超新星及びガンマ線バーストと将来大型観測機器

京大基研
阪大
東大
東大
金沢大

長滝重博 (40+10)
山崎了（１５＋５）
固武慶（５）
前田啓一（５）
米徳大輔（５）

理論懇星、コンパクト班（メーリングリスト）
安藤真一郎さん（東大）安東正樹さん（東大） 片岡淳さん （東工大）
加藤成晃さん（京大）河合誠之さん（東工大）河内明子さん（東大）
川中宣太さん（京大）川端弘治さん（広大） 久野成夫さん（国立天文台）
固武慶さん（東大）左近 樹さん（東大） 佐藤勝彦さん（東大）
柴崎徳明さん（立教）柴田一成さん（京大） 柴田晋平さん（山形大）
柴田大さん （東大）鈴木素子さん（東工大） 高橋慶太郎さん（東大）
高橋労太さん（京大） 田代信さん （埼玉大）
谷森達さん （京大） 玉川徹さん （理研） 寺澤敏夫さん（東大）
土居守さん （東大）戸谷友則さん（京大） 内藤統也さん （山梨学院大）中村卓史さん（京大） 長滝重博さん（京大） 蜂巣泉さん（東大）
馬場彩さん （理研） 福井康雄さん（名大）福田善之さん（宮城教育大）
星野真弘さん（東大） 前田啓一さん（東大） 牧島一夫さん（東大）
政井邦昭さん（都立大） 水田晃さん （京大）水野陽介さん（京大）
村上敏夫さん（金沢大） 森正樹さん （東大）
山岡均さん （九大）山崎了さん （阪大） 山田章一さん（早大）
吉田滋さん （千葉大） 吉田龍生さん（茨城大） 米徳大輔さん（金沢大）Plan of This Talk
• 超新星及びガンマ線バーストの爆発メカニズ
ムと将来大型観測機器• 宇宙線源としての超新星及びガンマ線バース
トと将来大型観測機器• 宇宙論としてのガンマ線バーストと将来大型観測機器

§超新星及びガンマ線バーストの爆発メカニズムと将来大型観測機器

Examples of Collapse-driven Supernovae
SN1987A

Cassiopeia A

Crab Pulsar
Explosion energy amounts
to 1E+51 ergs.

Required Physics to Understand
Collapse-driven Supernovae
There are many physics involved in
Collapse-Driven Supernovae such as…
Hydrodynamics, Neutrino Physics, Nuclear Physics,
General Relativity, Magnetic Fields ..etc.
Standard Scenario (Delayed
Explosion Model) has been
Neutrino Heating

established by Wilson (1985).
But, some physics aretreated
１９３４
simply (neutrino transport,
Equation of state(EOS)..).

Required Physics to Understand
Collapse-driven Supernovae
There are many physics involved in
Collapse-Driven Supernovae such as…
Hydrodynamics, Neutrino Physics, Nuclear Physics,
General Relativity, Magnetic Fields ..etc.
Standard Scenario (Delayed
Explosion Model) has been
Neutrino Heating

established by Wilson (1985).

First report was seen in second century by
But, some physics aretreated
１９３４
Chinese astronomers.
simply (neutrino transport,

Equation of state(EOS)..).

Latest Results of 1D Simulations
Method of Simulation has
been refined. No Explosion
is found. But small
correction will lead to a
successful explosion!

Rampp et al. 00

Boltzmann Solver(Tangent Ray-Method),
EOS of Lattimer Swesty
Many Weak Interactions
Newtonian Gravity

Thompson et al. 03

Liebendoerfer et al. 01

Boltzmann Solver
EOS of Lattimer Swesty
Many Weak Interactions
General Relativity

Boltzmann Solver(Tangent Ray-Method),
EOS of Lattimer Swesty
Many Weak Interactions
Newtonian Gravity

Scenario of Collapse-driven
Supernovae 山田章一さんよりν trapping

core collapse

core bounce

C+O
He

Si

ν

H
Fe

ν
ν

SN explosion

ν

ν

ν

ν

shock propagation in coreshock in envelope

ν
NS
ν

ν
ν

ν

Scenario of Collapse-driven
Supernovae 山田章一さんより
core collapse

ν trapping

core bounce

C+O
He

H

Si

ν

ν

Fe
Gratitational
Bindingν Energy is 3E+53ergs.
Explosionenergy, 1E+51ergs,
is obtainedννννthrough weak interactions.

SN explosion

shock propagation in coreshock in envelope

ν
NS
ν

ν
ν

ν

What carries information of
explosion mechanism?
Central core of a progenitor is opitcally thick.

• Neutrino• Gravitational Wave

Neutrino Signals from CollapseDriven Supernovae

Super-Kamiokande

Prof. M. KoshibaSupernova Relic Neutrino (anti-electron type neutrino)

νe + pn + e+

Supernova data:
Lawrence Livermore group (1998)
Thompson, Burrows, Pinto (2003)
Keil, Raffelt, Janka (2003)

Ando and Sato, astro-ph/ 0410061

Star formation rate and Madau plot (2001)
Note that contribution of supernovae
with z < 1 dominates over that of theother supernovae with z>1.

Supernova Relic Neutrino (anti-electron type neutrino)

νe + pn + e+

Ando and Sato, astro-ph/ 0410061

Contribution from other
Flavors through neutrino
oscillation
Recent results suggestthat energy spectrums ofDifferent flavors are not
Different so much with each
Other.
Supernova data:
Lawrence Livermore group (1998)
Thompson, Burrows, Pinto (2003)
Keil, Raffelt, Janka (2003)

Star formation rate and Madau plot (2001)
Note that contribution of supernovae
with z < 1 dominates over that of theother supernovae with z>1.

Supernova Relic Neutrino (2)+ spallation
by CR muons

There seems to be no window for the SRN
detection at Super-Kamiokande.

Signals from SRN at Water Cerenkov detector
Statistical significance for thedetection of the SRN may be
Obtained by Super-Kamiokande.
If GdCl3 is included (0.2%), neutron
Is captured and cascades should be
Detected from the excited Gd, which
Can be used to distinguish signals
From invisible muon events.
Event rate at other detectors:
KamLAND 0.4 events/yr.
SNO 0.03 events/yr.
Future mega-ton detectors such as
Hyper-Kamiokande and UNO will
give us a considerable number ofdetection of the SRN.
If a collapse-driven supernova occurs
in our galaxy, about 10000 events will
be detected by SK.

Signals from SRN at Water Cerenkov detector
Statistical significance for thedetection of the SRN may be
Obtained by Super-Kamiokande.
If GdCl3 is included (0.2%), neutron
Is captured
andshould beThompsonet cascades
al. 03Detected from the excited Gd, which
Can be used to distinguish signals
From invisible muon events.
Event rate at other detectors:
KamLAND 0.4 events/yr.
SNO 0.03 events/yr.
Future mega-ton detectors such as
Hyper-Kamiokande and UNO will
give us a considerable number ofdetection of the SRN.
If a collapse-driven supernova occurs
in our galaxy, about 10000 events will
be detected by SK.

Hyper-Kamiokande and Underground
Nucleon decay and neutrino Observatory
Water Cherenkov Detectors

Total 1.5Mton
Fiducial 1.1Mton
Kamioka
Shiozawa et al. 01

Total 650kt
Fiducial for SN 580kt
New Mexico
Casper, ppt fileGravitational Waves from CollapseDriven Supernovae

LIGO(Washington andLouisiana)

TAMA 2003.4.6
Total observation
time of 1000hours
was achieved.

Gravitational Waves from Collapse-driven
supernovae (1)Our group considers that globally
asymmetric explosion is caused byeffects of rotation, which can be one
possibility that helps a successful
explosion.
Observationally, most massive stars
are rapid rotators (Tassol 78).
Recent theoretical studies suggesta (fast) rotating core prior to collapse(Heger et al.00; Heger et al. 04) .
But, it is reported that angularMomentum transfer due to magnetic
field is Effective (Heger et al. 04).

Heger et al. 00
Note that Fe core of 20 and 25Msolar
Rotates at a period of 7.0ms and 6.3ms
after collapse even in Heger et al. 04.

Examples of Gravitational Waves from Collapse-driven
Supernovae Ott, Burrows, Livne, Walder astro-ph/0307472
See also Kotake et al. (2004) and Shibata and Sekiguchi (2004)

Beta = 0.001
Type I GW
核密度でﾊﾞｳﾝｽ
Sharpで振幅大Beta = 0.004
Type II GW
遠心力でﾊﾞｳﾝｽ
周期長く振幅小2-D axial-symmetric Hydrodynamics
EOS of Lattimer Swesty
Newtonian Gravity
No neutrino transfer
Quadrupole formulation to estimate the amplitude of GW
Parametric study of GW emission, using 72 models.

Peak Amplitude of GW at 10kpc and Sensitivities of LIGO

Beta Large
A Large

GW reflects the
Dynamics of central
engine of collapsedriven supernova.
LIGO (and TAMA,LCGT)
will detect the GW
signals.

Evolution of theModels by Hegeret al. (2000) without
Magnetic field.

Peak Amplitude of GW at 10kpc and Sensitivities of LIGO

Beta Large
A Large

GW reflects the
Dynamics of central
engine of collapsedriven supernova.
LIGO (and TAMA,LCGT)
will detect the GW
signals.

Evolution of theModels by Hegeret al. (2003) with
Magnetic field.

Peak Amplitude of GW at 10kpc and Sensitivities of LIGO

Beta Large
A Large

GW reflects the
Dynamics of central
engine of collapsedriven supernova.
LIGO (and TAMA,LCGT)
will detect the GW
signals.
Non-rotating models.
GW is emmitted due tosmall perturbation
Introduced by the numerical
scheme and mapping of the
1-D progenitor model onto
2-D computational grid.

GW signals from convective modtion after
core bounce Muller et al. ApJ 603 221 (2004)
Heger et al.00

This model

Heger et al.0４

2-D axial-symmetric Hydrodynamics
EOS of Lattimer Swesty
Newtonian Gravity
Ray by ray method for neutrino transfer (Boltzman solver)
Quadrupole formulation to estimate the amplitude of GW.

Examples of GW signals at 10kpc

Upper: Total
Lower: Contribution of neutrinos

Amplitude of GW
Due to convection
Flow (large)
Amplitude of GW
At the core bounce(small)High frequency
Low frequency

Gamma-Ray Bursts
Counts/s

Non-thermal
Rapid time variation (〜ms)Long bursts (>2sec)
Short bursts (<2sec)
Only gamma-rays had been
Detected for 30years.
Origin had/has been
unknown.

Time (sec)Gamma-Ray Bursts
Counts/s

Non-thermal
Rapid time variation (〜ms)Long bursts (>2sec)
Short bursts (<2sec)
Only gamma-rays had been
Detected for 30years.
Origin had/has been
unknown.

Time (sec)Discovery of Afterglow

Redshifts of GRBs can be determined
By Emission lines from host galaxies.

1997 Feb 28

1997 Mar 3

8時間後

3日後

GRB970228 (z=0.695)

Phenomena of afterglows have been
Confirmed in multi-band observations(X-rays, optical, IR,radio), which shedlights on the understanding of GRBs.

Origin of Long GRBs is Hypernova

GRB980425/SN1998bw.

GRB030329/SN2003dh
HETE II

Explosion energy is estimated to be 〜1E+52ergs,
Which cannot be explained by the standard scenario
Of collapse-driven supernova.

Fireball model and Jets
Figure by Piran 2003

To explain the features of GRBs, relativistic flow withLorentz factor > 100 is required. This corresponds to
explosion energy of 1E+51 ergs with 1E-6 solar mass.
To realize such an environment, a jet from a hypernova is
Required, which is confirmed by observations of afterglow.

Toward understanding of central engine of GRBs
MacFadyen and Woosley (1998)

Jet off

Jet on

BH with 3solar mass is put at the center as an initial condition.
Rotation is introduced so that the model mimics Heger et al. (00).
Thermal energy is deposited at the inner most region, which might
be realized when effect of neutrino annihilation is included.
Newtonian gravity.

Latest Calculation by MacFadyen and Zhang (2005)

High resolution:
Toward understandingof origin of internal shocks

Adaptive mesh method
Is included. There is still an inner
Boundary. Effect of neutrino heating
Is still introduced artifitially.

Evaluation of the Effect of Neutrino Heating
Kneller et al. astro-ph/0410397 see also Yokosawa et al. astro-ph/0412558
Analytical models (DiMatteo et al.02
and Popham et al. 99) are used toestimate the heating rate.
Emmisivity of neutrinos dependson (rho,Temp), which in turnstrongly depend on Mbh, viscosity,
kerr parameter, and mass accretion
rate.
Heating effeciency
seems to be low

When Mdot > 0.1 msolar/s, accretion
Disk becomes to be optically thick
Against neutrinos.

Lnunubar 〜 1E+48erg/s (Mdot =0.1)
Heating rate is shown
In units of eV/cm^3/s.
Mdot = 1Msolar/s, Mbh=3Msolar, a=0, alpha=0.1

1E+50ergs/s (Mdot=1)
1E+51ergs/s (Mdot=10)

MHD Calculation of a Collapsar
Proga et al. ApJ 599 L5 (2003)
Initial magnetic field isRadial and weak (beta>>1
everywhere).
Magnetic field is amplified
By MRI and shear.
At t=0.2735s,
Outflow can be seen,
which is Poynting flux
Dominated.
Poynting flux/Kinetic
flux> 10.

2-D, 3Mbh, MHD, realistic EOS, Neutrino cooling,
photo-disintegration,
Angular momentum which mimics Heger et al. (00) .
Reconnection is realized by Anomalous resitivity.

MHD Calculation of a Collapsar
Proga et al. ApJ 599 L5 (2003)
Initial magnetic field isRadial and weak (beta>>1
everywhere).
Magnetic field is amplified
By MRI and shear.

Internal Shock model is
Modified?

2-D, 3Mbh, MHD, realistic EOS, Neutrino cooling,
photo-disintegration,
Angular momentum which mimics Heger et al. (00) .
Reconnection is realized by Anomalous resitivity.

At t=0.2735s,
Outflow can be seen,
which is Poynting flux
Dominated.
Poynting flux/Kinetic
flux> 10.

But, newtonian.
GW and neutrinos
should give us
valuable information on
the dynamics ofcollapsar.

Explosion Mechanisms
Collapse-driven Supernovae:
Outline of scenario has been established.

GRBs (Collapsar):
Outline of scenario is not established.

Propagation of Relativistic Jet
Zhang and Woosley ApJ, 608,365,(2004)

Eiso (erg)
Viewing Angle (deg)

2-D, 3-D relativistic calculations
No magnetic field
15Msolar He star (Heger and Woosley 03)
Thermal energy dominated flow is injected fromZ = 10^10cm with half-opening angle, 5 degree.

Propagation of Relativistic Jet
Zhang and Woosley ApJ, 608,365,(2004)

Eiso (erg)Connection between Jet breakand internal shocks is necessary.
instability?
Viewing Angle (deg)

2-D, 3-D relativistic calculations
No magnetic field
Highly relativistic flow
15Msolar He star (Heger and Woosley 03)
Thermal energy dominated flow is injected from Is realized along theZ = 10^10cm with half-opening angle, 5 degree. Jet axis. This flow is surrounded
By Mildly relativistic flow.

§宇宙線源としての超新星及びガンマ線バーストと将来大型観測機器

CR spectrum and CR sources

GRB?
SNR
Hillas Diagram
Gyroｒadius < System Size

X-rays and Gamma-rays from SN1006

ASCA and CANGAROOICRR Home Page But see also
HESS’s report

Chandra0.01-0.1pc
Bamba et al. 2003

Direct evidence that CRs are generated has been obtained.
Acceleration region is bi-polar. Note that this SN is a Type Ia SN.
Shock acceleration theory can be compared with observations.

Which emit X/Gamma-rays, electrons or protons?
Electron : X-ray Synchrotron

Bamba et al. astro-ph/030822: X and Gamma-rays Synchrotron and IC Tanimori et al. ApJ 497, L25 (98)

Diffusive Shock acceleration mechanism is adopted.
CRs are treadted as test particles.

Advection/diffusion
上流
(外側)

下流
(内側)

θ
diffusion

爆発中心

衝撃波面静止系

Bu

馬場彩さんより

Assumptions: Theta = 0 (parallel shock)tadv = tdiff

Constraint by Borm limit

tacc < tloss

W is the shock scale length(observable).Ks are determinedin both of up/down-streams.

Direct comparison between Fermi I
acceleration model and observations.
Allowed region seems to be too small?
Perpendicular shock?

Allowed region
observable

Berezhko et al. 2002

X-rays: synchrotron of electron
Gamma-rays: Pion decays produced by p-p interactions
Velocity

It is usually considered that
Injection efficiency is higher in
Parallel shock regions.

Distribution function

Shock wave
Nonlinear shock acceleration
Is considered. Shock wave is modified
by non-thrmal protons, which makes the
spectrum of accelerated particles harder.

Berezhko et al. 2002

X-rays: synchrotron of electron
Gamma-rays: Pion decays produced by p-p interactions
Velocity

It is usually considered that
Injection efficiency is higher in
Parallel shock regions.

Distribution function

Shock wave
Nonlinear shock acceleration
Is considered. Shock wave is modified
by non-thrmal protons, which makes the
spectrum of accelerated particles harder.

Reproduced spectrum of X-rays and Gamma-rays
Radio and X-rays

Gamma-rays

SyncrotronHigh injection rate for protons
η= 1E-4 (hard spectrum)e/p ratio is set to be low.

Reproduced spectrum of X-rays and Gamma-rays
Radio and X-rays

Gamma-rays

Syncrotron

Low injection rate for protons
η= 1E-5 (soft spectrum)e/p ratio is set to be high.

High injection rate for protons
η= 1E-4 (hard spectrum)e/p ratio is set to be low.

Reproduced spectrum of X-rays and Gamma-rays
Radioand X-rayswill give us important
Polarization
Gamma-rays

Information on the acceleration region.
Radio? X-ray?
Injection rate may be obtained if amountof thermal gas in the downstream is estimatedSyncrotron
By Metal lines using Astro E-II
Spectrum of gamma-rays is essential.
Low injection rate for protons
η= 1E-5 (soft spectrum)e/p ratio is set to be high.

High injection rate for protons
η= 1E-4 (hard spectrum)e/p ratio is set to be low.

Cerenkov Detectors of TeVGamma Rays
CANGAROO IIIICRR Home Page

HESS Homepage

森正樹さんより

Gamma-rays from RX J1713.7-3946

Red: CO(J=1-0) emission
Yellow: CANGAROOImage: XMM

Solid: Gamma-rays from
Pion decays
Dot: Inverse Compton
Dash: Bremsstrahlung

Fukui et al. PASJ 55 L61 (2003)

Enomoto et al. 2002

H.E.S.S (two telescopes)

Color: Count map of HESS
Solid: ASCA (1-3) keV
Spatially resolved multi-Wave length
study is necessary (CANGAROO III;HESS four telescope).

Aharonian et al. (2004)

Spectrum of HESS and CANGAROO
Consistent within 2-sigma level(Mori, private communication)
Pion decays likely to exist, but nonThemal Brems of electrons could
contribute.

High-Energy Neutrinos from SNRs

Signal

IceCubeEstimated Neutrino Signals
from a source like
RX J1713.7-3946
Muniz and Halzen 02

Atmospheric Neutrino

最新の観測状況：AMANDA-II
Rebordy et al. 04

注：pole方向はfluxの上限値が高くなる傾向にある。

未だにpoint sourceは見つかっていない。

Ｆｌｕｘの上限値。E^-2仮定。単位は10^-7 cm^-2s^-1Sr^-1 for above 10GeV

到来方向分布。 699/3400 events
赤道面以下はdown-going
Muonのcontamination
Note: SN1006, RXJ1713 are in thesouth heimsphere

AMANDA II最新の観測状況：AMANDA-II
Rebordy et al. 04

注：pole方向はfluxの上限値が高くなる傾向にある。

未だにpoint sourceは見つかっていない。

Ｆｌｕｘの上限値。E^-2仮定。単位は10^-7 cm^-2s^-1Sr^-1 for above 10GeV
直径１度の立体角で1E-8Gev/cm^2/sのオーダー

到来方向分布。 699/3400 events
赤道面以下はdown-going
Muonのcontamination
Note: SN1006, RXJ1713 are in thesouth heimsphere

AMANDA II

Other VHE Neutrino Detectors
ANTARES (R&D,
Prototype)

NESTOR (proposal)

37 km from Marseille

Mediterranean Sea
他にもＢＩＫＡＬなど

Acceleration sites in GRBs: Waxman & Bahcall 97,01; Dermer 02
a. Internal shockb. reverse shockc. external shock

Procedure: 1. Estimation of soft photons 2. Acceleration limit
3. efficiency of photopion production

3

Ｅｖｅｎｔ Ｒａｔｅ ａｔ ｋｍ Ｄｅｔｅｃｔｏｒ

GRB(afterglow)と相関あり

Detectors of UHECRs
AGASA and HiRes

Stereo data arealso presented now

AUGER (Algentina)
Data will be shown on June 6, 2005
他にもTA、ＥＵＳＯ，ＡＳＨＲＡなど。

Abu-Zayyad et al. 02§宇宙論としてのガンマ線バーストと将来大型観測機器

Correlation between Epeak and Explosion Energy
Ghirlanda et al. (2004)

Ep

Energy (keV)
29GRBs are listed.
There are two (nearest) outlier:
GRB980425 (Z=0.0085/SN1998bw)
GRB031203(Z=0.106/SN2003lw)

Ep

EF(E)

Amati et al. (2002)

Energy (erg)CollimationCorrected
EnergyIsotropic
EnergyCosmological Parameters Might be
Determined in an Independent Way

Upper:Eiso; Lower:Corrected
15GRBs are considered

GRBs are sensitive to Omega_mExplosion Energy is Constant?
Corrected GRB energies
Bloom et al. 03

16GRBs are considered.

Luminosity of X-ray afterglow
at t = 10hr

Berger et al. 03

Upper:Eiso; Lower:Corrected
41GRBs are considered.

Are GRBs(XRFs) Standard Energy Reservers?
Total Energy:
Energy scale must exist.
Ex. SN Ia: Nuclear binding energy of Fe56 relative to
C12 with mass of 0.7Msolar is 1.4E+51 erg.
Collapse-driven SN: Gravitational binding enrgy ofa neutrion star is 3E+53 erg.
Collapsar? Gravitational binding energy of a BH??...
Rotation energy??...

Rather, it will be natural to consider that
there is a variety of explosion energies
of GRBs and progenitor stars.
ex. SN2002lt/GRB021211

Della Valle 2003

Conclusion• Neutrino and GW astronomy should shedlights on central engines of collapse-driven
supernovae and GRBs.
• Observations with high-resolutions should
bring us further, fruitful discussions of compact
objects.
• Multi wave-length observations may make abreakthrough of understanding compact
objects, such as long GRBs and SNe.