Starting as a Women’s Organization:
The Formation of the Women’s Foreign Missionary
Association of Friends of Philadelphia
TODA Tetsuko
Abstract
The Women's Foreign Missionary Association of Friends of Philadelphia (the WFMA) was founded in 1882and started its Japan mission in 1885. It was formed under the influence of the women's foreign mission
movement that arose after the Civil War. The motive that drove non-pastoral Quakers into establishing aforeign missionary organization was the somewhat humanitarian purpose of improving the status of heathen
women by Christianity. This paper introduces the context in which the WFMA was established, and thenexamines with its own archives how its members related their project to Quaker teachings.
Key words: Quaker, the Society of Friends, Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, the Women’s Foreign Missionary
Association of Friends of Philadelphia, the women’s foreign mission movement

Introduction

from 1868 to the 1870s. By 1890, the numberof women’s foreign missionary associations in

The first women’s foreign missionary organization

the United States had reached 34, and they had

in the United States was the Woman’s Union

dispatched 926 missionaries in total. The number

Missionar y Society of America for Heathenof groups had increased to 42 in 1899, supporting

L ands, which was an inter-denominational

more than 1,200 missionaries. The fund is saidorganization established in 1861. It dispatched

to have reached well over one million dollars byfemale missionaries to foreign lands and financiallythen. These figures show that they surpassed the

supported missionary activities that targeted women.

women’s foreign missionary associations in England

Supporters of women’s foreign missions thoughtthat were their predecessors in the field.1）

that women were the key to the success of foreign

Influenced by this women’s foreign mission

missions and that Christian missions in heathen

movement, some women Quakers formed thesocieties could be achieved by creating Christian

Women’s Foreign Missionary Association of Friends

mothers and homes to influence their spouses andof Philadelphia in 1882 and started the Japan

children. Major Protestant denominations alreadymission in 1885. Relying on the archives in Quaker

had foreign mission associations. However, separate

Collection of Haverford College, this paper follows

from the foreign mission organizations that were

how those women responded to the movement andunder the supervision of male leaders, women’sestablished their own mission association. It further

foreign missionary associations were establishedaims to investigate the significant Quaker aspects ofin various denominations (e.g. Congregational,

this organization.

Methodist, Presbyterian, Baptist, and Episcopalian)
山梨県立大学 国際政策学部 国際コミュニケーション学科
Department of International Studies and Communications, Faculty of Glocal Policy Management and Communications,
Yamanashi Prefectural University− 42 −Starting as a Women’s Organization: The Formation of the Women's Foreign Missionary Association of Friends of Philadelphia

Friends Foreign Missions in the Latter Half ofthe 19th Century

program. On the other hand, there were Protestantsof other denominations who participated in Quaker
worship, and Quakers ended up holding revivals

Quakerism is distinguished from other Protestantin their own meetings. As a result, the Society

denominations by several characteristics—theof Friends gained many new members. New

teaching of the Inner Light, the denial of professional

Friends, however, were not accustomed to silent

ministry, the silent and unprogramed worship,

unprogramed worship that was the original Quaker

the emphasis on equality of all people, the peace

way of devotion. It became necessary to figure out

testimony, and the simple way of life. It has a verya better way for them. Orthodox Meetings in the

different history in England and the United States,

Midwest first asked traveling missionaries to stay,nevertheless. While Friends (Quakers) in Englandthen hired part-time pastors, and finally employed

had banded together under one London Yearlyfull-time pastors. They abandoned silent worship

Meeting, Friends in the United States had majorthat was peculiar to the Society of Friends andschisms twice in the first half of the 19th Century—

introduced pastoral-worship to their Meetings. The

the Great Separation (the Hicksite Separation) andpastoral system spread to the East as well, and all

the Second Separation (the Wilburite Separation).

the Orthodox Yearly Meetings, except Orthodox

As a result of these schisms, three types of Yearly

Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, adopted it.4）

Meetings existed in the United States in the

In the United States, the expansion of supporters

latter half of the 19th Century, namely Hicksite,

for Friends foreign missions was closely connected

2）

The Hicksites took awith the acceptance of the pastoral system. Since

democratic and liberal position in the church polity,

the pastoral style needed paid ministers, it led

placed emphasis on the teaching of the Inner Light,

the way to a foreign mission project based on

and followed worship in silence. The Wilburites

the assumption of dispatching missionaries who

kept worship in silence awaiting God just like thewere paid in a similar manner. While Orthodox

Hicksites, but they kept old Quaker traditions suchFriends took up foreign missions, Hicksites andas drab clothing and ways of speech. Orthodox

Wilburites that adhered to worship in silence

Quakers had a strong evangelical tendency, and later

were not interested in foreign missions. Putting

gave up Quaker silent worship and introduced theit differently, not all Yearly Meetings in the United

Wilburite, and Orthodox.

pastoral system.

3）

States supported foreign missionary activities.

It was the Orthodox Friends in the Midwest whobegan to adopt the pastoral system. After the Civil(Yearly Meetings mentioned hereafter always refer
to Orthodox Yearly Meetings.)

War, a revival movement swept across the Midwest.

In the United States as well as in England,

In the first place, many of the Friends who migrated

interest in foreign missions was aroused by the work

to the Midwest could not find a Quaker meeting inof individuals who visited foreign mission fields.

neighboring areas. Instead, they had opportunities

Eli and Sybil Jones of New England Yearly Meeting

to attend revival meetings with the people of otherwent on missionary tours widely enough to visit

denominations. Through such occasions, they

Liberia, the West Indies, Europe, and the Middle

familiarized themselves with the pastoral type

East. Supported by the Provisional Committee onof worship that was common to other ProtestantForeign Gospel Service of London Yearly Meeting,denominations, where a pastor was present, hymns

some members of Indiana Yearly Meeting worked

were sung, and worship proceeded according to ain foreign lands. In 1870, however, those interested− 43 −

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策部紀要

No. 6（2011）

formed a Foreign Missionary Society in Indiana

Meeting in 1884; North Carolina Yearly Meeting andYearly Meeting, and they sent Samuel A. Purdy

Kansas Yearly Meeting in 1885; and New York Yearly

to Mexico to undertake Friends work. Friends in

Meeting in 1888. The Friends Missionary Advocate

the United States now launched their own mission

was published in 1885 as a bulletin of Women’s

fields.

5）

Thus, Quaker interest in foreign missions

Foreign Missionary Associations of Friends. At

increased gradually, and financial support was offered

first, this bulletin reported the missionary works

by individuals and groups. Nonetheless, theseof other denominations, but later carried lettersmovements were rather sporadic.

received from Friends missionaries all over the

At the beginning of the 1880s, foreign missionary

world (including such places as Mexico, Jamaica,

associations were formed in every Orthodox Yearly

Syria, Madagascar, India, China, Japan, and Alaska).

Meeting. It is noteworthy that, influenced by

In addition to the requests for schools and hospitals,

the women’s foreign mission movement that hadforeign foods, clothing, marriages, funerals, and othergathered steam after the Civil War, almost all Friends

exotic customs were introduced by the missionaries.

foreign missionary associations started as women’s

Through these articles, interest in “unseen sisters”

organizations. The first Quaker reaction to thisdeveloped. The Five Years Meeting was formed

movement was from the Midwest. On the occasion

as a federation of Orthodox Yearly Meetings inof visiting her parents near Monrovia, Indiana, Eliza

September 1887. Inspired by this, in March 1888,

C. Armstrong of Western Yearly Meeting founda joint meeting of Women’s Foreign Missionarythat some Friends had joined a Woman’s Foreign

Associations of various regions (10 groups) was held

Missionary Society of the Methodist Church. She

in Indianapolis, Indiana. As a result, all the women’s

then determined to organize women’s foreignforeign missionary associations, excluding themissionary associations in the Society of Friends.

Women’s Foreign Missionary Association of Friends

She hoped that Quaker women would promoteof Philadelphia (the WFMA), joined and founded theactivities “to carry the message of the love of Jesus

Women’s Foreign Missionary Union of Friends into the womanhood of the world in a peculiarly

America.7）

womanly way.” Immediately, she wrote to female

In other denominations, women’s foreign

representatives of Quarterly Meetings of Westernmissionary organizations were set out to supplement

Yearly Meeting. Response to her call was prompt,

the work of already existing foreign missionary

and eight missionary associations were formed in six

organizations. On the other hand, in the Quakermonths. In September 1881, the Women’s Foreigncase, it was women who got down to organizing

Missionary Society of Western Yearly Meeting

foreign mission work. They were not embarrassed

was established at the yearly meeting session (forby any men’s interference because there had not

women) held in Plainfield, Indiana.

6）

been men-dominating foreign mission organizations.

S u b s e q u e n t l y, s o m e w o m e n o f O r t h o d o x
Philadelphia Yearly Meeting set up the Women’s
Foreign Missionary Association of Friends ofPhiladelphia in December 1882. One after another,

The Women’s Foreign Missionary Associationof Friends of Philadelphia

women’s foreign missionary associations wereformed among Orthodox Yearly Meetings: Iowa

Or thodox Philadelphia Yearly Meeting wasYearly Meeting and Indiana Yearly Meeting in 1883;

exceptional among the group of Orthodox Yearly

New England Yearly Meeting and Ohio Yearly

Meetings. Orthodox Friends experienced a conflict− 44 −Starting as a Women’s Organization: The Formation of the Women's Foreign Missionary Association of Friends of Philadelphia

over Joseph John Gurney’s emphasis on humanwished to play a positive role in society. Gurneyite

initiative against passive waiting for divine leading.

Friends of the Yearly Meeting were a minority but

Since the majority of Orthodox Friends supported

strong, and were concentrated in Philadelphia andGurney, John Wilbur (the main opponent of Gurney)

its suburbs. Their strongholds were the Twelfth

and his followers left Orthodox Yearly Meetings

Street Monthly Meeting, Haverford College, and theand organized their own Wilburite Yearly Meetings.

Friends’ Review. Philadelphia Gurneyites formed

This was called the Second Separation (the Wilburite

an organization independent from Philadelphia

Separation), which divided Orthodox Friends into

Yearly Meeting and were involved in various social“Gunyites” and “Wilburites.” With Wilburites’ being

activities such as support for Native Americans andseparated, Orthodox actually became “Gurnyite”

freed slaves, Sunday school, peace, and temperance.

Orthodox. When this separation occurred, unlike

Foreign mission was one such activity.10）

other Orthodox Yearly Meetings, the majority

The WFMA was founded at the meeting heldof Orthodox Philadelphia Yearly Meeting wereon December 12, 1882, at the residence of Mary

Wilburite, and supporters of Gurney were in the

A. Longstreth in Philadelphia. Twenty-two female

minority. The leaders of Orthodox Philadelphia

Friends gathered at the meeting and chose its

Yearly Meeting were concerned about anotheradministrators on the spot. Rebecca N. Taylor

8）In

was one of the participants, who became treasurer.

order to avoid the second schism, they decided

Saying that it was deeply branded on her memory

not to exchange letters with either Orthodox orlike a snapshot, she recalled the first meeting as

Wilburite Yearly Meetings. (Each Yearly Meeting

follows.11） At the time, large and elegant mansions

mutually exchanged letters once a year. Receiving

lined up along the block from 13th Filbert Street

letters officially from other Yearly Meetings, reading

to Juniper Street. Every house had large windows

them at the yearly meeting session, and sending

and green Venetian blinds, and porch stairs of brown

replies meant that the validity of the Yearly Meetingstone or white marble were tidy and clean without

was recognized.) This meant that Orthodox

dust. Large living rooms with high ceilings had thickPhiladelphia Yearly Meeting selected coexistencecarpets, and windows had white muslin curtains.

of Gurneyites and Wilburites in its membershipAmong those houses, the most orderly one was theand selected isolation from other Yearly Meetings

residence of Longstreth. There, virtuous women

without taking either side of Orthodox or Wilburite.

got together and had a small meeting filled with a

Properly, Orthodox Philadelphia Yearly Meetingsacred atmosphere. Rebecca and her friend, Lucy B.

should have become Wilburite. While assuming

Roberts (nee Longstreth), were still young—very

the name of Orthodox, a majority of Orthodox

much younger than other participants. They were

Philadelphia Yearly Meeting were conservative

anxious about what they could possibly do and they

separation and further decrease in members.

Wilburite and did not adopt the pastoral system.

9）were completely diffident. Sarah W. Nicholson

In Orthodox Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, thoseencouraged the two of them, by saying that she

who were interested in foreign missions were

was happy to have them. She was the woman who

Gurneyite, and Gurneyite women formed a foreign

became the first chairman of the WFMA. During themissionary association. In place of complete relianceselection of administrators, when a treasurer was toon God, Joseph John Gurney laid emphasis on the

be decided, Mary Morris nodded towards Rebecca,role of individuals in salvation; he supported Bible

and Rebecca was chosen as treasurer. She sharedstudy and the reform movement. Gurneyite Friends

for seven years the hardship in financial affairs with− 45 −

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No. 6（2011）

Lucy, who was appointed as vice treasurer. Since
she had never kept accounts, Rebecca had to ask for

The non-requirement of water baptism may

advice of her husband.

in some instances prove a blessing, as the

The meeting of December 12, 1882, was held byadministration of that ordinance requires theinvitation with the joint signatures of four women.

intervention of a man—in submitting to which,According to Rebecca, however, Mary Morris wasthese down-trodden women are separated by athe leader who called the meeting. When Maryban of ostracism from husband and children andtraveled in Europe and Africa, she felt sorry to

all family ties.

find no Quaker missionaries in the regions and,thus, launched into the establishment of foreign

Then, the printed invitation announced that somemissionary association. Wistar Morris, husband of

women Friends in Philadelphia Yearly Meeting

Mary, was president of Pennsylvania Railway andformed an organization to offer a helping handa prominent Friend. Rebecca Taylor’s writings,

to “those of their own sex, who are lying inincluding the description of Longstreth residence

ignorance under the tyrannical sway of bigotry

and reference on Mary Morris, indicated theand superstition.” It concluded by mentioning thecircumstances in which the WFMA was formed

membership fee and schedule of the next meeting

under the leadership of well-to-do Philadelphia(February 13, 1883).12）

Friends.

In January 1884, the WFMA held the first annual

A letter of invitation, dated January 16, 1883,

meeting and the first Annual Report was published.

was published to widely call for participation in

It narrates the beginnings of the association as

the WFMA. This printed invitation pointed out

follows.

that heathen women were oppressed and that only
women could approach women in heathen lands,

The cry of the women of heathen lands enslaved

and appealed to the necessity of a women’s foreignin ignorance and superstition, so touchedmission as follows:

the hearts of many of the women membersof Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, that it was

Our hearts were stirred by the reflecting upon

believed the time had come for forming an

the oppressed and depraved condition of ourorganization among themselves to promote

sisters among the heathen, and as the rules andmore effectually than isolated individual effort

customs of social and religious life in some of

could do the knowledge of the gospel among

these countries, do not permit their women to

our down-trodden sisters, and to assist in their

be approached by any but women, it was felt

Christian education. A call issued to womenthat the time had come for us to do what we can,Friends generally to attend a meeting held on

to convey to them the glad tidings of salvation

the 13th of 2d Month, 1883, was responded to bythrough Jesus Christ.

forty Friends. Since that time, the Association
numbers 121 members, many of whom, while

It also referred to Quaker advantages in foreign

unable to attend the meetings, afford material

missions. Quakerism had some elements easy foraid by their membership fee of one dollar orheathen women to accept. It emphasized spirituality

more.

and did not require baptism in which men needed to
be involved.

According to this first Annual Report, the total− 46 −Starting as a Women’s Organization: The Formation of the Women's Foreign Missionary Association of Friends of Philadelphia

income of annual fees and donations reached 2,239.74
13）

observe Christian ceremonies after being initiated.
This brought about friction with social customs ofdollars with the membership of 121.

the local society, and often resulted in eviction of thebelievers from their homes. For Friends, however,Why Should Friends Engage in Foreign Mission
Work?

there was no such concern, since Quakerism had
no sacrament. In the first place, true Quakerism
emphasized spirituality, so it was adaptable andWhat were some other positive reasons forhighly flexible. Furthermore, Quakers steadfastly

women Philadelphia Friends to venture on

maintained pacifism, which would surely resonate

foreign missionary activities and how did they

with the hearts of heathens in the mission fields.15）

understand their project in Quaker history? The

The third reason was that foreign missionary

WFMA distributed a lot of leaflets to spread theiractivities could have a positive influence on theinformation, and 3,350 were printed in less thanchurches in the United States. Friends launcheda year. “Why Should Friends Engage in Foreignforeign missions about half a century later than

Mission Work?” was issued in March 1884, andother churches. Major denominations had already

14）

This leaflet ispromoted activities in heathen lands and achieved

noteworthy in terms of describing the reasons forcertain results. So, why did Friends need tothe establishment of the WFMA in greater detail. It

participate in such areas? Was it necessary? To thispointed out four reasons.

question, the WFMA stated that not only was there

probably was one of the earliest.

The first reason derived from the early days ofstill room for foreign missions open to Quakers, but

Quaker history when Friends were enthusiastic

also they should not miss benefits brought to thoseand mission-oriented. Trying to propagate Quaker

who supported it at home.

teachings in foreign lands, they extended their visitsfrom Europe, Asia, and Africa, to America and theNot only is there vast room for more labor, andWest Indies across the Atlantic Ocean. George Fox,

some opening for the entrance of their special

the founder of Quakerism, himself visited the newviews, but the Church at home cannot afford tocontinent and proselytized Indians and black people

miss the blessing that comes from such service.

in the West Indies. He wrote to Friends in America

Obedience to the call of the Lord always brings

that true Christians “must preach the grace of God

a present reward, and nowhere are the words ofto all Blacks and Indians.” According to the WFMA,

holy writ, “He that watereth, shall be wateredforeign mission was an activity of neither new nor ofalso himself,” more truly verified than in the

different nature. Rather, the spirit of Fox and othereffort to fulfill the command of Christ, “Go ye

Friends in the early days was coming to life. The

into all the world, and preach the gospel to every

WFMA asserted that, in this light, its activities werecreature.” Slumbering churches have been

based on Quaker tradition.

awakened by it, and under the power of the HolyThe second reason originated with Quaker

Spirit accompanying such service, have been
blessed with new life.16）

teachings. Quakerism did not have ceremonies
and steadfastly maintained pacifism, and, therefore,
heathens would easily be able to familiarize

Good fortune would surely come in the present life

themselves with Quakerism. In the case of otherto those who followed God’s call, and this applied

Christian churches, believers were requested tobest to the people who followed the words of Christ− 47 −

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策部紀要

No. 6（2011）

who commanded missions. In concrete terms,

the questions of a male doctor first-hand. 19） This

foreign missions could activate stagnant churches indescription of Indian women might read a little bit

the United States. This would be applied to Quaker

comical. However, the female isolation not only

churches, too. The leaders of the WFMA thought

was grounds to justify the “women’s work forthat participation in foreign missions would enhance

women,” but also could be a barometer to show

their own religious life. This is called reflex

the unsoundness of ethnic religions. To appeal fortheory—the reasoning that the women’s foreign

the necessity of women’s work for women, themission movement often referred to.

17）

women’s foreign mission movement focused on

L astly, as expected, the leaflet stressed a

the immorality of ethnic religions and the degraded

comparison between Christian women and heathen

position of women. Bulletins and missionary

women, and stated that missions for women should

magazines of various women’s foreign missionary

be carried out simply from a humanitarian viewpoint.

organizations were media used for the purpose.
They advertised polygamy, existence of seraglio

That women should engage in this work, even(living quarters for wives and concubines) andif actuated by no higher humanitarian motives,

brothels, and sati (widow’s self-immolation). Womenmust be apparent to all. The condition ofFriends also accumulated such information and usedoriental women is degraded. They are regarded

somewhat stereotypical heathen women.

as beings inferior to man and in some places areThis topic of women’s degradation naturally

respected little more than brute beasts. They

became an issue regarding the Quaker concept

are denied all education and personal liberty,of gender equality. Although women’s work forand are literally groaning under the iron heel ofwomen should be carried out simply and solely fromman’s despotism. For the amelioration of thisa humanitarian viewpoint, the leaflet continues,

bondage, every intelligent woman must ardently

Friends furthermore have a special cause to help

long, and those who have partaken in the love

heathen women.

of God in Christ, and realized the elevation of
woman to be the result of Christian teaching,

The women of the Society of Friends should feelcannot resist making some effort for the benefit

an especial call to this work, for to the foundersof their down-trodden sisters.

18）of that Society was it first given to accept
literally the truth, that in Christ Jesus there is

The seclusion of women, living in a world cut off

neither male nor female, and to accord to theirfrom external society, was emphasized. Only women

women a position of equality, on lines relating to

could enter this women’s world, so dispatching

service for the Lord.20）

female missionaries was necessary to help heathen
women. As an example of this women’s isolation,

The founders of the Society of Friends took thethe leaflet pointed out Indian upper classes. In

teaching of the Bible literally that men and womenIndia, women of upper classes were prohibited toare equal before God. As a matter of fact, thetalk with men except family members. Male doctors

Society was the first denomination that gave women

could not examine female patients directly. A doctor

equal status to men in church. The leaflet concluded

felt a woman patient’s pulse through a hole in sheets

that, for this reason, the Society bore a special

wrapped around her. He checked her tongue in the

responsibility to help heathen women.

same manner. Female patients could not answer

Because they had accepted the cause and rhetoric− 48 −Starting as a Women’s Organization: The Formation of the Women's Foreign Missionary Association of Friends of Philadelphia

from the women’s foreign mission movement, theaspects are to be discussed in another paper.21）

members of the WFMA repeated the reflex theory
and the status of aggrieved heathen women in
the leaflet titled “Why Should Friends Engage inNotes１）Tetsuko Toda “Amerika ni okeru Fujin Gaikoku Dendou

Foreign Mission Work?” On the other hand, they

Kyoukai no Seiritsu [The Formation of Women’s Foreign

tried to appeal for support on the grounds of Quaker

Missionary Associations in the United States],” Amerika

history and teachings. The members asserted thatShi Kenkyu [American History] 10 (1987), 40-41.

Quakerism had been mission-oriented from the very２）Regarding the tendency of denominational separationsin the United States, see: Richard H. Niebuhr, The

beginning, that Quaker teachings held elements

Social Sources of Denominationalism (New York: New

easily accepted by heathens, and that womanhood

American Library, 1975: Reprint of 1929). For thewas to be respected in heathen society as well.

following explanation, two sources were mainly referred

All the more because they had been enjoying

to: Elbert Russell, The History of Quakerism (New York:
Macmillian, 1941), 280-293; John M. Moore, ed., Friends

equality with men in church, they argued, womenin the Delaware Valley (Haverford: Friends Historical

Quakers had to help heathen women gain the same

Association, 1981), 57-79. In the latter book, J. William

privileges. Their argument on gender equality here,

Frost explains that, when activating Quakerism in the

however, seems to require scrutiny on two points.

period of Quietism, Orthodox leaders took evangelism andFirst, the women’s foreign mission movement was

Hicksite leaders took rationalism. Many of the Friends
who accepted evangelism were the most intelligent andbased on the Victorian concept of womanhood whichcosmopolitan people among Friends. Frost points out

had embraced the sexual division of work. Second,that the influence of the second revival on Quakers was

Quaker equality in church was limited to ministry;

not as enthusiastic as the movement represented by camp

women Quakers were powerless in church polity

meetings of Methodists and Baptists, but was closely

and they had no voice in such important matters as

related with Quakers in London and Congregationalists infinances.

Connecticut (pp. 64, 66).
３）Regarding the diversity of Quakerism in the 19th
Century America, see Russell, 280-357, 482-509; Edwin
B. Bronner, ed., American Quakers Today (Philadelphia:

Conclusion

Friends World Committee, American Section and
Fellowship Council, 1972), 5-31; Edwin B. Bronner, “TheOther Branch” (London: Friends Historical Society, 1975);

Reading the early records of the Women’s Foreign

Rufus M. Jones, The Later Periods of Quakerism (Westport:

Missionary Association of Friends of Philadelphia

Greenwood Press), 435-540.

affirms a conclusion that, from its premises and４）For details on the introduction of a pastoral system, seegoals, its establishment was a part of the women’sFrancis B. Hall, Quaker Worship in America (Richmond:foreign mission movement. Thus, the motive that

Friends United Press, n.d.), 53-74. A more recent
scholarship is also available: Thomas D. Hamm, Thedrove non-pastoral Quakers into the establishment

Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends,

of foreign missionary association was the somewhat

1800-1907 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana

humanitarian purpose of improving the status ofUniversity Press, 1988).

heathen women. It is also to be mentioned that its５）Mr. and Mrs. Louis Street were posted in Madagascar;members were fully aware of their denominational

Mr. and Mrs. Elkanah Beard were dispatched to India
in the same manner. Russell, 436-440; Christina Jones,

advantages in foreign lands. On the other hand,

American Friends in World Missions (Elgin: Brethren

they were totally ignorant of what confusion andPublication House, 1946), 26-31.

confrontation a non-pastoral Friends’ foreign mission６）C. Jones, 72-74.

project would bring about. These denominational

７）Ibid., 74-77.

− 49 −

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策部紀要

No. 6（2011）８）Russell, 322. For more detailed values, see Moore, 78.
９）Russell, 354-356, 484, 497-498; Philip S. Benjamin, The
Philadelphia Quakers in the Industrial Age, 1865-1920(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1976), 3-25.
10）Russell, 354, 497; Benjamin, 14-15.
11）Rebecca N. Taylor, “Beginnings,” The Friend, vol. 106, no.
24 (12/15/1932), 278-279.
12）The Women’s Foreign Missionary Association of Friendsof Philadelphia, printed letter of invitation to join the
Association, Philadelphia, 1/16/1883. (Hereinafter, thisAssociation is mostly referred to as the WFMA.)
13）This first Annual Report included the Constitution of
the WFMA. According to Article II, the object of the
WFMA should be “to promote the knowledge of thegospel among women and children in heathen lands, andto assist in their Christian education...” In the second
Annual Report, the quoted part was revised to “topromote the knowledge of the Gospel in heathen lands,
especially among women and children, and to assist in theChristian education of the people...” (Underlined by thepresent author.) By changing the expression, the targetof missions seems to have expanded a little although theemphasis was still placed on women and children. Article
III stipulated that “Any woman Friend may become amember of this Association by the annual payment of one
dollar or more,” and thus the membership was limited
to female Friends. Annual Report of the Women’s Foreign
Missionary Association of Friends of Philadelphia, 1 (1884),
3, 14-17; 2 (1885), 17-18.
14）Annual Report, 1 (1884), 10; The WFMA, “Why Should
Friends Engage in Foreign Mission Work?” Philadelphia,
3 mo., 1884.
15）“Why Should Friends Engage in Foreign Mission Work?”
1-2.
16）Ibid., 2-3.
17）Patricia R. Hill, The World Their Household (Ann Arbor:
The University of Michigan Press, 1985), 66.
18）“Why Should Friends Engage in Foreign Mission Work?” 3.
19）Ibid.
20）Ibid.
21）The present author is now preparing for a paper on this
topic relating to Quaker denominationalism propagatedfrom Philadelphia to Tokyo.

− 50 −