thestock market turned bullish. Soon whole drilling crews were
following us around with all their equipment just to get the jump on
each other. Companies began to merge just so they could cut downon the number of people they had to assign to us. But the crowd inback of us kept growing. We never got a good night’s sleep. When westopped, they stopped. When we moved, they moved, chuckwagons,
bulldozers, derricks, generators. We were a walking business boom,
and we began to receive invitations from some of the best hotels
just for the amount of business we would drag into town with us.
Some of those invitations were mighty generous, but we couldn’t
accept any because we were Indians and all the best hotels thatwere inviting us wouldn’t accept Indians as guests. Racial prejudice
is a terrible thing, Yossarian. It really is.
“Then, Yossarian, it finally happened—the beginning of the end.
They began to follow us around from in front. They would try toguess where we were going to stop next and would begin drilling
before we even got there, so we couldn’t stop. As soon as we’d begin
to unroll our blankets, they would kick us off. They had confidence
in us. They wouldn’t even wait to strike oil before they kicked usoff. We were so tired we almost didn’t care the day our time ranout. One morning we found ourselves completely surrounded byoilmen waiting for us to come their way so they could kick us off.
Everywhere you looked there was an oilman on a ridge, waiting
there like Indians getting ready to attack. It was the end. We couldn’t
stay where we were because we had just been kicked off. And there
was no place left for us to go. Only the Army saved me. Luckily, thewar broke out just in the nick of time, and a draft board picked me
right up out of the middle and put me down safely in Lowery Field,
Colorado. I was the only survivor.”

Answer Key

553

Module 5 Answers to Practice Indentifying Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are underlined and subordinating conjunctions arein bold.
Each morning when they came around, three brisk and serious men
with efficient mouths and inefficient eyes, they were accompanied
by brisk and serious Nurse Duckett, one of the ward nurses who
didn’t like Yossarian. They read the chart at the foot of the bed andasked impatiently about the pain. They seemed irritated when hetold them it was exactly the same.
Nurse Duckett made a note to give Yossarian another pill, and thefour of them moved along to the next bed. None of the nurses liked
Yossarian. Actually, although the pain in his liver had gone away,
Yossarian didn’t say anything and the doctors never suspected.

Module 5 Answers to Practice with Conjunctions
I once went to Thessaly. I had some family business there with aman from that region. My horse carried me and my possessions
and one slave attended me. I was travelling the dirt road whenalong came some travellers headed for Hypata, a city of Thessaly
and their hometown. We shared bread as we approached the endof our journey and the city. I asked them if they knew about a manliving in Hypata. His name was Hipparkhos and I carried for him
a letter from home, requesting a stay at his house. They repliedthat they knew Hipparkhos, where in the city he lived, that he had
sufficient silver, and that he kept only one slave and a wife, sincemoney was his true love.
As we neared the city, we saw an orchard and on the grounds asmall but tolerable cottage where Hipparkhos lived. Bidding me
farewell my companions left. I approached the door and knocked.
After a long wait a woman answered, stepping outside.

Module 5 Answers to Practice Accenting Verbs of Two
Syllables or More1. λαμβάνει, λήψει, ἔλαβε, ἐλάμβανε, ἐλήφθη, λήψεσθε, λαμβάνεται,
λαμβάνεσθαι554

Ancient Greek I

2. βούλει, βούλῃ, βουλησόμεθα, ἐβούλου, ἐβούλετο, ἐβουλήθησαν,βούλεται, βούλονται3. ἔρχεσθε, ἐλεύσει, ἦλθον, ἦλθε, ἤλθομεν, ἦλθες, ἔρχονται, ἔρχεσθαι
4. καλέω, ἐκάλεον, καλέειν, ἐκάλεσα, κέκληκα, ἐκλήθη, καλέεται,καλέονται5. πρᾶττον, ἔπρᾱττον, πρᾶττε, πράξεις, πράξω, πράξει, πράττεται,πράττεσθαι
6. ἄρχεις, ἦρχον, ἦρχες, ἤρχου, ἦρξε, ἤρχθη, ἄρχεται, ἄρχονται
7. ἀκούει, ἀκούσει, ἤκουσα, ἀκούειν, ἀκουόμεθα, ἀκούομεν, ἀκούεται,ἀκούονται8. φέρεις, φέρει, φέρον, οἶσον, φέρε, οἴσει, οἴσεται, οἴσεσθαι
9. ἄγομεν, ἄγειν, ἦγε, ἤγου, ἤχθη, ἄξει, ἄγεται, ἄξονται
10. φαίνεις, φαῖνον, ἔφαινον, φανέειν, ἐφάνθη, φαῖνε, φαίνεται, φανέεσθαι

Module 6 Answers to Practice Writing in Greek
1. ἄνθρωπος ἄγει ἵππον.
2. νόμος πείθει ἄνθρωπον.
3. θεὸς τῷδε χρήματα δίδωσι.
4. ὅδε τῇδε χρήματα δίδωσι.
5. γυνὴ ὁράει ἵππον.
6. ἄνθρωπος ποιέει τῷδε θεόν.
7. ἵππος φέρει τήνδε.
8. θεὸς τῇδε φίλον δίδωσι.
9. ἄνθρωπος ἵππον καλέει.
10. χρόνος νόμον γράφει.

Module 7 Answers to Practice Parsing in English
1. My (adjective, learned soon) owner (nominative, subject) discovered(verb) a profit (accusative, direct object) of (preposition not present
in Greek) many (adjective, learned soon) drachmae (genitive of
dependence).
2. She (nominative, subject) spoke (verb) to (preposition not present in
Greek) my (adjective, learned soon) owner (dative, indirect object) and(conjunction) promised (verb) payment (accusative, direct object) ofAnswer Key(preposition not present in Greek) silver (genitive of dependence) to(preposition not present in Greek) him (dative, indirect object).
3. She (nominative, subject) lit (verb) a lamp (accusative, direct object)with (preposition not present in Greek) fire (dative of instrument) and(conjunction) it (nominative, subject) burned (verb) for (preposition
not present in Greek) three hours (accusative, duration of time).
4. She (nominative, subject) pours (verb) fragrant (adjective, learnedsoon) oil (accusative, direct object) from a bottle (ἐκ + bottle in the
genitive) of (preposition not present in Greek) alabaster (genitive of
dependence) and (conjunction) rubs (verb) her (adjective, learnedsoon) arm (accusative, direct object) with (preposition not present in
Greek) it (dative of instrument).
5. On the day (ἐν + day in the dative) of (preposition not present in Greek)
the spectacle (genitive of dependence) we (nominative, subject) bring(verb) him (accusative, direct object) and (conjunction) one (accusative,
direct object) of (preposition not present in Greek) the women (partitive
genitive) to the theater (εἰς + theater in the accusative).
6. The bed (nominative, subject) was (verb) large (predicate adjective)
and adorned (predicate adjective) with (preposition not present in
Greek) gold (dative of instrument).
7. They (nominative, subject) placed (verb) me (accusative, direct object)in the middle (ἐν + middle in the dative) of (preposition not present in
Greek) the theater (genitive of dependence) and (conjunction) everyone(nominative, subject) shouted (verb) and (conjunction) clapped (verb).
8. I (nominative, subject) went (verb) to Thessaly (εἰς + Thessaly in theaccusative) because (conjunction) there was (verb) to (preposition
not present in Greek) me (dative of possession) a personal (adjective,
learned soon) matter (nominative, subject) there (adverb).
9. I (nominative, subject) carried (verb) to Thessaly (εἰς + Thessaly
in the accusative) a letter (accusative, direct object) from my father(παρά + father in the genitive) for (preposition not present in Greek)
Hipparkhos (dative, indirect object). He (nominative, subject) lived(verb) there (adverb) and (conjunction) was (verb) very (adverb)
miserly (adjective, learned soon).
10. Loukios (vocative, direct address), my (adjective, learned soon) home(nominative, subject) is (verb) small (nominative, predicate adjective)but (conjunction) generous (nominative, predicate adjective). Treat(verb) it (accusative, direct object) kindly (adverb).

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Module 7 Answers to Create a Linked Story, Presidents
1–12
Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Adams,
Jackson, Van Buren, Harrison, Tyler, Polk, Taylor
You are standing at your sink washing a tin. Out of the tin grows a
big adam’s apple. You grab the apple out of the tin and hand it to achef and her son. They take the apple and use it to make medicine.
You take the medicine from them and give it to Marilyn Monroe
who stands there watching. Marilyn takes the medicine and she too
grows a huge adam’s apple. Michael Jackson is moon walking as hewatches horrified by the huge adam’s apple growing from Marilyn
Monroe’s neck. Michael Jackson runs screaming from the room andgets into a van filled with cases of beer. A hairy son drives away withthe beer and Michael Jackson. The hairy son is not a good driver. He
runs into a tiler who is putting tiles decorated with polka dots onto
the wall of a building. A tailor watches the tiler work and takes thepolka dots from the tiles so that he can use them for a dress he ismaking for Marilyn Monroe.

Module 8 Answers to Practice Picking out Prepositions
Circumambulate the city of a dreamy Sabbath afternoon. Go fromCorlears Hook to Coenties Slip, and from thence, by Whitehall,northward. What do you see?—Posted like silent sentinels allaround the town, stand thousands upon thousands of mortal men
fixed in ocean reveries. Some leaning against the spiles; some seatedupon the pier-heads; some looking over the bulwarks of ships from
China; some high aloft in the rigging, as if striving to get a still betterseaward peep. But these are all landsmen; of week days pent up inlath and plaster—tied to counters, nailed to benches, clinched todesks. How then is this? Are the green fields gone? What do they
here?

Module 8 Answers to Practice Identifying Prepositions
Μασσαγέται δὲ ἐσθῆτά τε ὁμοίην τῇ Σκυθικῇ φορέουσι καὶ δίαιτανἔχουσι, ἱππόται δὲ εἰσὶ καὶ ἄνιπποι—ἀμφοτέρων γὰρ μετέχουσι—καὶ τοξόται τε καὶ αἰχμοφόροι, σαγάρις νομίζοντες ἔχειν. χρυσῷAnswer Key

557δὲ καὶ χαλκῷ τὰ πάντα χρέωνται· ὅσα μὲν γὰρ ἐς αἰχμὰς καὶ ἄρδιςκαὶ σαγάρις, χαλκῷ τὰ πάντα χρέωνται, ὅσα δὲ περὶ κεφαλὴν καὶζωστῆρας καὶ μασχαλιστῆρας, χρυσῷ κοσμέονται. [2] ὣς δ᾽ αὕτωςτῶν ἵππων τὰ μὲν περὶ τὰ στέρνα χαλκέους θώρηκας περιβάλλουσι,τὰ δὲ περὶ τοὺς χαλινοὺς καὶ στόμια καὶ φάλαρα χρυσῷ. σιδήρῳ δὲοὐδ᾽ ἀργύρῳ χρέωνται οὐδέν· οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδέ σφι ἐστὶ ἐν τῇ χωρῇ, ὁδὲ χρυσὸς καὶ ὁ χαλκὸς ἄπλετος.

Module 8 Answers to Practice Choosing the Preposition
Concerning customs all people think this way and it is possible
to prove it is so by many examples and also in the following way.
During his rule Dareios called some Greeks who were present andasked them at what price they would be willing to eat their deadfathers. They replied that they would do this at no price. After thisDareios called the Kallatians from India who eat their dead andwhile the Greeks watched and understood what was said throughan interpreter, asked at what price they would agree to burn withfire their dead fathers. They yelled loudly and bid him to watch his
tongue. So it is with customs and I think Pindar’s poem correctly
says that custom is the king of everything.

περὶ τοὺς νόμουςconcerning customsἐν δὲ δὴ καὶ τῷδεin the following wayἐπὶ τῆς ἑωυτοῦ ἀρχῆς

during his ruleἐπὶ κόσῳ ἂν χρήματιat what priceἐπ᾽ οὐδενί

at no priceμετὰ ταῦταafter thisδι᾽ ἑρμηνέος

through an interpreterἐπὶ τίνι χρήματιat what priceὡς δὲ οὕτω νενομίκασι τὰ περὶ τοὺς νόμους πάντες ἄνθρωποι,πολλοῖσί τε καὶ ἄλλοισι τεκμηρίοισι πάρεστι σταθμώσασθαι, ἐν δὲ δὴκαὶ τῷδε. [3] Δαρεῖος ἐπὶ τῆς ἑωυτοῦ ἀρχῆς, καλέσας Ἑλλήνων τοὺςπαρεόντας, εἴρετο ἐπὶ κόσῳ ἂν χρήματι βουλοίατο τοὺς πατέραςἀποθνήσκοντας κατασιτέεσθαι. οἱ δὲ ἐπ᾽ οὐδενὶ ἔφασαν ἔρδειν ἂντοῦτο. [4] Δαρεῖος δὲ μετὰ ταῦτα, καλέσας Ἰνδῶν τοὺς καλεομένους

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Ancient Greek I

Καλλατίας, οἳ τοὺς γονέας κατεσθίουσι, εἴρετο, παρεόντων τῶνἙλλήνων καὶ δι᾽ ἑρμηνέος μανθανόντων τὰ λεγόμενα, ἐπὶ τίνιχρήματι δεξαίατ᾽ ἂν τελευτῶντας τοὺς πατέρας κατακαίειν πυρί. οἱδέ, ἀμβώσαντες μέγα, εὐφημέειν μιν ἐκέλευον. οὕτω μέν νυν ταῦτανενόμισται, καὶ ὀρθῶς μοι δοκέει Πίνδαρος ποιῆσαι, νόμον πάντωνβασιλέα φήσας εἶναι.

Module 8 Answers to Practice Translating Prepositions,
Conjunctions, and Adverbs
Paragraph I
It was a humorously perilous business for both of us. For, before
we proceed further, it must be said that the monkey-rope was fastat both ends; fast to Queequeg’s broad canvas belt, and fast to mynarrow leather one. So that for better or for worse, we two, for thetime, were wedded; and should poor Queequeg sink to rise no more,then both usage and honor demanded, that instead of cutting thecord, it should drag me down in his wake. So, then, an elongated
Siamese ligature united us. Queequeg was my own inseparable
twin brother; nor could I any way get rid of the dangerous liabilities
which the hempen bond entailed.
So strongly and metaphysically did I conceive of my situation then,that while earnestly watching his motions, I seemed distinctly toperceive that my own individuality was now merged in a joint stockcompany of two; that my free will had received a mortal wound;and that another’s mistake or misfortune might plunge innocent
me into unmerited disaster and death.
Paragraph II
Athletes and those seeking physical fitness pay attention to healthand exercise. They also contend that well-timed relaxation is a vital
part of training. Students too I think profit from rest after reading
serious works and consequently return to their studies invigorated.
This rest works best if they spend time with books which provide
contemplation and inspiration as well as wit, charm, and attraction,
just the sort of restful thought I think this work provides. I note not
only the novelty of the content and the charm of a compelling story

Answer Key

559

but also the witty allusions to the ancient classics, filled with legends
and monsters, written by poets, historians, and philosophers.

Module 9 Answers to Practice with Verbs in English
I hope: first person singular present indicative active, stating a fact. Hope istransitive and is often followed by a clause initiated by the conjunction that.
that I should live: first person singular present modal active, stating a possibility.
Live is intransitive.
to see: infinitive unmarked for person and number, stating a possibility. To see
is transitive and is a complementary infinitive, completing the meaning of theverb live.
every man should know: third-person singular present modal active, stating a
possibility. The modal mood expresses hypotheticals, as do the subjunctive andoptative moods in Greek. Know is transitive and is often followed by a clause
initiated by the conjunction that. Here the that is elided.
he is free: third-person singular present indicative active. It is the clause thatfunctions as the direct object of know. Is is a linking verb, connecting the subject
he with the adjective free.
prayers and suffrage make our heart: third plural present indicative active,
stating a fact.
to be this sad: infinitive, dependent on the verb make. To be is a linking verb
connecting the infinitive’s subject heart with the adjective sad.
I got my duty rock and roll: first-person singular present indicative active,
stating a fact.
now everybody has got: third-person singular, present modal active, stating an
obligation.
to be free: infinitive unmarked for person and number. The infinitive to be is alinking verb combining everybody with free and is complementary, completingthe meaning of the verb has got.
Let us get rid: first-person plural present imperative active, exhorting us to act.
and (let us) bring our government: first-person plural, present imperative
active, exhorting us to act.
it may seem very hard: third-person singular, present modal active, expressing
possibility. May is a helping verb. Seem is a linking verb, combining it withhard. It is the third person impersonal subject of the verb may seem.

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Ancient Greek I

hard to do: infinitive unmarked for person and number. The infinitive to do
is transitive and the direct object has already been stated above as get rid andbring. To do is an epexegetical infinitive explaining the adjective hard.
just open your mind: second-person singular, present imperative active, asking
the listener to imagine a better future. Open is a transitive verb.
let love: second-person singular, present imperative active, asking the listenerto imagine a better future. Let is a transitive verb and the direct object is loveand the infinitive (to) come.
come through: come is an infinitive dependent on the verb let. The to has been
omitted.
you hear me, hear my plea: second-person singular, present indicative active,
stating a fact. Hear is a transitive verb. The direct objects are me and plea.
everybody’s gotta be free: third-person singular, present modal active, stating
an obligation.
gotta be free: infinitive unmarked for person and number. The infinitive to
be is a linking verb combining everybody with free and is complementary,completing the meaning of the verb has got.
we did our thing: first-person plural, pesent indicative active, stating a fact. Did
is a transitive verb and its direct object is thing.
we paid our dues: first-person plural, pesent indicative active, stating a fact.
Paid is a transitive verb and its direct object is dues.
let’s get rid of: first-person plural present imperative active, exhorting us to act.
These freedom blues is the object of get rid of.

Module 9 Answers to Practice Translating εἰμί
1. I am from Hypata, a city of Thessaly.
2. You are from the north.
3. Already we are near the city.
4. I ask if you are within.
5. The abode is so small.
6. I am Abroia; where are you lodging?
7. Are you young and attractive?
8. The area of the road is rough.
9. Are you young and a fit wrestler?

Answer Key

10. They are not inexperienced in the art.

Module 9 Answers to Practice Translating δίδωμι
1. No, but another gives up the child to her.
2. The woman gives her breast to the child.
3. Helios gives the chariot to her.
4. Helios gives the dress to her.
5. Phoibos gives drugs to her.
6. And she does not betray him.
7. I am eager to give thanks to her.
8. They give gifts to the bride.
9. You betray her.
10. You pay the penalty to her and to him.

Module 9 Answers to Practice Translating τίθημι
1. Where do I step? Where do I place my foot? What do I say?
2. In truth your mother gives birth to you, unlucky.
3. I desire to dwell in the house of Hades.
4. You place the things on earth below and envy the dead?
5. Death gives my wife to Hades.
6. You suffer things worthy of cries.
7. I place my life in Hades’ hands. For I do not wish to look upon the
sunlight.
8. You walk through pains, I know this well.
9. What evil is greater for a husband to have?
10. You give me a chair but you place no limit on your sufferings.

Module 9 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek Sentences
ἐγὼ μὲν ἔρομαι εἰ ἔνδον ἐστέ. I ask if you are within.
ἐγώ: nominative, subject of ἔρομαι
μέν: adverb, modifying ἔρομαι
ἔρομαι: first-person singular present indicative middle or passiveεἰ: subordinating conjunction

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Ancient Greek Iἔνδον: adverb modifying ἐστέἐστέ: second-person plural present indicative activeδίκην αὐτῇ καὶ αὐτῷ δίδως. You pay the penalty to her and to him.
δίκην: accusative, direct object of δίδωςαὐτῇ: dative, indirect object of δίδωςκαί: coordinating conjunctionαὐτῷ: dative, indirect object of δίδωςδίδως: second-person singular, present indicative active

Module 10 Answers to Practice Translating ἔχω
1. She has a disagreement with her mother.
2. Work holds pleasure for her.
3. We are alive and have judgment.
4. It is not the case for a woman.
5. And now we are able to be well.
6. Fear holds him and for this reason he flees.
7. For it is possible for the bride to have the land and houses.
8. For I am able to say many things to him. OR For I have many things to
say to him.
9. You are wise and have a reputation.
10. But you are quiet and do not say much.

Module 10 Answers to Practice Translating ποιέω
1. They force him to do what they wish.
2. You do the opposite of what I wish.
3. You make yourself subject to a sea of grief.
4. She causes me to by annoyed.
5. You cause me to go to sleep on the cold doorstep.
6. You do things worthy of yourself and your children.
7. You cause me to owe much thanks to the gods.
8. What does Zeus do? Does he clear away the clouds or gather them?
9. The crab, the smallest of its kind, writes tragedy.
10. How is it we do not do what we wish and do what we don’t wish?

Answer Key

Module 10 Answers to Practice Translating ἔρχομαι
1. You approach the city because you are not well.
2. Grief comes to her because they are ill.
3. They depart the land to see and to learn other things.
4. For I see that you do not come at a good time.
5. And yet he does not come to explain the riddle.
6. We go in and we give the woman these things.
7. I confer with her and we leave the land.
8. I do not have fear since I, a friend, come. OR I do not have fear since I
come as a friend.
9. I approach and I strike the door.
10. I come in and give to him the letter.

Module 10 Answers to Practice Translating φημί
1. Alkestis says, “I see Helios and the light of day.”
2. Admetos says, “Helios sees you and me.”3. Alkestis says, “Helios sees my land and country of Iolkos.”
4. Admetos says, “I tell you not to forsake me.”5. Alkestis says, “I see two oars and I see the hull of a ship on the lake.”
6. Admetos says, “You speak of a voyage bitter to me.”
7. Alkestis says, “He drives me. Hades drives me. Don’t you see?”
8. Admetos says, “You speak of a voyage lamentable to friends andchildren.”
9. Alkestis says, “It is necessary for you to let me go, now.”
10. Admetos says, “Alas, you speak a word wretched to hear.”

Module 10 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesκαὶ φόβος αὐτὸν ἔχει καὶ διὰ ταῦτα φεύγει. Fear holds him and so he flees.
καί: coordinating conjunctionφόβος: nominative, subject of ἔχειαὐτόν: accusative, direct object of ἔχει

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Ancient Greek Iἔχει: third-person singular, present indicative activeκαί: coordinating conjunctionδιά: prepositionταῦτα: accusative object of διάφεύγει: third-person singular, present indicative activeὁράω γὰρ ὅτι οὐκ ἔρχῃ πρὸς καιρόν. For I see that you do not come at a goodtime.
ὁράω: first-person singular, present indicative activeγάρ: postpositive, conjunctionὅτι: subordinating conjunctionοὐκ: adverb modifying ἔρχῃἔρχῃ: second-person singular, present indicative middle or passiveπρός: prepositionκαιρόν: accusative object of preposition

Module 11 Answers to Practice with Persistent Accent
1. θεός: θεόν, θεοί, θεούς
2. λόγος: λόγου, λόγῳ, λόγον, λόγοι, λόγων, λόγοις, λόγους, λόγοι
3. ἄνθρωπος: ἀνθρώπου, ἀνθρώπῳ, ἄνθρωπον, ἀνθρώπων, ἀνθρώποις,ἄνθρωποι
4. ἀρχή: ἀρχήν, ἀρχαί, ἀρχάς
5. πρᾶγμα: πράγματος, πράγματι, πράγματα, πραγμάτων
6. πόλεμος: πολέμου, πολέμῳ, πόλεμον, πολέμων, πολέμοις, πολέμους,πόλεμοι7. λιμήν: λιμένος, λιμένι, λιμένα, λιμένες, λιμένων, λιμένας
8. χώρᾱ: χώρᾱς, χώραις, χῶραι9. ὄνομα: ὀνόματος, ὀνόματι, ὀνόματα, ὀνομάτων
10. σῶμα: σώματος, σώματι, σώματα, σωμάτωνModule 11 Answers to Practice Translating
Apollo: Zeus kills my son, Asklepios, and throws fire into his chest.
For I anger him when I kill the makers of Zeus’ fire, the Kyklopes. My
father forces me to be a slave to a mortal man as payment for thesethings. I go to the land and I serve as cowherd to a stranger and I
save his house. I am devout and I meet a devout man, Pheres’ son,
Admetos. I save him from dying and I trick the fates. The goddessesAnswer Key

565

make a promise to me and say that Admetos immediately escapes
Hades and gives in exchange another’s corpse to those below. He
tests everyone and goes through his loved ones, father and mother.
He finds no one, except his wife. His mother gives him birth but
does not wish to die for him. His wife is willing to look no longer
upon the daylight; at home he holds her in his hands and she barely
breathes.

Module 11 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesὁ Ζεὺς κτείνει παῖδα τὸν ἐμόν, Ἀσκληπιόν, καὶ στέρνοις ἐμβάλλει φλόγα.
Zeus kills my son, Asklepios, and throws fire into his chest.
ὁ: nominative adjective, agrees in gender, case, and number with Ζεύς
Ζεύς: nominative, subject of κτείνεικτείνει: third-person singular, present indicative activeπαῖδα: accusative, direct object of κτείνειτόν: accusative adjective, agrees in gender, case, and number with παῖδαἐμόν: accusative adjective, agrees in gender, case, and number with παῖδαἈσκληπιόν: accusative noun in apposition with παῖδακαί: coordinating conjunctionστέρνοις: dative, object of the prefix ἐν- of ἐμβάλλει
ἐμβάλλει: third-person singular, present indicative activeφλόγα: accusative, direct object of ἐμβάλλει

Module 12 Answers to Practice Translating Substantive
Adjectives
1. The women of today.
2. The men of that time.
3. The men in the road.
4. The women especially.
5. The things of today.
6. The things of yesterday.
7. The women from the land.
8. The man on the horse.
9. Those down below.

566

Ancient Greek I

10. The things pertaining to war.
11. To the men in the sea.
12. Contrary to the things of virtue.
13. Through the necessity of the things of war.
14. According to those in the street.
15. In comparison with the things in the beginning of time.
16. Subject to the law of those in charge.
17. The one . . . the other.
18. Some . . . others.

Module 12 Answers to Practice Translating
Iphigeneia: The son of Tantalos goes to Pisa and with swift
horses marries the daughter of Oinomaos. The children of Atreus
are Menelaos and Agamemnon. From him and the daughter of
Tyndareos, I, Iphigeneia, am born. Because of Helen my father
sacrifices me to Artemis at the famous glens of Aulis. For here lord
Agamemnon gathers a Greek force of a thousand ships and wishes
to seize the prize of Ilium. The son of Atreus wishes to chase down
the marriage of Helen and bring favor to Menelaos. Although hewishes to release his ships from land, the lord of the campaign,
Agamemnon, is unable. He experiences a difficult inability to sailand so goes for sacrifices and Kalkhas says to him these things.
Kalkhas says that it is necessary for my father to sacrifice me, hisdaughter Iphigeneia, to Artemis and for her to accept the payment.
Kalkhas says to him that he promised to sacrifice the most beautiful
child to the light-bringing goddess. And Klytaimestra gives birth tothe child, Iphigeneia. By the most beautiful Kalkhas is referring tome and so it is necessary for my father to sacrifice me. By Odysseus’cunning he takes me from my mother for marriage to Akhilleus.

Module 12 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesδεινῆς δʼ ἀπλοίας τυγχάνει ὥστε εἰς ἔμπυρʼ ἔρχεται καὶ αὐτῷ λέγει ὁ Κάλχας
ταῦτα. He experiences a difficult inability to sail and so goes for sacrifices andKalkhas says to him these things.
δεινῆς: genitive adjective, agrees in gender, case, and number with ἀπλοίας.

567

Answer Keyδέ: coordinating conjunctionἀπλοίας: genitive, direct object of the verb τυγχάνει
τυγχάνει: third person singular, present indicative activeὥστε: subordinating conjunctionεἰς: prepositionἔμπυρα: accusative, object of εἰςἔρχεται: third-person singular, present indicative middle or passiveκαί: coordinating conjunctionαὐτῷ: dative, indirect object with λέγει
λέγει: third person singular, present indicative active
ὁ: nominative adjective, agrees in gender, case, and number with Κάλχας
Κάλχας: nominative, subject of λέγει
ταῦτα: accusative, object of λέγει

Module 13 Answers to Practice Understanding
Adjective and Noun Agreement
Article that Agrees

Noun

Article that Agrees

Noun

ὁ

ἀνήρ

τῷ

πάθει

τόν

βασιλέαὁ or ἡ

παῖς

τό

γένος

ὁ

πατήρ

ἡ

γυνή

τό

πλῆθος

τόν

Δία

τῆς

πόλεωςτῆςδυνάμεωςὁπολίτηςτοῦἝλληνος

τόπρᾶγμα

τῷ

ἔτει

τοῖς

σώμασι (ν)

οἱ

ἱππῆς

τοῦ

τείχους

τά

μέρη

τήν

φύσιν

τῆς

μητρόςαἱχάριτες

ταῖς

ναυσί

τῶν

χειρῶντοῖςὀνόμασι (ν)τάχρήματαModule 13 Answers to Practice Translating
Helen: The story is that Zeus takes the form of a swan and flies toLeda, my mother of Helen. My name is Helen and I tell the Greeks
what evils I suffer. On account of beauty three goddesses come to568

Ancient Greek I

Mt. Ida, Hera, Kypris, and the maiden. The goddesses wish to decide
the trial of beauty. Kypris wins and gives my beauty to Alexandros.
Paris departs Mt. Ida and arrives in Sparta and wishes to have mymarriage-bed. Hera complains because she does not defeat thegoddesses and she fills with air my marriage to Alexandros. Hera
does not give me but she makes an image similar to me and sheputs it together from the sky. The will of Zeus brings war to the landof the Greeks and to the Phrygians. Zeus wishes to lighten motherearth of the great throng of mortals and to make Akhilleus famous.
Hermes takes me and hides me in a cloud and places me in thehouse of Proteus.

Module 13 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesτὰ δὲ Διὸς βουλεύματα πόλεμον εἰσφέρει Ἑλλήνων χθονί καἰ Φρυξί. The willof Zeus brings war to the land of the Greeks and to the Phrygians.
τά: nominative adjective, agrees in gender, case, and number with βουλεύματαδέ: coordinating conjunctionΔιός: genitive, possesses βουλεύματαβουλεύματα: nominative, subject of εἰσφέρει
πόλεμον: accusative, direct object of εἰσφέρειεἰσφέρει: third-person singular, present indicative activeἙλλήνων: genitive, possesses χθονίχθονί: dative, indirect object with εἰσφέρεικαί: coordinating conjunctionΦρυξί: dative, indirect object with εἰσφέρειModule 14 Answers to Practice Declining Nouns
N

ψυχή

ψυχαί

ἀγορά

ἀγοραί

G

ψυχῆς

ψυχῶν

ἀγορᾶς

ἀγορῶν

Dψυχῇψυχαῖς

ἀγορᾷἀγοραῖς

A

ψυχήν

ψυχάς

ἀγοράν

ἀγοράς

V

ψυχή

ψυχαί

ἀγορά

ἀγοραί

Answer Key

Module 14 Answers to Practice Translating theInterrogative Pronoun and Adjective
1. Who rules the army?
2. What is it necessary for her to do?
3. To whom are you sending gifts?
4. Whose book do we have?
5. It is necessary for whom to come? (Who must come?)
6. What king rules the land?
7. What work is it necessary for them to do? (What must they do?)
8. What poet’s book do they have?
9. It is necessary for what soldiers to come? (What soldiers must come?)
10. To what soldiers is it necessary to go?

Module 14 Answers to Practice Translating the
Indefinite Pronoun and Adjective
1. Someone rules the army.
2. It is necessary for her to do something. (She must do something.)
3. Are you sending the gifts to anyone?
4. Do we have anyone’s book?
5. Is it necessary for anyone to come? (Must anyone come?)
6. Does some king rule the land?
7. Is it necessary for them to do some deed? (Must they do some deed?)
8. Do they hold the book of any poet?
9. Ιt is necessary for some soldiers to come?
10. Is it necessary to go to any soldiers?

Module 14 Answers to Practice Translating
the Indefinite Relative Pronoun and Indefinite
Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective
1. Whoever rules the army is doing good things.
2. Whatever it is necessary for her to do she does well.

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Ancient Greek I

3. I send bad things to whomever you send gifts.
4. Whatever king rules the land suffers evil things.

Module 14 Answers to Practice Translating
My name is Amphitryon, the sharer of Zeus’ bed and father of Herakles. I livein Thebes where the earth-born grain of the Spartoi grows. Some of them Ares
saves, a small number; others die. The Spartoi people the city of Kadmos withchildren of children. Then from them is born Kreon, the son of Menoikeus, lordof the land. Kreon is the father of Megara; the Kadmeans once cheered her in
wedding-songs with a pipe. Then to her home, Thebes, where I live, famous
Herakles brings her. He leaves Thebes, Megara, and his relatives. My son strives
to live in the Kyklopian city, Tiryns. I flee the Argive walls when I kill Elektryon.
He lightens my misfortune. And he wishes to live in his fatherland and so hepays a big price to Eurystheus for my return—to tame the earth. Either Hera
overpowers him with barbs or fate forces him to suffer. And he achieves hisother labors and after these things he goes to Hades to bring back the threebodied dog, his last labor.

Module 14 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesεἴθʼ Ἥρα αὐτὸν δαμάζει κέντροις εἴτε αὐτὸν ἡ μοῖρα ἀναγκάζει παθεῖν.
Either Hera overpowers him with barbs or fate forces him to suffer.
εἴθʼ (εἴτε): coordinating conjunctionἭρα: nominative, subject of δαμάζειαὐτόν: accusative, object of δαμάζειδαμάζει: third-person singular, present indicative activeκέντροις: dative, means or instrumentεἴτε: coordinating conjunctionαὐτόν: accusative, object of ἀναγκάζειἡ: nominative adjective, agrees in gender, case, and number with μοῖρα
μοῖρα: nominative, subject of ἀναγκάζειἀναγκάζει: third-person singular, present indicative activeπαθεῖν: dynamic infinitive with ἀναγκάζει571

Answer Key

Module 15 Answers to Practice with Attributive
Position
1. ἡ χαλεπὴ ὁδόςἡ ὁδὸς ἡ χαλεπήὁδὸς ἡ χαλεπή

2. ὁ σοφὸς λόγοςὁ λόγος ὁ σοφόςλόγος ὁ σοφος

3. ἡ ἀγαθὴ ψυχήἡ ψυχὴ ἡ αγαθήψυχὴ ἡ ἀγαθήModule 15 Answers to Practice with Predicate Position
1. χαλεπὴ ἡ ὁδόςἡ ὁδὸς χαλεπή

2. σοφὸς ὁ λόγοςὁ λόγος σοφός

3. ἀγαθὴ ἡ ψυχήἡ ψυχὴ αγαθήModule 15 Answers to Practice Translating
1. The universe is change; life is a process.
2. There is only one good, knowledge; and only one evil, ignorance.
3. Nothing evil is without good.
4. Place is supreme. It contains everything.
5. Good and bad are the same thing.
6. Life is short, art is long, opportunity is fleeting, experience slippery,
judgment difficult.
7. For a human an unexamined life is not livable.
8. In reality we know nothing. For truth exists in an abyss.
9. All flows; nothing stays.
10. Of mortals no one is fortunate until the end.
11. Of all inevitable evils time is the cure.
12. Wisest is time, for it discovers everything.
13. Perception or measure is time not substance.
14. For humans the future is uncertain and small affairs become the causeof major events.
15. Swiftest is the mind, for it runs through all.

572Ancient Greek I

16. The work of the foot is slow; that of the mind is swift.
17. The mirror of the body is bronze and of the mind it is wine.
18. For a wise human the whole earth is accessible. For the entire universeis the country of a good soul.
19. From a bad beginning comes a bad end.
20. Human nature differs as does human character.
21. The world’s a stage; life is the entranceway. You enter, you observe, you
depart.
22. It is impossible to escape fate.
23. Good things are difficult.
24. One swallow does not make spring and one bee does not make honey.
25. It is necessary for a stranger to follow the customs each country has.
26. Friend knows friend when there is danger.
27. Long are the fingers of tyrants.
28. If you are hungry, everything is edible.
29. Great knowledge does not teach intelligence.
30. Humans are by nature political animals.
31. A life without feasting is a long journey without inns.
32. It is better for fools to be ruled than for them to rule.

Module 15 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesτῷ ξένῷ δεῖ ἀκολουθέειν τοῖς ἐπιχωρίοις νόμοις. It is necessary for a stranger
to follow the customs each country has.
τῷ: dative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with ξένῳξένῳ: dative, indirect object with δεῖδεῖ: third-person singular, present indicative active; impersonal verbἀκολουθέειν: dynamic infinitive with δεῖτοῖς: dative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with νόμοιςἐπιχωρίοις: dative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with νόμοιςνόμοις: dative, object of the verb ἀκολουθέειντὸ τοῦ ποδὸς μὲν βραδύ· τὸ τοῦ δὲ νοῦ ταχύ. The work of the foot is slow; thatof the mind is swift.
τὸ τοῦ ποδός: substantive noun in the nominative, subject of an implied isAnswer Key573μέν: adverb, contrasts with δέβραδύ: nominative adjective, predicate adjective, agrees in gender case andnumber with the substantive noun, τὸ τοῦ ποδόςτὸ τοῦ δὲ νοῦ: substantive noun in the nominative, subject of an implied isδέ: adverb, contrasts with μένταχύ: nominative adjective, predicate adjective, agrees in gender case andnumber with the substantive noun, τὸ τοῦ δὲ νοῦModule 16 Answers to Practice Translating
Dionysos: I, Dionysos, Zeus’ son, have come to the land of Thebes. The daughterof Kadmos, Semele, gave birth to me and a lightning bolt served as midwife.
From a god I change to mortal form. I see my mother’s tomb and the ruins of ourhouse. They smolder still, a blaze of Zeus’ fire, the eternal wrath of Hera against
my mother. I praised Kadmos, for he made the land untouchable, a sacredprecinct of his daughter. I leave the lands of the Lydians and Phrygians and thefields of the Persians and the Baktrian walls and the country of the Medes. And
I travel to Arabia and Asia. Asia lies along the sea and has cities filled with a mix
of Greeks and barbarians. There I already danced and esbablished my rights.
And now I come to a city of the Greeks because I am a god revealed to mortals.
With my cries of the Greek lands I first excite Thebes. From my body I hang adeer skin and give a thyrsus to my hand, an ivied spear.

Module 16 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesκαὶ νεβρίδα ἐξάπτω χροὸς θύρσον τε δίδωμι ἐς χεῖρα, κίσσινον βέλος. From
my body I hang a deer skin and give a thyrsus to my hand, an ivied spear.
καί: conjunctionνεβρίδα: accusative, object of ἐξάπτωἐξάπτω: first-person singular, present indicative activeχροός: genitive, object of the prefix ἐκ- of ἐξάπτωθύρσον: accusative, object of the verb δίδωμι
τε: coordinating conjunctionδίδωμι: first-person singular, present indicative activeἐς: prepositionχεῖρα: accusative, object of ἐςκίσσινον: accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with βέλος
βέλος: accusative, in apposition with θύρσον

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Ancient Greek I

Module 17 Answers to Practice Translating theInfinitive
1. It is good to beware of the scorpion under every rock.
2. I do not prefer to leave the excellent shine of the sun.
3. Death commands me to leave the brilliant stars.
4. I begin to leave the ripe cucumbers and apples and pears.
5. A swallow comes to bring in the beautiful season.
6. It is custom to open the door for the swallow.
7. Eriphanis knows how to cause the most savage to cry with emotion.
8. The god, erect, wishes to go through your midst.
9. Opportunity bids there be no more delay.
10. In Phrygia Rhea persuades the Korybants to dance.

Module 17 Answers to Practice Translating
Dionysos: The sisters of my mother claim that Dionysos is not born of Zeus but
had a mortal father and that Semele put the fault of her love-making on Zeus.
The sisters boast that Zeus killed her by his flaming fire because she lied about
the affair. And so I drive them with madness from their houses. Frenzied inmind they dwell on a mountain. I force them to wear the dress of my mysteries.
The female offspring of the Kadmeians, as many as are women, I drive inmadness from their homes. They mingle with the daughters of Kadmos and sit
on roofless rocks under green pines. For it is necessary for the city, uninitiatedin my mysteries, to learn, even against its will, that to Zeus my mother Semelegave birth to me, a god revealed to mortals.

Module 17 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
SentencesῬέα ἐν Φρυγίᾳ μὲν τοὺς Κορύβαντας ὀρχέεσθαι πείθει. In Phrygia Rhea
persuades the Korybants to dance.
Ῥέα: nominative, subject of πείθειἐν: prepositionΦρυγίᾳ: dative, object of prepositionμέν: adverb, looks to an answering δέτούς: accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the nounΚορύβαντας

Answer Key

575Κορύβαντας: accusative, object of πείθειὀρχέεσθαι: dynamic infinitive with πείθει
πείθει: third-person singular, present indicative activeαὐτὴν αἱ ἀδελφαὶ ἐκκαυχάονται ὅτι κτείνει Ζεὺς ἀστραπηφόρῳ πυρὶ ὅτιγάμους ψεύδει. The sisters boast that Zeus killed her by his flaming fire because
she lied about the affair.
αὐτήν: accusative, object of the verb κτείνειαἱ: nominative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with ἀδελφαίἀδελφαί: nominative, subject of ἐκκαυχάονταιἐκκαυχάονται: third-person plural, present indicative middle or passiveὅτι: subordinating conjunctionκτείνει: third-person singular, present indicative activeΖεύς: nominative, subject of κτείνειἀστραπηφόρῳ: dative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with πυρίπυρί: dative, means or instrumentὅτι: subordinating conjunctionγάμους: accusative, object of the verb ψεύδειψεύδει: third-person singular, present indicative active

Module 18 Answers to Practice Identifying the Personal
Pronoun and Adjectives in English
Personal pronouns are bolded and personal adjectives are underlined.
1. You can be up to your boobies in white satin, with gardenias in yourhair and no sugar cane for miles, but you can still be working on aplantation.
2. Imagine if the government chased sick people with diabetes, put a
tax on insulin and drove it into the black market, told doctors they
couldn’t treat them, and then caught them, prosecuted them for not
paying their taxes, and then sent them to jail. If we did that, everyone
would know we were crazy. Yet we do practically the same thing every
day in the week to sick people hooked on drugs. The jails are full andthe problem is getting worse every day.
3. You’ve got to have something to eat and a little love in your life before
you can hold still for any damn body’s sermon on how to behave.
Everything I am and everything I want out of life goes smack back to
that.

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Ancient Greek I

4. If you think you need stuff to play your music or sing, you’re crazy. It
can fix you so you can’t play nothing or sing nothing.
5. I hate straight singing. I have to change a tune to my own way of doing
it. That’s all I know. I don’t think I ever sing the same way twice. The
blues is sort of a mixed-up thing. You just have to feel it. Anything I dosing is part of my life.

Module 18 Answers to Practice Translating Personal
Pronouns and Adjectives
1. I say to you.
2. Aphrodite, child of Zeus, I beg you.
3. You mustn’t subdue my heart with desire.
4. Do you hear my cries?
5. Do you leave your father’s house and come to me?
6. Beautiful sparrows bring you.
7. Are you smiling, Aphrodite, with your immortal face?
8. Do you ask why again I call you?
9. Do you ask what I especially wish to happen in my heart.
10. Do you ask whom again I persuade to lead you back into love?
11. Who, Sappho, wrongs you?
12. For if she flees, I command her to give chase quickly.
13. If she does not accept gifts from you but I order her to give to you.
14. If she does not love, I order her to love right away even if she isunwilling.
15. It is necessary to release me from harsh cares.
16. What my heart desires to accomplish, I wish you to accomplish.
17. You are my ally.

Module 18 Answers to Practice Translating
Death: She promises to free her husband and die in his stead, the child of Pelias.
And yet now you are here standing guard?
Apollo: You must take heart. I have for you justice and trusty words.
Death: Why then the need of a bow if you offer justice?

Answer Key

577

Apollo: It’s my custom to carry it always.
Death: Is it also your custom always to assist this house beyond what is just?
Apollo: The fortunes of a friend weigh heavily on me.
Death: And will you deprive me of a second corpse?
Apollo: Not even then did I take him from you by force.
Death: How is it he stands on the earth instead of lying under it?
Apollo: He exchanged his wife and now you come for her.
Death: I will bring her to the nether world.
Apollo: You must take her and go, for I am unable to persuade you.
Death: You wish me not to kill those I must? And yet this is my work.
Apollo: No, but to persuade you to delay death for those about to perish.
Death: I understand your reason and intent.

Module 18 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesπάτρος δὲ δόμον λείπεις καὶ εἰς μὲ ἔρχῃ; Do you leave your father’s house andcome to me?
πάτρος: genitive, possesses the noun δόμονδέ: coordinating conjunctionδόμον: accusative, object of λείπεις
λείπεις: second-person singular, present indicative activeκαί: coordinating conjunctionεἰς: prepositionμέ: accusative, object of εἰςἔρχῃ: second-person singular, present indicative middle or passiveβούλῃ ἐμὲ μὴ κτείνειν αὐτοὺς δεῖ; καίτοι τοῦτο ἐμοὶ ἔργον. You wish me not
to kill those I must? And yet this is my work.
βούλῃ: second-person singular, present indicative middle or passiveἐμέ: accusative, object of βούλῃ and to perform the action of κτείνεινμή: adverb, modifies κτείνεινκτείνειν: dynamic infinitive with βούλῃαὐτούς: accusative, object of κτείνεινδεῖ: third-person singular, present indicative active; impersonal verb; supply
an understood κτείνειν

578

Ancient Greek Iκαίτοι: coordinating conjunctionτοῦτο: nominative pronoun, subject or predicate nominative; takes the placeof killingἐμοί: dative, possesses ἔργονἔργον: nominative, subject or predicate nominative

Module 19 Answers to Practice Identifying Active andPassive Voice in English
1. I went (active) to the market to buy (active) food for supper.
2. Fish was set out (passive) to be sold (passive).
3. After haggling (active) I bought (active) some at a discount.
4. I paid (active) the fishmonger and departed (active) with my basket offish.
5. By chance, an old acquaintance of mine, Pithias, was glimpsed (passive)out of the corner of my eye.
6. He too spied (active) me and remembered (active) our friendship fromlong ago, giving (active) me a friendly kiss.
7. It was said (passive) by him to me that a long time had passed (passive)
since last we were met (passive).
8. He said (active) he had had (active) no news of me since departing(active) Athens and our old Master Vestius.
9. He asked (active) me why I had travelled (active) to Thessaly.
10. An answer was promised (passive) by me to him but not until themorrow.
11. I asked (active) him what his office was (active) and why he had (active)
so many attendants.
12. It was said (passive) by him that he had been granted (passive) the
office of Magistrate of the Market.
13. He asked (active) if I needed (active) his assistance in obtaining (active)
my evening’s meal.
14. It was replied (passive) by me that sufficient sustenance had just beenobtained (passive) by me.
15. My basket of fish was espied (passive) by Pithias and I was asked(passive) by him the cost and seller of my meal.
16. I told (active) him and took (active) him to the fishmonger’s stall.

Answer Key

17. He berated (active) the old man, who sat (active) in a corner, telling(active) him that the price of the fish was (active) too dear and hardly
worth any price.
18. It was said (passive) by him to the old man that Thessaly will be madeforsaken (passive) by all if strangers are treated (passive) in this way.
19. I was turned to (passive) next and my basket of fish was cast (passive)on the ground by Pithias and stomped (passive) to pieces by his
attendants.
20. The fishmonger was told (passive) that he was chastised (passive)
sufficiently and I was told (passive) to depart (active).
21. Amazed (passive) and astonished (passive), I was driven (passive) fromthe market without my supper.

Module 19 Answers to Practice Translating Active andPassive Voice
1. I give thanks.
2. We lead you to the road.
3. You deem them worthy.
4. You are deemed worthy to go.
5. You begin to hear.
6. They are ruled by them.
7. She (or he) marches to the sea.
8. We are marched to the sea.
9. I take you to the site.
10. I am taken to the site.

Module 19 Answers to Practice Translating
Apollo: Then is it possible for Alkestis to reach old age?
Death: No, not possible. I must enjoy the rewards of my job.
Apollo: And yet you will not carry off more than one corpse.
Death: When the young die I reap greater honor.
Apollo: And if Alkestis dies an old lady, she will be buried with greater riches.
Death: You propose a law that favors the rich, Phoibos.

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Ancient Greek I

Apollo: What did you say? Do you realize how smart you are?
Death: Those with wealth will be able to die old.
Apollo: You don’t think to grant me the favor.
Death: Nope. You know my ways.
Apollo: Hateful to mortals and detested by the gods.
Death: You can’t have it all, especially not the things that aren’t yours.
Apollo: A nobleman will come to Pheres’ house and by force will take thewoman from you. No thanks will come to you from us and you will still do thesethings but be hated by me.
Death: And yet the woman will go to Hades’ house. I go for her now and I willtake the sacrificial cut of her hair with my sword.

Module 19 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesοὐκ ἔστι σοὶ πάντ’ ἔχειν, μάλιστα ταῦτα μή σε δεῖ. You can’t have it all,especially not the things that aren’t yours.
οὐκ: adverb, modifies ἔστιἔστι: third-person singular, present indicative activeσοί: indirect object with ἔστι and to perform the action of ἔχεινπάντα: accusative, object of ἔχεινἔχειν: dynamic infinitive with ἔστιμάλιστα: adverb, modifies an implied ἔστιταῦτα: accusative, object of an implied ἔχεινμή: adverb, modifies an implied ἔχεινσε: accusative, subject of an implied ἔχεινδεῖ: third-person singular, present indicative active; impersonal verb

Module 20 Answers to Practice with Adjective andNoun Agreement
1. ἡ (γραῦς)2. τὴν (πόλιν)
3. τῷ (ἀνδρί)
4. τῆς (γυναικός)
5. ὁ or ἡ (παῖς)Answer Key

581

6. τοῖς (χρήμασι)
7. τῇ (ὁδῷ)
8. τοῦ (πράγματος)
9. αἱ (μητέρες)10. τοὺς (πατέρας)

Module 20 Answers to Practice Translating Substantive
Adjectives II
1. Immortal is the woman good in soul.
2. Difficult things are good.
3. For the wise friends are best.
4. The things of friends are not foreign.
5. Speech is a thing devoid of work.
6. For mortals time is a healer of everything.

Module 20 Answers to Practice Translating Pronouns
and Adjectives
1. We send these wild animals to her.
2. This general wants money; that general wants power.
3. You are sending these things to them.
4. They (those men or people) want this water.
5. They (those women) flee the tyrant.
6. That man is stronger than this man.
7. This woman sends all the gifts to that woman.
8. The same old woman sends them.
9. The old woman herself sends them.
10. They send him to her.

Module 20 Answers to Practice Translating
Jason: Will you be receptive to my rationale if I tell you about the marriage?
Even now you dare not let go the great rage of your heart.

582

Ancient Greek I

Medea: This is not your reason. Rather marriage to a foreigner in old age will
not benefit your reputation.
Jason: You know this well. Not for a wife do I marry the daughter of kings. I have
her now, because, as I keep telling you, I want to save you and for my children
to produce royal siblings as a defence for my house.
Medea: I am not willing to have a rich but painful life nor wealth if it ruins myhealth.
Jason: Do you know how to change your mind and appear wiser? For goodthings must not appear wretched to you and when you are lucky you mustn’t
think yourself unfortunate.
Medea: You are allowed to maltreat me since you have means but I all alone will
be exiled from this land.
Jason: You yourself are choosing these things. You musn’t blame anyone but
yourself.
Medea: What am I doing? Do I wed another and betray you?
Jason: Have you never uttered profane curses against the ruling house?
Medea: And I think I am a curse on your house too.

Module 20 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesαὐτὴ τάδʼ αἱρέῃ· δεῖ μηδένʼ ἄλλον αἰτιόεσθαί σε. You yourself are choosing
these things. You musn’t blame anyone but yourself.
αὐτή: nominative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject
you of αἱρέῃ.
αἱρέῃ: second-person singular, present indicative middle or passive
τάδε: accusative, object of αἱρέῃδεῖ: third-person singular, present indicative active; impersonal verb
μηδένα: accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with ἄλλονἄλλον: accusative, object of αἰτιόεσθαιαἰτιόεσθαι: dynamic infinitive with δεῖ
σε: accusative, to perform the action of αἰτιόεσθαι583

Answer Key

Module 21 Answers to Practice Declining Nounsἡ μοῦσααἱ μοῦσαιὁ ποιητήςοἱ ποιηταίτῆς μούσηςτῶν μουσῶντοῦ ποιητοῦτῶν ποιητῶντῇ μούσῃταῖς μούσαιςτῷ ποιητῇτοῖς ποιηταίςτὴν μοῦσαντὰς μούσᾱςτὸν ποιητήντοὺς ποιητάςὦ μοῦσαὦ μοῦσαιὦ ποιητάὦ ποιηταίModule 21 Answers to Practice Translating
Jason: I want no more of this with you. But, if for our children or yourself, youwish to have as assistance in your exile any more of my money, you will have it.
I am prepared to give with an open hand and to send a letter of introduction to
my guest-friends. They will treat you well. And if you do not want these things,
you are a fool. If you end your anger, you will be better off.
Medea: I do not want help from your friends nor to receive anything from you.
Do not give me anything. For the gifts of a wicked man lack benefit.
Jason: And so I call the gods to witness that I am willing to do my all for you andfor the kids. But you reject what is good for you. For by your stubbornness you
push away your friends. And you suffer more as a result.
Medea: It is time for you to leave or does your longing for your newly acquired
bride make you eager to remain out of the house? You thought it best to remarry.
Perhaps you will mourn this marriage.

Module 21 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesπόθῳ γὰρ τῆς νεοδμήτου κόρης σπουδάζεις χρονίζειν δωμάτων ἐξώπιος;
Does your longing for your newly acquired bride make you eager to remain out of
the house?
πόθῳ: dative, means or instrumentγάρ: coordinating conjunctionτῆς: genitive, agrees in gender, number, and case with κόρηςνεοδμήτου: genitive, agrees in gender, number, and case with κόρηςκόρης: genitive, dependence with πόθῳ
σπουδάζεις: second-person singular, present indicative activeχρονίζειν: dynamic infinitive with σπουδάζεις

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Ancient Greek Iδωμάτων: genitive with the adjective ἐξώπιοςἐξώπιος: nominative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with thesubject you of σπουδάζεις

Module 22 Answers to Practice Identifying the Relative
Pronoun in English
Antecedents are underlined and relative pronouns are in bold.
Coltrane had been playing Monk’s tunes as part of Miles Davis’ band
but he wanted to learn more, in particular “Monk’s Mood.” So, onenight at the Algonquin, Nica’s house, a place at which they often
practiced, Thelonious sat down with ‘Trane and taught him “Monk’s
Mood.” Hungry to know more Coltrane made a trip which became
an almost daily pilgrimage to West 63rd Street. He recounted thesevisits to critic August Blume with whom he met a year later: “I’d go
by Monk’s house, you know. By his apartment, and get him out ofbed, maybe. And he’d wake up and go over to the piano, which wasin his bedroom, and start playing, you know. He’d play anything,
like one of his tunes or whatever. He starts playing it, and he’d lookat me. I’d get my horn and start trying to find the thing that he’s
playing. And he tended to play over, and over, and over, and over,and I’d get this far. Next time we’d go over it, I’d get another part. He
would stop when we came to parts that were pretty difficult. And if
I had a lot of trouble, he’d get his out portfolio, which he always had
with him, and I’d see the music, the music which he had written out.
And I’d read it and learn. He believed a guy learned best withoutmusic. That way you feel it better. You feel it quicker when you
memorize it and you learn it by heart, by ear. When I almost had thetune which he was teaching me down, then he would leave, leaveme with it to fight with it alone. And he’d go out somewhere, maybe
go to the store, or go to bed or something. And I’d just stay there andrun over it until I had it pretty well and I’d call him and we’d put it
down together. Sometimes we’d just get one tune a day.

Module 22 Answers to Practice Parsing in English
1. He (nominative, subject of dedicated); dedicated (verb); silver(adjective modifies bowl); bowl (accusative, direct object of dedicated);and (conjunction); iron (adjective modifies stand); stand (accusative,Answer Key

direct object of dedicated); work (accusative in apposition with stand);Glaukos (genitive, possession); who (nominative, subject); discovered(verb); welding (accusative, direct object of discovered); iron (genitive,
dependence with welding).
2. Noone (nominative, subject of knows); knows (verb); about(preposition); Nile’s (genitive, possession of source); source (objectof preposition about); Libya (nominative, subject of is); through(preposition); which (object of preposition through); it (nominative,
subject); flows (verb); is (verb); uninhabited (adjective, nominative
modifies Libya); and (conjunction); desolate (adjective, nominative
modifies Libya).
3. Discover (verb); the item (accusative, direct object of discover); which(accusative, direct object of deem); you (nominative, subject of deem);
deem (verb); of most (adjective modifies value); value (genitive of
value); and (conjunction); for (preposition); which (object of prepositionfor); if (suborninating conjunction); lost (adjective modifies which);you (nominative, subject of will grieve); will grieve (verb); the most(adverb, modifies grieve).
4. You (nominative, subject of dare); who (nominative in apposition withyou and subject of governed); governed (verb); your (adjective modifies
country); own (adjective modifies country); country (accusative, direct
object of governed); so (adverb, modifies expertly) expertly (adverb,
modifies governed); dare (verb); to give (verb, dynamic infinitive withdare); me (dative, indirect object of give); advice (accusative, direct
object of give; in the actual Greek the verb συμβουλεύω advise takes
a dative object)?
5. He (nominative, subject of goes); goes (verb); to ask (verb, infinitive in
the actual Greek is a future participle to show purpose, to be learned
later); oracle (accusative, object of ask); if (subordinating conjunction);he (nominative, subject of will capture); will capture (verb); land
(accusative, direct object of will capture); against (preposition); which(object of preposition against); he (nominative, subject of marches);marches (verb).
6. Noone’s (genitive, possession); country (nominative, subject of has); has(verb); everything (accusative, direct object of has); land (nominative,
subject of is); that (nominative, subject of has); has (verb); most(accusative, direct object of has); is (verb); best (nominative adjective,
modifies land).
7. I (nominative, subject of share); share (verb); in (preposition) any(adjective, modifies misfortune); misfortune (object, preposition in);

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Ancient Greek I

for (preposition); which (object of preposition for); you (nominative,
subject of suspect); suspect (verb); me (accusative, object of suspect);
responsible (adjective modifies me).
8. Am looking (verb); I (nominative, subject of am looking); at(preposition); woman (object of preposition at); whom (accusative,
direct object of married); I (subject of married); married (verb).
9. He (nominative, subject of allowed); allowed (verb); me (accusative,
direct object of allowed; to perform the action of the infinitive to stay);
to stay (verb, dynamic infinitive with allowed); for one day (accusativeof duration of time; one is an adjective modifying day; there is noequivalent in Greek to the English preposition for) on (preposition)
which (object of preposition on); I (nominative, subject of willmake); will make (verb); three (adjective, modifies corpses); corpses(accusative, direct object of will make); of my enemies (genitive,
partitive with three; three is an adjective, modifying corpses; there is
no preposition present in Greek which is the equivalent to the English
of).
10. I (nominative, subject of met); met (verb); Pheres’ (genitive, possessionof son); son (accusative, object of met); whom (accusative, objectof saved); I (nominative, subject of saved); saved (verb); from(preposition); dying (object of preposition; in the original a dynamic
infinitive with saved); by (preposition); tricking (object of preposition
by; in the orginal a participle modifying the subject I); fates (accusative,
object of tricking).

Module 22 Answers to Practice Parsing the Relative
Pronoun1.

ὁ ἄνθρωπος σοφός. The man is wise.
ὁ ἄνθρωπος nominative, subject; σοφός nominative, predicate
adjective2.

ὁ ἄνθρωπος, οὗ ὁ υἱὸς φεύγει, κακός. The man, whose son is fleeing,
is wicked.
ὁ ἄνθρωπος nominative, subject; οὗ genitive, possession; ὁ υἱόςnominative, subject; φεύγει verb, third-person singular, present
indicative active; κακός nominative, predicate adjective.

3.

ὁ ἄνθρωπος, ᾧ δῶρον δίδωμι (I give), φίλος. The man, to whom Igive a gift, is a friend.

Answer Keyὁ ἄνθρωπος nominative, subject; ᾧ dative, indirect object; δῶρονaccusative, direct object; δίδωμι verb, first-person singular,present indicative active; φίλος nominative, predicate nominative.
4.

ὁ ἄνθρωπος, ὃν ὁ φίλος παιδεύει (educates), χαλεπός. The man,whom his friend educates, is cruel.
ὁ ἄνθρωπος nominative, subject; ὃν accusative, direct object; ὁφίλος nominative, subject; παιδεύει verb, third-person singular,present indicative active; χαλεπός nominative, predicate
adjective.

5.

ὦ ἆνθρωπε, ὃς φεύγεις, μὴ φεῦγε. O man, you who are fleeing, do
not flee.
ἆνθρωπε vocative, direct address; ὃς nominative in apposition
with the subject you of are fleeing; φεύγεις verb, second-person
singular, present indicative active; μή, adverb, modifies φεῦγε;φεῦγε verb, second-person singular, present imperative (to belearned in Part II of the 21st-Century series) active.

6.

ἡ γυνὴ καλή. The woman is good.
ἡ γυνή nominative subject; καλή nominative predicate adjective7.

ἡ γυνή, ἧς δῶρα ὁράω, χαλεπή. The woman, whose gifts I see, isharsh.
ἡ γυνή nominative, subject; ἧς genitive, possession; δῶραaccusative, object of “Ι see”; ὁράω verb, first-person singular,present indicative active; χαλεπή nominative, predicate adjective.

8.

ἡ γυνή, ᾗ δῶρα πέμπω, φίλη. The woman, to whom I send gifts, isa friend.
ἡ γυνή nominative, subject; ᾗ dative, indirect object; δῶραaccusative, direct object; πέμπω verb, first-person singular,present indicative active; φίλη nominative, predicate nominative.

9.

ἡ γυνή, ἣν ὁ υἱὸς φεύγει, κακή. The woman, whom the son flees, iswicked.
ἡ γυνή nominative, subject; ἣν accusative, direct object; ὁ υἱόςnominative, subject; φεύγει verb, third-person singular, present
indicative active; κακή nominative, predicate adjective.

10. ὦ γύναι, ἣ καλὰ ἔχεις, μὴ φεῦγε (don’t flee). O woman, you who
hold good thing s, don’t flee.

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Ancient Greek Iγύναι vocative, direct address; ἣ nominative in apposition with thesubject you of ἔχεις; καλά accusative, object; ἔχεις verb, secondperson singular, present indicative active; μή adverb, modifies
φεῦγε; φεῦγε verb, second-person singular, present imperative(to be learned in Part II of the 21st-Century series) active.

Module 22 Answers to Practice Translating
Neoptolemos: I hear your words and my head hurts, son of Laertes. For I hateto do these things and I am raised to do nothing by evil craft, both me and myfather. But I am ready to take the man by force and not cunning. For on one foothe will not best the two of us in a fight. I work with you but I am reluctant tobe named a liar. Lord, if I am acting well, I am willing to fail rather than to win
unjustly.
Odysseus: Son of a noble father, I too when young kept a quiet mouth and atalkative hand. But now as I reflect, I see that it is the work of the tongue, not of
the hand, that leads people in all ways.
Neoptolemos: Why not order me to say anything other than a lie?
Odysseus: I order you to capture Philoktetes by cunning.
Neoptolemos: Why must we take him by deception rather than persuasion?
Odysseus: He will not obey and we cannot take him by force.
Neoptolemos: Does he possess such fearsome boldness of strength?
Odysseus: He possesses arrows that don’t miss, which bring murder.
Neoptolemos: Aren’t we then bold to go near him?
Odysseus: We can succeed if we take him by cunning as I’ve said.

Module 22 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesἔστιν εἰ δόλῳ αὐτὸν λαμβάνομεν, ὡς ἐγὼ λέγω. We can succeed if we take him
by cunning as I’ve said.
ἔστιν: third-person singular, present indicative active; impersonal verb
εἰ: subordinating conjunctionδόλῳ: dative, means or instrumentαὐτόν: accusative, object of λαμβάνομεν
λαμβάνομεν: first-person plural, present indicative active

Answer Keyὡς: subordinating conjunctionἐγώ: nominative, subject of λέγω
λέγω: first-person singular, present indicative active

Module 23 Answers to Practice Translating theImperfect and Aorist Indicative Active
1. I (or they) was (were) doing bad things to us. I (or they) was (were)
harming us.
2. I (or they) was (were) persuading them to come.
3. I persuaded them to march.
4. I ask why I (or they) fled.
5. Did you write these things to them?
6. I (or they) found them in the land.
7. We suffered much at their hands.
8. They wanted to live forever.
9. He (or she) ordered them to hand over their money.
10. We were about to capture these things.

Module 23 Answers to Practice Translating
Neoptolemos: Surely it is shameful for us to lie.
Odysseus: Not if lying secures safety.
Neoptolemos: How then can anyone keep his eyes open and dare to utter thesethings?
Odysseus: If you do anything for profit, it is not fitting to scruple.
Neoptolemos: What gain comes to me if he goes to Troy?
Odysseus: Only his bow and arrows capture Troy.
Neoptolemos: And so I will not sack it as promised to me?
Odysseus: You will not sack it without them nor they without you.
Neoptolemos: And so it is necessary to take them, if this is true.
Odysseus: When you do this, you will win two prizes.
Neoptolemos: What kind? When I learn this from you, I will not refuse to act.
Odysseus: They will call you both wise and good.

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Ancient Greek I

Neoptolemos: Alas. I will do these things and cast aside all sense of shame.
Odysseus: You will remember then what I advised you?
Neoptolemos: You know it for sure since I have already consented.

Module 23 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesσὲ σοφόν τε καὶ ἀγαθὸν σὲ καλέουσιν ἅμα. They will call you both wise andgood.
σέ: accusative, object of καλέουσινσοφόν: accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with σέτε: coordinating conjunctionκαί: coordinating conjunction
ἀγαθόν: accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with σέ
σέ: accusative, object of καλέουσινκαλέουσιν: third-person plural, future indicative activeἅμα: adverb, modifies καλέουσιν

Module 24 Answers to Practice Translating Contract
Verbs
1. Therefore it is necessary to think that she is not responsible for all theevils.
2. After this was the government of Drakon in which he first wrote down
a number of laws. In those laws there was one punishment, death. His
laws were called harsh.
3. He makes light of their words and denies that he is sick; and they
believe him and so they kill and eat him.
4. The women seem to me to do the same things as the men.
5. He thought it worthy for the same punishment to be both for theprostitutes and for the women.
6. I am unable to utter assurances other than these that I would do nothing
to him before I speak to them. I prefer to speak first rather than to act.
7. Neither do I consent to flee my fatherland nor do I think it fit for him
to take so great a penalty from me.
8. After these things, when he killed those he considered most important,
he fled at a run.

Answer Key

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9. When I considered these things to myself, I thought the old lady will
not see me prepared to flee.
10. I indeed know how to bear nobly the things at my feet and to go eagerly
and not to consider the hardships which I will endure. I believed it best
to flee as quickly as possible.

Module 24 Answers to Practice Translating
Old Lady: Who is at the gate? Will you not go away? Are you going to stand in
the courtyard and cause trouble for my masters? If you are a Greek, you will die.
We have no dealings with them.
Menelaos: Old lady, you can speak the same words but do so differently for I
will listen but you must stop the lecture.
Old Lady: And you must go. It is on me, stranger, to make sure that no one of the
Greeks comes near our house.
Menelaos: Why are you pressing my hand and pushing me off by force?
Old Lady: You listen to nothing that I say. You are to blame.
Menelaos: I order you to tell your masters . . .
Old Lady: It won’t go well I think if I report what you say.
Menelaos: . . . I am here, a ship-wrecked stranger, a protected group of people.
Old Lady: It is time now for you to visit another’s house not this one.
Menelaos: No, I will come inside and you will listen to me.
Old Lady: You are obnoxious and now I will drive you off by force.
Menelaos: Where are my famous troops?
Old Lady: There is a place where you are revered but not here.
Menelaos: Dear god, I do not deserve this punishment.

Module 24 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesὀχληρῶς ἔχεις καὶ τάχ’ ὠθήσομαι βίᾳ. You are obnoxious and now I will drive
you off by force.
ὀχληρῶς: adverb, modifies ἔχειςἔχεις: second-person singular, present indicative activeκαί: coordinating conjunction

592

Ancient Greek Iτάχα: adverb, modifies ὠθήσομαιὠθήσομαι: first-person singular, future indicative middle
βίᾳ: dative, means or instrument

Module 25 Answers to Practice Parsing Indirect
Statement in English
1.

He said that you will be short-lived and will be killed by an ironspear.
He (nominative, subject); said (head verb); that (conjunction, notpresent in Greek); you (accusative subject of will be and will bekilled); will be (verb, a future infinitive in Greek); short-livid(adjective, modifies you); and (conjunction); will be killed (verb,
a future infinitive in Greek); by (preposition); iron (adjective,
modifies spear); spear (object of preposition by).

2.

You tell me that the dream says I will die by an iron spear.
You (nominative, subject); tell (head ver verb); me (dative,
indirect object of tell); that (conjunction, not present in Greek);
dream (accusative, subject of infinitive says); says (head verb,
present infinitive in Greek); I (accusative, subject of will die); by(preposition); iron (adjective, modifies spear); spear (object of
preposition by).

3.

The dream did not say that I will die by a fang.
Dream (nominative, subject); did not say (head verb); that(conjunction, not present in Greek); I (accusative, subject of
infinitive will die); will die (verb, future infinitive in Greek); by(preposition); fang (object of preposition by).

4.

The oracle said that he would destroy a large empire.
Oracle (nominative, subject); said (head verb); that (conjunction,
not present in Greek); he (accusative, subject of infinitive would
destroy); would destroy (verb, future infinitive in Greek); large(adjective, modifies empire); empire (accusative, object of infinitive
would destroy).

5.

He said that a mule will never rule.
He (nominative, subject); said (head verb); that (conjunction, notpresent in Greek); mule (accusative, subject of infinitive will rule);
will rule (verb, future infinitive in Greek); never (adverb, modifies
will rule).

Answer Key

593

Module 25 Answers to Practice Translating
Old Lady: Why do your eyes moisten? Why are you sad?
Menelaos: For my former good fortune.
Old Lady: Will you not leave and give your tears to your friends?
Menelaos: What land is this? Whose palace?
Old Lady: Proteus inhabits this house. The land is Egypt.
Menelaos: Egypt? To what dreadful place have I sailed?
Old Lady: Why do you fault the brilliance of the Nile?
Menelaos: I didn’t fault it. I sigh for my life’s lot.
Old Lady: Many people suffer, not just you.
Menelaos: Is he home? The one you call lord Proteus?
Old Lady: This is his tomb. His son rules the land.
Menelaos: Where is he? Out or in the house?
Old Lady: Not within and a Greek’s worst enemy.
Menelaos: What is the blame he bears for which I suffer?
Old Lady: Helen is in this house, Zeus’ daughter.
Menelaos: What are you saying? What tale did you tell? Will you spell it out forme once more?
Old Lady: Tyndareus’ child, who once lived in Sparta.
Menelaos: From where did she come? What sense does this situation hold?
Old Lady: She arrived here from Spartan country.
Menelaos: When? Surely my wife has not been stolen from the cave?

Module 25 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesγέλως ἄκαιρος πᾶσι βροτοῖς φέρει δεινὸν κακόν. For mortals ill-timed
laughter brings awful trouble.
γέλως: nominative, subject of φέρει
ἄκαιρος: nominative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with γέλως
πᾶσι: dative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with βροτοῖςβροτοῖς: dative, indirect object with φέρει
φέρει: third-person singular, present indicative active

594

Ancient Greek Iδεινόν: accusative, agrees in gender, number, and case with κακόν
κακόν: accusative, object of the verb φέρει
Λακεδαίμονος γῆς δεῦρο ἐνόστησ’ ἄπο. She arrived here from Spartan country.
Λακεδαίμονος: genitive, modifies γῆςγῆς: genitive, object of ἄποδεῦρο: adverb, modifies ἐνόστησεἐνόστησε: third-person singular, aorist indicative activeἄπο: preposition with anastrophe

Module 26 Answers to Practice Translating Additional
Adjectives
1. All flows; nothing is certain.
2. It is sweet to eat, drink, and laugh.
3. There is much to say but not much time.
4. A big book is akin to a big evil.
5. Τhe river flows directly to the sea.
6. He said that many will hate the one who wishes always to babble
nonsense.
7. It is very necessary for the poor to steal.
8. When it was late in the day, we had much wine and conversation.
9. And so time brings all hidden things into the light.
10. For mortals ill-timed laughter brings awful trouble.

Module 26 Answers to Practice Translating
Penelope: But it is necessary for you to decipher and hear the dream. From thewater to my house twenty geese come and are eating wheat. I am cheered bythem as I look on. Then a great eagle with a hooked beak comes from a mountain.
He breaks their necks and kills them all. They lie in a heap in the megaron andhe hangs in the shining sky. I weep and cry in the dream. The beautiful haired
Akhaian women gather about me and I am sad, crying because an eagle killed
my geese. He returns and sits on a roofbeam. With human voice he checks me,
saying.
Eagle: You must be brave, daughter of far-famed Ikarios. This was no dream
but a fine waking vision which will come to pass. The geese are the suitors. And

Answer Key

595

I who once was a feathered eagle am now again your husband, returned. I willbring a wretched fate upon all the suitors.
Penelope: Then honeyed sleep left me. And I saw the geese in the megaron andI took note. They were feeding on wheat from the trough where they had before.
Odysseus in disguise: I suppose it is not possible to explain the dream in anotherway since Odysseus himself said how it will end. Destruction seems likely for all
the suitors and no one will escape death and doom.
Penelope: Stranger, dreams are impossibly difficult to decipher and for mortals
all does not come to pass.

Module 26 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesτί νομίζεις τὴν δημοκρατίαν πoλλῷ ἡδίονα τυραννίδος; Why do you thinkdemocracy is much sweeter than tyranny?
τί: accusative of respectνομίζεις: second-person singular, present indicative activeτήν: accusative, agrees in gender, number, and case with δημοκρατίανδημοκρατίαν: accusative, subject of the implied infinitive εἶναι
πoλλῷ: dative, degree of differenceἡδίονα: predicate accusative, agrees in gender, number, and case withδημοκρατίαντυραννίδος: genitive, comparisonὁ δ’ ἂψ ἐλθὼν ἄρʼ ἕζεται ἐπὶ μελάθρῳ· φωνῇ δὲ βροτείᾳ κατερητύει φώνησέν
τε. He returns and sits on a roofbeam. With human voice he checks me, saying.
ὁ δέ: nominative subject of ἕζεταιἄψ: adverb, modifies ἐλθώνἐλθών: nominative adjective (participle), agrees in gender, number, and casewith the subject he of the verb ἕζεταιἄρα: adverb, modifies ἕζεταιἕζεται: third-person singular, present indicative middle or passiveἐπί: prepositionμελάθρῳ: object of ἐπίφωνῇ: dative, means or instrumentδέ: coordinating conjunctionβροτείᾳ: dative, agrees in gender, number, and case with φωνῇκατερητύει: third-person singular, present indicative activeφώνησεν: third-person singular, aorist indicative activeτε: coordinating conjunction

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Ancient Greek I

Module 27 Answers to Practice Translating
Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
1. Why do you think democracy is much sweeter than tyranny?
2. Small children are sweeter than anything to an old father and mother.
3. The general said that he is stronger than water.
4. Death reminds us of this that wealth is inferior to health.
5. In what way are you of calm character when you hasten most quickly
to anger?
6. He said that the greatest wound of a city is an evil speaker, a demagogue
because he persuades the people to do harm.
7. I suppose these are the things which make up the newer comedy andwhich Euripides brought to perfection.
8. In this critical moment will you risk awakening the one who has themost money and the greatest courage?
9. It is a question worth considering. For why is it more reasonable when
it is possible to find in both men and women the same faults andvirtues, just as Sokrates said.
10. She sends for the woman and when she saw her beauty she says, “hello,lady, false are the slanders; for you hold in your face and eyes the mostbeautiful drugs.”

Module 27 Answers to Practice Translating
Penelope: For there are two gates of fleeting dreams: one is made of horn andthe other of ivory. Some dreams go through sawn ivory. These cheat us withempty hopes and bring us empty words. The others go out through polishedhorn. These ones offer real accomplishments if any mortal sees them. But on
my part I do not think that the grim dream came through this gate. If it did,it will be welcome to me and to my son. And I will tell you one more thing.
This coming dawn will be an ill-omened one, for it will take me from Odysseus’
house. For I will now propose a contest, the axes, which Odysseus used to set
in the megaron in a row, like the props used to build a ship’s frame, twelve ofthem in all. He stood at a distance and shot an arrow through them. And now I
will announce this contest to the suitors. Whoever easily strings the bow in his
hands and shoots an arrow through all twelve axes, this one I will follow and I
will abandon the house of my spouse, a beautiful home, full of life, which I think
I will one day remember in a dream.

Answer Key

597

Odysseus in disguise: Revered wife of Odysseus, son of Laertes, no longer
in the home must you delay this contest. For the crafty one will return home,
Odysseus, before they touch this polished bow and string it and shoot throughthe iron.
Penelope: If beside me you are willing, stranger, to sit in the megaron and toenjoy ourselves, I do not think sleep would settle upon my eyes.

Module 27 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesοὖν τι βούλῃ περὶ τῶν ἐκεῖ φράζειν ἐμοί ἢ ἄπειμι; And so do you wish to tellme anything about the news there or shall I depart?
οὖν: adverb, modifies βούλῃτι: accusative, object of φράζειν
βούλῃ: second-person singular, present indicative middle or passiveπερί: prepositionτῶν ἐκεῖ: object of περίφράζειν: dynamic infinitive with βούλῃἐμοί: dative, indirect object with φράζειν
ἤ: coordinating conjunctionἄπειμι: first-person singular, present indicative active; used for the futureεἴ ἐθέλεις παρά μοι, ξεῖνε, ἧσθαι ἐν μεγάροις καὶ τέρπειν, οὐκ οἴομαί μοιὕπνον ἐπὶ βλεφάροις χυθήσεσθαι. If beside me you are willing, stranger, to sit
in the megaron and to enjoy ourselves, I do not think sleep would settle upon myeyes.
εἰ: subordinating conjunctionἐθέλεις: second-person singular, present indicative activeπαρά: prepositionμοι: object of παράξεῖνε: vocative, direct addressἧσθαι: dynamic infinitive with ἐθέλεις
ἐν: prepositionμεγάροις: object of ἐνκαί: coordinating conjunctionτέρπειν: dynamic infinitive with ἐθέλειςοὐκ: adverb, modifies οἴομαι
οἴομαι: first-person singular, present indicative activeμοι: dative, indirect object or possesses βλεφάροιςὕπνον: accusative, subject which to perform the action of χυθήσεσθαι598

Ancient Greek Iἐπί: preposition
βλεφάροις: object of ἐπίχυθήσεσθαι: infinitive, main verb in indirect statement

Module 28 Answers to Practice Translating εἰμί andεἶμι
1. Is it possible for you to save the money with which you came and which
I gave you?
2. And so do you wish to tell me anything about the news there or shall I
depart?
3. She says, “do you know then where the temple of Athene is?”4. He says, “there is a black rock on the land which will indicate to you
where her house is.”5. When the general had the chance, he wished to keep the peace and not
to break it.
6. In my opinion this victory was the women’s. For the men were defeated.
7. Then Kambyses when no water was available to him sent messengers
to the Arabian.
8. Kreon enters and makes a proclamation to give Laios’ wife and therealm to the person who solves the riddle of the Sphinx.
9. We are of such great wisdom that we persuade them to do good not bya tyrant’s means but by the use of intelligence.
10. The farmer said to his child that the Sphinx has the face of a woman,the chest and feet and tail of a lion, and the wings of a bird.

Module 28 Answers to Practice Translating
Eukrates: For when in my younger years I was living in Egypt—I was sent there
by my father for the purpose of my education—I sailed up the Nile to Koptos
and from there made my way to Memnon. I desired to hear the wonder that wasthere. For it resounds toward the rising sun. And I heard it not as a muttering
noise, which is the experience of many. But it opened its mouth and Memnon
spoke to me in seven verses. And I am able, if I wish, to make a digression
and to speak to you exactly what he said. But I am unwilling. On the journey
upstream Memphites sailed with me, a man who was one of the holy scribes.
The marvelous man was wise and cultured and knew all about Egypt. The story

Answer Key

599

is that for twenety-three years in their sanctuaries underground he lived andwas taught magic by Isis.
Arignotos: You mean Pankrates, my teacher, a priest, clean-shaven, wears
white linen, always thoughtful, tall, flat-nosed, big-lipped, skinny in the legs, but
he speaks imperfect Greek.
Eukrates: Yes, that Pankrates. And at first I did not know him but when we
anchored the ship I saw him and he performed many wonders and he rodecrocodiles and swam with beasts. And the animals fawned over him and wagged
their tails. And I knew him for he was some holy man.

Module 28 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesὁ πόλεμος καὶ δυστυχία τὰς ὀργὰς τῶν βροτῶν τὰς αὐτὰς ταῖς συντυχίαις
καθιστᾶσιν. War and hardship cause the tempers of mortals to be the same aswhat happens to them.
ὁ: nominative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the nounπόλεμος
πόλεμος: nominative, subject of the verb καθιστᾶσινκαί: coordinating conjunctionδυστυχία: nominative, subject of the verb καθιστᾶσιντάς: accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the nounὀργάςὀργάς: accusative, object of καθιστᾶσιντῶν: genitive, agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun βροτῶνβροτῶν: genitive, possesses ὀργάςτάς: accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the nounὀργάςαὐτάς: accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the nounὀργάςταῖς: dative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the nounσυντυχίαιςσυντυχίαις: dative with the adjective τὰς αὐτάςκαθιστᾶσιν: third-person plural, present indicative activeτὸν Νεῖλον εἰς Κοπτὸν ἀναπλεύσας ἐκεῖθεν ἐπὶ τὸν Μέμνονα ἦλθον. I sailed
up the Nile to Koptos and from there made my way to Memnon.
τόν: accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the nounΝεῖλον
Νεῖλον: accusative, object of ἀναπλεύσας

600

Ancient Greek Iεἰς: prepositionΚοπτόν: object of εἰςἀναπλεύσας: nominative adjective (participle), agrees in gender, number, andcase with I, the subject of the verb ἦλθονἐκεῖθεν: adverb, modifies ἦλθονἐπί: prepositionτόν: accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the nounΜέμνοναΜέμνονα: accusative object of ἐπίἦλθον: 1st person singular, second aorist indicative active

Module 29 Answers to Practice Translating μι-Verbs
1. War and hardship cause the tempers of mortals to be the same as what
happens to them.
2. Black earth drinks; trees in turn drink the earth; the sun drinks the sea;
the moon drinks the sun; why then, comrades, is it not good for me too
to drink?
3. By how close the circumstance of death is, it is all the more fitting forpeople to play at pleasantries. For as quickly as death gives the delights
of life, death also takes them.
4. Fate gave to her master the body of Zosima, noble of soul, and now indeath, who before was a slave only in body, also she has found freedom
for her body.
5. Beside Zeus himself I am filled with ambrosia whenever I look upon
the eyes of the one I love.
6. When you look at the stars, Aster, I am heaven and with many eyes I
look at you.
7. We have no expectation of growing old or dying when we are in good
health; but the time of life for mortals is brief.
8. How did you give health to them when all whom you touch die?
9. It is best to praise; censure is the start of hatred; but it gives me pleasure
to speak ill of Attika.
10. Homer and Hesiod gave the gods everything: stealing, cheating, anddeceiving one another.

Answer Key

601

Module 29 Answers to Practice Translating
Eurkrates: I showed some kindness to him for a bit and soon I became hiscompanion and associate and so he shared all his secrets with me. Finally hepersuaded me to leave all my slaves behind in Memphis and to follow after him
by myself: for we would lack nothing since many would serve our needs. Next
we spent our time in this fashion. When we entered an inn he took the bolt ofa door or a broom or a pestle and dressed it in clothing. Then he spoke someincantation and made it walk. It seemed to all others to be a human being. It left
and filled up water and made preparations and expertly served and ministered
to us in all ways. And when the work was finished, Pankrates spoke anotherincantation and again made the bolt a bolt or the broom a broom or the pestle apestle. I was very eager to learn this from him but I was not able. For he kept it
to himself and yet was most generous in other matters. One day secretly—I wasstanding in the dark—I overheard the spell. It was about three syllables. And hecharged the pestle with the things it was necessary for it to do and left for theagora.

Module 29 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesἓν δὲ βέλτιστον, ὃς κακὰ ἐμὲ ἐποίησε, τοῦτον δέννοις ἀντιδοῦναι κακοῖς.
One thing is best: to repay with double troubles the one who does me wrong.
ἕν: nominative, subject of an implied ἐστίν.
δέ: coordinating conjunctionβέλτιστον: nominative predicate adjective, agrees in gender, number, and casewith ἕνὅς: nominative, subject of the verb ἐποίησεκακά: accusative, object of the verb ἐποίησεἐμέ: accusative, object of the verb ἐποίησεἐποίησε: third-person singular, aorist indicative activeτοῦτον: accusative, object of ἀντιδοῦναιδέννοις: dative, means or instrumentἀντιδοῦναι: dynamic infinitive with βέλτιστον, epexegeticalκακοῖς: dative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with δέννοις
ἔπειτα ἐπιλέγει τινα ἐπῳδὴν καὶ τοῦτο ἐποίεε βαδίζειν. Then he spoke someincantation and made it walk.
ἔπειτα: adverb, modifies ἐπιλέγειἐπιλέγει: third-person singular, present indicative activeτινα: accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with ἐπῳδήν602

Ancient Greek Iἐπῳδήν: accusative, object of ἐπιλέγεικαί: coordinating conjunctionτοῦτο: accusative object of ἐποίεε and to perform the action of βαδίζεινἐποίεε: third-person singular, imperfect indicative activeβαδίζειν: dynamic infinitive with ἐποίεεModule 30 Answers to Practice Translating Intransitive
and Transitive Uses of ἵστημι
1. The child of Alkmene stood in silence.
2. They stood up a trophy in the field.
3. The hoplite fearsome to behold stood upon the altar.
4. Τhe despot stood gleaming in his brilliant armor.
5. They stood up a statue before the gates.
6. They stood up a bronze statue.
7. Entering the middle of the land the old man stood.
8. They stood up a stele facing the senate-house.
9. They stationed half their ships in the middle of the sea.
10. The whole army stood watching.

Module 30 Answers to Practice Translating μι-Verbs
1. For the gods for hardships made a cure for our terrible endurance,
friend: one suffers these things for a while and then someone else does.
2. Luck and Fate give everything to man but it is also clear that work andmortal diligence obtain all for humankind.
3. Not for me are the things of wealthy Gyges and I do not yearn for great
tyranny. These things are far from my eyes. What I need are aged wine,
good conversation, food, and a loving partner.
4. One thing is best: to repay with wicked troubles the one who does me
wrong.
5. Of the gods Zeus is the truest prophet and holds the end of all thingsand gives everything, both good and bad, to mortals.
6. Best by Zeus is for neither the Peloponnesians nor any Boiotion, except
for the eels, to live.

Answer Key

603

7. For there is no pleasure to those who employ force instead ofintelligence.
8. It is by far preferable to get rid of laws that are unjust and old and toenact others which will protect the citizens.
9. It is necessary for those who are well to enact laws for the state and topunish those who disregard them.
10. It is good to set friendship ahead of profit and to prefer friends tomoney.

Module 30 Answers to Practice Translating
Eukrates: On the next day when he was attending to some business in the agora
I took the pestle and dressed it similarly. Next I chanted the syllables and told it
to carry water. It filled the amphora and brought it. I ordered it to stop, to cease
carrying water, and to become a pestle again. It no longer wished to obey me but
kept carrying water. It completely filled our house with water and it overflowed.
I have no solution to the problem and am frightened. If Pankrates returns, hewill be upset. And this is what happened. I took an ax and cut the pestle in two.
Each part grabbed an amphora, carried water, and became two servants insteadof one. Meanwhile Pankrates entered and grasped the situation. He made themwood again just as they were before the spell. He secretly left me. And I don’tknow whither he disappeared.
Deinomakhes: Are you able to make a person from a pestle?
Eukrates: By Zeus only halfway. For I am not able to lead it back into is old form
if once it becomes a water-bearer. But our house will have to be flooded.

Module 30 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek
Sentencesὁρῶ ὅτι ταύτην μὲν οὖν χρὴ νομίζειν οὐ τὴν αἰτίαν τῶν πάντων κακῶν εἶναι.
I see that it is necessary to think that she is not responsible for all the evils.
ὁρῶ: first-person singular, present indicative activeὅτι: subordinating conjunctionταύτην: accusative, subject of εἶναι in indirect statementμέν: adverb, looks forward to an answering δέοὖν: adverb, modifies χρήχρή: third-person singular, present indicative active; impersonal verb
νομίζειν: dynamic infinitive with χρή604

Ancient Greek Iοὐ: adverb, modifies εἶναιτήν: accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with αἰτίαναἰτίαν: accusative, predicate accusative with ταύτην
τῶν: genitive adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with κακῶνπάντων: genitive adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with κακῶνκακῶν: genitive with the adjective αἰτίανεἶναι: infinitive, main verb in indirect statementδύνασαι ἄνθρωπον ποιεῖν ἐκ τοῦ ὑπέρου; Are you able to make a person froma pestle?
δύνασαι: second-person singular, present indicative middle or passiveἄνθρωπον: accusative, object of ποιεῖνποιεῖν: dynamic infinitive with δύνασαιἐκ: prepositionτοῦ: genitive adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with ὑπέρουὑπέρου: genitive, object of ἐκReferences

Allen, W. S. 1987. Vox Graeca: A Guide To The Pronunciation Of Classical Greek (Cambridge,
TAS, Australia: Cambridge University Press)
Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., Krathwohl, D. R. 1956. Taxonomyof Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals (New York: David
McKay Company)
Boas, Evert van Emde, Rijksbaron, Albert, Huitink, Luuk, Bakker de, Mathieu. 2019. The
Cambridge Grammar of Classical Greek (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press),
https://doi.org/10.1080/00437956.2019.1650453
Buzan, Tony. 1984. Use Your Perfect Memory (New York, NY: Plume)
Byers, William. 2015. Deep Thinking: What Mathematics Can Teach Us about the Mind(Singapore, Singapore: World Scientific Publishing), https://doi.org/10.1142/9247
Campbell, David A. 1990. Greek Lyric: Sappho, Alcaeus (Cambridge, Mass.: Loeb ClassicalLibrary)
Chase, Alston H., Phillips Jr., Henry. 1961. A New Introduction to Greek (Cambridge, Mass:
Harvard University Press)
Daitz, Stephen G. 1984. The Pronunciation and Reading of Ancient Greek: A Practical Guide(Guilford, Connecticut: Jeffrey Norton Publisher)
Danek, G. 1989. “‘Singing Homer,’” Überlegungen Zu Sprechintonation Und Epengesang,
Wiener Humanistische Blätter, 31: 1–15
Devine, A. M. and Stephens, L. D. 1994. The Prosody of Greek Speech (Oxford, England:
Oxford University Press)
Gopnik, Alison. 2009. The Philosophical Baby: What Children’s Minds Tell Us about Truth,
Love, and the Meaning of Life (New York, NY: Farrar, Straus & Giroux)
Hansen, Hardy and Quinn, Gerald M. 1992. Greek: An Intensive Course. (New York, NY:
Fordham University Press)
Horsley, Kevin. 2014. Unlimited Memory (Indiana: TCK Publishing)
McGuire, Saundra. 2015. Teach Students How to Learn (Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing)Merwin, W. S. and Dimock Jr., George E. 1992. Iphigeneia at Aulis (Oxford, England:
Oxford University Press)
O’Brien, Tim. 1990. The Things They Carried (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin)
Rayor, Diane J. 2014. Sappho: A New Translation of the Complete Works (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press), https://doi.org/10.1007/CBO9781139151788

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Ancient Greek I
Rayor, Diane J. 2013. Euripides’ Medea: A New Translation (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press), https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139059077
Smyth, H. W. 1920. A Greek Grammar (New York: American Book Company)
Woodard, Roger D. 2010. ‘Phoinikēia Grammata: An Alphabet for the Greek Language’,in A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language, ed. by Egbert J. Bakker (Malden:
Blackwell).

Indexablaut 148, 152–153, 156–157, 491, 498
accent 19, 76
accent, acute 20, 38, 130
accent, antepenult 21, 131
accent, chart for possibilities of 131, 521
accent, circumflex 20, 38, 130
accent, contract verb 353
accent, grave 20, 38, 130
accent, penult 21, 131
accent, persistent 129, 523
accent, pitch 8
accent, possibilities of 22, 39, 130, 520
accent, recessive 22, 39, 522
accent, recessive and persistent 22, 39
accent, stress 8
accent, ultima 21, 131
accusative, direct object 46–47, 68
accusative, duration of time 238
accusative, extent of space 238
accusative, extent of space and durationof time 69
accusative, respect 237
adjective 273, 405
adjective, agreement with noun 127–128,
234
adjective, agreement with nouns 174
adjective and pronoun αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό283adjective and pronoun εἷς, μία, ἕν 235
adjective and pronoun ἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη,ἐκεῖνο 285
adjective and pronoun μηδείς, μηδεμία,μηδέν 235
adjective and pronoun ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε 285
adjective and pronoun οὐδείς, οὐδεμία,οὐδέν 235
adjective and pronoun οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο
284
adjective, comparative 405–406
adjective, comparative and superlative in-ης, -ες 407
adjective, comparative and superlative in-ίων, -ιον and -ιστος, -ίστη, -ιστον 407

adjective, comparative and superlative in-ύς, -εῖα, -ύ 407
adjective, English 127
adjective, first and second declension 273
adjective, mixed declension -ων, -ουσα,-ον 395
adjectives, mixed-declension 279
adjective, substantive 139, 280
adjective, superlative 405–406
adjective, three degrees 405
adjective ἀληθής, ἀληθές 394
adjective ἡδύς, ἡδεῖα, ἡδύ 393
adjective μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα 392
adjective πολύς, πολλή, πολύ 393
adverb 27–28, 408
adverb, comparative 409
adverb, positive 409
adverb, superlative 409
Aiskhylos 191, 532
alphabet 1–2
Anakreon 23, 532
Anaxagoras 191, 532
Anaximandros 190, 532
Anaximenes 190, 532
Anna Komnene 532
Antiphon 192, 532
Appian 532
apposition 71, 488
Apuleius 246
Aquila Theatre 144
Aristarkhos 193, 533
Aristophanes 193, 533
Aristoteles 193, 533
Arkhilokhos 15, 533
article, adjective 128
article, definite 127–128
article, substantive adjective 139
article, substantive with adverb 139
article, substantive with noun 139
article, substantive with prepositional
phrase 139
Athenaios 220, 533
aulos 41

608

Ancient Greek I
black humor 239
Bloom, Benjamin 125
Bloom, taxonomy 125
boustrophedon 418
breathing, rough and smooth 6building block 79, 81

genitive, dependence 63
genitive, possession 62
genitive, separation 63
genitive,timewithinwhich 239
Goodkin, Joe 267
Gorgias 192, 534

capitalization 14
Case and Function Chart 70, 481
clause, πρίν 373
clause, ὥστε 375
Cohen, Amy R. 387
comparison with ἤ 410
conjunction 35–36, 137
conjunction, coordinating 35
conjunction, subordinating 35
creativity 315, 385, 404, 432, 448

Hagel, Stefan 10, 24, 42, 49–50, 53, 56, 91
Helen 160
Heller, Joseph 27
Herakleitos 190, 534
herm 446
Herodotos 10, 135, 535
Hippokrates 192, 535
history 303
Holland, Tom 169
Homer 50, 397, 535
Homeric question 397

Damaskios 533
Danek, Georg 49
dative, degree of difference 410
dative, indirect object 47, 64
dative, means or instrument 66
dative, place where 67
dative, possession 66
dative, respect 237
dative, time when 238
death 383–384
Dellis, Nelson 138
Demokritos 192, 533
Demosthenes 533
dialect 2, 10, 15, 73, 84, 154–158, 171, 183,
234, 295, 297, 527, 535
dialect, Herodotos’ mixed 527
dialect, Ionic and Attic 529
digamma 2
Diogenes 193, 430, 534
diphthong 5
elision 89
Empedokles 191, 534
enclitic 29, 37, 100, 109
ending, creates meaning 46
epic poetry 49
Epiktetos 534
Eukleides 193, 445, 534
Euripides 73, 192, 534
Euripides, readers of 104
Frost, Robert 226
genitive, comparison 410

iambic poetry 15
infinitive 487
infinitive, articular 488
infinitive, dynamic 487
infinitive, finite verb 488
iota adscript 13
iota subscript 13
Julian 220, 535
Kallimakhos 535
koppa 2
Lucian 73, 535
Lykourgos 536
lyric poetry 40
Lysias 536
macron 4, 22, 38–39
Mastronarde 3
Medea 287
Melville, Herman 79
memorization, body palace 212
memorization, car palace 227
memorization, linking 17, 76, 138
memorization, memory palace 292
memorization, word numbers 351
Menandros 193, 536
Mimnermos 32, 536
nominative, predicate 61
nominative, predicate adjective 62
nominative, subject 46–47, 61
noun 59, 147, 171, 203, 295

Indexnoun, case 60
noun, common gender 148
noun, declensions of 147
noun, first declension in -η or -ᾱ 171
noun, first declension in ης, ου 297
noun, first declension short alpha 295
noun, four subtypes of third declension
152
noun, gender 60
noun, gender of 148
noun, identification of 148
noun, number 60
noun, second declension 203
noun, sets 1–10 299
noun, sets of 147
noun, third declension 59, 148–149
Olympics 124
orthography 8, 20
Palaima, Tom 209
papyrology 225
Parmenides 191, 536
phalloi 446
Philoktetes 347
Platon 193, 536
postpositive 29, 37, 109
Praxilla 219, 536
prefix 87
prefix, object of 88
preposition 79, 82
prepositional phrase 79
preposition, anastrophe 85
preposition, motion away from 85
preposition, motion towards or against 85
preposition, object of 71, 81
preposition, place where 85
proclitic 30, 37, 109
pronoun 59, 174, 229
pronoun and adjective ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅτι 177
pronoun and adjective τις, τι 176
pronoun and adjective τίς, τί 175
pronoun, first person English 229
pronoun, personal Greek 231
pronoun, relative 305, 310
pronoun, second person English 230
pronoun, third person English 230
pronoun αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό 232
pronoun ἐγώ 231
pronoun ὅς, ἥ, ὅ 307
pronoun σύ 231

pronoun σφεῖς 233
pronunciation 3
prophecy 363
Protagoras 191, 536
punctuation 14
Pythagoras 190, 537
quantitative metathesis 148, 152, 156–158,
529
Rayor, Diane 449
religion 383
sampi 2
Samtani, Roshan 24
san 2
Sappho 472, 537
Satyros 412, 537
seer 363
sigma, intervocalic 153
Sokrates 192, 537
sophism 189
Sophokles 191, 310, 537
syllabary, Phoenician 1syllabification 20
Thales 190, 537
Theater of War Productions 145
Thrasymakhos 192, 538
verb 93, 111, 213, 245, 319, 353, 421, 433,
453
verb, active voice 97, 246verb, alpha contract 353
verb, aorist and present infinitives 323
verb aspect, completed 95
verb aspect, incomplete 95
verb aspect, stative 95
verb, contract 353
verb, declarative infinitive 367
verb, deponent 217
verb, dynamic infinitive 218, 367
verb ending, aorist ω-verbs 324
verb ending, future middle and passive
ω-verbs 249
verb ending, imperfect and aorist ω-verbs
326
verb ending, imperfect ω-verbs 324
verb ending, present and future active
ω-verbs 111
verb ending, present tense μι-verbs 103

609

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Ancient Greek I
verb ending, primary middle and passive
248
verb ending, secondary middle andpassive 325
verb, epsilon contract 355
verb, finite 93
verb, first aorist 321
verb, future indicative active ω-verbs 213
verb, gnomic aorist 321
verb, historic or storytelling 118
verb, infinitive 93, 217, 322, 367verb, intransitive 93
verb, linking 94
verb, middle voice 97, 247verb, mixed aorist 322
verb, mood in English 95
verb, mood in Greek 96
verb, omicron contract 356
verb, passive voice 97, 246verb, past indicative augment 319
verb, principal parts 98
verb, root aorist 322
verb, second aorist 321
verb stem, aorist ω-verbs 324
verb stem, future active and middle
ω-verbs 249
verb stem, future passive ω-verbs 249
verb stem, future tense ω-verbs 213
verb stem, imperfect ω-verbs 323
verb stem, present active, middle, andpassive ω-verbs 249
verb stem, present tense μι-verbs 120
verb stem, present tense ω-verbs 117
verb stem, present δίδωμι, τίθημι 102
verb stem, present ω-verbs 111
verb, tense 94
verb, tense-aspect 94
verb, transitive 93

verb, voice 96, 246verb ἀξιόω 356
verb δείκνυμι 433
verb δίδωμι 102–103, 255, 335
verb δοκέω 355
verb εἰμί 99, 421
verb εἶμι 422
verb ἐλαύνω 250
verb ἐλαύνω, ἐλάω 216
verb ἐργάζομαι 334
verb ἔρχομαι 117, 217
verb ἔχω 112, 215, 330
verb ἵημι 453, 457, 459
verb ἵστημι 460, 462–463, 465
verb καλέω 252
verb λέγω 327
verb οἶδα 245
verb ὁράω 354
verb ποιέω 114
verb τίθημι 104, 257
verb φέρω 254
verb φημί 120, 438
vocative, direct address 70
vowel length 22, 38, 129
vowel, long 4
vowel, short 4
vowel, sounds 4
Warrior Chorus 183
word order 45, 187
word order, attributive position 187–188
word order, Greek 46
word order, predicate position 189
word order, preposition 84
word order, relative pronoun 305
Xenophanes 190, 538
Xenophon 538

About the Team

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ANCIENT GREEK I
A 21st Century Approach

PHILIP S. PEEKIn this elementary textbook, Philip S. Peek draws on his twenty-ﬁve years ofteaching experience to present the ancient Greek language in an imagina�ve andaccessible way that promotes crea�vity, deep learning, and diversity.
The course is built on three pillars: memory, analysis, and logic. Readers memorize
the top 250 most frequently occurring ancient Greek words, the essen�al word
endings, the eight parts of speech, and the gramma�cal concepts they will mostfrequently encounter when reading authen�c ancient texts. Analysis and logic
exercises enable the transla�on and parsing of genuine ancient Greek sentences,with compelling reading selec�ons in English and in Greek oﬀering star�ng points
for contempla�on, debate, and reﬂec�on. A series of embedded Learning Tips help
teachers and students to think in prac�cal and imagina�ve ways about how theylearn.
This combina�on of memory-based learning and concept- and skill-based learning
gradually builds the conﬁdence of the reader, teaching them how to learn by guidingthem from a familiarity with the basics to proﬁciency in reading this beau�ful
language. Ancient Greek I is wri�en for high-school and university students, but isan instruc�ve and rewarding text for anyone who wishes to learn ancient Greek.
This is the author-approved edi�on of this Open Access �tle. As with all OpenBook publica�ons, this en�re book is available to read for free on the publisher’s
website. Printed and digital edi�ons, together with supplementary digital material,
can also be found at h�p://www.openbookpublishers.com
Cover image: Athenian Fragmentary votive sculpture of Dionysus (?), Greek Ashmolean
Museum. Photo by Mary Harrsch, CC BY-SA. Cover design by Anna Ga�.

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