Hideo
Watanabe, Masayoshi Fuji and Minoru Takahashi
セラミックス基盤工学研究センター年報Takashi(2009).Shirai,
Vol. 9,23-31

総説

Structural Properties and Surface Characteristics
on Aluminum Oxide Powders
Takashi Shirai, Hideo Watanabe, Masayoshi Fuji and Minoru Takahashi
Ceramics Research Laboratory, Nagoya Institute of Technology
Hon-machi 3-101-1, Tajimi, Gifu 507-0033, JAPAN
Abstract
a-Al2O3 is widely used and studied as high temperature structural material, electronic packaging, corrosion resistance ceramics
and translucent ceramics. The surface state of a-Al2O3 powders cannot be regarded as a-Al2O3 but a hydrated state, and that thenature of this hydrate cannot be considered universal among different a-Al2O3, even produced by the same production method. Oneof these reasons is that water can be incorporated in the a-Al2O3 crystal structure resulting in the formation of aluminum hydroxides
such as gibbsite. Although much research has shed light on the Al2O3-water interface and charging of a-Al2O3 surfaces, there is
still much that we need to better understand a-Al2O3 structural property and surface characteristics. In this paper, general viewof crystal-structural properties, manufacturing methods of high purity a-Al2O3, and surface characteristics on a-Al2O3 powders are
introduced.

1. Aluminum Oxide
Aluminum oxide (alumina; Al2O3) has advantages
such as its thermal, chemical, and physical properties
when compared with several ceramics materials, and is
widely used for firebricks, abrasives and integrated
circuit (IC) packages. Industrially, more than about 45
million tons of Al2O3 are produced in the world, which
are mainly manufactured by the Bayer method using
bauxite, and about 40 million tons are consumed forrefining aluminum1) Furthermore about 5 million tonsof Al2O3 are produced as chemical grade and used forvarious purposes. Moreover about 1.5 million ton
Al2O3 is used as raw powder in the world. Other Al2O3
is consumed for raw powder of aluminum hydroxide,
aluminum sulfate and polyaluminum chloride. The
amount of Al2O3 powder used in Japan is about 350,000
tons, what is about 20% of the total quantity producedin the world. In order to produce Al2O3 powder with
the quality necessary to be used as ceramic material,
various manufacturing methods besides the Bayer
method have been developed1), 2). Depending on theuse of Al2O3 in different applications, Al2O3 is classified
into different grades. Table 1 shows the different soda
level requirements in different applications.
Commercial grades of Al2O3 are often divided into:
smelter, calcined (milled or unmilled), low soda,
reactive, tabular, activated, catalytic, and high purity.
These differ in their particle size, morphology, a-Al2O3
content and impurities.

From crystalline structure difference, there are many
forms of Al2O3 (a, c, h, d, k, q, g, r). An example ofa-phase of Al2O3 is corundum/sapphire. The otherforms are frequently termed transition Al2O3 and arise
during the thermal decomposition of aluminum
trihydroxides under different conditions. a-Al2O3 isthe most stable form of the compounds formed between
aluminum and oxygen, and is the final product fromthermal or dehydroxylation treatments of all thehydroxides. Nomenclaturesofthealuminumhydroxides are listed in Table 24)
The commonly-used Al2O3 is produced through theBayer process starting from bauxite, which mainly
consists of hydrated aluminum. In the Bayer process,crushed bauxite is treated with caustic aluminate
solution containing soda. The dissolution reaction is
generally carried out under pressure at temperatures
ranging from 140 to 280°C. The caustic solution reacts
with the aluminum hydroxide so that the impurities canTable 1: Soda impurity level required for different applications3)― 23 ―

Structural Properties and Surface Characteristics on Aluminum Oxide Powders

Table 2: Nomenclatures of aluminum hydroxides4)

mechano-chemical effects19),21) etc., has been reported.
Therefore it may be inferred that grinding greatly affects
the surface of high purity a-Al2O3 powders22)-26).
High purity a-Al2O3 powders are mainly produced by
the following methods:① Hydorlysis of Aluminum Alkoxides

be separated by sedimentation and filtration, leaving aclear solution. After precipitation of the hydroxide,
Al2O3 powders can be obtained through heat treatment attheir transition temperatures.
2. Production Methods of High Purity a-Al2O3
Powdera-Al2O3 powders produced by the Bayer method havemaximum purity of 99.6-99.9%, which can be used for
manufacturing of refractories, spark plugs, andsubstrates of integrated circuit. The demand of highpurity a-Al2O3 is increasing for electronic devices, such
as YAG (Yttrium-Aluminum-Garnet) and Titanium
Sapphire laser devices. High purity a-Al2O3 is
indispensable in manufacturing substrate of SOS(Silicon on Sapphire) devices, high pressure sodium
lamp, and bioceramics5). High purity a-Al2O3 has also
been applied for gas sensors6). Because of its stability
and strength at high temperature, a-Al2O3 is a suitable
catalyst material at high temperature or catalyst
supports7). For those purposes, the purity of a-Al2O3
should be higher than 99.99% (4N, four nine).
The manufacturing processes of high purity a-Al2O3
by calcinations of starting materials, such as aluminumhydroxide and alum8), 9), 10), 11) are industrialized. In
every process, crystal transformation to a-phase isaccompanied by growth of the particles at the time ofhigh temperature calcination of precursor materials suchas aluminum trihydroxides and alum12),13). The joints
by sintering occur between produced a-Al2O3 particles,
because transformation to a-Al2O3 advances at hightemperatures exceeding 1200°C14),15). Consequently, inthe manufacturing process of high purity a-Al2O3,
grinding is necessary to break joints and to control theparticle size. Generally, high purity a-Al2O3 powders
are ground by various grinders such as ball mill,vibration mill and jet mill, in order to obtain monodispersed particles suitable for sintering14),16),17).
Grinding processes by mechanical techniques to reduce
the particle size have been extensively investigated18)-21).
The influence of grinding on powder characteristics21),

Aluminum alkoxide is obtained from a reaction
between metallic aluminum and alcohol groups.
Hydrolysis of aluminum alkoxides will produce
aluminum hydroxide, which can be transformed after
heat treatment into Al2O3 powder8)-10).
The following equations show the reactions of thismethod, where R is hydrocarbon radical.
3
Al ＋ 3ROH → Al(OR)3 ＋ ― H22(alkoxide formation)
Al(OR)3 ＋ 3H2O → Al(OH)3 ＋ 3ROH
(hydrolysis process)
2Al(OH)3 → Al2O3 ＋ 3H2O
(thermal process)② Chemical Vapor Deposition

In the conventional chemical vapor deposition (CVD),
Al2O3 with small particle size is produced by a hightemperature reaction at 750-900°C between vaporized
AlCl3 and water vapor27)
2AlCl3 ＋ 3H2O → Al2O3 ＋ 6HCl
The volatile AlCl3 is oxidized with oxygen or water
vapor at 750-900°C, generating a homogenous particle
size of fine Al2O3 powder. Processing at temperaturesof 750-900°C can produce powders with particle size of
50 nm, consisting of a mixture of g and a-Al2O3. To
increase the a-phase content, the powder must be heattreated at temperatures above 1200°C. Wong et al.
reported that formation of dense deposits of a-Al2O3
was favored by increasing temperature and decreasingpressure27) Microstructure of the dense deposits
showed long columnar grains27)
In-situ chemical deposition is a new patented CVD
method to produce nearly mono-dispersed single crystal
a-Al2O3 powder15),28) The powder is named as“Sumicorundum” by its manufacturer. The process has
the advantage of high crystal growth rate at lower
temperature than the conventional method.
③ Thermal Decomposition of Aluminum Alum

Thermal decomposition of ammonium alum method
has been used for the manufacturing of kidney jewelry,― 24 ―

Takashi Shirai, Hideo Watanabe, Masayoshi Fuji and Minoru Takahashi

such as ruby and sapphire. The equation of heatdecomposition is shown below.
2NH4Al(SO4)2・12H2O → Al2O3 ＋ 2NH3 ＋ 4SO3 ＋ 25H2
The ammonium alum is refined mainly by arecrystallization method, weight decreases in 1/9 by theheat decomposition reaction. Therefore, it is necessary
to refine to the purity of ammonium alum one figure
higher than the target purity of Al2O3. Moreover, it
faces the problem about the exclusion processing of the
NH3 and SO3 gases which occur at the time of heatdecomposition2)④ Thermal Decomposition of Inorganic Aluminum

Salts
Several inorganic aluminum salts, ammonium
aluminum carbonate hydroxide (AACH), NH4AlO(OH)HCO3, for example, can be heated at 230°C to produce
Al2O3 through a thermal decomposition shown by thefollowing reaction11)

The aluminum hydroxides can exist in four welldefined forms: the monohydrate AlOOH, as boehmite(g-monohydrate) and diaspore (a-monohydrate), and thetrihydrate Al(OH)3, as gibbsite (g-trihydrate) andbayerite (a-trihydrate). Of these, all but bayerite occur
naturally in bauxite in profound amounts. At hightemperatures, all of the heat treatment paths willterminate in a-Al2O3. Figure 1 shows the paths oftransition Al2O3 during the heat treatment processes29)
3.2 Crystal Structure of a-Al2O3
The crystal structure of a-Al2O3, which is called
corundum structure, ideally consists of close packed
planes (A and B planes) of large oxygen anions (radius
0.14nm) stacked in the sequence30) as shown in Figure 2.
The aluminum cations (radius 0.053 nm) have valenceof +3 and oxygen anions have valence of –2. There canbe only two Al3+ ions for every three O2– ions tomaintain electrical neutrality. Thus, the cations occupy

2NH4AlO(OH)HCO3 → Al2O3 ＋ 2NH3 ＋ 2CO2 ＋ 3H2O
Production condition of AACH will influence thesintering behavior of a-Al2O3. The process cangenerate a-Al2O3 powder with purity higher than
99.99% and 0.3-0.4 mm of particle size.
3. Structure of Aluminum Oxide
3.1 Structural Transformations
Beside a-Al2O3, there are other forms of metastable
Al2O3 structures, such as r, g, h, q, c and k-Al2O3.
Those kinds of transition Al2O3 can be produced fromheat treatment of aluminum hydroxides or aluminum
salts.

Figure 2: (a) Corundum structure in a-Al2O3, (b) top view of
the corundum structure, and (c) octahedral structure of aAl2O330)a

Gibbsite

Kappa ()Chi()

Alpha ()AbaBoemiteGamma ()b
Bayeritea Eta ()Theta Alpha
Delta ()()()Theta ()

b

Alpha
()

A

c
B
a

Alpha Alumina ()Diaspore

B

A

b
0

100

200

300

400

500 600

700

800

900 1000 1100 1200c

Temperture / oC

Figure 1: Structure transformation of alumina and aluminumhydroxides29)

B

䌁䌬

A

䌏

Figure 3: Structure of a-Al2O332)― 25 ―

Structural Properties and Surface Characteristics on Aluminum Oxide Powders

only two-thirds of the octahedral sites of the basic array.
This placement forms three different types of aluminum
cation layers, named a, b, and c.
In Figure 3, the complete stacking sequence of oxygen
and aluminum layers will form A-a-B-b-A-c-B-a-A-b-Bc-A…
One period in this sequence, i.e. from c-A to B-c,
forms a hexagonal unit cell of a-Al2O332)
3.3 Crystal Structure of Transition Al2O3
Transition Al2O3 crystallizes in spinel or similar to itwith defect lattice. In the spinel structure, the oxygenions form a face-centered cubic (FCC) lattice and Al3+ions occupy tetrahedral and octahedral interstitial sites,
as shown in Figure 4. FCC lattice is also formed byclose packed plane, but the stacking sequence isdesignated as
A-B-C-A-B-C…
Since the Al ion favors octahedral coordination undernormal circumstances, Saalfeld et al. assumed alloctahedral sites to be occupied, and the cation vacancies
being confined to the tetrahedral sites33) John et al.
used solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
with magic angle spinning to determine the coordinationof Al ions in the transition Al2O334) They found 65 and
75% of the Al ions in the octahedral sites in h and gAl2O3, respectively. The results on h-Al2O3 agree with
the X-ray powder diffraction pattern reported by
Shirasuka et al.35) The cation vacancies, therefore,
appear to favor octahedral sites in h-Al2O3 but
tetrahedral sites in g-Al2O3. The same workers showedthat in q-Al2O3 prepared from both bayerite andboehmite, the Al ions were almost exclusively inoctahedral coordination. This is in contrast to
Saalfeld’s36) and Yamaguchi et al.37) structure analyses of
q-Al2O3 in which both assumed half of the Al ions were
occupying the tetrahedral sites. Wefer considered the q
structure as an intermediate between the cubic close
packing of the low-temperature transition Al2O3 and thehexagonally closed-packed corundum29)
Ratio of tetrahedral and octahedral sites of Al ions intransition Al2O3 still have contradiction between
experimental results observed by several researchers. gAl2O3 has the complex Al-O infrared absorption bands
between 350-1100 cm–1, which are interpreted under thecriteria for the band assignment of the spinels. The
positions of the remainder hydroxyl groups are relatedwith the aluminum vacancies38)

Figure 4: Structure of q-alumina in which half of the Al ionsare occupy tetrahedral sites32)

3.4 Crystal Structure of Aluminum Hydroxides
3.4.1 Gibbsite
Pauling first proposed the concept of the gibbsite
structure39) Double layers of OH ions, with Al ionsoccupying two-thirds of octahedral interstices within thelayers, form the basic structural element. The
hydroxyls of adjacent layers are situated, directly
opposite to each other, i.e., in a cubic packing. Thus thesequence of OH ions in the direction perpendicular tothe planes is A-A-B-B (Figure 5). This superpositionof layers and the hexagonal arrangement of Al ions leadto channels through the lattice parallel to the c-axis.
Hydrogen bridges OH groups of adjacent double layers.
From proton magnetic resonance measurements, Kroon
et al. has deduced a model of the spatial distribution ofthese H-bonds40)
3.4.2 Bayerite
Bayerite is rarely found in nature and produced
commercially for catalysts or other applications
requiring high quality for products. In laboratory, thetrihydroxides can be prepared by treatment of aluminum
chloride solution with cold ammonium hydroxide,
followed by aging at room temperature. According to
Fricke et al., bayerite is obtained by hydrolyzingaluminum alcoholates at temperatures below 40°C41)
Another preparation method is introduced by Torkar etal., who produced extremely pure bayerite
electrolytically, using cathode and H2O2 as anelectrolyte42) Bentor et al. reported the first occurrenceof the structure verified by X-ray analysis43) The
structure of bayerite is similar to gibbsite which is built
by basic layers of Al-OH octahedra. The layers are,however, arranged in A-B-A-B-A-B sequence (Figure― 26 ―

Takashi Shirai, Hideo Watanabe, Masayoshi Fuji and Minoru Takahashi

Figure 5: Structure of aluminum trihydroxide; (a) Top view ofby double molecules of AlOOH which extend in the
direction of the a-axis. The double layers are linked byhydrogen bonds between hydroxyl ions in neighboring
planes. Average O-O distance of the hydrogen bridges
is 0.27 nm29) If the excess water is very high (typicallycontains > 15 wt% excess water), a, b, c distances in 3
dimensional directions of crystallographic dimension
become longer, and produce pseudo-boehmite32) X-ray
diffraction pattern of pseudo-boehmite is similar toboehmite with a broad peak. Papee et al. postulated
that the excess water is not merely adsorbed on
crystallite surface, but is located between boehmite-likelayers as molecular water45) Heating pseudo-boehmite
results in the formation of transition Al2O3 in a sequencesimilar to that associated with bayerite36)

the gibbsite, (b) gibbsite, and (c) bayerite, respectively. The
structures have different layer packing32)

5)32)
3.4.3 Nordstrandite
Nordstand et al. published the X-ray difractogram ofa trihydroxide which differed from the diffraction
patterns of gibbsite and bayerite. They obtained theirtrihydroxide by precipitating a gel from aluminum
chloride or nitrate solutions with ammonium hydroxide44)
There are two kinds of arrangement for the Al-OH
octahedra layer, as shown in Figure 6.

B
A
A
C

B
A
B
B
A
B
A

A䌬
OH

Figure 6: Structure of Nordstrandite44)

3.4.4 Boehmite
The structure of Boehmite consists of double layers inwhich oxygen ions are in cubic packing, as shown in
Figure 7. These layers are composed of chains formed

Figure 7: A boehmite structure which consists of double layers
and hydrogen bonds in between the layers32)

4. Reported Al2O3 Surfaces
Surface of a solid crystal is regarded as a truncatedarea of the crystal consisting of coordinately unsaturatedsite (cus) anions and cations. For this reason, when it is
exposed to the atmosphere, all solids become covered
with various types of adsorbed species. In the case of
metal oxides, the outer layer is usually made up ofdifferent adsorbed species. The most abundantcomponent of the surface layer of oxides is water.
Besides physisorbed water, absorbed water can bepresent at the surface in the form of hydrogen bonded orcoordinated molecular H2O, and in a dissociated form as
surface hydroxyl46)
In this regard, infrared spectroscopy has been acommonly used technique to study the surface of Al2O3.
By infrared spectroscopy, the O-H stretchingfundamental vibrations (nOH) of OH groups located at
the surface of oxides can be observed in the highfrequency region (wavenumber higher than 2500 cm–1).
A very broad band centered at around 3300 cm–1 has― 27 ―

Structural Properties and Surface Characteristics on Aluminum Oxide Powders

been assigned to the stretching modes of molecularwater hydrogen bonded on an Al2O3 surface47) and aband at 3500 cm–1 to hydrogen bonded hydroxyl groups.
At 870 K, the hydrogen bonds no longer exist and only
free hydroxyl groups remain46)
The knowledge gained so far about the OH bandassignments for transition Al2O3 is helpful to understanda-Al2O3 powders. The vibrational spectrum from thesurface hydroxyl of the transition Al2O3 is complex andtypical. Table 3 tabulates the bands and assignment
proposed for surface hydroxyl species on transition
Al2O346) so far.

transition aluminas.

Table 3: OH Band assignment proposed for transition
aluminas46)
Figure 8: Five types (A-E) of isolated hydroxyl ions (+ denotes
Al3+ in lower layer). The remaining hydroxyl ions, covering
9.6% of the lattice, are found on five types of sites on which
they have from zero to four nearest oxide neighbors, as
illustrated and identified48)

Actually the spectra of transition Al2O3 consist of a
mixture of OH bands that closely overlap with each other.
Since transition aluminas are commonly used as
catalysts or support of catalyst, their surfaces have been
attempted to characterize. Several models have been
proposed to explain the reactivity of the surface.
Several models as summarized by Morterra aredescribed below46)
I: Peri’s model (1965)
This model advocates that there are five possible free
OH configurations on g-Al2O3 surfaces48) These are
depicted in Figure 8 and their symbol and frequency are
shown also in the third column of Table 3. The major
limit of Peri’s model consists in the assumption of the(100) crystal face as the only possible termination foraluminas crystallites. This assumption yields anoversimplified picture of the spinel structure, in that
only AlVI ions would result present in the uppermost
layer and all OH groups in the fully hydrated surface(located on top of equivalent cations) would results to beequivalent. In these conditions, the adoption of random
elimination of water from adjoining OH groups iscorrect and no acidity-basicity concepts associated withdifferent surface OH species needs to be involved. The
model is thus valid, in principle, but gives only a partial
description of the structurally complex situation of

II: Tsyganenko’s model (1973)
By considering the most probable terminations of thecrystallites and the geometry of the OH groups in thesesurface termination groups, Tsyganenko et al. came tothe conclusion that the number of nearest neighbors has
a negligible effect on the frequency of OH species. The
determining factor is the number of lattice metal atoms
that the OH groups are attached to.
On the basis of the electronic characteristics ofoxygen, there can be three types of OH groups, termed
OH groups of type I, II, and III, respectively, dependingon the coordination number of the OH group49) The
three types of hydroxyls are shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9: Three types of hydroxyl groups are possible at thesurface of transition alumina. M denotes metal ions in a metaloxide49)― 28 ―

Takashi Shirai, Hideo Watanabe, Masayoshi Fuji and Minoru Takahashi

III: Morterra’s model (1976)
Morterra and co-workers considered the coordinationof the Al cations, rather than the coordination of the OH
group, as the most important factor in determining the
OH frequencies50)-52) According to their approach, that
did not consider the actual crystallographic terminationof transition Al2O3 and of the other Al-containing
systems, the assignment of the various OH species of
Al2O3 could be made only in very general terms bycomparing the OH spectra of different Al oxides. The
assignment of OH group is as described in Figure 10.

(ii) the spectral characteristics of metal-hydroxy
complexes having non-H-bonded OH groups withdifferent coordination numbers.
The conclusions reached, that are schematicallyreported also in the last column of Table 3, reassign thevarious OH species of aluminas as reported in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Possible OH stractures, and vOH frequencies, at thesurface of defective spinel transition aluminas (Symbol; □Figure 10: Schematic distribution of OH bands in transition

stands for a cation vacancy)46)

aluminas and other Al-containing oxidic systems52)

IV. Knozinger’s model (1978)
The OH configurations, frequencies and net charges
at Al and OH according to this model are given in Table
4.
The net charge is obtained as the sum of the negative
charge of the anion and the sum of the strength of theelectrostatic bonds (=cation charge divided bycoordination number) to the anion from adjacentcations53)
V: The possible role of cation vacancies
The role played by cation vacancies is very difficult totake into account, as there is no way to determine them
directly. The possible surface occurrence of cation
vacancies is one further parameter, besides OH andcations coordination, that has been considered in themost recent model for OH of aluminas, proposed by
Busca et al.7), 54) and Della Gata et al.55)
As a starting point, Busca’s model uses the samegeneral criteria successfully adopted by Knozinger andreported above, but the assignment is also based, on aphenomenological ground, on ;(i) the observation of the OH spectral patterns of several
normal spinels (MgAl2O4, ZnAl2O4). Inverse spinels(NiAl2O4) and defective spinels (transition phase dAl2O3);

VI: Morterra’s defect model (1994)
Finally, Morterra et al. attributed the 3775 cm–1 OHband to hydroxyl group coordinated on tetrahedral Alion (AlIV-OH groups) present in portions of surface
belongingtocrystallographicallydefective
configurations (i.e. stepped terminations) which
frequently occur in porous system of high surface areaand poor crystallinity56)
Enormous amount of infrared spectroscopic works
have been devoted to understand the surface behavior of
Al2O3, since Peri proposed a model of Al2O3 about thirty
years ago. Most of the works have been related totransition Al2O3. In spite of some controversial aspects
and some remaining uncertainties of the results, theoverall picture obtained for the surface properties of thetransition Al2O3 may be useful for understanding thesurface behavior of a-Al2O3 in this study.
5. Concluding Remarks
Crystal structural properties, manufacturing methodsof high purity Al2O3, and surface characteristics on
Al2O3 oxide powders are described.
The surface chemical characteristics of materials play
an important role in many technological processes andapplications. Differences in surface conditions of thepowders can influence their physical properties such aszeta potential, powder agglomeration and sintering― 29 ―

Structural Properties and Surface Characteristics on Aluminum Oxide Powders

behavior. Ceramics, unlike metals, are mainly
produced by sintering, which implies that the surface
structure of the raw powder is a controlling factor todetermine the final characteristics of sintered ceramics.
Control of these behaviors is useful in developing costeffective ceramic powder processing schemes to produce
reliable high-performance ceramics with minimal reject
rates.

11) S. Kato, T. Iga, S. Hatano, and Y. Isawa, “Effects ofSynthetic

Conditions

Sinterability

ofof

Alumina

NH4AlO(OH)HCO3
Obtainedbyon

ThermalDecomposition”, Yogyo Kyokai Shi, 84 [6], (1976) 255258.
12) S. Iijima, “Ultra-Fine Spherical Particles of g-Alumina:
Electron Microscopy of Crystal Structure and Surface
Morphology at Atomic Resolution”, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., 23[6], (1984) 347-350.

6. Acknowledgement
This research was partially supported by the Ministryof Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology(MEXT), Project “Cooperation for Innovative
Technology and Advanced Research in Evolution Area”.
The authors acknowledge Prof. Kozo Ishizaki and Prof.
Chanel Ishizaki in Nagaoka University of Technology
for helpful advices, discussions and suggestions on thiswork.

13) Y. Takeuchi, H. Umezaki and H. Kadokura, “High Puriy
Alumina

DerivedfromAluminum

Alkoxide”,

Sumitomokagaku, 1993-I, (1993) 4-14.
14) Y. Takeuchi, H. Umezaki and H. Kadokura, “High Puriy
Alumina

DerivedfromAluminum

Alkoxide”,

Sumitomokagaku, 1993-I, (1993) 4-14.
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Alumina

Sumitomokagaku, 1996-II,(1996) 4-14.
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