Planning aa Study
Study Pathway:
Pathway:
Planning
Reflection and Goal Setting in Higher Education
Ross Eric Miller
Abstract
Abstract
Study Pathways was implemented as a means ofof helping students succeed academically while also
helping them plan and prepare for their futures
futures.. However,
However, the current implementation has failed togain traction among a large percentage ofof the student body.
body. This paper serves as an attempt to
ad由essis issue.
address ththisissue. After
After describing the current iteration
iteration ofof Study Pathways,
Pathways, there isis a discussion onof academic success,success, goal
goal types and goal
goal setting.
setting. The paper
paper concludes with 11
the meaning of
11 specificfor a version ofof Study Pathways 2.0 grounded more firmly
in theory backed by research.
research.
suggestions forfirmly in

While the standards ofof higher
higher education institutes
institutes have always been inin a constant state ofof evolving
practices,
practices, the transformation from an industrial-basedindustrial-based society to a knowledge-based society was sosudden that a clear cultural
cultural demarcation point is
is identifiable
identifiable between the generations.
generations. Where previous
generations were educated to better support a society built on industry,
industry, this generation will
will make i飴itsunderstanding, application,
application, implementation
implementation and innovation
innovation ofof information,
information, ininadvances through the understanding,effect, creating a Society 5.0 (Hitachi(Hitachi-UTokyo
Laboratory, 2020).
2020). This means that student needs now
effect,-UTokyo Laboratory,
are different than before.
before. One difference isis that forfor students to truly benefit from their
their time atuniversity,in theirtheir own learninglearning and more pro-active inin taking theuniversity, they must be cognitively engaged inissues,issues, topics,
topics, concepts and s亙lls
skills they learn
learn inin class and apply them to their
their own out-of-classinteres飴．
interests.
In
order to better
In orderbetter serve the students ofof today,today, the spring ofof 2022 saw the inauguralinaugural semester
semester ofof theFaculty ofof International
加mon Gakuin University.
is new
International Studies (FIS)(FIS) at OOtemon
University. As could be expected,
expected, ththisintroduced a new curriculum and new programs designed to provide students withfaculty introduced
language skills,
skills, their
their knowledge ofof local/global
local/global issues,
issues, their abilities
opportunities to develop their languagewith ICT
digital communication tools,
ICT and digital
tools, their understanding ofof foreign cultures,
cultures, and thein areas such as international
international business,business, international
international development andopportunities to focus incollaboration, andcriticalassistance,
assistance, and English professionalism.
professionalism. Soft skills such as communication,communication, collaboration,and critical

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Planning
Planning aa Study
Study Pathway:
Pathway: Reflection
Reflection andand Goal
Goal Setting
Setting in
in Higher
Higher Education
thinking are also developed through both explicit and implicit course work
work. To help students succeed
ac記emicallyacademically within the program and beyond,beyond, each year,
year, students are assigned a faculty member
member toserve as an Academic Advisor,
Advisor, and several
several times a year,
year, students are required to complete entries inin a

Pathways. Created by the FIS (2023),(2023), Study Pathways is
is described as a
document known as Study Pathways.
tool
tool to provide students with opportunities to better understand themselves and begin preparing for
for
their future 由eams.
dreams. It
It is
is intended
intended to serve several
several functions,functions, among which include
include helping students
wi
止：
with:
' knowing themselves.
themselves.
' understanding their
their own interests.
interests.

successful inin university.
university.
' being generally successんl' communicating with their academic advisors.
advisors.

assess, improve,
improve, and work towards their
their own individual
individual goals.
' creating a platform to continually assess,goals.
Students are expected to update their individual
individual Study Pathways three times a semester
semester:: at the start,
start,
inoverallin the middle,
middle, and upon each semester's
semester’s completion.
completion. While it
it isis premature to evaluate the overall
effectiveness of
is toolof ththistool inin the long
long term,
term, with submission rates
rates ranging
ranging at about 50%
50% ofof students ininboth the first-year
first-year and second-year
second-year classes,
classes, it
it is
is worth evaluating what could be improved.
improved.
The goalis papergoal ofof th
thispaper isis to defme
define what is
is meant by "academic“academic success"success” and to better
better understandhow goal
goal setting can lead
lead to academic success and then,then, through that understanding,understanding, design a study

pathway 止肌willthat will better heいstudents
help students 釦rge
forge their own roadroad 釦rwards.
forwards.
pathway

Study Pathways 2022/2023
Study Pathways is
is intended
intended to help students achieve academic success.
success. As described to students,
students,
Study Pathways is
is a tool
tool forfor self-determination,
self-determination, self-understanding,self-understanding, and communication with theacademic advisor.
advisor. It
It is
is also described as a "telescope"“telescope” that will
will help students focus on their
their desired
futures and achieve self-actualization (Faculty(Faculty ofof International
International Studies Otemon Gakuin University,
University,2023).
2023). It
It proposes that this tool
tool will
will serve as a pathway forfor students to successfully move from theircurrent "now"“now” to their desired futures.
futures. The intention
intention ofof Study Pathways isis that it
it will
will help students

better understand their current situation.
situation. By clearly describing their future goals,
goals, they will
will have abetterbetter understanding ofof exactly what they want forfor their
their future selves and will
will be better prepared tobetterand perform the actions that are necessary to achieve their own defmitions
definitions ofof thatmake the decisions andew of
success.
so contains an additional
success. Study Pathways al
also
additional task ofof defining their
their own vi
viewof "international“international
studies."studies.”

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―２―

Ross Eric Miller
Currently,
Currently, Study Pathways is an Excel file with different tabs for different semesters
semesters.. Initially,
Initially,
students must fill out some basic demographic information and list scores onon language
language proficiency
proficiency
tes飴
alre臥Iy acquired.
oftests and any 亙nds
kinds ofof qualifications they are trying to acquire oror have alreadyacquired. The rest of
the 拓rm
釦llows:form isis as follows:' AA series ofof checkboxes with 21
21 high school
school subjec飴
subjects where they are told to select the ones they

liked.
liked.
self-description.
' AA space to write a self-description.
' AA series of
ld to select the ones they like.
of checkboxes with 22 fields ofof study where they are to
told
like.
' AA space to write about what interests
interests them and/or
and/or what they want to study.
study.
' AA space to write about the competencies,
competencies, skills and qualifications they hope to acquire.
acquire.
' AA series of
ld to select the ones theyof checkboxes with 22 job-related
job-related industries
industries where they are to
told
like.
like.

perspective, career,
career, and dream.
dream.
' AA space to describe their future perspective,(limited to 120 words).
words).
' AA space to write action goals/study plans to achieve that dream (limited
roughly 120 words about their
their impressions
impressions oror actions related to one ofof the three' AA space to write roughly
chapters they read
read from a textbook related to global
global and societal
societal issues.
issues.
' AA space to write a message to their academic advisor.
advisor.
For
September (middle
For June and September(middle and end ofof spring semester),semester ) , they are asked to evaluate their
theirachievement ofof their action goals (limited(limited to 80 words).
words). The same evaluations are listed
listed forfor December
Decemberandfall semester).
ite about a different chapter
and March (middle(middle and end ofof fallsemester). Also,
Also, they wr
write
chapter from their

textbook.
textbook
Once filled into
filledinto the Excel
Excel sheet,sheet, allinto an assignment
all the essay entries must be copied/pasted into

page onon the university's
university’s learninglearning management system (LMS).
(LMS).
page

Academic Success

As students mmake
正e the transition from high school
school to an instituteinstitute ofof higher
higher education (HEI),(HEI), it
it canbe safely assumed that students will
will work towards achieving academic success while at the sametime, the institution
institution will
will have a program inin place intended
intended to help students achieve that success.
success.
time,
Predictors ofevement, studentof academic success are often seen inin factors such as "prior“prior academic achi
achievement,

demographics, e-learning activity,
activity, psychologicalpsychological attributes,
environments” (Alyahyan(Alyahyan &Dustegor,demographics,
attributes, and environments"& Dustegor,
2020,
2020, p.5).
p.5). With ththislist, the firstlocked into
into place prior to entry into
into theis list,first two predictors have been locked
HEI
HEI,, while e-learning activity is
is simply a quantifiable measure ofof clicks,
clicks, entries,
entries, and page views of
of

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―３―

Planning aa Study
Study Pathway
Pathway:
Reflection andand Goal
Goal Setting
Setting 血in Fligher
Higher Education
Planning: Reflection

digital materials,
assumption
being that the higher
higher the number,number, the more likely
likely studen加
students
町tal
materials, with the a幽wl
塑tion being
wo吐dbe.以esa. Psycholo'cal
叩lade descriptors such as
would
be 曲leable to achieve academic si
success.
Psychological attributes il
includestudents'
加，levels
students’ interest
interest 血thein the materials,
materials, study habi
habits,levels ofof stress,
stress, motivation,
motivation, self-regulation,
self-regulation, ami
andof overall
overall self
self-efficacy(Alyahyan && Dustegor,
Dustegor, 2020;
2020; Morisano et al.,al., 2010;2010; Travers et al.,al.,perceptions of-efficacy (Alyahyan2015).
2015 ). Environrse吐canEnvironment can refer
refer to the assets inherent
inherent inin the HEIHEI itself
itself (cIa幽as,( classes, support systems,
systems,
facilities,
facilities, etc.)
etc. ) as well
well as the learninglearning environment that studen加create
students create 拓r
for themselves throuゆthrougheliminating distractiol
瑠，developing
nding study partners
distractions,developing study strate'es,
strategies, and fi
finding
partners that will
will all
all heいtohelp tofacilitate learning.以e認，itlearning (Lin(Lin et al.,al., 2023).
2023). While these attributes can lead
lead to academic si
success,
it isis stillu」皿learunclear what it
it rnaa」昭tomeans to succeed academically.
academically.
加ademic.以e幽isAcademic Si
success
is a colconcept
is intuitively easy to grasp,
grasp, yet the term is
is rnot
叩ept that 加intuitively〕t always used torefer
以e認 as "academic
refer to the same items.
items. Kuis
Kuh det al.
al. (2006( 2006 )) broadly define this type ofof sl
success“ academic
achieverne鵬engagema吐血educationallyachievement, engagement in educationally puiposefu.l
purposeful activities,
activities, satisfaction,satisfaction, acquisition ofof desired

knowledge, skills aixi
and competelcompetencies,
persistence, attainment ofof educational
educational objectives,
objectives, and po計
post
kixwledge,叩ies, persistence,college performance"印，5).
瑠lruct ofperformance” (p. 5). In
In an e雄,a」遮iveexpansive study regarding
regarding the colconstructof academic succe脱,and
success andi加measurement,
its measurement, Yorkdal
York et al..(2015)(2015) pointed
pointed out that as academic success ten山totends to be
be viewed
viewed as an
outcome,〕t quite match as stuLk吐engagema吐
outcome, ose
one ofof the seven items
items 血thein the above definition 面esdoes rnot
student engagement

is a conl
contributing
factor to the remaining
remaining outcorses,
outcomes, andand not an outcorse
outcome 血andin and ofof itself
itself. 血otherIn other加aガibuting factor
words，加academic
words,is academic succeas
success a rseasurable
measurable outcome such as a test 試,ore
score oror OPA
GPA, a skill
skill that can bedemonsil
頑cd, the result
demonstrated,
result ofof a survey on student satisfaction,satisfaction, oror 加itis it a procesa
process where students axe
arein their own
own learninglearning and development to achieve sorse
some future goal?
actively engaged 血theirIn叩eptual rocdel
mirror Ku.h
In York et al.'s
al.’s (2015)(2015) co
conceptualmodel ofof academic success,success, they mirror
Kuh et al.'s
al.’s (2006)(2006)

SatlsムctlOfl(Proxy)' 'PuAttainmentof Learning
Outcomes

Acquisition ofskills &competenctes

F垣urcl玉，Glb.on,&Rankin
Figure 1 Yoi
York,
Gibson, & Rankin Roylied
Revised Conceptual
Conceptual Model
Model ofof Academic Suecci
Success(p.5).(p.5)

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4

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―４―

Ross Eric Miller
description,
description, except for "engagement",“engagement”, which was not seen as an outcome ofof succeeding ac記emicallyacademically(see1). For(see Figure 1).
For these researchers,
researchers, engagement was defined as "students'“students’ psychologicalpsychological investment
investment
oror willingness to invest
invest time inin educational
educational behaviors"
behaviors” (p.
(p. 5)
5) oror as just
just a generalgeneral indication
indication ofof how
students interacted
interacted with their
their ac記emic
academic endeavors.
endeavors. While they acknowledge that levels
levels ofof engagementof experience,experience, they argue that such a variable isis generally a specific item
item ofcould be an outcome ofofinterest
interest rather than a component ofof academic success.
success.

Goal Types
Goal
As the one focus ofof Study Pathways isis student goals,
goals, it
it isis important
important to have an understanding ofof& Seijts,
Seijts, 2016).
major types ofof goals:
goals : behavioral
behavioral,, performance,
performance, and learninglearning (Latham( Latham &2016 ) . AA
three major
behavioral
behavioral goal
goal isis not an outcome inin and ofof i飴elf,
itself, rather
rather it
it is
is observable "behaviors“behaviors demonstrated

within a given period ofof time"time” (Latham(Latham && Seijts,
2016, p.226)
p.226) and can only be evaluated when
Seij飴, 2016,of time.
time. Performance goals,
goals, on the other
other hand,
hand, are specifically aboutcompared with a previous state ofand are not necessarily tied to the behaviors that were responsible forfor it.
it. InIn this sense,
sense,
an outcome andbehavioral goals are more a mattermatter ofof degree,degree, while performance goals are more binary: success血lly
successfully
behavioral
achieved oror notnot. Learning goals are more about acquiring the necessary s亙lls
skills that can lead
lead to setting

higher performance goals.
goals.
higherUnlike a performance goal
goal,, a learninglearning goal由aws
goal draws attention away from a specific task outcome ininthat the emphasis is
is on discovering,
discovering, mastering,
mastering, oror implementing
implementing effective strategies,
strategies, processes,
processes, oror

task. (Latham(Latham &2016, p.227)
p.227)& Seijts,
Seij飴, 2016,
procedures necessary to perform a task.

In regard
regard to university students,
students, some examples ofof behavioral
behavioral goals might be things like
like study 2
Inhours a week,
week, attend every class on time,
time, read
read one book
book a month,
month, etc.
etc. Performance goals would be
more likeor attaining alike achieving a 90 oror above on a specific test,
test, passing some qualification exam,
exam, or
specific GPA.
GPA. Learning goals are the means to an end and require
require knowing and learninglearning thefoundationalfoundational skills necessary to achieve a performance goal
goal.. Even students with the same performancegoal
fferent backgrounds.
goal might have different learninglearning goals based on their
their didifferent
backgrounds. For
For example,
example, if
if thegoal isis to create an effective web page,
page, a student who had never
never made one before would
performance goal
need to understand HTML,HTML, color
color theory,
theory, and SEO (recognizing(recognizing several
several learninglearning goals),
goals), where thein web design could complete the performance goal
goal with little
little effort,
effort, notstudent with experience inrequiring any intermediaryintermediary learninglearning goals.
goals.
requiring

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5

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Planning
Planning aa Study
Study Pathway:
Pathway: Reflection
Reflection andand Goal
Goal Setting
Setting in
in Higher
Higher Education

Goal-Setting Theory
TheoryGoal setting is related to motivation in that the individual has a desire to accomplish,
accomplish, attain,
attain, orachieve (Alessandri( Alessandri et al.,al. , 2020).
2020 ) . A stated goal is different than a dream in that there is an

implication thatthat aa goalgoal requires
requires effort
effort andand attention
attention where a dream is just
just a hoped-for state.
state. Contrast
implication“after university,
university, II will
will gogo to
to flight
flight school
school andand study
study toto bebe aa pilot"
pilot” with
with "I“I wishwish II were
were aa pilot"
pilot.” The
The"afterformer plans on the necessary learning goal (entering/attending( entering / attending flight school)
school ) to achieve the
ゆecoming a pilot),
cation ofperformance goal
goal (becoming
pilot), while the latterlatter lacks
lacks any indi
indicationof intending
intending to plan how to
performanceoror expend the effort to becoming a pilot
pilot.
&
Goal-setting theory (GST)
Goal-setting(GST) isis based on the idea
idea "that“that conscious goals affect action"action” (Locke(Locke &Latham,か fourLatham, 2002,
2002, p.705).
p.705). Locke and Latham (2002)(2002) identi
identify
four ways inin which goals influence
influence action:

directachievinggoal..
' They direct attention on achi
eving the goal
Clear goals energize the goal
goal-setter.
-setter.
' Clear' Difficult goals le記
lead to more time andand effort spent achieving them.
them.
正ing use ofof goalgoal dictates the type ofof action t正en,
taken, be itit mmakingof known skills,
skills, adapting' The type ofknown skills,
skills, strategizing goal
goal completion,completion, t正ing
taking on pre-requisite learninglearning goals.
goals.

GST states several
several components that when present,
present, le記
lead to more successful
successful goal
goal achievement.
achievement.

1.
1. Specific goals are better
better than non-specific goals inin that the specificity provides a clear
clear didirection
rectionforevement (Alessan由i., 2020;& Latham,for achiachievement(Alessandri et alal.,2020; Locke &Latham, 2002,
2002, 2006).
2006).

2. Challenging goals tend to result inin hihigherperformance. However,
However, the level
level ofof challenge must me
2.
gher performance.
manageable. Complex goals can be broken down into
into more manageable components forfor more
manageable.
effective results (Alessandri., 2020;(Alessandri et alal.,2020; Locke && Latham,
Latham, 2002,
2002, 2006).
2006).
3.
for helping goal
-setters achi
eve their
3. Feedback is
is criticalcritical forgoal-settersachieve
their goals.
goals. Feedback helps individuals
individuals better
better.,understand their own progress and helps them with direction forfor the next stage (Alessandri(Alessandri et al
al.,
2020;
2020; Locke && Latham,
Latham, 2002,
2002, 2006).
2006).
4.
4. There must be some level
level ofof commitment to achieving the goal
goal.. Achieving goals,
goals, especiallychallenging ones,
time, and sustained effort over
over a period ofof time requires
requires commitment
ones, take time,(Alessandri
or wane in(Alessandri et al.,al., 2020;
2020; Locke && Latham,
Latham, 2002,
2002, 2006).
2006). Commitment can wax oringoal-settersin succeeding at attaining the goal
goal (Kuh(Kuh et alal.,
relation to the goal
-setters perceived self-efficacy in.,2006;
2006; Locke && Latham,
Latham, 2002).
2002).

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Ross Eric Miller

Discussion

Proper goal setting has been shown to lead to improved academic achievements (outcomes)(outcomes) and& Latham,
student engagement
engagement (process)( process ) (Alessan由i( Alessandri et alal..,, 2020;2020 ; Locke &Latham, 2006).
2006 ) . Factors thatstudent

impact ac記emic
academic achievements include
include a low
low motivation and a lack
lack ofnegatively impactof specific goals while-relevant“individuals with clear
clear goals appear
appear more able to direct attention and effort toward goal
goal-relevant"individuals
activities"
activities” (Morisano(Morisano et al.,al., 2010,2010, p.256).
p.256). The problem isis that some goals are more appropriate thanothers.
others. In
In a study ofof 180 university students inin Italy,
Italy, Alessandri
Alessandri et alal..(2020)(2020) found that self-set goals
were only ofof value when the goals had the proper
proper level
level ofof "difficulty“difficulty and specificity"印.
specificity” (p. 9).
9).
The current iteration
iteration ofof the FIS Study Pathways is
is a good fi
first
goal
rst attempt at trying to promote goal

population. However,
However, the current format lacks
lacks specificity inin the kinds ofofsetting among the student population.
goals students should be setting.
setting. Anecdotally,
Anecdotally, students have complained that they don't
don’t see the pointof Study Pathways andand one student wrote a well
well thought out response
response to one ofof the prompts but hadofto cut itit because it
it exceeded the word length,
length, and he was unable to submit it
it as originally written.
written.
The entire task became demotivating to the student as he was not able to submit his completethoughts.
thoughts. If
If the purpose isis to help students plot a path forward to some future state,state, then the question
a止ing
加めout
asking 止emthem to wri
write
about one chap加r
chapter ofof a required 加xtbook
textbook from a 叩ecificspecific class seems out ofofplace.
place.

of Study Pathways should have a clear
clear purpose that is
is easily understood by the
Version 2.0 ofstudents and the tasks within it
it should be based on researchedresearched theory.
theory. Suggested changes are as

follows:
拓llows:' Students should be introduced
introduced to the idea
idea ofof goalgoal setting and the power
power proper
proper goals can have.
have.
' Students should be taught the difference between behavioral
behavioral goals,
goals, performance goals,
goals, andlearning goals.
goals.
learning' Students should be guided on making more specific goals before mmaking
正ing any initial
initial entries.
entries.
' Students should be guided on evaluating and detailing their
their current behaviors,
behaviors, performance,
performance, andlearning.
learning.
' Students should mmake
behavioral goals (study(study habits,
habits, reading,reading, etc.)etc.) and performance
正e specific behavioral(attendance, homework submission,
submission, GPA,
GPA, etc.).
etc.).
goals (attendance,' Students should list
list a series ofof learninglearning goals that must be overcome to achieve their
their future
dream.
dream.

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7

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―７―

Planning a Study Pathway
Pathway:: Reflection and Goal Setting in Higher Education' Students
Students should
should be
be guided
guided inin makingmaking appropriately
appropriately challenging
challenging goals
goals..
' For
For behavioral
behavioral andand performance
performance goals,
goals, students
students should
should keep
keep aa weekly
weekly diary
diary ofof accomplishments
accomplishments(and(and failures).
failures).
' Students
Students should
should refer
refer toto these
these diaries
diaries when
when updating
updating their
their Study
Study Pathway
Pathway..

To thethe extent
extent possible,
possible, faculty
faculty ac記emic
academic advisors
advisors should
should provide
provide regular
regular timely
timely feedback
feedback on
on allall' To
thethe above.
above.

Finally, thethe format/medium
format/medium ofof Study
Pathways should
should bebe aa tooltool more
more conducive
conducive toto thethe processprocess' Finally,
Study Pathwaysof-m正ing andof goalgoal-making
and reflection
reflection than
than thethe current system.
system.
It
will fmd
It is
is hoped
hoped thatthat with
with aa moremore challenging
challenging andand engaging
engaging Study Pathways,
Pathways, more
more students
students will
find
value
will bevalue inin thethe task.
task. Learning
Learning thethe value
value ofof proper
proper goal
goal setting
setting inin university
university willbe aa skillskill they
they cancanemployemploy throughout
throughout their
their futures,
futures, perhaps
perhaps one
one thatthat could
could prove
prove more
more valuablevaluable than
than any
any topic
topic covered
coveredin aa regular
regular class.
class.
in

References
References

Alessandri,, GG.,
Borgogni,, LL.,
Latham, GG..P.,P., Cepale,
Cepale, GG.,
Theodorou, AA.,
Longis, EE..(2020).
(2020). Self-set goals
Alessandri., Borgogni., Latham,., Theodorou,., && De Longis,
improve academic performance through nonlinear
nonlinear effects on daily study performance.
performance. Learning
Learning andandimprove
Individual
βレences, 77,
77, 101784.
Individual Di
Differences,101784.

Alyahyan, EE.,
Dustegor, DD..(2020).
(2020). Predicting Academic Success inin Higher
Higher Education: Literature Review andandAlyahyan,., && Dustegor,
Best Practices Review Article.
Article. International
International JournalげEducational
Journal of Educational Technology inin HighelHigher
Education, 17
17,, l1-・Education,= hein.journals/intjedthl7&i= 57
21..https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?hhttps://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h＝hein.journals/intjedth17&i＝57
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