The Japanese Journal of American Studies, No. 21 (2010)

Popular Health Movements andDiet Reform in Nineteenth-Century America

Nanami SUZUKI*INTRODUCTION
Food is deeply related to culture and society.1 While human beings
have consumed a variety of things in their daily lives, they have attacheda wide range of cultural meanings to what they select to eat, how they
prepare their food, with whom they eat, as well as what they consume
on special occasions.
Several kinds of foods exist simply to be eaten at various ceremonial
gatherings held at speciﬁc stages in the life cycle. Food is thus an important measure expressing the way that humans are linked to the environment and to one another. Eating is an expression of one’s way of life,and statements of one’s faith and beliefs are often demonstrated throughfood-related codes and ceremonies.
The United States grew with immigrants from diverse areas whose
individual food cultures were an important element in their ethnic identities. A new “creolized” food culture took shape through the fusion of
those food cultures and foodstuffs in the new land in a concrete manifestation of the meeting of cultures.
The food culture of the United States experienced great changes fromthe 1820s to the 1890s. There was a signiﬁcant expansion of the country
physically and at the same time the promotion of internal migration. By
Copyright © 2010 Nanami Suzuki. All rights reserved. This work may be used, with thisnotice included, for noncommercial purposes. No copies of this work may be distributed,
electronically or otherwise, in whole or in part, without permission from the author.
*Professor, National Museum of Ethnology; The Graduate University for Advanced Studies

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1848 what had been a cluster of colonies on the Eastern seaboard had
grown into a continental nation stretching from sea to sea between the
Canadian and Mexican borders. In 1820 the total population of theUnited States was 10 million people, with only 55,000 living in the territory of Illinois at the western periphery of the settled country. By 1840
that ﬁgure had ballooned to 17 million people, with the frontier moving
on to Iowa and 500,000 people living in Illinois.2
The people who moved ever westward encountered new foodstuffs
and devised new ways of cooking items that were harvested regionally.
A mixed food culture was thus fostered through the various communities that migrated across the country.
At the same time that people were moving westward, a second movement was also taking place in the United States—that of people relocating from the countryside to the city. In cities people met those who wereunlike their neighbors in their original hometowns, and they had to liveand eat under different human-relationship situations. Some people
experienced for the ﬁrst time the custom of cooking and eating with justtheir immediate nuclear family, shifting away from the custom of cooking food and eating together with a larger extended family.
In addition to those migrating internally, there were thousands ofimmigrants to the United States coming from abroad. In the Northeastern
United States, the local food culture developed on a foundation laid in
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by English, Scottish, and Dutch
food cultures that made use of cooking ingredients taken from theAtlantic Ocean. Irish, French Canadian, and Scandinavian workers in the
New England ﬂour mills in the late nineteenth century also inﬂuenced
the food customs of the region.
The British yeoman food culture introduced by the early Puritan settlers served as the central type of food in New England until the nineteenth century, with such ingredients as wheat, barley, rye, pulse (beans),
beef, mutton, pork, butter, cheese, and fruits being used. In the earlyyears, however, wheat and other grains had to be replaced by maize,
which grew naturally in the United States. The preferred food of pease
porridge, brown bread, and “boiled dinner” of meat and vegetables,
along with drink—dark beer and fermented cider—of seventeenth-century New Englanders continued to grace the dinner tables of such oldcolonial cities as Boston and New Haven. However, by the end of theVictorian era, a wide variety of foods had been introduced owing to avariety of inﬂuences. Nonetheless, from the Puritan era until the end of

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the nineteenth century, regional foods were retained, such as Indian
pudding, succotash, hoecakes, popcorn, johnnycakes, pumpkin bread,
pumpkin pie, cranberries, and turkey.
In the Mid-Atlantic States, meanwhile, Dutch, Swedish, British, andGerman food customs made use of rich cooking ingredients taken fromthe fertile land and the Chesapeake Bay. New York City grew as thelargest cosmopolitan center in the United States and set trends in a diversiﬁed ethnic food culture. In Philadelphia, Quaker food culture mixed
with other European food customs.3
In the mid-nineteenth century, thanks to a consumption revolution,
various foods became easily accessible in the form of purchasable products, and particularly those people living in urban areas began to enjoy
eating white bread and cakes purchased from shops and going out to dinner at restaurants. Most of the recipes for bread in the ﬁrst cookbook
published in the United States, which came out in 1796, were for ﬂat
bread. Until yeast became available as a product some ﬁfty years later,
many Americans consumed corn bread or ﬂat bread, which were baked
once or twice a week and which became hard several hours after being
removed from the oven. It was a big change when bread made from wheat
ﬂour and containing yeast and preservatives became easily available instores.4
Coffee drinking expanded rapidly because of the rise of the price oftea during the Revolutionary War years, and also because tea had cometo be regarded as not a patriotic drink. The customs of France, which had
advanced the techniques of brewing coffee, were actively adopted. By
the time of the War of 1812, coffee drinking had become well establishedin the country.5
The consumption of meat in the United States in the nineteenth century also underwent a transformation thanks to the improvement of meatprocessing procedures and meat distribution. Although livestock such as
pigs, sheep, and cattle were raised and slaughtered by people at home
until the beginning of the Victorian era, by the end of the century meat
packers processed animal meat brought in by the railroad, letting people
purchase a variety of products from butchers.6
At the same time, though, a movement arose in the country questioning the food culture that had grown so much richer and more diverse. In
the antebellum period, particularly, that reaction appeared in the statements of a popular health movement that opposed the modernization of
medicine and dietary changes.

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While the popular health movement arose in opposition to standard
medicine, it came to take on the nature of a movement of health reformthat proposed new methods of healing and care that focused especiallyon diet. The questions it posed about health, well-being, and way of life
were aimed at reforming the “bodies and souls” of Americans.
That movement was revolutionary also in the way it questioned the
tradition of sitting around an abundant dinner table as a sign of successin the new country.
In this essay I focus on the statements made by people in the popular
health movement regarding food culture, what sort of “problems” they
saw as reasons for concern, and what they thought was an “appropriate”
lifestyle during the antebellum period, when the notion of the UnitedStates as a single nation ﬁrst began to cohere. Food culture or “foodways” describes the beliefs people have and lifestyle choices they makeas they relate to food. Foodways were viewed as an index of the level oftransformation and accomplishment in a person’s “reformation.”I.

THE POPULAR HEALTH MOVEMENT AND DIET

The popular health movement that arose in the United States in theearly nineteenth century and lasted until the Civil War raised questions
about the fraught situation of medical treatment and health of the era.
Beginning with Thomsonianism (the botanical movement that started in
the 1820s), it came to include Eclectics, hydropathy (the “water-cure”
movement), and homeopathy.
Even today, in the twenty-ﬁrst century, alternative medicine is anactive option in the United States in various forms. However, the largescale alternative medicine movement that sprang up in the nineteenth
century was a unique response to the emergence of what is called “standard medicine.”
With the rise of sociohistorical research in the 1970s, the popular
health movement of the antebellum period was studied as an epochal
event in American cultural history.7 Before the 1970s, the focus of medical history on that period was limited to the careers of prominent physicians. Since then, however, researchers in the social history of medicine,
American history, and women’s history have investigated the movement
as representative of the multiple changes that the United States underwent during the period before the Civil War.

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Despite many assertions that were made about diet in each of thealternative medicine movements, there has been little concentrated andcomparative research done from the perspective of food culture. Most
researchers have studied the characteristics of each popular health movement on a separate basis. In this essay I particularly make a comparative
study of Thomsonianism (a botanical movement) and hydropathy (awater-cure movement), which both made distinctive assertions about food.
Thomsonianism was the only one of the popular health movementsthat was purely American. It was distinguished by its leader being a
farmer—an “amateur” in medicine. Later, it was introduced to Lancashire
and Yorkshire in England. Previous research on Thomsonianism has not
paid particular attention to its method of treatment, taking the view that
it varied little from the supportive medical measures carried out by regular medicine in the same era.8 Although its founder, Samuel Thomson(1769–1843), made many remarks and practice-related proposals concerning the spread of physicians and changes in midwifery, no study has
been made of them in detail.9
Also, while there have been attempts to situate Thomsonianism within
American cultural history,10 they overlook Thomson’s arguments thattreatment was an act similar to cooking.11 Also, insufﬁcient attention has
been paid to his autobiography, which describes his activities as anitinerant healer and which constitutes a valuable record of the speciﬁcchanges in the environment of rapidly urbanizing regions such as
Philadelphia, New York City, and Boston, as well as the changes inhuman relationships surrounding treatment.12 I explore those ways ofthinking about food that were deeply involved with health and views oftreatment as a background to a study of cultural change.
Hydropathy supported women healers, unlike many other medicalﬁelds of the period, and so previous research has primarily analyzedhydrology’s perspective on women’s health and related activities.13
Hydropathists elaborated their plan because they were concerned about
the deterioration of people’s health, especially that of women.
Despite hydropathy emphasizing primarily a vegetarian diet far morethan other movements did, little attention has been given to its contents
and signiﬁcance. In this essay, I focus on the discourse dealing with dietand vegetarianism to clarify health reformers’ concerns in that area andwhat they saw as optimal health.
I also look at the ideas of these two popular alternative medicine movements, the Thomsonianism botanical movement and the hydropathy

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water-cure movement, in the more general area of food, thus illuminating thought and debate on health and food lifestyles of Americans during the antebellum period. In part II I trace the larger shifts related tohealth in antebellum America and explore the statements and theories ofThomsonianism, the ﬁrst movement to oppose the modernization of
medicine, thus shedding light on one aspect of the cultural situation surrounding food.
In part III I mainly explore hydropathy, which arose in the mid-nineteenth century following Thomsonianism. Hydropathy was intimately
linked with many other activities of the same period, such as phrenology and nervous diseases, which I also examine from the perspective offood culture.
II. HEALTH CARE AND FOOD IN
THE THOMSONIAN BOTANICAL MOVEMENTA.

Medicine in the Antebellum Period and the Emergence of Medical
Sectarians

A signiﬁcant change in medical treatment in the United States camewith the rapid establishment of medical schools from the mid-eighteenth
century onward and the emergence of physicians, known as “regular
doctors.” Physicians began to be trained at medical schools—set up by
doctors trained primarily in Britain—in Northeastern cities such as
Philadelphia.14 As more and more states started to give licenses to practice medicine only to graduates of medical schools, others who had previously been involved in treatment and healing—orthopedic doctors,
midwives, Indian doctors, herbalists—were placed in the category of“nonregular doctors” and called “quacks”; they often found their treatment activities restricted.15
Even so, the establishment of medical schools and hospitals did notnecessarily advance medical technology. Medical theory did not evolve
much at all, with fevers and swelling still regarded as an “excited stage”
of the body. To quell such maladies, mostly supportive measures wereapplied, such as the use of bloodletting and mercury-based laxatives. The
new physicians, who had completed only a short course of study at medical schools, lacked practical experience and did not necessarily carryout successful treatments or childbirth assistance. In addition, becausecholera, one of the diseases that afﬂicted people in the nineteenth cen-

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tury, was a debilitating disease, the supportive measures had the unintended effect of worsening patients’ health and shortening their lives.
Physicians who could not successfully treat patients used so-calledheroic medicine, distinctive to the United States, in which large quantities of blood were let and drugs administered that had violent side effects.
One of the strongest critics of that situation was Samuel Thomson, a
farmer who cleared his own woodland alongside his father, in the northeastern state of New Hampshire. He began the botanical movement thatlater came to be known as Thomsonianism. Criticizing the institutionalization of medicine, Thomson instead advocated “self-help” in the areaof health care.16
Thomson saw his mother’s health worsen after treatment by a physician (she eventually died), and a parade of regular doctors failed to curehis wife when she fell ill after childbirth. She only got better when cared
for by “Dr. Watts” and “Dr. Fuller,” who were called “root doctors.”17
Thomson believed that childbirth was not a disease but a natural state
and that the role of the healer was to help the body demonstrate its power
following the course laid down by nature.18 He called for a return to thecuring practices that predated the emergence of the modern physician.
Thomson believed that all diseases and disorders were caused by the
body getting cold and losing its balance through gastrointestinal upsets.
He thought that the way to treat that condition was to restore the body’s“natural heat,” which would allow strength to return. For that reason, hethought it was of the utmost necessity to maintain the body’s healthfulcondition through a proper diet.19 According to him, that method was inaccordance with the ideas of Hippocrates in ancient Greece.
Speciﬁcally, Thomson prescribed six treatments—primarily based on
the lobelia herb—that he said he had “discovered” as a small boy.20 Bymeans of herbal teas and sweat baths using hot stones, his treatments
would adjust the condition of the body so that it could take advantage offresh nutritious food and achieve regularity. Such methods had been longknown by American Indians, and they were carried out by many selfreliant Americans on an everyday basis. At the height of the popularityof Thomson’s movement, some one-third of all Americans used herbal
treatments, and the number of people describing themselves as herbal
doctors also grew.21 In response to the force of the movement, somestates even went so far as to repeal the system of giving licenses only toregular doctors.

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Several reasons can be cited for the spread of Thomsonianism. The
ﬁrst was the popularity of two books of his that were ﬁrst published in
1822: New Guide to Health; or, Botanic Family Physician, which he had
dictated in plain language, and A Narrative, of the Life and Medical Discoveries of Samuel Thomson,22 which described his life as a pioneering
farmer. Another reason was that the information he provided could be
used by people living in backwoods areas. Also, the gradual organization of the U.S. postal system made it easier for his books to be distributed widely.23 The information contained in the two books was also
conveyed to the Midwest and South by Methodist missionaries traveling along pioneer trails.24
B.

Fireside Healing in Thomsonianism

Prescriptions for Disorders and Diseases
Thomson’s thoughts about how to deal with disorders and diseases
were deeply related to experiences he had in childhood. He grew up in
an environment with no physician living within a ten-mile radius. The
ﬁrst healer he met was a “root and herb doctor,” a midwife by the nameof Benton, who had long been the only medical practitioner in the area.
She taught him how to prepare herbal medicines.
Even before he was four years old, Thomson helped his father, who
was a strict Baptist, in clearing the land. He could not go to school tolearn reading and writing even if he had wanted to because he had to help
his father in clearing land. Benton was an important teacher for him. He
would accompany her as she walked around gathering medicinal herbs,
and she taught him the efﬁcacy and usage of each one for bringing thenatural power of the human body into play, the only and most essential
aspect of healing.25
Most of the herbs were used in teas to heat up the body. At nineteen,
when clearing some wasteland along the Onion River in Vermont,Thomson sustained a severe injury to his ankle. A local healer suggested
that he boil some apple-tree bark and wash his wound with it, but it only
made it worse. After eight days, his father carried him on a straw bed
over the snow to the herbal doctor Kitteridge, after ﬁrst applying a plaster made from comfrey root and turpentine as a home remedy. Thomson
lay for several days before the ﬁreplace in the doctor’s living room andrecovered after being given a treatment using medicinal herbs.26

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That experience attracted him to the power of the medicinal herbs thatgrew naturally around him and to the value of heat. He described such
herbs as “friends of nature.”27 Thus was formed his belief that the herbs
that grew in the American land could heal the people who lived there.
He expressed his belief that “there is medicine enough in the country
within the reach of everyone, to cure all the disease incident to it,” andhe prescribed to his family and to the neighbors. Later, he became anitinerant healer, using curative herbs indigenous to the North American
Continent.28
That feeling of trust in nature contained elements that resonated withthe “admiration of nature” expressed in the antebellum period,29 which
could be one reason why Thomson’s theories became so popular among
his contemporaries. Thomson frequently used the expression “the God
of Nature.”30 While nature had been experienced by early settlers with asense of awe and wonder, the gradual disappearance of the frontier andthe progressive urbanization of the period started to inspire the idea thatnature was something to be taken care of and preserved. Just as Thoreau
aimed for a self-sufﬁcient life at Walden Pond, there were others whowent deep into the forest to live surrounded by nature.
Optimum Environment for Treatments
The places in which Thomson experienced treatment and healing werealways warm rooms within a home, where the patient could stay withthe healer always alongside. Benton would go over to Thomson and, if
necessary, stay with the family, while Kitteridge would have his patientsstay in his own home. In the United States through the mid-nineteenth
century, Thomson’s image of the best place of treatment was shared bymost people. According to him, the healer needed to have a knowledgeof the herbs and diet that would link the hospitality and experience ofeveryday life with the healing process.
In his New Guide to Health of 1827 Thomson particularly emphasizedthat his ideal for medical practice should also hold for childbirth, with areturn to traditional ways with midwives, because he saw childbirth asa natural process not requiring medical intervention.31
The tradition for childbirth since colonial times in New England, socalled social childbirth, was to have a midwife and assistant come stayin a room known as the “borning room,” which was adjacent to thefamily’s living room with its ﬁreplace. Only women were allowed into

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the room during the birth, with light food such as “groaning cake” and“groaning beer” available to visitors and attendants.32 To keep up thestrength of the expectant mother, toast, buckwheat gruel, mutton, meatsoup, and freshly laid eggs were served to her, while a cordial was provided to alleviate pain. Midwives rarely emigrated from Europe to the
New World, so in the United States, women, including ministers’ wives,would help one another in childbirth.
Although Thomson considered it natural to conduct medical treatment
and childbirth at home, such practices were starting to disappear withthe coming of the new age. “Social childbirth” carried out exclusively
by women was quickly supplanted by regular doctors known as “manmidwives,” while some women who could not afford to have a male medical doctor come to the house might even go to a hospital instead. The
tradition of mutual assistance before and after birth became symbolic,with women visiting after the child was swaddled to wish the mother
well.33 Thomson wrote that he himself had to learn to assist his wife inchildbirth, since no midwife was available. As a result of that experience, he included precise instructions on strengthening the power ofnature in “home-birthing” in his 1835 edition of his treatment manual,
New Guide to Health; the process could be carried out by husband andwife in case “the women fear giving a hand.”34 In the case in which husbands had to help their wives, Thomson believed the best thing they
could give birthing women was good food and drink. For instance, one
way to strengthen nature’s power during pregnancy, he wrote, was forthe woman to drink a tea made with tansy or mugwort and raspberryleaves mixed with ginger in order to warm the body. He said that thedrink would help alleviate pain if labor had not yet begun, while if thebaby was ready to come out, the drink would help to speed up the birth.
Additionally, Thomson recommended the formation of “herbal friends’
associations” if everyday assistance from neighbors was not available,with the members helping one another out by studying his manual.35
Thomson also emphasized the importance of the home as the locationof treatment, cure, and mutual cooperation. He called on people to accept
medicine from the hands of women who had made bread, butter, andcheese at home by hand, just as it had been done in colonial America.36
He said that “treatment is the same as cooking” and strongly recommended a way of life in which care was carried out on a self-help basis.
Thomson considered herbal treatments on the same level as “cooking” in everyday life.37 He opposed the professionalization of life in all

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areas—not just medicine—including politics and religion. He said that
healing arts were desirable, with the kitchen and living room as “colleges” and women as the “teachers.”38 He fretted about people losing the
tradition of self-help, saying that it meant that they would stop thinking
for themselves.
This way of thinking resonated with the belief of many early Americans,especially Jeffersonians, that a yeoman farmer could live autonomously.
Thomsonianism, which posited that thinking for oneself was the foundation of freedom,39 received enthusiastic support in the early nineteenth
century because people were seeking to live in the “country of the free.”However, people’s lifestyles began to change, with the human relationships surrounding healing and childbirth also shifting. In an age inwhich medical professionals emerged, Thomson’s insistence on keeping the traditions of self-help and mutual assistance with the home as thebase was seen as an anachronism.
A childbirth manual written in 1835 by Thomas Hershey, a late-period
Thomsonian, recommended that some capable women ought to become
specialists in childbirth techniques. Alva Curtis (1797–1881), meanwhile, developed the so-called Eclectics method that combined the bestof botanical treatments and the methods of regular doctors. More medical schools, which Thomson had rejected, were established, and the saleof medicinal herbs began. Botanical treatment lost its characteristic of
being an alternative medicine movement with the strengthening of theposition of specialists. Thomson lamented the disappearance of large
patches of marsh rosemary from which to gather herbs for medicines.40
He also pointed out the degradation of the environment, including contamination of meat and water as a result of urbanization, which he observed on a trip to New York City.
In the latter half of the nineteenth century, the popularity ofThomsonianism, the only U.S.-born popular health movement, began towane with the emergence of other sectarian movements. In its place camehomeopathy, a German alternative medicine movement, which advocated the power of nature; Austrian hydropathy, the water-cure treatment; and Eclectics. Although homeopathy emphasized the importanceof the physician and patient sharing time for dialogue, it also recommended that drugs be prepared by specialists who had a good understanding of the theories on which homeopathy was based. The afﬁrmation thatthe “common man” should follow nature and carry out his daily life on
the premises of autonomy and self-help became impractical with the122

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changes in people’s vocations and ways of life. This led to the demiseof the Thomsonian movement that had sought a renaissance of American
traditions.
III.
A.

HEALTH REFORM AND DIET IN HYDROPATHY

The Rise of Hydropathy

Hydropathy arose in the mid-nineteenth century. Joel Shew (1816–55),
a native of Providence, in Saratoga County, New York, who moved toPhiladelphia, worked in a daguerreotype shop for ﬁfteen years and developed occupational health problems. He then attended medical schoolfrom 1840 to 1843, graduating with an MD degree. He became interested in water-cure as practiced by Vincenz Priessnitz (1799–1851) in
Gräfenberg, Austrian Silesia. Shew went there to study it and brought itback to the United States, opening a water-cure inﬁrmary in New York
City in 1844. It followed Thomsonianism as a popular alternative formof healing and is distinguished by the special attention it paid not only
to preventing disease but to “perfecting” people’s health. It responded
to the weakening of the body and spirit under the inﬂuence of radical
changes in the environment brought by urbanization and industrialization. It paid particular attention to the peculiar trait of the “Europeanrace” to fall prey to “nervous diseases,” as suggested by the “new sciences” such as phrenology that attracted much attention from hydropathists and health reformers. It proposed health reforms aiming to create
the perfect healthy body that could survive physically and mentally inan age in which people were moving to crowded industrialized cities
where husbands might work outside the home while wives remained athome all day in a small apartment.
Hydropathy was introduced into the United States in the 1840s byphysicians who had studied orthodox medicine and had doubts about it,
Joel Shew and Russell Thatcher Trall (1812–77). Shew introduced thePriessnitz system into the United States and reﬁned it especially forchildbirth at the ﬁrst hydropathic institution that he opened in New York.
Priessnitz was a farmer who treated and healed his own injuries anddisorders solely by applying water. In the 1810s, after he succeeded inhealing a serious injury to his ribs that his doctor had given up on, hebegan to treat his animals and his neighbors with cold water and became
locally known. Gradually, people of high status, including the emperor’sPOPULAR HEALTH MOVEMENTS AND DIET REFORM

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brother, Anton Victor, were treated by Priessnitz, who built a sanatorium
in what had been his father’s house. As his water-cure method became
increasingly popular, he established a water-cure practice in Gräfenberg
called the Water University.41
Shaw published The Hydropathic Family Physician in 1854.42 He wasalso active as editor of the Water-Cure Journal (WCJ ). That publication,
the main journal of hydropathy, is thought to have had more than one
hundred thousand subscribers at its peak in the 1850s.43
Russell Trall was a New Englander, living in New York, who had
experienced poor health when he was young. He studied medicine witha preceptor, graduating from Albany Medical College in 1835 with an
MD degree.44 While practicing the regular medicine of the era, hebecame suspicious of treating symptoms through “heroic therapies” suchas bloodletting and purgatives. He abandoned the drug system and began
to explore preventive treatments and ways to improve people’s physicalcondition. He paid much attention to diet, in 1850 organizing theAmerican Vegetarian Society and serving as its vice president. In 1849
Trall succeeded Shew as editor of the WCJ. He opened the coeducational
New York Hydropathic and Physiological School in 1853.
In his mission as a reformer, Trall relied on three ﬁelds of popularscientiﬁc knowledge about human physiology of the day. The ﬁrst one
was the water cure originated by Priessnitz and further reﬁned byhydropaths in America. The second was “vegetarianism,” reﬁned mainly
by Sylvester Graham (1795–1851). Graham had been a Presbyterianminister and was enthusiastic about vegetarianism because he believed
the human body became too excited from eating meat, which could leadto nervous disease. His way of diet, “Grahamism,” was introduced andpracticed in many water-cure institutions. The recipe for his invention,
Graham bread, ﬁrst appeared in The New Hydropathic Cookbook (NewYork, 1855). The third ﬁeld was phrenology, originated by Franz Joseph
Gall (1788–1828) in Austria and further developed by George Combe(1788–1858) in Edinburgh.
While conﬁrming the changes in people’s lifestyle, the proponents andpractitioners of hydropathy concurred with the concepts of Shew andTrall, which reviewed the new sciences of the age and tried to reform
human beings as a whole. They included many people who were interested in reforming society and individuals mentally and physically.
Those reforms included topics that were debated vociferously from the124

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mid-nineteenth century onward, such as dress reform, abstention fromdrink, reform in medicine and education, and the liberation of slaves.
Catherine Esther Beecher (1800–78), who founded an academy for
women to study physical and moral development, was in sympathy withhydropathy; she was deeply concerned about the health and living conditions of women. She visited more than two hundred cities and towns
to collect information about women’s health and found that scarcely any
women enjoyed good health.45
Beecher and her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811–96), the abolitionist and author of Uncle Tom’s Cabin, especially worried about the
new type of nervous diseases seen among middle-class women living incities.46 Hydropathists took notice of clothing as well. They recommended dress that would keep American women healthy. Harriet N.
Austin, MD, who was secretary of the National Dress Reform Association, was also active as the editor of the Laws of Life and a writer for
the Water-Cure Journal. She claimed that women’s ﬁrst great right was
the right to health and to wear the “American Costume,” that is, thebloomer, a short dress worn over long loose trousers gathered closely
about the ankles.47 The focus on women’s health was based on healthbeing an important individual right as well as women’s duty to give birthand raise the next generation as active and beautiful American citizens.
Dr. William Androus Alcott (1798–1859), a cousin of the reformer
Bronson Alcott, also eagerly taught people health management so as tolead happy family lives. He received his MD from the Yale Medical
College and was active as a health reformer and the ﬁrst president of theAmerican Physiological Society, which was founded in 1837 by Boston
reformers inspired by Graham’s ideas.48
Much attention was paid to eating habits. Diet is a foundation of healthand is a concrete expression of one’s beliefs, as well as visible proof of
one’s efforts. Vegetarianism was described as a “universal reform”
because people could easily grasp such a dietary change, and it served
as the foundation for all other reforms.49
B.

Concerns about the Weakening of Body and Soul as Lifestyles
Modernize

What did hydropathy consider problematic, and what prescriptions did
it propose? As with Thomsonianism, the advocates of hydropathy
viewed the intervention of physicians or any practitioners as a bad thing,

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but they also worried about the adverse effects of changes to the environment and people’s lifestyles, as well as the problem of nervous disorders. They especially looked to lifestyle, focusing on people’s diets,
as a way to deal with those problems.
Concerns about the Decline of the Power of Nature
Hydropathy viewed the frequent incidence of women having difﬁculties during childbirth as a problem, just as Thomsonianism did. One person who particularly took a deep interest in childbirth was Shew. Alongwith his wife Marie, who had suffered difﬁculties in childbirth under theassistance of regular doctors, his goal was for women ﬁrst of all to build
strong bodies through water cures, allowing them to avoid the need forthe services of such doctors or any outside assistance. However, Shew
thought it was not only the intervention of doctors but also changes inthe environment and working habits that were having an adverse effecton people mentally and physically. He gathered and analyzed information about the lifestyles and health of various peoples around the world,
including American Indians, looking at what work they did, how theyused their time, and how relationships affected general well-being.
Shew believed it would be impossible to ﬁnd perfect health in a civilized country:
It is a sad reﬂection upon civilization to assert, that the more cultivated andreﬁned man has become thus far in the world, the more sickly and diseased
he is found to be. Impure air, want of out-door exercise, bad food and badwater, these may be stated as being among the prominent predisposing causesof such attacks.50

Shew investigated the causes of several mental illnesses, including hysteria, convulsions, epilepsy, chorea, trance, and ecstasy, and found that
convulsions were more frequent in large towns and cities than in rural
areas. He collected information about people all over the world who led
different kinds of lives and concluded:
In regard to the health of the different races, we ﬁnd a vast difference in different parts of the world. In the same race also, varying according to a multitude of circumstances, the health of nations is found to differ in almost
indeﬁnite degree, according to the dietetic and other voluntary habits of thepeople.51

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Shew found that Poles and Russians, who ate simple dishes made of vegetables and potatoes and who worked hard in severe climates, seemed toenjoy better health than Americans. He also observed that “red men”
(i.e., American Indians) did not experience gout and rheumatism until
they began to drink rum, a European introduction.52
Moreover, he observed that even in the United States, people who were
engaged in agriculture and who did not strain their brains and moved in
the fresh outside air had healthier bodies and souls than nonfarmers. He
ﬁrmly believed that doing different work each day depending on theweather, living peacefully in the countryside, avoiding the cares of theworld, and, most important, being able to determine the rhythm of one’s
own life, were closely related to mental health.
Nervous Disease and “Race”
Hydropathists observed an increase in the number of people with hysteria, convulsions, epilepsy, and similar mental diseases, along with anincrease in population and rapidly changing living circumstances.
One reason for the change was thought by hydropathists to be inappropriate diet. People were starting to enjoy such foods as coffee, tea,
and rich cakes, and they were using large amounts of spices to make meat
more delicious. A relationship between insanity and indigestion was
taken quite seriously by health reformers.
Trall pointed out what he saw as the bad aspects of eating meat. In thechapter on “Hydropathic Cookery” in his Hydropathic Encyclopedia, hewrote, “All ﬂesh-eating is a departure from the physiological laws which
the Creator has implanted in the constitution of man.”53 He explained theevils of ﬂesh-eating. First, he said, “all the objections to animal food may
be summed up in a single word—impurity.”54 In the middle of thenineteenth century tainted food was an urgent health problem for citydwellers.
Second, meat was a typical food responsible for bad health:All animal broths, soups, teas, all pickled, salted, and smoked meats, all kindsof shell-ﬁsh, all fried dishes, all dishes cooked in butter or other grease, allminced or other meat pies . . . all and every thing pertaining to the swinepork,
bacon, lard, sausages, etc., . . . are to be considered as among things prohibited.55

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Therefore, all meat, especially the pork popular with many Americans,
was out of the question. The same went for gravies, fried food, pies, andcakes.
In the history of food culture in the United States, the act of eating awhole roasted animal and dividing the meat among many people sitting
at a copious table was seen as a sign of success and presented a tableauof happiness.56 Meat dishes, the centerpiece of the meal, became moredelicious with the addition of spices. The use of spices and the habit ofdrinking coffee after dinner also became rooted as the new culture of
luxury, and enjoying such things was seen as an expression of wealth.
Trall warned of the bad effects of both the traditional meal and the adoption of new luxuries.
The vegetarian Graham, who worked with the hydropathists, warned
that greasy food would give people indigestion and would cause them to
succumb to “nervous disease.” Greasy meat was also supposed to makepeople sensitive to sexual stimulation, and with the violent excitement,
people would become insane.57 Since he believed that sexual indulgence
and alcoholism also affected the mind and nerves, he drew up strict dietprograms. “Grahamism” was introduced and practiced in many watercure institutions.
Trall emphasized the problem of nervous disorders just as Graham did.
However, the reasons he gave did not merely stop at the problems of ameat diet. Having considered some phrenological information, Trall presented a classiﬁcation of temperaments and their explanations. He concluded that the nervous temperament was dependent on the extensive
development of the brain and nervous system: people who were blessedwith a highly developed brain might also be inclined to nervous disease
and irritability.58
Above all, for hydropathists, the Caucasian race (the ﬁve races were
Caucasian, Ethiopian, American, Malay, and Mongolian) needed themost care as they had the best brains. Convinced of the superiority andthe leadership of this “race,” and with a sense of anxiety about the deterioration of its members, Shew and Trall made a fresh resolve to guidetheir followers in learning how to live well.

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Food as Foundation of Well-Being

Food as the Departure Point for Health Reform
Hydropathy was just as critical of orthodox medicine as was the herbal
movement. Many members were trained as orthodox doctors, but they
did not believe in the way such medicine was being applied. However,it differed greatly from herbalism in that it did not merely attack regular
doctors or nostalgically attempt to revive traditional healing. The movement was promoted during a period of rapid industrialization, when the
power of nature was perceived to be in critical decline. Not only didhydropathy seek a way to help people survive during a time of great transformation, but it also aimed for the attainment of a “healthy” and “perfect” body. Trall stated that “[e]very organized being is beautiful in its
perfect development, and health is the sole condition of such development.”59 In urban life, according to the teachings of hydropathy, it wasessential for each individual to build up an entirely new “second nature”
in order to attain a whole body that would not need care by a doctor.60
Hydropathists developed various strategies to promote health and prevent the deterioration of the body. They had a program of preventive
treatment called “preparatory treatment,”61 which began with a regimenof a large intake of water, “proper” (i.e., vegetarian) diet, exercise(including swimming), and plenty of sleep. For example, it was proposedthat city people should take “rain baths” by not carrying umbrellas in therain so they could touch the power of “natural” water. The regimen wasconsidered as a time for puriﬁcation, as well as an opportunity for lifestyle reform and personal improvement.
Most of all, much attention was paid to eating habits, because food
could trigger nervous disorders. Vegetarianism was considered an effective means of diet reform. Health reformers organized the American
Vegetarian Society,62 which provided a wealth of information on how to
eat appropriately. Those who joined the Vegetarian Society were not
only interested in diet reform but also in clean living, temperance, dress
reform, and abolition of slavery. The membership also included “Bible
Christians,” that is, members of the Bible Christian Church, a Methodist
denomination, who had led the vegetarian movement in England. They
followed the teachings of William Cowherd (?–1816), a religious
reformer from Manchester. The teachings reached America in 1817 withthe minister William Metcalfe (?–1862). Metcalfe published Abstinencefrom the Flesh of Animals in 1821, and in 1823, he founded the Bible

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Christian Vegetarian Society. Also, after 1830, Sylvester Graham, who
had studied medicine in Philadelphia, began to serve as a lecturer withthe society.63
Diet reform was perceived as the “cornerstone” of all reforms. At the
Eleventh Annual Meeting of the American Vegetarian Society, held at
a Bible Christian Church in Philadelphia in 1860, the following statement was included as one of the resolutions: “That the object of all trueand successful reform should be to make men healthier, wiser, better,and happier.”64
Proper Cooking and Eating at Home
Vegetarians who had a strong tie with the hydropathists (Trall was
deeply interested in vegetarianism for health) tried to eliminate foods
thought to have a deleterious effect on health. Bad food was not limited
to meat. Such ingredients and spices as salt, pepper, ginger, mustard, andWorcestershire sauce were also considered bad, because they would
increase one’s appetite for meat.
Enjoying cakes, coffee, or tea was also not good for the health. Isaac
Jennings (1788–1874), a physician who was an active member of theAmerican Vegetarian Society and who also served as mayor of Oberlin,
Ohio, warned: “[T]he action of tea and coffee is primarily upon the brain
and nerves, affecting directly the sensibility.”65 According to Jennings,“slaves to the teapot” often suffer from periodic headaches. New luxuries introduced since the eighteenth century were thought to cause deterioration in people’s health.
Bread commercially produced from white ﬂour was subject to censure
as well. The main menu item of the optimum diet, it was believed, should
be high-quality bread made from whole wheat, not from reﬁned ﬂour.
Trall gave the following explanation about the best kind of bread in thechapter on “Hydropathic Cookery” in his encyclopedia:
Unquestionably the best bread is that made of coarse-ground, unbolted meal,
mixed with pure water, and baked in any convenient way. . . . The inhabitants of new countries where ﬂouring-mills are not to be found . . . have asweet and wholesome article when they do not spoil it with grease, or shortening. Many of the New England housewifes formerly had a method of making bread without raising or fermentation of any kind.66

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Trall insisted that “the inhabitants of new countries” could eat “a sweet
and wholesome article when they did not spoil it.” Some vegetarians
even mentioned that whole wheat worked like a medicine to refresh thebrain and nerves. For Trall, the eating habits of new settlers ought to berespected, as they put virgin land to the plow long before urbanization.
He said that the simple way of making the best bread (without additives
such as yeast and sugar) and called the “New England custom” should
be maintained and passed down from mother to daughter.67
To obtain and enjoy the best bread, Trall suggested that people relearn
how to make it by themselves from scratch, at home. At that time, bread
was already readily available to people at groceries and bakeries. However, such bread was often made with shortening to make it more delicious. Trall warned people not to rely on stores or to visit luxury hotels:
The ﬁne Indian meal often found at groceries and provision stores does notmake good bread or cake. . . . At ordinary hotels and boarding-houses . . .
nearly all the farinaceous parts of the food are brought from the baker’s shop,or prepared according to the recipes of “French” and “domestic” cook-books,
which teach little else than the art of compounding dishes so as to produce
the greatest possible amount of disease in the human body.68“French” and “domestic” cookbooks were believed to show people how
to cook fatty and impure bread in a way that would cause disease.
A ﬂood of manuals were distributed to those mothers and wives who
were prepared to devote themselves to good vegetarian recipes. In theirdomestic-advice manual, American Woman’s Home (1869), Catherine
Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe insisted that women had to become“scientiﬁc” mothers and wives so as to make their family happy. They
wrote about the responsibilities of mothers and wives in the chapter on“Healthful Food”:
The person who decides what shall be the food and drink of a family, and themodes of its preparation, is the one who decides, to a greater or less extent,
what shall be the health of that family.69

They believed that since the body and soul were in close contact, bothshould be given much attention.70 Thus, they presented the “scientiﬁcway” of cooking and home management as a “domestic reform.”

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William Androus Alcott also insisted on a strict vegetarian diet devoidof coffee, alcohol, or spices. In a chapter entitled “Domestic Reform” inhis manual for women, Alcott spoke out against cookbooks full of luxurious menus, instead recommending that mothers and wives prepare
simple meals by following Graham’s Bread and Bread-Making, forexample.71 In a chapter on “Love of Home,” Alcott also suggested thatwives and mothers ought not to rely on servants, because they might forget how to arrange the breakfast table properly.72
Alcott thought that the main responsibility of a woman was to be ateacher at home, saying that “the ﬁrst school” would best be realized athome.73 At the beginning of another of his advice books, this one formen, he described a family at home, comfortable in front of a ﬁreplace,and the scene was entitled, “There is no school like the family school.”74
Proper family life was believed essential to the cultivation of good habits,
starting with the way of eating.
In the 1830s and 1840s, the white middle-class population was drawn
to the word “home” in an age of the “empire of the mother.”75 Thoughthe “home” seemed to imply the nest of each family unit that composedsociety, we can assume that hydropathists, or health reformers, also
dreamed of the “home” as a place where all people could retire from theoutside world, reconsider their way of life for a while, and resolve tolearn the way of living to transform themselves. Shew described thewater-cure establishment as a “home.”76 For Shew, a “home” would
serve as a “school” to provide all the necessary information and practical help that each family member or pupil would ever need.
CONCLUSION
In the United States, during a period when health treatment changed
signiﬁcantly, two movements saw those changes as problematic and suggested responses. In both of those movements, the way of thinking aboutfood was considered to be important.
Samuel Thomson proposed one type of lifestyle surrounding food thatwas linked intimately with treatment. He asserted that in an age of medical specialization, with drugs supplied from overseas, it was precisely
the utterly ordinary act of taking a meal that was the most appropriate
way to assist the body’s natural power. His meaning of everyday meal

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meant those things drawn from the American land—that is, eating things
that come from where one lives. It also meant things made by the handof one’s mother or wife, just as in colonial times. In addition, it was basedon the spirit of hospitality, in which the treatment-giver helps to restore
a sick person by welcoming him or her in front of the ﬁreplace with acup of hot herbal tea.
That kind of behavior was associated with one type of American
lifestyle, in which immigrants and people migrating westward worked
out their own lives through the act of opening up new lands. Such people, to survive while maintaining the freedom of governing all their own
time, had to eat what they harvested from land they had cleared themselves, while helping out their neighbors.
However, Thomson’s ideals were not all realizable. Thomson, himself a pioneering farmer who opened up new lands with his father, mademedicines from plants taken from the land, but doing that was difﬁcult
in an urban environment. Even in the countryside, it became harder toﬁnd abundant stands of herbs. The original orientation toward only
allowing medicines made purely from handmade foods thus changed, as
buying medicines became more common, with the sale of herbal medicines introduced by late-term Thomsonians. It also became impracticalto maintain the custom of staying at the house of a treatment-giver for along period, as people’s relationships with their neighbors weakened.
In hydropathy, developing a perfect, strong body and soul that required no treatment led to a reevaluation of lifestyle customs, with foodculture serving as the linchpin. That was because it was believed that the
weakening of the soul and nerves, especially the fragility of the nervous
system of “superior” whites, was strongly related to food culture. As forfood culture, three points were emphasized: (1) refraining from eating
meat and drinking alcohol, both which were customs in the UnitedStates; (2) eliminating luxuries in the form of foods such as deliciousand “beautiful” white bread, meat with ﬂavorful seasonings, and cakeswith much sugar and cream that were gradually being introduced; and(3) avoiding contaminated foods and additives by making food at homeby hand. That meant that maintaining a disciplined, regular lifestyle ofmaking things by hand at home became the departure point, with a focus
on the role of the women who primarily organized and controlled life at
home. Cookbooks were published that instructed mothers and wives in
how to make appropriate foods by hand. Thus, food made at home from

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vegetarian recipes was supposed to be full of the mother’s nurturing
spirit, and also reﬂected self-discipline and the best scientiﬁc knowledgeof the day.
With the world tending toward an urbanized environment, with people no longer farming for a living, and with an increasingly prominentdivision of labor between men and women in which family members
spent less time together, the lifestyle promoted by hydropathy meant achange in how time was spent so that the family could be together more.
The connection with food was seen as a speciﬁc way by which one could
master the self-management needed to live that kind of life, expressedby the actions of cooking for oneself and eating with the family.
The old-established enjoyment of getting together with a lot of people and eating a heavy meal, combined with the new endeavor of making mealtime even richer and more fun through favorite foods, as wellas the joy of trying unusual foods when eating out, were all condemnedby the proponents of hydropathy and vegetarianism in the name of attaining a “perfect” body and soul.
The lifestyle advocated by hydropathy created an exclusive association. By doing such things as refraining from hiring servants from thepool of newly arrived immigrants to America, hydropathy tended to givethe cold shoulder to people who did not share the same food culture, as
well as to those who did not want to transform themselves.
In the nineteenth century, when society was rapidly modernizing andhealth was a major concern, people in America sought a lifestyle thatwas different from that of their pioneering ancestors as well as that of
the newer immigrants who came after them. By the mid-nineteenth century recipes were presented as a symbol of the new dietary culture. Foodand dishes led people to a culture of eating and self-fashioning in a manner that was easy to understand. People recognized the existence of borders as well as the possibility of integration, looking at a clear image ofeveryday life. Fully worked-out recipes served to unify the followers of
those movements, who believed that attaining good health would allow
them to perform as essential members of a changing American society.

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NANAMI SUZUKINOTES1Studies focusing on food and culture include: Deborah Lupton, “Theoretical
Perspectives on Food and Eating,” in Food, the Body, and the Self, ed. Deborah Lupton(London: Sage, 1996); Carole M. Counihan, The Anthropology of Food and Body:
Gender, Meaning, and Power (New York: Routledge, 1999). How food and cuisine prescribed and shaped the social roles (gender) of American women, and how race, ethnicity, social class, and region have come to inﬂuence food culture are presented in
Sherrie A. Inness, ed., Kitchen Culture in America: Popular Representations of Food,
Gender, and Race (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001); and Donna
R. Gabaccia, We Are What We Eat: Ethnic Food and the Making of Americans (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998).
2
Susan Williams, Food in the United States, 1820–1890 (Westport, CT: Greenwood
Press, 2006), 2–3.
3
In the southern United States, the food cultures of the Old World and New Worldhad fused in the seventeenth century, with inﬂuences from France, Spain, and Acadia.
See Williams, Food in the United States, 3–5, 97–104.
4
Amelia Simmons, American Cookery (Hartford, CT: Hudson and Goodwin, 1796)
in The First American Cookbook: A Facsimile of “American Cookery,” 1796 by Amelia
Simmons (Mineola, NY: Dover, 1984); Richard Pillsbury, No Foreign Food: The
American Diet in Time and Place (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998), 120–21.
5Williams, Food in the United States, 46.
6
Ibid., 29–31.
7
Since the 1970s, many books and articles have investigated alternative medical
movements in American history. See James H. Cassedy, “Why Self-Help? Americans
Alone with Their Diseases, 1800–1850,” in Medicine without Doctors: Home HealthCare in American History, ed. G. B. Risse, R. L. Numbers, and J. W. Leavitt (New York:
Science History Publications/USA, 1977), 31–48; Norman Gevitz, ed., Other Healers:
Unorthodox Medicine in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988);
Ronald G. Walters, American Reformers, 1815–1860 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1997);
James C. Whorton, Crusaders for Fitness: The History of American Health Reformers(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982); James C. Whorton, Nature Cures:
The History of Alternative Medicine in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2002).
8
William G. Rothstein, “The Botanical Movements and Orthodox Medicine,” inGevitz, Other Healers, 29–51; Joseph Kett, The Formation of the American Medical
Profession: The Role of Institutions, 1780–1860 (New Haven: Yale University Press,
1968), 110–11.
9
I have made a comparative examination of the perspectives of Thomsonianism andhydropathy in relation to birthing practices. See Nanami Suzuki, Shussan no rekishijinruigaku: Sanbasekai no kaitai kara shizenshussan undou he [Historical anthropology ofchildbirth, from the deconstruction of midwifery to the natural birth movement] (Tokyo:
Shinyosha, 1997), 167–77.
10John S. Heller, The People’s Doctors: Samuel Thomson and the American Botanical
Movement, 1790–1860 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2000).
11
Samuel Thomson, New Guide to Health, or Botanic Family Physician (hereafter
cited as NGH ) (Columbus, OH: Jarvis Pike and Co., 1835), 13; Boston Thomsonian
Manual and Lady’s Companion 5, no. 9 (1839): 137.
12
Samuel Thomson, A Narrative of the Life and Medical Discoveries of SamuelThomson (hereafter cited as Narrative) (Boston: E. G. House, 1822), 141; Thomson,
NGH, 1835, 177.

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13
Susan Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed: The Water-Cure Movement and Women’s
Health (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987); Jane B. Donegan, “Hydropathic
Highway to Health”: Women and Water-Cure in Antebellum America (New York:Greenwood Press, 1986).
14
Rothstein, “Botanical Movements and Orthodox Medicine,” 34; Richard Wertz andDorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America, (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1989), 30.
15
William Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects toScience (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1972), 74–80; Richard Harrison Shryock,
Medical Licensing in America, 1650–1965 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1967),
3–42.
16
Thomson, NGH, 1835, 10.
17
Thomson, Narrative, 25–26.
18
Thomson, NGH, 1827, 114–15; NGH, 1835, 160.
19
Thomson, NGH, 1835, 13, 164–67.
20
Lobelia inflata (Indian tobacco, wild tobacco). Thomson, Narrative, 16–17; Ronald
L. Numbers, ed., Medicine in the New World: New Spain, New France, New England(Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987), 141.
21
Kett, Formation of the American Medical Profession, 103–6.
22
Thomson, Narrative; NGH, 1827; (St. Clairsville, OH, [1829]; 1835).
23
Cassedy, “Why Self-Help?” 45–46.
24
Robert Fuller, Alternative Medicine and American Religious Life (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1989), 20–21.
25
Thomson, Narrative, 15–16.
26
Ibid., 19–23.
27
Thomson, NGH, 1835, 166–67.
28
Thomson, Narrative, 32, 40.
29
Useful books about the yearning for a return to nature are Charles A. Miller’s
Jefferson and Nature (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1988) and Perry Miller’s
Nature’s Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967). Catharine L. Albanese
discusses the spiritual aspects of yearning for nature in Nature Religion in America:
From the Algonkian Indians to the New Age (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1990).
30
Thomson, NGH, 1835, 6–7; Thomson, Narrative, 14.
31
Thomson, NGH, 1827, 114–15.
32
Catharine M. Scholten, “ ‘On the Importance of the Obstetrick Art’: Changing
Customs of Childbirth in America, 1760 to 1825,” William and Mary Quarterly 34(1977): 433; Wertz and Wertz, Lying In, 1–28. Researchers have called the American
traditional childbirth practices “social childbirth.”
33
Thomson, NGH, 1835, 178; Scholten, “Obstetrick Art,” 444–45.
34
Thomson, NGH, 1835, 156–80. Thomson pointed out that it became hard to ﬁnd a
midwife as well as women who were not afraid of attending a birth rather than just visiting a mother after she gave birth.
35
Samuel Thomson, The Constitution, rules and Regulations to be adopted and practiced by the Members of the Friendly Botanic Society in New Hampshire andMassachusetts, Printed for the Society, Dover, N. H, 1815.
36
Boston Thomsonian Manual and Lady’s Companion 5, no. 9 (1839): 137.
37
Ibid., 137; Thomson, NGH, 1835, 8–9, 13, 166–67.
38
Boston Thomsonian Manual and Lady’s Companion 5, no. 9 (1839): 137.
39
Kett, Formation of the American Medical Profession, 110–11.
40
Thomson, Narrative, 141.

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41
Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 21. Concerning the water-cure movement andwomen’s health, also see Donegan, “Hydropathic Highway to Health,” 19.
42
Joel Shew, The Hydropathic Family Physician (New York: Fowler and Wells,
1854).
43
Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed, 3. Many hydropathy-related journals were publishedin the United States from 1845 to 1913. Thirty-four volumes of the Water-Cure Journal(hereafter cited as WCJ ) were published between 1845 and 1862, including: Water-Cure
Journal (Dec. 1845–Apr. 1848), Water-Cure Journal and Herald of Reforms (May1848–Dec. 1858), Water-Cure Journal and Herald of Health (Jan. 1859–June 1861),
Water-Cure Journal: A Guide to Health (July 1861–June 1862), Hygienic Teacher andWater-Cure Journal (July–Dec. 1862). During this period, hydropathy was carried out
actively as an alternative treatment by doctors who had been trained in regular medical
schools but were dissatisﬁed with the harmful side effects of some common treatments.
44
Donegan, “Hydropathic Highway to Health,” 24.
45
Catharine Beecher, Woman’s Profession as Mother and Educator (Boston: Geo
Maclean, 1872), 211–23.
46
Catharine Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe, The American Woman’s Home, or,
Principles of Domestic Science (Hartford: J. B. Ford and Co., 1869; repr. Hartford:
Harriet Beecher Stowe Center, 1975, with a new introduction by Joseph Van Why), 260(the page is from the 1975 edition). At ﬁrst Americans imported household advice books
from England. In the 1830s and 1840s, American woman began writing domestic-advice
books employing the word “American” in their titles, such as Lydia Maria Child’s The
American Frugal Housewife (1828) and Beecher and Stowe’s American Woman’s Home
(1860). See Sarah A. Leavitt, From Catharine Beecher to Martha Stewart: A Cultural
History of Domestic Advice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002),
5–6.
47
Harriet N. Austin, “Letter No. 16,” WCJ 27 (1859): 69. About bloomer costume andthe activity Austin did in favor of the reform dress, see Carol Mattingly, Appropriate[ing] Dress: Women’s Rhetorical Style in Nineteenth-Century America,(Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2002), 37–38, 80.
48
Daniel Sack, Whitebread Protestants: Food and Religion in American Culture (NewYork: Palgrave, 2001), 189; Walters, American Reformers, 155.
49
Isaac Jennings, Medical Reform: A Treatise on Man’s Physical Being and Disorders(Oberlin, OH: Oberlin Press, 1847), xiii.
50
Shew, Hydropathic Family Physician, 20.
51
Ibid., 20.
52
Ibid., 20–21.
53
R. T. Trall, The Hydropathic Encyclopedia: A System of Hydropathy and Hygienein Eight Parts: Designed as A Guide to Families and Students. And A Text-Book forPhysicians, vol. 1 (New York: Fowler and Wells, 1851), 421.
54
Ibid., 420.
55
Ibid., 421.
56
Williams, Food in the United States, 5.
57
Sylvester Graham, A Lecture to Young Men (Providence, RI: Weeden and Cory,
1834), 45–47. On Graham’s concerns about greasy meat and sexual stimulation, see
Stephen Nissenbaum, Sex, Diet, and Debility in Jacksonian America: Sylvester Grahamand Health Reform (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980), 32–36.
58
Trall, Hydropathic Encyclopedia, 287–88. The aim of hydropathy was to make people’s health “perfect.” See, for example, Mary Nichols, “Maternity: And the Water-Curefor Infants,” WCJ 11 (1851): 57–59.

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Russell Thatcher Trall, “The Natural State of Man,” WCJ 12 (1851): 25.
Thomas Nichols, “Practice in Water-Cure,” WCJ 10 (1850): 189.
61
Ibid., 190.
62
In 1849 a public meeting of the newly formed American Vegetarian Society washeld in Philadelphia: “President: Dr. Wm. A. Alcott of Massachusetts; Vice-Presidents:
Dr. R. D. Mussey of Ohio, Sylvester Graham of Mass., P. P. Stewart of Troy, N. Y., H.
H. Hite of Va., Dr. Prince of Missouri, Joseph Wright of New Jersey, Dr. Joel Shew of
New York, Wm. C. Chapin of Rhode Island, Joseph Metcalfe of Pennsylvania;
Recording Secretary: Dr. R. T. Trall of New York; Corresponding Secretary: Rev. Wm.
Metcalfe of Kensington, Philadelphia; Treasurer: S. R. Wells, of New York,” William
A. Alcott, “American Vegetarian Society,” WCJ 10 (1850): 6.
63
Colin Spencer, Vegetarianism: A History (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows,
2000), 255–56.
64
Russell Thatcher Trall, The Scientific Basis of Vegetarianism: Eleventh Annual
Meeting of the American Vegetarian Society (n.d.; repr. St. Catharine’s, ON: Provoker
Press, 1970), 15.
65
Jennings, Medical Reform, 183–85.
66
Trall, Hydropathic Encyclopedia, 423.
67
Ibid.
68
Ibid., 419, 424.
69
Beecher and Stowe, American Woman’s Home, 119.
70
Ibid., 255–62.
71
William Androus Alcott, The Young Wife, or Duties of Woman in the Marriage
Relation (Boston: George W. Light, 1837), 179–91.
72
Ibid., 90.
73
Alcott, Young Wife, 87.
74
Alcott, The Young Husband, or Duties of Man in the Marriage Relation (Boston:
George W. Light, 1841), centerfold.
75
A discussion of domesticity and women’s roles can be found in Mary Ryan’s The
Empire of the Mother: American Writing about Domesticity, 1830–1860 (New York:
Harrington Park Press, 1985).
76
Shew, Hydropathic Family Physician, 805–6.
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