Images of Stars and their Significance inJapanese Esoteric Art of the Heian Period________________________________________
Tsuda Tetsuei
Abstract
This essay considers the significance of images of stars within the framework of
Esoteric Buddhism in the Heian Period. Firstly, it outlines the development of
Heian Esoteric Art in three stages, and points at the appearance of star icons in
the third stage. Secondly, it examines some representative examples of this
iconography as developed by competing schools of Esoteric Buddhism: therectangular star mandala created by the Shingon Ninna-ji school; the Sonjōō
mandala created by the Tendai Jimon school; and the circular star mandalacreated by the Tendai Sanmon school. I discuss the similarities that occur inthese representations, for example the position of stars, and reconsider thehistorical significance of the creation of such icons in the area of the capital fromthe late tenth to the early eleventh centuries. In addition, I introduce one exampleof unique star imagery created at the same time in the provinces.

This essay discusses images of stars in the context of the Esoteric
Buddhist (i.e. Tantric) art of the Heian 平安 period. I first examine thedevelopment of Esoteric Buddhist art in Japan, and then consider the
iconography of stars within that framework.
The Development of Esoteric Buddhist Art in Japan and the Place ofStar Images
The Esoteric Buddhist art of Japan has traditionally been divided into two
categories:
1. Eclectic esoteric (zōmitsu 雑密) art of the Nara period (eighth century);
2. Pure esoteric (junmitsu 純密) art that developed from the ninth century
onwards and was shaped by the iconography of the Mandala of the Two
Worlds, consisting of the Diamond World (kongōkai 金剛界) and the
Womb World (taizō 胎蔵).
Eclectic esoteric images, such as those representing the bodhisattva
Kannon with eleven heads (J: Jūichimen Kannon 十一面観音; Sk:_________________________________________________________________
Tsuda Tetsuei, ‘Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Artof the Heian Period’, Culture and Cosmos, Vol.10 no 1 and 2, Spring/Summer
and Autumn/Winter 2009, pp. 145-192.
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146 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period

Ekadaś amukha-avalokiteś vara) or with thousand arms (J: Senju
Kannon 千手観音; Sk: Sahasrabhuja-avalokiteś vara) or as Fukūkenjaku
不空羂索観音 (Sk: Amoghapāśa-avalokiteśvara), were produced in thecapital Heijō-kyō (Nara). The Fukūkenjaku Kannon of the Tōdai-ji
東大寺 is a representative image of this category. (Fig. 1) The Records of
the Treasures of Saidai-ji (Saidai-ji shizai ruki chō 西大寺資財流記帳)
also documents the existence in the eighth century of a new type ofimage, such as the bodhisattva Makamayuri 摩訶摩由璃菩薩 (Sk:
Mahāmayuri) and of the god Naraen 那羅延天 (Sk: Nārāyana) with eightarms, which no longer exist.1 They indicate a new development in theeclectic esoteric art, which occurred in the late eighth century and can beseen concretely in the multi-limbed Batō Kannon 馬頭観音 (Sk:Hayagrīva) kept at the Inanaki-dō 嘶堂 hall of the Daian-ji 大安寺 (Fig.
2). The fundamental characteristic of these eclectic esoteric images wastheir individuality: unlike the deities of pure Esoteric Buddhism, who
existed within the interactive relationship of the world of the mandala(Fig. 3), earlier esoteric deities were worshipped individually with theirown invocations (dhāranī 陀羅尼).
Pure esoteric art developed in and around the capital Heian (Kyoto)
and was produced by both the Shingon 真言 and Tendai 天台 schools of
Esoteric Buddhism. From the art history perspective, I believe we candivide it into three periods, irrespective of whether it belonged to Shingon
or Tendai. The first period covers the ninth century, when images werecreated to follow faithfully the iconography transmitted by monks who
studied in China, such as Kūkai 空海 (744-835), Saichō 最澄 (767-822),
Engyō 円行 (799-852), Jōgyō 常暁 (?-866), Ennin 円仁 (794-864),
Enchin 円珍 (814-891), Eun 恵運 (789-869), and Shūei 宗叡 (809-884).
The second period covers the span of time from the late ninth century to
the early tenth century, when the existence of a great number of sutras
and esoteric ritual manuals encouraged a re-examination of the
iconography of Buddhist deities, and images were made as accurately as
possible to meet the specifications given in those texts. The third period
goes from the late tenth century onwards, when completely new Japanese
1 The Records were edited in 780. For a list of their contents, see Nara rokudaiji
taikan 奈良六大寺大観, Vol. 14 (Saidai-ji), Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1973, pp.
129-133.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 147

deities were created thanks to the diversification of esoteric schools. Eachof the esoteric lineages developed a distinct type of imagery, validated by
the personal interpretations of their leading monks, and supported by the
court and aristocratic patrons. Images of stars belong to this period.
However, in order to clarify the characteristics of those images, it isnecessary to examine briefly some important examples of Buddhist icons
from the first and second periods.
Representative examples from the first two periods of Heian Esoteric
Buddhist art
I would like to consider two examples: the Nyoirin Kannon 如意輪観音(Sk: Cintāmani-cakra) kept at Kanshin-ji 観心寺, as representative of thefirst period, and the Nyoirin Kannon at Daigo-ji 醍醐寺, from the second
period.
The Kanshin-ji image, dating from circa 839, is a brightly painted
sculpture that retains the original colour very well2 (Fig. 4). It is thought
to recreate the brilliantly colored image of Nyoirin Kannon in the
Kannon-in section of the original Womb Mandala transmitted to Japan by
Kūkai (Fig. 5). I would like to draw your attention to the way in which
the open palm of Kannon’s principal right hand touches his cheek.
The image in the Daigo-ji dates, as I have established in a previous
study, from around 9193 (Fig. 6). In contrast to the Kanshin-ji image, it islacquered in gold, and the principal right hand is shaped as a fist thattouches the cheek of the bodhisattva. If we look carefully at this hand we
can observe that the thumb, index and middle fingers are gently spread,and the two remaining fingers are bent (Fig. 7). The shape of this handmatches exactly the specifications given for the meditation hand(shiyuishu 思惟手) of Nyoirin Kannon in the sixteenth chapter of the

2 Nishikawa Shinji 西川新次, ‘Kanshin-ji Nyoirin Kannonzō ni tsuite
観心寺如意輪観音像について’ [Nyoirin Kannon of the Kanshinji Temple],
Bijutsu-shi 美術史 [Art History] 23 (Tokyo: 1956), pp. 1-14.
3
Tsuda
Tetsuei
津田徹英,‘DaigojiNyoirinKannozōkō
醍醐寺如意輪観音像考’ [On the Daigoji Nyoirin Kannon], Bijutsushi 132(1992), pp. 190- 208.
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148 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period

Commentary on the Mahāvairocana sutra, a major esoteric scripture.4 It
would have not been possible to obtain such detailed information from an
iconographical drawing depicting the fist from the front; hence the image
must have been made according to the description in the Commentary.
We should also note that, in sutras and ritual manuals related to Nyoirin
Kannon, the body of this deity is described as having a goldencomplexion.5 The Daigo-ji image is lacquered in gold to conform to thedescription in the scriptural sources.
In the late ninth century and early tenth century esoteric images were
frequently created to meet the instructions given in related sutras andritual manuals. For example, the two attendant bodhisattvas of the Amida
阿弥陀 triad in the Seiryō-ji 清凉寺 (Kyoto) are represented forming
unusual hand gestures (mudrā s), the source of which has never beenclear (Fig. 8). I have identified these hand gestures as the katsuma mudrā羯磨印 of two bodhisattvas described in a ritual manual related to theesoteric Amida.6 These two bodhisattvas, Kongōhō 金剛法菩薩 andKongōri 金剛利菩薩 are, in fact, the esoteric interpretation of Kannon
and Seishi (Sk: Mahāsthamaprāpta).7 Such an attitude towards thecreation of Buddhist images reflects the confusion caused by the flood of
information introduced by monks who had studied in China. As thedetails of the hands often varied, when new images were made it became
necessary to consult related sutras and ritual manuals. Another example
of a detail that would have been difficult to copy from a diagram, as this
4 Da pilushena chengfo jingshu (J: Daibirushana jōbutsu kyōsho
大毘盧舎那成仏経疏), Taishō shinshū daizōkyō 大正新脩大蔵経, Tokyo:
Taishō shinshū daizōkyō kankō-kai, 1928 (hereafter cited as T.), 39, p. 744a-c.
5 These are Guanzizai pusa ruyilun yuqie (J: Kanjizai bosatsu nyoirin yuga
観自在菩薩如意輪瑜伽), T. 20, p. 208c; Guanzizai ruyilun pusa yuqie fayao (J:Kanjizai nyoirin bosatsu yuga hōyō 観自在如意輪菩薩瑜伽法要), T. 20, p.
213b; and Ruyilun pusa guanmenyizhu mijue (J: Nyoirin bosatsu kanmon gichū
hiketsu 如意輪菩薩観門義註秘訣), T. 20, p. 217a.
6 Jingangding lianhuabu xin niansong yigui (J: Kongōchō rengebu shin nenju
giki 金剛頂蓮華部心念誦儀軌), T. 18, p. 305b.
7 Tsuda Tetsuei, ‘Daigoji Nyoirin Kannozō kō.’Culture and Cosmos

Tsuda Tetsuei 149

would show the image only frontally, is the wisdom-fist mudrā (chiken-in
智拳印) of the Buddha Dainichi 大日 (Sk: Mahāvairocana), dating fromthe late ninth century, and kept at the Ueno-an-ji 上野庵寺 in Shiga
Prefecture (Fig. 9). The index finger of the Buddha’s left hand touches
the tips of the thumb and the index finger of his right hand. This is anunusual detail that can be traced back only to descriptions in canonicalsources.
In the case of the Kanshin-ji sculpture, which belongs to the first
period of Heian esoteric artefacts, the figure reproduces the existenticonography faithfully, but the sense of movement is severely restricted
in order to keep the original form. On the other hand, the Daigo-ji
sculpture required a re-adjustment of the angle of the neck, and even the
curve of the upper body, in order to shape its fist touching the cheeks
according to the specification of the canonical sources. This affected thesculptural space. Furthermore, the position of five of the other arms was
adjusted to balance the arm in the meditation pose, and our eyes are
drawn to the second right hand, which holds a wish-fulfilling jewel (nyoihōju 如意宝珠) in front of the bodhisattva’s chest. Such freedom of
expression became the mainstream movement in tenth century sculpture.
I would like to point out that in the tenth century a process of reexamination of established iconography was carried out, whereby the
iconography transmitted, for instance, by Kūkai in the Shingon sect or by
Enchin in the Tendai sect, was reconsidered against the descriptions of
the deities contained in sutras and commentaries. This corresponded to aprocess of conscious interpretation and selection operated by image
makers. The movement to consult existent iconography and canonicalsources not only encouraged a partial alteration of the imagery as it had
been known so far; it also, eventually, developed into the creation ofimages of new Japanese deities. The icons of stars clearly indicate thismovement, which characterized the third period of esoteric art.
The Emergence of Star Images in Japanese Buddhist Art
Images of stars had already been created in the Nara period. We can findevidence of the existence of an image of the bodhisattva Myōken
妙見菩薩 (Sk: Sudrṣ ṭ i), the personification of the Polar Star, in thesection on the Commission of Buddhist sculptures (Butsuzō saishikichūmon 仏像彩色注文) of the Records of the Shōsōin temple (Shōsōin

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150 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period

monjo 正倉院文書).8 The Historical Documents of Enryaku-ji (Eigaku
yōki 叡岳要記) mentions that there was an image of Myōken, created by
the founder of the Tendai school, Saichō, in the Hachibu-in 八部院 hallof the Enryaku-ji temple.9 It is not clear what these images looked like, as
only their names appear in written records. However, the encyclopedia of
Buddhist icons Zuzōshō 図像抄, edited by Ejū 恵什 (1060-1145),
describes a contemporary icon in the Myōken-dō of the Reigen-ji 霊厳寺(Kyoto): it was a life-size wooden statue, holding a wish-fulfilling jewel
on his left palm in front of his chest, and with his right hand stretcheddown with the five fingers extended, rather similar to the iconography ofKichijō-ten 吉祥天 (Sk: Mahāśrī).10 Another example of early
representations of the Polar Star may be found in the Jigokudani 地獄谷
cave of Kasugayama 春日山, Nara. This carved image of a bodhisattva
seated on the lotus leaf can be identified as Myōken from theconstellation of the Big Dipper depicted above his head. As theseexamples suggest, until the late eighth century images of stars were
mostly personifications of the Polar Star, but the iconography was not yet
standardized, probably because it was not specified clearly in scriptures.
Individual images of stars appear not to have been standardized in the
Esoteric art of the Heian period either. A prominent characteristic of thisperiod would be the creation of group images of celestial bodies.
Images of Stars from China
The creation of original images of stars in Heian esoteric Buddhism
started around the late tenth century, but it is important to remember thatnew information and iconographies had been brought into Japan by themonks who studied in China during the ninth century. Images of theThree Luminous Celestial Children (sankō tenshi 三光天子, i.e., sun,moon and stars) and of the twenty-eight Lunar Mansions (nijūhachi shuku
二十八宿) are mentioned in the list of items brought back by the monk

8 Dai Nihon komonjo 大日本古文書, Vol. 12, Tokyo: Tokyo daigaku shiryō
hensanjo, p. 256.
9 Gunsho ruiju 群書類従, Vol. 15, Tokyo: Keizai zasshi sha, 1906, p. 556.
10 T. zuzō 3, p. 52b.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 151

Jōgyō,11 together with some styles of altar for the goma 護摩 (fire) ritual.
The list of items imported by Ennin includes a drawing of the altar for theBlazing Light ritual (shijōkō danzu 熾盛光壇図), the liturgy dedicated to
the Blazing Light Buddha, who in Japan would embody the Big Dipper12(Fig. 10). We also find a Butsugen Mandala, where the Nine Luminaries
are depicted around the main deity Butsugen (Sk: Buddhalocanī), in an
unofficial record of items brought by Enchin,13 while a note in a later
iconographic manual informs us that a drawing of Nyoirin Kannon withthe constellation of the Big Dipper (Shichisei Nyoirinzu) (Fig. 11) was
imported by Eun.14 The existence of these records shows the interest thatmonks had in images of stars. There also exist several examples of star
related icons of unknown provenance, which must have been brought toJapan by the mid-tenth century. Such are the Shūnanzan Mandala
終南山曼荼羅 (Fig. 12), the images contained in the Secret Calendar of
the Nine Luminaries (Kuyō hireki 九曜秘暦), a Diagram of Indian
Horoscopy (Bonten karazu 梵天火羅図), a similar diagram called
Karazu 火羅図 (Fig. 13), and the Big Dipper Mandala in the museum
collection of the National University of Fine Arts and Music in Tokyo.
Nevertheless, the development of images of stars in the Heian period
did not conform to the eighth century tradition of representation, nor did
Heian artists simply reproduce the iconographies transmitted in the ninth
century. It was a new development that took place in Japan, based uponpreviously introduced material. I would like now to discuss someconcrete examples of this trend.
Japanese Star Mandalas
1. The Rectangular Star Mandala of the Shingon Ninna-ji School
The earliest known example of an original visual representation of stars
11 Jōgyō oshō shōrai mokuroku 常暁和尚請来目録, T. 55, p. 1070c-1071a.
12 Nittō shingu shōgyō mokuroku 入唐新求聖教目録, T. 55, p. 1084c.
13 See the colophon of Goma ro danyō, T. zuzō 7, p. 840; and Annen’s (841-ca
915) Sho ajari shingon burui sōroku 諸阿闍梨真言部類惣録, T. 55, p. 1131b.
14 Jōjin 定深 (? -1119), Sho kannon zuzō 諸観音図像, T. zuzō 12, pp. 10331034.
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152 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period

made in Japan is a star mandala used by Kankū 寛空 (884-972), a
Shingon monk of the Ninna-ji lineage, for a ritual performed at theimperial palace. Unfortunately this mandala does not survive today, andwe have only simplified reproductions inscribing the seed-letters of thedeities in two twelve century texts, Genpishō 玄秘鈔15 and Shike zuzōshō
四家図像鈔.16 (Fig. 14) It should be noted, though, that the image usedby Kankū encouraged the development of various star mandalas.
Kankū’s star mandala had a rectangular structure with three concentric
sections called in (courts). The Buddha Śākyamuni of the Golden Wheel(Shaka Kinrin 釈迦金輪; Sk: Buddhosnīsa-cakra) was placed in the
middle of the central court, surrounded by the Constellation of the Big
Dipper and Saturn (Doyō 土曜; Sk: Śanaiścara). The twelve signs of thezodiac were placed in groups of three at the four corners of this firstcourt. In the second court we find eight of the Nine Luminaries
collectively known as Kuyō 九曜 (Sk: Navagraha): the sun (Sk: Āditya),the moon (Sk: Soma), the five major planets Jupiter (Mokuyō 木曜; Sk:
Brhaspati), Mars 火曜 (Kayō; Sk: Angāraka), Saturn, Venus (Kinyō
金曜; Sk: Śukra) and Mercury (Suiyō 水曜; Sk: Budha); and the twostars Rāhu (Ragō 羅睺), which was thought to cause the solar and lunar
eclipses, and Ketu (Keitō 計都), the comet. As we have seen, the fifth
planet, Saturn, was placed in the central section. The third outermost
court featured the Twenty-eight Lunar Mansions, that is, the twenty-eightstars where the moon rests each night while completing its circuit intwenty-eight days. A star mandala with such a structure has no Chinese
precedent, and therefore it should be considered as a Japanese creation.
The central allocation of the Śākyamuni of the Golden Wheel and thefact that this mandala was used for a ritual to pray for the well-being of
the emperor suggest that the creator of this icon was aware of the Blazing
Light (Shijōkō 熾盛光) Mandala. The latter had been imported from
China by Ennin in the mid-ninth century and had been used as the main
icon of the homonymous secret ritual (shijōkōhō 熾盛光法), performed in
the Tendai school for the same purpose. The Blazing Light Mandala wascircular, with Śākyamuni of the Golden Wheel in the centre, surroundedby numerous deities including the zodiac and the Twenty-eight Lunar
15 T. 78, p. 414a.
16 T. zuzō 3, p. 902.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 153

Mansions. Some scholars assume that Kankū’s rectangular mandalaevolved from the Blazing Light Mandala under its direct influence,17 but I
believe that this was not the case. The Blazing Light ritual was one of themost important secret liturgies jealously guarded in the Tendai school,
and it is most unlikely that a monk from another school could gain
detailed knowledge of the iconography of its main icon. The information
available to outsiders would probably have been limited to the fact that it
centred on Śākyamuni of the Golden Wheel.18
According to the explanatory notes included with the diagrams of
Kankū’s mandala in Genpishō and Shike zuzōshō, the arrangement of theTwenty-eight Lunar Mansions in the outer court followed the instructionof a sutra, the Kongque jing (Jap: Kujakukyō 孔雀経).19 In fact in the
mandala groups of seven stars are placed at the four sides of the outer
court, and the composition of each group as well as the arrangement
conform to the description in the Kongque jing. Consequently, when one
faces the mandala, the cardinal directions will be: east on the right, west
on the left, north at the top, and south at the bottom. The arrangement of
the five planets in the central and second courts matches the yin-yang
theories of a fundamental Onmyōdō 陰陽道 text, the Gogyō taigi
五行大義:20 Jupiter is in the east, Venus in the west, Mars in the south,
Mercury in the north, and Saturn in the centre. The planets are thus
placed in the relevant directions as determined by the Twenty-eight Lunar
mansions. The arrangement of the Nine Luminaries and the Twenty-eight
Lunar Mansions can therefore be worked out without any direct influence
from the Blazing Light Mandala. Rather, I think that the arrangement of
17 Takeda Kazuaki 武田和昭, ‘Hokuto mandara no seiritsu to tenkai
北斗曼荼羅の成立と展開’ [On the Establishment and Development of the Big
Dipper Mandala], Mikkyō zuzō 密教図像 [Iconography of Esoteric Buddhism]
11 (Kyoto: 1992) pp. 13-34; and Hoshi mandara no kenkyū 星曼荼羅の研究[Studies in Star Mandalas], Kyoto: Hōzōkan, 1995, pp. 77-104.
18 Hayashi On 林温 shares my view in his Myōken bosatsu to hoshi mandara
妙見菩薩と星曼荼羅, Nihon no bijutsu 日本の美術 [Japanese Art] 377 (1997),
pp. 61-62.
19 The full title is Fomu da kongque mingwang jing (J: Butsumo daikujaku myōō
kyō 仏母大孔雀明王経), T. 19, pp. 436c-437a.
20 Gogyō-taigi kō-chū, Tokyo: Kyūko shoin, 1984.
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154 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
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Saturn in the central court, in front of the Buddha of the Golden Wheel,with the other eight celestial bodies surrounding the Buddha in the second
court, reflects other Chinese images of the Buddha of the Blazing Lightand the nine planets, such as the one shown in Figure 15.21
The most important feature of the rectangular star mandala is the
combination of the Buddha of the Golden Wheel, Saturn, and theconstellation of the Big Dipper in the central court. The recognition ofthese three as the central elements of the structure of a star mandala will
not essentially change in subsequent icons. The presence of Saturn in thisgroup has not been sufficiently noted, though. In the rectangular starmandala, Saturn and the seven stars of the Big Dipper are placed aroundthe Buddha of the Golden Wheel in a manner similar to the eight-petalled
lotus that constitutes the central court of the Womb Mandala (Fig. 16).
This arrangement, as well as the four-cornered shape, suggests a
conscious borrowing from the Womb Mandala.
2. The Sonjōō Mandala of the Tendai Jimon School
Following the creation of this rectangular star mandala in the Ninna-ji
lineage of the Shingon school, a Sonjōō Mandala 尊星王曼荼羅 wascreated by the Tendai Jimon 寺門 school, based at Onjō-ji 園城寺 (Miidera 三井寺). The oldest example of this mandala is a monochrome
drawing recorded in the twelfth century collection of esotericiconography Besson zakki 別尊雑記, edited by Shinkaku 心覚 (1117-80)(Fig. 17). The drawing shows various stars and constellations placed inthree concentric circles and, in the centre, a four-armed bodhisattva
standing on his left leg on the back of a dragon. His right leg is bent, withhis foot pulled up to the back of his left knee, making the shape of thenumber 4. This is the deity called Sonjōō in the Jimon school.
The Sonjōō Mandala is also a Japanese creation.22 According toesoteric documents compiled during the Heian and Kamakura periods,
Sonjōō was regarded as the deity of the Polar Star, and was also identified
with Kannon and Mercury. This information provides us with some clues
21 Editor’s note. On this imagery see the essay by Lilla Russell-Smith in thisvolume.
22 Tsuda Tetsuei, ‘Jimon no sonjōō o megutte 寺門の尊星王をめぐって’ [Onthe Depiction of Sonjōō in the Jimon Lineage of Tendai Buddhism], Museum(Bimonthly Magazine of the Tokyo National Museum) 581 (2002), pp.17-37.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 155

to understanding the development of Sonjōō. The first concrete evidence
for a ritual involving this deity can be found in the diary of the aristocrat
Fujiwara no Kōzei 藤原行成, Gonki 権記. In the entries for the third dayof the third month of 1006 and for the twenty-fourth day of the third
month in 1008, the ritual is recorded as ‘sonjōkōhō’. 尊星光法.23 It is
important to note that the name ‘sonjō kōhō’ is similar to the shijōkōhō ofthe Tendai Sanmon 山門 school. Considering that the Sonjōō Mandala
was the main icon of a ritual aimed at the well-being and longevity of theemperor just as the shijōkōhō did, and that its emergence coincided withthe split of the Tendai denomination in the two schools, Sanmon andJimon, it may be possible that the Sonjōō Mandala was created by Jimon
clerics to stand against the ritual of the Sanmon school. I speculate thatthe most likely creator of the mandala is Yokei 余慶 (919-991), a
powerful monk of the Jimon school of that time.
I would like to examine next the history of the iconographicaldevelopment of the Sonjōō Mandala, from a diagram which was
produced in China during the Tang Dynasty (Fig. 18). The arrangementof stars in three concentric circles seems to reflect the pattern of arepresentation of the night sky in the northern hemisphere. This depicts
all the constellations around the Polar Star, placed at the center of the
diagram. We have seen that the deity in the centre of the Sonjōō Mandala(Fig. 19) is regarded as the personification of the Polar Star. However,Sonjōō does not possess the iconographic characteristics of the Polar Star
alone. The iconography for the four-armed bodhisattva standing on a
dragon, with his right leg making the shape of number 4, appears tooriginate from an image of Mercury seated on a dragon with one pendantleg, as depicted in a Butsugen mandala. (Fig. 20) This mandala wasbrought to Japan by the founder of the Jimon school, Enchin. The
iconographical similarity can explain why Sonjōō could be identified
with Mercury. In addition, Sonjōō was also identified with Kannon. We
should note that the figure holding up the sun and the moon in his hands,
with the remaining two hands in front of his chest, is similar to some
Chinese representations of Kannon from the Song dynasty, such as apainting in the collection of the Boston Museum of Art which shows thebodhisattva seated with his left leg pendant (Fig. 21). Both these
representations of Mercury and Kannon are seated figures with their left
23 Zōho shiryō taisei 増補史料大成, Gonki Vol. 1, Kyoto: Rinsen shoten, 1975,
p. 53 and p. 98.
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156 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
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legs pendant. Sonjōō takes a similar posture, but he stands on one leg.
The significance of this leg may be traced back to the uho 禹歩, the ritual
steps which were used in Onmyōdō, and were shaped after theconstellation of the Big Dipper. My conclusion is that the iconography
most likely derives from the seated Mercury and Kannon, but the pendantleft leg was re-interpreted in Japan as representing a uho.24 In this way
Sonjōō possessed the characteristics of Mercury and Kannon, as well as
those of the Polar Star.
I also believe that the arrangement of Sonjōō in the centre of themandala with eight circles representing suns and moons depicted in theoutermost court reflects an Onmyōdō theory concerning Saturn,according to which this planet is surrounded by eight stars. We shouldnote a possible influence of the representation of the Diagram of Indian
Horoscopy or Myōken mandala, which was devised from that theory (Fig.
22). The attributes held by Sonjōō in front of his chest, a metal staff and athree-pronged weapon, are also identical to the attributes of Saturn (Fig.
23). The animal head in Sonjōō’s hairdress seems to have lost its originalidentity after repeated copying, and it appears in the drawing as a boar ora deer, but it may originally have been a bull, the designated headornament for Saturn. The eight suns and moons depicted in the outermost
court, too, may have been an adaptation of the eight planets that, together
with Saturn, form the Nine Luminaries, as I have discussed above.
3. The Circular Star Mandala of the Tendai Sanmon School
The star mandala of the Ninna-ji school and the Sonjōō Mandala of the
Jimon school encouraged the emergence of another star mandala: acircular star mandala created by the Tendai Sanmon school. Kakuzenshō
覚禅鈔, the ritual collection edited by Kakuzen 覚禅 (1143-?), records anote by the Sanmon monk Kakujin 覚尋 (1012-81), which clearly
identifies the Tendai head-abbot Keien 慶円 (949-1019) as the creator of
the circular star mandala.25 One of the most famous surviving examples
24 Tsuda Tetsuei, ‘Uho, henbai to Sonjōō, Rokuji myōō no zuzō
禹歩・反閇と尊星王・六字明王の図像’ [On the Iconography of Sonjōō andRokuji Myōō and the ritual Onmyōdō steps uho and henbai], Nihon shūkyō
bunkashi kenkyū 日本宗教文化史研究 [Journal of Japanese Religious andCultural History] 4 (Kyoto: 1998), pp. 75-83.
25 T. zuzō 5, p. 402b.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 157of this mandala is a painting from the twelfth century in the collection of
the Hōryū-ji 法隆寺 (Fig. 24). The structure features four concentric
circles: the Buddha Śākyamuni of the Golden Wheel is in the central
court, seated on a rock pedestal supported by two twisting dragons; theseven stars of the constellation of the Big Dipper and the Nine
Luminaries are inscribed in the second court; the zodiac is in the third
court; and the Twenty-eight Lunar Mansions in the fourth court.
We can surmise that the circular star mandala was adapted from theBlazing Light Mandala, since a later ritual collection of the Sanmon
school, the Asabashō 阿娑縛抄, edited in mid-thirteenth century, records
that the main deity of the Blazing Light Mandala, the Buddha Śākyamuniof the Golden Wheel, is stylistically identical to that of the circular starmandala. According to that description, the Buddha is seated on Mt.
Sumeru, in front of which spreads the ocean with two dragon kings, while
the sun and the moon are depicted at the sides of the Buddha.26 The
circular structure also seems to follow that of the Blazing Light Mandala.
If we look at the second court, the constellation of the Big Dipper isarranged in the upper section, while the Nine Luminaries are arranged in
the lower section, with Saturn placed in the middle (Fig. 25). The positionof Saturn in the center must be influenced by the Onmyōdō theory
mentioned previously. The cardinal directions can be recognized from thezodiac sign of Leo (J: Shishi 獅子; Sk: Simha), which is placed at the top.
According to a thirteenth century text, the Byakuhō kushō 白宝口抄,
South is at the top and consequently North is at the bottom; theconstellation of the Big Dipper is said to occupy an immovable position
above the southern continent (Jambudivpa).27 This may explain the
allocation of the constellation of the Big Dipper above the Buddha, in thesouthern direction. Previous research has proved that the iconography of
the Nine Luminaries derives from the instructions contained in the Kuyō
hireki, while the iconography of the Twenty-eight Lunar Mansions isborrowed from a text on fire ritual altars, Gomaro danyō.28 It seems thusthat in the creation of the circular star mandara the iconography of eachgroup of stars was adopted from existing models.
26 T. zuzō 9, p. 25c.
27 T. zuzō 7, p. 302c.
28 Takeda Kazuaki. Cf. Note 17.
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158 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period

4. Another Rectangular Star Mandala of the Shingon Ninna-ji School
Slightly later than the three types of star mandala described above,
another rectangular star mandala was created in the Shingon Ninna-ji
school by Kanjo 寛助 (1057-1125).29 A representative example of thistype is that of the Kumeta-ji 久米田寺 in Osaka, which dates from thesecond half of the twelfth century. (Fig. 26) This mandala follows thethree-layered rectangular structure that was devised by Kankū; yet theoverall composition is more reminiscent of the circular star mandalacreated in the Tendai Sanmon school, with the only difference being therectangular framework. The Buddha Śākyamuni of the Golden Wheel isin the center, seated on Mt. Sumeru, which stands on two twistingdragons; the constellation of the Big Dipper and the Nine Luminaries are
inscribed in the central court, the Zodiac in the second court, and theTwenty-eight Lunar Mansions in the third court. Attention should be
drawn to the central court, where the sun and the moon from the group ofNine Luminaries are placed on either side of the Buddha. This
arrangement is similar to the circular mandala, and furthermore seems toderive from the Blazing Light Mandala. We should also note that theseven stars of the constellation of the Big Dipper are placed directly
under the Buddha. This is the opposite of the arrangement of the circularstar mandala, and it is a consequence of the allocation of the zodiac signof Leo at the center of the lower section of the second court, indicating
the southern direction. Accordingly, the five planets are arranged with
Venus in the east, on the left side of the central court; Mars in the west,
on the right hand side; Mercury in the north, at the top; Jupiter in thesouth, at the bottom; and Saturn directly under the Buddha Śākyamuni.
(Fig. 27) Saturn is situated next to Śākyamuni in order to assume thecentral position. This arrangement suggests a stronger awareness ofOnmyōdō theories than that expressed in the circular star mandala.
Although the iconographic details of each of the Nine Luminaries and of
the Twenty-eight Lunar Mansions may be found in the texts mentioned
above, the Kuyō hireki and the Gomaro danyō, it is more likely that,rather than copying from the instructions contained in these manuscripts,
the Kumeta-ji mandala had its iconographic source in the circular starmandala. The iconography for the constellation of the Big Dipper, too,
seems to rely heavily on the circular star mandala. Therefore the29 T. zuzō 7, p. 302c.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 159

rectangular star mandala created by Kanjo followed the basic structure of
Kankū’s rectangular star mandala, while the arrangement of the deities
relied on the circular star mandala of the Tendai Sanmon school. It could
be said that it lacked originality.
Interestingly, on the twenty-seventh day of the second month of theyear 1109 a hall dedicated to the Polar Star was consecrated in the
Hosshō-ji 法勝寺 in Kyoto. It was commissioned by the retired emperor
Shirakawa 白河, and a large group of wooden images, representing thefifty-six figures of the star mandala, was created.30 As the chief priest
presiding over the ceremony was Kanjo, we may suppose that the images
were based on the rectangular star mandala created by him.31 It is easy to
imagine that, in comparison to a painting, a three-dimensional mandalawith a large number of wooden images was overwhelmingly impressive.
However, the individual sculptures must have been relatively small inorder to fit into the limited space of that hall.
From this material, we can say that the enthusiasm for visual images ofstars peaked from the second half of the tenth century to the early
eleventh century. Both Shingon and Tendai sects emphasized their
distinctive features, which resulted in the creation of the rectangular starmandala by Kankū, the Sonjōō Mandala by Yokei, and the circular starmandala by Keien. The emphasis on individuality coincided with thecontemporary diversification of the esoteric schools in various branches.
The creation of images was probably a means for each school to show thesuperiority of its ritual power to the court and aristocracy.32
5. A local development of star imagery in the provinces
It is often overlooked that unique visual representations of stars emergedat the same time in the provinces. One such example is a secret Buddhist
image (hibutsu 秘仏) kept at Tōkō-in 東光院 in Chiba Prefecture. It
30 Gō totoku nagon ganmon shū 江都督納言願文集, Tokyo: Shibundō, 1929,
pp. 41-43.
31 Kurimoto Tokuko 栗本徳子, ‘Shirakawa-in to Ninna-ji 白河院と仁和寺’[Retired Emperor Shirakawa and the Ninna-ji], Kanazawa bunko kenkyū
金澤文庫研究 286 (Yokohama: 1991), pp. 12-30.
32 Tsuda Tetsuei, ‘Rokuji myōō no shutsugen 六字明王の出現’ [Emergence ofRokuji Myōō], Museum 553 (Tokyo: 1998), pp. 27-54.
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160 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period

comprises seven sculptures, which are said to represent the constellationof the Big Dipper, and are also identified with the seven Yakushi nyorai
薬師如来 (Sk: Bhaiṣ ajyaguru-vaidūryaprabha) (Fig. 28). The set
consists of a larger than life-size Buddha and six life-size bodhisattvas.
Two of the bodhisattvas have a Buddha’s head on the top of their crown,a very unusual iconographic feature that is not recorded in any esotericmanual. Although the crystal eyes of the main Buddha were added in alater period when the sculpture was restored, the style of the sculpturesindicates that they were created as a set of seven in the early eleventh
century, before the area was devastated by the rebellion headed by Tairano Tadatsune 平忠常 in 1028. Considering the substantial economicmeans needed for the creation of life-size figures, it is fair to assume thatthe set of seven figures was commissioned by a provincial lord. In fact,textual references suggest that they were used as the main object ofworship of the Hirayama-ji 平山寺 temple, as the Tōkō-in was originallycalled, which was commissioned by Taira no Tsunemasa 平常将, a sonof the provincial lord Taira no Tadatsune.33
The significance of these seven figures lays in their unique groupcomposition. A detailed examination of the six bodhisattvas reveals thatthree of them are seated cross-legged with their right foot on top, while
the other three have the left foot on top. Each group of three includes two
figures with a crowned head and one figure with a Buddha’s head above
their crown. Their hand gestures are basically similar to those of the main
Buddha, with the thumb touching the middle finger. The fact that thebodhisattvas are not holding any attribute but form mudrās suggests thatthey are esoteric Buddhist images. Yet when we consider that canonicalesoteric Buddhist figures should be seated with the left foot placed under
the right knee,34 we cannot categorize the entire group as esoteric in the
33 Tsuda Tetsuei, ‘Chiba Tōkō-inzō den shichi butsu Yakushi zazō no zuzō
hyōgen o megutte 千葉・東光院蔵 伝七仏薬師坐像の図像表現をめぐって’[On the iconography of the seated statues traditionally identified as Seven
Bhaisajyaguru, held at Tōkō-in, Chiba Prefecture], Mikkyō zuzō 12 (1993), pp.
21-43. Apart from this set, the temple also holds two sculptures of Guardiansfrom the same, or immediately successive, period. See Fig. 29.
34 For the meaning of sitting with the left foot placed under the right knee in
Esoteric Buddhist Art, see Oku Takeo 奥健夫, ‘Tōji den shōsō monjuzō omegutte 東寺伝聖僧文殊像をめぐって’ [On the Shōsō Statue of Manjusri in
Tō-ji], Bijutsu-shi 134 (1993), pp. 169-170.
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Tsuda Tetsuei 161

strict sense, because some figures have their left foot on top.
I believe that the composition of this group, with a seated Buddha
image and six seated bodhisattvas, may be a reflection of the Rokujikyō
Mandala 六字経曼荼羅, which depicts Śākyamuni of the Golden Wheel
surrounded by six Kannon. (Fig. 30) When we consider that in theeleventh century Yakushi was identified with Śākyamuni of the Golden
Wheel in both the Shingon and Tendai sects,35 it is possible to recognize arelationship between the Śākyamuni with six Kannon of the Rokujikyō
Mandala and the seven figures of the Tōkō-in temple. Furthermore, atthat time the seven stars of the Big Dipper were interpreted as amanifestation of the seven Yakushi,36 and six of the stars were identified
with Kannon.37 However, there are differences in the attributes and theposition of arms and legs between the Tōkō-in group and the deities of
the Rokujikyō Mandala. All six bodhisattvas of the Tōkō-in make amudrā with the thumb and middle fingers, which is associated to theconstellation of the Big Dipper according to a Chinese manual for the Big
Dipper fire ritual.38 In the iconographic collection Zuzōsho, this hand
gesture is commonly recognized as a mudrā of Yakushi.39 Bearing thesefacts in mind, we can assume that the seven figures of the Tōkō-in temple
represent the seven Yakushi as the manifestation of the stars of the Big
Dipper. This sculptural group should not be ignored, since it represents a
unique achievement in the creation of star images in the provinces of the

35 See Shingon senzin zuimonki 真言深浅随聞記 vol. 2 (the manuscript held at
the museum of Kanazawa bunko was copied, according to its colophon, in1092); and Chōen’s 長宴 (1016-1081) Shijūchō ketsu 四十帖決 vol. 7, T. 75, p.
877b.
36 Beidou qixing yanming jing (J: Hokuto shichisei enmei kyō
北斗七星延命経), in T. 21, p.426a; Kanjo (1057-1125) ed., Betsu gyō 別行, in
T. 78, p. 182b.
37 Cf. Betsu gyō.
38 Beidou qixing humofa (J: Hokuto shichisei gomahō 北斗七星護摩法), T. 21,
pp. 457c-458a.
39 Beidou qixing humofa (J: Hokuto shichisei gomahō 北斗七星護摩法), T. 21,
pp. 457c-458a.
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162 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period

time. Nevertheless, the position of the arms and the mudrās of all the six
bodhisattvas are identical. This lack of individual features makes it
difficult to identify the names of each deity, and it points to the creative
limitations of esoteric images. No similar figures were made after thisprototype.40
Concluding remarks
In this article, I have divided Heian esoteric Buddhist art into three
periods, and treated the images of stars as typical examples from the third
period, when entirely new icons were created in Japan. I have examinedthe development of several representative works, with reference tosurviving manuscripts on iconography, sutras and ritual commentaries. It
is a fact that images of stars did not become the principal icon of any
major school of Buddhism, but they were valued as the focus of rituals
that served to promote the individuality and superiority of each branch of
Esoteric Buddhism when its diversification took place.
The individuality of the images of stars in Japan relied heavily on thearbitrary interpretation of the monks who initiated specific projects. The
enthusiasm for new creations reached its peak between the tenth andeleventh centuries, but never developed into a major current of esoteric
Buddhist art. The number of related masterpieces is limited too, and I
believe that their transient nature symbolizes the limitations and the fateof Japanese creations connected to the stars.
(Translation by Meri Arichi)

40 T. zuzō 3, p. 6c.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 163
Fig. 1

Fukūkenjaku Kannon. Tōdai-ji, Nara.

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Heian Period
Fig. 2Batō Kannon. Inanaki-dō, Daian-ji, Nara.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 165

Fig. 3

The Womb (Taizō) Mandala. Tō-ji, Kyoto.

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166 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period

Fig. 4

Nyoirin Kannon. Kanshin-ji, Osaka.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 167

Fig. 5 Nyoirin Kannon, from the Kannon-in section of the Womb
Mandala. Jingo-ji, Kyoto.

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168 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period
Fig. 6

Nyoirin Kannon. Daigo-ji, Kyoto.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 169

Fig. 7The meditation hand of the Nyoirin Kannon of Daigo-ji.

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170 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period
Fig. 8. 1 and 2 (This and following page) The two attendant bodhisattvas of
the Amida triad. Seiryō-ji, Kyoto.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 171

Fig 8.2

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172 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period

Fig. 9The Buddha Dainichi and his mudrās. Ueno-an-ji, Shiga Prefecture.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 173

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174 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period
Fig. 10 Shijōkō (Blazing Light) Mandala from the Asabashō. Eizan-bunko
Library, Shiga Prefecture.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 175
Fig. 11 Nyoirin Kannon and the seven stars of the Big Dipper. Gumyō-ji,
Kanagawa Prefecture. The eighth deity included in this representation is
Kishimojin (Sk: Hārītī).

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176 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period
Fig. 12 Detail of the Shūnanzan Mandala. Matsuo-ji, Kyoto.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 177
Fig.13 Karazu. Tō-ji, Kyoto.

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178 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period

Fig.14 The rectangular star mandala created by Kankū. From Shikezuzōshō,. To-ji, Daigo-ji.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 179
Fig.15 The Blazing Light Buddha and the Nine Luminaries. Hermitage
Museum, St. Petersburg.

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180 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period

Fig. 16 Central eight-petalled lotus section of the Womb World Mandala.
Tō-ji, Kyoto.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 181

Fig. 17 Sonjōō Mandala from Besson zakki. Ninna-ji, Kyoto.

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182 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period

Fig. 18 Diagram of the night sky in the northern hemisphere. Tandai-ji,
Fukui Prefecture.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 183

Fig. 19 Detail of the Sonjōō Mandala from Besson zakki . Ninna-ji, Kyoto.

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184 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period
Fig. 20 Detail of the Butsugen Mandala showing Mercury. Honsen-ji,
Tokyo.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 185
Fig. 21 Guanyin (J: Kannon). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

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186 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period
Fig. 22 Myōken Mandala from the Shoson zuzō. MOA Museum, Shizuoka
Prefecture.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 187

Fig. 23 Saturn. Detail from the Bonten karazu. Tokyo National Museum.

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188 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period
Fig. 24 Circular star mandala. Hōryū-ji, Nara.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 189

Fig. 25 Detail of the circular Star Mandala. Hōryū -ji, Nara.

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190 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period
Fig. 26 Rectangular star mandala. Kumeta-ji, Osaka.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 191
Fig. 27 Detail of the rectangular star mandala. Kumeta-ji, Osaka.

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192 Images of Stars and their Significance in Japanese Esoteric Art of the
Heian Period
Fig. 28 The Seven Star Seven Yakushi Buddhas. Tōkō-in, Chiba Prefecture.

Fig. 29 Guardian deity. Tōkō -in, Chiba Prefecture.

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Tsuda Tetsuei 193

Fig. 30 Rokujikyō Mandala from Besson-zakki. Ninna-ji, Kyoto.

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