COMPSTAT MANAGEMENT IN THE NYPD:
REDUCING CRIME AND IMPROVING QUALITY OF LIFE
IN NEW YORK CITY
By Dr. Vincent E. Henry*

I. INTRODUCTION
One of the most remarkable stories and most discussed topics in contemporary American law
enforcement and throughout the criminal justice field is the tremendous decline in crime achieved in New
York City since 1993. Indeed, the number and rate of major felony crimes in New York City have declined at
unprecedented rates for the past thirteen consecutive years, and New York City continues to be the safest
large city in the United States (City of New York, Mayor’s Office, of Operations, 2005).
According to New York Police Department (NYPD) figures, the total number of reported crimes for theseven major crime categories declined an unprecedented 65.99% in 2003 from the levels reported in 19931
Only 146,397 of these major crimes occurred in 2003, as compared to 430,460 in 1993, and the 2003 figures
represent the lowest annual number of total complaints for the seven major crimes in well over three
decades. The overall level of crime in New York City - both in terms of the actual number of crimes and rateof crime - is now at its lowest point since 1963.
One of the most remarkable declines occurred in the Murder category, which fell 68.9% between 1993
and 2003 — from 1,927 murders in 1993 to 598 murders in 2003. As depicted in Table 1, the 598 murders
recorded in New York City in 2003 represented more than a 73% decline from 1990, the year homicides
reached their historic peak in New York City with 2,245 murders. Robberies fell 69.8% between 1993 and2003, felony assaults declined 54.3 percent, grand larcenies declined 45.3%, burglaries declined 71.0%, andgrand larceny autos and forcible rapes respectively declined 45.3% and 41.8% (NYPD, 2005).
While final year-end data for 2004 were not available at the time this article was written, NYPD data
demonstrate that crime continued to decrease in 2004. Data for 2004 through December 12 (that is, for the
first fifty weeks of 2004) was available, and it shows that the number of murders in New York City for that
period, as compared to the same fifty-week period in 1993, declined 70.3 percent; the number of reported
Rapes declined 45.7% from the same period in 1993, and Robberies fell 72.1% from the comparable 1993
period. Felony Assaults dropped 56.3%. In terms of property crimes, the data shows that Burglaries fell
73.6%; Grand Larcenies declined 44.6%, and Grand larceny-Auto (i.e., motor vehicle thefts) plummeted an
astounding 81.8%. The total number of reported crimes for these seven major crime categories fell 67.82%
for the first fifty weeks or 2004 as compared to the first fifty weeks of 1993.
According to the FBI’s Uniform Crime Report (UCR) data for 2003 (FBI, 2005), New York City’s rate ofIndex Crimes per 100,000 population ranked 211th of the 230 American cities with a population over
100,000 in 2003. This showed a great improvement over the first 6 months of 1996, when New York City
* Associate Professor, Long Island University, Homeland Security Management Institute.
1 The seven crimes that collectively comprise the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI) Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)
Index are Murder and Non-Negligent Manslaughter, Forcible Rape, Robbery, Aggravated Assault, Burglary, Larceny-Theft,
and Motor Vehicle Theft. The total number of reported crimes in these categories comprise the UCR Index; the crimes of
Manslaughter and Non-Negligent manslaughter, Forcible Rape, Robbery, and Aggravated Assault comprise the UCR Violent
Crime Index subset; and the total number of reported crimes in the Burglary, Larceny-Theft, and Motor Vehicle Theft
categories comprise the UCR Property Crimes Index subset. UCR data, which are based on offence categories and definitions
collected from police agencies in all fifty of the United States, provide a basis for comparing data across jurisdictions and they
are slightly different than the New York State Penal Law crime definitions utilized by the NYPD’s Compstat system. Although
the UCR definitions and the New York State Penal Law definitions vary slightly, the differences are slight and the two
measures are roughly comparable.

100129TH INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINAR
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS

ranked 144th, and a vast improvement over the comparable 1993 period, when it ranked 87th of 181 large
cities. By way of comparison, St. Louis’s crime rate in 1999 was 240% higher than New York’s; Orlando’s
was 238% higher; Atlanta’s was 229% higher; Flint, Michigan’s was 164% higher; Salt Lake City’s was 151%
higher; Washington, D.C.’s was almost 94% higher; and Denver’s was almost 30% higher than New York
City’s 1999 crime rate (City of New York, Mayor’s Office, 2000).
Among the ten largest American cities, New York’s rate of 4,291.8 total Index crimes per 100,000
population ranked it tenth - the safest. Such ‘big ten’ cities as San Diego (4,237.6 Index crimes per 100,000),
Los Angeles (4,819.2), Philadelphia (5,450.2), Las Vegas (5,783.3), Houston (7,056.5), San Antonio (7,548.7),
Phoenix (7,654.8), Detroit (8,683.4) and Dallas (9,244.2) have total Index crime rates exceeding New York’s,
and it should be noted that five of those cities have Index crime rates more than double New York’s (City of
New York, Mayor’s Office, of Operations, 2005).
It should also be clearly noted how favourably New York City’s rate of major offences per 100,000
population compares to that measure of crime in Japan and in other highly industrialized and urbanizednations. While it is notoriously difficult to make fair and objective comparisons using international crime
data, figures obtained from a statistical compendium issued by Japan’s Ministry of Internal Affairs andCommunications (Japan in Figures, 2005) show that Japan as a nation experienced a rate of 2,187 major
offences per 100,000 population in 2003. The crime rate for major offences in France is reported at 6,880 per
100,000, the crime rate in Germany is reported at 7,736 per 100,000, the crime rate in the United Kingdom
is reported at 10,608 per 100,000, and the rate for the United States as a whole is reported at 4,161 per
100,000 (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, 2005). New York City’s crime rate of 4,291.8 total
UCR Index crimes per 100,000 population is thus about double the rate for Japan, but considerably lower
than the rate for any of the other highly industrialized and urbanized nations cited.
The FBI’s UCR statistics show that crime has been falling in large American cities across the nation overthe past few years, but New York City’s decline in reported crime has been significantly greater - in all crime
categories - than the national or major city averages. New York City’s crime decline not only has surpassed
the national average reduction but actually pulled the national averages down. Between 1993 and 1999, forexample, the UCR data show that the number of murders and non-negligent manslaughters occurring in U.S.
cities with a population over 100,000 (excluding New York City) fell 37%, whereas these crimes fell 66% in
New York City. The 36% drop in New York City’s aggravated assaults was nearly twice the national average
decline (19%). Robberies in these cities fell 35% between 1993 and 2000, but fell 58% in New York City.
New York City’s decline in the forcible rape category (40%) was more than double the decline in other cities(17%), and New York City’s 59% decline in burglary was also more than twice the national average decline(26%). New York City’s 65% reduction in motor vehicle thefts over this period was more than double the
24% national decline, and its 40% drop in larceny theft was almost quadruple the national big-city decline of
11%. While the overall Total Index Crime in cities with a population over 100,000 (excluding New York City)
fell 17% between 1993 and 1999, New York City’s Total Index Crime reduction was an astounding 50.1%(City of New York, Mayor’s Office, 2000).
Murder is often regarded as the bell-wether crime, insofar as its seriousness and the degree of violence
associated with it captures the public imagination. Here again, New York has achieved remarkablereductions. Of the ten largest American cities, New York’s murder rate of 7.4 murders per 100,000
population ranks third - slightly behind San Antonio (7.1 per 100,000) and San Diego (5.1 per 100,000). The
fourth and fifth-ranked cities in this category, Los Angeles and Houston, respectively had 2003 murder rates(13.4 per 100,000 and 13.6 per 100,000) nearly double that of New York. The disparity in 2003 murder rates
increases dramatically when we compare New York to the remaining ‘big ten’ cities of Phoenix (17.2), Dallas(18.2), Chicago (20.4), Philadelphia (22.8), and Detroit (38.0). Thus the actuarial probability of being
murdered in the three cities in this category with the highest murder rates are, respectively, 2.75 times, 3.1
times, and 5.1 times that of the probability of being murdered in New York (City of New York, Mayor’s
Office, of Operations, 2005).
The quality of life enjoyed by those who visit and live in New York City has also improved tremendously
over the past decade, and there is a palpable positive change in the sense of safety and civility throughout
the city. The vastly improved quality of life, in conjunction with tremendous decline in serious crime, has
dramatically improved the city’s public image. Although quality-of-life indicators are much more difficult toquantify than reported crimes, it is clear that New Yorkers see less graffiti, encounter fewer hooligans with101

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No.68

loud “boom-box” radios, and are far less frequently accosted by aggressive panhandlers and “squeegee
pests” than they were just a few years ago. Not only do New Yorkers have a much lower actuarial likelihoodof becoming a crime victim, but they feel safer as well.
One quantifiable indicator of improved quality of life in New York is the steadily-decreasing number andrate of arrests for narcotics offences, since these data typically represent the impact of sustained police
attention in reducing the number of narcotics dealers operating on the city’s streets. In Fiscal Year 2000, the
NYPD effected a total of 136,647 arrests (39,414 Felonies, 96,050 Misdemeanours, and 1,183 minor
Violations) for narcotics offences. These figures declined to 122,253 total narcotics arrests in FY 2001
(36,289 Felonies, 84,683 Misdemeanours, and 1,281 minor Violations), 99,970 total narcotics arrests in FY
2002 (27,745 Felonies, 71,442 Misdemeanours, and 783 minor Violations), and 103,356 total narcotics
arrests in FY 2003 (27,725 Felonies, 74,867 Misdemeanours, and 764 minor Violations). In FY 2004, the
NYPD effected 96,965 total narcotics arrests, including 26,161 Felonies, 70,140 Misdemeanours, and 664
minor Violations (City of New York, Mayor’s Office, of Operations, 2005).
Another indicator of enhanced public safety and improved quality of life in New York City is the numberof crimes taking place within schools, and here again, significant declines have been realized. There were1,778 reported Index crimes in schools in FY 2000, 1,575 in FY 2001, 1,341 in FY 2002, 1,214 in FY 2004,
and 1,365 reported Index crimes in FY 2004. The number of gang-related criminal incidents reported to thepolice declined by almost two thirds between FY 2000, when 1,763 such incidents were reported, and FY
2004, when only 611 gang-related criminal incidents were reported (City of New York, Mayor’s Office, of
Operations, 2005).
A host of empirical data and anecdotal evidence illustrate the remarkable changes that have taken placein New York City over the past decade, and in large measure these remarkable changes are the result of arevolution in the way the NYPD conducts its business. In this relatively brief period the NYPD has
transformed itself from a rather passive and reactive agency that lacked energy and focus to an agency that
responds quickly and strategically to crime and quality-of-life trends with an unprecedented vigour.
Emerging patterns of crime and quality-of-life problems are identified virtually as they occur, and once they
are identified the NYPD reacts immediately and aggressively to address them and does not diminish its
efforts until the problem is solved. The NYPD uses timely and accurate intelligence to identify emerging
problems, swiftly deploys personnel and other resources to bring a comprehensive array of effective tactics
to bear on the problem, and relentlessly follows up and assesses results to ensure that the problem is truly
solved. This revolution in the way the NYPD conducts its business is the result of a radically new andthoroughly dynamic police management process known as Compstat.
The Compstat process has attracted a great deal of attention in the local, national, and international media
as well as the attention of police practitioners and academics in the criminal justice field. Perhaps because of
the many misconceptions and misinterpretations that often surround it, Compstat is one of the most talkedabout issues in the field of policing today, and many prominent criminal justice academicians and police
leaders are convinced that the innovative and strategic problem-solving processes developed and refined in
the NYPD over the past several years are primarily responsible for New York City’s falling crime rates(Kelling, 1995; Kelling & Coles, 1996; Silverman, 1998, 1999). This conviction on the part of a growing
number of criminal justice academics and police leaders is evident in the rapid development and growth ofCompstat-based management systems in American police agencies - especially in the agencies that haveseen the greatest decline in crime. This attention and optimism has not been limited to police and academic
criminology circles, however. The NYPD’s revolutionary management control and problem-solving
processes have been described in feature articles in Business Week, Forbes, the Economist, the Wall Street
Journal, Newsweek, and a host of other electronic and print media outlets that do not typically cover issues
related to police management. Compstat and the new style of results-oriented police management it
engenders speaks not only to its effectiveness in reducing crime and improving quality of life, but to theapplicability of Compstat management principles in organizations and industries beyond policing. Compstat’s
influence is also evidenced by the tremendous number of police executives and academicians who havevisited the NYPD to study its innovative management methods and problem-solving activities.
Because it is such an effective and successful management tool, Compstat was named one of fiverecipients of the prestigious Innovations in American Government Awards in 1996. This prestigious award,
conferred jointly by the Ford Foundation and Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government,

102

129TH INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINAR
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS

selected Compstat from among 1,500 applicant programmes nationwide as one of the five most innovativeand successful initiatives at any level of American government. The Innovations in American Government
programme’s Web site describes how Compstat involves an interplay of technology, communication, andorganizational change, noting that Compstat is:a system that allows police to track crime incidents almost as soon as they occur. Included isinformation on the crime, the victim, the time of day the crime took place, and other details thatenable officials to spot emerging crime patterns. The result is a computer-generated map
illustrating where and when crime is occurring citywide. With this high-tech “pin-mapping”
approach, the police can quickly identify trouble spots and then target resources to fight crime
strategically. (Innovations in American Government, 1996)
Although other police agencies are now using computers to map crime and improve crime-fighting
strategies and methods, the NYPD took one other essential step by undertaking a major management
overhaul that brought the city’s 76 precinct commanders and top departmental management closer together,enhancing and devolving power, authority, accountability and discretion throughout the organization. This
process knocked down traditional walls between patrol officers, detectives, and narcotics investigators that
inhibited communication, establishing new avenues and new imperatives for sharing crime strategies andcriminal intelligence information. In an agency where isolation, ‘turf protection,’ and the hoarding of
information previously reigned, the NYPD now holds weekly management meetings that bring together abroad spectrum of police officials to intensely review the computer-generated crime data and to strategize
new ways to cut crime in specific locations. At these meetings, local commanders and middle managers areheld highly accountable for their crime-fighting activities by executives who require them to report on steps
they have taken to reduce crime as well as their plans to correct specific crime and quality of life conditions.
Also essential to the Compstat process are continual follow-up and assessment of results. Finally, building on
its Community Policing orientation, a variety of interested parties ranging from school safety officials toprosecutors are invited to attend and participate in order to help fashion a comprehensive and highly focused
response in crime-ridden areas.
Despite the many accolades and attention it has received, Compstat has also been greatly misunderstoodas a management system. Compstat has been variously portrayed as a high-pressure meeting between
executives and middle managers, as a technology system, as a computer programme, and as a system forsharing important management information. The fact that the Compstat management style involves all ofthese things (and a great deal more) may account for some of the misconceptions that surround it.
It should be clearly understood that Compstat, per se, is a management process through which the NYPD
identifies problems and measures the results of its problem-solving activities. Compstat involves meetings
between executives and managers and uses computer-based technology and other technology systems, butthese elements are simply components in a much larger system or paradigm of management that has taken
hold in the NYPD and, more recently, in other law enforcement and criminal justice agencies. Compstat
meetings have been a key element in crime reduction, but they are only the tip of the iceberg - a great deal
more goes on behind the scenes to achieve these unprecedented crime reductions and improvements in
New York’s quality of life. Without this fundamental transformation in the NYPD’s organizational structure,
culture, and mind-set, the crime reductions and quality of life improvements could never have beenachieved.
Strong political support and coordination among other Criminal Justice agencies in New York City havealso enhanced Compstat’s intrinsic effectiveness as a management tool. Compstat meetings and Compstat
technology are two facets of a comprehensive and carefully orchestrated array of management strategies andpractices that were implemented throughout the NYPD and other criminal justice agencies to achieve theseeffective and dramatic results.
Agencies of government - especially criminal justice agencies - should never be conceived of as operating
independent of other agencies. Within the criminal justice enterprise, police agencies regularly and flexiblyinteract with prosecutors, courts, corrections, and probation and parole agencies, and to some extent each ofthese agencies and all of their personnel are interdependent. If a serious breakdown of communications
occurs, or if necessary resources and activities in any sphere of the criminal justice enterprise are notforthcoming, the entire system of justice administration could grind to a halt. In this way, criminal justice103

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No.68

must properly be viewed as an enterprise of government involving the coordinated interaction of numerous
spheres of interest, function, and responsibility, rather than as a complex of separate and relatively
autonomous agencies each independently pursuing its own goals and agendas.
A schematic depiction of all the lines of communication and interaction among these agencies would
resemble a web, with multiple interconnecting lines extending from each agency to every other agency. A
great deal of the increased efficiency and effectiveness of the criminal justice enterprise in New York City
over the past several years can be credited to the coordination and direction provided by the Giuliani andBloomberg mayoral administrations, which used their influence over agencies to facilitate enhanced
interaction and to achieve results. What was once simply a web of interconnecting lines has come toresemble a network of complementary policies, practices, and strategies that combine to make the criminal
justice enterprise in New York City reach a new level of effectiveness.
A simple example of the need for cooperation and coordination among agencies might be when a police
department plans to conduct a major crackdown on those driving while intoxicated (DWI) over a holiday
weekend. If the police agency arrests a large number of violators but the agencies responsible for detaining,prosecuting, arraigning, and arranging for pre-trial release of arrestees do not have sufficient staff on hand,the police department will encounter serious problems that may backlog the entire system for an extended
period. Prior coordination, cooperation, and communication ensure that the system operates with greater
efficiency and effectiveness.
One of the most important reasons why Compstat has functioned so well to reduce crime and improve
the quality of life in New York City - that is, to make the criminal justice enterprise operate as it should - isthat it has enjoyed strong political support. Prior to 1994, mayor David Dinkins presided over a city in which
record-breaking levels of crime and disorder were seen, despite an intensive effort to introduce a vision ofCommunity Policing as the dominant philosophy within the NYPD. Crime and public disorder were major
campaign issues in the 1993 mayoral election campaigns, and at the beginning of 1994 newly elected mayor
Rudolph Giuliani’s administration accepted as its mandate the public’s demand for a reduction in crime and a
restoration of order and civility in a city that appeared to be out of control.

II. THE NYPD’S MANDATE FOR CHANGE
Giuliani appointed William Bratton, the highly regarded former chief of the New York City Transit Police2
and several police agencies in his native Boston, as police commissioner. Bratton immediately set aboutrousing the department’s executive corps from their bureaucratic malaise, replacing all but one of the
NYPD’s five top chiefs in the first few weeks of his administration and assembling a top-notch staff of fairly
young but well-seasoned executives who were aggressive risk takers (Bratton, 1998b; Krauss, 1994;
McQuillan, 1994). Bratton immediately set the tone for the NYPD’s new direction and new mission,
announcing his intention to achieve significant crime reductions within his first year in office. Conscientious
and dedicated officers who had been frustrated with the old management cadre’s complacency and passivity
toward increasing crime welcomed new leadership that sought to join them in an aggressive struggle toreduce crime and improve the quality of life throughout New York City.
Bratton and the new executive cadre he assembled immediately made it clear that middle managers particularly precinct commanders - would be given greater authority, discretion, and organizational power at
the same time they would be held more highly accountable for these and other resources they were given.
Empowering middle managers and an emphasis on quality-of-life enforcement proved to be essential factors
in the NYPD’s transformation. Just two weeks after the new administration took office in January 1994, asenior police planning officer commented in the New York Times that the new administration would give
precinct commanders “direct control over resources to carry out enforcement operations, to address chronic
crime locations and suppress the low-level irritants to their communities” (Krauss, 1994, p. B3).
When weekly Crime Control and Quality of Life Strategy Meetings - which became known informally as
Compstat meetings - were introduced in January 2004, they were used to identify individual managers’
2 At that time, the Transit Police was a separate agency under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority

rather than the City of New York. Similarly, the Housing Police Department operated under the aegis of the New York City
Housing Authority. The Transit and Housing Police Departments were merged with the NYPD in 1995.

104

129TH INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINAR
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS

strengths and weaknesses, and how effectively they managed their personnel and other resources to reduce
crime. These Crime Control and Quality of Life Strategy Meetings evolved quickly into highly refinedmanagement accountability sessions as new technology, new forms of statistical analysis, and new crime
mapping technology were introduced. The quantity and quality of accountability achieved at these weekly
Compstat meetings permitted executives to identify which managers were performing poorly and should be
replaced, just as it identified the high performers who should be promoted and given additional
responsibility. Within the new administration’s first year, more than two thirds of the department’s 76
precinct commanders were replaced - either by moving them to positions more suited to their less assertive
management style or by promoting them to more challenging positions (Bratton, 1998b; Silverman, 1996).
The strategy was to match up particular positions with the commanders who had the requisite skills,
experience, expertise, and personality to manage them proficiently.
The shake-up was calculated to reverse the lethargy, passivity, and drift that had previously characterized
the NYPD’s executives and middle managers, and the new management team immediately began toarticulate and demonstrate that the NYPD could achieve unprecedented levels of performance (Buntin,
1999; Chetkovitch, 2000a, 2000b, 2000c).
One of the first substantive steps toward reducing crime was to develop a system for rapidly collecting,analyzing, and disseminating information about the incidence and spatial distribution of crime, and this effort
resulted in the development of the Compstat management system. Until the advent of Compstat, the NYPD
had no functional system in place to rapidly and accurately capture crime statistics or use them for strategicplanning. Crime statistics were often three to six months old by the time they were compiled and analyzed,
and the methods used to analyze them were rudimentary at best. Six-month-old crime data are of little use
to any police executive because they say nothing about when and where crimes are occurring today, and theycannot be used to develop strategies and tactics that will have immediate impact. Crime patterns andproblems had months to take hold before they could be identified and addressed. The fact that NYPD
executives in previous administrations never bothered or never saw a compelling need to get accurate andtimely crime intelligence is emblematic of the overall lassitude and lack of concern that characterized manyof the agency’s managers (Henry, 2002).
This is not to say that every member of the NYPD’s management cadre was timid, indecisive, or
unconcerned with effectively addressing the kind of crime and quality-of-life issues that plagued the city.
Indeed, the agency had many fine and highly skilled managers, but it was only when a sufficient number ofthese less-effective managers were weeded out or marginalized that an important shift could take place
within the agency’s management culture. Once the indecisive, unimaginative, and ineffective managers wereidentified and removed or neutralized - largely through the interactions and accountability for performance
taking place at the weekly Crime Control and Quality of Life Strategy meetings that began to take place inJanuary 2004 - the number and percentage of the strong managers who were most capable of leading thedepartment reached a critical mass, and the inept managers no longer impeded the agency’s progress.
Substantive change required a new management coalition dedicated to reducing crime as well as
substantial empowerment of middle managers. Earlier attempts at implementing Community Policing
sought to empower beat officers - the individuals at the very bottom of the organizational hierarchy who had
the lowest rank and the least legitimate power in the organization - but the failure of that particular
Community Policing vision to achieve significant measurable results, to reduce crime, or to enhance theagency’s overall effectiveness illuminated the need to expand the power of middle managers. In the new
regime, power, discretion, and authority were decentralized and pushed down the organizational pyramidfrom headquarters executives to precinct and operational commanders in the field. Bratton (1996) explained
his rationale for devolving power from top executives to those at the middle of the organization and rank
structures:
I gave away many of my powers not — as my predecessors wanted — to the cop on the beat, butrather to the precinct commander. I did not want to give more power to the cops on the beat. They
were, on the average, only 22 years of age. Most of them never held a job before becoming New
York City police officers, and had only high school or GED qualification. These kids, after six
months of training, were not prepared to solve the problems of New York City; sorry, but it just was
not going to work that way. However, my precinct commanders typically had an average of 15 yearsof service, and they were some of the best and the brightest on the police force. All of them were

105

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No.68

college educated; all were very sophisticated; and they were at the appropriate level in theorganization to which power should be decentralized.
My form of Community Policing, therefore . . . put less emphasis on the cop on the beat and much
more emphasis on the precinct commanders, the same precinct commanders who met with
community councils and with neighbourhood groups. They were empowered to decide how many
plain clothes officers to assign, how many to put in Community Policing, on bicycle patrols, and inrobbery squads. They were empowered to assign officers as they saw fit — in uniform or in plain
clothes — to focus on the priorities of that neighbourhood. . . . Whatever was generating the fear in
their precinct, they were empowered to address it by prioritizing their responses. We decentralized
the organization, and I eliminated a few levels in the organization of the force and in the hierarchy as
well.
Achieving a critical mass of dedicated, decisive, and innovative managers revitalized the agency’s
management culture, and was akin to what Malcolm Gladwell (1995, 2000) has called a “tipping point.” This
concept of “tipping points,” a term Gladwell borrowed from epidemiology, also helps explain why the
NYPD’s strategic and highly focused use of quality-of-life enforcement led so quickly to such dramatic crime
declines. The tipping point concept involves the idea that some social phenomena (including, according to
Gladwell, some forms of crime and social disorder) behave like infectious agents: the frequency of these
phenomena increases in a gradual and linear fashion until they reach a certain critical mass or threshold (a“tipping point”), when they explode in an epidemic. Gladwell noted (Lester, 2000) that James Q. Wilson andGeorge Kelling’s (1982) “broken windows” theory is fundamentally a tipping point argument, and he pointed
out that the key to controlling crime is to reduce the frequency of quality of life offences to withinmanageable limits-below the tipping point that made crime explode (Gladwell, 1995, 2000). This isessentially what the NYPD did in its strategic and highly focused enforcement efforts-efforts that werelargely based in the Compstat process and in its capacity to develop timely and accurate crime intelligenceas well as to direct the rapid deployment of personnel to address emerging crime and quality-of-life issues.
This new mandate to assertively address crime and disorder was the impetus for the revolutionary
Compstat process, and within a few weeks the first affirmative steps were taken to develop appropriatetechnology systems, policies, and practices that would ultimately and permanently transform the way the
NYPD looked at and responded to crime and disorder problems (Buntin, 1999; Chetkovitch, 2000a, 2000b,
2000c).
Eli Silverman (1996) succinctly summarized and described the Compstat process, its emphasis on rapidly
compiling, analyzing, and using crime statistics to manage crime problems, and its impact on the NYPD’soperational mind-set. He notes thatthe most significant aspect of the department’s organizational changes within the past few years has
been the process known as Compstat. . . . Compstat was originally a document, referred to as theCompstat book, which included current year-to-date statistics for criminal complaints, arrests for
major felony categories and gun violations, compiled on a citywide, patrol borough and precinct
basis. The initial versions of the Compstat book, which improved steadily over time with regard to
overall sophistication and degree of detail, developed from a computer file called “Compare Stats,”
hence Compstat. . . .
Compstat, through the weekly headquarters meetings, provides the dynamics for precinct andborough accountability, and an arena for testing the mettle of field commanders. As a management
tool, Compstat melds upgraded quantitative information on crime locations and times with police
deployment arrangements and qualitative quality-of-life information. Precinct problem-solving canbe weighed against available resources, and the responsibilities, information-sharing and interactionof different department units can be gauged.
According to Silverman, the establishment of Compstat meant that “for the first time in the agency’s long
history, key members of the organization began gathering each week to examine various sources of crime
information at a meeting devoted solely to the issue of reducing crime and improving the quality of life
enjoyed by New York City’s residents”.

106

129TH INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINAR
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS

III. COMPSTAT: A NEW MANAGEMENT PARADIGM
Compstat meetings and Compstat technology are management tools that an increasing number ofAmerican police agencies are employing to great effect within a radically new and potentially revolutionary
management paradigm. Compstat is a revolutionary method of police management because it involves afundamental shift in an agency’s management paradigm and because, after its origination in the NYPD and
implementation in several other municipal police agencies, it began to spread rapidly across the landscape ofAmerican police management (Henry, 2002).
The terms revolution and paradigm are used here in the same sense that scientific historian Thomas
Kuhn (1970) applied them when he addressed the idea of revolutions in science and scientific thought.
Paradigms are a sort of mind-set or a collection of organizing principles and fundamental viewpoints aroundwhich we organize our basic understanding of the world. Paradigms can be compared to ideologies, belief
systems, philosophical principles, or cognitive models that shape our understanding of something, andbecause they determine the kind of problems and issues we consider important as well as the way weapproach the problems, they influence our behaviour as well. In terms of management, a paradigm is a sortof general point of view about human nature and human behaviour and about how human organizations
operate. It also prescribes the management issues we deem most important and the way we approach theirresolution. Our paradigm or outlook on management determines the kind of results we seek to achieve as
well as the methods and tools we use to achieve them.
Kuhn (1970) pointed out that under ordinary conditions, new technological innovations, new knowledge,
and new insights increase gradually within the prevailing paradigm’s limiting boundaries. In the case ofpolicing, most police executives and managers were guided by one or both of the paradigms prescribed bywhat have been referred to as the Professional Model and the Community Policing Model. Like scientists,
police executives are generally guided by the paradigms they follow, and because they accept the paradigm’s
basic assumptions and propositions they seldom venture far from them to intellectually consider orexperiment with dramatically new ideas. Scientific revolutions occur, Kuhn explained, when paradigms shift
radically or when a new paradigm emerges and more effectively explains some scientific phenomenon. As
other scientists begin to operate within the new paradigm, they stretch the boundaries of knowledge anddevelop new theories and new technology based on the paradigm.
As evidenced by the continual increase in crime across American jurisdictions from the late 1950s andearly 1960s until the advent of the Compstat paradigm in New York in the mid-1990s, the Professional
Model and Community Policing Model paradigms that approach police managers and executives adopted tofight crime were not highly effective. Generally speaking, in the agencies that subscribe to the traditional
Professional Model or the more recently evolved Community Policing paradigms, police executives andmanagers continue to take approaches that are not very different from what they and others have done in thepast. Because they continue to operate within narrow management paradigms that generally do not
encourage innovation and generally do not strive to stretch the potential boundaries of performance, many ofthese police executives must be satisfied with what are at best incremental improvements. It can be argued
that neither the Professional Model nor the Community Policing Model, as practiced in the United States
today, generally do not truly embrace one of the Compstat paradigm’s most important underlying principles
and beliefs: that police officers and police agencies can really have a substantial positive impact on the crimeand quality-of-life problems facing the communities they serve.
Scientific (and management) revolutions occur when a radical paradigm shift takes place - when there
emerges a new set of ideas, ideologies, or controlling principles around which we organize ourunderstanding of a phenomenon. In turn, the new understanding points up new insights and better practices.
The new paradigm takes hold and gains acceptance when it proves effective - when its methods achieve
more positive and more effective results than the paradigm preceding it.
The Compstat paradigm presents police managers and executives with a radically different way of looking
at police organizations and police activities, and it points to new methods and strategies police can use topursue their goals (Henry, 2002). As illustrated in the examples and statistics cited at the beginning of thisarticle, the Compstat paradigm’s effectiveness in achieving results can scarcely be denied.

107

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No.68

IV. THE COMPSTAT MEETING: TECHNOLOGY, INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
To many casual observers, Compstat appears to be simply a meeting at which executives and managers
discuss the latest information about emerging crime trends, develop specific tactical plans to address them,and monitor the results of the actions previously undertaken. In one sense, Compstat is a meeting. Eachweek, the commanders of all precincts and operational units in a given geographic area of New York City
gather in the NYPD’s Command and Control Centre at Police Headquarters to give an accounting ofthemselves and their officers’ activities for the past month (Bratton, 1998b; Kelling, 1995; Maple & Mitchell,
1999; Silverman, 1996).3 The Command and Control Centre is a high-tech conference facility equipped withnumerous computer systems, video monitors, video projection screens, and communications equipment, but
this level of technological sophistication is not absolutely essential for a Compstat management process tobe effective. Indeed, the early Compstat meetings were conducted in a small room equipped only with easels
and flip charts, and they nevertheless produced startling and immediate results.
During the Crime Control and Quality of Life Strategy Meeting, each precinct commander takes his or
her turn at the podium to present his or her activities and accomplishments and to be closely questioned by
the police commissioner, several deputy commissioners, various chiefs, and other top executives. Precinct
commanders are accompanied by detective squad supervisors, narcotics and vice squad commanders, andranking personnel from just about every operational and investigative unit within their geographic area of
responsibility. Because of the intensity of the questioning, the quantity of statistical performance data, andthe nature of the technology involved (including computerized pin mapping, comprehensive crime trend
analyses, and other graphic presentations of data), Compstat meetings permit the agency’s executives tohave an unprecedented level of in-depth knowledge about the specific crime and quality-of-life problems
occurring at specific locations in each of the NYPD’s 76 precincts. Both the executives and the commanders
are provided with this crime intelligence data in advance of the actual meeting in order to permit them theopportunity to review and analyze it, to identify emerging crime patterns and trends, and to develop cogent
strategies based on the information. With this wealth of highly specific knowledge, executives can ask
commanders and managers probing and intensive questions about the particular activities and tactics they
are using to address specific crime and quality of life problems at specific locations. Crime and quality-of-life
trends and patterns can be more easily discerned through the discussions, and connections between
seemingly disparate events and issues are more easily identified. Commanders are expected to have an
intimate knowledge of the crime incidents and the quality of life problems occurring within their area of
responsibility, just as they are expected to have answers and to demonstrate results. In line with theCompstat paradigm’s emphasis on cooperation and coordination throughout the agency, precinct andspecialized squad commanders must show how they cooperate and coordinate their activities with otheroperational entities. The focus is on performance and results at Compstat meetings (Bratton, 1998b; Henry,
2002; Kelling, 1995; Kelling & Coles, 1996; Silverman, 1999; Witkin, 1998).
Compstat meetings provide executives with an in-depth knowledge of the crime and quality of life
conditions with which middle managers must contend, and the meetings also provide in-depth knowledge ofother management performance data beyond enforcement and productivity information related to crime andquality-of-life. Executives focus on each commander’s efforts to ensure that officers in his or her commandinteract with citizens and with other members of the department in a courteous, professional, and respectfulmanner. Executives can effectively gauge the morale in each command by examining sick rates, the number
and type of disciplinary actions taken, the number of civilian complaints made against officers, and a host ofother statistical data. Each commander’s performance in managing such important functions as overtime
expense, traffic safety, and even the number of automobile accidents involving department vehicles can beevaluated at Compstat meetings. Executives can (and do) focus on virtually any area of management
responsibility, comparing each commander’s performance to that of his or her peers. Changes over time canbe calculated and charted for graphical presentation on practically any crime, quality of life, or othermanagement performance criteria within the commander’s scope of responsibility (Bratton, 1998b; Kelling,
1995; Silverman, 1999). In essence, the Compstat meetings amount to intensive monthly performance
evaluations for every commander of practically every operational unit in the agency.
3 For administrative purposes, the NYPD divides the five boroughs of the city into eight patrol boroughs. The 76 precincts, 12transit division districts, and nine Housing Bureau Police Service Areas are about equally apportioned among the eightgeographic patrol boroughs.

108

129TH INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINAR
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS

Commanders who fail to achieve results or who otherwise do not make the grade may find that they are
no longer commanders, but those who excel and achieve results find promotion and advancement. Compstat
meetings have introduced a unique element of competition among the department’s management cadre, andthey are a stimulus to achieve results. Because commanders of support units, local prosecutors, andrepresentatives of other criminal justice agencies attend the Compstat meetings, information is widely
disseminated among appropriate parties. Although the support unit commanders and other attendees may
not be asked to make presentations, their presence allows them to participate in the immediate ‘real-time’development of highly integrated plans and strategies. A precinct commander who intends to commence amajor enforcement effort, for example, can get on-the-spot commitments for the resources and assistance heor she needs from ancillary and operational units (Kelling, 1995; Witkin, 1998). Details of the plan can beworked out without crossing bureaucratic lines or scheduling a prolonged series of meetings. Compstat
meetings, then, are also about supporting and empowering commanders, sharing information and crime
intelligence, communicating top management’s values and objectives, and ensuring accountability. But again,
Compstat meetings are just a part of the story behind the NYPD’s transformation and its performance, andthe meetings are simply one of the tools used within the larger Compstat paradigm.

V. SUPPORTING COMPSTAT THROUGH SYSTEMIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL CHANGESThe NYPD implemented a host of other organizational, structural, and philosophical changes to support
its crime reduction and quality-of-life improvement mission, making the tremendous crime reductions andquality-of-life improvements possible by enhancing discretion and changing the dimensions of power,
responsibility, authority, and accountability throughout the agency. Without these fundamental systemic andphilosophical changes in the department and without the support and direction provided by theadministration to the police and other criminal justice agencies, the transformation would not have beenpossible and the dramatic results would never have been achieved. One can scarcely overstate theimportance of these structural and philosophical transformations to the agency’s overall success. By
themselves and without adoption of other elements of the overall Compstat paradigm, Compstat meetings
are unlikely to achieve more than temporary results. They may also potentially incur long-term damage andpossibly undermine the organization’s viability as an effective law enforcement agency. The organizational,
structural, and philosophical changes are as much a part of the Compstat paradigm and the NYPD’stransformation as the Compstat meetings themselves.
Compstat meetings permit executives and managers to monitor virtually every aspect of the agency’s
activities-from fulfilling the primary mission of reducing crime and making the city’s streets safer to closely
observing and controlling virtually every systemic change instituted in the agency’s systems, practices,
structures, and culture. Compstat meetings are, in a sense, a window through which the department’s
executives and managers can glimpse every aspect of its operations as well as the progress and directions ofevery change taking place. They are also a mechanism by which the agency’s operations and practices canbe continually assessed and fine-tuned to ensure their continued success, and through which importantmessages can be subtly or overtly transmitted and reinforced.
The Compstat meetings present the unique opportunity for executives to temporarily (and, in a sense,
artificially) free the agency from the constraints typically imposed by bureaucracy and by rigid hierarchicalorganizational structures. Instead of operating within a hierarchical framework where lines ofcommunication, authority, and responsibility are precisely defined by straight horizontal and vertical lines onan organizational chart, for the duration of the Compstat meeting the organizational structure changes to one
resembling what Bratton called a “seamless web” (see Henry, 2000). This seamless web facilitates
brainstorming, innovative problem solving, and the development of effective strategies and plans, since
every individual, every unit, and every function can communicate immediately and directly with every otherindividual, unit, or function. Once the meeting concludes and strategic decisions and plans have beenformulated, the structure reverts to one resembling a hierarchical bureaucratic organization - the kind of
structure that is particularly well tailored to carrying plans through to fruition.
The Compstat management style permeates every level of the agency. To remain prepared for the
weekly Compstat meetings at Headquarters, most commanders convene their own in-house Compstat-stylemeetings with key personnel. Thus, accountability and responsibility for achieving results is not just placedon managers by executives, but by managers upon supervisors and to some extent by supervisors upon109

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No.68

rank-and-file officers. These formal or informal meetings and interactions have had a profound influence, tothe extent that a high degree of communication and a sharp focus on achieving results pervades theorganization.

VI. A HYBRID MANAGEMENT STYLE
The Compstat paradigm is a hybrid management style that combines the best and most effective
elements of several organizational models as well as the philosophies supporting them. Compstat retains thebest practices of traditional Professional Model policing, for example, but also incorporates insights andpractices from Community Policing and Problem-Solving Policing styles. It also utilizes the kind of strategic
management approaches used by successful corporate entities that thrive in highly competitive industries.
Because the Compstat paradigm is so flexible and because it emphasizes the rapid identification and creative
solution of problems, it can be applied in virtually any goal-driven human organization.
Although Compstat management draws on the strengths of the traditional Professional Model as well as
the Community Policing and Problem-Solving Policing models, it also differs from each in important ways.
The NYPD has based its approach to crime reduction and quality-of-life improvement on the “Broken
Windows” theory articulated by Wilson and Kelling (1982) - an approach that many Community Policing
theorists have also championed. This important theory takes the position that quality-of-life problems suchas graffiti, public intoxication, loud radios, urban decay, and a host of other petty annoyances of modern urbanlife are in themselves criminogenic - when left untended, they subtly convey a message that disorder andincivility prevail, that social controls have broken down, and that no one really cares about theneighbourhood in which they occur. This message often translates to the idea that such conditions are
somehow acceptable and that because minor offences are acceptable, more serious ones must be as well.
Ultimately, if minor offences are left unchecked they lead to more serious crime (Kelling, 1987, 1991, 1992,
1995; Kelling & Coles, 1996, 1997; Wilson, 1983; Wilson & Kelling, 1982, 1989).
The postulates of the Broken Windows theory are central to many Community Policing ideologies andpractices, although many leading Community Policing theorists and practitioners place the burden for
identifying and remedying a neighbourhood’s crime and quality-of-life problems on the beat officer. To
empower the beat officer and support effective Community Policing, many advocates say, the agency must
be thoroughly decentralized so that power can be almost completely devolved to those at the bottom of theorganizational pyramid. In the NYPD, though, the Compstat paradigm has placed the burden of identifying
and solving problems squarely on the shoulders of middle managers. On the basis of its experience during
the late 1980s and early 1990s in implementing a version of Community Policing that emphasized theprimacy of the beat officer, the NYPD recognized that it is unfair and unreasonable to expect beat cops todisentangle and successfully address entrenched social problems whose solutions have confounded police
executives, social scientists, and criminal theorists for years. Despite their best efforts and, in many cases,
their skills and expertise, beat-level police officers simply cannot muster the organizational resources
needed to attack these problems.

VII. REALIGNING ORGANIZATIONAL POWER, MOBILIZING EXPERTISE
Closely related to the NYPD’s decentralization was the redistribution of power in the agency. The fivebases of power operating within a police organization - coercive, legitimate, expert, reward, and referent
power - need to be realigned if the agency and its members are to achieve their full potential. In traditionallymanaged agencies, most power is concentrated among the executive cadre, and because others have almost
no access to coercive, legitimate, or reward power, they cannot easily obtain or apply the agency’s resources
to address problems (see, generally, French & Raven, 1959).
The Compstat paradigm’s effectiveness also derives from its emphasis on mobilizing expertise and goodpractice - especially the expertise and good practices of experienced patrol officers - and making them thenorm throughout the agency. This, too, is a tenet of Problem-Solving Policing, but as an organizational reality
it has often proven to be an illusory goal in American policing. The NYPD’s executives gathered together
experts from throughout the agency as well as from outside it and drew upon their knowledge andexperience to develop a series of crime control and quality-of-life strategies. The strategies, specifically
crafted to be flexible and adaptable to the local community’s particular needs and conditions, addressed
specific types of crime and disorder problems and were promulgated throughout the department. Every
precinct commander was mandated to adapt and implement them, and Compstat meetings are one way to

110129TH INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINAR
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS

ensure that they have been implemented effectively.
As a practical matter, the crime control and quality-of-life strategies all proceeded from the broken
windows theory’s basic position that many serious crimes will be prevented and serious problems avoided if
we attend to minor offences as they occur or soon afterward. The strategies also primarily use enforcementtactics to suppress these lower-level offences and quality-of-life problems. Some Community Policing
adherents eschew enforcement as a means to reduce crime and disorder, or at best they express
ambivalence about how effectively enforcement tactics work to reduce crime. Their position, in a nutshell, isthat the police should become agents of change who empower and build communities to police themselves.
Other Community Policing advocates rarely deal with the idea of actually reducing crime, preferring insteadto emphasize that the perceived fear of crime in a community can be reduced through more positive policecommunity interactions. These Community Policing theorists have been criticized by more traditional
thinkers for placing more emphasis on the appearance of public safety than upon substantive crime
reduction. Highly focused enforcement activities were always a goal of the professional model that
dominated American policing for most of this century, but they were nevertheless a rarely achieved goal.
Through the Compstat paradigm and the Compstat meetings, the NYPD has had great success with the useof highly focused enforcement strategies in the Broken Windows context (Henry, 2002).
It is important to recognize that although the results achieved by the NYPD depended greatly on
enforcement activities, the Compstat management paradigm can be used equally well to manage an agency
in which enforcement has a lower priority. Another agency may or may not achieve the magnitude of crime
reduction accomplished in New York City - indeed, some agencies may not face the compelling crime
problems the NYPD did - but the agency will improve its performance on any criteria it deems important if it
implements the paradigm cogently. If the agency’s prevailing philosophy is that the number and quality ofpolice-citizen encounters are of primary importance and that enforcement has little value, Compstat
paradigm management can be adapted and used to tremendously improve the quality and number of thosepositive encounters. Regardless of the agency’s specific goals and objectives, implementing the basic
principles of the Compstat paradigm will dramatically increase the likelihood that they will be attained(Henry, 2002).
As practiced in New York City, the Compstat paradigm also articulated a bold new philosophy - anunwavering belief in the capacity of police officers to make a difference and to reduce crime. Police officials
in the NYPD and elsewhere have, of course, spoken to this philosophy for years, but in fact their words often
amounted to mere platitudes and in many cases were betrayed by their actions. This perceived or real
insincerity combines with other factors to foment cynicism, to drive a divisive wedge between street copsand management cops, and to undermine the legitimacy of managers as well as their capacity to effectively
manage and direct their department’s affairs (Henry, 2002).
At the heart of the Compstat paradigm is a realistic appreciation of the wealth of expertise andexperience held by effective police officers. Expert officers of every rank worked together to create andimplement the crime and quality-of-life strategies that helped reinvigorate the NYPD, and they worked
together in the reengineering committees that restructured 12 important functional areas. In far too manyagencies, including the NYPD, managers and executives have subtly or overtly devalued operational officers
and their contribution to the agency. Good and effective officers exist in every agency, and the Compstat
management paradigm insists that managers and executives capitalize on that expertise and use thisessential resource effectively. Quite frankly, this often demands that executives and middle managers put
aside their own egos to acknowledge that in many instances street cops may have greater expertise andgreater knowledge than they (Henry, 2002).
The Compstat paradigm demands that managers and executives take risks - even the kind of risks thatmight compromise their own careers. Risk-averse executives have often foolishly spent a disproportionate
share of their energies on restraining and controlling operational officers, promulgating broad policies andpractices that place unnecessary and burdensome restrictions on officers without regard to their capabilities.
Compstat management not only demands that these obstacles to performance be removed in order to letgood officers flourish and influence others around them to do the same but helps identify and reward theofficers who perform best (Henry, 2002).
Another central tenet of this management philosophy is an unwavering belief in the idea that police can111

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No.68

make a difference and that police can reduce crime. When it comes to crime, a great many criminologists,
politicians, and police executives equivocate about whether the police really make a difference. When apolice officer performs a creditable act or when the agency performs well, executives laud it as an exampleof the kind of difference police can make, and certainly few police executives are reluctant to take credit
when crime declines. When crime rises, though, many are unwilling to acknowledge their own managerial
inadequacies or failures, and they begin looking about for other explanations. They may never directly
articulate a disbelief in the capacity of police officers to make a difference by reducing crime and improving
the quality of life enjoyed in their communities, but their failure to maintain a consistent approach often
casts them as self-serving and undermines their legitimacy in the eyes of officers. In the world of policing,
the disjunction between words and actions often breeds suspicion and distrust, and such subtleties rarely gounnoticed by officers. The Compstat paradigm rejects this pessimistic and cynical management view andoptimistically asserts without question that conscientious police officers in a well-managed police
organization can make a remarkable difference.

VIII. POSSIBILITIES AND OBSTACLES: THE FUTURE OF THE COMPSTAT PARADIGM
Paradoxically, the tremendous success of the Compstat paradigm raises some potential problems that
may complicate its continued growth and future success as more and more agencies attempt to implement it.
One of the primary difficulties might be called “cookie-cutter management.” That is, there is a distinct
tendency throughout American policing to find some policy or practice that another agency has put to good
use and to appropriate it. Agencies borrow these policies from another agency composed of different people
with a different organizational culture and structure and a different set of environmental and political forces
working upon them, and then they press the borrowed policy down on their own agency as if it were a
cookie cutter or template. Unimaginative managers wind up trying to make the agency fit the policy orpractice rather than the other way around. Experience and close observation of police agencies and systems
in the United States and overseas show that in the vast majority of cases, a home-grown policy or practicewill work much better than an imported policy or practice precisely because it was developed inconformance with the reality of the department. Such policies and practices also work better because they
are developed by people who are intimately familiar with the agency, its history and culture, and thecapabilities of its personnel. The same is true of the Compstat paradigm’s adoption: Its general principles
must be carefully tailored to the specific conditions, situations, and realities faced by other agencies in othercontexts (Henry, 2002).
A related management practice that seems to affect American police management is what we might call“cargo cult management”. The notion of “cargo cult management” derives from the millennial cults thatdeveloped in Melanesia and the South Pacific islands during and after the Second World War and continue toexist today. In essence, members of these primitive cultures had no exposure to the outside world, and as afunction of their insularity the cultures were permeated with a deep strain of magical thinking and apropensity to attribute results to rituals and magic rather than to their actual causes. These cultures had
their first real exposure to outsiders during the war, when foreigners (military personnel) arrived and began
to carve out long flat strips of jungle. The foreigners engaged in such rituals as marching around in formation
with unusual devices made of wood and metal over their shoulders. The foreigners built towers and spoke
odd words into strange boxes, and shortly thereafter large birdlike flying machines came out of the sky ladenwith all sorts of good stuff the foreigners called “cargo”. The foreigners eventually departed but left behindsome of the cargo - various ingenious machines and building materials that were far superior to anything thetribes had known before. To this day, cargo cultists continue to carve out strips of jungle, march around withtree limbs over their shoulders, build bamboo towers or climb trees and speak into coconuts as they await
the return of the cargo-bearing magical flying machines.
The analogy of “cookie cutter management” and “cargo cult management” to the expanding use ofCompstat-like programmes is clear. Gootman (2000), for example, noted that 235 police agency
representatives visited NYPD Compstat meetings in the first 10 months of 2000, while 221 visited in 1999
and 219 visited in 1998. There is no doubt that many of these representatives are highly experienced
practitioners and fine managers, but on the basis of their too-brief exposure to the Compstat meetings, we
can expect that many will return to their agencies with only a rudimentary and very superficial
understanding of the Compstat process and even less knowledge of the Compstat paradigm as a whole.
There is a distinct possibility that some proportion of these representatives will not fully grasp how and why
the process works in terms of motivation, strategy development, the dissemination of knowledge andexpertise, or organizational and cultural transformation, nor will they comprehend the important activities

112

129TH INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINAR
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS(such as reengineering and training) that were undertaken to support it. They may convene Compstat-type
meetings where executives apply a heavy hand where a gentle touch is required, and in many cases they will
not go beyond the statistical data to identify important qualitative issues that should be of concern tocompetent police executives.
Some police executives who see the wonderful things Compstat can bring to the organization (and totheir careers) may engage in ritualistic repetition of the overt behaviours they’ve witnessed while the larger
picture eludes them. This certainly may not be the case in all situations, but the overall pervasiveness of“cookie cutter management” and “cargo cult management” in American police management certainly
illuminates the potential harm that Compstat can do when unenlightened executives wield such a powerfulmanagement tool. Perhaps the greatest danger lies in the possibility that the organizational and cultural
damage they do will remain submerged, creating a host of concealed difficulties with which future
generations of police officers and executives will have to grapple. Wittingly or unwittingly, far too many
police chief executives seem willing to enter into the Faustian bargain of selling their souls to achieve
immediate results without regard for the long-term organizational and social consequences or the
management burdens that others will have to assume when they’ve moved on (Henry, 2002).
Compstat principles are eminently adaptable and applicable to any police agency’s particular needs andobjectives. As a management paradigm, Compstat has proven its applicability throughout the public andprivate sectors. It has been successfully adapted, for example, to manage New York City’s jail system(O’Connell & Straub, 1999), and the city of Baltimore has implemented a “Citistat” programme based on theCompstat paradigm for managing the entire city and all its agencies (Clines, 2001; Swope, 2001).
Compstat continues to evolve and find broader application in other spheres of public sector
administration, but its roots are firmly planted in policing. Compstat continues to evolve and to bring about
remarkable changes in other spheres, but its most tangible, quantifiable, and dramatic impact continues to bein the area of crime reduction and quality-of-life improvement. American policing faces an array ofunprecedented challenges in the coming years, and the Compstat paradigm represents an important
opportunity for the kind of flexible and effective management style these challenges require.

113

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No.68

APPENDIX
Major Felony Crime in New York City, 1993 to 2003
By Number and Percentage(NYPD Data)

Crime

1993

% Changev. 19931997% Changev. 19932003

Murder

1,927

767- 60.2598- 68.9

Rape

3,225

2,783

- 13.71,875- 41.8

Robber y

85,89244,335- 48.325,919- 68.8Felony Assault

41,121

30,259- 26.4

18,774- 54.3

Burglar y100,936

54,866- 45.6

29,215- 71.0Grand Larceny

85,73755,686- 35.046,877- 45.3Motor Vehicle Theft

111,662

51,312- 54.023,139- 79.2TOTA LTOT

430,460

240,008- 44.24

146,397- 65.99

114

129TH INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINAR
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERSREFERENCES
Bratton, W. J. (1996, October 15). Cutting crime and restoring order: What America can learn from New
York’s finest. Heritage Foundation Lectures and Educational Programs, Lecture No. 573. Retrieved
January 10, 2005 from Heritage Foundation Web site: www.heritage.com/ lectures.htm.
Bratton, W. J. (1998b). Turnaround: How America’s top cop reversed the crime epidemic. New York:
Random House.
Buntin, J. (1999). Assertive policing, plummeting crime: The NYPD takes on crime in New York City.
Harvard University, John F. Kennedy School of Government Case Study Program series, #C16-991530.0.
Chetkovich, C. A. (2000a). The NYPD takes on crime in New York City. (A). (Case Study No. CR16-001557.3). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Kennedy School of Government.
Chetkovich, C. A. (2000b). The NYPD takes on crime in New York City. (B) Compstat (Case Study No.
CR16-00-1558.3). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Kennedy School of Government.
Chetkovich C. A. (2000c). The NYPD takes on crime in New York City. (C) Short-term outcomes (CaseStudy No. CR16-00-1559.3). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Kennedy School of Government.
City of New York, Mayor’s Office of Operations. (1998, February). The mayor’s management report:
Preliminary Fiscal 1998. New York: City of New York, Mayor’s Office of Operations.
City of New York, Mayor’s Office of Operations. (2000, September). The mayor’s management report: Fiscal
2000. New York: Author.
City of New York, Mayor’s Office of Operations. (2001, February). The mayor’s management report:
Preliminary Fiscal 2001. New York: City of New York, Mayor’s Office of Operations.
Clines, F. X. (2001, June 10). Baltimore uses a databank to wake up city workers. New York Times, p. A11.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (2005). Uniform Crime Reports, Crime in the United States, 2003.
Retrieved January 3, 2005 from Federal Bureau of Investigation website: http//:www.fbi.gov/
ucr/05cius.htm.
French, J. P. R., & Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Studies in social
power. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research.
Gladwell, M. (1995, June 3). The tipping point: What if crime really is an epidemic? New Yorker. Retrieved
from Malcolm Gladwell’s Web site: www.gladwell.com/1996/ 1996_06_03_a_tipping.htm.
Gladwell, M. (2000). The tipping point: How little things can make a big difference. Boston: Little, Brown.
Gootman, E. (2000, October 24). Police department’s allure is growing. New York Times, p. B1.
Henry, V. E. (2000). Interview with William J. Bratton. Police Practice and Research: An International
Journal, 1, 397-434.
Henry, V. E. (2002). The Compstat paradigm: Management accountability in policing, business and the public
sector. Flushing, NY: Looseleaf Law Publishers.
Innovations in American Government. (1996). Compstat: A crime reduction management tool: 1996 winner.
Retrieved May 22, 2001 from Innovations in American Government Web site:
http://ksgwww.harvard.edu/innovat/winners/cony96.htm.
Kelling, G. L. (1987). Acquiring a taste for order: The community and the police. Crime and Delinquency,
33(1), 90-102.
Kelling, G. L. (1991). Reclaiming the subway. City Journal, 1(2), 17-28.

115

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No.68

Kelling, G. (1992). Measuring what matters: A new way of thinking about crime and public order. NY: The
City Journal, 2(3), 21-33.
Kelling, G. L. (1995). How to run a police department. City Journal, 5(4), 34-45. Retrieved January 3, 2005
from City Journal Web site: www.city-journal.org/html/5_4_how-to_run.html.
Kelling, G. L., & Coles, C. M. (1996). Fixing broken windows: Restoring order and reducing crime in ourcommunities. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Kelling, G., & Coles, C. (1997, January). The promise of public order (interview by Ryan Nally). Atlantic
Monthly . 22-30. Retrieved May 10, 2001 from City Journal Web site: www.theatlantic.com/
unbound/bookauth/broken/broke.htm.
Krauss, C. (1994, January 26). Giuliani and Bratton start effort to shake up top police ranks: Reorganization
will move more officers to street. New York Times, p. A1.
Kuhn, T. (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Lester, T. (2000). Epidemic Proportions. Atlantic Monthly, March 29, 2000. Retrieved January 5, 2005 from
Atlantic Monthly Web site: www.theatlantic.com/unbound/interviews/ba2000-03-29.htm.
Maple, J., & Mitchell, C. (1999). The crime fighter: Putting the bad guys out of business. New York:
Doubleday.
McKinley, J. C. (1994, January 26) Dispute Flares Over Number of Officers on Patrol. New York Times, B3.
McQuillan, A. (1994, January 24). Bratton plan targets lazy cops: Says he’ll “kick butt.” New York Daily
News, p. 18.
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (2005, January). Japan in Figures, 2005. Retrieved January
3, 2005 from the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications website: www.stat.go.jp/
english/data/figures/pdf/2005f.pdf.
New York Police Department (NYPD) (2005, January). CompStat Report Covering the Week of 12/06/2004
Through 12/12/2004. Retrieved January 10, 2005 from New York City Police Department Web site:www.nyc.gov/html/nypd/pdf/chfdept/cscity.pdf.
New York Police Department. (1990, October). Staffing needs of the New York City Police Department. New
York: Author.
O’Connell, P. E., & Straub, F. (1999). Why the jails didn’t explode. City Journal, 9(2), 28-37. Retrieved May
15, 2004 from City Journal Web site: www.city-journal.org/html/9_2_why_the_jails.html.
Silverman, E. B. (1996, December 15). Mapping change: How the New York City Police department
reengineered itself to drive down crime. Law Enforcement News. 1, 6. Retrieved May 10, 2001 from
Lloyd Sealy Library Web site: www.lib.jjay.cuny.edu/len/96/ 15dec/12.html.
Silverman, E. B. (1998). Crime in New York: A success story. Public Perspective, 8(4), 3-5.
Silverman, E. B. (1999). NYPD fights crime: Innovative strategies in policing . Boston: Northeastern
University Press.
Swope, C. (2001, April). Restless for results: Baltimore Mayor Martin O’Malley is tracking performance on ascale never seen before in local government. Governing, 14, pp. 24-30.
Wilson, J. Q. (1983). Thinking about crime. Atlantic Monthly, 252(3), 72-88.
Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. (1982, March). Broken windows. Atlantic Monthly, pp. 29-38.
Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. (1989, February). Making neighborhoods safe. Atlantic Monthly, pp. 46-52.
Witkin, G. (1998, April 25). The crime bust. U.S. News and World Report. pp. 46-56.

116