A PREVENTION SCIENCE FRAMEWORK
AIMED AT DELINQUENCY
Tracy W. Harachi, M.S.W., Ph.D.*
For over ten years the U.S. has had theunfortunate and dubious distinction of
being a leader in terms of having thehighest rates of serious violent crime inc o m p a r is o n to o th e r i nd u st ri a liz e dnations. It is one of the most violent
countries by a factor of four. A census of
U.S . prisons showed that there w ere
1,284,894 people incarcerated at the endof 1999 in our correctional system. The
incarceration rate has more than tripled
since 1980. Between 1990 and mid-year
1999, the incarcerated population grew
an average 5.7% annually. This increase,in part, reflects changes in policies thath ave s oug ht to r ein for c e pu ni tiv em easures. So me state s have p asse dlegislation such as the “Three Strikes”
effort that stipulates that anyone who
commits three felonies will be
automatically sentenced to life in prison.
Projections suggest that the U.S. prison
population will only continue to grow andindustries involving prison construction
and management are burgeoning.
Are solutions such as “Three Strikes”
effective? Greenwood and others at the
Rand Corporation (1996) did an analysis
o f the c os t sa v ing s a ss oc ia t ed w ith
different prevention approaches (pre- andpost-natal home visits, parent training,
graduation incentives, intensive
supervision of adjudicated delinquents)
and the “Three Strikes” law in California.
They com pared the costs of eachintervention and examined the millions of* Social Development Research Group,
School of Social Work,
University of Washington,
Seattle, Washington, USA

dollars that w ould be averted by the
reduction in serious crimes. Costs
associated with “Three Strikes” are $5.5
billion a ye ar in C a lifo rnia and are
expected to reduce serious crime by about
21%. Reductions in crime are expected tobe less with the other preventive
approaches, 15% for grad uation
incentives and 10% for other approaches,
however because of their lower cost—
approximately $1 billion annually forgradua tion in cen tiv es an d pa ren t
training, this study suggested that for
one-fifth of the investment—graduation
initiatives and parent training can reduce
as much crime as the “Three Strikes”
initia tive. In addition to graduationin ce n t ive s a n d p a re n t in g t ra in in g,
another preventive strategy, intensive
supervision of adjudicated delinquents,
also com pares favorably in costeffectiveness with the “Three Strikes”
law. It’s important to note that the study
did not take into account future costsavings that may occur as a result of
these preventive efforts.
T hi s is j us t o ne ill us tra tio n tha t
underscores the legitimacy of prevention
in the area of crime and delinquency. It’s
important to note that prevention efforts
are not meant to replace treatment andaftercare efforts, but should be viewed as
a viable and legitimate component withina continuum of care model. In 1993, theInstitute of Medicine convened a numberof experts to examine state of prevention
science to reduce the risks for mental
disorders. This resulted in a hallmark
report that described the knowledge baseof prevention science and the emergenceof a new paradigm (IOM, 1994). Further,183

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 59
it specified a new classification scheme
for prevention that illustrates different
types of prevention strategies to add toour spectrum of care. These three types
are universal, selective and indicatedprevention. Universal prevention
includes those strategies that shouldb e ne f it t he g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n . A ne xam ple o f a universal prevention
strategy in the area of dental health is
the addition of fluoride into drinking
water. Selective prevention strategies
targe t pop ula tions at higher risk o fdeveloping a disorder. A prenatal
programme targeting low income mothers
who are higher risk for low birthweightinf ants is an e xam ple of a selective
programme. I ndicated prevention
strategies target p opulations which
a lready dem onstrate early or initial
symptoms of the disorder. An example ofan indicated strategy includes weekly
children’s group sessions to enhancesocial skills for aggressive kindergarten
boys. Universal strategies reflect theearliest prevention component in thecontinuum of care model followed by
selective strategies. As one moves beyond
the next tier of indicated prevention, one
moves into case identification and thetreatme nt of a disorder. Beyond
treatment, our continuum of care model
includes maintenance components whichseek rehabilitation and the reduction of
relapse. The IO M report reflects thegrowing attention that is being focused on
prevention science and the increased
legitimacy that it is earning.
Prevention science draws in principle
from a public health model. A publichealth framework initially defines the
problem and then identifies risk andprotective factors associated with the
problem. Take for example the problem ofc ardiovasc ular disease. Ex ten sive
research has been conducted to examine
the prevalence and incide nce of184

cardiovascular disease within various
populations, to determine the age inwhich rates of the disease increase and tounderstand how the disease develops.
Further, decades of research now haveidentified risk factors such as a family
history of heart disease, smoking, andhigh le vels of cholestero l w hich a reassociated with an increased risk ofcardiovascular problems. Conversely, a
he althy die t and exercise have bee nshown to be protective factors that buffer
the negative effects of risk factors. In
addition to defining the problem, a public
h e a l th f r a m e w o r k h e l p s us s p e c if yinterventions to reduce the identified risk
factors and to promote protective factors
and lastly, to evaluate our efforts.
It’s important to acknowledge that thepresence of risk factors does not imply
that one will develop the disease rather itsuggests an increased “likelihood”. Eachof us may have personal examples ofacquaintances whom have multiple risk
factors associated with cardiovasculardisease yet these individuals appear togrow old without any apparent incidenceof the disease. This underscores the needto understand and investigate protective
factors. Protective factors mediate ormoderate the negative effects of risk
factors.
The public health model can be utilized
in the area of delinquency prevention andb eg in b y d ef i ning t he p ro b l e m. T he
National Youth Study by Del Elliot showsthat the prevalence of violent offenders at
age 12, 13, and 14 is low, 10–15%. The
prevalence of violent offenders rises
during late adolescence to 25–35% by age
17, and then declines back to the 10–15%
level by a ge 21. T his age dep endent
quadratic trend is common across the lateadolescent and young adulthood periods
for a variety of delinquent activities. We
also know from Moffitt’s research from

118TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSE
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New Zealand, the U.K. and the U.S. that
there are two groups or two types ofserious violent offenders. One groupbegins their violent behavior at ages 15–
17 and contributes to the increase inprevalence, but few of these offenders
persist in their behavior. On the other
hand, another group that begins their
violent behavior earlier by age 12 is themost likely to persist in violent behavior,including into adulthood. In terms ofgeneral delinquency, we find that among
boys, early aggression and shy behaviorb etw een ag es 4 –6 is a s ign ifi ca nt
predictor of later conduct problems anddelinquency. Further, we see an
e s c a l a t io n o f b e h a v i o r f r o m m i n o r
p r o b le m b eh a v io r a t a g e 7 le a d s t omoderately serious behavior at ages 9–10,
serious delinquency by age 12 and initial
contact with the juvenile justice system
by age 14.

the relationship be demonstrated
longitudinally. Specifically the study
must have measured the risk factor at
one point in time a nd mea sured theadolescent problem at a later point. This
has resulted in a compilation of risk
factors associated not only withdelinquency and youth violence, but otheradolescent problem behaviors such as
drug use, school drop-out and teenage
pregnancy (see for example Hawkins,
Catalano, & Miller, 1992). What’s notable
is that there is significant overlap in risk
factors across problem outcomes.

The empirical evidence that describes
the problem of delinquency and violence
has important implications forprevention. This evidence suggests that
there are developmental periods in which
the opportunity for preventive efforts ismore salient. On the one hand,
prevention efforts may seek to target
aggressive and shy boys to derail what
appears to be a developmental trajectory
into delinq ue ncy. A nother p otential
target would be delaying the onset ofviolent behavior in early adolescence tod is c o u r a g e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h epersistent violent offender.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Over the last two decades, a growing
body of research has identified a numberof risk factors associated withd e l in q u e n c y , a n d o t h e r a d o l e s c e n t
problem behaviors. In order for a trait tobe identified by our criteria, there mustbe published evidence that a factor isc o ns i st e nt l y r e l a te d to th e p ro b le mbehavior across multiple studies and that

Risk factors reside in multiple domains
ranging from community level, school,
family and individual and peer. The
community environment in which a childdevelop s can a ffe ct their cha nce s ofdeveloping a problem through contextual
factors such as:Firearm and drug availability
Community laws and norms
Community disorganization
Media portrayals of violence
Transition and mobility
Low neighborhood attachment
Economic deprivation

F ire a rm a v a i l a b i l i t y a n d f ir ea r mhomicide have increased together since
the late 1950s. Laws regulating the saleof firearms have had small effects onviolent crime that may diminish after thelaw has been in effect for multiple years.
In addition, laws that include penalties
for using a firearm in the commission of acrim e have also been related toreductions in the amount of violent crime
involving firearms. A number of studies
suggest that the small and sometimes
diminishing effect of firearm laws is dueto two factors, the availability of firearms
from other jurisdictions without legal
prohibitions on sales or illegal access, andcommunity norms that include a lack of

185

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 59
proactive monitoring or enforcement oflaws.
Neighborhoods with high populationd ensity, lo w levels of atta chm ent toneighborhood , lack of natural
surveillance of public places, and highrates of adult crime have high rates ofj u ve ni le c r im e . I t ’ s s u gg e s te d th a tneighborhood disorganization contributeto deterioration in the ability ofs oc ializ ing u nits s uc h as c hur ch e s,schools and families to pass on positive
values to children.
There has been a lot of research on theimpact of media violence on boys andgirls. Leonard Eron and others haveshown that short and long-term increases
in violence result from media exposure tov io len ce . T he str on ge st e vid e nc e isavailable for boys.
Rates of problem behavior including
d elinq uency, drug use, and d rop out
increase among adolescents following
school and residential changes. Even
normal transitions between elementaryand middle and middle and high school
are followed by increased rates of problem
behavior. Further, children incommunities characterized by frequentmoves and frequent nonscheduled school
changes are at higher risk ford e li n q u e n c y , d r u g u s e , a n d s c h o o ldropout.
Children from extremely economicallydeprived environments are at four times
higher risk of the problem behaviors. In
the violence area, children from areas
characterized by poverty, poor living
conditions, and high unemployment are
at increased risk of becoming violent inadolescence and young adulthood. While
we don’t know the mechanism specificallyfor violence in poor urban areas, it may bed ue to ex po sur e to m ultip le f a cto rs

186

inc lu di ng pover ty an d poor li vin g
co nditions, racism and lack ofopportunity, that lead to youth
developing a fatalistic outlook. Under
these conditions, deadly forces may be
mo re like ly to be e m ploy ed to solve
problems or settle arguments.
Factors ex pres sed in th e school
environment include:•••

Aggressive behavior
Achievement
Commitment to school

Th ere is co nsistent e vide nce that
identifies boys who are aggressive fromabout age 5 as being at higher risk forproblem behaviors. Additionally, boys
with hyperactivity or shyness along withaggressiveness a re a t an even m oreelevated risk for delinquency, drug abuse,and violence. Both boys and girls who get
involved in antisocial behavior in earlyadolescence,
includingschoolmisbehavior, truancy, skipping classes,
getting into fig hts, or inv olved indelinquent acts are at higher risk forserio us f req ue nt invo lvem en t in a ll
problem behaviors in adolescence.
Academic failure as a risk factor begins
to be operative in m iddle to lateelementary school, and applies to all
problem behaviors. It doesn’t seem to belack of academic ability but rather thee x p e r i e n c e o f f a i l u r e it s e l f t h a t i s
predictive of adolescent problem
behavior. These are the youngsters who
feel that school is not important and do
not care for school.
Experiences in the family that begin to
be salient early in development can also
increase the chances of delinquency.
These include:•

Family history of criminality

118TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSE
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS•••

Family management problems
Family conflict
Family involvement and favorable
attitudes toward crime and drug use

G r o w in g u p in a f a m i ly in wh ic hparents or siblings have a history of the
problem behavior puts a child at risk forthat specific problem behavior.

delinquency and other problem outcomes.
These include:
•
•
•
•
•

Additionally, children in families withpoor management are at higher risk of
p r o b le m b e ha vi o r . T h e r e a r e t h re eimportant characteristics of good family
management or good management ingeneral:1. clear expectations and rationale forbehavior—parents have to know what
they want and let their child knowwhy;
2. good monitoring and supervision of
behavior—if know what you want,
watch and see if you get it; and,3. consistent recognition and consequences—if you see it recognize it andcelebrate it, and if you don’t see it or if
it’s not done up to standards, apply
moderate consistent consequences.
On the other hand, inconsistent discipline and excessively harsh discipline
have been associated w ith higher
risk.
Children raised in families
charact erized b y conflict between
caregivers or caregiver-child conflict are
at increased risk of problem outcomes.
Children exposed to parental violence inor outside the home or whose parents
condone violent activity are at increased
risk of developing aggressive behavior inchildhood and violent behavior inadolescence and young adulthood.
Lastly, there are several factors that
reside at the peer and individual domain
which have been shown to be predictive of

Alienation and rebelliousness
Friends who engage in the problem
behavior
Favorable attitudes
Early initiation in the problem
behavior
Constitutional factors such as impulsiveness and sensation seeking

Child ren who feel they are
marginalized or outside of conventionalsociety are at higher risk for problem
behaviors. Additionally, rebelliousness iscurrently being examined as a risk factor
for violence.
Association with problem peers is astron g and proximate pr edictor of
problem behavior. Even children whogrow up without other risk factors but
associate with those who use drugs, aredelinquent, are violent, are dropouts, arepregna nt are at a higher risk of thespecific problem behavior. However, thegood news is that those who grow up withfewer risk fa ctors a ren’t a s likely to
associate with these types of peers duringadole scence , since individuals are
typically found in the company of peerswith similar behaviors and attitudes.
F a v o r a b l e a tt i tu d e s to w a r d s t h especific behavior enhance the risk ofdeveloping that behavior. Additionally,
several researchers have found that those
who get involved in these behaviors earlyin life are at higher risk for the frequent
occurrences of the specific behavior. Lee
Robins and colleagues found that those
who tried drugs before age 15 almost
doubled their risk of drug abusecompared to those who first tried drugs
after 19.

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RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 59
Lastly, constitutional factors due tobiological or physiological factors (such as
low autonomic nervous system response,
Fetal Alc oh ol Syn dr ome, prenatal
abnormalities or brain trauma) are often
indicated by a behavior such as
sensation-seeking or low impulse control,and increase the risk of proble m
behaviors.
Research continues to be conducted to
update our knowledge and discovery ofother risk factors. Research continues toinvestiga te the extent to which risk
factors are salient across, for example,
different ethnic and cultural groups orgender. Additionally, research is being
c ond ucted to be tte r u nde rstand themechanisms through which the effect ofrisk on to the problem outcome manifests.
Turning now to protective factors,
much of what has been discovered
regarding protective factors is derived
through research conducted with children
exposed to multiple risk factors.
Researchers noted that many of thesechildren were able to avoid later problems
de spite high exposure to risk.
Researchers wanted to investigate whatk e e p s c h il d r e n w h o a r e e x p o se d t om ultip le risk fa ctors, protecte d a nd
motivated to develop healthy lifestyles
and not become involved in adolescentproblem behaviors. Seminal work has
been conducted by Rutter and Werner,and more recently Resnick and Blum, tounderstand the concept of protective
factors. Similar to the criteria used to
identify risk factors, their findings havebeen derived from multiple, longitudinalstudies. It’s critical to acknowledge that
protective factors are not the reverse or
opposite of risk factors. Rather these are
unique factors that mediate or moderate
the effects of risk on to the individual.

188

Protective factors derived from theempirical literature include supportive
relationships and attachment to prosocial
adults and environmental reinforcements
of appropriate coping strategies. At theindividual level, a resilient temperament,
accurate processing of cues, appropriate
problem solving and sense of self-efficacy
have been shown to act as protective
mechanisms against risk.
One theoretical framework thatincorporates the mechanisms ofprotective factors is the Social
Development Strategy (SDS) (Catalano &Hawkins, 1996). The SDS is a guide for
how families, schools, communities andpeer group s can build protective
environm ents for children. The SD S
p o s i t s t h a t b y p r o v i d in g p r o s o c i a lopportunities for involvement, skills for
involvement and rewards or recognition
for involvement, a child will increase hisor her attachment to the corresponding
positive socializing unit such a s thefamily or c lassroom. Bonding to aprosocial entity creates a social control
mechanism that discourages behaviors
w h i c h go a g a i n s t t h e b e l i e f s o f t hesocializing units. Additionally, healthy
standards and clear beliefs increase thelikelihood that the child will develop
healthy behavior.
There is a gre at dea l of e mpirica levidence regarding risk and protective
f a c to r s a s s o c ia t e d w i t h a d o l e s c e n t
problem behaviors that can be applied
within the public health framework. We
know that risk and protective factors
exist in multiple domains ranging fromthe individual and peer to the larger
environmental context of the school,
neighborhood, and community. Many
commo n risk f actors predict diverse
behavior problems. Additionally, researchsugge sts th at the m o re risk f a ctor spresent, the greater the risk, and the

118TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSE
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS
gre ater the likelihood of problem
b eha viors. F urther, risk f actors a reimportant or salient at different points ind e ve lo p m e n t . T h is s u g ge s t s th a t adevelopmental continuum of prevention
p ro gra mm e s f rom pre na ta l thro ughadolescence would be appropriate. We
know that protective factors reduce theeffects of exposure to risk. The greater
the level of protection, the less likelihoodof problem behaviors. It is important to
involve each socialization institution inenhancing protection as children maturefrom family, school, and throughcommunity.
I n summ ary, com munities a nd
p ro gra mm e p rovid ers wo uld be we llserved to develop a logic model thatutilizes the public health framework. A
logic model becomes a road map to specify
the distal target of our efforts, in thisi ns ta n ce , th e r e d uc ti o n in ju ve n il edelinquency. Additionally, it specifies theproximal targets for our intervention
efforts, the risk factors that we seek toreduce and the protective factors that willb e e n h a n c e d . B y f o cu s in g o n t h e s eproximal factors, the logic model guides
u s to sele c t a p p ro p ria te p re ve ntiv eintervention programmes w hich will
target initially the proximal targets andin the long run prevent delinquency.

compliment treatment, as well as in somecases, these preventive efforts provide
both a cost savings and greater efficiency
i n p r e v e n t i n g n e g a t iv e li f e c o u r s e
trajectories.
REFERENCES
Catalano, R.F., & Hawkins, J.D. (1996).
The social development model: A theoryof antisocial behavior. In J. D. Hawkins(Ed.), Delinquency and Crime: Current
Th e o r i e s ( p p . 1 4 9 – 1 9 7 ) . N e w Y o rk :Cambridge University Press.
Hawkins, J.D., Catalano, R.F., & Miller,
J. (1992). Risk and protective factors fora lc oh ol a nd o ther d rug p ro b le m s i nadole scence and early adulthood:
Implications for substance abuse
prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112:
64–105.
Mrazek, P. J. & Haggerty, R. J. (1994).
Reducing Risks for Mental Disorders.
Washington, D.C., Institute of Medicine,National Academy Press.

It’s clear from the increasing levels of
incarceration and high rates of violent
crime in the U.S. that simply focusing on
the treatment and rehabilitation end oft h e c o n t in u u m o f c a r e s p e c tr u m is
insufficient. Borrowing from the field of
public health, prevention science as aparadigm has come of age. There now
exists a significant body of research that
identifies risk and protective factors
associated with delinquency and otherproblem behaviors among adolescents.
These factors provide us with modifiabletargets for preventive interventions that189

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 59
APPENDIX

Cost-Effectiveness of Early
Interventions Compares Favorably withthat of Three Strikes

PublicHealthApproach

Program
Implementation
andEvaluation

300
250

Interventions

Serious 200
CrimesAverted Per 150$Million
Dollars 100

Define the
Problem
Three
StrikesDelinquentSupervision

Graduation
Incentives

ParentTraining

0

Visits &Daycare50

Identify Risk
and Protective
Factors

CONTINUUM OF CARE

Response

ProblemDefine the Problem• What is it’s prevalence?
• When does it begin?
• How does the problem develop?

Types of Prevention• Universal• Example – Fluoride water treatment• Selective• High risk children• Indicated• Children with initial symptoms

190

Violent Offenders• 12-14 years

10-15%• Age 1725-35%• Age 21

10-15%

118TH INTERNATIONAL TRAINING COURSE
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Pattern of Delinquency• Age 4-6 Aggressiveness &shy/withdrawn• Age 7 Minor Problem Behavior• Age 9-10 Moderately Serious
Behavior• Age 12 Serious Delinquency• Age 14 First Contact with Court

Risk Factors Reside in
Multiple Domains• Community• School• Family• Individual / Peer

Risk Factors for Heart Disease

What are Protective Factors?

• Example: Family history of heartdisease• Buffer the effects of risk exposure• Increase likelihood that disease willdevelop• Demonstrate results in multiple studies• Risk factors are associated with heartdisease• Demonstrate results in longitudinalstudies• Not 100% guarantee

V io le n c e

S ch o o l D r o p -O u t

T een Pr egn an cy

D e l in q u e n c y

R isk F ac tor s• Multiple, longitudinal studies haveidentified risk and protective factors thatpredict delinquency, substance abuse, youth
violence, dropout and risky sexual
behaviors.

S u b st a n c e A b u se

Adolescent Problem Behaviors
Research Base to Identify Risk
Factors for Delinquency
C o m m u n it y
A v a ila b ili t y o f D r u g s

A v a ila b ili t y o f F ir e a r m s







C o m m u n it y L a w s a n d N o r m s
F a v o ra b le T o w a rd D r u g U s e,
F i r e a r m s , a n d C r im e

T r a n sit io n s a n d M o b i lit y

L o w N e i g h b o r h o o d A tt a c h m e n t a n d
C o m m u n it y D i so r g a n iz a t io n







E x t r e m e E c o n o m ic
D e p r iv a ti o n



  



M e d ia P o r t r a y a ls o f
V io le n c eUsed by permission of Developmental Research and Programs

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Violence

Teen Pregnancy
School Drop-Out

Risk Factors

Substance Abuse
Delinquency

Adolescent Problem Behaviors

School
Early and Persistent    
Antisocial Behavior
Academic Failure Beginning    in Late Elementary School

Lack of Commitment to
School    

Protective Factors• Family–Supportive relationships–Attachment to prosocial adults• Environmental– Reinforce and support coping

Used by permission of Developmental Research and Programs

V io le n c e

Sch o o l D ro p -O u t

T e en Pr eg n a n c y

D elin q u en c y

R isk Factors

S u b st a n c e A b u se

Adolescent Problem Behaviors

F a m ilyF a m ily H ist o r y o f t h e
P r o b lem B e h a v io r    

F a m ily M a n a g e m e n t
P r o b lem s    

F a m ily C o n f lic t    

F a v o r ab le P a r e n t a l A t t it u d e s
a n d In v o lv e m e n t in t h e P r ob le m 
B e h a v io rProtective Factors• Individual–Resilient temperment–Accurate processing of cues
–Good problem solving–Sense of self-efficacy

Used by permission of Developmental Research and Programs

The Social Development Strategy
Healthy Behaviors

Violence

School Drop-Out

Delinquency
Teen Pregnancy

Risk Factors

Substance Abuse

Adolescent Problem Behaviors

Healthy Beliefs&
Clear Standards

Individual/Peer
Alienation and Rebelliousness
Friends Who Engage in the    
Problem Behavior
Favorable Attitudes Toward   the Problem Behavior
Early Initiation of the    
Problem Behavior
Constitutional Factors Used by permission of Developmental Research and Programs

192

Bonding•Attachment•Commitment

Opportunities

SkillsIndividual
Characteristics

Recognition

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The Social Development Strategy
PublicHealthApproachGang Involvement
Unhealthy Beliefs&
Clear Standards

Interventions

Bonding•Attachment•Commitment

Opportunities

SkillsProgram
Implementation
andand
Evaluation

Recognition

Individual
Characteristics

DefineDefine thethe
Problem

Identify Risk
andand Protective
Protective
Factors

Generalizations About Risk
and Protective Factors• Risk and protective factors are found in
multiple domains• The more risk factors present, the greater
the likelihood of problem behaviors• Protective factors reduce the effects of
exposure to risk

Logic Model
Intervention

Generalizations Continued• Common risk and protective factors predict
diverse behavior problems• Risk and protective factors show muchconsistency in effects across different
groups• Risk and protective factors should be used
to target preventive action

Response

Problem

ProximalTargetProblemTargetLogic Model
Intervention

ProximalTargetProblemTargetParentEducation

Risk Factor:
Family Management

Delinquency

Protective Factor:
Attachment

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Prevention Science Principles• We have empirical evidence of risk andprotective factors that should be targeted by
our intervention efforts.
• Address risk and protective factors at
appropriate developmental stage• Intervene early194